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diff --git a/old/62982-0.txt b/old/62982-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 40cb5ff..0000000 --- a/old/62982-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6681 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peter Parley's Wonders of the earth, sea, -and sky, by Samuel G. Goodrich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Peter Parley's Wonders of the earth, sea, and sky - -Author: Samuel G. Goodrich - -Release Date: August 20, 2020 [EBook #62982] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETER PARLEY'S WONDERS--EARTH, SEA, SKY *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: XVII - -AURORA BOREALIS] - - - - - PETER PARLEY'S WONDERS - - OF THE - - EARTH, SEA, AND SKY. - - EDITED BY THE REV. T. WILSON. - - A New Edition, - - WITH ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS. - - LONDON: - - DARTON AND CLARK, HOLBORN HILL. - - - Entered at Stationers' Hall. - - - TO - - GEORGE BIRKBECK, Esq. M.D., F.G.S., - - PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS' INSTITUTION, - - AS A TRIBUTE OF RESPECT - - FOR - - HIS BENEVOLENT AND EFFECTUAL ENDEAVOURS TO PROMOTE THE - DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE, - - This Little Work - - IS, - - WITH PERMISSION, DEDICATED - - BY THE EDITOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -It seems to me that there is something very unreasonable in the plan -of a great many of the books intended to introduce young people to -the various branches of Natural History, which have been recently -published. The chief aim of their authors seems to have been to -combine brevity with comprehensiveness. Brevity is, without doubt, a -great advantage, inasmuch as the proverb is true, that a great book -is a great evil; but in my opinion comprehensiveness ought not to be -attempted in books intended for children. If it were desirable, I -might indeed confidently say, that it can never be obtained within -the necessary limits; and the attempt to effect it, will very often -reduce the work to a mere dry table of classification. However neat and -systematic tables of genera and species, and lists of names may look, -they can never convey to the young the elements of sound scientific -method; and will seldom fail in being useless or disgusting to the -mind, at an age when it is seeking for that sort of knowledge which -will exercise the understanding, without burdening the memory. This -healthy appetite ought to be carefully cultivated; and I am satisfied -that if it were so, from the earliest stage of education, we should -have but few complaints of bad memories. The memory is apt to vanish -from those who would make an idol of it; and I am disposed to think -that its cultivation may very safely be omitted, as a direct object -of education, if due care is taken to keep the understanding active, -and to present the matter on which it is to be engaged in the most -entertaining form possible. In fact, what is often termed "a good -memory," that is, a ready recollection independent of the connections -which are made solely by the understanding, is, as we may see by its -fruits in many persons of feeble intellect, by no means desirable. An -apt example of such a memory is afforded, in what Dame Quickly says -to Sir John Falstaff, when she reminds him of a mixed multitude of -unimportant circumstances, with no other principle of arrangement or -connection, than what was supplied by proximity of time and place. - -I would not, however, willingly be supposed to recommend books, -in which systematic arrangement, or the most scrupulous regard to -accurate statement, is overlooked. I had particularly in view that -numerous class of little books, which under various names come out in -series, each volume professing in a manner to comprise _the whole_ -of the branch of Natural History which may be the subject of it, by -its containing a mere arrangement of the names of the phenomena which -the branch includes. There is another and widely different class of -books, in which stories from travellers and other idle gossip of the -like kind, are compiled in an undigested mass, without regard to -the different names by which the same thing may be called, and not -unfrequently to a common respect for truth, which is not much less to -be deprecated. - -And yet to books of this latter description, often of a very -unworthy character, it is that many of us owe the first calling into -consciousness of that taste which may have made us travellers or -naturalists, or lovers of knowledge. I wish that, without copying the -example of their authors, we should learn a lesson from them, and put -it in practice, by striving to form a taste to enjoy knowledge in them -we have to teach, before we attempt any mode of systematic instruction. - -The following little book has been written under the impressions -which I have here stated. I have selected a few of such phenomena -of the Kingdoms of Nature, as seemed to me to have in them most to -excite wonder and admiration; and I have sought to convey distinct -notions with the least possible use of technical language; neither -forgetting the connection of things, nor overloading the statements -with matters that are merely expletive of an arbitrary system. How far -I may have succeeded, is for my little friends, and their instructors, -who have approved of my other books, to decide. Wishing the former as -much pleasure in the reading, as I have had, for their sakes, in the -writing, I take my leave of them. - - P. P. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PART I.--WONDERS OF THE EARTH. - - Blah. Page - - Chap. I. Parley explains how the Strata of the Earth are placed 1 - - Chap. II. What creatures once lived where Dorsetshire now is 5 - The Icthyosaurus 6 - The Plesiosaurus 14 - The Pterodactyle, &c. 17 - - Chap. III. What sort of a place once existed where the neighbourhood - of Paris is now, and the animals that lived there 21 - The Palæotherium 22 - The Anoplotherium, &c. 25 - The Dinotherium 26 - - Chap. IV. Of Great Caverns in England and Germany, filled with - bones of wild animals 30 - Dr. Buckland's account of the great cave of Gaylenreuth 31 - - Chap. V. Of other animals that once lived in England and elsewhere - The Elephant 34 - The Gigantic Elk 38 - The Megatherium 39 - The Beaver 41 - The Dodo 42 - - Chap. VI. Parley describes Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Hot Springs 47 - Earthquake of Calabria 49 - Volcanoes 61 - The way in which an Eruption takes place 63 - Lava Streams 65 - Great Lava Streams from Skapta Jokul, in Iceland 69 - Alluvions 70 - The Great Volcano Kirauea, in the island of Hawaii 71 - Of the formation of new islands 76 - Parley describes his visit to the Geysers of Iceland 78 - The Sulphur Mountains and Sulphur Springs 87 - How the Geysers may be caused 89 - - Chap. VII. Of the Rocks called Basaltic 92 - Parley's visit to Staffa 93 - The Giant's Causeway 101 - - Chap. VIII. Why Parley believes that there is a great source of - heat within the globe 103 - - Chap. IX. Parley tells something about the history of Mount - Vesuvius 111 - The Grotto del Cano 112 - Of the death of Pliny, the Naturalist 115 - Herculaneum and Pompeii 124 - - Chap. X. Parley describes the Falls of Niagara 135 - - - PART II.--WONDERS OF THE SEA. - - Chap. I. Parley tells about the Frozen Ocean 144 - Icebergs 146 - Parley's dangerous situation on an Iceberg 150 - - Chap. II. The story of a long journey over the ice with some - Esquimaux 152 - - Chap. III. The journey over the ice, continued 167 - - Chap. IV. The Whale 178 - The mode of catching Whales 183 - Character of the Whale 187 - - Chap. V. A voyage on a Tropical Sea 190 - Trade Winds and Monsoons 191 - - Chap. VI. The Waterspout 194 - How Parley supposes Waterspouts to be caused 199 - - Chap. VII. Coral Reefs and Islands 203 - Various kinds of Coral 204 - The Coral-Making Polypes 206 - Forms of the Coral Reefs 211 - Parley's first sight of one 213 - - Chap. VIII. Luminous appearance of the sea 221 - Animals by which it is occasioned, and the Acalepha - in particular 223 - - Chap. IX. The Cuttle Fish 231 - The Octopus 235 - - Chap. X. The Paper Nautilus, or Argonaut 239 - How Parley saw one sailing on the sea 241 - The Pearly Nautilus 245 - The Nautilus Spirula 248 - - - PART III.--WONDERS OF THE SKY. - - Chap. I. The Colour of the Sky 250 - - Chap. II. The Aurora Borealis 254 - - Chap. III. Parley tells of some other Meteors - Parhelia or Mock Suns 263 - Ignes Fatui 264 - Experiment to show the cause 266 - - Chap. IV. Shooting Stars 267 - What they are 269 - - Chap. V. Meteoric Stones, or Aerolites 273 - How they are caused 277 - - Chap. VI. Bloody Rain 280 - Red Snow 281 - Showers of Frogs and Fish 282 - - Chap. VII. The Spectre of the Brocken 285 - - Chap. VIII. Some other instances of Aerial Reflection - Souter Fell 291 - What a Friend of Parley's saw 293 - Dover Castle 293 - What Humboldt saw 294 - What Captain Scoresby saw 295 - Apparent distance of Object 296 - - Chap. IX. Fata Morgana 299 - The Mirage 299 - - Chap. X. How Parley supposes these appearances to be produced 303 - Refraction 305 - Reflection 311 - - Conclusion. - Of some other Wonders, &c. - - Section I. How we ought to think upon what we know 314 - II. Ever Part of the Earth a Home for something 316 - III. Birds of Passage, Dormice, and Snails 318 - IV. The Rein-deer--the Camel 322 - V. Benefit of the difference of Climate 324 - VI. The same Organs in different Animals developed in - various modes and degrees--the Acalepha, Actinia, - and Sepia 326 - VII. How the Stars and we are connected together-- - Gravitation--Aerolites 330 - VIII. Dew 332 - IX. How every thing is endowed with a tendency to preserve - its own life, and the existence of its race 334 - X. The Bud of the Poppy--long retention of life by seeds - and roots 336 - XI. Of Seeds which are furnished with wings or sails 339 - XII. Conclusion of the conclusion 340 - - - - -List of Plates. - - - PLATE Page - - I. EXTINCT ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED WHERE DORSETSHIRE NOW IS 5 - - II. EXTINCT ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED WHERE PARIS NOW IS 21 - - III. GREAT BONE CAVERN OF GAYLENREUTH 30 - - IV. GIGANTIC ELK AND MEGATHERIUM 38 - - V. VESUVIUS, WITH THE PINE-TREE CLOUD 64 - - VI. VESUVIUS IN ERUPTION AT NIGHT 66 - - VII. THE GEYSERS OF ICELAND 78 - - VIII. ISLAND OF STAFFA 93 - - IX. FINGAL'S CAVE 97 - - X. FORUM OF POMPEII 131 - - XI. GREAT FALL OF NIAGARA 135 - - XII. ESCAPE ON THE ICE 157 - - XIII. THE WATER-SPOUT 194 - - XIV. ACTINIÆ--CORAL BUILDERS 206 - - XV. SEPIAS 231 - - XVI. NAUTILUS 239 - - XVII. AURORA BOREALIS (FRONTISPIECE.) - - XVIII. SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN 285 - - XIX. DOVER CASTLE 293 - - XX. FATA MORGANA 299 - - - - - WONDERS OF THE EARTH, - - SEA, AND SKY. - - - - - PART I. - - WONDERS OF THE EARTH. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PARLEY EXPLAINS HOW THE STRATA OF THE EARTH ARE PLACED. - - -I am now going to tell you, my young friends, about some of the -wonderful things in the earth, sea, and sky. A great number of them I -have seen myself in my travels through various countries, and others I -have only read of; but I shall tell you nothing that is not strictly -true, for I do not wish so much to astonish you as to make you take -pleasure in contemplating the works of God, and to increase your -knowledge of His goodness, wisdom, and power. - -I shall begin with some of the wonders of the earth which, as I suppose -you know, belong to the branch of natural history which is called -geology; and to enable you to understand what follows, I must first -explain how the materials which compose the ground you tread upon are -arranged. - -If you hastily travel over any extensive tract of country, such as that -between New York and Philadelphia, or between London and Bristol, you -might think that all the different substances, clay, chalk, limestone, -and granite, were irregularly mixed together. This is, however, not -the case, when taken on a great scale; for if you more carefully -examine, you will find that the various sorts of earth are disposed in -layers, or _strata_, and that a uniform order of arrangement is nearly -preserved. - -If these layers were perfectly horizontal, laid one over another like -the coats of an onion, we should have to dig through one before we -could get to the second, and our knowledge of what the globe consists, -would be much more limited than it is; for the greatest depth to which -men have descended in the deepest mines, is not much greater than the -thickness of one of the strata. - -But, instead of this, the surface is broken up by some force from -beneath elevating portions, so as to form mountains and hills; and in -consequence of this the edges of the strata appear on the surface one -after another; just as you would see the edges of a row of bricks that -had been set up on their ends, and then the last one thrown down so as -to push down all the others. - -[Illustration] - -This is the way in which the strata are placed in the neighbourhood of -Weymouth. - -[Illustration] - -The chief reason why I wished you to understand this is, that you -may see how it is known that one stratum is older than another. It -is evident that the substance marked _a_, in the section, which -is limestone, must have been deposited before _b_, while _b_ must -certainly be older than _c_. - -Now in most of the strata above the granite, which is nearly always in -the position of the oldest formation, there are found various shells, -plants, and bones of animals; and where certain remains of different -animals or vegetables are found in one stratum, it is concluded that -they must have been living about the same time. - -Most of the animals of the older strata were different in form from any -at present known to exist; and some of them are very remarkable, and if -they were alive now, would seem to us very strange and awkward. - -[Illustration: PLATE I - -EXTINCT ANIMALS.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -WHAT CREATURES ONCE LIVED WHERE DORSETSHIRE NOW IS. - - -I will show you a picture of what creatures were once living where the -town of Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, now stands, and tell you something -about their structure and their habits. You may perhaps be ready to -think that a great deal of what we profess to know concerning them, -is the work of fancy, but I can assure you it is not, and by and by I -will endeavour to convince you that there is reason enough for you to -believe what I tell you. - - -THE ICHTHYOSAURUS. - -That large animal lying on the ground, is called the _Icthyosaurus_, -from two Greek words signifying _Fish-Lizard_, in consequence of his -possessing some of the peculiarities of both fishes and lizards. - -The usual length of this creature was from twenty to thirty feet. It -possessed a most surprising combination of the powers and qualities of -different animals which are now in existence. In its general form and -character it must have been something like the modern porpoise; but it -had the teeth of a crocodile, the head of a lizard, the back-bone of a -fish, and the fins or _paddles_, of a whale. - -I shall spend some little time in explaining to you each of these -particulars, that you may see how wisely all the parts of living things -are framed to supply their wants, and adapt them to the circumstances -in which they are placed. - -The head was not very different from that of a crocodile, or lizard, in -its general shape. The teeth were precisely like those of a crocodile, -and grew up in the same manner. Creatures of this sort lead a ruffian -sort of life, always biting something or other, and as they live very -much in the dark at the bottom of the water, perhaps now and then snap -at a stone or a piece of hard wood by mistake, and often break their -teeth; and in order therefore to keep them in constant repair, they -have a fresh set once a year, or at very short intervals, so that they -are always growing. The young tooth _a_, springs up inside the old one -_b_, till it becomes so large that it splits its predecessor, and the -pieces fall off, just as the covering of some sorts of buds falls off -as the flower expands, as you will see in this cut, representing one of -the fossil teeth. - -[Illustration] - -You must have noticed in the picture the great length of his snout. -In a jaw-bone of such amazing length which was to be applied to such -violent purposes, it was necessary there should be great strength. -There were two ways of obtaining this: one would have been by having -the bones very hard and stout; but this would not do, because they -would then have been so heavy that the animal would have found -difficulty in raising his head to the surface of the water for the -purpose of breathing, since it would have overbalanced the other part -of his body. The other contrivance, which was the one adopted by the -wisdom of the Creator, was to make the jaws consist of several thin -bones, _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, strongly bound together, and terminating in -succession like the plates of steel of which a carriage spring is made. -There are accordingly six of these bones thus disposed. - -[Illustration] - -But this was not all, the principal middle bone marked _b_, instead -of having its fibres run straight, parallel with the others, had them -placed in a slanting position, and thus there was additional firmness -given to the jaw by what ship-builders would call _diagonal bracing_, a -contrivance that you may often see used in the construction of houses -and ships. - -If you have ever seen a crocodile open its mouth, and then snap -together its long thin jaws, so as to make you start with the noise, -you will see how necessary all these contrivances must be for him and -the Icthyosaurus, whose jaws were still thinner, to prevent them from -breaking their bones. - -This however is not at all more wonderful than the eye, which in the -old-fashioned animal I have been describing, was much larger than that -of the crocodile, and not unfrequently bigger than a man's head. From -the very great quantity of light which such a large surface would -receive, the creature's power of seeing must have been very great. And -besides this advantage, it had the same faculty as is possessed by the -golden eagle, the turtle, the tortoise, and the lizard, of pressing the -eye forward to render it more convex. In man and most animals, the eye -is placed in a fixed cavity of thin bone, something like an egg-cup, -but in the Icthyosaurus, the cavity was formed by several bones not -quite touching each other; (as you may see in the last cut, and in -figure 2, you have two of the bones by themselves, taken out of the -socket of the eye;) and there were muscles to draw these bones closer -together; so that by making the cup less deep, the eye was thrust -forward and made to swell out in the middle. This is illustrated in -the ball _b_, which is pressed outwards, by drawing the plates of bone -_cc_, together at _o_, close than those which have the ball _a_ between -them. - -[Illustration] - -You must have seen that the more convex magnifying glasses are, the -more they magnify, and the nearer you must hold them to the object you -are looking at. By this contrivance, the eye of the Icthyosaurus could -be made at pleasure into a microscope, so as to see with wonderful -quickness things which were quite close to it, by pushing it forward -and rendering it more convex; or it could be made into a telescope like -the eyes of some persons who are long-sighted, for seeing what is at a -greater distance, by drawing it back. - -In all these particulars you may see how the skill of man leads him -to adopt the same plans to produce the same ends in the works of -art, as God has adopted before him in the works of nature, without -his being conscious of copying them; and this should remind you that -man was created in the image of his Maker. If man had never made a -carriage-spring, or a diagonal bracing, he would not have understood -the structure of the jaw of the Icthyosaurus; and if he had never -invented the telescope, he would not have been able to explain the -construction of the eye. - -You have now seen the points in which the Icthyo-saurus chiefly -resembled a crocodile or lizard; from which the latter half of its name -is derived, _saurus_, _a lizard_. I must now tell you something of -those parts in which it is like a fish, from which it takes the other -part of its name, _icthy_, for _icthus_, a fish. - -You know that crocodiles live a good part of their time on land, and -they therefore have feet and a back-bone like land animals, which -enable them to walk better, but do not allow them to swim so well as -fish. The back-bone is heavy and firm, and each of the bones composing -it has one side slightly hollow, and the other side swelling out to -fit into the hollow in the one that comes next to it. But in fish both -sides of the bones are hollow, and they are joined together by gristle, -as you can easily see in the fish that are commonly eaten; this renders -the back-bone much more flexible and lighter, and therefore better -adapted for an animal always swimming. That of the Icthyosaurus was -formed in the same manner, and we therefore judge that he spent his -whole life in the water; for a back-bone so formed, would not have been -able to support such a great heavy body when walking on the land. - -The fins, or paddles, were very curious, and much like those of the -whale; they consisted of above a hundred small bones strongly united -together, in a sort of pavement enclosed in a strong skin, and not -divided into toes, as you may observe in this representation of the -entire skeleton. - -[Illustration] - -You may see many specimens of the skeleton itself in the British -Museum. - -The Icthyosaurus was a great tyrant, and used to prey on every creature -that came within his reach; this is known by the fossil remains -found in the inside of his body. He used at times even to act the -cannibal, and eat his own relations, for a large one has been dug out -of the cliff at Lyme Regis, with part of a small one in his stomach -undigested; he must have been altogether a very unamiable character. -But as his family has been so long extinct, and we are told that we -ought to say nothing but what is good concerning the dead, I shall not -say any more about him, leaving you to form your own conclusions from -what I have related to you. - - -THE PLESIOSAURUS. - -Those still more strange looking animals with very long necks, which -are represented swimming in the water, have been named _Plesiosauri_, a -word signifying, _related to_, or _closely resembling_, a lizard. There -are some nearly perfect specimens in the British Museum, and this is a -representation made up by taking the uninjured parts of several, so as -to make up a perfect whole. - -[Illustration] - -Taking it altogether, there is not one of the fossil animals so much -unlike anything at present known to exist. Its usual length was from 9 -to 15 feet, but it was at times very much larger. - -The head was much shorter in proportion than that of the Icthyosaurus, -being more like that of the guana, the lizard which people eat in the -West Indies. The neck must have been longer than that of any living -animal, not even excepting the swan; it contained thirty-three bones, -or _vertebræ_, while the whole of the rest of the back-bone in the body -and tail, contained only fifty-seven. - -The faces of these vertebræ were nearly flat, and not hollow like those -of the Icthyosaurus, which would better enable the animal to exist on -land, and it appears to have moved about in the same manner as seals -do. From some very ingenious observations on certain parts of its -anatomy, (which if I were to endeavour to explain to you, you would not -understand, unless you possessed a great deal of anatomical knowledge,) -naturalists have supposed that it used to change the colour of its skin -like the chameleon. Its paddles were almost exactly like those of the -turtle, and its body was something of the same shape, but not quite so -wide. - -From its long neck, which, although it was strengthened by the solid -joints and peculiar shapes of the bones, was not very strong, and -its small head and jaws, the Plesiosaurus could not have been near a -match for its neighbour, the Icthyosaurus, in combat, even when the -individuals were of the same size; neither would its form adapt it for -cutting through the water so quickly. It must, therefore, no doubt, -have often fallen a prey to that voracious monster. Perhaps, however, -it often played him a trick when he was pursuing it by running on shore -out of his reach; or it might mostly have kept out of his way in very -shallow water amongst the rushes and reeds, where it could every now -and then dart its long neck like a swan, down at the little fish that -came near it; or else suddenly reaching aloft into the air, it may have -seized upon some unlucky insect, or Pterodactyle, (a sort of bat of -which I shall presently speak) and then laid down as quiet under the -rushes as if nothing had happened, waiting for its next mouthful. - - -THE PTERODACTYLE. - -That odd-looking creature which is flying in the air over the heads of -the Plesiosauri, has been called the Pterodactyle, which signifies -_wing-fingered_. There were several varieties, of different sizes and -figures, from that of a snipe to that of a raven. The most remarkable -of them was indeed a curious creature, and so you will say if you look -at the picture of his skeleton. - -[Illustration] - -He was more like a bat in his general shape and habits, than anything -else we know of, but was very different in a great many respects. - -He had a head like a lizard, with a long snout and sharp teeth; his -ribs were round and thread-like, not flat like those of birds and bats; -his eyes were large; and his wings like a bat's, being a membrane or -skin, stretched out by one very long toe on each of his fore-feet. In -order to support his long head, there were strong cords running down -each side of the vertebræ of his neck, such as are found in some modern -birds, as is known by the forms of the bones to which the ends of them -were attached. His toes ended in sharp claws, and he had also claws at -his two principal joints, so that he could catch hold of the branches -of trees with them, as bats do. These creatures used principally to -feed upon large dragon flies, beetles, and the other insects, of which -the remains are found, and some of which are represented in the picture. - -There were also living at the same time with these creatures, several -kinds of tortoises, and fish in immense varieties. The whole district -where the south coast of England now is, seems to have then been a -marsh with no vegetation but sea-weeds, reeds, and the like; and its -only inhabitants were, fish, reptiles, and insects. - -After the races of animals which we have mentioned, became extinct, -a period followed in which they were succeeded by some monstrous -creatures, like lizards in all respects, except that they were fitted -to live in the water by the construction of their back-bone, their -having lungs of the same kind as those of fishes, and the possession of -fins. One of these, called the Iguanodon, was sometimes seventy feet -long. It had a little horn near the end of its snout, placed something -like the horn of a rhinoceros, and must have borne considerable -resemblance in its general form to the guana, which I mentioned before. -Their bones and teeth, are found at Lewes, in Sussex, and in the Isle -of Wight, where you may pick them up on the shore, as you can the bones -of Icthyosauri and Plesiosauri, at Lyme Regis, though not in such great -numbers. - -We are indebted for a great deal of what I have told you about the -animals that once lived where Dorsetshire is now, to a lady, Miss -Anning, who spends nearly her whole time in collecting fossils out of -the cliffs. No one ought to go near Lyme Regis without visiting her -collection. - -[Illustration: PLATE II. - -EXTINCT ANIMALS.] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -WHAT SORT OF A PLACE ONCE EXISTED WHERE THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PARIS IS -NOW. - - -I shall show you a picture representing a state of things much more -like the present, than the one we looked at before. It existed at a -later period, though still a great many years ago; and if you wish to -know why we conclude it to be later, since it is the other side of -the water and we are therefore prevented from distinctly tracing the -succession of the strata, I will tell you. - -After leaving the formations of Dorsetshire, in which the great -_saurian_ or lizard-like reptiles are found, we come to chalk in -Hampshire and the Isle of Wight; and after the chalk, to some beds of -clay, and then some beds of limestone. The formations above the chalk, -are those called _tertiary_; those from the chalk down to the lowest -containing animal and vegetable remains, are the _secondary_; and all -below that, consisting mainly of various sorts of granite, are the -_primary_. - -Now all this occurs in the same order in France, and the neighbourhood -of Paris consisting of tertiary formations, just corresponds with -the tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight, and them we know to be -more recent than the secondary formations of Dorsetshire. Of course, -therefore, the animals found at Paris, must be more recent than those -found at Lyme Regis. - -The largest of the animals represented in the plate, is called the -Palæotherium. - -The following is a picture of his skeleton, as it has been made out, -bone by bone. A single tooth was first discovered, and the French -naturalist, Cuvier, was able to determine from this alone, a great many -particulars which have now been proved by the subsequent discovery -of the bones; such was the knowledge he had acquired by comparing -the bones of different animals. He thus discovered that a certain -shape of tooth always accompanied a certain shape of foot, as well as -indicated what kind of food the animal lived upon. From this might be -judged a great deal about the organs of digestion, and the internal -structure, and something of its habits and disposition. In all these -points and several others, Cuvier predicted from a single bone of the -Palæotherium, what has been exactly confirmed by the entire skeleton. - -[Illustration] - -It was about the size of a small horse, and must have possessed a -little trunk, or proboscis, like the modern Tapir, to which indeed it -must have borne a great resemblance. - -[Illustration: American Tapir.] - -The reason for thinking that it had a trunk, is because there is a -peculiar contrivance in the bones to give strength to the neck, which -only exists in animals that have a proboscis. There are some Tapirs in -the Zoological Gardens, and if you have seen them, you will be able to -form a pretty good notion of what the Palæotherium must have been. It -had perhaps rather more of the hog about it, than the Tapir has, with a -more dull heavy expression of countenance. - -There were three varieties of Palæotherium distinguished by their size. -The smallest was not much larger than a little dog, and you may see the -figure of one of them in the picture, going down to the water to drink. - -The more slender animal, which is walking towards the water, is the -Anoplotherium, or un-armed beast. Its size varied from that of a hare, -to that of a large dog; it had a very thick tail like that of the -Kangaroo. Everything about it would lead one to suppose that it was a -timid creature, whose swiftness and agility would protect it against -stronger animals; not unlike in disposition to the antelope, or the -hare of our times. - -Another animal was living at the same period, which I must describe -to you, as it was, as far as we know, the largest quadruped that ever -lived upon the earth, and in some respects the most remarkable. It was -called the Dinotherium, or _terrible wild beast_, and you will soon -know how well it deserved this name. The individual of which a part of -the head is now in the British Museum, must have been eighteen feet -long in the body, and proportionally large! If you compare this size -with that of the largest elephant you have ever seen, you will be able -to form some notion of his enormous magnitude. - -In his general form he somewhat resembled the Tapirs, but by no means -so nearly as did the Palæotherium. He had a much longer trunk; and his -shoulder blade is formed like that of the mole, by which we know that -he must have used his feet in digging. It seems almost certain that -he was amphibious: and the back part of his skull has a remarkable -similarity to that of the whale, and cetaceous fishes in general. -But the most striking peculiarity in the bones which remain of this -monster, is the existence of two large tusks bending down from the -lower jaw, like two hooks, as you may see represented in this cut, of -the head preserved in the Museum. His legs were probably rather short, -and might have borne nearly the same proportion to his body, as those -of the Hippopotamus do to his. From all we can collect, this must have -been his general form and appearance. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -There can be but little doubt that he was of a savage disposition and -lead a sulky sort of life divided between the water and the land, like -the Hippopotamus. His great tusks must have rendered him a formidable -enemy; but as we know that he was a digging animal, it is very likely -that he more frequently used them as a sort of pickaxe, to grub up -such roots as he wanted to eat, for he lived wholly upon vegetables. -He might also have employed them (as Dr. Buckland has conjectured), to -stick into the banks of rivers to support his head above water, and to -anchor himself so as not to be carried down by the stream, while his -huge body lay in his favourite element: or it does not seem unlikely -that he might at times have hooked them on to the lower boughs of -trees, to sustain himself while he plucked down from above the fruit -and foliage with his trunk. - -His bones have been found in various parts of France, Germany and -Austria. - -When these animals were living, the climate must have been very -much warmer than it is at present in France, for their bones are -found associated with palm trees, and other vegetable remains of hot -climates, and the bones of crocodiles, tortoises, and other creatures -which only live in warm regions. The isle of Sheppey consists chiefly -of land which was deposited about the same time, and it contains -a great quantity of fossil coffee, and similar plants at present -restricted to the East and West Indies, and countries near the equator. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -OF GREAT CAVERNS IN ENGLAND, AND GERMANY, CONTAINING BONES OF WILD -ANIMALS. - - -In several parts of England there are great caverns in limestone and -other rocks, which contain an immense quantity of the bones of such -animals as are now found only in wild countries with warm climates. -One of the most celebrated of these caves, is that of Kirkdale, in -Yorkshire. Of the bones which most of them contain, three-fourths and -upwards belong to bears, of a sort no longer to be found in the living -state. One-half, or perhaps two-thirds, of the remaining fourth, have -been traced to a species of hyæna, which is also unknown at the present -day. A smaller number may be referred to a sort of tiger or lion, and -to some species of the wolf or dog family. The smallest specimens are -of various small flesh-eating animals, such as the fox, the polecat, -and other kindred species. There are also in some of them bones of the -Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus. - -[Illustration: PLATE III. - -CAVE OF GAYLENREUTH] - -But the largest and most remarkable of these caves, is at Gaylenreuth, -in Germany, of which the picture represents a section. You will -understand this representation, if you read the following account of it -by Dr. Buckland, the Professor of Geology, in the University of Oxford. - -"The first grotto turns to the right, and is upwards of 80 feet long. -It is divided into four parts by the unequal heights of the vaulted -roof; the first three are from 15 to 20 feet high; whereas, the fourth -is only from 4 to 5. On the bottom of this part, and on a level with -the floor, there is an orifice only two feet high, which leads into -the second grotto. This runs first southward for 60 feet, being 40 -wide and 18 high; it then turns to the west through a space of 70 feet, -becoming gradually lower till its altitude is only 5 feet. The passage -to the third grotto is very incommodious, winding through several -corridors. It is thirty feet wide, and only five or six high. The loam -of the floor is stuffed full of teeth and jaw-bones. Near the entrance -to it, is a gulf of 15 or 20 feet, into which visitors descend by a -ladder. After going down, they arrive at a vault 15 feet diameter by -30 feet in height; and on the side on which they descend, is a grotto -all bestrewed with bones. By going down a little further still, they -fall in with a new arcade which conducts to a grotto 40 feet long, and -a new gulf 18 or 20 feet deep. Even after this descent, another cavern -presents itself 40 feet high, quite covered with bones. A passage now -of 5 feet by 7 leads to a grotto 25 feet long and 12 wide; then alleys, -20 feet long, conduct into another cave 20 feet high; and finally, -a grand grotto expands, 83 feet in width, and 24 in height, more -copiously furnished with bones than any of the rest. The sixth and -last grotto runs in a northerly direction, so that the whole series of -caverns and corridors, describes nearly a semicircle. - -"A rift in the third grotto, disclosed in 1784, a new grotto, 15 feet -long by 4 wide, where the greatest number of hyænas' and lions' bones -were found. The opening was much too narrow to have allowed these -animals to have entered by it. A peculiar tunnel which terminated in -this small grotto, afforded an incredible number of bones, and large -skulls quite entire." - -It is supposed that these caves were inhabited by the fierce animals -whose bones they contain, and that the other more peaceable creatures -were dragged in by them for prey, since their bones have evidently been -gnawed and crushed as they would be by fierce and powerful carnivorous -animals. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -OF OTHER ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED IN ENGLAND AND ELSEWHERE. - - -THE ELEPHANT. - -I have before mentioned to you the bones of Elephants, as occurring in -the bone caverns; they were, however, not just like the Elephants now -living in Africa and Asia. The tusks seem to have been larger, and the -head not quite so broad and blunt; the teeth were also different. - -There are not perhaps many counties in England in which some of these -remains have not been found, and generally not far below the surface of -the soil. About London, and at Woolwich in particular, a great many -specimens of the fossil tusks have been collected; they are chiefly of -about the consistency of chalk, but if you break them across and look -at the end, you can see the grain of the ivory, just as you do on a -billiard-ball, or at the end of a knife-handle. - -Before anatomy was understood so well as it is at present, the bones of -the Elephant, and those of several other large extinct animals, were -confounded together under the name of Mammoth. There is a remarkable -account of the discovery of what was at the time called a Mammoth, (but -which was, doubtless, an Elephant,) imbedded in ice in Siberia, which -I shall relate to you, as it is very well written and of undoubted -veracity. - -"In the year 1799, a Tungusian fisherman observed a strange shapeless -mass projecting from an ice-bank, near the mouth of a river in the -north of Siberia, the nature of which he did not understand, and which -was so high in the bank as to be beyond his reach. He next year -observed the same object, which was then rather more disengaged from -among the ice; but was still unable to conceive what it was. Towards -the end of the following summer, 1801, he could distinctly see that -it was the frozen carcass of an enormous animal, the entire flank of -which, and one of its tusks, had become disengaged from the ice. In -consequence of the ice beginning to melt earlier, and to a greater -degree than usual, in 1803, the fifth year of this discovery, the -enormous carcass became entirely disengaged, and fell down from the -ice-crag on a sand-bank, forming part of the coast of the Arctic Ocean. -In the month of March of that year, the Tungusian carried away the two -tusks, which he sold for fifty rubles, about fifteen pounds sterling. - -"Two years afterwards this animal still remained on the sand-bank where -it had fallen from the ice; but its body was then greatly mutilated. -The peasants had taken away considerable quantities of its flesh -to feed their dogs; and the wild animals, particularly the white -bears, had also feasted on the carcass; yet the skeleton remained -quite entire, except that one of the fore-legs was gone. The entire -spine, the pelvis, one shoulder-blade, and three legs, were still -held together by their ligaments, and by some remains of the skin; -and the other shoulder-blade was found at a short distance. The head -remained, covered by the dried skin, and the pupil of the eyes was -still distinguishable. The brain also remained within the skull, but -a good deal shrunk and dried up; and one of the ears was in excellent -preservation, still retaining a tuft of strong bristly hair. The upper -lip was a good deal eaten away, and the under lip was entirely gone, so -that the teeth were distinctly seen. The animal had a long mane on its -neck. - -"The skin was extremely thick and heavy, and so much of it remained -as required the exertions of ten men to carry away, which they did -with considerable difficulty. More than thirty pounds' weight of the -hair and bristles of this animal were gathered from the wet sand-bank, -having been trampled into the mud by the white bears, while devouring -the carcass. The hair was of three distinct kinds; one consisting of -stiff black bristles, a foot or more in length; another of thinner -bristles, or coarse flexible hair, of a reddish-brown colour; and the -third of a coarse reddish-brown wool, which grew among the roots of the -hair. These afford an undeniable proof that this animal had belonged -to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold region, with which we are now -unacquainted, and by no means fitted to live in the torrid zone. It is -also evident that this enormous animal must have been frozen up by the -ice at the moment of its death." - - -THE GIGANTIC ELK. - -There are frequently found in the peat bogs of England and Ireland, the -bones and horns of a large Elk, called the gigantic Elk, and sometimes -the Irish Elk. - -[Illustration: PLATE IV. - -MEGATHERIUM GIGANTIC ELK] - -Here is a picture of him; and you may judge how well he was entitled to -his name, when I tell you that some pairs of his horns have been found, -which measured nearly twelve feet across from tip to tip. He must -have been considerably larger than the Wapiti Deer in the Zoological -Gardens, and of quite a different form. - -It is not known when these creatures became extinct; but it is probable -that it may have been since Britain has been inhabited by man. - - -THE MEGATHERIUM. - -The bones of this great beast were first found at Buenos Ayres in South -America, and a skeleton nearly complete was sent home from thence by -the Governor to the Royal Cabinet of Madrid, in 1789. They were found -in loose soil, and must apparently have belonged to nearly the same age -as the Fossil Elephant and Irish Elk. - -The head must have been very much like that of the sloth, but it seems -to have possessed the addition of a small trunk like the Palæotherium I -told you of just now. The structure of its legs (and in particular its -very strong short thigh-bone, which is much stouter than that of any -animal living,) shows that it must have moved very slowly. - -Its teeth show that it lived on vegetables, and the great ungainly -fore-feet, armed with tremendous claws, would lead one to suppose that -it used to dig in the ground for roots, and tear down the branches of -trees. - -It appears to have been covered with a thick shell or coating, thicker -than the hide of a rhinoceros, and rather resembling the covering of -the armadillo. I have seen a piece of this wonderful coat of armour in -the Museum at Paris, which was found along with the skeleton in South -America. - -If one might decide from its likeness to other animals in its various -parts, it was a sulky beast, and, if it could have spoken, would only -have said to its neighbours, "Let me alone--I want nothing of you, if -you want nothing of me." - -Its length was full 13 feet, and its height about 9 feet; so you may -suppose armed, and defended as it was, there was not much chance of -other animals being disposed to meddle with it, for it must have been -big enough and strong enough to take good care of itself, though it -could not run very fast. - - -THE BEAVER. - -You will, perhaps, be surprised to hear that Beavers once lived in -England; but it is known from history, that they were found in Wales -as late as the twelfth century. I have got the bones of some, that -were given me by a countryman, who picked them out of a peat bog in -Hampshire, without knowing what they were. They were buried close by -some hazel nuts, and some moss that had not lost its colour, and was -in no degree decayed; such is the great power possessed by certain -minerals that exist in these peat bogs, to preserve things from decay, -even during a period which could hardly be less than a thousand years. - -It is related, that the foot of a lady, which seemed quite fresh, -was found in peat, where it had lain in contact with some of these -substances, with a sandal of a kind that must have been worn many -hundreds of years ago. And though I will not assert that it is true, -yet I will say, that it is very likely to be so, from what I have seen -myself, in regard to nuts, and moss, and various weeds. - - -THE DODO. - -When the Dutch in the 16th century, took possession of the Isle of -France, now called Mauritius, which up to that time had not been -inhabited by man, they found a large bird something of the Duck kind, -of which they sent home specimens and representations. They called it -the Dodo, but why, I cannot tell you. - -The race has now become extinct, so that many naturalists have declared -that it never existed, and that the account of it was naughtily -invented, and sent home for the gratification and delusion of - - "Those who greedily pursue - Things wonderful instead of true." - -But there is not the least doubt of its being a fact, for in the Museum -in London there is a painting said to have been taken from the living -bird; there is also a leg and a plaster cast of the head placed near -the painting, which naturalists have determined could not have belonged -to any other animal known, from their peculiar construction; there is -also another foot and the head from which the cast was taken, preserved -in the Museum of the University of Oxford, being the remains of an -entire specimen which was kept in the collection of curiosities made -by Elias Ashmole, Esq. till it rotted. This is representation of these -two valuable relics. - -[Illustration] - -The account of the removal of the bones was entered in the records of -the University, and the date is the 1st January, 1755. - -More recently some of the bones have been found in the Mauritius, and -have been sent to Paris, where I have heard they may be seen now. - -It seems to have been the most unwieldy and inactive bird in existence, -and to have held nearly the same kind of place among feathered animals -as the sloth does among beasts. The body was very massive, and almost -round, and seemed to be stuck upon two short thick legs like pillars. -The tail was strangely out of its place, according to the usual form -of birds; and two little caricatures of wings were hung upon its great -blank sides. A thick pursy neck supported the head, which consisted -of two enormous chaps that opened far behind the eyes. You will best -understand the form of the bill by looking at the cut copied from the -painting which I mentioned before, and you may there see how like a -monk's cowl the feathers of his head looked. - -[Illustration] - -Some of the Dutch who met with this bird in its own country called -it the nauseous bird, and declared that its flesh was intolerably -disagreeable to the taste; while others asserted that it was very good -eating, and that about three Dodos would feast a hundred men. But -whatever may have been the quality of the flesh, I do not believe what -the latter said of its quantity, for the head and leg which I have -seen, and which appear to have belonged to a full grown bird, are not -very much larger than those of a swan. - -However this is now a question which of course will never be certainly -decided, as there are no more of them to be eaten. It appears that, -like the beavers and wolves in England, the progress of man and -cultivation deprived them of their sources of sustenance. - -If we may judge of what his character was, from his appearance, he -must have been a silly, voracious creature, with hardly any power of -resistance or flight. However, like all the rest of God's works, he was -no doubt adapted for the circumstances in which he was placed, and had -enough means of enjoyment, to make it well worth his while to live as -long as he could. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PARLEY DESCRIBES VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES, AND HOT SPRINGS. - - -You have no doubt often heard of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, for almost -everybody in all ages has felt a deep interest in them, and a curiosity -to know what they are caused by. If you will listen to me, while I -merely describe them as they really exist, without "drawing the long -bow," as people say, I will then tell you how I think they are produced. - -It is quite certain that there is an important connexion between -Volcanoes and Earthquakes; and we may safely take this for granted, and -at once call the cause of both, whatever it may be, _volcanic agency_. - -It has been discovered by extensive observations, that this agency -does not exert itself in individual spots, so as to produce here a -Volcano and there an Earthquake; but its operations take place over -long tracts of country in which the Volcanoes are placed, and, in the -spaces between them, Earthquakes are more or less frequent. - -These tracts are called Volcanic bands; one of them extends nearly -parallel with the West Coast of South America, along the chain of -mountains called the Andes, which you will see marked on the map; and -another much smaller extends from Mount Vesuvius to Mount Etna, with -the Volcanic Island Stromboli, and several extinct Volcanoes lying -between them, and then turns to the East, through several of the Greek -Islands, and passes on to Syria, where Earthquakes are frequent. - -Earthquakes in their simplest form are nothing more than violent -shakings of the ground; but sometimes the earth is split open; -sometimes it is raised; and sometimes it is depressed. - -I shall tell you of some of the changes which took place in the great -Earthquake of Calabria, which lies in the smaller volcanic band I -mentioned to you between Vesuvius and Etna. - - -EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA. - -The shocks began in 1783, and lasted for nearly four years, till the -end of 1786. During this time the King of Naples sent persons to take -correct notes and representations of all that was going on, and we -have therefore got a better account of it than we have of any other -Earthquake that ever occurred. - -The convulsion of the earth, sea, and air, extended as far as Naples, -and over the whole of Sicily; but the district over which it was so -violent as to excite intense alarm, was about five hundred miles in -circumference. - -"The first shock of February 5th, 1783, threw down, in two minutes, -the greater part of the houses in all the cities, towns, and villages, -from the western sides of the Apennines in Calabria Ultra, to Messina -in Sicily, and convulsed the whole surface of the country. Another -occurred on the 28th of March, with almost equal violence. The chain of -granite mountains which passes through Calabria from north to south, -and attains the height of many thousand feet, was shaken but slightly; -but it is said that a great part of the shocks which were spread with -a wave-like motion through the recent strata from west to east, became -very violent when they reached the point of junction with the granite, -as if a reaction was produced where the wave-like movement of the soft -strata was suddenly arrested by the more solid rocks. The surface of -the country often heaved like the billows of a swelling sea, which -produced a swimming in the head like sea-sickness. It is particularly -stated, in almost all the accounts, that just before each shock the -clouds appeared motionless; and although no explanation is offered of -this phenomenon, it is obviously the same as that observed in a ship -at sea when it pitches violently. The clouds seem arrested in their -career as often as the vessel rises in a direction contrary to their -course; so that the Calabrians must have experienced precisely the same -motion on the land." - -At Messina in Sicily, the shore was rent; and the soil along the port, -which before the shock was perfectly level, was inclined towards the -sea, and the sea itself was considerably deeper, which showed that the -inclination must have been occasioned by the bottom's sinking. The quay -also sunk down 14 inches below the level of the sea, and the houses in -the neighbourhood were much cracked. - -In one town there was a large round tower of great strength, which was -divided by a perpendicular rent, and one-half was raised up several -feet, so as to show the foundations. Those who saw it, said that it -looked like a great tooth half extracted, showing the fangs. Along the -line of the crack, the walls were found to fit so exactly together, -that you would not have known they had even been divided if the courses -of the stones had not been disturbed. - -[Illustration] - -There was a very curious difference between some of the walls which -had been thrown down, or very much shaken by some of the shocks. In -some of them, the separate stones were parted from the mortar, so as to -leave an exact mould where they had rested; and in others, the mortar -was ground to dust between the stones. It was not less strange to see -the effect of what must have been whirling movements in the ground. -In some streets, one house would be thrown down, and leave the rest -uninjured; while in others, all the houses but one were thrown down, -and that one remained firm and unmoved. Two obelisks were twisted -round, so that the stones of which they were composed, stood at cross -purposes. This cut represents one of the two, as it stood after the -earthquake, and before. - -[Illustration] - -"It appears evident that a great part of the rending and splitting of -the ground was the effect of a violent motion from below upwards; and -in a multitude of cases where the rents and chasms opened and closed -alternately, we must suppose that the earth was by turns heaved up, -and then let fall again. We may conceive the same effect to be produced -on a small scale, if, by some mechanical force, a pavement composed -of large flags of stone should be raised up and then allowed to fall -suddenly, so as to resume its original position. If any small pebbles -happened to be lying on the line of contact of two flags, they would -fall into the opening when the pavement rose, and be swallowed up, so -that no trace of them would appear after the subsidence of the stones. -In the same manner, when the earth was upheaved, large houses, trees, -cattle, and men were engulfed in an instant in chasms and fissures; and -when the ground sunk down again, the earth closed upon them, so that -no vestige of them was discoverable on the surface. In many instances -individuals were swallowed up by one shock, and then thrown out alive, -together with large jets of water, by the shock which immediately -succeeded." - -The district called Jerocarne, was torn in a surprising manner, and in -one spot the cracks resembled those in a starred pane of glass; and as -these cracks remained open when the earthquake was over, it seemed as -if the middle had been permanently lifted up. - -[Illustration] - -"In the vicinity of Oppido, the central point from which the earthquake -diffused its violent movements, many houses were swallowed up by the -yawning earth, which closed immediately over them. In the adjacent -district also of Cannamaria, four farm-houses, several oil-stores, -and some spacious dwelling-houses were so completely engulphed in one -chasm, that no vestige of them was afterwards discernible." - -Amongst the many fissures that were opened, there was one, a mile long, -a hundred feet wide, and thirty feet deep; and another, three quarters -of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet wide, and one hundred feet -deep; and a third, about a quarter of a mile long, which was two -hundred and twenty-five feet deep. - -A mountain was cleft completely in two; and a lake of considerable size -was formed by the opening of this great chasm, and springs bursting -out at the bottom. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood were afraid -that the pool of nearly stagnant water which was thus formed would -injure their health, and were at great expense in trying to drain it; -but it was all in vain, for the springs that fed it at the bottom were -inexhaustible. - -A great mass of earth, or hill, two hundred feet high, and four hundred -feet in diameter, was moved nearly four miles out of its place, with -trees growing upon it; and another similar mass, with a house on it, -which was not at all injured. Some olive and mulberry trees travelled -a full mile. These great movements were aided by springs under the -masses of earth, which made a slimy sort of road for them; and, of -course, the whole distance was down hill. - -"Great agitation was frequently observed in the bed of the sea during -the shocks, and, on those parts of the coast where the movement was -most violent, all kinds of fish were taken in greater abundance, and -with much greater facility. Some rare species, which usually lie buried -in the sand, were taken on the surface of the waters in great quantity. -The sea is said to have boiled up near Messina, and to have been -agitated as if by a copious discharge of vapours from its bottom. The -Prince of Scilla had persuaded a great part of his vassals to betake -themselves to their fishing-boats for safety, and he himself had gone -on board. On the night of the 5th of February, when some of the people -were sleeping in the boats, and others on a level plain, slightly -elevated above the sea, the earth rocked, and suddenly a great mass -was torn from the contiguous Mount Jaci, and thrown down with a -dreadful crash upon the plain. Immediately afterwards, the sea rising -thirty palms above the level of this low tract, rolled foaming over it, -and swept away the multitude. It then retreated, but soon rushed back -again with greater violence, bringing with it some of the people and -animals it had carried away. At the same time every boat was sunk or -dashed against the beach, and some of them were swept far inland. The -aged Prince, with one thousand four hundred and thirty of his people, -was destroyed. The number of persons who perished during the earthquake -is estimated at about forty thousand, and about twenty thousand more -died by diseases which were caused by insufficient nourishment, -exposure to the atmosphere, and malaria, arising from the new stagnant -lakes and pools. By far the greater number were buried under the ruins -of their houses; while some were burnt to death in the conflagrations -which almost invariably followed the shocks, and consumed immense -magazines of oil and other provisions. A small number were engulfed -in chasms and fissures, and their skeletons are perhaps buried in the -earth to this day, at the depth of several hundred feet, for such was -the profundity of some of the openings which did not close in again." - -There is a fine description of the Earthquake and this melancholy -result, in Cowper's Task, which we shall quote. - - Alas for Sicily! rude fragments now - Lie scatter'd where the shapely column stood. - Her palaces are dust. In all her streets - The voice of singing and the sprightly chord - Are silent. Revelry, and dance, and show - Suffer a syncope and solemn pause; - While God performs upon the trembling stage - Of his own works his dreadful part alone. - The rocks fall headlong, and the valleys rise, - The rivers die into offensive pools, - And charged with putrid verdure, breathe a gross - And mortal nuisance into all the air. - What solid was, by transformation strange, - Grows fluid; and the fix'd and rooted earth, - Tormented into billows, heaves and swells, - Or with vortiginous and hideous whirl - Sucks down its prey insatiable. Immense - The tumult and the overthrow, the pangs - And agonies of human and of brute - Multitudes, fugitive on every side, - And fugitive in vain. The sylvan scene - Migrates uplifted; and, with all its soil - Alighting in far distant fields, finds out - A new possessor, and survives the change. - Ocean has caught the frenzy, and upwrought - To an enormous and o'erbearing height, - Not by a mighty wind, but by that voice - Which winds and waves obey, invades the shore - With force resistless. Where now the throng, - That press'd the beach, and, hasty to depart, - Look'd to the sea for safety? They are gone, - Gone with the refluent wave into the deep-- - A prince with half his people! - -You will find a great many other astonishing effects of this Earthquake -described in Mr. Lyell's Work on Geology, from which I have extracted -some parts of the preceding account. - - -VOLCANOES. - -The word Volcano comes from Vulcan, the name of the God of fire in the -Greek mythology. You have read how the poets used to represent him as -engaged underground in forging thunderbolts for Jupiter, and other -work of the same kind, with the assistance of his one-eyed journeymen -the Cyclopes. They feigned that Volcanoes were the chimneys of his -workshops, and that when an eruption took place he was busy forging his -iron. - -Others pretended that when Jupiter had overcome the giants named -Titans, who had rebelled against him, instead of putting them in the -stocks, he placed mountains upon them, and that when the imprisoned -monsters turned themselves from one side to the other, earthquakes and -eruptions were the consequence. - -However, we don't believe any of these stories now, neither perhaps did -the ancients. But you must learn all about them and their meaning, -(where they have any,) from your schoolmaster. My business now is to -tell you what Volcanoes are. - -They are openings in the surface of the earth, from whence ignited -matter of various kinds, smoke, and ashes, are sent forth by some -subterranean agency. - -For the most part they do not always keep in activity, but have long -intervals of rest for months, and sometimes for very many years, -between the eruptions. - -One of the few that always keeps in eruption, is Stromboli, one of the -Lipari Islands off the coast of Sicily, which there is good reason to -think, has been active for nearly 1600 years. This Volcano is merely -a mountain or rock, standing out of the sea, and the melted matter, -that occasionally runs down its sides, flows directly into the water, -and at once kills and parboils the fish that happen to be near it, and -they are thus sometimes taken and eaten by the poor fishermen who live -about the base of the mountain. - -The way in which an eruption takes place in a Volcano of the other -kind, when it has been quiet for a long time, is as follows. - -Great noises are heard about the foot of the mountain, and earthquakes -frequently occur for several days before any change is seen in the -opening or _crater_, as it is called. The springs in the neighbourhood -often disappear, and as you may suppose all these forebodings make the -people who live near gloomy enough. - -After a time a dreadful burst takes place, and the crater is in an -instant cleared of the stones and earth that may have fallen into it -during the period of repose; ashes and cinders, rocks and stones, are -thrown up to an immense height in the air, and a great cloud of smoke -and steam accompanies them. - -In perfectly still weather, this vapour is seen to shape itself in -a very beautiful manner. The immense impulse from beneath sends it -up to a vast height as straight and almost as distinct as a pillar. -At a certain elevation, it spreads abroad and assumes the appearance -represented in the plate. When this occurs on Vesuvius, the Italians -call it the _pine tree cloud_, from the resemblance its form bears to -that of a pine tree. - -As the eruption goes on the cloud of smoke which is always copiously -charged with electricity, sends out brilliant lightnings; its form -becomes disturbed, and the dark volumes of vapour are angrily sent -forth in shapeless masses. Red-hot stones are sent into the air to a -stupendous height; the melted matter boils up inside the crater and -rolls down the sides of the mountain, setting fire to the trees that it -meets with, and destroying or enveloping whatever else remains in its -way. - -You will see their effect as they appear by night, in the other plate. -I should tell you that the Volcano represented in both the pictures is -Mount Vesuvius. - -[Illustration: PLATE V. - -VESUVIUS N^o. 1] - -The melted matter that boils up in the crater, and flows down the -mountain, is called Lava. I dare say most of you have seen some pieces -of this substance when polished and worked into ornaments. It is found -in great variety, and is sometimes black, porous, and light like -cinders; sometimes it consists of crystallized particles of quartz, -felspar, and other minerals, so as closely to resemble granite; and not -unfrequently it is a solid dark-coloured mass, heavy and hard as the -stone that our streets are paved with. - -It issues from the crater in a melted state, bubbling and boiling like -water in a tea-kettle, but you must not therefore suppose that it runs -down the declivity of the mountain like water. On the contrary, its -motion is mostly very slow, seldom being faster when it gets at some -distance from the crater, than four miles an hour, which is about as -fast as a man can walk. When it has run still further from its source -it does not travel more than a few yards in a day. - -The motion of a stream of Lava is very peculiar, for the surface -exposed to the air is immediately formed into a crust, and hence it -constantly moves with a crackling noise, and when the stream is quite -fresh no light is seen except in the cracks that are constantly being -formed at the extremity. - -In this way a current will sometimes go drawling on for months after -the eruption which gave rise to it has ceased. - -A very curious effect is produced when the lava runs in a certain state -of fluidity down a steep descent. A thick, strong crust forms on the -outside, and it is one of the qualities of lava when it has become -hard, like most other stony substances, to present great opposition -to the passage of heat. In consequence of this the liquid lava in the -inside of the current is kept hot, and continues to run on for a long -time after the supply from the crater has ceased, and leaves the crust -in the form of an arched passage. - -From what I have told you about lava streams, you will see that there -is not much danger from them to living creatures, who may always get -out of their way fast enough: but sometimes houses and even towns are -enveloped in them. - -[Illustration: PLATE VI. - -VESUVIUS N^o. 2] - -However, from the peculiar mode in which they travel there is often a -way of preventing this, and on one occasion it was resorted to, and -the town of Catania thereby saved. A current of lava from Mount Etna -was making its way straight towards the town, but a body of fifty bold -strong fellows went out to meet it, armed with crow bars; with these -they broke great holes in the crust at the side, and thus the stream -was turned into another course, and pursued its way on one side of the -town. - -Throughout an eruption, a great quantity of dust is produced by the -rubbing of the stones against each other which are thrown out from the -crater, and often fall back and are thrown up again several times. - -This dust is driven over a great extent of country, and a gentleman -whom I visited, who lived about fourteen miles from Mount Vesuvius, -told me that during the great eruption of 1822, his garden was covered -with them, to the depth of full six inches. - -But in more violent eruptions they are carried much further than this. -In an eruption of a Volcano in Sumbawa, an island which lies some miles -to the East of Java, the ashes were carried to a distance of 270 miles -in such quantities as to darken the air, and in another direction -they were found 300 miles off. They fell so heavily 40 miles away -from the Volcano that they broke into many houses, and rendered them -uninhabitable. - -Quantities of liquid lava are thrown upwards, and shape themselves into -nearly the forms of fish by their passage through the air. These are -called bombs by the inhabitants, and the fall of them is very justly -dreaded, as they come with great violence. - -The size of the largest of those from which the following picture was -taken, was six inches long, two inches and a quarter wide, and one -inch and three quarters thick; but there are much larger sometimes. - -[Illustration] - -If you should have a chance of examining any of these, you may observe -how wisely the living principle, which gives the figure to fish, has -been ordained by their Creator to provide the best form to assist their -motions, in a medium in which they are suspended, and do not move on -ground as the beasts do; seeing that it is precisely the same sort -of figure as the laws of inanimate matter impress upon it, when in a -yielding state, and being impelled to move under similar circumstances. - -I must give you a notion of the quantity of lava sometimes sent out in -a single eruption. - -The Volcano called Skapta Jokul, in Iceland, in the year 1794, sent -out two great streams, one of which was 50 miles in length, from 10 to -15 in breadth, and the ordinary depth about 100 feet, but in some deep -valleys it was more than 500 feet. The other was forty miles long, -seven wide on the average, and about the same depth as the first. - -These streams were not cold in the year 1805, eleven years after they -had issued from the earth, so that you may judge how long the hardened -lava keeps in the heat. - -During the eruption in which this immense mass of melted matter was -thrown out, twenty villages were destroyed, more than nine thousand -persons killed, and an immense number of cattle. - -The vapour which rises at first in immense clouds, when the eruption -slackens, or when it gets out of the reach of the heat, condenses, and -mingled with the dust thrown up with it, forms mud, which rushes in -torrents down the mountain. These streams of mud are called alluvions, -and are very much more dreaded by the inhabitants than the lava -streams, because they are so much quicker in their movement. - -It was one of these, and not a stream of lava which enveloped the -Roman City Pompeii; and which entered the modern town of Torre del -Greco, and so raised the ground that the lower rooms of the houses were -converted into cellars, and the people were obliged to make the street -doors on what had before been the second story. - - -THE GREAT VOLCANO KIRAUEA, IN THE ISLAND OF HAWAII. - -There is a very remarkable Volcano in the Island of Hawaii, where -Captain Cook was killed. - -The crater, instead of being at the top of a mountain like those of -most other Volcanoes, is a large plain, seven miles in circumference, -sunk below the surface of the surrounding country, and walled in by -rugged cliffs more than seven hundred feet high. - -On this plain there are fifty-one conical hillocks, which are almost -constantly sending out vapour and lava, and red hot stones. The -surrounding banks consist entirely of sulphur and lava. - -The islanders, before they were taught the truths of Christianity, -believed it to be the abode of their deities, the chief of whom they -call Pelé, and to her, they say, that everything which grows near the -Volcano is sacred. When some missionaries were going to visit it, and -plucked some juicy berries from the shrubs that grew there to quench -their thirst, the native guides begged them to desist till they had -made an offering to Pelé. When they got to the edge of the crater, they -threw some of the berries in, and said, "Pelé, here are your berries, -and I am now going to eat some." They then ate fast enough, and were -willing that the missionaries should do the same. - -The following are extracts from the account of our countryman, Mr. -Stewart's visit to this terrific place. - -"I can compare the general aspect of the bottom of the crater, to -nothing that will give a livelier image of it to your mind, than to -the appearance the Otsego Lake would present, if the ice with which -it is covered in winter, were suddenly broken up by a heavy storm, -and as suddenly frozen again, while large slabs and blocks were still -toppling, and dashing, and heaping against each other, with the motion -of the waves. Just so rough and distorted was the black mass under -our feet, only a hundred-fold more terrific, independently of the -innumerable cracks, fissures, deep chasms and holes, from which the -sulphureous vapour, steam, and smoke were exhaled, with a degree of -heat that testified the near vicinity of fire. - -"At an inconsiderable distance from us, was one of the largest of the -conical craters, whose laborious action had so greatly impressed our -minds during the night, and we hastened to a nearer examination of it. -On reaching its base, we judged it to be one hundred and fifty feet -high, a huge, irregularly shapen, inverted funnel of lava, covered -with clefts, orifices, and tunnels, from which bodies of steam escaped, -while pale flames, ashes, stones, and lava, were propelled with equal -force and noise, from its ragged mouth. - -"The chattering of the islanders around our cabins, and the occasional -sound of voices in protracted conversation among our own number, -had scarcely ceased long enough to admit of sound sleep, when the -volcano again began roaring and labouring with redoubled activity. -The confusion of noises was prodigiously great. These sounds were not -fixed or confined to one place, but rolled from one end of the crater -to the other; sometimes seeming to be immediately under us, when a -sensible tremor of the ground on which we lay took place; and then -again rushing to the farthest end with incalculable velocity. The whole -air was filled with the tumult; and those most soundly asleep were -quickly roused by it to thorough wakefulness. One of our party sprang -up in his cot, exclaiming, 'We shall certainly have an eruption; such -power must burst through everything;' He had barely ceased speaking, -when a dense column of heavy black smoke was seen arising from the -crater directly in front of us; the subterranean struggle ceased, -and immediately after, flames burst from a large cone, near which we -had been in the morning, and which then appeared to have been long -inactive. Red-hot stones, cinders, and ashes, were also propelled to a -great height with immense violence; and shortly after, the molten lava -came boiling up, and flowed down the sides of the cone, and over the -surrounding scoria, in two beautiful curved streams, glittering with -indiscribable brilliance. - -"At the same time a whole lake of fire opened in a more distant part. -This could not have been less than two miles in circumference; and its -action was more horribly sublime than anything I ever imagined to -exist, even in the ideal vision of unearthly things. Its surface had -all the agitation of an ocean; billow after billow tossed its monstrous -bosom in the air, and occasionally those from different directions -burst with such violence, as in the concussion to dash the fiery spray -forty and fifty feet high. It was at once the most splendidly beautiful -and dreadfully fearful of spectacles." - - -OF THE FORMATION OF NEW ISLANDS. - -You must know that most of the volcanic mountains bear evident traces -of having been built up of matter thrown out, in the first place, -from a crack or hole in the ground, and afterwards from the _crater_ -or _cup_, which would thus soon be formed. At every eruption a new -layer of dust, and cinders, and lava, is added, and thus a mountain is -gradually produced. - -In some instances, the successive layers may be seen is the crater, -as is the case with Vesuvius, of the summit of which this would nearly -represent the section, if we could cut it in two. - -[Illustration] - -Volcanic operations can go on very nearly as well at the bottom of the -sea, as upon dry land; and if you remember what I told you before, -respecting the mode in which the currents of lava flow, you will not be -much surprised to hear that their progress is not stopped by the water, -though it may be somewhat impeded. It is certain that the streams often -travel a great way at the bottom of the sea. - -When a Volcano breaks out under the sea, if the eruption send out a -sufficient quantity of lava, and stones and dust, it gets above the -surface and makes such a Volcano as Stromboli. - -If the Volcano should afterwards become quiet, then an island is the -result, and if large enough, it may be inhabited. - -A great many of the islands of the South Sea, and some of the Greek -islands, originated in this manner; and, only two or three years ago, -an island suddenly rose up off the coast of Sicily, and was taken -possession of in due form by a British captain, in the name of the king -of England; but, as the land consisted of loose earth, and had not much -lava to bind it together, it soon sunk down, and now no trace of it is -to be seen. - - -OF THE GEYSERS OF ICELAND. - -There are many Volcanoes in Iceland, and the whole island seems to have -been the produce of Volcanic agency. I am going to describe to you one -of the most singular proofs of this. - -Geysers are springs which spout out at intervals great streams of -hot water. The name is taken from the Icelandic word, _geysa_, which -signifies, _to rage_, or, _burst forth violently_. - -[Illustration: PLATE VII. - -GEYSERS OF ICELAND] - -The Icelanders are a very simple, excellent people, and exceedingly -kind and hospitable to strangers. This is not the place for me to tell -you how much kindness I experienced among them; but if I were to do -so, you would have as high a regard for them as I have. They have in -general a considerable degree of intelligence, but I was surprised to -find that a great many of them did not know where the Geysers were, or -anything about them. - -There are many springs of the same kind in several parts of Iceland; -but those that are generally known as _the Geysers_, are near the town -of Haukadal, in the south-west part of Iceland. To these I went in -company with four other persons, and a guide. - -After a dreary ride through a wild volcanic looking country, we left -our horses in a safe place, and then, proceeding some distance on foot, -we saw clouds of steam arising over the hills before us. A little -further on we got into the plain, where the Geysers are situated, which -is full of boiling springs and holes sending out steam like the valve -of a steam-boiler. - -The great Geyser is at the top of a hillock, which seems to have been -formed in the course of years by the substances which the hot water -holds in solution, and deposits as it cools. - -At the top of this mound we found a pond of the shape of a saucer, -lined with the most curious incrustations of spar, which exactly -resembled the heads of cauliflowers. It was then about half full of the -most beautiful hot water, as clear as crystal, which was just stirred -in gentle waves by the steam that rose up from the opening at the -bottom of the basin. - -We took advantage of this tranquil state of the spring, to examine this -opening. We let down a line, with a weight at the end, to the depth -of about eighty feet, and as nearly as we could judge, it went down -perpendicularly. - -The hole was nearly round, and about nine feet in diameter, but it got -gradually wider towards the top like a funnel. The inside showed the -same kind of flinty incrustation as the hillock was composed of, worn -as smooth as glass by the forcible passage of the water. The water was -then at a temperature of two hundred degrees. - -The saucer-shaped reservoir was fifty feet across, and four feet deep. - -I ought to tell you that the waters of the Geysers have a petrifying -property, and hence the ground all around them is covered with what was -once grass, moss, and sticks, converted into stone, of which we brought -away many beautiful specimens. - -It was very late in the evening when we had completed this examination, -and fixed our tent where we intended to pass the night. The springs -still continued quiet, and you may judge how impatient we were for -something to be going on. However, as it was dark, and we were very -tired, having had a great deal of fatigue during the day, we lay down -in the tent and went to sleep. - -About midnight we were suddenly called up by one of our party, to -witness the great Geyser in its full glory. It threw up several jets, -should think of at least ninety feet high, and sent off vast clouds of -steam. There was only just light enough for us to distinguish the water -and steam; but the effect was very grand, and such as we shall never -forget, though it did not leave much behind in our minds to talk about, -as everything seemed indistinct and confused. - -The next morning, as soon as it was light, there was a beautiful -eruption of the _New Geyser_, as it is called. The column of water was -eight feet in diameter, and full sixty feet high, and the clouds of -steam were prodigious. The sun was just then rising, and the effect -of his rays through the water and stream, was exquisitely beautiful, -producing many little rainbows. When the water had sunk down, its place -was taken by a tremendous jet of spray and steam, rushing out with a -deafening roar to nearly the same height as the water. - -When we threw some large stones into the pipe, the steam instantly -carried them up to an amazing height; and in several instances, when -they went up quite perpendicularly, kept them within its influence for -some minutes, throwing them upwards several times successively, in a -very strange manner; the Geyser seemed to play with them as a boy plays -with his ball when he throws it up and catches it again and again. - -We were not yet satisfied, because we had not seen an eruption fairly -from beginning to end; so we waited some time longer. At about seven -o'clock in the morning, we heard low grumbling sounds near the great -Geyser, and the water in the basin bubbled up a little more actively. - -We then had an hour and a half of anxious expectation, during which -we kept walking round the hillock; there were then about a dozen loud -reports which made the earth tremble, and the water rose to near the -top of the basin, and became so restless that many of the waves washed -over the edge. - -A little while afterwards, the reports became as loud as the firing of -artillery; the ground shook violently under our feet; we ran down the -mound, and had hardly got upon the level ground before the water rushed -up the pipe with such thick clouds of steam, as completely to conceal -the stream. These bursts took place in this manner to the height of -about twenty feet. - -There was then a rest for a few seconds, which was followed by several -jets from forty to sixty feet high; and after them a column was thrown -up eighty feet high, and ten feet in diameter. But the last jet was the -most remarkable, for it was more than ninety feet high, and lasted for -seven minutes. - -This great effort seemed to have wearied the Geyser, for the water -instantly sunk down out of the basin into the pipe, quite out of sight; -but in a few minutes it rose again to within a foot of the edge of the -basin, and then remained stationary. - -Besides the great perpendicular jets, there were many little ones -curling and twisting about in all directions; and we were taught to be -careful of these by one of my companions getting badly scalded in the -leg, for they were very sudden and uncertain in their movements. - -When we were quite sure it was all over, we tried the temperature of -the water in the basin, and found it to be twenty degrees cooler than -before the eruption, which was probably caused by the exposure of the -water which had been thrown up into the air. - -It seems there are generally about five or six eruptions of each of -the two great Geysers, within twenty-four hours. But while we were on -the spot, many of the smaller springs spouted up much oftener, and one -bustling little thing darted out its waters in all directions, three or -four times in an hour. - -We did not see any jet from the great Geyser above one hundred feet -high; but some travellers have asserted that they are at times two or -three hundred feet in height. It would appear that the force of the -Geysers varies considerably, and in some instances is affected by the -earthquakes which often happen here; some of which seem to cripple, and -others to strengthen them. - -Some of the water of the great Geyser falls over the edge of the basin -into a deep hole in the rock below, which makes a capital warm bath, -for by the time the water reaches it, it is of the desirable coolness. -I can assure you, we enjoyed a bathe in it very much indeed. - -There are several other springs in Iceland of nearly the same -character, and the most remarkable are the Hot Springs of Reykium. -The largest of these has two openings, from one of which the water -is incessantly flowing to the height of six or eight feet; the other -opening is about ten feet distant, and is surrounded by an incrusted -brim, like that of the great Geyser. The eruptions take place from this -about fifteen times in twenty-four hours, to the height of about thirty -feet, accompanied with a great deal of steam. - -There is also a most wonderful spring in Reykium, called the Badstofa. -It flows into a great cave, from the bottom of which the water keeps on -retreating and flowing like the waves of the sea, with a deep rumbling -sound for some time before the eruption, when the water rushes up to -the height of nearly twenty feet. - -About half a mile from this place, there are some Hot Springs that rise -in the bed of a river, and force themselves quite through the cold -water which covers them. - - -THE SULPHUR MOUNTAINS AND SULPHUR SPRINGS. - -There is a wonderful place in Iceland, which I am sure you would like -to hear about. It is in the south-west part of the island nearer the -sea than the Geysers. Nearly the whole region consists of sulphur, and -hot clay, and hot dirty water, and it contains some mountains, called -the _Sulphur Mountains_, from which great quantities of sulphur are -collected by the peasants, and sent to the continent of Europe for sale. - -The vapour that is always rising from this wretched-looking country, -makes a sort of crust over the hot clay; and you will sometimes come to -a spot that appears solid, and as you go over it, your horse's hoofs -will make holes which will send out steam like little cauldrons. A -gentleman who would go over one of these on foot, got terribly scalded -by the crust breaking away under him. - -There is here a sort of hut, from the bottom of which much steam rises, -and it is used as a vapour bath. People that are affected with various -diseases, come to it from the surrounding country in considerable -numbers. - -At a little distance from this you come to the brink of a cliff, and -looking over it, you see twelve large ponds or basins of black mud, -boiling, and splashing, and raging perpetually, with large volumes -of vapour rolling off their surfaces. Beyond these some dismal -black-looking mountains make a back ground. Can you imagine any thing -more fearful to look upon? - -Besides these, there is a kind of Geyser of mud, which just resembles -the real Geysers in its action; but instead of sending up beautiful -clear water, it throws out black unsightly mud, as thick as porridge, -which is caught in a nearly round reservoir of more than one hundred -feet in diameter. It is situated near the summit of a mountain called -_Krabla_ and the reservoir seems to have been in time past a volcanic -crater. - - -HOW THE GEYSERS MAY BE CAUSED. - -Of course there cannot be hot water without some source of heat, and -there must, therefore, be a source of heat taken into consideration -in the action of the Geysers. Now, I do not wish to speak of this -here, I only wish to make you understand how it seems likely that the -eruptions of the Geysers are occasioned, supposing there was a supply -of hot water. - -[Illustration] - -This cut is intended to represent what may be a section of the -subterranean reservoir, S W, of the great Geyser, and the pipe, P, -connected with the saucer-shaped basin, B, at the top of the mound. You -see the cracks in the rock through which you must suppose hot water -constantly trickling into the reservoir. - -The space S will be constantly full of steam, and the space below, W, -will be always full of water. The water will continue to rise till it -gets to A, and it will then quite stop up the escape of the steam. - -The steam in S will then press upon the surface of the water, and -force it up the pipe P with more or less violence, according to the -supply of heat; but when enough of the steam has escaped to render the -pressure less, and the water has sunk to near I, the eruption will -cease. - -If you will take the trouble to understand this section, you will see -how reasonable it is that the Geyser should be so constructed; and I -have seen a little apparatus made of glass, which showed exactly the -same sort of operations. - -Some little variation in the shape of the reservoir and pipe, may -perhaps be needed to account for all that takes place; but the -principle of the activity being produced by the agency of steam, acting -in a space which may be enclosed by the water in its rising to a -certain height, seems to be certain and satisfactory. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -OF THE ROCKS CALLED BASALTIC. - - -In some parts of the world, there are rocks which are not stratified -and arranged like those which I described to you some time ago, but are -laid over the surfaces, and in the crevices of others in this manner:-- - -[Illustration] - -In this cut, _a_, _a_, _a_, are intended to represent the stratified -rocks, and _b_, _b_, _b_, the others, which from their position are -sometimes called _overlying rocks_, and they mostly consist of a -substance called _basalt_, which is nearly black and very hard, and -occasionally with white and coloured minerals imbedded in it. There are -two states in which it is found; in one, it occurs in masses without -any particular form, and in the other state it constitutes pillars -shaped with great accuracy and regularity. - -[Illustration: PLATE VIII. - -STAFFA.] - -The island of Staffa, one of the western islands of Scotland, and the -Giant's Causeway, on the north coast of Ireland, near Londonderry, are -remarkable instances of the latter state; and as I have seen them both, -I will tell you what sort of places they are. - - -STAFFA. - -This wonderful island was not generally known to exist, even by the -inhabitants of Scotland, till the last century, when Sir Joseph Bankes -happened to see it, and published an account of it. Since then it has -been visited by numbers, and lately a steam-boat has regularly plied to -it twice a week, from the little town of Oban, in Argyleshire. - -It was in this way that I went, and a most delightful trip we had -of it. The steam-boat left Oban in the afternoon, full of kind -light-hearted people, who seemed fully resolved to enjoy themselves. In -the evening we reached the island of Mull, where we were to spend the -night. - -The inhabitants of Tobermory, (the little capital of Mull,) anxiously -look out for the arrival of the steam-boat, for they are very poor, and -the little money which the passengers spend, is a great object to them. -On these occasions the inns are seldom large enough to accommodate all -the strangers, and then a strange scramble takes place to get lodgings -for the night. Most of our party succeeded in doing so, and the rest -remained on board the steam-boat. - -We went to see a beautiful little estate on one side of the harbour of -Tobermory, which belongs to the son of the old Laird of Coll, whom Dr. -Johnson visited. The grounds are nearly in the shape of a triangle, and -the two sides that are away from the sea, are formed by lofty rocks -with several beautiful waterfalls; and in the middle is a pretty lake. -Except the house on this estate, there are scarcely any good houses in -or near Tobermory, and the inhabitants are very ignorant and poor. Many -of them who could not speak any other English words, ran after us to -ask us for pence and tobacco. - -We started early in the morning, and passed several small islands of -curious forms, composed of basalt; one in particular, which is called -the Dutchman's cap, shaped like this. - -[Illustration] - -As we approached Staffa, on the north side, we could see scarcely -anything of the pillars. It appeared a mass of Basalt, of very -irregular shape, rising abruptly out of the sea, scantily covered with -grass on the upper surface. - -[Illustration] - -It is the south side of the island that is chiefly remarkable, of which -I will show you a picture that I made on the spot. - -It has (as you may see) exactly the appearance of a great layer of -earth swelling out at the edges, resting on a vast number of pillars -stuck close together. The colour of the pillars is nearly black, and -that of the stratum above, lightish green, yellow, and brown, from the -grass and variously coloured lichens that grow upon it. The sea is very -deep, quite close to the cliffs. - -The day I was there, was as fine as possible; not a cloud was to be -seen, and the great ocean was as calm as a mill-pond, which is not very -common in these parts, for there is mostly a considerable swell. - -The celebrated cave of Fingal, as it is called, (but why, nobody -knows,) is close to one extremity of the south side. - -[Illustration: Plate IX. - -FINGAL'S CAVE] - -It seems just as if it had been formed by cutting away the middle of -some of the pillars, since you can see that many parts of the pillars -now remaining on the roof, are placed as if they were continuations of -the stumps on which you walk at the bottom. - -We went into it in a boat, and when we were at the farther end, we got -out upon the broken pillars and surveyed everything at our leisure. - -The length of the cave is two hundred and fifty feet, the breadth about -forty, and the height above one hundred feet at the entrance, and -seventy at the inner end. - -Along the middle of the roof, is a deep cleft, or fissure, which makes -it something like a pointed arch, resembling the roof of a cathedral. -The sides of the fissure are variegated, yellow, red, brown, and white, -in consequence of water containing various substances, soaking through -from the surface above; and on each side of it, there are several rows -of the top of the broken pillars, which look quite black. - -On the sides at the bottom, the stumps form a sort of pavement like -this, which is an exact copy of a small portion of it, and will show -you the forms of the pillars; some stand higher than others; but there -is not generally sufficient difference to prevent you from walking over -them. - -[Illustration] - -Between these pavements the water is very deep, and as it flows direct -from the Atlantic Ocean without any dirty shore or shallows, it looks -very beautiful,--of a clear emerald green, showing at the bottom -the black basaltic pillars in ruins, and a very few long luxuriant -sea-weeds gracefully waving with the undulations of the water. - -The exposed surfaces of the pillars, between high and low water-marks, -are covered with the little shell-fish called _balanus_, or BARNACLE, -of colours varying from pink, which is the hue of those that are placed -deepest, to yellow and white, which are those that are least covered by -the water. - -The walls of the cave above these shells, are of a deep slate colour. -The pillars which compose them, are on the average about three feet -in diameter, and they are fitted so close together that you cannot get -a penknife in between them. If separated at certain intervals, they -break short off, and leave a remarkably level surface without the least -splinter. Between these joints they break roughly and irregularly. - -Here is a view of the inside of the cave. - -It is supposed that these wonderful pillars are formed by the cooling -of a melted mass, and that this and other basaltic spots, are the -remains of streams of lava from a volcano long ago extinct. - -In some of the lava streams of Mount Vesuvius, there has been noticed -an approach to this structure, though not quite so regular as what we -have been describing. - -You may understand in some measure how it may come about, by examining -starch, which always hardens into little columns or pillars; and if -you look at the little sketch of a portion of the pavement of the cave -which I have given you above, you will see that nearly all the pillars -have six sides, the same as the pieces of starch. - -It is remarkable what pains the basalt seems to have taken to get into -a six-sided form. I should think about two-thirds of the columns have -six sides, though sometimes one side is little more than a sharp edge -blunted, because it seems to have been prevented by its neighbour -making a similar effort to get its six sides complete. - -None of the remaining third of the pillars, have more than nine, or, of -course, less than three sides. You might look a long time before you -would find two pillars exactly alike. - -All this you will find occurring just in the same manner in starch, -except that the edges of the basalt pillars are quite even, while those -of starch are more or less waved or twisted. - -Near the side of the cave there is a little rock formed by pillars into -a pretty regular cone, which you may see in the plate. It has a very -striking appearance as you approach the island. - -Close by the rock there is a little cave, the mouth of which is formed -by bent pillars, in this manner. - -[Illustration] - -The water in this is not very deep, but it was deep enough to give one -of my companions a good ducking as he was trying to reach a shell which -one of the ladies of our party wanted to possess. - -You will also often see something like these bent pillars in starch. - - -THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY. - -On the north coast of Ireland, the Giant's Causeway is a collection of -similar pillars of rather a smaller size. They stretch far into the -sea, and at low water you may walk a long distance upon the tops of -them. - -The pillars get higher as they approach the cliff, and in the cliff -itself, just above them, is a remarkable layer of fossil wood in the -state called lignite, which closely resembles charcoal. - -At some distance from the Causeway, some of the pillars stand up by -themselves, looking just like tall chimneys. There are also some -wonderful caves in the Basaltic cliffs behind it, but none of them -consisting of pillars like the great cave of Staffa. It is called the -Giant's Causeway, because some people have fancied that it resembled -the commencement of a great pier or causeway, which some beings of -superhuman power had left unfinished. This is only a fancy for poets to -talk of; you and I are now engaged about facts. - -There are some similar formations in Iceland, of very great extent, and -in several other parts of the world; but those I have told you about, -are the most remarkable which are known to exist. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -WHY PARLEY BELIEVES THAT THERE IS A GREAT SOURCE OF HEAT WITHIN THE -GLOBE. - - -If you have attended to what I have already told you, you will -have seen that there must be a close connection between the causes -of volcanoes, earthquakes, and hot springs, (if they are not all -to be ascribed to one cause,) from their always occurring in the -neighbourhood of each other. But there is something else that you ought -to notice in reference to this connection. - -I said, that a volcanic eruption was almost always preceded by shakings -of the ground round the root of the mountain. These shakings are -sometimes so violent as to be dreadful earthquakes, and at other times -the earthquake will be at a long distance from the volcano. - -There was once a great earthquake which kept on for some days on the -north shore of South America, and then stopped quite suddenly. It was -afterwards found out, that just at the moment it stopped, a tremendous -eruption burst forth from a volcano in one of the West-India islands, -more than 150 miles off. - -You know what the safety-valve of a steam-engine is. Now it would seem -just as if volcanoes were safety-valves for the power which causes -earthquakes. - -Very well.--I am now going to tell you what people have thought -this power has been owing to. Before I do so, that you may not be -disappointed, I should tell you that we know very little on the -subject; nor shall we ever know much till somebody can get down to the -centre of the earth, unless some of the little black spirits, that -the Rosicrucians called Gnomes, and fabled to live in the middle of -the globe, should be kind enough to give us some information on the -subject. - -In the meantime, we can only guess; but we ought to guess as well as we -can, and see whether our guess is not much more likely to be true than -any of the others. - -Volcanic bands are always near the sea-shore, and it has therefore been -generally supposed that water has something to do with their action. - -If you take a mixture of sulphur and iron filings, and mix them into -a paste with water, and then bury them in the ground, after a while -they will become hot and send out a great quantity of steam. Some -people have imagined that this is the way in which volcanic activity -is produced, but no one thinks so now, and for very good reasons, for -there is nothing in the action so produced at all capable of accounting -for long continued eruptions, or for the flowing out of the lava. - -Sir Humphrey Davy found out, that nearly all kinds of salt and earth, -which had been before looked upon as simple substances, contained -certain metals united to oxygen, which, (as you should know,) is one -of the parts of water, and, in the form of gas, of the air we breathe. -If you put a piece of one of these metals into water, it is in such a -hurry to join itself to the oxygen of the water, that you set it on -fire. A little piece of _potassium_, (the metal of the salt called -_potash_, or _pearlash_,) will float for a few moments on the surface -of the water, burning with a purple flame in the prettiest manner -imaginable. - -[Illustration] - -Sir Humphrey thought he had got the true explanation of the thing. -These wonderful metals formed the basis of every substance in lava, -and supposing them to exist in the centre of the globe, it was only -necessary for water to get to them to set them on fire, and thus to -give rise to earthquakes and volcanoes. It appeared only to be required -that a crack should be made at the bottom of the sea, and the water -flow into the beds of metal underneath, and the violent action produced -would burst through the surface, and throw out streams of melted -matter, accompanied with great clouds of steam, just as takes place in -the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius and other volcanoes. - -But you would find it very difficult to think how this can account for -continual and nearly steady operations, such as have been known to -exist in the Geysers of Iceland for more than 1000 years, and in Mount -Stromboli for much longer than that, so we will try another guess. - -It has been observed in descending deep mines, that the earth gets -warmer the deeper you go. The usual mode of trying it is to dig little -holes, as you go down, in the sides and bottom of the mine, and put a -thermometer into them. A great many observations of this kind, have -been made in different parts of the world, and the greatest care has -been taken to allow for all causes of irregularity, consisting in -climate and local peculiarities. Comparing these together, it has -been determined that the temperature increases about one degree every -fifteen feet of descent. - -A similar conclusion has been drawn from the heat of the water of the -Artesian Wells. But, perhaps, you do not know what Artesian Wells are, -so I will tell you. - -They are deep borings in the earth, out of which water rises to, or -even above, the surface of the ground. Wherever you bore, if you go -deep enough you may get plenty of water, and this water is always found -to be warmer in proportion to the depth of the well in which it rises. -They are called _Artesian Wells_, from _Artois_, a town in France, -where the first was constructed. - -In a well of this kind near Rochelle, which was 316 feet deep, the -water near the surface was at a temperature of 55 degrees, and at the -bottom 60 degrees. It was afterwards sunk to the depth of 369 feet, -and the temperature at the bottom was then found to be 65 degrees. - -Do you not think it most likely that the heat continues to increase -quite as fast in proportion below the deepest point that man has gone -down to? Well, if so, at the depth of some miles it must be hot enough -to melt anything, even granite, and all kinds of stones. - -If we suppose, on this evidence, that the centre of the globe is -intensely heated, and that it gets gradually cooler towards the -surface, there is what at once will account for the hot springs, the -increasing heat in descending mines, the constant action of some -volcanoes, the occasional action of others, the streams of lava, and -the nature of all substances that are thrown out. - -It is very natural to imagine that every now and then the action of -the great heated mass inside, would crack open the crust, and the sea -wearing away its bottom in some places as it does, may have something -to do in assisting this. Thus, new volcanoes would be formed, and -earthquakes would happen where they never happened before; and over -these immense cracks there would be a volcanic band. - -Then, after a time, these cracks might be partially, or wholly, filled -up by the matter thrown into them, and the volcanoes on the surface -above may become quiet for a time. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -PARLEY TELLS SOMETHING ABOUT THE HISTORY OF MOUNT VESUVIUS. - - -I am going to relate to you the biography of a Volcano, and I hope you -will find it amusing. - -Before the time of the Roman Emperor Trajan, Mount Vesuvius had been -quiet for a great many centuries. It is known that it had had many -eruptions before then, because there are some great lava streams close -by it, on which some of the most ancient Italian cities are built. -In particular, Herculaneum, which was said to have been built by -the Demi-god Hercules, and must therefore have been of the remotest -antiquity, was built chiefly of blocks of lava, and founded upon a -vast stream of the same substance. - -And besides, there is no doubt that the land all about the -neighbourhood in the remotest times, bore evident marks of the action -of fire; for it was here that the Poets pretended that the gate of Hell -was, and close by the black and dreary-looking lake Avernus, which you -may read about in the Æneid of Virgil. This was also the place where -the Cimmerians dwelt, whom Ulysses is said to have visited, according -to Homer, on his way to the regions of the dead. - - -THE GROTTO DEL CANO. - -Near here, too, was the celebrated Grotto del Cano, the cave which used -to destroy the lives of small animals put into it, by means of the -exhalations that rose from the bottom; but as these exhalations were -heavier than the air, consisting chiefly of the gas called carbonic -acid, they did not rise much above the bottom. This is what an old -writer, the account of whose travels I am very fond of, says of it. - -"Whatsoever hath life, being thrust into the farre end, doth die in -an instant. Yet entred it may be a good way with safety; neither -heat nor cold will oppress you, nor is there any damp or vapour to -be discerned; being perspicuous to the bottome, and the sole thereof -dusty. We made triall with a dog; which we no sooner had thrust in, -but without crying, or otherwise struggling than if shot to the heart, -his tongue hung out, and his eyes setled in his head, to our no small -amazement. Forthwith drawne out, starke, and to our seeming without -shew of life, we threw him into the lake; when anon he recovered, and -swimming to the shore, ran crying away as fast as hee could, to the -not farre distant _Osteria_: where they get no small part of their -living by shewing this place unto forreiners. And it is a sport to see -how the dogs thereabout will steale away, and scud to the tops of the -mountaines, at the approach of a stranger. The _French_ King _Charles_, -the eighth of that name, who held the kingdome of _Naples_ for a -while; made triall thereof with an Asse, which immediately died. The -like befell to a foole-hardy souldier. _Peter of Toledo_ caused two -offenders to be thrust thereinto, and both expired in a moment. Nor -found those three gallants any better successe, who tempted God with -their desperate entrance. This place was not unknowne to _Pliny_, who -calleth it the Cave of _Charon_. The cause of so deadly an effect, is -said to proceede from the fervent vapours ascending at invisible pores, -so thin, so dry, and subtile, as not to be discerned: yet thickned by -the cold that enters at the mouth of the Cave, convert into moisture, -which hangs farre within on the roofe like to drops of quick-silver; -and such esteemed to bee by a number. _Carona Pighyus_, desirous to -informe himselfe in the mysteries hereof, ventured so farre in as -to touch one of those farre of shining drops, and shewed it to his -companions, who entred also, and stayed therein about a minute of an -houre: sensibly perceiving the heat to arise from their feet to their -thighs, till they did sweat at the browes without the endammaging of -their senses, who return'd, to the wonder of the guide, that thought -they had preserved themselves by enchantments. By this their experiment -it appeares that the aire is most deadly neere to the pores where -it first ascended; especially to such creatures as hold their heads -downeward, exhaling at their nostrils the dry and hote vapours. Thrust -a torch neere the bottome, and it will forthwith go out: yet advanced -higher, re-inflames, which approves the former assertion." - - -OF THE DEATH OF PLINY THE NATURALIST. - -But although there were such gloomy places in the neighbourhood, in the -reign of Trajan, less than a hundred years after the Christian Era, -Mount Vesuvius was clothed with blooming vineyards, and corn fields, -studded with villas and beautiful gardens, and with three or four rich -and populous cities near its foot. - -The height of the mountain was then much less than it is at present, -and it seems to have had a broad flat top, nearly surrounded by a ridge. - -[Illustration] - -This shape will account for the spot being chosen by the Roman rebel -Spartacus to encamp in, with his gladiators and slaves, when he put -Rome in danger. - -For some time before the first eruption on record, there were dreadful -earthquakes, of which the effects are still to be seen in the cracked -and ruined walls of Pompeii and Herculaneum. "There were great -droughts," says the historian, "and violent earthquakes, so that the -whole plain boiled and bubbled, and the hills leapt, and there were -noises under ground like thunder, and above ground like roaring; the -seas made a noise, and the Heavens resounded, and then a sudden mighty -crash was heard, as if the mountains were dashed together; great -stones were then hurled upwards, and were followed by mighty fires, -and immense smoke, so that the whole air was overshadowed, and the sun -quite hidden as in an eclipse." - -The same writer then tells us about some wonderful giants appearing to -wander about the summit of the mountain, which neither you nor I shall -be ready to believe. - -Pliny, the great naturalist, was at that time living at the town of -Misenum, and as he was a man always prying into nature, and wishing -to know the causes of things, you may suppose his curiosity was very -much excited by these strange occurrences. But he paid dearly for this -laudable curiosity, as you shall hear in the account which his nephew -has left us of the event. - -"On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired -him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. -He had just returned from taking the benefit of the sun, and after -bathing himself in cold water, and taking a slight repast, had retired -to his study. He immediately arose and went out upon an eminence, from -whence he might more distinctly view this very uncommon appearance. -It was not at that distance discernible from what mountain this cloud -issued, but it was found afterwards to ascend from Mount Vesuvius. I -cannot give a more exact description of its figure, than by comparing -it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up a great height in the form -of a trunk, which extended itself at the top into a sort of branches; -occasioned, I imagine, either by a sudden gust of air that impelled -it, the force of which decreased as it advanced upwards, or the cloud -itself being pressed back again by its own weight, expanded in this -manner: it appeared sometimes bright, and sometimes dark and spotted, -as it was more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. This -extraordinary phenomenon excited my uncle's philosophical curiosity to -take a nearer view of it. He ordered a light vessel to be got ready, -and gave me the liberty, if I thought proper, to attend him. I rather -chose to continue my studies; for, as it happened, he had given me an -employment of that kind. As he was coming out of the house, he received -a note from Rectina, the wife of Bassus, who was in the utmost alarm at -the imminent danger which threatened her; for her villa being situated -at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, there was no way to escape but by sea: -she earnestly entreated him, therefore, to come to her assistance. -He accordingly changed his first design, and what he began with a -philosophical, he pursued with an heroical turn of mind. He ordered the -gallies to put to sea, and went himself on board with the intention of -assisting not only Rectina, but several others; for the villas stand -extremely thick upon that beautiful coast. When hastening to the place -from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered his direct -course to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and presence -of mind, as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the -motion and figure of that dreadful scene. He was now so nigh the -mountain, that the cinders, which grew thicker and hotter the nearer -he approached, fell into the ships, together with pumice-stones, and -black pieces of burning rock: they were likewise in danger, not only of -being aground by the sudden retreat of the sea, but also from the vast -fragments which rolled down from the mountain, and obstructed all the -shore. Here he stopped to consider whether he should return back again; -to which the pilot advising him, 'Fortune,' said he, 'befriends the -brave; carry me to Pomponianus.'" - -His nephew then goes on to relate that he joined his friend who was in -another vessel, and went on shore, where he took a bath and sat down -to supper, not seeming to be in the least alarmed, when everybody -about him was in the greatest consternation. He then went to sleep so -soundly, that he was heard to snore. The ashes fell so thick in the -court before his apartment, that it was getting nearly impassable, and -his servants thought proper to awaken him. The walls of the houses -began to rock, and he and his friends then resolved to go out into the -fields, lest the stones and bricks should fall upon them. They tied -pillows upon their heads, and went out with torches, for though it was -daytime, the clouds of steam and ashes made it quite dark. They went -down to the sea, and found it in violent commotion. Either a sudden -gust of wind then brought the effluvia of the volcano towards them, or -else a little stream of deadly vapour burst out from a crack in the -ground, which dispersed the rest of the company. But Pliny, who was a -fat asthmatic old man, had laid down upon the ground to watch what was -going on. He attempted to rise, but almost before he had got on his -feet, he fell down dead. - -"As soon as it was light again," says his nephew, "which was not till -the third day after this melancholy accident, his body was found -entire, and without any marks of violence upon it, exactly in the same -posture that he fell." - -It was in the same eruption that the two great cities, Herculaneum and -Pompeii were overwhelmed by substances thrown out by the volcano. It -does not appear that a single stream of lava flowed out till many years -afterwards. - -There were several great eruptions between this time and the year 1306, -and then the volcano was very nearly quiet for more than 300 years. -During this time the volcanic power broke out in another place called -Puzzuoli, at several miles distance. After a succession of violent -eruptions, the earth was cleft open, and a hill, which is now called -the Monte Nuovo, was thrown up in the space of a single night, which is -440 feet high, and a mile and a half in circumference. - -At the end of this period Vesuvius was richly covered with vegetation, -even within the crater. But since the year 1650, there has not been ten -years pass without an eruption. - -[Illustration] - -The form of the mountain has quite changed, and a little mountain has -grown up out of the old broad topped one, as you may see in the above -picture. - - -HERCULANEUM AND POMPEII. - -These cities which were of great extent and importance, seem to have -been almost forgotten during more than 1600 years. They are not often -mentioned in Roman history, and, strange to say, the Latin writers who -describe the eruption of Vesuvius, by which they must have been buried, -have said nothing about them, except a very vague allusion or two, -which would hardly have attracted any notice, if what I am going to -tell you of, had not happened. - -In the year 1713, as some people were sinking a well, they discovered -two statues, one of Hercules, and the other of Cleopatra; and -continuing to dig in several directions, they found they had got into a -Roman theatre, and after a while they discovered that this Theatre was -that of the City of Herculaneum. But in consequence of the hardness of -the ground, and the great depth of the city under the surface, which -is one hundred feet, they have only been able to clear out a very few -buildings, and those cannot be seen except by torchlight, so that very -little is known about it. - -I cannot tell you exactly how the ruins of Pompeii were first -discovered to be the remains of a city. It appears that an architect, -who was employed to make a subterranean canal to convey water to the -town of Torre dell'Annunziata, nearly 300 years ago, met with some -fragments of buildings; and about eighty years afterwards, enough was -seen to convince the discoverers that the ruins were extensive. In the -year 1755, a regular plan of excavation was commenced, and nearly the -whole city is now exposed to the light of day. - -The situation of Pompeii is considerably further from the crater of -Vesuvius than that of Herculaneum, and to that circumstance is owing -the superiority of its preservation, and the greater moveableness of -the substances which covered it. It is probable that both cities were -originally assailed by alluvions, or streams of mud, such as I told -you of some time ago, as well as by showers of cinders and stones. But -while Pompeii was only fourteen or fifteen feet below the surface, -and never had anything besides cinders and earth above it, several -streams of lava flowed over Herculaneum, with layers of the different -substances, which the volcano throws into the air, between them, so as -to raise the surface one hundred feet. - -[Illustration] - -Pompeii was three miles in circumference, and was a sea-port town, -though it is now a full mile from the sea. This is known, because the -steps which used to lead down from the quay, for the convenience of -passengers going into boats, are still remaining, and so are some large -metal rings which were intended for cables to be fastened to. - -There are several inscriptions in both cities commemorating the great -injuries done by an earthquake which happened in the reign of the -Emperor Nero, sixteen years before they were destroyed. There are also -great cracks to be seen in some of the walls, testifying of the same -event. This was one of the efforts of the volcanic power to get free -before Vesuvius became the safety-valve. - -It is very evident that there was ample warning of the catastrophe -before it happened, and that most of the people had time to escape, -for the number of skeletons found has been but small. In the barracks, -there were the skeletons of two soldiers chained in the stocks. There -were seventeen persons found in the cellar of a house just out of the -town, who seem to have fled there for safety, and the deluge of mud -then seems to have flowed in upon them, for their bones were found -in hardened mud. One of the number was a woman, with an infant in -her arms, and the impression of her form in the mud, was wonderfully -perfect, though there was nothing left of her but the bones. She seems -to have been the mistress of the house, and a person of consequence, -since she had a chain of gold about her neck, and rich rings on her -fingers. - -In these instances, (and there are related several others similar,) the -destruction of the persons seems to be accounted for by the peculiar -circumstances in which they were placed. The soldiers, poor fellows, -would, doubtless, have gone off with their companions, if they had not -been in the stocks; and the family of seventeen might have escaped if -they had fled into the open country, instead of into their cellar. - -The warning does not however seem to have been very long before the -sad event, perhaps only about an hour. There have recently been found -three skeletons, which seem to have belonged to a father, mother, -and daughter, (the latter of whom was decorated with pearl-rings and -ear-rings,) who were in the act of rushing out of their house. And in -one of the squares of the city, a traveller saw "a new altar of white -marble, exquisitely beautiful, and apparently just out of the hands of -the sculptor, which had been erected there; an enclosure was building -all round; the mortar, just dashed against the side of the wall, was -but half spread out; you saw the long sliding stroke of the trowel -about to return and obliterate its own track--but it never did return: -the hand of the workman was suddenly arrested, and, after the lapse of -1800 years, the whole looks so fresh and new, that you would almost -say the mason was only gone to his dinner, and about to come back -immediately to smooth the roughness." - -It is not unlikely that in the early part of the eruption, the ashes -and cinders which the volcano threw out, fell in showers on the -cities, and that the walls were shaken by the subterranean movements, -so that most of the inhabitants thought themselves less in danger in -the open fields, like the people of Misenum, who went into the fields -with pillows tied on their heads, as described by Pliny the younger, in -the passage I quoted just now. Some few others, less afraid of their -houses tumbling down about their ears, than of the bombs and cinders, -betook themselves to their cellars, and such places as they thought -safest. - -I shall now tell you a little of what has been discovered relating to -the ancient state of the City. - -Its walls were about three miles in circumference; the streets were -generally narrow, and paved with great flags of lava, which are -furrowed by very deep ruts made by the wheels of the carriages that -once passed busily along them. When the great hardness of the paving -material is considered, this circumstance is very remarkable, and shows -that the flags must have been laid down for a very long period, for -the like is not to be seen in the streets of the most ancient City in -Europe. - -[Illustration: PLATE X. - -FORUM OF POMPEII.] - -The Forum was a very elegant building, and if you look in the plate, -you will see a correct representation of what remains of it. The Forums -of ancient cities were not mere marketplaces, although provisions -and other commodities were offered in them for sale; but they also -contained places fitted for meetings of the people, and other public -uses. You will thus understand how it was that a place not larger than -Pompeii had such an extensive Forum. - -The names of the owners over the door of each house are still to be -seen, and some of them are perfectly legible; and the colours of the -paintings on the walls of the houses, are as fresh as if they had -been painted yesterday. Some books have been found, but they are less -perfect than those in Herculaneum, where a whole library has been -discovered. - -The wood of the houses in Herculaneum is astonishingly perfect if -you just scrape off the surface, and some linen has been discovered, -of which the texture could be distinctly seen. There were also some -vessels full of almonds, chesnuts, and walnuts, in a fruiterer's shop, -which preserved their form entire. A baker lived near neighbour to this -fruiterer, and in his shop was a loaf with his stamp upon it, "ELERIS -Q. CRANI RISER." Not far off was an apothecary's shop, in which was a -box of pills, and a little roll of some kind of medicine ready to be -cut into pills, with a jar of herbs and other medicines. Another shop -contained some sauces and olives, which were quite moist. These curious -relics have been sealed up in glass, and placed in the Museum of Naples. - -There is a house in one of the streets of Pompeii, on one of the walls -of which there has been scratched with some sharp-pointed instrument, a -rude device like this: - -[Illustration] - -The letters in the corner, are, "_Campani victoria una cum Nucerinis -peristis_." _Campanians, you perished in the victory along with the -Nucerians._ This was a jest of some merry fellow making fun of the -inhabitants of Nuceria, a neighbouring city, and of some other parts -of Campania, over whom they had gained a victory in a squabble. We are -told that the Nucerians, when they were dead beaten, went like cowards -to the Emperor Nero, and laid their case before him. He decided in -their favour, and punished the Pompeians in what may seem a strange -way to you,--he forbade them to have any amusements in their theatre -for ten years. However, from what we know of the general disposition -and habits of the ancient Greeks and Romans, this was a very severe -punishment to them. From the scarcity of books, arising from their -being copied by hand, instead of being printed, but few of them could -spend their leisure time in reading, as so many of us do now; and in -consequence of this, the theatre was to them at once the principal -source of literary improvement and of amusement. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: PLATE XI. - -FALLS OF NIAGARA] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -PARLEY DESCRIBES THE FALLS OF NIAGARA. - - -The river Niagara runs out of Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, and you may -see the direction it takes if you look in the map of North America. You -may likewise observe that Lake Erie is connected with three other vast -Lakes, and as its level is lower than theirs, the whole of their waters -pass through it into the Niagara. - -Nearly half way between the Lakes Erie and Ontario, where the river is -about three quarters of a mile wide, it tumbles over a precipice of -160 feet in height. I shall try to describe to you what I saw when I -visited this place; but I am quite certain I shall not be able to do -justice to the scene. You must form your conceptions of it rather from -the bare facts I tell you respecting the mass of water and the height -of the rocky ledge over which it falls. - -As we travelled along from the town of Waterloo on a level road on the -west bank, we saw the river gradually become wider till it was cut into -two streams by a long narrow island some miles in length. The streams -after passing the island, unite into one again, which continues its -course as before. - -There is a sullen unpretending majesty about this part of the river, as -if it did not think it worth while to remind the traveller of the vast -distance which its mighty waters have come, or of the stupendous scene -to which they are travelling onward. There is nothing remarkable in its -appearance, and that very circumstance, coupled with what we knew and -what we shortly expected to see, made us full of intense feeling; and -often and often did we put our ears to the ground to hear whether the -sound of the falls could reach us, and then remount and impatiently -spur on our horses. - -They say that the roar of the falls may be heard fifteen miles off when -the wind is favourable. But the day we went, there was hardly any wind, -and we were within six miles of the spot before we heard the sound. - -At the distance of three miles the waters seemed fretful and -discontented, as they approached what are called the rapids; we -could see afar off "a silver cloud rising slowly into the sky--the -everlasting incense of the waters," consisting of vapour, or rather -fine spray, which is dashed out by the violence of the fall; and the -roar seemed deeper and more tumultuous. - -Within half a mile the rapids commence in good earnest. A rapid means -the descent of a river down an inclined bed less sudden than a fall. -The descent here in half a mile, is fifty feet. The bed is rocky, and -the waters in rushing over it foam, and eddy, and tear along in all -directions in which they can possibly approach the awful precipice. The -unity of the stream is broken by thousands of rocks and stones, and -every part of its broad surface seems earnestly taken up with driving -forward to the falls. - -After we had enjoyed this scene awhile, we turned into the road again, -and lost sight of the river till we reached a public-house, where we -took refreshment and put up our horses. - -The precipice which here breaks the course of the river, is divided -into three parts by two large islands, and thus are formed three -distinct falls. One of these is called the _Great_, or _Horse Shoe -Fall_, from its peculiar shape, which you will see represented in the -picture. This is by far the most extensive waterfall in the world, and -is considered to be above a quarter of a mile in length. Then comes an -island a thousand feet in width, called Goat Island, which has a great -deal of wood growing on it. After that the Second Fall, not more than -twenty feet in width, then an island considerably smaller than the -first; and lastly, Fort Scloper Fall, about a thousand feet wide, which -joins the opposite bank of the river. - -[Illustration] - -The quantity of water which descends every minute in the three falls, -has been estimated to be about 700,000 tons. - -Well, a path through the garden of the Inn at which we were, led us -down a steep and thickly wooded bank, to a complete shelf of rock, -about a foot in thickness, called the Table Rock, which stands out -over the river.[A] Since I was there this piece of rock has broken away -and fallen into the stream. I was not at all surprised when I heard -this intelligence, for I can assure you that though I am no coward, it -did not seem very secure when I was standing on it, and if I had not -been quite taken up with what I was looking at, I should not have staid -there long. Here the whole scene on a sudden broke upon us. We were on -a level with the top of the precipice, with the Horse Shoe Fall just -opposite, and to our left, the Second, and Fort Scloper Falls. - -[Footnote A: The print is copied by the kind permission of Messrs. -Ackermann, from one of the elegant series of engravings of the Falls of -Niagara, published by them.] - -In spite of the loud roar and the violent rushing of the waters, the -scene altogether produced on us feelings of deep tranquillity and -beauty. The portion of the river that falls over the Horse Shoe Fall, -comes on in such an unbroken mass, as if nothing dared to oppose the -progress of a single drop of its water. Then the deep transparent green -of the middle stream, showing at a little depth beneath its surface, -shreds of milky foam, the beautiful cloud of fine spray ever decorated -with a rich rainbow when the sun shines, and the thick woods of Goat -Island, (the island that limits the Horse Shoe Fall,) are in such -lovely harmony. Altogether, I should say that the scene from the Table -Rock, is more remarkable for its beauty than its grandeur, though its -grandeur is quite equal to that of anything I ever looked upon in my -life. - -We got down to the bottom of the falls by means of some rough steps -which have been cut in the rock. As we stood on some large fragments -which have fallen down from the cliff above, the roar fell with -overpowering heaviness upon our ears, the fall was nearly hid from our -eyes by the spray, and the river rushed past our feet in a terrible -tumult of white foam. By getting along on the stones under the cliff, -we went in under the fall so as actually to be between the rock and -the descending sheet of water. Your imagination must tell you better -than I can, the character of what we then saw by the broken light that -made its way through the descending mass of waters. We stopped there, -overpowered by indescribable feelings, till we got wet through by the -spray, and then went back to the inn, stored with recollections, which -will be a feast for us as long as we live. - -A traveller who visited the Falls in winter, adds some particulars -which will be interesting to you. - -"At the time of my visit," says he, "the wind drove the floating ice -out of Lake Erie, with the drift wood of its tributary rivers, and -these were constantly precipitated over the Falls, but we were not able -to discover any vestiges of them in the eddies below. Immediately in -front of the sheet of falling water, on the American side, there was -also an enormous bank of snow, of nearly a hundred feet in height, -which the power of the sun had not been fierce enough to dissolve, and -which, by giving an Icelandic character to the landscape, produced a -fine effect. It appeared to me to owe its accumulation to the fallen -particles of frozen spray. - -"What has been said by Goldsmith, and repeated by others, respecting -the destructive influence of the rapids above, to ducks and other -water-fowl, is only an effect of the imagination. So far from being the -case, the wild duck is often seen to swim down the rapid to the brink -of the Falls, and then fly out, and repeat the descent, seeming to take -a delight in the exercise. Neither are small land-birds affected on -flying over the Falls, in the manner that has been stated. I observed -the blue bird and the wren, which had already made their annual visit -to the banks of the Niagara, frequently fly within one or two feet of -the brink, apparently delighted with the gift of their wings, which -enabled them to sport over such frightful precipices, without danger." - - - - - PART II. - - WONDERS OF THE SEA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -PARLEY TELLS ABOUT THE FROZEN OCEAN. - - -Your old friend Peter loves to talk about the sea. Ever since he was -a child, he loved everything belonging to the sea, and when he was -a young man he went many long voyages, and met with many strange -adventures, on the sea. Perhaps he did not find it quite so delightful -to be shut up in the narrow compass of a ship, during long voyages, -as he dreamt he should in his childhood. But he does not now regret -whatever labours or sufferings he may have endured, for the pleasure he -finds in telling you of them. - -But I do not intend here to spin you a yarn (as the sailors say) about -myself, but merely to describe to you some of the wonderful things I -have seen during my voyages, that you may love and admire them. - -You have never seen the sea frozen over in the same manner as you have -seen ponds and rivers in winter. The waters of the sea, everywhere, -contain a large portion of salt, as you know from their taste, and -this prevents them from freezing, except where it is very cold. It is -only near the poles of the earth that the ocean freezes, and there are -large masses of ice, both at the north and south poles, which are never -thawed, but stand as stedfast as the everlasting hills of granite. - -Icebergs are large bodies of ice filling the valleys between the high -mountains in northern latitudes. Sometimes they get loosened from the -places where they were formed, by parts of them thawing, in seasons -which are less cold than usual, and then rush down towards the sea, -where they float about in all manner of fantastic and majestic forms. - -[Illustration: _Icebergs._] - -These icebergs are the creation of ages, and annually increase by the -falling of snows, and of rain, which instantly freezes, and more than -repairs the loss occasioned by the heat of the sun. - -I must tell you a little about the way in which cold converts water -into ice. - -Everything in nature is expanded or increased in bulk by heat. You -may see in a thermometer how the quick-silver or the coloured spirit -rises in the tube, because it expands when the instrument is in a -warm place, and how it sinks in a cold place. It is just the same with -solids and gases. This would seem to be a universal law of nature, -if it were not for the _single_ exception of water at the moment of -its freezing. If water is cooled down to the freezing point, it will -gradually diminish in bulk, but at the moment it turns into ice, it -seems to spring outward, and increases considerably. In this way -bottles are broken when the water in them freezes; and rocks are often -split open in the same manner when the cracks in them contain water. - -You have seen that ice does not sink in water, but floats upon the -surface; this takes place, because from the circumstance which I have -told you, a certain quantity of ice by weight, occupies more space than -the same quantity of water. Now it is worth while for you to see how -wisely this is arranged, as it respects our own climate and country; -for if ice were to sink to the bottom, the lakes, and rivers, and -ponds, would become solid masses of ice during winter, which the sun's -rays would never thoroughly thaw in summer, because, after the surface -had been thawed, the rays would have to pass through the water to get -at the ice at the bottom, and thus our climate would be rendered very -much colder than it is at present, and perhaps the springs would not -circulate, so that we should often suffer from scarcity of water. - -But when the salt water freezes, the ice is very porous, almost like a -honeycomb, so that it is much lighter than frozen fresh water, and is -very buoyant upon the sea, and stands out boldly to a great height, as -is represented in the cut of the Icebergs. - -I will tell you of a perilous situation in which I was placed in my -younger days, when I went a voyage to Greenland in a whale ship. It was -at the end of the fishing season, and our ship was the last but one -of the oil traders left in those seas; we had been very unsuccessful, -having only taken five small whales, and we were anxious to amend our -ill luck by tarrying after all the other ships had sailed, in hopes -of better success. We were gently sailing about in search of whales -amidst the broken ice when there suddenly arose a rather brisk breeze, -at which time our ship was situated between two icebergs,--one of them -very high and resembling a lofty mountain, and the other considerably -smaller. - -Well, at the time the breeze sprung up, the large iceberg was to the -windward of us, that is, on that side from whence the wind blew, and -having a very large surface which caught the wind, it came sailing -towards us very fast. - -The vast bulk of this iceberg sheltered the smaller one, which was -to the leeward of us, so that it did not move in the least, and we -who were between the two, were completely becalmed. The ship was not -advancing a knot in an hour, and we could do nothing whatever to help -ourselves. We were in the greatest dismay, and could only consider -the way in which we should meet our entire destruction. The larger -mountain of ice continued to bear down upon us, and in a few minutes -our vessel was crushed between it and the smaller one, as if it had -been put in a huge smith's vice. - -Fortunately, however, for us, the two icebergs clung together, the -greater one impelling the lesser one forward, and we thus had time to -get out of the ship all our sea-chests, a large quantity of cordage, -nearly all our provisions, and everything portable; but the smaller -iceberg soon shifted round the large one and let our ship loose, which -instantly sank, and we, being on the small iceberg, were left floating -on the ocean with despair staring us in the face. Our despair, however, -was soon put to flight, for we perceived a ship at a short distance, to -which we made signal, and they came to our assistance. - -But, now I come to a part of the event which I grieve to record.--The -captain and crew of the vessel which came to our succour, seeing that -we had no other alternative, thought they could make an easy prey of -us, and before they would consent to save us, required that we should -give up to them all the things which we had been enabled to rescue -from our wrecked ship!--In such circumstances you need not ask what -we did,--life is sweet, it is said, and the pitiless prospect of the -frozen regions around us, sharpened our appetite for the enjoyment of -it, and we surrendered all but the clothes in which we stood. - -Shall I tell you the place where these savages came from? No. I will -only tell you that it lies in about 56 degrees North latitude, by 4-1/2 -West longitude; you may, if you please, find its name by looking in the -map. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE STORY OF A LONG JOURNEY OVER THE ICE. - - -[Illustration] - -The Esquimaux live in the most northern parts of America, where there -is hardly anything but ice and snow to be seen from year's end to -year's end. They build their houses of snow, and make their longest -journeys in sledges upon ice along the sea-shore. - -You, who have been used to a very different kind of life, may wonder -how they can enjoy themselves, or even endure existence in such -inhospitable regions. But I can assure you they love their native -country so much, that they could by no means be happy out of it; and -their pleasures are real pleasures, though they would not be pleasures -to you. And thus you may learn that God wishes everybody to be happy, -and enables them to be so if they choose to act according to the light -which He has given them, and not be ever struggling for something which -they _cannot_, and therefore _ought_ not, to possess. - -And not only do the natives of these frozen countries endure perpetual -frost and snow, but good men have chosen to go and live among them for -the purpose of teaching the natives the doctrines of Christianity. -I shall relate to you a most interesting narrative of some of these -men who were Moravians, and it will give you a better notion of the -character of these parts of the world, and of the sort of life men -lead in them, than anything I could you of my own, for the story is -extremely well told. - -"Brother Samuel Liebisch was entrusted with the general care of the -brethren's missions on the coast of Labrador, and the duties of his -office required a visit to Okkak, the most northern of our settlements, -and about one hundred and fifty English miles distant from Nain, the -place where he resided. Brother William Turner being appointed to -accompany him, they left Nain on March the 11th, 1782, early in the -morning, with very clear weather, the stars shining with uncommon -lustre. The sledge was driven by the baptized Esquimaux Mark, and -another sledge with Esquimaux joined company. - -"An Esquimaux sledge is drawn by a species of dogs, not unlike a wolf -in shape. Like them, they never bark, but howl disagreeably. They -are kept by the Esquimaux in greater or larger packs or teams, in -proportion to the affluence of the master. They quietly submit to be -harnessed for their work, and are treated with little mercy by the -heathen Esquimaux, who make them do hard duty for the small quantity -of food they allow them. This chiefly consists in offal, old skins, -entrails, such parts of whale-flesh as are unfit for other use, rotten -whale-fins, &c., and if they are not provided with this kind of dogs' -meat, they leave them to go and seek dead fish or muscles upon the -beach. - -[Illustration] - -"When pinched with hunger they will swallow almost anything, and on -a journey it is necessary to secure the harness within the snow-house -over night, lest by devouring it, they should render it impossible -to proceed in the morning. When the travellers arrive at their -night-quarters, and the dogs are unharnessed, they are left to burrow -in the snow, where they please, and in the morning are sure to come -at their driver's call, when they receive some food. Their strength -and speed, even with an hungry stomach, is astonishing. In fastening -them to the sledge, care is taken not to let them go abreast. They are -tied by separate thongs, of unequal lengths, to an horizontal bar on -the fore-part of the sledge; an old knowing one leads the way, running -ten or twenty paces ahead, directed by the driver's whip, which is of -great length, and can be well managed only by an Esquimaux. The other -dogs follow like a flock of sheep. If one of them receives a lash, he -generally bites his neighbour, and the bite goes round. - -[Illustration: PLATE XII. - -ESCAPE ON THE ICE] - -"To return to our travellers: the two sledges contained five men, one -woman, and a child. All were in good spirits, and appearances being -much in their favour, they hoped to reach Okkak in safety in two or -three days. The tract over the frozen sea was in the best possible -order, and they went with ease at the rate of six or seven miles an -hour. After they had passed the islands in the bay of Nain, they kept -at a considerable distance from the coast, both to gain the smoothest -part of the ice, and to weather the high rocky promontory of Kiglapeit. - -[Illustration] - -"About eight o'clock they met a sledge with Esquimaux turning in from -the sea. After the usual salutation, the Esquimaux alighting, held -some conversation, as is their general practice, the result of which -was, that some hints were thrown out by the strange Esquimaux, that it -might be better to return. However, as the missionaries saw no reason -whatever for it, and only suspected that the Esquimaux wished to enjoy -the company of their friends a little longer, they proceeded. - -"After some time their own Esquimaux hinted that there was a ground -swell under the ice. It was then hardly perceptible, except on lying -down and applying the ear close to the ice, when a hollow disagreeable -grating and roaring noise was heard, as if ascending from the abyss. -The weather remained clear, except towards the east, where a bank of -light clouds appeared, interspersed with some dark streaks. But the -wind being strong from the North-west, nothing less than a sudden -change of weather was expected. - -"The sun had now reached its height, and there was as yet little or -no alteration in the appearance of the sky. But the motion of the sea -under the ice had grown more perceptible, so as rather to alarm the -travellers, and they began to think it prudent to keep closer to the -shore. The ice had cracks and large fissures in many places, some -of which formed chasms of one or two feet wide; but as they are not -uncommon even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap over them, -the sledge following without danger, they are only terrible to new -comers. - -"As soon as the sun declined towards the west, the wind increased and -rose to a storm, the bank of clouds from the east began to ascend, and -the dark streaks to put themselves in motion against the wind. The snow -was violently driven about by partial whirlwinds, both on the ice, and -from off the peaks of the high mountains and filled the air. At the -same time the ground swell had increased so much, that its effect upon -the ice became very extraordinary and alarming. The sledges, instead -of gliding along smoothly upon an even surface, sometimes ran with -violence after the dogs, and shortly after seemed with difficulty to -ascend the rising hill, for the elasticity of so vast a body of ice, of -many leagues square, supported by a troubled sea, though in some places -three or four yards in thickness, would, in some degree, occasion an -undulatory motion not unlike that of a sheet of paper accommodating -itself to the surface of a rippling stream. Noises were now likewise -distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, owing -to the bursting of the ice at some distance. - -"The Esquimaux therefore drove with all haste towards the shore, -intending to take up their night-quarters on the south side of the -Nivak. But as it plainly appeared that the ice would break and disperse -in the open sea, Mark advised to push forward to the north of the -Nivak, from whence he hoped the track to Okkak might still remain -entire. - -"To this proposal the company agreed, but when the sledges approached -the coast, the prospect before them was truly terrific. The ice -having broken loose from the rocks, was forced up and down, grinding -and breaking into a thousand pieces against the precipices, with a -tremendous noise, which added to the raging of the wind, and the snow -driving about in the air, deprived the travellers almost of the power -of hearing and seeing anything distinctly. - -"To make the land at any risk, was now the only hope left, but it was -with the utmost difficulty the frightened dogs could be forced forward, -the whole body of ice sinking frequently below the surface of the -rocks, then rising above it. As the only moment to land was that, when -it gained the level of the coast, the attempt was extremely nice and -hazardous. However, by God's mercy, it succeeded; both sledges gained -the shore, and were drawn up the beach with much difficulty. - -"The travellers had hardly time to reflect with gratitude to God on -their safety, when that part of the ice from which they had just now -made good their landing burst asunder, and the water forcing itself -from below, covered and precipitated it into the sea. In an instant, -as if by a signal given, the whole mass of ice, extending for several -miles from the coast, and as far as the eye could reach, began to burst -and be overwhelmed by the immense waves towering above. - -"The sight was tremendous and awfully grand; the large fields of ice, -raising themselves out of the water, striking against each other, and -plunging into the deep with a violence not to be described, and a noise -like the discharge of innumerable batteries of heavy guns. The darkness -of the night, the roaring of the wind and sea, and the dashing of the -waves and ice against the rocks, filled the travellers with sensations -of awe and horror, so as almost to deprive them of the power of -utterance. They stood overwhelmed with astonishment at their miraculous -escape, and even the heathen Esquimaux expressed gratitude to God for -their deliverance. - -"The Esquimaux now began to build a snow-house, about thirty paces from -the beach; but before they had finished their work, the waves reached -the place where the sledges were secured, and they were with difficulty -saved from being washed into the sea. - -[Illustration] - -"About nine o'clock all of them crept into the snow-house, thanking -God for this place of refuge; for the wind was piercingly cold and so -violent, that it required great strength to be able to stand against it. - -"Before they entered this habitation, they could not help once more -turning to the sea, which was now free from ice, and beheld with -horror, mingled with gratitude, the enormous waves, driving furiously -before the wind, like huge castles, and approaching the shore, where -with dreadful noise, they dashed against the rocks, foaming and filling -the air with the spray. The whole company now got their supper, and -having sung an evening hymn in the Esquimaux language, lay down to rest -about ten o'clock. They lay so close, that if any one stirred, his -neighbours were roused by it. - -"The Esquimaux were soon fast asleep, but brother Liebisch could not -get any rest, partly on account of the dreadful roaring of the wind and -sea, and partly owing to a sore throat, which gave him great pain. Both -missionaries were also much engaged in their minds in contemplating -the dangerous situations into which they had been brought, and amidst -all thankfulness for their great deliverance from immediate death, -could not but cry unto their Heavenly Father for his help in this time -of need. - -"The wakefulness of the missionaries proved the deliverance of the -whole party from sudden destruction. About two o'clock in the morning, -brother Liebisch perceived some salt water to drop from the roof of the -snow-house upon his lips. Though rather alarmed on tasting the salt, -which could not proceed from a common spray, he kept quiet, till the -same dropping being more frequently repeated, just as he was about to -give the alarm, on a sudden a tremendous surf broke close to the house, -discharging a quantity of water into it; a second soon followed, and -carried away the slab of snow placed as a door before the entrance. The -missionaries immediately called aloud to the sleeping Esquimaux, to -rise and quit the place. They jumped up in an instant, one of them with -a large knife cut a passage through the side of the house, and each -seizing some part of the baggage, it was thrown out upon a higher part -of the beach, brother Turner assisting the Esquimaux. Brother Liebisch -and the woman and child fled to a neighbouring eminence. The latter -were wrapt up by the Esquimaux in a large skin, and the former took -shelter behind a rock, for it was impossible to stand against the wind, -snow, and sleet. Scarcely had the company retreated to the eminence -when an enormous wave carried away the whole house, but nothing of -consequence was lost." - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE JOURNEY OVER THE ICE CONTINUED. - - -"They now found themselves a second time delivered from the most -imminent danger of death; but the remaining part of the night, -before the Esquimaux could seek and find another more safe place -for a snow-house, were hours of great trial to mind and body, and -filled every one with painful reflections. Before the day dawned, the -Esquimaux cut a hole into a large drift of snow, to screen the woman -and child, and the two missionaries. - -"Brother Liebisch, however, could not bear the closeness of the air, -and was obliged to sit down at the entrance, where the Esquimaux -covered him with skins, to keep him warm, as the pain in his throat was -very great. - -"As soon as it was light, they built another snow-house, and miserable -as such an accommodation is at all times, they were glad and thankful -to creep into it. It was about eight feet square and six or seven feet -high. They now congratulated each other on their deliverance, but found -themselves in a very bad plight. - -"The missionaries had taken but a small stock of provisions with them, -merely sufficient for the short journey to Okkak. Joel, his wife and -child, and Kassigiak, the sorcerer, had nothing at all. They were -obliged, therefore, to divide the small stock into daily portions, -especially as there appeared no hopes of soon quitting this place and -reaching any dwellings. Only two ways were left for this purpose, -either to attempt the land passage across the wild and unfrequented -mountain Kiglapeit, or wait for a new ice track over the sea, which it -might require much time to form; they therefore resolved to serve out -no more than a biscuit and a half per day. - -"But as this would not by any means satisfy an Esquimaux's stomach, the -missionaries offered to give one of their dogs to be killed for them, -on condition, that in case distress obliged them to resort again to -that expedient, the next dog killed should be one of the Esquimaux's -team. They replied that they should be glad of it, if they had a kettle -to boil the flesh in, but as that was not the case, they must even -suffer hunger, for they could not, even now, eat dogs' flesh in its raw -state. The missionaries now remained in the snow-house, and every day -endeavoured to boil so much water over their lamp, as might serve for -two dishes of coffee a-piece. Through mercy, they were preserved in -good health, and brother Liebisch quite unexpectedly recovered on the -first day of his sore throat. The Esquimaux also kept up their spirits, -and even the rough heathen Kassigiak declared, that it was proper to -be thankful that they were still alive, adding, that if they had -remained a very little longer upon the ice yesterday, all their bones -would have been broken to pieces in a short time. He had, however, -his heels frozen, and suffered considerable pain. In the evening, the -missionaries sung an hymn with the Esquimaux, and continued to do it -every morning and evening. God was present with them, and comforted -their hearts by his peace. - -"Towards noon of the thirteenth, the weather cleared up and the sea -was seen, as far as the eye could reach, quite freed from ice. Mark -and Joel went up the hills to reconnoitre, and returned with the -disagreeable news that not a morsel of ice was to be seen even from -thence, in any direction, and that it had even been forced away from -the coast at Nuasornak. They were, therefore, of opinion, that we could -do nothing but force our way across the mountain Kiglapeit. - -"To-day Kassigiak complained much of hunger, probably to obtain from -the missionaries a larger portion than the common allowance. They -represented to him, that they had no more themselves, and reproved him -for his impatience. Whenever the victuals were distributed, he always -swallowed his portion very greedily, and put out his hand for what he -saw the missionaries had left, but was easily kept from any further -attempt by serious reproof. - -"The Esquimaux eat to-day an old sack made of fish-skin, which proved -indeed a dry and miserable dish. While they were at this singular -meal, they kept repeating, in a low humming tone, 'you was a sack but -a little while ago, and now you are food for us.' Towards evening -some flakes of ice were discovered driving towards the coast, and on -the fourteenth in the morning, the sea was covered with them. But the -weather was again very strong, and the Esquimaux could not quit the -snow-house, which made them very low spirited and melancholy. Kassigiak -suggested, that it would be well to attempt to make good weather, by -which he meant to practise his art, as a sorcerer, to make the weather -good. - -"The missionaries opposed it, and told him that his heathenish -practices were of no use, but that the weather would become favourable -as soon as it should please God. Kassigiak then asked, whether _Jesus_ -could make good weather. He was told, that to _Jesus_ was given all -power in heaven and earth; upon which he demanded, that he should -be applied to. Another time he said, I shall tell my countrymen at -Seglek. The missionaries replied. 'Tell them that in the midst of this -affliction, we placed our only hope and trust in Jesus Christ our -Saviour, who loves all mankind, and has shed his blood to redeem them -from eternal misery.' - -"To-day the Esquimaux began to eat an old, filthy, and worn-out skin, -which had served them for a mattress. - -"On the fifteenth the weather continued extremely boisterous, and the -Esquimaux appeared every now and then to sink under disappointment. -But they possess one good quality, namely, a power of going to sleep -when they please, and, if need be, they will sleep for days and nights -together. - -"In the evening the sky became clear, and their hopes revived. Mark -and Joel went out to reconnoitre, and brought word that the ice had -acquired a considerable degree of solidity, and might soon be fit for -use. The poor dogs had, meanwhile, fasted for nearly four days, but -now in the prospect of a speedy release, the missionaries allowed to -each a few morsels of food. The temperature of the air having been -rather mild, it occasioned a new source of distress, for by the warm -exhalations of the inhabitants, the roof of the snow-house got to be in -a melting state; which occasioned a continual dropping, and by degrees -made every thing soaking wet. The missionaries report, that they -considered this the greatest hardship they had to endure, for they had -not a dry thread about them, nor a dry place to lie down in. - -"On the sixteenth early, the sky cleared, but the fine particles of -snow were driven about like clouds. Joel and Kassigiak resolved to -pursue their journey to Okkak, by the way of Nuasornak, and set out, -with the wind and snow full in their faces. Mark could not resolve to -proceed farther north, because, in his opinion, the violence of the -wind had driven the ice off the coast at Tikkerasuk, so as to render it -impossible to land; but he thought he might yet proceed to the south -with safety, and get round Kiglapeit. The missionaries endeavoured to -persuade him to follow the above mentioned company to Okkak, but it was -in vain; and they did not feel at liberty to insist upon it, not being -sufficiently acquainted with the circumstances. Their present distress -dictated the necessity of venturing something to reach the habitations -of men, and yet they were rather afraid of passing over the newly -frozen sea under Kiglapeit, and could not immediately determine what to -do. Brother Turner therefore went again with Mark to examine the ice, -and both seemed satisfied that it would hold. They therefore came at -last to a resolution to return to Nain. - -"On the seventeenth, the wind had considerably increased, with heavy -showers of snow and sleet, but they set off at half-past ten o'clock in -the afternoon. Mark ran all the way round Kiglapeit, before the sledge, -that he might find a good track, and about one o'clock, they were quite -out of danger and reached the bay. Here they found a good track upon -smooth ice, made a meal of the remnant of their provisions, and got -some warm coffee. Thus refreshed, they resolved to proceed without -stopping, till they reached Nain, where they arrived at twelve o'clock -at night. - -"The brethren at Nain rejoiced exceedingly to see them return, for by -several hints of the Esquimaux, who first met them going out to sea, -and who then in their own obscure way, had endeavoured to warn them -of their danger of the ground-swell, but had not been attended to, -their fellow-missionaries, and especially their wives, had been much -terrified. One of these Esquimaux, whose wife had made some article of -dress for brother Liebisch, whom they called Samuel, addressed her in -the following manner:--'I should be glad of the payment for my wife's -work.' 'Wait a little,' answered sister Liebisch, 'and when my husband -returns he will settle with you, for I am unacquainted with the bargain -made between you.' 'Samuel and William,' replied the Esquimaux, 'will -not return any more to Nain.' 'How not return! what makes you say so?' -After some pause the Esquimaux replied in a low tone, 'Samuel and -William are no more! all their bones are broken, and in the stomachs of -the sharks.' - -"Terrified at this alarming account, sister Liebisch called in the -rest of the family, and the Esquimaux was examined as to his meaning; -but his answers were little less obscure. He seemed so certain of the -destruction of the missionaries, that he was with difficulty prevailed -on to wait some time for their return. He could not believe that they -could have escaped the effects of so furious a tempest, considering the -course they were taking. - -"It may easily be conceived, with what gratitude to God the whole -family at Nain bid them welcome. During the storm, they had considered -with some dread, what might be the fate of their brethren, though at -Nain its violence was not felt so much as on a coast, unprotected by -any islands. Added to this, the hints of the Esquimaux had considerably -increased their apprehensions for their safety, and their fears began -to get the better of their hopes. All therefore joined most fervently -in praise and thanksgiving to God, for this signal deliverance." - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE WHALE. - - -It seems strange that the largest animal in nature should live in -these regions, where you would think everything must be starved by the -cold. But so it is, and it should lead you to reflect, how wonderfully -the principle which animates living beings, by the outward form and -constitution which it gives to the bodies of animals, adapts them to -support the various circumstances in which they are placed. - -There are many kinds of whale which all agree in these particulars. -They are very much larger than any other creatures existing; they live -in the sea and yet suckle their young with milk, and have warm blood -and lungs like land animals, so that they can only breathe by putting -their heads above water. Some people have doubted whether it was proper -to call the whale a fish, but on the whole it is certainly more like -fishes than it is like any other of the great divisions of animals, -seeing that it swims with fins, and cannot live out of the water. - -[Illustration] - -The Greenland whale (naturalists call it _Balena Mysticetus_,) is the -most important of the varieties, as it is the one which produces train -oil in the largest quantities, and whalebone. In common with all the -others, it is a most awkward looking creature. Here is a picture of -one. Its usual length is from 40 to 60 feet; and the circumference of -its body about 40. It not unfrequently weighs 60 or 70 tons, which is -more than the weight of 180 fat oxen. - -The tail is commonly about 6 feet long, and 25 feet wide. It lies flat -upon the water, and is what the creature principally uses in swimming, -for the fins near the head appear to be used merely to keep the body -steady in the water. It is also a weapon of defence, and possesses -prodigious strength, as you shall hear by and by. - -The inside of the mouth is, perhaps, the most wonderful part of the -whale, both from its size and construction. I was once in one, which -was 15 feet in length and 7 feet wide. - -It is from the mouth that the _Whalebone_, as it is called, comes. -The jaws are not furnished with teeth, but in their place there is -something which forms a curious sort of shrimp-trap, which I will -describe to you. The whalebone is ranged along in blades upon the jaws, -like the laths of a Venetian blind, and the inner edge of each blade -is furnished with a fringe of fibrous stuff almost like hair. - -The natural position of the whale's mouth seems to be open, and it -mostly swims along or lies near the surface, with its lower jaw hanging -down. Little fish and insects, most of them of the smallest size, -thus come in contact with the smooth edge of the blades of bone, slip -between them, and become entangled in the hairy fringe of the inner -edge, so that they can never get out again. When the whale thinks he -has got enough in his mouth, he immediately raises his enormous lower -jaw and swallows. One of his mouthfuls must often consist of millions -of living creatures, respecting the kinds of which I shall have -something to tell you in a future page. - -I told you that he was obliged to rise to the surface of the water to -breathe. You would like to see him ascend for this purpose, and snort -out a jet of thick vapour to the height of twenty feet, or more, and -making such a noise, as may be heard at a distance of several miles. - -[Illustration] - -Under the skin, all over the body, there is a covering of yellowish -fat of about a foot thick, which keeps the animal warm, answering the -same purpose as the fur does on land animals. It is necessary, because -the whale is not cold in the inside like other fish, but has warm, -red blood, which is of a higher temperature even than that of a human -being. This is another circumstance which becomes the more remarkable -from the cold climate in which he lives. - -This fat is generally called blubber, and is what the oil comes from. -When first it is taken from the whale, it has not the least unpleasant -smell, and it is not till the cargo is unstowed that a whale ship is at -all disagreeable. - -The largest sort of whale is called the _razor back_, from a ridge that -runs along his back. They are often 100 feet in length. I never saw one -of these taken, but the sailors told me that they were very difficult -to come near, and after all, not worth the trouble of killing, for they -have very little blubber. - -Then there is the Cachalot, or Sperm Whale, which is smaller, and much -more slender than the common whale. It has teeth, and is of a very -quarrelsome temper. It often fights with its own kind, and I have seen -several of them which had been wounded in the jaws, and made blind by -such conflicts. It is from the head of this animal that spermaceti is -obtained. - -A number of vessels are sent out every year to catch these great -creatures, and this is the way in which they manage their work. Every -vessel is furnished with five or six boats which are hung on the sides -of the vessel in such a way as to be easily lowered into the water on -the shortest notice. One or two of the boats are usually kept upon the -look out, in each of which there is a harpoon attached to a rope above -700 feet in length, and about as thick as a man's thumb. This is the -shape of the harpoon. - -[Illustration] - -When they see a whale showing himself above the surface of the water, -the man who is to throw the harpoon, stations himself at the bow, and -the rest pull away as fast as they are able till they approach the -whale as near as possible, and this is often to within a very short -distance in consequence of his being slower of hearing than most other -animals. - -The harpooner then throws the harpoon with all his might, and if he -is lucky, it goes through the poor creature's skin and blubber, into -his flesh. The moment he feels the wound, he mostly sinks to a great -depth, and drags out the line which is carefully coiled at the bottom -of the boat, at a tremendous rate. One man stands by with a mop to keep -the edge of the boat over which the rope runs constantly wet, lest -the friction should set the boat on fire, and another holds a hatchet -ready to chop it in two in case it should become entangled. If it goes -out smoothly, they add lines as long as they are necessary: and on -one occasion, for a whale which was very refractory, Captain Scoresby -actually joined together three miles and three quarters of rope, the -weight of which was nearly two tons! Was not this a great fishing-line? - -As soon as the whale is struck, they hoist a flag, and the men who are -in the ship, and constantly upon the look out, immediately come to -their assistance. If the signal is made when any of them are asleep, up -they come with their clothes under their arms, and dress afterwards -as they can, for not a moment is to be lost. This is no joke, when the -cold is more than thirty degrees below the freezing point. - -[Illustration] - -However, they are obliged to go; and as many boats as there may be, -then watch anxiously for the re-appearance of the whale on the surface. -As soon as he shows himself, the men of the other boats immediately -strike their harpoons into him, and so secure him till he is faint from -loss of blood, and at last comes up to the surface, spouting out blood -mixed with the vapour from his nostrils. They then despatch him with an -instrument called a lance, and the great carcass rolls over upon its -back. It is afterwards lashed by strong ropes to the side of the ship, -and the blubber is cut up into lumps of convenient size, and stowed in -casks. - -It occasionally happens, after the harpooner has thrown his weapon, -that the creature in agony, flaps about his tail with tremendous -violence before he goes down. Many boats have been upset in this -manner, and Captain Scoresby relates an instance of a boat being dashed -completely in two. - -Some people have thought the whale a very stupid creature, but there -does not seem much ground for this notion, though we can never be in a -condition to see much of its instinctive wisdom. As far as we can see, -it is the very best thing it could do when struck by the harpoon, to -go downwards as it does; and this seems to prove that it has quite its -share of intelligence; and it is still more remarkable, that if a mass -of ice be near when it is pursued, either before or after it has been -struck, it gets under it as quickly as possible, and often thus baffles -its pursuers. - -But the most interesting thing in the character of the whale is, its -extreme love for its offspring, and a cruel use is often made by the -whalers of this beautiful disposition. They often strike a _cub_ or -_sucker_, as they call the young whales, which would not be worth -taking itself, because they know its mother will instantly expose -herself to an attack in its defence. You shall hear what Captain -Scoresby says on this, "When the young whale is struck, its mother -joins it at the surface of the water, whenever it has occasion to -rise for respiration; encourages it to swim off; assists its flight, -by taking it under her fin; and seldom deserts it while life remains. -She is then dangerous to approach; but affords frequent opportunities -for attack. She loses all regard for her own safety, in anxiety for -the preservation of her young;--dashes through the midst of her -enemies;--despises the danger that threatens her;--and even voluntarily -remains with her offspring, after various attacks on herself from the -harpoons of the fishers. In June 1811, one of my harpooners struck a -sucker, with the hope of its leading to the capture of the mother. -Presently she arose close by the 'fast-boat;' and seizing the young -one, dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat with -remarkable force and velocity. Again she arose to the surface; darted -furiously to and fro; frequently stopped short, or suddenly changed her -direction, and gave every possible intimation of extreme agony. For a -length of time she continued thus to act, though closely pursued by the -boats; and, inspired with courage and resolution by her concern for her -offspring, seemed regardless of the danger which surrounded her. At -length, one of the boats approached so near, that a harpoon was hove at -her. It hit, but did not attach itself. A second harpoon was struck; -this also failed to penetrate: but a third was more effectual, and -held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but allowed other boats to -approach; so that, in a few minutes, three more harpoons were fastened; -and, in the course of an hour afterwards, she was killed." - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -A VOYAGE ON A TROPICAL SEA. - - -To you, my little friends, who have always lived in a climate in which -it seems as if the wind changed, and it became sun-shiny or cloudy, wet -or dry, cold or hot, without any law or regularity, it is something -strange to hear of places where the inhabitants know almost to a day -that the wind will blow constantly in one direction during so many -months in the year, and constantly in some other direction during the -rest: and where, with equal certainty, they know when to expect rain -and when fine weather. - -The truth is, our changeable weather is under the influence of laws -quite as certain and fixed as their uniform weather is, only that there -are more partial causes operating in our climate, so that the effects -are not so strictly periodical. We know as little about the way in -which the laws operate in one case, as in the other. - -The winds that always blow in one direction are called the Trade Winds, -and those which blow in one direction regularly during a certain -portion of the year, are called monsoons. They make navigation in some -parts of the ocean, very certain, and you cannot think how odd it seems -to a young sailor the first time he sails in them. He leads then a -lazy sort of life; there is no tacking about, but day after day he has -nothing to do but just such things as might be done on land. - -When the sailors of Columbus first found themselves in the Trade Wind -blowing from the eastward, having sailed before it for many days, they -gave themselves up to despair, because they thought they should never -be able to make their way back against it to their dear native country. -They did not know that it would by and by blow quite as certainly in -another direction. - -These uniform winds blow only within a certain distance of the equator, -and the cause of them is this. The heat of the climate there occasions -the air next to the surface of the earth to be always ascending, and -other air rushes in from other parts of the world to supply its place. -The motion of the earth upon its axis operates with this, by bringing -the parts of its surface successively in contact with any certain point -in the atmosphere, which does not revolve so rapidly as the earth -itself, and a fixed direction is thus given to the wind. - -But it is still much more dull to find one's self in a calm on a -tropical sea. Only imagine to yourselves a stagnant and shoreless -sea, often with unsightly masses of sea-weed floating on it, a sky -constantly of a gloomy-looking red, and nothing to be seen day after -day except this sky and sea; insupportable thirst and bad water to -quench it, and the ship all the time rocking to and fro with a nasty -dull motion, and the ropes and sails idly flapping against the mast and -yards. - -But though I have seen and felt all this, I cannot describe it to you -so well as the poet, so I will give you his words. - - "Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down, - 'Twas sad as sad could be, - And we did speak only to break - The silence of the sea. - - "All in a hot and copper sky, - The bloody sun at noon, - Right up above the mast did stand - No bigger than the moon. - - "Day after day, day after day, - We stuck, nor breath nor motion; - As idle as a painted ship - Upon a painted ocean. - - "Water, water, everywhere, - And all the boards did shrink; - Water, water, everywhere, - Nor any drop to drink." - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE WATER-SPOUT. - - -Well! one morning when we were only a few leagues off the West Coast of -Africa, to the South of the Cape Verd Islands, we thought we were going -to have just such a calm as the poet has described. There had been a -violent storm during the night, but every breath of wind had died away, -and left a long sleepy swell upon the sea. - -About nine o'clock, we noticed a cloud rising, or rather seeming to -form, at some distance from us, and just below it a white spot of foam -appeared on the surface of the water, and the waves raged over a little -round space in a way that made me feel I don't know how, for I had -never seen such a thing before. The cloud grew blacker and blacker, and -presently seemed to move down towards the sea and swell out in the same -direction, as if to provoke the waves below, which seemed straining up -towards it. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIII. - -WATER SPOUTS] - -There suddenly seemed to grow out of the middle of the spot of waves, -a complete pillar of water of a tapering shape, and at the same moment -the lower part of the cloud seemed to condense and turn to water, and -shot downwards in a cone to meet it. They united and formed one pillar, -almost as distinct as if it had been of ice instead of water. You will -see a correct representation of this in the picture. - -The size at the base must have been very large, not less than 250 feet -in diameter, but it tapered off so much that at the middle it was not -more than three or four feet. Above the middle it increased in size, -and its solidity seemed to get gradually less till it ended in a great -black cloud. Its height might have been about 700 feet. - -Its form changed considerably. It generally seemed as if it was -composed of water sucked upwards in a spiral direction, and looked -almost like a great cable; but now and then it looked like a simple -hollow tube. - -Sometimes it inclined a little one way, and then another; and sometimes -it was very considerably bent, and then suddenly straightened itself -again. - -When the ship was nearest to it, we heard a noise from it like the -rushing of a waterfall, and before it was over, heavy rain came on with -lightning, but no thunder. The wind all the time was very unsteady, -though it was not violent. - -While we were looking at it, two smaller ones formed at some distance -under very nearly the same circumstances. One of them stood quite still -for some seconds, and then disappeared; but the other moved steadily on -in a straight line, for several minutes. - -The great one continued moving also very slowly for nearly half an -hour, and then seemed to snap in two, and one half sank rapidly into -the sea, as if it had been unhooked from above, and the other half -remained hanging from the cloud for some time, and then curled upwards -and disappeared, throwing down a heavy torrent of rain. - -I have seen many water-spouts since, in my voyages over the great -ocean, but have never been so struck with the appearance of any one as -of this. - -There is a common notion that a cannon fired at a water-spout, will -disperse it by making a great concussion of the air; but I do not -think that this is true, unless the water-spout be very small. At all -events, it was not true in this case, for we fired right at the large -one several times, and it took no effect except in splashing the water -about as the ball went through. - -It is also generally imagined that they are very dangerous to ships, -and if they come close, that they throw such a quantity of water into -them as to sink them. I have somewhere read an account of a vessel -having once been put in danger by one off the Coast of Guinea, and two -or three of the men being washed overboard, and I once saw the sails -and deck of a vessel, made very wet by a small one, myself. But my own -opinion is, that there is not much to be dreaded from them, for they -are not a solid mass of water, but merely condensed vapour in the form -of a tube, with a hollow space in the middle. And I think if you were -right under one of them, it would be no worse than rain descending in -very large drops. - -[Illustration] - -Once I saw a much smaller water-spout on land. It was a gusty, cloudy -day, and the wind had changed several times, when a dark cloud at some -distance from where I was, extended downwards till it came nearly to a -point. - -It seemed to reach about three-fourths of the distance from the cloud -to the ground, and moved along slowly for about ten minutes. When I -afterwards made inquiry of the people over whose houses it passed, they -told me that it had let fall in its progress a tremendous quantity of -rain, so as considerably to injure several houses. - - -HOW PARLEY SUPPOSES WATER-SPOUTS TO BE CAUSED. - -I suppose you would now like me to tell you how water-spouts are -caused. I wish I could, for your sakes; and, besides, I should very -much like to know myself. I have, however, a tolerable guess upon the -subject, and that I will tell you of. - -I dare say you have often seen little eddies of wind which take up -dust, straw, and other light substances, and carry them up, twirling -them round in a spiral direction like a cork-screw. - -When these occur on a larger scale, they are called whirlwinds, and are -often very destructive in their effects, unroofing houses, and doing -various other mischief. They are sometimes occasioned by draughts of -air being disturbed in their course by mountains or hills, and meeting -each other. But the largest are caused by two or more currents of wind, -produced by what ordinarily influences the direction of the wind, -meeting from different quarters, and then twisting round each other -just as two strings, with weights at their ends, would do if you swung -them forcibly together so as to meet about the middle. - -A whirlwind occurred some years ago, near where I was living; it lasted -about ten minutes, and produced some very curious effects. It first met -with a milk-maid, who was carrying a pail of milk upon her head, and -tore off her bonnet along with the pail, and carried both to a great -distance, where they were not found till some days afterwards. It next -twisted a wagon in pieces, and blew most of the fragments over a wall; -it unroofed a house, and carried some of the tiles to a great distance; -next it dashed through the window of the room where I was sitting, -swept all the ornaments off the mantelpiece, and made strange havock -with some of the furniture. It then passed on to a neighbouring park, -where it tore up several trees. The wind had not been extremely violent -before, neither was it immediately afterwards. - -Suppose a cloud happens to be exactly in the point of union of two -currents of wind, meeting as they did in this whirlwind, it then -becomes twisted in along with them, and partially condensed; and if -it is over the land, this is all that seems necessary to form the -water-spout. - -And if it happens to be over the sea, the wind, as it eddies round, -works up the waves into a ferment, and much spray and foam is produced, -which is twisted in with the whirlwind in the same manner as the cloud, -and carried upwards to meet it. - -Whether this is just the way in which the thing takes place, or not, -it is pretty certain that the water-spout is caused by the meeting of -winds from various quarters, from what Dr. Franklin tells us in one of -his letters which I read the other day. He says that a sailor informed -him that he was in one of three vessels which chanced to be placed as -at the three corners of a triangle; a water-spout was formed between -them which seemed to be to the leeward of each of them. - -[Illustration] - -The cut will enable you to understand what I mean. The star in the -middle represents the water-spout, and the three arrows the directions -in which each of the three vessels found the wind come, which shows -that three diverse currents of air all set towards the water-spout. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -CORAL REEFS AND ISLANDS. - - -When we were sailing through the Pacific Ocean, I saw a great many -coral reefs and islands; and perhaps there is hardly one of the -wonderful things which I have seen in my travels, that I remember with -more pleasure, or love more to think about, so I shall be glad to tell -you all I know of them. - -You are acquainted with the appearance of Coral, as you have often seen -pieces of it in cabinets, and employed as ornaments; and you therefore -know that it always abounds with little holes, but its form, and the -shape of these holes, vary considerably. Some of it occurs in branches, -like the branches of trees, and in consequence of this, and because -it was known to increase in size from time to time, it was taken for a -marine plant, before its nature was fully investigated. The openings -in this sort are placed in the form of stars, as you will see in this -little piece of one of the branches magnified. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Sometimes it is in large roundish masses, called brain stones, from its -resemblance to the brain of an animal; the openings are then long holes -placed in two rows between high ridges, like this. - -[Illustration] - -And a third form is found consisting of thin pieces, thinner than -writing paper, placed on edge, spreading out from a centre, or from a -line down the middle of a long strip, and the openings are then plain -deep furrows, running from the middle to the outside. - -[Illustration] - -There is also the precious red Coral of which beads and other trinkets -are made, found principally in the Mediterranean Sea, and several other -sorts, more or less rare. But what I have described to you are the -commonest. - -This curious substance extends over hundreds of miles in various parts -of the Tropical Seas, in islands of different forms. But before I -describe these to you, I must tell you what is known respecting the -little animals by which it is manufactured, for it is proved to be the -work of certain kinds of the little creatures called Polypes. - - -THE CORAL-MAKING POLYPES. - -The Polypes are a kind of animals apparently of very simple structure, -without bones, or shells, or heads, or brains. They have very large -mouths surrounded by a great number of _tentacula_, or feelers, which -are threads of flesh possessing the sense of touch in great perfection; -and to these _tentacula_ they owe the name _Polypes_, which comes from -two Greek words signifying _many feet_. The ancient naturalists who -named them, I suppose did not know but that they were feet. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIV. - -ACTINIÆ CORAL BUILDERS] - -If this was the case, they were not, however, quite right. Most kinds -of Polypes very seldom move from one place to another in any way, -but stick themselves upon a rock by means of the flat part of their -bodies, and there remain; and when they let go they generally suffer -themselves to be washed by the waves to some other place, where they -can conveniently fix again. If you have ever been at Brighton, or -at any other places by the sea side, for any length of time, I dare -say you have seen the _sea anemones_, or _sea flowers_, as they are -called, carried round by the fish people to show to their customers; -or possibly you may have seen them in the holes on the rocks. They are -proper Polypes, and the scientific name of them is _Actiniæ_. As they -lead their lazy lives as if they were rooted in the rock, when they are -hungry they spread out their tentacula to catch any little insects or -minute fish, such as crabs and shrimps, which may come in their way. -The instant they feel anything, they close in all their tentacula with -surprising force. It is worth while to put one's finger just in the -centre of one of these "flowers," to feel how strongly they can draw -anything in. I have seen one suck in a little crab half as large as its -own body, in this manner. - -When closed up they look an insensible lump of pulpy flesh, but when -their fringe of tentacula is expanded, they are very beautiful indeed, -and exhibit various rich colours. You may see them in each state in the -plate (fig. 1.), where one is represented closed up, and two are open. - -If one of these curious creatures is cut into several pieces in certain -directions, each piece will become an animal. You will say that this -seems more like a plant which is propagated by cuttings, than a proper -animal. But for all this, and although it only appears to possess -the same sort of sensibility, in regard to light and touch, as some -plants do, I can give you a very good reason for its being considered -as an animal,--it can move itself according to its own _will_, and -in choosing the time in which it moves, it exhibits instinctive -intelligence. When it finds its little inch of rock in any respect -inconvenient from its being too high above low water mark, or not -sufficiently in the way of the little creatures on which it wants to -satisfy its appetite, it sucks in a great quantity of water, and swells -itself out so as to become nearly as light as the water, and then -looses its hold and continues to float about till it comes in contact -with some more convenient home. When I first saw them thus full of -water, and carried about by the waves, I thought they were dead. - -Now the coral builders are all of the same general character as the -Actiniæ, in the construction of their bodies, their various colours, -great mouths surrounded by feelers, and habits of taking their meals. -But besides their being such wonderful architects, they differ from the -English creature in being very sociable, and living together in immense -companies. When you read of the Pyramids of Egypt, or of any other -great structures, you may justly think them wonderful proofs of what -the labours of many men may do when directed to a single object; but -here you have not houses, pyramids, cities, nor even mere islands, but -whole continents constructed by the combined labours of little insects. - -I cannot tell you, neither can any one else, in what manner these -little workmen perform their work. It is only certain that they have -some faculty by which they appropriate the particles of carbonate of -lime contained in the sea water, and dispose them in the various forms -I have mentioned to you. When the coral is in progress, it is coated -with a soft gluey sort of substance, and over the star-like clusters -of openings, there may be seen, when the creatures are hungry, little -rosettes of tentacula, more beautiful than you can conceive. - -In fig. 2 of the plate, you may see some of these animals showing their -rich rosettes on a piece of branch coral, such as is represented in the -first wood cut, page 204. - -There is another sort of branch coral, where the animal always lives at -the end of the branch, the whole of which it has to itself, and will -then spread out its tentacula in a star on the extremity, as you may -see in figs. 3 and 4. - -In fig. 5, you may see one of the animals which construct the sort of -coral represented in the cut, page 205. - -Since these little creatures can lay down their tentacula in the -openings of their stony houses, when they are not hungry, or when they -are alarmed by the approach of anything that would hurt them, they do -not want the tough skin with which the Actinia is covered, but have -bodies of a very soft and yielding texture. - - -FORMS OF THE CORAL REEFS. - -As I have now introduced to you, as well as I can by means of -description and pictures, the inhabitants of these wonderful submarine -continents, I shall now tell you something of the form in which they -arrange their habitations. Those that I saw about the Society and -Friendly Islands, were mostly in three different conditions. One kind -forms a nearly circular reef, sometimes with an opening in it. It is a -part of the common design of the Polypes always to make this opening -on the Leeward side, when the place is one in which any particular -wind blows during a great part of the year. I cannot tell you why -this is, but it is constantly observed wherever coral reefs are found. -This peculiarity makes the enclosed spaces of water, (which are called -Lagoons,) capital harbours for ships to anchor in, for they are nearly -always smooth, the windward side of the reef acting as a breakwater. -Here is a map of three reefs of this form, in a part of the ocean where -the prevailing wind is South East, and you will see all the openings -are towards the North West. - -[Illustration] - -Another sort have an island of which the foundation is coral, in the -middle of a ring like the above; and a third sort are merely the same -kind of rings round large islands, composed of other sorts of rocks and -earth. A very great number of the islands hereabouts,--perhaps most of -them, are surrounded in this manner. - -I well remember the first impressions which the sight of a coral -reef made upon me. I always like to treasure up in my mind the first -impression produced by a beautiful scene; for however wonderful the -objects may be, when you have seen them many times, you become in some -degree indifferent to them. This first impression that I am going to -describe to you, is a continual feast to me when I think upon it, and I -wish you could enjoy it with me. - -The first parts of the reef we saw were black, roundish masses, -standing up out of the water, having just the appearance of black men's -heads, and when I asked the sailors what they were, they told me they -were "negroes' heads." I was curious, as you may suppose, to know what -they could be, and I afterwards found they were masses of coral, which -were not covered by the sea, except at very high tides, and had become -blackened by the weather. - -The sun was shining brightly, and there was a smart breeze. The waves -breaking over the ragged surface of the coral threw up abundance of -spray, which the sun's rays, every now and then, painted with the most -beautiful rainbow colours. We sailed through an opening, and when we -had got into the Lagoon, the sea was perfectly smooth. The water was as -clear as crystal, and we saw the bottom, and what was going on there, -nearly as well as if we had been close to it, though the depth was very -considerable. - -[Illustration] - -No flower garden was ever more exquisitely varied, both as to form and -colour, than the scene under the water. The coral itself, standing -up in the forms of shrubs, wheat-sheaves, mushrooms, stags'-horns, -cabbages, and cauliflowers, was mostly covered with millions of the -little polypes, displaying their graceful rosettes of green, purple, -yellow, brown and white. Among these were strewn innumerable shells -from the smallest to the largest, and amongst the most conspicuous -were the gigantic clams, of which many specimens weigh hundreds of -pounds. - -Then there were seen fish darting in and out as they - - "With quick glance, - Showed to the Sun their waved coats dropt with gold," - -the variegated Zebra fish, and a hundred other species, often popping -up from deep holes and caves, of which we could not see the bottom. All -seemed life, beauty, and enjoyment, and when I had looked at it a long -time, it brought to my mind the time when God looked upon what he had -formed, and said that it was good, for you could not wish anything to -be different from what it was; the scene appeared faultless, and quite -filled up the heart with emotions of love and beauty. - -This reef was one of those which surrounded a good-sized island. The -cut will show you nearly how it appeared to be situated in regard to -the land; _a_ is the land; _b_ the coral; and _c_ the Lagoon, the -width of which was about a quarter of a mile. - -[Illustration] - -There were in it several masses of coral of a very curious shape, such -as I have since found always exist in Lagoons. They are first built up -in the form of a sugar-loaf, and when they get up somewhere between -high and low-water-mark, the polypes extend them at the sides so as -to make a sort of mushroom top, closely resembling the stones which -farmers place ricks upon, to keep them out of the way of rats and mice. -Their constructing these rocks in the sugar-loaf form, so as to make -them as firm as possible, is a proof that the labours of the polypes -are directed by a common instinct, and that each one does not do as he -likes, without regard to the rest. I suppose the reason why they spread -them out at top, is because they love best the highest habitations they -can get, that are not quite out of the water; and therefore as many -polypes as can, make their residences there. - -As the tide went down, a considerable space of the shore of the reef -was left dry, towards the Lagoon, where it slanted off gently. Upon -this there were some of the large clam shells, such as you saw a -cut of just now. They generally lay about half open, but they would -occasionally shut their shells together with a loud report, and then -spout up a stream of water three or four feet high. We boiled one of -these fish and tasted it, but found it very disagreeable. The fish -weighed about four pounds, and the shell about fifty. There were many -of a much larger size. - -The reefs towards the sea outside the Lagoons go down very suddenly, -and the soundings are generally deep, close alongside them. This is -ascribed to their being built upon the tops of submarine hills and -mountains, for it is believed that the polypes cannot work at very -great depths. - -The surface of the reef is seldom quite so high as high-water-mark; but -they sometimes go along an incredible distance without interruption, -very near that point. The inhabitants of the group of islands called -Disappointment Islands, and also of those called Duff's Islands, pay -visits to each other over a bridge of coral 600 miles in length, on a -great part of which their feet are close to the water, so that they -look when on their journey at the time of high-water, just like troops -marching on the surface of the ocean. - -The natives of some of the Polynesian islands have actually employed -some of these wonderful little masons to build quays and piers. The -way they do this, is to break off large masses of coral from any reef -that may be near, and drop them down where they want to form the pier. -In a short time the polypes will have stuck them together as firmly -as possible. In an island called Barabora, a very fine quay has been -thus constructed, where a good-sized vessel may conveniently take in or -discharge its cargo. - -There were once coral islands where England is now, for in many -counties fossil coral is found in great quantities. It is indeed most -likely that there are large tracts in every part of the world, which -owe their existence to the labours of polypes. - -This would most probably be the history of the formation of one of -these tracts, if it were in the Pacific Ocean. A volcanic eruption -would throw up a mountain from the bottom of the sea, the top of which -might be 60 or 70 feet below the surface. As soon as the eruption had -ceased, some polypes who may have left their position on a neighbouring -reef, might be brought by the tide into contact with the summit, and -would immediately begin to work. The race of polypes would multiply, -and the building would go on year after year, till the reef reached the -surface. Pieces of wood which are always drifting about in the ocean, -might be washed into the Lagoon and rest upon the shore. A little soil -might thus be formed in the course of years, and a cocoa-nut or some -other sort of seed, which would equally well bear soaking in the salt -water, might be brought from some distant land, and may take root and -produce a tree. The steady trade winds would also bring some of those -seeds which are provided with wings, such as thistles. Various sea -birds might build their nests upon the infant land, which would thus be -increased in a hundred different ways. Small animals driven out to sea -on pieces of timber or trees, torn away from their original position -by hurricanes, might land upon it; and after a succession of ages, man -would take possession, and a populous country in time be formed. - -If you are fond of poetry, you would be much pleased with a very -beautiful description of such a process as this, in James Montgomery's -poem, called the Pelican Island, which you should read. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE LUMINOUS APPEARANCE OF THE SEA. - - -If you were to go on a long voyage, there is nothing that you would be -much more pleased with, than the occasional bright appearance of the -sea at night. You might see this in all latitudes, but more frequently -in the tropical, than in colder climates. It occurs in a variety -of modes, and, as it seems, arises from several different causes. -Sometimes the wake of the vessel looks like a waving line of beautiful -silver light; sometimes the surface will be studded with spots of -bright light, about as large as your heads; not unfrequently you may -see large islands of light; and now and then a shoal of Albicores, -or some other fish, will pass the vessel, shaking sparks of dazzling -brightness from their fins in all directions. - -It has been supposed by some that the brightness in the track of a -vessel, and that which sparkles and flashes in the spray on the tops of -the waves, is electrical light: whether it is so or not, I cannot tell -you. - -The effect is, no doubt, sometimes produced by decayed animal and -vegetable bodies, which appear bright in the dark. I dare say you have -seen the bodies of dead fish, and the surface of rotten wood have -this appearance. The particles in which the brightness exists are so -small, that you cannot see them, for, if you touch the luminous body, -particularly if it is a stinking fish, your fingers will immediately -appear bright in the dark, and when you look at them in the light, you -will not be able to see anything on the surface of the skin. - -But the most wonderful and extensive cause of all, is the existence -of countless myriads of fish and insects, which are supplied with a -fluid substance that oozes out of their bodies, and shines with a -greenish light upon their surface. Some of them may easily be taken, -by dropping over a net where the luminous spots appear. A few of them -are small shell-fish, of the crab or lobster kind. However, the greater -part are an immense family of creatures called _Acalephæ_, or _sea -nettles_. The word _Acalepha_ is the Greek for a sting nettle, and they -are so called for a reason which I will tell you presently. - -[Illustration] - -There are a great many different forms of them, but they mostly agree -in having their bodies shaped something like an umbrella, with long -filaments hanging down from them. This is a picture of one of the -kind called Berenice. It takes its name from the resemblance of its -filaments, to the long hair of a lady. Berenice was the wife of a -warrior, who made a vow to sacrifice the hair of her head, which was -singularly beautiful, to Venus, if her husband returned from some -successful exploit in which he was engaged. He did so, and the lady -accordingly hung up her hair in the temple of Venus, and thereby gained -the honor of giving her name to a constellation called the hair of -Berenice, and the curious animal figured in the cut. - -The substance of the body is a mere mass of jelly, mostly quite -transparent, but sometimes tinged with blue or green; and when deprived -of life it becomes merely a salt liquid, and an extremely thin skin, -weighing only a few grains. - -The mouth is underneath, in amongst the filaments, which seem to be -placed where they are for the purpose of entangling small fish and -insects, to hold them till the Acalepha can swallow them. A very great -number of them are of a kind called Medusa, from the resemblance of -their filaments to the snakes, which were said to take the place of -hair upon the head of Medusa, one of the Furies. One or two sorts have -a crest which they erect as a sail, and thus move along before the -wind, on the surface of the sea, in calm weather. I will show you the -picture of one of these called the Physalia. - -[Illustration] - -The size varies from that of a pin's head, to a foot or more in -diameter, and it is said that some have been found to weigh as much as -50 pounds. Their weight is a very little more in proportion to their -bulk than that of salt water, and they keep themselves afloat on the -surface, as long as they are inclined, by moving very slowly along, -which they do by alternately contracting and expanding a very light -ring of muscle, which surrounds the umbrella. When they are tired of -their snail's gallop, or they want to descend on any other account, -they cease moving, and down they go. In this respect they are just -like a man swimming, who sinks if he ceases to strike with his limbs. - -There are some species peculiar to hot climates, where they are -generally larger, and more luminous; and some to cold. But what is -wanting in size is amply made up in number, in the Arctic regions. A -certain naturalist calculated by a fair average, how many Acalephæ -there were in two square miles of sea, and the result of his -calculation would fill up a whole line of this work with figures; you -may judge something of it, by his saying that to count the number would -have taken 80,000 persons all the time that has elapsed since the -creation of the world, counting as fast as they could! It is on these -creatures, most of them so small that they cannot be seen without a -microscope, that the vast bodies of the whales are supported, caught in -the wonderful shrimp-trap, which I described to you in a former page! - -Two or three kinds are found on your own shores, and I should not -wonder if some of you may not before now have found them lying on -the sea-shore, which the tide has left dry, and taken them up in -your hands. If so, I am sure you will not forget it, nor be in any -difficulty to know why they are called _sea nettles_. They have a -stinging power, which will make the hand smart that touches them. -This is owing to a caustic fluid with which a part of their bodies is -constantly covered. - -It is this caustic fluid which is luminous. It oozes through the skin -all round the muscular ring by which they move, and at the large -filaments. The whole body of the creature looks bright, but it is only -from the light transmitted by these parts. You may get a very fair -notion of the appearance of one of their bodies, by rubbing together -two partly transparent pebbles in the dark; the light is of nearly -the same colour, and though it is only produced just at the points of -contact of the pebbles, it illuminates their whole substance. - -As they move along they are much brighter when they contract their -bodies, than when they expand them; this is because in contracting they -press out the luminous fluid. I will tell you of some experiments and -observations, which have been made on them. - -The body of an Acalepha was squeezed over a glass of warm fresh water, -and the fluid that dropped out communicated its luminous property to -the water. The same was then done with a glass of warm salt water, but -the effect was not nearly so great. - -One was squeezed over a vessel containing nearly a quart of milk, which -it made so resplendent that one could see to read by it. The milk -retained its brightness for several hours, and when it faded, it could -be restored by stirring: even three days afterwards it was made bright -by being warmed. - -In this manner the Acalephæ communicate a slight degree of light to the -sea-water, in which they swim; but, if they are put into fresh water, -the light spreads much further. - -I have often seen them round the ship, looking like so many moons, -and emitting light enough for me to read by, some on the surface, and -others at various depths below it. Their appearance was exquisitely -beautiful when the weather was still and the night dark; but as I -thought about it, I could not help having something of a melancholy -feeling at the strange kind of half-life these creatures lead. They -might enjoy themselves, but I could not tell how, for they had no sight -nor hearing; they loved no light except their own selfish light; they -moved about in the open sea, without seeming to enjoy their freedom, -for they did not care which way they moved; they had no fixed homes or -neighbourhoods to love, like the coral insects; and above all, they did -not care for their kind, for they appear to come near each other only -by chance as the wind or the waves may drive them. - -But as they were created by God, their life was given them for some -wise end, and no doubt they have something to do in creation, and they -are capable of enjoyment, though perhaps of nothing that would be -enjoyment to us. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: PLATE XV. - -SEPIAS] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE CUTTLE FISH. - - -Have you ever seen the bone of a cuttle fish? It is a flat, white, very -light thing, about the shape and size of a small sole, or flat fish, -which may be often picked up on the sea-shore. One side is covered -with a very hard substance, which stands out and forms a border all -round; but the other side, which has no covering, is so soft that you -can easily scrape it into powder with your nail. It is often used for -making tooth-powder, and polishing certain things, such as hard woods -and tortoise-shell. - -[Illustration] - -This comes from some of a most curious family of fishes, called by the -general name of _Cephalopods_, from the Greek words for head and feet, -because their feet are placed round their heads, and they walk along -with their heads downwards. - -There are several kinds represented in the plate, which will give you -a general notion of their form and appearance. In the structure of -their bodies they possess much more in common with the kind of animals -with which you are familiar, than the Actiniæ which make the coral, -or the Acalephæ which produce the luminous appearance on the sea; -though nothing can be more strange or unsightly than their aspect. They -have a complete system of circulation, though their blood is neither -warm nor red as ours is; their brains are enclosed in a strong case -or skull of gristle, and their organs of sense are well developed; -they have large and perfect eyes, (as you may see in the picture,) -standing out prominently, and ears on each side of the brain. Their -mouths are armed with very strong horny lips not unlike the bill of a -parrot, between which is a very rough tongue. They have no noses, but -it has been proved by experiment that they like some smells and dislike -others, and it has been supposed that the quality of substances which -affects merely the organ of smell in us, affects in like manner the -whole surface of their bodies, or at least, of their heads. They not -only resemble birds in their mouths, but also in having gizzards. - -Their great arms or legs, for they serve both purposes equally well, -of which they generally have eight, are very wonderful. They have -no bones in them to act as levers, but are merely long and muscular -masses of flesh which they move about with wonderful activity and power -in all directions, having the most complete command over them. On -their surfaces are great numbers of little suckers or cups resembling -leather, which adhere very strongly to anybody which the animal chooses -to embrace. - -You have, no doubt, often played with a round piece of thick leather -with a string through it, by wetting it and pressing it with your foot -upon a stone, so as to lift the stone up, if it be not too heavy. It is -just on the same principle that the suckers of the Cuttle Fish act. - -These curious creatures gather up some of their arms into a point, as -a sort of cut-water, as sailors would call it, and swim very rapidly, -by means of the others, having their heads behind. They crawl in all -directions with equal facility. - -[Illustration] - -Their skin changes colour in spots like that of the Chameleon. But -I shall now tell you their most remarkable peculiarities. They are -provided with a bag filled with black stuff, very like printer's ink. -This bag they can at pleasure open, and press out some of the ink; so -when any voracious fish approaches, which the Cuttle Fish thinks will -be too strong for him, he squeezes his ink-bag and colours the water -round him, and thus all of a sudden becomes enveloped in a dark cloud, -in which his enemy gropes about in vain, while he makes the best of his -way off. Is not this a most astonishing mode of defence? - -The kind which is found most frequently in our country is represented -in the plate fig. 2. Its skin is smooth and often of a dusky white, -with reddish brown spots, and its length about a foot. It is eaten by -the poor people on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. I never tasted -it, but I do not think that either you or I should like it, from the -look of its flesh. - -There is another species of which the ink makes the colour called -sepia, which is of great value to artists. - -The largest is called Octopus, and is figured No. 1, in the plate. It -is a very powerful creature, and very ferocious in its disposition. -It is mostly found in the Indian Ocean, where it has been known to -drown men by throwing its great arms round their limbs as they were -swimming. It is also much dreaded by the natives of some of the -islands, who sail in small canoes; for an Octopus will sometimes -cast one of its arms over the side of the canoe, and will be sure to -overturn it, if the man does not instantly chop the arm off. - -Like most other very wonderful things, the accounts of the Octopus -seem to have been strangely exaggerated, though we should not be too -ready to deny what a man who seems to be sensible and honest relates, -merely because it is not like our own experience. In regard to the -largest size to which the creature has been known to attain, it is very -difficult to tell what is the truth. I will relate to you what has been -said on the subject. - -Some navigators have asserted that the largest vessels have been put in -danger by an Octopus raising its arms so as to get them entangled in -the rigging; and a great many have said the same respecting large boats. - -Pliny, the Roman Naturalist, tells a story of one in particular, which -was a sad thief. I should tell you that the Octopus is able to walk on -land when the surface is uneven, so that he can get something for his -suckers to adhere to. Well, this individual that Pliny mentions, used -to visit a house near the sea-side, and steal all the provisions within -his reach. He was seen once or twice before he could be taken; but at -last his thefts were so important, that the inhabitants of the house -watched for him all night, and caught him by the help of dogs, as he -was striding over the rocks towards the sea. It is said that he weighed -700 pounds, and that his arms were 30 feet in length, and so stout that -a man could not embrace them. - -Still more wonderful are the narrations which were commonly believed -about 150 years ago, respecting some Sepias that frequented the coast -of Norway. They were then generally called Krakens, and were supposed -to be at times nearly a quarter of a mile in length. It is related that -sailors not unfrequently mistook them for islands. - -This is alluded to by Milton in a passage of the Paradise Lost,-- - - Him haply slumbering on the Norway foam - The pilot of some small night-foundered skiff, - Deeming some island, oft, as seamen tell, - With fixed anchor on his scaly rind, - Moors by his side under the lee, and waits - The wished approach of morn. - -I dare say you will be ready to think that these things are very -unlikely, and I shall not much differ from you if you do. But no doubt -some of these creatures must be very large, and much to be dreaded, or -such things would never have been said of them. - -[Illustration: PLATE XVI. - -PAPER NAUTILUS.] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE NAUTILUS. - - -But there is one of these Sepias, or Cuttle Fish, which I like very -much, though its character rests under as severe an imputation for -dishonesty and rapacity, as that of the rest. It is that one which -inhabits the beautiful white semi-transparent shell, and is called the -Paper Nautilus, or Argonaut. - -[Illustration] - -Its body is represented out of the shell in the plate, fig. 3, and you -will there see that it is not very different from those that are not -provided with shells, except in having two of its eight arms spread out -at the ends into a thin membrane or web. You shall hear presently the -pretty use which it makes of these webs. - -It has no muscular attachment to the shell, as most other shell-fish -have, but merely adheres to it by means of its suckers. On this -account, some have thought that the Sepia must be an usurper, who has -murdered the original master of the shell, and taken possession of his -house. But I do not believe there is any truth in this charge, for the -same sort of animal is always found in the same shell, and if it be -taken out, though it may be kept in salt water, it is sure to die. - -When at the bottom of the sea, he walks about with his shell uppermost, -like a snail, but of course with a much more rapid motion, and every -now and then snatches any mouthful that may take his fancy, with two of -his long arms, and conveys it to his horny beak. - -When the weather is fine, and he is disposed to enjoy it, he partly -empties his shell of water, so as to make himself lighter than the -surrounding sea, and comes up to the surface, on which he floats like a -little ship. - -I once had an excellent opportunity of watching one. The sea was -beautifully calm, and blue, and the sky perfectly clear, when I caught -sight of something white coming upwards at a little distance from the -ship. In an instant the delicate white shell popped above the surface, -twirled round, and the Sepia spouted out the water remaining in his -shell, spread out his two sails, and threw out his six remaining -feet, three on each side of the edge of his shell, which acted as -oars, and scudded away before the wind. If you had but seen the glad -little creature, it would have done your heart good. He seemed full of -freedom, and life, and joy. The dark deep caves of ocean, with their -corals and sea-weeds, and strange variety of inhabitants; the broad -surface of the sea, the fresh breeze, the lovely blue sky, and the -glorious light of the sun, were all at his command. - - "Thou the light sail boldly spreadest, - O'er the furrowed waters gliding, - Thou nor wreck nor foeman dreadest, - Thou nor help nor comfort needest, - While the sun is bright above thee, - While the bounding surges love thee, - In their deepening bosoms hiding, - Thou canst not fear - Small marinere; - For though the tides with restless motion - Bear thee to the desert ocean, - Far as the ocean stretches to the sea, - 'Tis all thy own, 'tis all thy empery. - - "Lame is Art, and her endeavour - Follows Nature's course but slowly, - Guessing, toiling, seeking, ever, - Still improving, perfect never. - Little Nautilus, thou showest - Deeper wisdom than thou knowest; - Lore, which man should study slowly; - Bold faith and cheer, - Small marinere. - Are thine within thy pearly dwelling; - Thine, a law of life compelling - Obedience, perfect, simple, glad and free, - To the Great Will that animates the sea." - - (_Hartley Coleridge._) - -You should read these exquisite lines with deep attention. There is an -allusion in the second verse to the common notion that the form of a -ship was first taken from the Nautilus; and, indeed, there is a very -distinct resemblance in a part of the shell to the keel, and in another -part to the poop. The sails and oars you will see best in the picture. - -Do you think that if the Sepia were a murderer and a thief, in -possession of what does not belong to him, according to the notion of -some naturalists which I was telling you of just now, that he could be -so happy,--so in every way at home,--in his silver boat? If you had -seen him as I did, I am sure you would agree with me in saying that he -could not be any other than the rightful owner. - -After "the small marinere" had sailed some distance, he folded up his -sails and packed them and his oars close into his shell, and went down -like a stone. - -The Paper Nautilus is mostly found in hot climates. It is never seen -on the surface unless at a long distance from land, and it is very -shy of danger, so that it is not often you can get such a good chance -of observing one as I had. I have been told by a person who was to be -trusted, that sometimes the Sepia will lay hold of a piece of drift -wood, a large leaf, or any other floating substance, and use it as a -raft, when it is not inclined to take the trouble of balancing its -shell with its feet, and spreading its sails. - -And now, my little friends, what I have told you respecting these -marvellous Sepias, reminds me of something on which I may give you a -useful caution. Many people are very fond of congratulating you on -the great wisdom and knowledge of the times in which you live, and -of making very light of what the ancients knew, or thought they knew, -especially respecting natural history. In doing this they are not -just to those who lived before us, and very often deceive themselves -in regard to the present state of our knowledge. Aristotle, the tutor -of Alexander the Great, did more in investigating the nature of the -Nautilus, and all other kinds of Cuttle fish, than any other naturalist -has done, and in his writings, (if you could read them,) you might find -nearly all the particulars I have mentioned, and a great many besides. -As to some foolish things that may be found related by him and other -old writers, which are held up for your ridicule, it is not at all -unlikely that future ages may find flaws and follies in what writings -we may leave behind us, as we now do in what our predecessors have left -us. - - -THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, &C. - -There is another kind of Nautilus, the shell of which is very strong, -and marked with brown streaks. You will see it in plate XV, fig. -4. It also differs from the Paper Nautilus, in being divided into a -succession of cells or chambers, in this manner. - -[Illustration] - -In this respect it is like the immense family of extinct shells called -Ammonites, or Cornua Ammonis; but the partitions of the chambers of the -latter are undulated, thus - -[Illustration] - -As the cells are mostly filled with various hard earthy substances, -so as to form one solid mass, they used to be called snake-stones, -because it was fancied they were petrified snakes. There are a great -number of them on the coast of Yorkshire, and the story was once -believed that the place had been infested with an immense quantity of -snakes which were changed into stone at the prayer of St. Hilda. What I -am going to tell you, relates both to the Ammonites and the Nautilus. - -If you examine the first cut, you will see small openings connecting -all the cells with each other, and the continuous passage thus formed -through the whole of the shell, is called the siphuncle. The inhabitant -of the shell is an animal of the Sepia kind, but without the webs which -serve the Paper Nautilus for sails, and with its arms not so long. It -always resides in the outermost chamber, and it is supposed that it -forms a new partition every year, so that the age of the animal may be -known by counting the number of chambers. - -When the Pearly Nautilus wishes to rise to the surface, it pumps out -the water from its shell through the siphuncle, and makes itself light. -It floats often with its shell upwards, and at other times it moves -along backwards for a considerable distance, by means of spouting out -water over the front edge of the shell. It never floats with the same -beautiful stateliness as the Argonaut. - -There is also the pretty little shell of the Nautilus Spirula, not much -larger than a shilling, plate XVI, fig. 5, which does not contain a -fish, but is merely annexed to the body of a Sepia, as is represented, -fig. 6. Its use appears to be just the same as that of the shell of the -Pearly Nautilus, to answer the purpose of a float. - -These two kinds are very rarely seen floating on the surface, though -there must be many of both of them in the ocean, from the number of -their empty shells which are found. Perhaps this arises from their not -being so buoyant as the Argonauts, and hence they more readily dip -under the surface at the approach of a vessel. - -It is now time for us to bid adieu to the sea and its wonderful -inhabitants, since I have promised to tell you of some of the wonders -of the sky, (though I remember a great many more things that I should -like to tell you of). - -[Illustration] - - - - - PART III. - - WONDERS OF THE SKY. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -COLOUR OF THE SKY. - - -Before I tell you of some of the wonders of the sky, I should like to -tell you what the sky is: it is true you know pretty nearly as much as -I do about it, but you perhaps have not thought so much on what you -know. The sky is everything above our heads which is not connected with -the earth: thus, you may speak of a cloudy sky, or a clear sky; or of -the stars, sun, and moon, being in the sky. - -It may however be more proper to restrict the word to the blue -appearance which the atmosphere above us assumes when it is not -concealed by clouds. This appearance is caused by looking into the -air, which surrounds the globe to the height of forty or fifty miles -above its surface, and not by anything which exists above it; for -mountains, when seen from a great distance, appear of the same colour, -evidently from the extent of the air between the spectator and them. - -Climate and the season of the year, have a considerable influence on -the colour of the sky. You know what a rich full blue is over us in the -hot months of summer; and I hope you have before now enjoyed the pale -blue of a clear winter's day, when the brown and bare branches of the -trees have showed against it, and all the rivers and ponds have been -frozen as solid as a stone pavement. When I see some of you sliding and -skating on the glassy ice, at such times I am ready to wish I was a boy -again, to join in your pleasures. However, I have had my turn, and old -age has its pleasures as well as youth, only we are apt to get into a -way of looking at all past times as happier than the present, which -is both foolish and wicked. If we were to keep ourselves diligently -engaged in doing our duty, we should always be happy, whether old or -young. - -But the darkest blue sky you have ever seen in your country, is light -compared with the skies of hot climates. In them you often see a deep -rich indigo; at other times you are under a canopy of reddish orange, -almost copper colour, like that which was called in the poem I quoted -to you when describing the tropical sea, "a hot and copper sky." - -The elevation of the observer above the surface of the earth, is -likewise another cause of variation. I have never myself ascended a -mountain sufficiently high to see this, but I have been told by a -gentleman who had been at the top of Mont Blanc, that the sky there -looked nearly black. - -As you must have seen them yourselves, I need only remind you of the -glorious changes of colour by the alteration of the light at the -different times of day. I hope none of you are so lazy as not often -to have enjoyed the rosy mornings; then there is the grey twilight of -evening, and the splendours of the setting sun in the west, round which -the deep orange shades off into the most delicate yellow, which again -glides imperceptibly into pale blue towards the east. Then the moon, -when she has the heavens all to herself, and the stars, when they are -shining out boldly in her absence, each make the sky so beautiful, and -are so beautiful in themselves, that one cannot exceed the other. - -I love to look at the moon when the winds rend the clouds asunder, and -drive them tumultuously along, and you see her now and then in the -dark blue depths between. But if I were to tell you all the ordinary -appearances in the sky which I love, I should leave no room to describe -its wonders; which will not do, because I meant this book to give you -an account of things which most of you have not seen. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE AURORA BOREALIS. - - -During the winter months in the Polar Regions, the sun never rises -above the horizon; and during summer it performs in appearance a little -circle round the pole of the Heavens, and never goes out of sight. -You may learn in what manner this is occasioned by the position of -those countries on the surface of the earth, from the book called "The -Wonders of the Telescope." - -The year is thus in reality divided into one long day and one long -night. While the night continues, the ground is covered with snow, and -no vegetable life is to be seen, and the animals have much to do to -support themselves on what fish they may chance to pick up on the sea -shore, by preying on each other, or else by scraping away the snow to -get at that scanty vegetation which exists underneath. The odd-looking -Esquimaux and Greenlanders would indeed be very badly off, if it -were not for the beautiful atmospheric phenomena which I am going to -describe. - -[Illustration] - -There are seldom intervals of many hours which are not illuminated by -these beautiful meteors, called Auroræ Boreales, or Northern Lights, -occurring in a never-ending variety of form, colour, and intensity. -They generally have a tendency to form an irregular arch, and one side -of them is always much better defined than the other. The more ragged -side sends out brilliant corruscations, shooting out into the sharpest -angles. - -Sir John Ross describes one which was nearly the colour of the full -moon, and of equal brightness, in the form of a well-defined arch -extending quite across the heavens, and reminded him of what he -conceived must be the effect of Saturn's ring seen by the inhabitants -of that planet from its surface. It lasted for several hours, and at -last broke up as it were into fragments of light, and disappeared. - -The distinctness of its form is much influenced by the wind, and when -the air becomes agitated, showers of rays spread out in every direction -with the quickness of lightning. Sir Edward Parry describes long bands -of light extending with immense rapidity, but always appearing to form -round a fixed point, something like a riband held in the hand and -shaken with an undulatory motion. - -Little scraps of the brightest light dart about in the heavens, called -by the sailors, "merry dancers." In stormy weather these wild little -things assume all manner of fanciful shapes; sometimes they shoot like -rockets across the firmament, then take a zigzag or waving direction, -and frequently seem to become invisible, and shine out again a little -further on. The Esquimaux say that these appearances are the spirits -of their ancestors playing at ball with the head of a Walrus! You may -perhaps laugh at this odd notion, and I will laugh with you, if you -will learn a lesson from it. You see that men in various states of -society, are always looking out for the appearance of spiritual beings, -and therefore that this disposition is a part of their constitution -which is given them by God: and although their fancies may form strange -notions at times, yet the exercise of the faculty, in some way or -other, is very important. Men had much better think that they see -spirits in the Aurora Borealis, and that they hear them in the wind, -than forget that there are such things as spirits, and that they have -spirits within them, which will live when their bodies are turned into -dust. - -But for you, my little friends, who are better instructed, there is no -occasion to think you can see or hear spirits with your bodily ears -and eyes; but I trust you will always _feel_ inwardly that there are -spirits within you and around you, and one Great Spirit above you. - -The most beautiful form of the Aurora, is called the Corona. It is -a luminous ring generally just overhead, with long distinct rays -very slender, but extremely bright, diverging from it all round. It -only lasts a few seconds, and then seems to burst like a firework, -scattering sparks in all directions. - -The stars mostly shine through the Aurora, as through a veil of thin -gauze. The darkness of the sky, with the stars shining in it above -and below, produces a most astonishing effect, which you may see very -well represented in the frontispiece, where there is depicted a small -portion of the middle of a luminous arch, very clearly defined. - -It was considered, till quite lately, that the Aurora in the Northern -regions, made a sort of rushing and rattling noise. This, however, -seems to be false, for Captain Lyons used to stand on the ice with his -ears uncovered till they were nearly frost-bitten, listening with the -utmost attention, but he could never hear the slightest sound. A very -intelligent Danish traveller says, that he has often heard the sound, -but that he is convinced of its being produced by the wind blowing upon -the ice. The reason of its being heard while the Aurora is shining, -seems to be that the Aurora often appears when it is windy, or has -something to do with a change of weather, which also occasions the -noise. - -The Aurora often appears in this country, but not with nearly so much -brilliancy or frequency, as in more northern countries. I have, -however, seen it very beautifully developed in light tints of red, -yellow, and green, but very seldom with a clear outline and determinate -form. It appears that it has been observed here much oftener than -formerly, within the last hundred years, and this applies to nearly -the whole of Europe, where it occurs. In Sweden, before the year 1716, -it was a great rarity, and about the same time the inhabitants of -Iceland were alarmed at its becoming so much more frequent than it had -previously been, supposing that it portended some great misfortunes to -be coming upon them. A similar fancy prevailed amongst ignorant persons -in this country, and I have heard that people used to imagine that the -appearance was a sign of an approaching war. - -I have very little to say to you respecting the cause of this wonderful -phenomenon. The most reasonable notion seems to be, that it is -occasioned by electric fluid playing about, and diffusing itself in -the upper regions of the atmosphere, where the air is very thin. A -similar kind of light is produced by a very pretty experiment, which -consists in sending an electric spark through a long glass vessel, from -which the air has been exhausted. When the air is more compressed, -as it is near the surface of the earth, the electric fluid does not -so spread itself abroad, but moves in more direct lines, and in -more compact masses, as you may see in lightning, or in the sparks -of an electrifying machine sent into the atmosphere under ordinary -circumstances of density. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -PARLEY TELLS OF SOME OTHER METEORS. - - -PARHELIA OR MOCK SUNS. - -There are a great many very wonderful appearances in a polar sky, -besides the Aurora Borealis. Perhaps the most remarkable of these are -Parhelia, or "mock suns," which are often seen to shine in various -parts of the sky. As many as six of them are sometimes seen at once, -all shining with great brilliancy. They are generally brightest just -before day-break, and fade away as the true sun ascends. - -Parhelia have also been seen at different times on the continent of -Europe. At Marienberg, in Prussia, many years ago, towards evening, -one was observed which seemed attached to a small white cloud that -was situated just below the sun. It was at first of a reddish colour, -but as the sun descended towards it, it assumed the aspect of the sun -itself. - -Three at once were seen at Sudbury, in Suffolk, and two were seen in a -part of Rutlandshire. There are recorded many other appearances of this -remarkable phenomenon, but they do not seem to differ much from each -other. - -There is great uncertainty as to what occasions these mock suns. -Perhaps they are merely reflections of the image of the true sun -upon reflecting clouds, such as I shall describe to you presently. -The circumstance that seems to render this probable, is that they -sometimes become brighter as the sun approaches them, which cannot -easily be accounted for by supposing them to have any source of light -in themselves. On the contrary, their fading away at times as he rises, -may be occasioned by the clouds on which they are reflected, becoming -rarified; or the effect may be only comparative, just as the moon grows -paler, and at last disappears, as day comes on. Thus you see the two -opposite effects of the sun's approach may be equally well accounted -for, on the supposition of the Parhelia being mere reflections of the -sun, and I do not think that they could on any other. - - -IGNES FATUI. - -The name Ignis Fatuus, or False Fire, is applied to a flickering, -bluish light, which is often seen in marshy districts, and in damp -burial grounds, either on the surface of the earth or only a small -distance above it. So you see it is not strictly a wonder of the sky; -but I introduce it here because it seems to be somewhat similar to some -of the higher meteors, in the manner in which it is occasioned. - -A great many entertaining stories are told of persons having mistaken -these Ignes Fatui for real lights, and it is said that benighted -travellers have frequently been led far astray by them. They are -vulgarly called in various parts of the country, Will-o'-the-Whisp, -Jack-o'-the-Lantern, Peg with her Lantern, and in burying grounds in -Scotland, Grave Candles; and strange superstitious notions are annexed -to them. They keep constantly in motion; now rising a few feet above -the earth, now sinking to the surface; now seeming to be close to you, -disappearing in an instant, and shining out at some distance; at times -one of them dividing into two, or two seeming to join into one. - -I will presently tell you how you can try a simple experiment, -that will go a great way towards accounting for these idle -Will-o'-the-Whisps. The inflammable gas called Hydrogen, is copiously -produced by the decomposition of animal and vegetable bodies. The -substance called Phosphorus, is contained in animal bodies, and is set -at liberty in small quantities by their decomposition. When phosphorus -and hydrogen come together under certain circumstances, they mix, and -a gas called Phosphuretted Hydrogen is the result. - -There is, therefore, no difficulty in supposing that most marshy -grounds may produce this gas; and this experiment will show that it is -very likely that the Will-o'-the-Whisp is nothing more. - -Hydrogen may be obtained by pouring diluted Sulphuric acid on small -pieces of Iron or Zinc. If you mix very small pieces of Phosphorus -with very small pieces of Zinc, and put them into a glass, and pour -over them the acid, Phosphuretted Hydrogen will be sent off, and the -surface of the acid will be covered with a beautiful blue flame of -the very colour of the Ignis Fatuus. The cause of the flame is, that -the phosphuretted hydrogen is so wonderfully inflammable, that the -moment it comes into air of a common temperature, it bursts into flame. -If you try this experiment, you will see how likely it is that the -Will-o'-the-Whisp is an escape of this gas from the surface of the -earth. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -SHOOTING STARS. - - -There are few of you who have not seen _falling_ or _shooting stars_, -as they are called. Perhaps some of you have loved to walk out when the -stars have been shining brightly in the blue sky overhead, to watch for -these shy wanderers that seem to come from no where, just to draw a -line of silver light across the heavens, and then disappear. When I was -a little child, I used to think that each appearance of this kind was -the destruction of one of the countless worlds that surround us, and -possibly the same fancy may, at some time or other, have occurred to -you. - -If you have taken delight in watching for them, you have many a -time been disappointed, because they would not show themselves more -frequently. It is, for the most part, only now and then that you can -catch sight of one; but there have been some occasions on which they -have appeared in immense numbers. - -The most astonishing multitude of them on record, appeared in the year -1833, in the night of the 13th of November, and was seen over nearly -the whole of North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to Baffin's Bay. -They came from all quarters of the Heavens, and are said at one time -to have been half as thick as the flakes in a heavy fall of snow. It -was calculated, on the most moderate grounds, that 36,000 must have -appeared every hour for seven hours successively. - -Previously, in the year 1799, also on the 13th of November, a similar -phenomenon was observed by Humboldt, the celebrated traveller, by some -Moravian Missionaries in Greenland, and by many persons in Germany. - -In the year 1822, on the same day of the same month, almost as great a -number were seen in several parts of Europe and Asia. - -In the year 1831, a French Officer states, that on the 13th of -November, while off the coast of Spain, he saw on an average more than -two a minute during several hours of the night. - -Similar observations were made in the year 1835, in some parts of -France; and from several other instances, there seems to be good reason -for believing that there are more falling stars about the middle of -November, than during any other part of the year. - -There have been a great many vague and silly notions devised to account -for these remarkable phenomena, and some that are not unreasonable, -though none perhaps quite satisfactory. It has been considered that -they were clouds of hydrogen gas, suddenly ignited by electricity, -within the range of our own atmosphere, and indeed only a very few -miles above the earth. Recent investigations have, however, rendered -it most probable that they are at very considerable elevations, often -as much as 500 miles above us. - -But supposing the circumstance of great multitudes of them appearing -just at one particular period of the year, to be a fact, a new light -is thrown upon their origin which must then be considered as decidedly -of an astronomical character. The theory which has been proposed, -is this:--that immense quantities of fragments of matter revolve in -regular orbits in our solar system in various planes, and that on -the 13th of November the earth passes near the orbit in which the -greatest number of such fragments move. Whether they are matter in a -gaseous state, or approaching it, or quite solid; or whether they are -constantly illuminated, or are only rendered luminous by their relation -to other bodies, such as reflection, or meeting with electric fluid, -and so becoming ignited, are questions which must remain unanswered. -There may be a slight evidence in favour of the notion of their -light not being permanent in themselves, from the fact of a French -naturalist having observed on the 17th of June in 1777, a very large -number of small black spots pass over the sun's disc. If these spots -were really bodies, which under other circumstances would have been -falling stars, it should not be forgotten that the earth in June is -nearly in the opposite part of its orbit to that which it passes over -in November. - -Well, after all, this is a very doubtful subject, and we may possibly -be very much out in our notions; but it is always worth while to see -which is the best of two theories, though there may be ever so little -to choose between them. We should make the best of what knowledge we -have, and never lazily satisfy ourselves by saying--"nobody can tell -which is true," which is almost as bad as being too obstinate and -dogmatical. For even if we adopt a conclusion which is wrong, we shall -be more ready to receive the truth when our knowledge may be increased, -than if we have no conclusion at all. One of the wisest men who ever -lived, said--"Truth comes more easily out of positive error than out of -confusion." - -You who have been interested with what I have told you respecting -shooting stars, should compare with it what I shall tell you in my next -chapter. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -METEORIC STONES OR AEROLITES. - - -There were a great many accounts in very early times, of stones having -fallen from the sky. In China and some other eastern nations, they have -long had a notion that such occurrences were connected with political -events, and accordingly they have kept careful records of what they -have known to fall for centuries back. This was a vain superstition, -but it was not more vain than the incredulity with which these reports -were received by nearly all the learned of Europe, till about forty -years ago. They denied the existence of aerolites, for no other reason -than because they had not seen them. - -Some new statements attracted the attention of scientific men in -England and on the Continent, to the subject, about the beginning of -the present century, and the conclusion of their researches was, that -stones of various sizes do, in reality, not unfrequently fall from -above to the earth. - -It appears that sometimes they fall singly, and at other times in great -numbers. I will relate to you some particular instances. - -Near Benares, in the East Indies, in the month of December in the -year 1798, a very bright meteor seemed to fall to the earth, about 8 -o'clock in the evening, and a loud noise like thunder was heard, which -was followed by a shock like the fall of heavy bodies. No cloud was to -be seen in the sky. The light of the meteor was so great as to cast -very distinct shadows of the objects in its way. The ground where it -appeared to have fallen, was afterwards examined, and was found to -be strangely torn up, having a number of small holes in it about six -inches deep. At the bottom of each hole was an aerolite weighing on -the average about one pound and a half. - -In the year 1803, a similar event took place in Normandy. The meteor, -when first seen, must have been at a very great elevation, for the -inhabitants of two places more than a league distant from each other, -thought it was just over their respective towns. A hissing noise was -also heard, like that of a stone hurled by a sling. The space over -which the stones were dispersed, must have been more than eight miles -long and three wide. There were about two thousand of them collected, -of various weights, from two drachms to seventeen pounds. - -Two stones, one of which weighed 200 and the other 300 pounds, fell in -the year 1668, at Verona. In 1680, several small ones are said to have -fallen in London. In 1628, several fell near Hatford, in Berkshire, one -of which weighed twenty-four pounds. In 1795, one weighing fifty-five -pounds, fell in Yorkshire. In 1810, a large aerolite fell, which was -the means of setting fire to five villages, and killing several -persons, in India. The largest of these are, however, small compared -with some which are said, and there is good reason to believe, to have -fallen from the sky, at some time or other. One of these, now at Bahia, -in Brazil, weighs 14,000 pounds. - -This is a cut of an aerolite in the British Museum, which fell in -Buenos Ayres. It weighs 1,400 pounds. - -[Illustration] - -They are generally covered over with a thin crust, which is quite -black, and have a very rough surface. Internally, they are greyish -and of a granulated texture. By the help of a microscope, you may -distinguish roundish grains of a grey colour; others, like rusty iron; -some, angular pieces of perfectly metallic iron, which are attracted -by the magnet; and the rest is an earthy sort of cement in which the -others are embedded. Their chemical composition is very uniform, with -the exception of some that consist almost entirely of iron; of which -sort is the one represented on the preceding page. - -Their descent appears to be quite independent of the state of the -atmosphere, from whence we may infer that the clouds have nothing at -all to do with them, but that they come from much higher regions. -When they have been found soon after falling, they have always been -extremely hot, and, as I told you of one in India, they have been known -to set on fire what they have come in contact with on the surface of -the earth. - -There have been four schemes devised to account for the existence of -aerolites. It has been imagined that they were substances which had -been cast out by volcanoes to immense heights from distant parts of the -world; but this is disproved by the fact that no substance of the same -composition as aerolites, has ever been discovered amongst the known -products of volcanoes. - -The celebrated Frenchman, La Place, thought they were substances that -had been cast out by volcanoes in the moon, with such violence as to -send them within the limits of the earth's attraction. - -Some have conjectured that they are formed in the air by the -consolidation of clouds of gaseous matters exhaled from the earth; -but according to Sir H. Davy's view of the nature of flame, the light -of meteors must arise from the ignition of _solid_ bodies, so that -at least they must become solid while they are in the condition of -meteors, and long enough before they approach the earth. - -I will tell you what I think, according to the present state of our -knowledge, the likeliest explanation, though I do not say that the -reasons in favour of it are very conclusive. You will remember what I -told you respecting the probability of falling stars being fragments -of matter revolving in orbits, which the earth at certain times comes -near in its annual course round the sun. I suppose shooting stars and -aerolites to be the same things, only they are shooting stars while -they show in the sky, and aerolites after they have reached the earth. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -BLOODY RAIN. - - -There are on record several instances of a fall of red liquid exactly -resembling blood in appearance, which has often been accompanied by a -descent of aerolites. On the 15th of November 1755, there was a heavy -shower of this kind at Ulm, and several parts of Russia and Sweden. -There was another, March 5, 1803, in Apulia, where it seemed to fall -from a reddish black cloud. A descent of large quantities of dry dust -preceded the latter, and has on several occasions occurred by itself. - -Before this phenomenon was understood, you will easily suppose that -it was looked upon as something dreadfully portentous, and the more -so from its occurring so unfrequently. It is now known to be closely -related to the aerolites, as you shall hear. - -Some of the liquid, looking just like congealed blood, which fell at -Ulm, was examined. It was found to have a sour taste, owing, as it -was thought, to the presence of sulphuric acid. When dried, the dust -that remained, which constituted the colouring matter, was found to -be subject to magnetic attraction, and in other respects to resemble -the substance of the meteoric stones; so there can be no doubt that -the dust is nothing more than what is caused by the fracture or the -friction one against the other, of aerolites, and that the rain is made -red by the dust falling on the clouds, from which it is precipitated. - - -RED SNOW. - -Several travellers have witnessed the existence of snow of a bright red -colour, in various parts of Baffin's Bay; and at Arezzo, in Italy, in -March 1813, there was a fall of it, which lasted many hours. - -There seems some reason to suppose that in the latter instance the -redness was caused by aerolite dust; but a microscopic examination of -some of that at Baffin's Bay, has proved that its colour is owing to a -still more wonderful cause. The colouring particles are actually small -plants or fungi, which take root and grow, and bear seed upon the snow -itself! - -What do you think of this Lilliputian vegetation? One full-sized plant -is no more than 1-1600th of an inch in diameter; and to cover a single -square inch of its _cold bed_ of snow, 2,500,000 are necessary! It has -been named by its discoverer, Mr. Bauer, _Uredo Nivalis_. - - -SHOWERS OF FROGS AND FISH. - -I dare say you have heard, before now, of its raining frogs and fish. I -like that you should have correct notions on these things, so I shall -just tell you what seems to have given rise to these reports. - -If you understood what I told you respecting the water-spout, you will -see how likely it is that any small fish that may be on the spot, -should be sucked upwards along with the water, even to the very top of -the spout; now they might be kept up there as long as the whirlwind -kept up a rotatory motion in the cloud, after it had ceased to sustain -the column of water drawn up from the sea. When the whirlwind was -exhausted, the little fish would naturally fall out of the cloud, -perhaps after it had travelled far from where the water-spout occurred. - -If the water-spout had passed over fresh-water lakes or rivers, frogs -might be drawn up instead of fish, and let fall in the same manner. - -But I will relate to you another circumstance, which may have been -imputed to a descent of fish from the clouds. I told you in the first -part of this book respecting the alluvions, or torrents of mud, which -make their way after an eruption down the sides of Mount Vesuvius. -In some of the great volcanoes of South America, these alluvions have -not to be formed in the regular way, but mud of the consistence of pap -is ejected from the craters themselves in amazing quantities. This -mud is supplied by subterranean waters connected with the volcanic -channel, and it often contains myriads of little fishes of the kind -called _Pimelodes Cyclopum_: they are generally about four inches long, -and they exist in such vast numbers, that their putrifying has before -now bred a pestilence in the neighbourhood of the Volcano. There are -plenty of the same fish in the contiguous streams. What renders the -circumstance so wonderful, is their being raised up to the level of -8 or 9000 feet, and then thrown out from the crater with very little -injury. - -[Illustration: PLATE XVIII. - -SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN. - - -I am going to tell you respecting some of the appearances produced -by clouds which reflect like mirrors; and by those changes in the -atmosphere which turn aside, in an irregular manner, the rays of light, -which, as they pass from an object to the eye which is looking at it, -excite the sensation called vision. - -One of the most remarkable of these, has long been known by the name -of "The Spectre of the Brocken." The Brocken is the loftiest summit of -the Hartz Mountains, in Germany; it is said to be 3,300 feet above the -level of the sea, and to command the prospect of a tract of land which -is inhabited by more than five millions of people. - -It appears that clouds, from some cause or other, which perhaps we -shall never perfectly know, are wont at times to collect on the -neighbouring heights, and reflect a very distinct shadow of great size -of whatever object may be on the summit of the Brocken, when the sun -is rising and casts his beams horizontally. The best account of this -wonderful spectacle, is given by the Abbe Hauy, who visited it in 1797, -and I shall give you his own statement. - -"After having been here for the thirtieth time," says Mons. Hauy, -"I was at length so fortunate as to have the pleasure of seeing the -Spectre. The sun rose about four o'clock, and the atmosphere being -quite serene towards the east, his rays could pass without any -obstruction over the Heinrichshohe.[A] In the south-west, however, -towards Achtermanshohe,[B] a brisk west wind carried before it thin -transparent vapours, which were not yet condensed into thick heavy -clouds. About a quarter past four I went towards the inn, and looked -round to see whether the atmosphere would permit me to have a free -prospect to the south-west; when I observed, at a very great distance -towards Achtermanshohe, a human figure of a monstrous size. A violent -gust of wind having almost carried away my hat, I clapped my hand -to it by moving my arm towards my head, and the colossal figure did -the same. The pleasure which I felt on this discovery can hardly be -described, for I had already walked many a weary step in the hopes of -seeing this shadowy image, without being able to gratify my curiosity. -I immediately made another movement by bending my body, and the -colossal figure before me repeated it. I was desirous of doing the -same thing once more; but my colossus had vanished: I remained in the -same position, waiting to see whether it would return, and in a few -minutes it again made its appearance on the Achtermanshohe. I paid -my respects to it a second time, and it did the same to me. I then -called the landlord of the Brocken; and having both taken the same -position which I had taken alone, we looked towards the Achtermanshohe, -but saw nothing. We had not, however, stood long, when two such -colossal figures were formed over the above eminence, which repeated -our compliments by bending their bodies as we did; after which they -vanished. We retained our position, kept our eyes fixed on the same -spot, and in a little time the two figures again stood before us, and -were joined by a third," (most likely by the double reflection of one -of the spectators.) "Every movement that we made by bending our bodies, -these figures imitated; but with this difference, that the phenomenon -was sometimes weak and faint, sometimes strong and well defined." - -[Footnote B: Two others of the Hartz mountains.] - -There are some remarkable circumstances attending the Brocken, that -are doubtless in some degree connected with "The Spectre," which -was once looked upon as a supernatural apparition. When Christianity -was introduced into Germany, the priests and votaries of the old -superstition, retired to the Brocken as a refuge, and there long kept -up the dark and mysterious rites of the great Saxon idol, Cortho. It is -a very wild place, full of clefts and caverns, and with rivulets and -waterfalls on all sides of it, so that it would answer their purpose -remarkably well. After the inhabitants had taken up the profession of -Christianity, they used to celebrate on this mountain a festival on -Midsummer night, in honour of St. Walpurgis, a female saint, who had -first introduced Christianity among them. A legend then prevailed, -that the summit of the mountain was occasionally haunted by a demon, -which could have been no other than the Spectre. Everything about the -mountain was looked upon with awe and veneration. A beautiful spring -which runs down its side, is at this day called the Magic Spring; -a pretty little lily that abounds on the Mountain, is called the -Wizard's Flower; and two great square granite rocks are called the -Wizard's Chair. These names may be looked upon as monuments of the -estimation in which the mountain was once held. - -While you ought, my young friends, to feel happy and grateful in being -taught what these natural things really are, and released from all -superstitious fears or notions respecting them; you should be most -careful not to forget what you owe to a purer faith, of which the -character is to invite you to inquire into, and to know everything -within your reach. - -I shall say something to you respecting the cause of the Spectre, in a -future chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -SOME OTHER INSTANCES OF AERIAL REFLECTION. - - -There has been something very like the Spectre of the Brocken, seen on -Souter Fell, a mountain about half a mile high, in Cumberland. - -One summer's evening, in the year 1743, as a farmer, named John Wren, -and his servant were sitting at the door of his cottage, they saw a man -with a dog furiously chasing some horses along a ledge on the side of -the mountain which they knew was so narrow that a horse could hardly -stand upon it. They seemed to go round one end of the mountain, and -disappeared. - -The next morning the farmer and his servant went round the track which -the horses and man had seemed to take, fully expecting to find that -they had fallen over and been killed. You may guess how surprised they -were to find no trace whatever of them, not even the mark of a hoof on -the ground. - -Well, they said nothing of what they had seen, and perhaps they almost -forgot it by nearly the same season in the following year, when the -servant, whose name was Daniel Strickett, saw one evening a whole troop -of horsemen trot along the mountain-side, near the same spot. It seems -that he had been laughed at by those to whom he had related the other -apparition, so he was rather timid, and resolved to be well assured -of the reality of this one before he mentioned it. He looked at the -figures for a considerable time, and then called another person to -witness the sight with him. Several others afterwards joined them, and -continued looking at the aerial horsemen till it was quite dark. All -these circumstances were attested before a magistrate in the year 1785: -twenty-six persons are said to have been spectators of the sight. - -[Illustration: PLATE XIX. - -DOVER CASTLE] - - -WHAT A FRIEND OF PARLEY'S SAW. - -A gentleman with whom I am acquainted, who lives in the country, told -me that he once left some labourers at the bottom of a very steep -hill, whom he had ordered to do some earth work. As he was going down, -intending to visit them again, about sun-set, he saw a part of the hill -which he was descending, and one of the labourers wheeling a barrow -upon the side of it, reflected on a cloud opposite with the greatest -distinctness. Though it was quite impossible that he could see the men -in their true position, he knew exactly what this man was about, and -what work had been done, from the reflected image. - - -DOVER CASTLE. - -Dover Castle stands upon the side of a hill, and when looked at from -the side towards Ramsgate, its four turrets may be just seen peeping -over the top of the hill. You may see how it appears in the upper -figure of plate XIX. On the 6th of August 1806, when Professor Vince, -of Cambridge, was staying near Ramsgate, he was astonished to see the -appearance of the castle as if it stood on the side of the hill next to -him, as is represented in the lower figure of the plate. It continued -so for nearly half an hour, during which he looked at it several times -with a telescope, and the image appeared quite clear and distinct. - - -WHAT HUMBOLDT SAW IN SOUTH AMERICA. - -When Humboldt was residing at Cumana, he frequently saw two small -islands which lie off the coast, suspended in the air. He once saw -some fishing boats seeming to float in the air for several minutes. In -another place he and his companion saw the figures of cows in the air -at a great height; and they were told by a person worthy of credit, -that he had seen the forms of horses suspended in like manner, but with -their legs upwards. - - -WHAT CAPTAIN SCORESBY SAW IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. - -Captain Scoresby relates several remarkable appearances of a similar -kind, one of which I will describe to you. He saw one morning the -inverted image of a ship in the air, which he at once recognized to -be that in which his father was sailing. "It was," says he, "so well -defined, that I could distinguish by a telescope every sail, the -general rig of the ship, and its particular character; insomuch that -I confidently pronounced it to be my father's ship, 'The Fame,' which -it afterwards proved to be; though on comparing notes with my father, -I found that our relative position at the time, gave a distance from -one another of thirty miles, being about seventeen miles beyond the -horizon, and some leagues beyond the limit of direct vision." - -Many other such things have been related by travellers, but with very -little variation of circumstance. - - -APPARENT DISTANCE OF OBJECTS. - -If you have never noticed the fact, you will be surprised to observe -what a great difference appears to exist in the distance of the same -objects under different states of the atmosphere. I do not mean when it -is merely clearer than at another time, but when it is equally clear, -the same object will show much higher above the horizon, and therefore -seem to be nearer to some given spot, than at other times. We who have -been at sea, have often seen this when we have been approaching land; -but you will better understand an instance which occurred at Hastings, -on the coast of Sussex. The gentleman who related it was surprised -one day to see a crowd of people running down to the sea-side, and on -inquiry he found they were going in consequence of a report that the -coast of France had become visible to the naked eye. - -He went down to the beach, and actually saw the coast of France so -plainly as to be able to distinguish objects, and with a telescope he -even clearly saw French fishing-boats at anchor, close to the shore. -The illusion lasted for more than an hour, and occasionally grew faint -and then brightened again. The distance is fifty miles, and Hastings -would therefore be hidden from the opposite coast of France by the -convexity of the earth; so that if a straight line were drawn from one -to the other, it would pass through the sea. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -OF THE FATA MORGANA AND THE MIRAGE. - - -There is a very remarkable spectacle to be occasionally seen between -the coasts of Italy and Sicily, which the inhabitants call Fata -Morgana, or _Fairy Illusion_. - -The shores on each side are rich and beautiful in the extreme, and the -narrow strait being very deep, looks always blue and fresh. According -to the best accounts of the Fata Morgana, it appears only when the sun -is elevated at an angle of 45°. It consists in a reflection of the -objects on the shore more or less magnified, multiplied, distorted, and -often decorated with the hues of the rainbow on the surface of the sea -itself, and the portion of the atmosphere which is in immediate contact -with it. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood look on it as a good -omen, and whenever it appears, run down to the sea-side joyously crying -out, Morgana! Morgana! - -[Illustration: PLATE XX. - -FATA MORGANA] - -Those who have seen it, declare that nothing can be more beautiful. The -scene must look as wonderful as anything you have ever read about in -a fairy tale. Castles, palaces, temples, of the utmost magnificence, -houses, hills and valleys, woods, green pastures, all of the brightest -colours, and indeed every one of the beautiful objects on shore, -beautified tenfold. You will see in the plate the attempt of an -intelligent traveller to convey a notion of this glorious phenomenon. - - -THE MIRAGE. - -This name is given to similar illusions which are seen in various parts -of the world, and more particularly to the illusive appearance of -water, which is frequent in the sandy deserts of the East. You shall -hear what the celebrated traveller, Dr. Clarke, says of it. - -"We procured asses for our party, and, setting out for Rosetta, began -to re-cross the desert, which appeared like an ocean of sand, but -flatter and firmer as to its surface, than before. The Arabs, uttering -their harsh guttural language, ran chattering by the side of our asses; -until some of them calling out '_Raschid!_' we perceived its domes and -turrets, apparently upon the opposite side of an immense lake or sea, -that covered all the intervening space between us and the city. Not -having in my own mind, at the time, any doubt as to the certainty of -its being water, and seeing the tall minarets and buildings of Rosetta, -with all its groves of dates and sycamores, as perfectly reflected -by it as by a mirror, insomuch that even the minutest detail of the -architecture, and of the trees, might have been thence delineated, I -applied to the Arabs to be informed in what manner we were to pass the -water. Our interpreter, although a Greek, and therefore likely to have -been informed of such a phenomenon, was as fully convinced as any of -us that we were drawing near to the water's edge, and became indignant -when the Arabs maintained, that within an hour we should reach Rosetta, -by crossing the sands in the direct line we then pursued, and that -there was no water. 'What,' said he, giving way to his impatience, -'do you suppose me an idiot, to be persuaded contrary to the evidence -of my senses?' The Arabs, smiling, soon pacified him, and completely -astonished the whole party, by desiring us to look back at the desert -we had already passed, where we beheld a precisely similar appearance. -It was, in fact, _the Mirage_, a prodigy to which every one of us were -then strangers, although it afterwards became more familiar. Yet upon -no future occasion did we ever behold this extraordinary illusion -so marvellously displayed. The view of it enabled us to imagine the -horrible despondency to which travellers must sometimes be exposed, -who, in traversing the interminable desert, destitute of water, and -perishing with thirst, have sometimes this deceitful prospect before -their eyes." - -Another traveller adds a particular which is well worthy of notice. - -"The most singular quality of this vapour is its power of reflection. -When a near observer is a little elevated, as on horseback, he will see -trees and other objects reflected as from the surface of a lake. The -vapour, when seen at a distance of six or seven miles, appears to lie -upon the earth like an opaque mass; and it certainly does not rise many -feet above the ground, for I observed that, while the lower part of -the town of Abusheher was hid from the view, some of the more elevated -buildings, and the tops of a few date-trees, were distinctly visible." - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -HOW PARLEY SUPPOSES THESE APPEARANCES TO BE PRODUCED. - - -If you wish to understand the manner in which it is most probable that -these illusions are produced, you must closely attend to what I am -going to tell you. I will make my explanation as simple as I can, but I -shall be able to teach you nothing, unless you do your part by paying -attention. - -You know that vision is produced by rays of light passing from the -object seen, to the eye of the spectator. These rays have a tendency -to form straight lines, and they would be perfectly straight, if they -had only to pass through empty space; but this cannot be the case near -the surface of the earth, as they there have to go through air, and -frequently through other transparent substances. - -When these rays meet with a substance which they cannot go through, and -which is therefore called opaque, such as a man or a house, they are -turned back or _reflected_, and strike the eye of the person who may be -looking in that direction, so as to cause vision. - -But when they meet with a body which they can pass through, called -therefore transparent, such as water or glass, they are turned aside -out of their original course or _refracted_; and this refraction takes -place in different degrees, according to the density of the substance. - -Thus, in looking at objects through air, you do not see anything -exactly in its real position; but in looking at them through water, -the variation between the reality and the appearance is still greater, -because the density of water being greater than that of air, it will -refract more. To prove this you need only put a stick obliquely into -water, and it will look as if it were broken or bent at the surface of -the water. - -[Illustration] - -The true position of the stick is marked by A B, and the apparent -position, by A C. - -We see the rising sun some minutes before he has risen above our -horizon, and the setting sun after he has sunk below it, because his -rays are refracted by our atmosphere. - -[Illustration] - -If the sun be at A, he will appear to a spectator on the surface of the -earth at C, as if he were at B, because the rays will be refracted at -D, which represents the limit of the atmosphere, towards C. - -Perhaps you knew all this before. Well, the knowledge of these laws -will very nearly enable you to understand the wonders of which I have -told you. I will try to explain to you the manner in which it seems -that the appearances are produced by the operation of the laws. - -If a ray pass through a body that refracts it from its original course, -it will go on when it has got through, in a line parallel with its -first direction. - -Thus, let A B be a thick piece of glass, and C D, a ray of light -passing through it, which would be refracted from _c_ to _d_; C _c_ -would be exactly parallel to _d_ D, and the point C would be seen from -D as if it were at E. - -[Illustration] - -If you think a little upon this, you will see that nothing is necessary -to account for objects appearing nearer to a given point at one time -than another, or objects upon the earth appearing high up in the air, -except different degrees of refraction. Thus in the instance of the -coast of France seeming to approach Hastings, it is evident that the -effect would be produced by an extraordinary degree of refraction in a -stratum of air over the sea, through which the rays of light producing -vision must come. - -[Illustration] - -The explanation will be the same as that of the diagram of the rising -sun in a former page; if the ray from A took the direction D, as under -ordinary circumstances it would do, it is evident that a spectator at -C would see nothing. But instead of this, the ray was refracted near -the middle to the point C, which represents the town of Hastings, and -therefore the object A appeared as if it had been placed at B. You -shall now hear what causes are likely to alter the refracting power of -the air at times. - -When air, water, or any other substance, is made hot, it becomes -rarified, and its refracting power is thereby diminished. Have you ever -watched, while you have been on one side of a stove, or of any heated -body, the appearance of things on the other side through the air above -it? If so, you must have seen how strangely they seem to tremble. Now -this is caused by a stream of irregularly heated air rising from the -stove, and enabling you every instant to see the things beyond it more -nearly in their true position than you can through air of the ordinary -temperature. - -If you look through a magnifying glass at distant objects, they will -appear upside down. You may learn why this takes place from books on -optics. The same effect is produced by rays passing through a medium -which becomes gradually denser, instead of suddenly passing from one -state to another. Thus, if you take a square glass bottle and put some -clear syrup into it, and then carefully pour water on the top of that, -anything, such as a written or printed line, seen through the space -where the liquids are mixing, will appear inverted. - -Again, if you take a tin tube full of water, stopped with a piece of -plain glass at each end, warm the middle of the tube, and then look at -one end, you will see an object at the other end, if held at a proper -distance, magnified, and distant objects turned upside down, just as -they would be by a convex lens. If, on the contrary, you cool the -middle of the tube, by applying ice to it, the same ensues as by using -a concave lens. If a space of cold air be between two spaces of hot -air, or the contrary, a space of hot air be between two spaces of cold -air, the effects would be the same, only they could not be produced in -so small a compass as they could with water. The space where the two -different temperatures were gradually mixing, would influence the rays -of light in the same manner as a lens on a very large scale. - -Now portions of air are often made of different temperature by the -sun's rays, by evaporation, as from the surface of the sea, or -of lakes, or from marshy districts, and by winds operating under -particular local circumstances. I do not want to lengthen out this dry -story, but if you have read attentively what I have said, you will see -that various positions of masses of air heated to different degrees, -is all that is necessary to account for the instances which I have -mentioned, in which objects have appeared inverted and out of their -true positions; such as Dover Castle, Captain Scoresby's father's ship, -the French coast opposite Hastings, and the islands, and horses with -their legs upwards, described by Humboldt. - -The apparitions of Souter Fell may be accounted for in like manner. -The latter one was seen at a time of civil commotion, when there were -private troops of horse exercised in all parts of the country, and so -the fact of armed horsemen being in the neighbourhood, is rendered -very probable. We have only to suppose the image of such a troop to be -brought to the side of Souter Fell, perhaps from the opposite side of -the mountain, by a complicated refraction, like that which appeared to -move Dover Castle out of its place. - - * * * * * - -But the Spectre of the Brocken, the Fata Morgana, and the image which -my friend saw of the side of the hill on which he was, require another -sort of explanation, because the object and the image are seen both at -once; the latter could therefore have been no other than the reflection -of the first. - -It seems likely that some vapours are capable of receiving shadows. -When I have been bathing in a river with a muddy bottom, I have often -seen my shadow on the cloud of muddy particles which I have disturbed -from the bottom, in a manner something similar to that in which I -should think this may occasionally take place. - -There is, however, another theory of it. When rays pass from a thin -medium into a denser medium, the whole do not go through, but they are -_strained_, as it were, and a part are kept back and reflected. It is -thus that you see a reflection on a transparent pane of glass. - -If you breathe very lightly upon it, the reflection will be still more -distinct, and the resemblance to the phenomenon we are describing -probably greater. There are then two causes of reflection, the change -of refracting power, and the presence of the watery particles. - -Something of this kind perhaps occurs on the top of the Brocken. A rush -of cold air may set up from deep ravines, with water and marshy land at -the bottom, on the West side, while the rising sun is genially warming -the air on the east side of the mountains. Mind, I do not say that it -is so, but it does not seem unlikely that two currents, one of cold air -and the other of hot, thus ascend close to each other; and according to -what I have told you, there would be a reflecting power in the plane -of contact, which might be increased by the watery particles carried -upwards. - -A kind of aerial screen would thus be formed, which might catch -the shadow of a person on the opposite summit, cast upon it by the -horizontal rays of the morning sun. Thus you may account for the image, -and its being so greatly magnified, requires no further explanation -than I have given above; as it only needs the supposition of a mass -of heated air, with two colder ones on each side, being between the -persons and the reflecting substance. - -The doubling of one of the figures was possibly occasioned by a -reflecting surface having been formed on a different plane from the -first, which might very easily occur. - - - - -CONCLUSION. - -OF SOME OTHER WONDERS, AND HOW WE OUGHT TO USE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE -WONDERS OF NATURE. - - -I. I have now given you, my little friends an account of a few of -the wonders of the wonderful world we live in, and I hope they have -entertained you. I should like to have spoken to you of a great many -other things, but it would make my book too large. - -Some of you, I dare say, are fond of some branch or other of natural -history, and perhaps you may be in the habit of collecting shells, -plants, insects, or fossils. Well, I hope a great many of you do so, -for it is a very delightful employment, when you are not learning your -regular lessons. When I was a school-boy, I loved to dig fossils out -of the earth, and many a sunny day have I spent with my hammer and -chisel under the cliffs by the sea-side, or in a stone-quarry. Many -times I laboured long without success, but at last I scraped together -a very pretty collection, and always managed to enjoy myself on these -fossil-hunting days, whether I was successful or not. - -But what I want particularly to say to you before we part is, that I -hope none of you will rest satisfied with merely listening to what -others tell you, with making an orderly collection of specimens, or -recollecting merely the outsides of things. Though all these are very -good when in their proper places, they are not enough. You should -compare together different facts, and often turn them over in your -minds, always keeping in view that there is something to be learned -from them more interesting and more important than any knowledge, -however correct, respecting the shapes of crystals, shells, or plants, -or the habits of animals. - -If you are diligent in thinking on what you know, you will see that -nothing stands alone in nature; every single thing is connected with -other things, so as to make up one great whole. It is true that you -will sometimes see what seems to be an exception to this; you will see -instances of conflict and disorder, and, as it seems, things destroyed -without a reason; but you will also very often find, as you come to -know more, that what seemed at first an exception was not such in -reality, and that it was what tends as much to the order and beauty of -the whole, as any of the particular things you admired at first. - -II. The ancients supposed that those parts of the world which were -in the torrid zone, and those towards the North Pole, could not -be inhabited by man; and we find from their writings, that it was -something of a puzzle to know of what use they could be. They did not, -however, know much about the extent of them, for even the shape of the -earth was then unknown,--some contending that it was in the form of a -cylinder, some that it was pear-shaped, and others that it was round -and flat like a trencher. A very few made a shrewd guess at its true -figure. No one was quite certain on the subject, till navigators had -sailed round it, so as to reach, by continually going forward, the same -spot as they started from. - -What men have learned within the last four centuries, has taught us -that only a small portion of the surface of the earth is uninhabitable. -Man, by the wonderful constitution of his nature, is enabled to bear -the extremes of heat and cold better than any of the animals that -are sent for his use, each of which is adapted for the particular -climate in which it may be placed. Under the most extreme variations -of the temperature of the atmosphere, the heat of our bodies, when we -are in health, is never increased or diminished more than a very few -degrees; so that a thermometer, with the bulb put into the mouth of an -Esquimaux, in a climate much below freezing, will be only three or four -degrees below what it will be in the mouth of an inhabitant of the East -Indies, where the temperature often exceeds 100 degrees. - -The dog is almost the only animal that is prepared to accompany man in -all climates. The form and habits of this faithful creature vary most -surprisingly, according to the circumstances in which he is placed; -but he is everywhere the loving friend and faithful associate of man, -and ready to defend him and to share his toil, in the hot and parched -deserts of the East, or the icy regions of the North. - -There are a few animals that undergo remarkable changes, to enable them -to bear the vicissitudes of the climate in which they may be placed. -The hares and the foxes of the Northern regions become covered with -white hair in winter. Now, it is proved, that a body hotter than the -surrounding atmosphere which has a white covering, cools much more -slowly than one covered with a dark colour: hence, the heat generated -inwardly is preserved and economized by the winter coats of these -animals, to the great benefit of their health and comfort. - -III. Some kinds of birds that love warm climates, are taught to -assemble together at a certain season near the end of summer, almost -to a day, and start off on a pilgrimage to distant lands, where nature -is still blooming. There are these birds which all live nearly the same -sort of life,--the swift, the swallow, and the house marten, which -all bear a strong resemblance to each other. They all come to us from -the south in spring, and take their departure before the next winter. -The swifts form themselves into companies, and take their leave of -us before the middle of August; the swallows do the same about the -middle of October, and the martens at the end of the same month. Thus -these happy creatures manage to live all their life long in summer and -sunshine. - -[Illustration] - -They are furnished with astonishing capabilities for performing these -very long journeys. You are acquainted with their slender forms, so -exactly adapted for cutting through the air, and their long, beautiful -wings. Each of these wings is moved by a muscle of prodigious power, -situated on each side of the breast-bone. Possibly you may have -noticed in larks and other birds, that are in the habit of flying long -distances, which are eaten, what a large proportion of their flesh is -in these two muscles; in the swallow, it greatly exceeds the weight of -the flesh of all the other parts of the body. You will hardly believe -it when I tell you, that the swift is able to fly at the rate of more -than a hundred miles in an hour. The little bird that perched upon -your chimney this morning, may perch to-morrow night upon one of the -pyramids of Egypt, and next week may be at the Cape of Good Hope. You -think a great deal of travelling twenty miles an hour on a railway, but -you see that is slow compared with the travelling of the swallows. - -Instead of thus following the summer about over the surface of the -earth, some creatures, that love warmth, make the best of it where -they are. Some birds get into holes and other sheltered places, put -their heads under their wings, and so sleep away the winter months. The -pretty little black-eyed dormouse makes up a snug nest, and does the -same, and so do some other of our common animals. During this inactive -period, all the functions which are necessary to support life become -fitted to a state of repose; the circulation gets slower, and the -supply of inward heat sinks to the lowest temperature which life will -bear. - -I dare say you have often found some sorts of snail-shells with the -snail inside, and the mouth sealed up firmly, and have taken them for -dead: this is not the case. The covering is only put over for the -winter to keep out the cold, and the creature lives till spring without -food or motion. How it must enjoy the first bright days of spring, -when it opens its eyes after its long nap, reaching out its horns, and -dragging its shell over the green grass. - -[Illustration] - -IV. Then, in the distribution of different animals, there is not less -to engage our attention. The rein-deer is the support and comfort of -the Laplanders. It lives constantly on the scantiest, and apparently -least nourishing diet, and when brought into warmer climates it soon -languishes and dies. The camel only flourishes where there are large -sandy deserts, with precarious supplies both of water and solid food; -and to fit him for his peculiar line of usefulness, he has a receptacle -to contain a stock of water, which he can at pleasure turn into his -stomach, and can go eight or nine days without a fresh supply; he eats -any kind of vegetables, however dry they may be; and a pound a day is -sufficient to support him for weeks together; though he is very much -larger than any of the animals which inhabit your country. It is usual -for camels to go the whole distance from Cairo to Suez, in Egypt, -without tasting a morsel, and this remarkable faculty has been supposed -to arise from the hump upon their backs. When the animal is well -fed, this hump, which is of a fatty substance, fills out and becomes -solid; but when his food is scanty, it wastes away, and its substance -appears to go to the nourishment of the more vital parts of his frame. -His large feet rest upon the sand without sinking in, and at the rate -of about two miles an hour, he will travel thirty miles a day over a -parched desert, bearing a burden of seven or eight hundred weight. He -is called by the Arabs the Ship of the Desert. - -[Illustration] - -V. You may see that there is, in every variety of circumstance, -something that enjoys itself, and has a place to fill up and a part to -act amongst the creatures which God has made. But this is not all: the -existence of the cold of the Poles, and of the heat of the Tropics, is -necessary to the well-being of the whole. - -The free air that surrounds the globe, which we breathe, and through -which we see, and hear, and smell, and move, is the same in composition -in every part of the world. It contains just the same proportions of -the two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the coldest and the hottest -climates, in the deepest valleys and on the tallest mountains. Now, -this air, considered on a large scale, is always blowing from the Poles -towards the Equator. The more direct rays of the sun heat that portion -of the earth's surface which lies in the Torrid Zone, and therefore -the air above it is perpetually ascending to the upper regions of the -atmosphere, to make room for that which presses upon it from the Poles, -because it is cooler and heavier. - -It is this process, united with the motion of the earth on its axis, -which causes the Trade Winds and Monsoons. - -Now, do you not see how necessary the cold Poles are to keep the rest -of the world from becoming too hot, by supplying constant currents of -fresh air setting in upon the hotter regions from both sides? Then the -air, which ascends from the Equator, becomes cool, and travels down -again to join the air from the Poles; and so a healthful circulation is -kept up, which is necessary for all climates. - -VI. It is very interesting to trace the dependance of the various -tribes of vegetables and animals on each other, and to observe how one -flourishes through the dissolution of another; and still more so to -notice the gradual development of the same parts in the kinds, as they -ascend one above another. You may see an instance of this in three of -the animals that I described to you, which were different enough in -other respects, but agreed in being without a bony skeleton, and in -having long organs round their mouths to catch their food with. - -In the Acalephæ, or sea-nettles, these organs were merely filaments -without sensation, of which the use seemed to be, to entangle little -creatures in, which chance might bring in their way. The animals -themselves would seem, at first sight, to be very ill able to destroy -small crabs and other shell-fish. You would suppose that the struggles -they would make with their hard pointed legs, would tear the tender -bodies of the Acalephæ; but the deficiency is supplied by the caustic -luminous fluid which paralyzes the victim, and disables it for violent -struggles while it is detained by the filaments, before the Acalepha -attempts to swallow it. - -In the Actiniæ, you will find the loose disorderly filaments changed -into feelers, with wonderfully acute sensation, regularly disposed -in a star. When a substance touches the feelers they close in with -considerable power, but seem to act more like a mechanical trap,--as -the leaves of certain plants catch flies and other insects,--than in -direct dependance on the will of the animal. However, the Actinia has -the sense of feeling, and has a perception of light and of odours, -though without eyes or nose. Having greater muscular strength and -more compactures of film, he does not need the destructive fluid with -which the Acalepha is furnished. Thus, one sort of power is made to -compensate for the loss of another. - -The Sepia also catches his food by means of fleshy organs placed round -his mouth; but in him you find them possessed of amazing power, moving -in strict subjection to his will; never loosely floating about as in -the others. Then he tastes, sees, and hears, by means of a tongue, -eyes, and ears, distinctly formed. - -A similar gradation is observed in the development of the various parts -composing the hand and arm in animals with perfect skeletons, in which -the bones act as levers. There is a very interesting book[C] written -on this subject, which you would do well to read; and you will see -in it that all sorts of birds, quadrupeds, and even fishes, have, in -their fore feet, wings, and fore fins, elements resembling those of -the human hand and arm. Often, in comparing only two animals, you might -fail to trace the slightest resemblance; but when one or two or more of -other kinds are placed between them, you find a sort of ladder which, -in an evident manner, unites the lowest with the highest tribes. - -[Footnote C: Sir Charles Bell's Treatise on the Hand.] - -At distant periods of the earth's history, you may see the same sort of -organs, and the same dependance of the creatures one on another. The -fierce Icthyosaurus, and the sly, long-necked Plesiosaurus, had eyes, -ears, tongues, and other parts, the same as our contemporaries; and -they ate and digested their food, and moved from place to place, and -preyed on each other in no other manner. - -If our acquaintance with nature were much greater than it is, we should -doubtless be able to bring proofs that there is no sort of stones, of -vegetables, or of animals, nor any process or movement of the elements, -in which we have not an interest. There is no fact that is not in -some way or other connected with the whole, so as to influence its -well-being. - -VII. Not only are the creatures which inhabit the earth united together -by bonds of similarity of structure and appetite, of common wants and -enjoyments, and of mutual support; but we are also united with the -boundless system of worlds which the night unveils to our view. The -principle of gravitation, and the beneficent rays of the sun operating -on the planets and their moons, throw over us a plain and obvious tie -of brotherhood with the stars that we may see night after night making -their way amongst the constellations, as they move in their orbits, -distinguished by their steady light from the twinkling multitude of -fixed stars. The law that unites us to them is the same as causes a -drop of rain to descend, or a weary fly to settle on the earth. - -It is not improbable, that the aerolites (if the theory which I hinted -at in a former chapter be true) may be fragments of original matter, -which have never been appropriated by any globe, and now sometimes -pitch on one planet, and sometimes on another. If this be the case, we -should be warranted in concluding that the matter of our solar system -is everywhere the same, chemically considered, and is, therefore, -governed by the same chemical laws; for the aerolites contain no -substance which is not to be found far below the surface of the earth. - -Some ignorant persons, in all ages of the world, have fancied that the -relative positions of the stars to each other, at the moment of the -birth of an individual, must have an influence upon his character and -the future circumstances of his life. Thus arose what was called the -_science_ of astrology, and the practice of _casting nativities_; and -in vulgar conversation it is not unfrequent for people, who do not -know the origin of the expression, to "thank their stars," or to talk -of their "unlucky stars," which arose from the prevalence of such a -belief. This, I need hardly tell you, is all nonsense, from beginning -to end; but you may now know that there is, in reality, quite as -wonderful a connection, and as direct a one, between yourselves and the -stars, as this which was fancied to exist. - -VIII. But who can tell how wide the relationship of our earth and -everything upon it is extended, through the agency of those wonderful -principles Light, Heat, and Electricity? It may seem to you impossible, -when I tell you that there is not a blade of grass or a flower on -this earth, which may not, in its little degree, affect the climate -of a star far beyond the limits of our solar system; but if you will -consider the way in which the falling of dews is regulated, you will -see that there are grounds for such a notion. - -I must first tell you that it is a property of Heat, like Light, to -_radiate_ or expand itself in all directions, without limit; so that a -heated body is always sending out its heat. - -Now, this radiation is influenced by the surfaces of bodies: Heat will -radiate more from a black rough surface than from a smooth white one, -and a black body will therefore much sooner get cool than a white one, -as I had occasion to tell you just now. The heat radiates rapidly from -the leaves of vegetables, though from different kinds of plants in very -different degrees, while from stones and dry wood it radiates very -slowly. - -Heat is also _reflected_, or turned back, by meeting with certain -objects; and in this respect, too, it resembles light. You have -possibly seen experiments showing this, made with polished metal -mirrors. - -At night time, when the sun's rays are not present, as the heat -radiates quickly from the plants on the ground, each plant becomes -thereby cooler than the earth and stones which surround it. This causes -the watery particles which the air contains, to condense on its leaves -and flowers, in the same manner as you see the moisture in the air of -a crowded room, settle on the outside of a glass of cold water; and, -what is most wonderful, the surface of each plant is so constructed as -to allow the escape of just so much heat, and to receive just so much -dew in return, as its peculiar nature requires. You may see, if you -look, that some plants always have more dew on them than others. - -On a cloudy night, when dews are not so much required, a great part of -the heat thus radiated is sent back, being reflected by the clouds. -Hence the dew falls less heavily at such a time than on a clear -starlight night, when every blade of grass and every little flower -sends out its ray of heat to an indefinite extent, and may possibly -meet another ray from the Dog-stars or one of the Pleiades! - -This is very wonderful; but if you think, you will perceive that it -is not more wonderful than that a ray of light should travel so far. -Every particle of the surface of these stars does its part in emitting -light, and by that the light of our nights is increased; and if Light -is affected by such remote influences, why should not Climate be so -affected? - -IX. As everything has a place to fill up amongst the creatures by which -it becomes connected with the universal system, we find innumerable -instances of things being most wonderfully provided with powers of -retaining the position for which they were created, when circumstances -may oppose it. The tendency which every animal has to preserve its -own life, supplies abundant illustration. It is this which causes the -Arctic animals to change their colour to white in winter, and the -swallows to migrate to warmer regions. But there is something selfish -in this, as the provision is merely to save the animal's own life. -Much more beautiful is it to observe the operation of the affections -of parent animals towards their offspring, by which the young, when -they are incapable of taking care of themselves, are kept alive and -preserved from injury often at the sacrifice of the enjoyment, and -even of the life of their parent. You will remember what I told you -respecting the love of the old whales towards the _suckers_. Nothing -parts with its own life willingly, but in a great many animals it may -be seen that there is a greater regard to the preservation of their -race than of their own individual lives. - -[Illustration] - -X. These tendencies may be seen in vegetables as well as in animals. -The young buds of various plants, of the common poppy for example, hang -down their heads, so that the bottom of the _calyx_, as it is called by -botanists, is placed upwards, and forms a sort of thatch or roof. When -the flower spreads out its bright broad leaves, although its weight -is increased, yet it then boldly lifts up its head to the sun, and -the neck of the stalk which seemed unable to bear up the bud, is well -able to sustain the full flower. Now if it were otherwise, and if the -bud held the same position as the flower, the rain would run into the -calyx and would lie there, so as to cause the _petals_ or leaves of the -future flower to become rotten. - -In this Kingdom of Nature, the unwillingness to part with life is even -more wonderfully exhibited than in animals. - -Seeds have been known to retain their principle of life for centuries, -and long after they have seemed perfectly dead and dry, when placed -in proper circumstances, they have sent out shoots and borne flowers -and fruit. Mr. White relates, that when some old beech trees were -removed from a spot in the neighbourhood of Selborne, where they must -have stood for ages, some strawberry plants sprung up, of which the -seeds must have lain dormant under the roots of the beeches. When the -Spaniards took possession of Peru, many of the race of Incas, the -rulers of that country, fled to the deserts and took with them what -provisions they could carry. There are now, sometimes, found in these -deserts, ancient vessels with very narrow mouths, containing at the -bottom a few grains of _maize_ or Indian corn, the remains of the stock -of those poor exiles. I have got one of the vessels; and the maize -which came out of it was sown, and took root and bore seed, though it -must have been bottled up for considerably more than three centuries. - -But now I am going to tell you something still more surprising than -this. The Ancient Egyptians, from some notion connected with their -religion, used at times to place in the hands and under the soles of -the feet of the bodies they embalmed, the roots of a kind of lily. The -roots are of a bulbous sort, not much unlike an onion, and they have -often been found on those mummies which have been uncovered. One or two -of them have been set to vegetate, and have actually borne flowers and -seed, after having slumbered in a mummy coffin for considerably more -than 2000 years! - -XI. You know that some seeds have wings or sails, by means of which -they are transported by the winds over land and sea for very many -miles. The thistle-down everybody is acquainted with. There is an -eastern annual plant whose seeds are provided with wings, which, in -a most curious manner, it only uses when it needs them, as you shall -hear. It grows in the little pools that occur here and there in the -deserts of Arabia, which, as you may suppose, in a hot climate and a -sandy soil, are very apt to dry up at some seasons of the year. The -seeds grow on the stalk enclosed in a roll of flaxen fibres, and when -they are ripe they fall off, and if the water continues till the next -year, they spring up close by where their parent plant lived. But -should the pool dry up, the flaxen fibres become dry and spread out -into wings, the wind takes hold of them, and away flies the seed till -it reaches a more favoured spot. When it is lucky enough to get to the -water, the pod speedily bursts open, and the seeds take root at the -bottom. You see how, by a simple mechanical contrivance, this plant is -enabled to do the same for the preservation of its species, as I told -you the Actinia did by a very simple exercise of instinct, for the -preservation of itself. - -XII. Because you wonder at the works of creation, you feel a desire to -search into them. You will find out many things, and you may learn to -explain a great many things, the reasons of which you are ignorant of -at present. Still, your wonder will not be satisfied; on the contrary, -the further you go, the more it will be excited. You will have to -go wondering on, but if you proceed in the right disposition, every -addition to your knowledge will increase your admiration and love; -for everything was made by the loving and wise God, and therefore -the whole must necessarily be beautiful and harmonious, and there is -nothing which has not its place to fill, and its part to act. May you, -my little friends, ever keep in mind that you are not left out of this -Divine Plan; and that there is a place to be filled, and duties to -be performed, by each one of you, which are not left to a mechanical -contrivance nor to animal instinct; but must be found out and fulfilled -by a never dying Spirit, which must be conscious of what it is about, -and is responsible to God for every action. - - -J. GREEN AND CO., PRINTERS, BARTLETT'S BUILDINGS. - - -WORKS RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY - -DARTON AND CLARK, - -HOLBORN HILL. - - -BIRDS AND FLOWERS; - -AND OTHER COUNTRY THINGS. - -BY MARY HOWITT. - -BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED IN A NEW STYLE. - -_Handsomely Bound in Saxony, Gilt Edges. Royal 18mo. Price 6s._ - -"This is a charming addition to the gift books of the season. 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Her name brings a magic with it, let us see it -when and where we will; it is one crowded with pleasant associations, -telling of wisdom learned by the wayside and under the hedge-rows -breathing perfume,--_not_ the perfume of balls and routs, but of -violets and wild-flowers,--leading the mind to pure and pleasant -thoughtfulness."--_New Monthly Magazine._ - - -THE LITTLE CONCHOLOGIST; - -A GUIDE TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS: - -WITH A COPIOUS INDEX OF THEIR VULGAR NAMES: - -BY THE REV. T. WILSON. - -SECOND EDITION. - -_Square 36mo. Gilt Edges, Coloured Frontispiece, and Copper-Plates. -Price 1s._ - -"A nice sea-side book, in a pretty exterior."--_Tait's Magazine._ - -"Ably drawn up, and beautifully printed."--_Family Magazine._ - -"A little gem."--_Monthly Review._ - -[Illustration] - -Just Published, - -THE LITTLE MINERALOGIST; - -OR, FIRST BOOK OF MINERALOGY. - -BY THE REV. T. WILSON. - -_With Coloured Plates, a Companion to the above. 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Price 1s. 6d._ - -THE LITTLE BOOK OF BOTANY; - -OR, - -FAMILIAR EXPOSITION OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE; - -SIMPLIFIED AND WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR - -Young Botanists. - -BY DANIEL COOPER, A.L.S. - -CURATOR TO THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONG AND AUTHOR OF "BOTANICAL -RAMBLES WITHIN THIRTY MILES OF LONDON." - - -_A New Illustration of the Geography of Holy Scripture, upon an -original plan, expressly adapted for SCHOOLS and FAMILY INSTRUCTION._ - - - -Just Published, - -PALESTINE, AND PART OF EGYPT, - -WITH THE COUNTRIES ADJACENT; - -Showing the Route of the Israelites through the Wilderness, and the -Division of Canaan among the Tribes; and the Holy Land in the Time of -our Saviour; all the Countries visited by the Apostles, and the great -Empires of the East; being a complete Geographical Illustration of the -Sacred Scriptures. - - -BY WILLIAM MARTIN, - -EDITOR OF THE "EDUCATIONAL MAGAZINE." - -_Size, 39 by 26 inches, price 10s. 6d.--in a case, 14s. Canvas and -Roller, Varnished, 21s._ - - [***] _The physical peculiarities of the countries represented, and - the sites of particular events, with references to the passages of - Scripture in which they are recorded, are laid down in this Map with - peculiar accuracy and clearness._ - - -DARTON AND CLARK, HOLBORN HILL. - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - - -Some of the quoted passages have unusual spelling for some words. These -were left as is; but other minor typos may have been corrected. - -The Table of Contents and page 69 list name "Skapta-Jokul" and -"Skaptar Jokul" respectively. A web search shows that the more common -spelling was "Skapta Jokul" and both were changed to that. Some page -references in the Table of Contents were corrected. A reference to -"Plate XVI, fig. 4" on page 246 has been corrected to "Plate XV, fig. -4". Illustrations were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. -All materials were obtained from The Internet Archive and any files -produced are placed in the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Peter Parley's Wonders of the earth, -sea, and sky, by Samuel G. 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Goodrich - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Peter Parley's Wonders of the earth, sea, and sky - -Author: Samuel G. Goodrich - -Release Date: August 20, 2020 [EBook #62982] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PETER PARLEY'S WONDERS--EARTH, SEA, SKY *** - - - - -Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - -<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="cover" style="max-width: 14.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.png" alt="Wonders of the Earth, Sea, and Sky, by Peter Parley" /> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chapter" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XVII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XVII</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp97" style="max-width: 38.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_frontis.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">AURORA BOREALIS</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[Pg i]</span></p> - - - - -<p class="caption1nb">PETER PARLEY'S WONDERS</p> - -<p class="tdc smaller">OF THE</p> - -<p class="caption2 pmb4">EARTH, SEA, AND SKY.</p> - - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/wiggle.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc">EDITED BY THE REV. T. WILSON.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 10em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/wiggle.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc pmt4"> -<span class="antiqua">A New Edition,</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">WITH ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<br /> -LONDON:<br /> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">DARTON AND CLARK, HOLBORN HILL.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>« ii »</span></p> - - -<p class="tdc pmt6 pmb6"><span class="antiqua">Entered at Stationers' Hall.</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>« iii »</span></p> - - -<p class="tdc"> -<span class="vsmall">TO</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="caption3nb smcap">GEORGE BIRKBECK, Esq. M.D., F.G.S.,</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="smaller">PRESIDENT OF THE LONDON MECHANICS' INSTITUTION,</span><br /> -<br /> -AS A TRIBUTE OF RESPECT<br /> -<br /> -<span class="vsmall">FOR</span><br /> -<br /> -<br /> -<span class="vsmall">HIS BENEVOLENT AND EFFECTUAL ENDEAVOURS TO PROMOTE THE<br /> -DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE,</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="antiqua">This Little Work</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="vsmall">IS,</span><br /> -<br /> -WITH PERMISSION, DEDICATED<br /> -<br /> -BY THE EDITOR.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>« iv »<br /><a id="Page_v"></a>« v »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>t seems to me that there is something very unreasonable -in the plan of a great many of the books intended -to introduce young people to the various branches of -Natural History, which have been recently published. -The chief aim of their authors seems to have been to -combine brevity with comprehensiveness. Brevity is, -without doubt, a great advantage, inasmuch as the proverb -is true, that a great book is a great evil; but in my -opinion comprehensiveness ought not to be attempted -in books intended for children. If it were desirable, I -might indeed confidently say, that it can never be obtained -within the necessary limits; and the attempt to -effect it, will very often reduce the work to a mere dry -table of classification. However neat and systematic -tables of genera and species, and lists of names may -look, they can never convey to the young the elements -of sound scientific method; and will seldom fail in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>« vi »</span> -being useless or disgusting to the mind, at an age when -it is seeking for that sort of knowledge which will -exercise the understanding, without burdening the -memory. This healthy appetite ought to be carefully -cultivated; and I am satisfied that if it were so, from -the earliest stage of education, we should have but few -complaints of bad memories. The memory is apt to -vanish from those who would make an idol of it; and I -am disposed to think that its cultivation may very safely -be omitted, as a direct object of education, if due care -is taken to keep the understanding active, and to present -the matter on which it is to be engaged in the -most entertaining form possible. In fact, what is often -termed "a good memory," that is, a ready recollection -independent of the connections which are made -solely by the understanding, is, as we may see by its -fruits in many persons of feeble intellect, by no means -desirable. An apt example of such a memory is afforded, -in what Dame Quickly says to Sir John Falstaff, when -she reminds him of a mixed multitude of unimportant -circumstances, with no other principle of arrangement -or connection, than what was supplied by proximity of -time and place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>« vii »</span></p> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> would not, however, willingly be supposed to -recommend books, in which systematic arrangement, -or the most scrupulous regard to accurate statement, -is overlooked. I had particularly in view that numerous -class of little books, which under various names -come out in series, each volume professing in a manner -to comprise <i>the whole</i> of the branch of Natural History -which may be the subject of it, by its containing a mere -arrangement of the names of the phenomena which the -branch includes. There is another and widely different -class of books, in which stories from travellers and other -idle gossip of the like kind, are compiled in an undigested -mass, without regard to the different names by -which the same thing may be called, and not unfrequently -to a common respect for truth, which is not -much less to be deprecated.</p> - -<p>And yet to books of this latter description, often of a -very unworthy character, it is that many of us owe the -first calling into consciousness of that taste which may -have made us travellers or naturalists, or lovers of -knowledge. I wish that, without copying the example -of their authors, we should learn a lesson from them, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>« viii »</span> -and put it in practice, by striving to form a taste to -enjoy knowledge in them we have to teach, before we -attempt any mode of systematic instruction.</p> - -<p>The following little book has been written under the -impressions which I have here stated. I have selected -a few of such phenomena of the Kingdoms of Nature, -as seemed to me to have in them most to excite wonder -and admiration; and I have sought to convey distinct -notions with the least possible use of technical language; -neither forgetting the connection of things, nor -overloading the statements with matters that are merely -expletive of an arbitrary system. How far I may have -succeeded, is for my little friends, and their instructors, -who have approved of my other books, to decide. -Wishing the former as much pleasure in the reading, as -I have had, for their sakes, in the writing, I take my -leave of them.</p> - -<p class="tdr2"> -P. P.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>« ix »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="caption2">PART I.—WONDERS OF THE EARTH.</p> - -<table class="tblcont" style="width:90%" summary="TOC3"> -<tr> - <td colspan="3"></td> - <td class="tdr">Page</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley explains how the Strata of the Earth are placed.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">What creatures once lived where Dorsetshire now is.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Icthyosaurus.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Plesiosaurus.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pterodactyle, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">What sort of a place once existed where the neighbourhood of Paris is now, and the animals that lived there.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Palæotherium.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Anoplotherium, &c.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Dinotherium.</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">Of Great Caverns in England and Germany, filled with bones of wild animals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>« x »</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dr. Buckland's account of the great cave of Gaylenreuth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="6"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="6">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">Of other animals that once lived in England and elsewhere</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Elephant</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Gigantic Elk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Megatherium</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Beaver</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Dodo</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="12"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="12">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley describes Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Hot Springs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Earthquake of Calabria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Volcanoes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The way in which an Eruption takes place</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Lava Streams</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Great Lava Streams from Skapta Jokul, in Iceland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Alluvions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Great Volcano Kirauea, in the island of Hawaii</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Of the formation of new islands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parley describes his visit to the Geysers of Iceland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Sulphur Mountains and Sulphur Springs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How the Geysers may be caused</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Of the Rocks called Basaltic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>« xi »</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parley's visit to Staffa</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Giant's Causeway</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Why Parley believes that there is a great source of heat within the globe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley tells something about the history of Mount Vesuvius</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Grotto del Cano</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Of the death of Pliny, the Naturalist</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Herculaneum and Pompeii</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley describes the Falls of Niagara</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p class="caption2">PART II.—WONDERS OF THE SEA.</p> - - -<table class="tblcont" style="width:90%" summary="TOC2"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley tells about the Frozen Ocean</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Icebergs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parley's dangerous situation on an Iceberg</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">The story of a long journey over the ice with some Esquimaux</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">The journey over the ice, continued</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Whale<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>« xii »</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The mode of catching Whales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Character of the Whale</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">A voyage on a Tropical Sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Trade Winds and Monsoons</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Waterspout</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How Parley supposes Waterspouts to be caused</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="5"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="5">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Coral Reefs and Islands</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Various kinds of Coral</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Coral-Making Polypes</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Forms of the Coral Reefs</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parley's first sight of one</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Luminous appearance of the sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Animals by which it is occasioned, and the Acalepha in particular</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Cuttle Fish</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Octopus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Paper Nautilus, or Argonaut</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How Parley saw one sailing on the sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pearly Nautilus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Nautilus Spirula</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>« xiii »</span></p> - -<p class="caption2">PART III.—WONDERS OF THE SKY.</p> - - -<table class="tblcont" style="width:90%" summary="TOC3"> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Colour of the Sky</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Aurora Borealis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="4">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">Parley tells of some other Meteors</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Parhelia or Mock Suns</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Ignes Fatui</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Experiment to show the cause</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">Shooting Stars</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">What they are</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">Meteoric Stones, or Aerolites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">How they are caused</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">Bloody Rain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Red Snow</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Showers of Frogs and Fish</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Spectre of the Brocken</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="7"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="7">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Some other instances of Aerial Reflection</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Souter Fell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">What a Friend of Parley's saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Dover Castle</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">What Humboldt saw<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>« xiv »</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">What Captain Scoresby saw</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Apparent distance of Object</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="2">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">Fata Morgana</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">The Mirage</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chap.</span></td> - <td class="tdr vtop" rowspan="3">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">How Parley supposes these appearances to be produced</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Refraction</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl">Reflection</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<table class="tblcont" style="width:90%" summary="Conclusion"> -<tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Of some other Wonders, &c.</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdl vtop" rowspan="12"><span class="smcap">Section</span></td> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">How we ought to think upon what we know</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ever Part of the Earth a Home for something</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">Birds of Passage, Dormice, and Snails</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Rein-deer—the Camel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">Benefit of the difference of Climate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">The same Organs in different Animals developed in various modes and degrees—the Acalepha, Actinia, and Sepia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">How the Stars and we are connected together—Gravitation—Aerolites</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Dew</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">How every thing is endowed with a tendency to preserve its own life, and the existence of its race</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">The Bud of the Poppy—long retention of life by seeds and roots</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl">Of Seeds which are furnished with wings or sails</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl">Conclusion of the conclusion</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>« xv »</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak"><span class="antiqua">List of Plates.</span></h2> -</div> - - -<table class="tblcont" style="width:90%" summary="Illos"> -<tr> - <td>PLATE</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">Page</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">EXTINCT ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED WHERE DORSETSHIRE NOW IS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_I">5</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr vtop">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">EXTINCT ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED WHERE PARIS NOW IS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_II">21</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">GREAT BONE CAVERN OF GAYLENREUTH</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_III">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl">GIGANTIC ELK AND MEGATHERIUM</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_IV">38</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl">VESUVIUS, WITH THE PINE-TREE CLOUD</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_V">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl">VESUVIUS IN ERUPTION AT NIGHT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VI">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE GEYSERS OF ICELAND</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VII">78</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">ISLAND OF STAFFA</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_VIII">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl">FINGAL'S CAVE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_IX">97</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td class="tdl">FORUM OF POMPEII</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_X">131</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl">GREAT FALL OF NIAGARA<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>« xvi »</span></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XI">135</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl">ESCAPE ON THE ICE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XII">157</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">THE WATER-SPOUT</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XIII">194</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XIV.</td> - <td class="tdl">ACTINIÆ—CORAL BUILDERS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XIV">206</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XV.</td> - <td class="tdl">SEPIAS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XV">231</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XVI.</td> - <td class="tdl">NAUTILUS</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XVI">239</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XVII.</td> - <td class="tdl">AURORA BOREALIS (<a href="#Plate_XVII">FRONTISPIECE.</a>)</td> - <td></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XVIII.</td> - <td class="tdl">SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XVIII">285</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XIX.</td> - <td class="tdl">DOVER CASTLE</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XIX">293</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XX.</td> - <td class="tdl">FATA MORGANA</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Plate_XX">299</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>« 1 »</span></p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1>WONDERS OF THE EARTH,<br /> -<br /> -SEA, AND SKY.</h1> -</div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_I">PART I.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">WONDERS OF THE EARTH.</p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY EXPLAINS HOW THE STRATA OF THE EARTH ARE PLACED.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> am now going to tell you, my young friends, -about some of the wonderful things in the earth, -sea, and sky. A great number of them I have seen -myself in my travels through various countries, -and others I have only read of; but I shall tell -you nothing that is not strictly true, for I do not -wish so much to astonish you as to make you -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>« 2 »</span> -take pleasure in contemplating the works of -God, and to increase your knowledge of His -goodness, wisdom, and power.</p> - -<p>I shall begin with some of the wonders of the -earth which, as I suppose you know, belong to the -branch of natural history which is called geology; -and to enable you to understand what follows, I -must first explain how the materials which compose -the ground you tread upon are arranged.</p> - -<p>If you hastily travel over any extensive tract -of country, such as that between New York and -Philadelphia, or between London and Bristol, -you might think that all the different substances, -clay, chalk, limestone, and granite, were irregularly -mixed together. This is, however, not -the case, when taken on a great scale; for if -you more carefully examine, you will find that -the various sorts of earth are disposed in layers, -or <i>strata</i>, and that a uniform order of arrangement -is nearly preserved.</p> - -<p>If these layers were perfectly horizontal, laid -one over another like the coats of an onion, we -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>« 3 »</span> -should have to dig through one before we could -get to the second, and our knowledge of what -the globe consists, would be much more limited -than it is; for the greatest depth to which men -have descended in the deepest mines, is not much -greater than the thickness of one of the strata.</p> - -<p>But, instead of this, the surface is broken up by -some force from beneath elevating portions, so -as to form mountains and hills; and in consequence -of this the edges of the strata appear on -the surface one after another; just as you would -see the edges of a row of bricks that had been set -up on their ends, and then the last one thrown -down so as to push down all the others.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page3a" style="max-width: 20.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page3a.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This is the way in which the strata are placed -in the neighbourhood of Weymouth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page3b" style="max-width: 27.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page3b.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>« 4 »</span></p> - -<p>The chief reason why I wished you to understand -this is, that you may see how it is known -that one stratum is older than another. It -is evident that the substance marked <i>a</i>, in the -section, which is limestone, must have been -deposited before <i>b</i>, while <i>b</i> must certainly be -older than <i>c</i>.</p> - -<p>Now in most of the strata above the granite, -which is nearly always in the position of the -oldest formation, there are found various shells, -plants, and bones of animals; and where certain -remains of different animals or vegetables are -found in one stratum, it is concluded that they -must have been living about the same time.</p> - -<p>Most of the animals of the older strata were -different in form from any at present known to -exist; and some of them are very remarkable, -and if they were alive now, would seem to us -very strange and awkward.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_I"></a><span class="smcap">Plate I.</span> <i>p. 5</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 39.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_i.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">EXTINCT ANIMALS.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>« 5 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="caption3">WHAT CREATURES ONCE LIVED WHERE DORSETSHIRE NOW IS.</p> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> will show you a picture of what creatures -were once living where the town of Lyme Regis, -in Dorsetshire, now stands, and tell you something -about their structure and their habits. You -may perhaps be ready to think that a great deal -of what we profess to know concerning them, is -the work of fancy, but I can assure you it is -not, and by and by I will endeavour to convince -you that there is reason enough for you to believe -what I tell you.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>« 6 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE ICHTHYOSAURUS.</p> - -<p>That large animal lying on the ground, is -called the <i>Icthyosaurus</i>, from two Greek words -signifying <i>Fish-Lizard</i>, in consequence of his -possessing some of the peculiarities of both -fishes and lizards.</p> - -<p>The usual length of this creature was from -twenty to thirty feet. It possessed a most surprising -combination of the powers and qualities -of different animals which are now in existence. -In its general form and character it must have -been something like the modern porpoise; but -it had the teeth of a crocodile, the head of a -lizard, the back-bone of a fish, and the fins or -<i>paddles</i>, of a whale.</p> - -<p>I shall spend some little time in explaining to -you each of these particulars, that you may see -how wisely all the parts of living things are -framed to supply their wants, and adapt them to -the circumstances in which they are placed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>« 7 »</span></p> - -<p>The head was not very different from that of -a crocodile, or lizard, in its general shape. The -teeth were precisely like those of a crocodile, -and grew up in the same manner. Creatures of -this sort lead a ruffian sort of life, always biting -something or other, and as they live very much -in the dark at the bottom of the water, perhaps -now and then snap at a stone or a piece -of hard wood by mistake, and often break their -teeth; and in order therefore to keep them in -constant repair, they have a fresh set once a -year, or at very short intervals, so that they are -always growing. The young tooth <i>a</i>, -springs up inside the old one <i>b</i>, till it becomes -so large that it splits its predecessor, -and the pieces fall off, just as the -covering of some sorts of buds falls -off as the flower expands, as you will -see in this cut, representing one of the -fossil teeth.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp31" id="page7" style="max-width: 4.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page7.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>You must have noticed in the picture the -great length of his snout. In a jaw-bone of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>« 8 »</span> -such amazing length which was to be applied to -such violent purposes, it was necessary there -should be great strength. There were two ways -of obtaining this: one would have been by -having the bones very hard and stout; but this -would not do, because they would then have -been so heavy that the animal would have found -difficulty in raising his head to the surface of -the water for the purpose of breathing, since -it would have overbalanced the other part of his -body. The other contrivance, which was the -one adopted by the wisdom of the Creator, was -to make the jaws consist of several thin bones, -<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, strongly bound together, and terminating -in succession like the plates of steel of -which a carriage spring is made. There are -accordingly six of these bones thus disposed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page8" style="max-width: 28.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page8.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>« 9 »</span></p> - -<p>But this was not all, the principal middle -bone marked <i>b</i>, instead of having its fibres run -straight, parallel with the others, had them -placed in a slanting position, and thus there was -additional firmness given to the jaw by what -ship-builders would call <i>diagonal bracing</i>, a contrivance -that you may often see used in the construction -of houses and ships.</p> - -<p>If you have ever seen a crocodile open its -mouth, and then snap together its long thin -jaws, so as to make you start with the noise, you -will see how necessary all these contrivances -must be for him and the Icthyosaurus, whose -jaws were still thinner, to prevent them from -breaking their bones.</p> - -<p>This however is not at all more wonderful -than the eye, which in the old-fashioned animal -I have been describing, was much larger than -that of the crocodile, and not unfrequently bigger -than a man's head. From the very great -quantity of light which such a large surface -would receive, the creature's power of seeing -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>« 10 »</span> -must have been very great. And besides this -advantage, it had the same faculty as is possessed -by the golden eagle, the turtle, the tortoise, and -the lizard, of pressing the eye forward to render -it more convex. In man and most animals, the -eye is placed in a fixed cavity of thin bone, -something like an egg-cup, but in the Icthyosaurus, -the cavity was formed by several bones not -quite touching each other; (as you may see in -the last cut, and in figure 2, you have two of the -bones by themselves, taken out of the socket of -the eye;) and there were muscles to draw these -bones closer together; so that by making the -cup less deep, the eye was thrust forward and -made to swell out in the middle. This is illustrated -in the ball <i>b</i>, which is pressed outwards, -by drawing the plates of bone <i>cc</i>, together at <i>o</i>, -close than those which have the ball <i>a</i> between -them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page10" style="max-width: 17.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page10.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>« 11 »</span></p> - -<p>You must have seen that the more convex -magnifying glasses are, the more they magnify, -and the nearer you must hold them to -the object you are looking at. By this contrivance, -the eye of the Icthyosaurus could be made -at pleasure into a microscope, so as to see with -wonderful quickness things which were quite -close to it, by pushing it forward and rendering -it more convex; or it could be made into a telescope -like the eyes of some persons who are -long-sighted, for seeing what is at a greater -distance, by drawing it back.</p> - -<p>In all these particulars you may see how the -skill of man leads him to adopt the same plans to -produce the same ends in the works of art, as God -has adopted before him in the works of nature, -without his being conscious of copying them; -and this should remind you that man was created -in the image of his Maker. If man had never -made a carriage-spring, or a diagonal bracing, -he would not have understood the structure of -the jaw of the Icthyosaurus; and if he had never -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>« 12 »</span> -invented the telescope, he would not have been -able to explain the construction of the eye.</p> - -<p>You have now seen the points in which the -Icthyo-saurus chiefly resembled a crocodile or -lizard; from which the latter half of its name is -derived, <i>saurus</i>, <i>a lizard</i>. I must now tell you -something of those parts in which it is like a -fish, from which it takes the other part of its -name, <i>icthy</i>, for <i>icthus</i>, a fish.</p> - -<p>You know that crocodiles live a good part of -their time on land, and they therefore have feet -and a back-bone like land animals, which enable -them to walk better, but do not allow them to -swim so well as fish. The back-bone is heavy -and firm, and each of the bones composing it has -one side slightly hollow, and the other side swelling -out to fit into the hollow in the one that -comes next to it. But in fish both sides of the -bones are hollow, and they are joined together -by gristle, as you can easily see in the fish that -are commonly eaten; this renders the back-bone -much more flexible and lighter, and therefore -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>« 13 »</span> -better adapted for an animal always swimming. -That of the Icthyosaurus was formed in -the same manner, and we therefore judge that -he spent his whole life in the water; for a back-bone -so formed, would not have been able to -support such a great heavy body when walking -on the land.</p> - -<p>The fins, or paddles, were very curious, and -much like those of the whale; they consisted of -above a hundred small bones strongly united -together, in a sort of pavement enclosed in a -strong skin, and not divided into toes, as you -may observe in this representation of the entire -skeleton.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page13" style="max-width: 25.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page13.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>You may see many specimens of the skeleton -itself in the British Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>« 14 »</span></p> - -<p>The Icthyosaurus was a great tyrant, and used -to prey on every creature that came within his -reach; this is known by the fossil remains found -in the inside of his body. He used at times -even to act the cannibal, and eat his own relations, -for a large one has been dug out of the -cliff at Lyme Regis, with part of a small one in -his stomach undigested; he must have been -altogether a very unamiable character. But as -his family has been so long extinct, and we -are told that we ought to say nothing but what -is good concerning the dead, I shall not say any -more about him, leaving you to form your own -conclusions from what I have related to you.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE PLESIOSAURUS.</p> - -<p>Those still more strange looking animals with -very long necks, which are represented swimming -in the water, have been named <i>Plesiosauri</i>, -a word signifying, <i>related to</i>, or <i>closely resembling</i>, -a lizard. There are some nearly perfect -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>« 15 »</span> -specimens in the British Museum, and -this is a representation made up by taking the -uninjured parts of several, so as to make up a -perfect whole.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page15" style="max-width: 25.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page15.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Taking it altogether, there is not one of the -fossil animals so much unlike anything at present -known to exist. Its usual length was from 9 -to 15 feet, but it was at times very much larger.</p> - -<p>The head was much shorter in proportion -than that of the Icthyosaurus, being more like -that of the guana, the lizard which people eat in -the West Indies. The neck must have been -longer than that of any living animal, not even -excepting the swan; it contained thirty-three -bones, or <i>vertebræ</i>, while the whole of the rest -of the back-bone in the body and tail, contained -only fifty-seven.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>« 16 »</span></p> - -<p>The faces of these vertebræ were nearly flat, -and not hollow like those of the Icthyosaurus, -which would better enable the animal to exist -on land, and it appears to have moved about -in the same manner as seals do. From some -very ingenious observations on certain parts of -its anatomy, (which if I were to endeavour to -explain to you, you would not understand, unless -you possessed a great deal of anatomical knowledge,) -naturalists have supposed that it used to -change the colour of its skin like the chameleon. -Its paddles were almost exactly like those of the -turtle, and its body was something of the same -shape, but not quite so wide.</p> - -<p>From its long neck, which, although it was -strengthened by the solid joints and peculiar -shapes of the bones, was not very strong, and -its small head and jaws, the Plesiosaurus could -not have been near a match for its neighbour, the -Icthyosaurus, in combat, even when the individuals -were of the same size; neither would its -form adapt it for cutting through the water so -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>« 17 »</span> -quickly. It must, therefore, no doubt, have often -fallen a prey to that voracious monster. Perhaps, -however, it often played him a trick when -he was pursuing it by running on shore out of -his reach; or it might mostly have kept out of -his way in very shallow water amongst the rushes -and reeds, where it could every now and then -dart its long neck like a swan, down at the -little fish that came near it; or else suddenly -reaching aloft into the air, it may have seized -upon some unlucky insect, or Pterodactyle, (a -sort of bat of which I shall presently speak) -and then laid down as quiet under the rushes -as if nothing had happened, waiting for its next -mouthful.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE PTERODACTYLE.</p> - -<p>That odd-looking creature which is flying in -the air over the heads of the Plesiosauri, has -been called the Pterodactyle, which signifies -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>« 18 »</span> -<i>wing-fingered</i>. There were several varieties, of -different sizes and figures, from that of a snipe -to that of a raven. The most remarkable of them -was indeed a curious creature, and so you will -say if you look at the picture of his skeleton.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page18" style="max-width: 13em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page18.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>He was more like a bat in his general shape -and habits, than anything else we know of, but -was very different in a great many respects.</p> - -<p>He had a head like a lizard, with a long snout -and sharp teeth; his ribs were round and thread-like, -not flat like those of birds and bats; his eyes -were large; and his wings like a bat's, being a -membrane or skin, stretched out by one very -long toe on each of his fore-feet. In order to -support his long head, there were strong cords -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>« 19 »</span> -running down each side of the vertebræ of his -neck, such as are found in some modern birds, -as is known by the forms of the bones to which -the ends of them were attached. His toes ended -in sharp claws, and he had also claws at his two -principal joints, so that he could catch hold of -the branches of trees with them, as bats do. -These creatures used principally to feed upon -large dragon flies, beetles, and the other insects, -of which the remains are found, and some of -which are represented in the picture.</p> - -<p>There were also living at the same time with -these creatures, several kinds of tortoises, and -fish in immense varieties. The whole district -where the south coast of England now is, seems -to have then been a marsh with no vegetation -but sea-weeds, reeds, and the like; and its only -inhabitants were, fish, reptiles, and insects.</p> - -<p>After the races of animals which we have -mentioned, became extinct, a period followed in -which they were succeeded by some monstrous -creatures, like lizards in all respects, except that -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>« 20 »</span> -they were fitted to live in the water by the construction -of their back-bone, their having lungs -of the same kind as those of fishes, and the possession -of fins. One of these, called the Iguanodon, -was sometimes seventy feet long. It had -a little horn near the end of its snout, placed -something like the horn of a rhinoceros, and -must have borne considerable resemblance in its -general form to the guana, which I mentioned -before. Their bones and teeth, are found at -Lewes, in Sussex, and in the Isle of Wight, where -you may pick them up on the shore, as you can -the bones of Icthyosauri and Plesiosauri, at Lyme -Regis, though not in such great numbers.</p> - -<p>We are indebted for a great deal of what I -have told you about the animals that once lived -where Dorsetshire is now, to a lady, Miss -Anning, who spends nearly her whole time in -collecting fossils out of the cliffs. No one ought -to go near Lyme Regis without visiting her collection.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_II"></a><span class="smcap">Plate II.</span> <i>p. 21</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" style="max-width: 38.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">EXTINCT ANIMALS.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>« 21 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">WHAT SORT OF A PLACE ONCE EXISTED WHERE THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PARIS IS NOW.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> shall show you a picture representing a -state of things much more like the present, than -the one we looked at before. It existed at a -later period, though still a great many years -ago; and if you wish to know why we conclude -it to be later, since it is the other side of the -water and we are therefore prevented from distinctly -tracing the succession of the strata, I will -tell you.</p> - -<p>After leaving the formations of Dorsetshire, -in which the great <i>saurian</i> or lizard-like reptiles -are found, we come to chalk in Hampshire and -the Isle of Wight; and after the chalk, to some -beds of clay, and then some beds of limestone. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>« 22 »</span> -The formations above the chalk, are those called -<i>tertiary</i>; those from the chalk down to the -lowest containing animal and vegetable remains, -are the <i>secondary</i>; and all below that, consisting -mainly of various sorts of granite, are the -<i>primary</i>.</p> - -<p>Now all this occurs in the same order in -France, and the neighbourhood of Paris consisting -of tertiary formations, just corresponds with -the tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight, and them -we know to be more recent than the secondary -formations of Dorsetshire. Of course, therefore, -the animals found at Paris, must be more recent -than those found at Lyme Regis.</p> - -<p>The largest of the animals represented in the -plate, is called the Palæotherium.</p> - -<p>The following is a picture of his skeleton, as -it has been made out, bone by bone. A single -tooth was first discovered, and the French naturalist, -Cuvier, was able to determine from this -alone, a great many particulars which have now -been proved by the subsequent discovery of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>« 23 »</span> -bones; such was the knowledge he had acquired -by comparing the bones of different animals. -He thus discovered that a certain shape of tooth -always accompanied a certain shape of foot, as -well as indicated what kind of food the animal -lived upon. From this might be judged a great -deal about the organs of digestion, and the -internal structure, and something of its habits -and disposition. In all these points and several -others, Cuvier predicted from a single bone of -the Palæotherium, what has been exactly confirmed -by the entire skeleton.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page23" style="max-width: 18.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page23.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>It was about the size of a small horse, and must -have possessed a little trunk, or proboscis, like -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>« 24 »</span> -the modern Tapir, to which indeed it must have -borne a great resemblance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="page24" style="max-width: 22.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page24.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption">American Tapir.</div> -</div> - -<p>The reason for thinking that it had a trunk, -is because there is a peculiar contrivance in the -bones to give strength to the neck, which only -exists in animals that have a proboscis. There -are some Tapirs in the Zoological Gardens, and -if you have seen them, you will be able to form -a pretty good notion of what the Palæotherium -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>« 25 »</span> -must have been. It had perhaps rather more of -the hog about it, than the Tapir has, with a -more dull heavy expression of countenance.</p> - -<p>There were three varieties of Palæotherium -distinguished by their size. The smallest was -not much larger than a little dog, and you may -see the figure of one of them in the picture, -going down to the water to drink.</p> - -<p>The more slender animal, which is walking -towards the water, is the Anoplotherium, or -un-armed beast. Its size varied from that of a -hare, to that of a large dog; it had a very thick -tail like that of the Kangaroo. Everything about -it would lead one to suppose that it was a timid -creature, whose swiftness and agility would protect -it against stronger animals; not unlike in -disposition to the antelope, or the hare of our -times.</p> - -<p>Another animal was living at the same period, -which I must describe to you, as it was, as far -as we know, the largest quadruped that ever -lived upon the earth, and in some respects the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>« 26 »</span> -most remarkable. It was called the Dinotherium, -or <i>terrible wild beast</i>, and you will soon -know how well it deserved this name. The individual -of which a part of the head is now in -the British Museum, must have been eighteen -feet long in the body, and proportionally large! -If you compare this size with that of the largest -elephant you have ever seen, you will be able to -form some notion of his enormous magnitude.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp62" id="page27a" style="max-width: 13em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page27a.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In his general form he somewhat resembled -the Tapirs, but by no means so nearly as did -the Palæotherium. He had a much longer trunk; -and his shoulder blade is formed like that of the -mole, by which we know that he must have used -his feet in digging. It seems almost certain that -he was amphibious: and the back part of his -skull has a remarkable similarity to that of the -whale, and cetaceous fishes in general. But the -most striking peculiarity in the bones which remain -of this monster, is the existence of two -large tusks bending down from the lower jaw, -like two hooks, as you may see represented in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>« 27 »</span> -this cut, of the head preserved in the Museum. -His legs were probably -rather short, and might -have borne nearly the -same proportion to his -body, as those of the -Hippopotamus do to his. -From all we can collect, -this must have been his -general form and appearance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page27b" style="max-width: 22.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page27b.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>« 28 »</span></p> - -<p>There can be but little doubt that he was of a -savage disposition and lead a sulky sort of life -divided between the water and the land, like the -Hippopotamus. His great tusks must have rendered -him a formidable enemy; but as we know -that he was a digging animal, it is very likely -that he more frequently used them as a sort of -pickaxe, to grub up such roots as he wanted to -eat, for he lived wholly upon vegetables. He -might also have employed them (as Dr. Buckland -has conjectured), to stick into the banks of -rivers to support his head above water, and to -anchor himself so as not to be carried down by -the stream, while his huge body lay in his favourite -element: or it does not seem unlikely that -he might at times have hooked them on to -the lower boughs of trees, to sustain himself -while he plucked down from above the fruit -and foliage with his trunk.</p> - -<p>His bones have been found in various parts of -France, Germany and Austria.</p> - -<p>When these animals were living, the climate -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>« 29 »</span> -must have been very much warmer than it is at -present in France, for their bones are found -associated with palm trees, and other vegetable -remains of hot climates, and the bones of crocodiles, -tortoises, and other creatures which only -live in warm regions. The isle of Sheppey consists -chiefly of land which was deposited about -the same time, and it contains a great quantity -of fossil coffee, and similar plants at present -restricted to the East and West Indies, and -countries near the equator.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page29" style="max-width: 13.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page29.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>« 30 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">OF GREAT CAVERNS IN ENGLAND, AND GERMANY, CONTAINING BONES OF WILD ANIMALS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>n several parts of England there are great -caverns in limestone and other rocks, which -contain an immense quantity of the bones of -such animals as are now found only in wild countries -with warm climates. One of the most celebrated -of these caves, is that of Kirkdale, in -Yorkshire. Of the bones which most of them -contain, three-fourths and upwards belong to -bears, of a sort no longer to be found in the -living state. One-half, or perhaps two-thirds, of -the remaining fourth, have been traced to a -species of hyæna, which is also unknown at the -present day. A smaller number may be referred -to a sort of tiger or lion, and to some species -of the wolf or dog family. The smallest specimens -are of various small flesh-eating animals, -such as the fox, the polecat, and other kindred -species. There are also in some of them bones -of the Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hippopotamus.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_III"></a><span class="smcap">Plate III.</span> <i>p. 28</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" style="max-width: 38.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">CAVE OF GAYLENREUTH</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>« 31 »</span></p> - -<p>But the largest and most remarkable of these -caves, is at Gaylenreuth, in Germany, of which -the picture represents a section. You will understand -this representation, if you read the following -account of it by Dr. Buckland, the Professor -of Geology, in the University of Oxford.</p> - -<p>"The first grotto turns to the right, and is -upwards of 80 feet long. It is divided into four -parts by the unequal heights of the vaulted roof; -the first three are from 15 to 20 feet high; -whereas, the fourth is only from 4 to 5. On the -bottom of this part, and on a level with the -floor, there is an orifice only two feet high, -which leads into the second grotto. This runs -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>« 32 »</span> -first southward for 60 feet, being 40 wide and -18 high; it then turns to the west through a -space of 70 feet, becoming gradually lower till -its altitude is only 5 feet. The passage to the -third grotto is very incommodious, winding -through several corridors. It is thirty feet wide, -and only five or six high. The loam of the floor -is stuffed full of teeth and jaw-bones. Near the -entrance to it, is a gulf of 15 or 20 feet, into -which visitors descend by a ladder. After going -down, they arrive at a vault 15 feet diameter by -30 feet in height; and on the side on which they -descend, is a grotto all bestrewed with bones. -By going down a little further still, they fall in -with a new arcade which conducts to a grotto -40 feet long, and a new gulf 18 or 20 feet deep. -Even after this descent, another cavern presents -itself 40 feet high, quite covered with bones. -A passage now of 5 feet by 7 leads to a grotto -25 feet long and 12 wide; then alleys, 20 feet -long, conduct into another cave 20 feet high; -and finally, a grand grotto expands, 83 feet in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>« 33 »</span> -width, and 24 in height, more copiously furnished -with bones than any of the rest. The -sixth and last grotto runs in a northerly direction, -so that the whole series of caverns and -corridors, describes nearly a semicircle.</p> - -<p>"A rift in the third grotto, disclosed in 1784, -a new grotto, 15 feet long by 4 wide, where the -greatest number of hyænas' and lions' bones -were found. The opening was much too narrow -to have allowed these animals to have entered -by it. A peculiar tunnel which terminated -in this small grotto, afforded an incredible number -of bones, and large skulls quite entire."</p> - -<p>It is supposed that these caves were inhabited -by the fierce animals whose bones they contain, -and that the other more peaceable creatures -were dragged in by them for prey, since their -bones have evidently been gnawed and crushed -as they would be by fierce and powerful carnivorous -animals.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>« 34 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">OF OTHER ANIMALS THAT ONCE LIVED IN ENGLAND AND ELSEWHERE.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="caption3">THE ELEPHANT.</p> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> have before mentioned to you the bones of -Elephants, as occurring in the bone caverns; -they were, however, not just like the Elephants -now living in Africa and Asia. The tusks seem -to have been larger, and the head not quite so -broad and blunt; the teeth were also different.</p> - -<p>There are not perhaps many counties in England -in which some of these remains have not -been found, and generally not far below the -surface of the soil. About London, and at -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>« 35 »</span> -Woolwich in particular, a great many specimens -of the fossil tusks have been collected; -they are chiefly of about the consistency of -chalk, but if you break them across and look at -the end, you can see the grain of the ivory, just -as you do on a billiard-ball, or at the end of a -knife-handle.</p> - -<p>Before anatomy was understood so well as it -is at present, the bones of the Elephant, and -those of several other large extinct animals, were -confounded together under the name of Mammoth. -There is a remarkable account of the -discovery of what was at the time called a Mammoth, -(but which was, doubtless, an Elephant,) -imbedded in ice in Siberia, which I shall relate -to you, as it is very well written and of undoubted -veracity.</p> - -<p>"In the year 1799, a Tungusian fisherman observed -a strange shapeless mass projecting from -an ice-bank, near the mouth of a river in the -north of Siberia, the nature of which he did not -understand, and which was so high in the bank -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>« 36 »</span> -as to be beyond his reach. He next year observed -the same object, which was then rather -more disengaged from among the ice; but was -still unable to conceive what it was. Towards -the end of the following summer, 1801, he could -distinctly see that it was the frozen carcass of -an enormous animal, the entire flank of which, -and one of its tusks, had become disengaged -from the ice. In consequence of the ice beginning -to melt earlier, and to a greater degree -than usual, in 1803, the fifth year of this discovery, -the enormous carcass became entirely disengaged, -and fell down from the ice-crag on a -sand-bank, forming part of the coast of the -Arctic Ocean. In the month of March of that -year, the Tungusian carried away the two tusks, -which he sold for fifty rubles, about fifteen -pounds sterling.</p> - -<p>"Two years afterwards this animal still remained -on the sand-bank where it had fallen -from the ice; but its body was then greatly -mutilated. The peasants had taken away considerable -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>« 37 »</span> -quantities of its flesh to feed their -dogs; and the wild animals, particularly the white -bears, had also feasted on the carcass; yet the -skeleton remained quite entire, except that one -of the fore-legs was gone. The entire spine, the -pelvis, one shoulder-blade, and three legs, were -still held together by their ligaments, and by -some remains of the skin; and the other shoulder-blade -was found at a short distance. The -head remained, covered by the dried skin, and -the pupil of the eyes was still distinguishable. -The brain also remained within the skull, but -a good deal shrunk and dried up; and one of -the ears was in excellent preservation, still retaining -a tuft of strong bristly hair. The upper -lip was a good deal eaten away, and the under -lip was entirely gone, so that the teeth were distinctly -seen. The animal had a long mane on its -neck.</p> - -<p>"The skin was extremely thick and heavy, -and so much of it remained as required the exertions -of ten men to carry away, which they -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>« 38 »</span> -did with considerable difficulty. More than -thirty pounds' weight of the hair and bristles of -this animal were gathered from the wet sand-bank, -having been trampled into the mud by the -white bears, while devouring the carcass. The -hair was of three distinct kinds; one consisting -of stiff black bristles, a foot or more in length; -another of thinner bristles, or coarse flexible -hair, of a reddish-brown colour; and the third -of a coarse reddish-brown wool, which grew -among the roots of the hair. These afford an -undeniable proof that this animal had belonged -to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold region, -with which we are now unacquainted, and by no -means fitted to live in the torrid zone. It is -also evident that this enormous animal must -have been frozen up by the ice at the moment -of its death."</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GIGANTIC ELK.</p> - -<p>There are frequently found in the peat bogs of -England and Ireland, the bones and horns of a -large Elk, called the gigantic Elk, and sometimes -the Irish Elk.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_IV"></a><span class="smcap">Plate IV.</span> <i>p. 38</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" style="max-width: 29.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_iv.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">MEGATHERIUM GIGANTIC ELK</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>« 39 »</span></p> - -<p>Here is a picture of him; and you may judge -how well he was entitled to his name, when I -tell you that some pairs of his horns have been -found, which measured nearly twelve feet across -from tip to tip. He must have been considerably -larger than the Wapiti Deer in the Zoological -Gardens, and of quite a different form.</p> - -<p>It is not known when these creatures became -extinct; but it is probable that it may have been -since Britain has been inhabited by man.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE MEGATHERIUM.</p> - -<p>The bones of this great beast were first found -at Buenos Ayres in South America, and a skeleton -nearly complete was sent home from thence -by the Governor to the Royal Cabinet of Madrid, -in 1789. They were found in loose soil, and -must apparently have belonged to nearly the -same age as the Fossil Elephant and Irish Elk.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>« 40 »</span></p> - -<p>The head must have been very much like that -of the sloth, but it seems to have possessed the -addition of a small trunk like the Palæotherium -I told you of just now. The structure of its legs -(and in particular its very strong short thigh-bone, -which is much stouter than that of any -animal living,) shows that it must have moved -very slowly.</p> - -<p>Its teeth show that it lived on vegetables, and -the great ungainly fore-feet, armed with tremendous -claws, would lead one to suppose that -it used to dig in the ground for roots, and tear -down the branches of trees.</p> - -<p>It appears to have been covered with a thick -shell or coating, thicker than the hide of a rhinoceros, -and rather resembling the covering of -the armadillo. I have seen a piece of this wonderful -coat of armour in the Museum at Paris, -which was found along with the skeleton in -South America.</p> - -<p>If one might decide from its likeness to other -animals in its various parts, it was a sulky beast, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>« 41 »</span> -and, if it could have spoken, would only have -said to its neighbours, "Let me alone—I want -nothing of you, if you want nothing of me."</p> - -<p>Its length was full 13 feet, and its height about -9 feet; so you may suppose armed, and defended -as it was, there was not much chance of other -animals being disposed to meddle with it, for -it must have been big enough and strong enough -to take good care of itself, though it could not -run very fast.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE BEAVER.</p> - -<p>You will, perhaps, be surprised to hear that -Beavers once lived in England; but it is known -from history, that they were found in Wales as -late as the twelfth century. I have got the -bones of some, that were given me by a countryman, -who picked them out of a peat bog in -Hampshire, without knowing what they were. -They were buried close by some hazel nuts, and -some moss that had not lost its colour, and was -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>« 42 »</span> -in no degree decayed; such is the great power -possessed by certain minerals that exist in these -peat bogs, to preserve things from decay, even -during a period which could hardly be less than -a thousand years.</p> - -<p>It is related, that the foot of a lady, which -seemed quite fresh, was found in peat, where it -had lain in contact with some of these substances, -with a sandal of a kind that must have -been worn many hundreds of years ago. And -though I will not assert that it is true, yet I will -say, that it is very likely to be so, from what I -have seen myself, in regard to nuts, and moss, -and various weeds.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE DODO.</p> - -<p>When the Dutch in the 16th century, took -possession of the Isle of France, now called -Mauritius, which up to that time had not been -inhabited by man, they found a large bird something -of the Duck kind, of which they sent -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>« 43 »</span> -home specimens and representations. They -called it the Dodo, but why, I cannot tell you.</p> - -<p>The race has now become extinct, so that -many naturalists have declared that it never -existed, and that the account of it was naughtily -invented, and sent home for the gratification -and delusion of</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Those who greedily pursue</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Things wonderful instead of true."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>But there is not the least doubt of its being a -fact, for in the Museum in London there is a -painting said to have been taken from the living -bird; there is also a leg and a plaster cast of -the head placed near the painting, which naturalists -have determined could not have belonged -to any other animal known, from their peculiar -construction; there is also another foot and the -head from which the cast was taken, preserved -in the Museum of the University of Oxford, -being the remains of an entire specimen which -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>« 44 »</span> -was kept in the collection of curiosities made by -Elias Ashmole, Esq. till it rotted. This is -representation of these two valuable relics.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page44" style="max-width: 28.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page44.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The account of the removal of the bones was -entered in the records of the University, and the -date is the 1st January, 1755.</p> - -<p>More recently some of the bones have been -found in the Mauritius, and have been sent to -Paris, where I have heard they may be seen now.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp61" id="page45" style="max-width: 7em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page45.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>It seems to have been the most unwieldy and -inactive bird in existence, and to have held -nearly the same kind of place among feathered -animals as the sloth does among beasts. The -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>« 45 »</span> -body was very massive, and almost round, and -seemed to be stuck upon two short -thick legs like pillars. The tail was -strangely out of its place, according -to the usual form of birds; and -two little caricatures of wings were -hung upon its great blank sides. A -thick pursy neck supported the head, which consisted -of two enormous chaps that opened far -behind the eyes. You will best understand the -form of the bill by looking at the cut copied from -the painting which I mentioned before, and you -may there see how like a monk's cowl the feathers -of his head looked.</p> - -<p>Some of the Dutch who met with this bird in -its own country called it the nauseous bird, and -declared that its flesh was intolerably disagreeable -to the taste; while others asserted that it -was very good eating, and that about three -Dodos would feast a hundred men. But whatever -may have been the quality of the flesh, I do -not believe what the latter said of its quantity, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>« 46 »</span> -for the head and leg which I have seen, and which -appear to have belonged to a full grown bird, are -not very much larger than those of a swan.</p> - -<p>However this is now a question which of course -will never be certainly decided, as there are no -more of them to be eaten. It appears that, like -the beavers and wolves in England, the progress -of man and cultivation deprived them of their -sources of sustenance.</p> - -<p>If we may judge of what his character was, -from his appearance, he must have been a silly, -voracious creature, with hardly any power of -resistance or flight. However, like all the rest -of God's works, he was no doubt adapted for the -circumstances in which he was placed, and had -enough means of enjoyment, to make it well -worth his while to live as long as he could.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>« 47 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY DESCRIBES VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES, AND HOT SPRINGS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">Y</span>ou have no doubt often heard of Volcanoes -and Earthquakes, for almost everybody in all -ages has felt a deep interest in them, and a -curiosity to know what they are caused by. If -you will listen to me, while I merely describe -them as they really exist, without "drawing the -long bow," as people say, I will then tell you -how I think they are produced.</p> - -<p>It is quite certain that there is an important -connexion between Volcanoes and Earthquakes; -and we may safely take this for granted, and at -once call the cause of both, whatever it may be, -<i>volcanic agency</i>.</p> - -<p>It has been discovered by extensive observations, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>« 48 »</span> -that this agency does not exert itself in -individual spots, so as to produce here a Volcano -and there an Earthquake; but its operations -take place over long tracts of country in which -the Volcanoes are placed, and, in the spaces -between them, Earthquakes are more or less -frequent.</p> - -<p>These tracts are called Volcanic bands; one -of them extends nearly parallel with the West -Coast of South America, along the chain of -mountains called the Andes, which you will see -marked on the map; and another much smaller -extends from Mount Vesuvius to Mount Etna, -with the Volcanic Island Stromboli, and several -extinct Volcanoes lying between them, and then -turns to the East, through several of the Greek -Islands, and passes on to Syria, where Earthquakes -are frequent.</p> - -<p>Earthquakes in their simplest form are nothing -more than violent shakings of the ground; -but sometimes the earth is split open; sometimes -it is raised; and sometimes it is depressed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>« 49 »</span></p> - -<p>I shall tell you of some of the changes which -took place in the great Earthquake of Calabria, -which lies in the smaller volcanic band I mentioned -to you between Vesuvius and Etna.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">EARTHQUAKE OF CALABRIA.</p> - -<p>The shocks began in 1783, and lasted for -nearly four years, till the end of 1786. During -this time the King of Naples sent persons to -take correct notes and representations of all -that was going on, and we have therefore got a -better account of it than we have of any other -Earthquake that ever occurred.</p> - -<p>The convulsion of the earth, sea, and air, extended -as far as Naples, and over the whole of -Sicily; but the district over which it was so -violent as to excite intense alarm, was about -five hundred miles in circumference.</p> - -<p>"The first shock of February 5th, 1783, threw -down, in two minutes, the greater part of the -houses in all the cities, towns, and villages, from -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>« 50 »</span> -the western sides of the Apennines in Calabria -Ultra, to Messina in Sicily, and convulsed the -whole surface of the country. Another occurred -on the 28th of March, with almost equal violence. -The chain of granite mountains which -passes through Calabria from north to south, -and attains the height of many thousand feet, -was shaken but slightly; but it is said that a -great part of the shocks which were spread with -a wave-like motion through the recent strata -from west to east, became very violent when -they reached the point of junction with the granite, -as if a reaction was produced where the -wave-like movement of the soft strata was suddenly -arrested by the more solid rocks. The -surface of the country often heaved like the billows -of a swelling sea, which produced a swimming -in the head like sea-sickness. It is particularly -stated, in almost all the accounts, that -just before each shock the clouds appeared motionless; -and although no explanation is offered -of this phenomenon, it is obviously the same as -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>« 51 »</span> -that observed in a ship at sea when it pitches -violently. The clouds seem arrested in their -career as often as the vessel rises in a direction -contrary to their course; so that the Calabrians -must have experienced precisely the same motion -on the land."</p> - -<p>At Messina in Sicily, the shore was rent; and -the soil along the port, which before the shock -was perfectly level, was inclined towards the -sea, and the sea itself was considerably deeper, -which showed that the inclination must have -been occasioned by the bottom's sinking. The -quay also sunk down 14 inches below the level -of the sea, and the houses in the neighbourhood -were much cracked.</p> - -<p>In one town there was a large round tower of -great strength, which was divided by a perpendicular -rent, and one-half was raised up several -feet, so as to show the foundations. Those who -saw it, said that it looked like a great tooth half -extracted, showing the fangs. Along the line -of the crack, the walls were found to fit so exactly -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>« 52 »</span> -together, that you would not have known -they had even been divided if the courses of the -stones had not been disturbed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp95" id="page52" style="max-width: 19.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page52.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There was a very curious difference between -some of the walls which had been thrown down, -or very much shaken by some of the shocks. In -some of them, the separate stones were parted -from the mortar, so as to leave an exact mould -where they had rested; and in others, the mortar -was ground to dust between the stones. It was -not less strange to see the effect of what must -have been whirling movements in the ground. In -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>« 53 »</span> -some streets, one house would be thrown down, -and leave the rest uninjured; while in others, -all the houses but one were thrown down, and -that one remained firm and unmoved. Two -obelisks were twisted round, so that the stones -of which they were composed, stood at cross -purposes. This cut represents one of the two, as -it stood after the earthquake, and before.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page53" style="max-width: 21.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page53.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>"It appears evident that a great part of the -rending and splitting of the ground was the -effect of a violent motion from below upwards; -and in a multitude of cases where the rents and -chasms opened and closed alternately, we must -suppose that the earth was by turns heaved up, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>« 54 »</span> -and then let fall again. We may conceive the -same effect to be produced on a small scale, if, -by some mechanical force, a pavement composed -of large flags of stone should be raised -up and then allowed to fall suddenly, so as to -resume its original position. If any small pebbles -happened to be lying on the line of contact -of two flags, they would fall into the opening -when the pavement rose, and be swallowed up, -so that no trace of them would appear after the -subsidence of the stones. In the same manner, -when the earth was upheaved, large houses, -trees, cattle, and men were engulfed in an -instant in chasms and fissures; and when the -ground sunk down again, the earth closed upon -them, so that no vestige of them was discoverable -on the surface. In many instances individuals -were swallowed up by one shock, and then -thrown out alive, together with large jets of water, -by the shock which immediately succeeded."</p> - -<p>The district called Jerocarne, was torn in a -surprising manner, and in one spot the cracks -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>« 55 »</span> -resembled those in a starred pane of glass; and -as these cracks remained open when the earthquake -was over, it seemed as if the middle had -been permanently lifted up.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page55" style="max-width: 19.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page55.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>"In the vicinity of Oppido, the central point -from which the earthquake diffused its violent -movements, many houses were swallowed up by -the yawning earth, which closed immediately -over them. In the adjacent district also of Cannamaria, -four farm-houses, several oil-stores, and -some spacious dwelling-houses were so completely -engulphed in one chasm, that no vestige -of them was afterwards discernible."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>« 56 »</span></p> - -<p>Amongst the many fissures that were opened, -there was one, a mile long, a hundred feet wide, -and thirty feet deep; and another, three quarters -of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet -wide, and one hundred feet deep; and a third, -about a quarter of a mile long, which was two -hundred and twenty-five feet deep.</p> - -<p>A mountain was cleft completely in two; and -a lake of considerable size was formed by the -opening of this great chasm, and springs bursting -out at the bottom. The inhabitants of the -neighbourhood were afraid that the pool of -nearly stagnant water which was thus formed -would injure their health, and were at great expense -in trying to drain it; but it was all in -vain, for the springs that fed it at the bottom -were inexhaustible.</p> - -<p>A great mass of earth, or hill, two hundred -feet high, and four hundred feet in diameter, -was moved nearly four miles out of its place, -with trees growing upon it; and another similar -mass, with a house on it, which was not at all -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>« 57 »</span> -injured. Some olive and mulberry trees travelled -a full mile. These great movements were -aided by springs under the masses of earth, -which made a slimy sort of road for them; and, -of course, the whole distance was down hill.</p> - -<p>"Great agitation was frequently observed in -the bed of the sea during the shocks, and, on -those parts of the coast where the movement -was most violent, all kinds of fish were taken in -greater abundance, and with much greater facility. -Some rare species, which usually lie -buried in the sand, were taken on the surface of -the waters in great quantity. The sea is said -to have boiled up near Messina, and to have -been agitated as if by a copious discharge of -vapours from its bottom. The Prince of Scilla had -persuaded a great part of his vassals to betake -themselves to their fishing-boats for safety, and -he himself had gone on board. On the night of -the 5th of February, when some of the people -were sleeping in the boats, and others on a level -plain, slightly elevated above the sea, the earth -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>« 58 »</span> -rocked, and suddenly a great mass was torn -from the contiguous Mount Jaci, and thrown -down with a dreadful crash upon the plain. Immediately -afterwards, the sea rising thirty palms -above the level of this low tract, rolled foaming -over it, and swept away the multitude. It then -retreated, but soon rushed back again with -greater violence, bringing with it some of the -people and animals it had carried away. At the -same time every boat was sunk or dashed against -the beach, and some of them were swept far -inland. The aged Prince, with one thousand -four hundred and thirty of his people, was destroyed. -The number of persons who perished -during the earthquake is estimated at about -forty thousand, and about twenty thousand -more died by diseases which were caused by insufficient -nourishment, exposure to the atmosphere, -and malaria, arising from the new stagnant -lakes and pools. By far the greater number -were buried under the ruins of their houses; -while some were burnt to death in the conflagrations -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>« 59 »</span> -which almost invariably followed the -shocks, and consumed immense magazines of -oil and other provisions. A small number were -engulfed in chasms and fissures, and their skeletons -are perhaps buried in the earth to this -day, at the depth of several hundred feet, for -such was the profundity of some of the openings -which did not close in again."</p> - -<p>There is a fine description of the Earthquake -and this melancholy result, in Cowper's Task, -which we shall quote.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2">Alas for Sicily! rude fragments now</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Lie scatter'd where the shapely column stood.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Her palaces are dust. In all her streets</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The voice of singing and the sprightly chord</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Are silent. Revelry, and dance, and show</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Suffer a syncope and solemn pause;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">While God performs upon the trembling stage</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of his own works his dreadful part alone.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The rocks fall headlong, and the valleys rise,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The rivers die into offensive pools,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And charged with putrid verdure, breathe a gross</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And mortal nuisance into all the air.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">What solid was, by transformation strange,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Grows fluid; and the fix'd and rooted earth,</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>« 60 »</span> - <div class="verse indent0">Tormented into billows, heaves and swells,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Or with vortiginous and hideous whirl</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sucks down its prey insatiable. Immense</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The tumult and the overthrow, the pangs</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And agonies of human and of brute</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Multitudes, fugitive on every side,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And fugitive in vain. The sylvan scene</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Migrates uplifted; and, with all its soil</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Alighting in far distant fields, finds out</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A new possessor, and survives the change.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ocean has caught the frenzy, and upwrought</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To an enormous and o'erbearing height,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Not by a mighty wind, but by that voice</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which winds and waves obey, invades the shore</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With force resistless. Where now the throng,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That press'd the beach, and, hasty to depart,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Look'd to the sea for safety? They are gone,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Gone with the refluent wave into the deep—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A prince with half his people!</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>You will find a great many other astonishing -effects of this Earthquake described in Mr. Lyell's -Work on Geology, from which I have extracted -some parts of the preceding account.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>« 61 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">VOLCANOES.</p> - -<p>The word Volcano comes from Vulcan, the -name of the God of fire in the Greek mythology. -You have read how the poets used to represent -him as engaged underground in forging thunderbolts -for Jupiter, and other work of the same -kind, with the assistance of his one-eyed journeymen -the Cyclopes. They feigned that Volcanoes -were the chimneys of his workshops, and -that when an eruption took place he was busy -forging his iron.</p> - -<p>Others pretended that when Jupiter had overcome -the giants named Titans, who had rebelled -against him, instead of putting them in the -stocks, he placed mountains upon them, and -that when the imprisoned monsters turned themselves -from one side to the other, earthquakes -and eruptions were the consequence.</p> - -<p>However, we don't believe any of these stories -now, neither perhaps did the ancients. But you -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>« 62 »</span> -must learn all about them and their meaning, -(where they have any,) from your schoolmaster. -My business now is to tell you what Volcanoes -are.</p> - -<p>They are openings in the surface of the earth, -from whence ignited matter of various kinds, -smoke, and ashes, are sent forth by some subterranean -agency.</p> - -<p>For the most part they do not always keep in -activity, but have long intervals of rest for -months, and sometimes for very many years, -between the eruptions.</p> - -<p>One of the few that always keeps in eruption, -is Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands off the -coast of Sicily, which there is good reason to -think, has been active for nearly 1600 years. -This Volcano is merely a mountain or rock, -standing out of the sea, and the melted matter, -that occasionally runs down its sides, flows directly -into the water, and at once kills and parboils -the fish that happen to be near it, and they -are thus sometimes taken and eaten by the poor -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>« 63 »</span> -fishermen who live about the base of the mountain.</p> - -<p>The way in which an eruption takes place in -a Volcano of the other kind, when it has been -quiet for a long time, is as follows.</p> - -<p>Great noises are heard about the foot of the -mountain, and earthquakes frequently occur for -several days before any change is seen in the -opening or <i>crater</i>, as it is called. The springs -in the neighbourhood often disappear, and as -you may suppose all these forebodings make the -people who live near gloomy enough.</p> - -<p>After a time a dreadful burst takes place, and -the crater is in an instant cleared of the stones -and earth that may have fallen into it during -the period of repose; ashes and cinders, rocks -and stones, are thrown up to an immense height -in the air, and a great cloud of smoke and steam -accompanies them.</p> - -<p>In perfectly still weather, this vapour is seen -to shape itself in a very beautiful manner. The -immense impulse from beneath sends it up to a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>« 64 »</span> -vast height as straight and almost as distinct -as a pillar. At a certain elevation, it spreads -abroad and assumes the appearance represented -in the plate. When this occurs on Vesuvius, -the Italians call it the <i>pine tree cloud</i>, from the -resemblance its form bears to that of a pine tree.</p> - -<p>As the eruption goes on the cloud of smoke -which is always copiously charged with electricity, -sends out brilliant lightnings; its form -becomes disturbed, and the dark volumes of vapour -are angrily sent forth in shapeless masses. -Red-hot stones are sent into the air to a stupendous -height; the melted matter boils up inside -the crater and rolls down the sides of the mountain, -setting fire to the trees that it meets with, -and destroying or enveloping whatever else remains -in its way.</p> - -<p>You will see their effect as they appear by -night, in the other plate. I should tell you that -the Volcano represented in both the pictures is -Mount Vesuvius.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_V"></a><span class="smcap">Plate V.</span> <i>p. 64</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 39.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_v.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">VESUVIUS N<sup><span class="u">o</span></sup>. 1</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>« 65 »</span></p> - -<p>The melted matter that boils up in the crater, -and flows down the mountain, is called Lava. -I dare say most of you have seen some pieces of -this substance when polished and worked into -ornaments. It is found in great variety, and is -sometimes black, porous, and light like cinders; -sometimes it consists of crystallized particles of -quartz, felspar, and other minerals, so as closely -to resemble granite; and not unfrequently it is -a solid dark-coloured mass, heavy and hard as -the stone that our streets are paved with.</p> - -<p>It issues from the crater in a melted state, -bubbling and boiling like water in a tea-kettle, -but you must not therefore suppose that it runs -down the declivity of the mountain like water. -On the contrary, its motion is mostly very slow, -seldom being faster when it gets at some distance -from the crater, than four miles an hour, -which is about as fast as a man can walk. When -it has run still further from its source it does -not travel more than a few yards in a day.</p> - -<p>The motion of a stream of Lava is very peculiar, -for the surface exposed to the air is immediately -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>« 66 »</span> -formed into a crust, and hence it constantly -moves with a crackling noise, and when -the stream is quite fresh no light is seen except -in the cracks that are constantly being formed -at the extremity.</p> - -<p>In this way a current will sometimes go -drawling on for months after the eruption which -gave rise to it has ceased.</p> - -<p>A very curious effect is produced when the -lava runs in a certain state of fluidity down a -steep descent. A thick, strong crust forms on -the outside, and it is one of the qualities of lava -when it has become hard, like most other stony -substances, to present great opposition to the -passage of heat. In consequence of this the -liquid lava in the inside of the current is kept -hot, and continues to run on for a long time after -the supply from the crater has ceased, and leaves -the crust in the form of an arched passage.</p> - -<p>From what I have told you about lava streams, -you will see that there is not much danger from -them to living creatures, who may always get -out of their way fast enough: but sometimes -houses and even towns are enveloped in them.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_VI"></a><span class="smcap">Plate VI.</span> <i>p. 66</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" style="max-width: 40.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vi.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">VESUVIUS N<sup><span class="u">o</span></sup>. 2</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>« 67 »</span></p> - -<p>However, from the peculiar mode in which -they travel there is often a way of preventing -this, and on one occasion it was resorted to, and -the town of Catania thereby saved. A current -of lava from Mount Etna was making its way -straight towards the town, but a body of fifty -bold strong fellows went out to meet it, armed -with crow bars; with these they broke great -holes in the crust at the side, and thus the stream -was turned into another course, and pursued its -way on one side of the town.</p> - -<p>Throughout an eruption, a great quantity of -dust is produced by the rubbing of the stones -against each other which are thrown out from -the crater, and often fall back and are thrown -up again several times.</p> - -<p>This dust is driven over a great extent of -country, and a gentleman whom I visited, who -lived about fourteen miles from Mount Vesuvius, -told me that during the great eruption of 1822, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>« 68 »</span> -his garden was covered with them, to the depth -of full six inches.</p> - -<p>But in more violent eruptions they are carried -much further than this. In an eruption of a -Volcano in Sumbawa, an island which lies some -miles to the East of Java, the ashes were carried -to a distance of 270 miles in such quantities as -to darken the air, and in another direction they -were found 300 miles off. They fell so heavily -40 miles away from the Volcano that they broke -into many houses, and rendered them uninhabitable.</p> - -<p>Quantities of liquid lava are thrown upwards, -and shape themselves into nearly the forms -of fish by their passage through the air. These -are called bombs by the inhabitants, and the -fall of them is very justly dreaded, as they come -with great violence.</p> - -<p>The size of the largest of those from which -the following picture was taken, was six inches -long, two inches and a quarter wide, and one -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>« 69 »</span> -inch and three quarters thick; but there are -much larger sometimes.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp100" id="page69" style="max-width: 14.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page69.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If you should have -a chance of examining -any of these, you may observe how wisely -the living principle, which gives the figure to -fish, has been ordained by their Creator to provide -the best form to assist their motions, in -a medium in which they are suspended, and -do not move on ground as the beasts do; seeing -that it is precisely the same sort of figure as the -laws of inanimate matter impress upon it, when -in a yielding state, and being impelled to move -under similar circumstances.</p> - -<p>I must give you a notion of the quantity of -lava sometimes sent out in a single eruption.</p> - -<p>The Volcano called Skapta Jokul, in Iceland, -in the year 1794, sent out two great streams, one -of which was 50 miles in length, from 10 to 15 -in breadth, and the ordinary depth about 100 -feet, but in some deep valleys it was more than -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>« 70 »</span> -500 feet. The other was forty miles long, seven -wide on the average, and about the same depth -as the first.</p> - -<p>These streams were not cold in the year 1805, -eleven years after they had issued from the earth, -so that you may judge how long the hardened -lava keeps in the heat.</p> - -<p>During the eruption in which this immense -mass of melted matter was thrown out, twenty -villages were destroyed, more than nine thousand -persons killed, and an immense number of -cattle.</p> - -<p>The vapour which rises at first in immense -clouds, when the eruption slackens, or when it -gets out of the reach of the heat, condenses, and -mingled with the dust thrown up with it, forms -mud, which rushes in torrents down the mountain. -These streams of mud are called alluvions, -and are very much more dreaded by the inhabitants -than the lava streams, because they are so -much quicker in their movement.</p> - -<p>It was one of these, and not a stream of lava -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>« 71 »</span> -which enveloped the Roman City Pompeii; and -which entered the modern town of Torre del -Greco, and so raised the ground that the lower -rooms of the houses were converted into cellars, -and the people were obliged to make the street -doors on what had before been the second story.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GREAT VOLCANO KIRAUEA, IN THE ISLAND OF HAWAII.</p> - -<p>There is a very remarkable Volcano in the -Island of Hawaii, where Captain Cook was -killed.</p> - -<p>The crater, instead of being at the top of a -mountain like those of most other Volcanoes, is -a large plain, seven miles in circumference, sunk -below the surface of the surrounding country, -and walled in by rugged cliffs more than seven -hundred feet high.</p> - -<p>On this plain there are fifty-one conical hillocks, -which are almost constantly sending out -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>« 72 »</span> -vapour and lava, and red hot stones. The surrounding -banks consist entirely of sulphur and -lava.</p> - -<p>The islanders, before they were taught the -truths of Christianity, believed it to be the -abode of their deities, the chief of whom they -call Pelé, and to her, they say, that everything -which grows near the Volcano is sacred. When -some missionaries were going to visit it, and -plucked some juicy berries from the shrubs -that grew there to quench their thirst, the native -guides begged them to desist till they had -made an offering to Pelé. When they got to -the edge of the crater, they threw some of the -berries in, and said, "Pelé, here are your berries, -and I am now going to eat some." They -then ate fast enough, and were willing that the -missionaries should do the same.</p> - -<p>The following are extracts from the account -of our countryman, Mr. Stewart's visit to this -terrific place.</p> - -<p>"I can compare the general aspect of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>« 73 »</span> -bottom of the crater, to nothing that will give a -livelier image of it to your mind, than to the appearance -the Otsego Lake would present, if the -ice with which it is covered in winter, were suddenly -broken up by a heavy storm, and as suddenly -frozen again, while large slabs and blocks -were still toppling, and dashing, and heaping -against each other, with the motion of the -waves. Just so rough and distorted was the -black mass under our feet, only a hundred-fold -more terrific, independently of the innumerable -cracks, fissures, deep chasms and holes, from -which the sulphureous vapour, steam, and smoke -were exhaled, with a degree of heat that testified -the near vicinity of fire.</p> - -<p>"At an inconsiderable distance from us, was -one of the largest of the conical craters, whose -laborious action had so greatly impressed our -minds during the night, and we hastened to -a nearer examination of it. On reaching its -base, we judged it to be one hundred and fifty -feet high, a huge, irregularly shapen, inverted -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>« 74 »</span> -funnel of lava, covered with clefts, orifices, and -tunnels, from which bodies of steam escaped, -while pale flames, ashes, stones, and lava, were -propelled with equal force and noise, from its -ragged mouth.</p> - -<p>"The chattering of the islanders around our -cabins, and the occasional sound of voices in -protracted conversation among our own number, -had scarcely ceased long enough to admit -of sound sleep, when the volcano again began -roaring and labouring with redoubled activity. -The confusion of noises was prodigiously great. -These sounds were not fixed or confined to one -place, but rolled from one end of the crater to -the other; sometimes seeming to be immediately -under us, when a sensible tremor of the ground -on which we lay took place; and then again -rushing to the farthest end with incalculable velocity. -The whole air was filled with the tumult; -and those most soundly asleep were -quickly roused by it to thorough wakefulness. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>« 75 »</span> -One of our party sprang up in his cot, exclaiming, -'We shall certainly have an eruption; such -power must burst through everything;' He -had barely ceased speaking, when a dense column -of heavy black smoke was seen arising from -the crater directly in front of us; the subterranean -struggle ceased, and immediately after, -flames burst from a large cone, near which we -had been in the morning, and which then appeared -to have been long inactive. Red-hot -stones, cinders, and ashes, were also propelled -to a great height with immense violence; and -shortly after, the molten lava came boiling up, -and flowed down the sides of the cone, and -over the surrounding scoria, in two beautiful -curved streams, glittering with indiscribable -brilliance.</p> - -<p>"At the same time a whole lake of fire opened -in a more distant part. This could not have -been less than two miles in circumference; and -its action was more horribly sublime than anything -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>« 76 »</span> -I ever imagined to exist, even in the ideal -vision of unearthly things. Its surface had -all the agitation of an ocean; billow after billow -tossed its monstrous bosom in the air, and occasionally -those from different directions burst -with such violence, as in the concussion to dash -the fiery spray forty and fifty feet high. It was -at once the most splendidly beautiful and dreadfully -fearful of spectacles."</p> - - -<p class="caption3">OF THE FORMATION OF NEW ISLANDS.</p> - -<p>You must know that most of the volcanic -mountains bear evident traces of having been -built up of matter thrown out, in the first place, -from a crack or hole in the ground, and afterwards -from the <i>crater</i> or <i>cup</i>, which would thus -soon be formed. At every eruption a new layer -of dust, and cinders, and lava, is added, and -thus a mountain is gradually produced.</p> - -<p>In some instances, the successive layers may -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>« 77 »</span> -be seen is the crater, as is the case with Vesuvius, -of the summit of -which this would nearly -represent the section, -if we could cut it in -two.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp95" id="page77" style="max-width: 12.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page77.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Volcanic operations -can go on very nearly -as well at the bottom of the sea, as upon dry land; -and if you remember what I told you before, -respecting the mode in which the currents of -lava flow, you will not be much surprised to -hear that their progress is not stopped by the -water, though it may be somewhat impeded. It -is certain that the streams often travel a great -way at the bottom of the sea.</p> - -<p>When a Volcano breaks out under the sea, if -the eruption send out a sufficient quantity of -lava, and stones and dust, it gets above the -surface and makes such a Volcano as Stromboli.</p> - -<p>If the Volcano should afterwards become quiet, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>« 78 »</span> -then an island is the result, and if large enough, -it may be inhabited.</p> - -<p>A great many of the islands of the South Sea, -and some of the Greek islands, originated in this -manner; and, only two or three years ago, an -island suddenly rose up off the coast of Sicily, -and was taken possession of in due form by a -British captain, in the name of the king of -England; but, as the land consisted of loose -earth, and had not much lava to bind it together, -it soon sunk down, and now no trace of it is to -be seen.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">OF THE GEYSERS OF ICELAND.</p> - -<p>There are many Volcanoes in Iceland, and the -whole island seems to have been the produce of -Volcanic agency. I am going to describe to -you one of the most singular proofs of this.</p> - -<p>Geysers are springs which spout out at intervals -great streams of hot water. The name is -taken from the Icelandic word, <i>geysa</i>, which -signifies, <i>to rage</i>, or, <i>burst forth violently</i>.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_VII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate VII.</span> <i>p. 80</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" style="max-width: 27.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_vii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">GEYSERS OF ICELAND</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>« 79 »</span></p> - -<p>The Icelanders are a very simple, excellent -people, and exceedingly kind and hospitable to -strangers. This is not the place for me to tell -you how much kindness I experienced among -them; but if I were to do so, you would have as -high a regard for them as I have. They have in -general a considerable degree of intelligence, but -I was surprised to find that a great many of -them did not know where the Geysers were, or -anything about them.</p> - -<p>There are many springs of the same kind in -several parts of Iceland; but those that are generally -known as <i>the Geysers</i>, are near the town -of Haukadal, in the south-west part of Iceland. -To these I went in company with four other -persons, and a guide.</p> - -<p>After a dreary ride through a wild volcanic -looking country, we left our horses in a safe -place, and then, proceeding some distance on -foot, we saw clouds of steam arising over the hills -before us. A little further on we got into the -plain, where the Geysers are situated, which is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>« 80 »</span> -full of boiling springs and holes sending out -steam like the valve of a steam-boiler.</p> - -<p>The great Geyser is at the top of a hillock, -which seems to have been formed in the course -of years by the substances which the hot water -holds in solution, and deposits as it cools.</p> - -<p>At the top of this mound we found a pond of -the shape of a saucer, lined with the most curious -incrustations of spar, which exactly resembled -the heads of cauliflowers. It was then about -half full of the most beautiful hot water, as clear -as crystal, which was just stirred in gentle waves -by the steam that rose up from the opening at -the bottom of the basin.</p> - -<p>We took advantage of this tranquil state of -the spring, to examine this opening. We let -down a line, with a weight at the end, to the -depth of about eighty feet, and as nearly as we -could judge, it went down perpendicularly.</p> - -<p>The hole was nearly round, and about nine -feet in diameter, but it got gradually wider towards -the top like a funnel. The inside showed -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>« 81 »</span> -the same kind of flinty incrustation as the hillock -was composed of, worn as smooth as glass by -the forcible passage of the water. The water was -then at a temperature of two hundred degrees.</p> - -<p>The saucer-shaped reservoir was fifty feet -across, and four feet deep.</p> - -<p>I ought to tell you that the waters of the -Geysers have a petrifying property, and hence -the ground all around them is covered with -what was once grass, moss, and sticks, converted -into stone, of which we brought away -many beautiful specimens.</p> - -<p>It was very late in the evening when we had -completed this examination, and fixed our tent -where we intended to pass the night. The -springs still continued quiet, and you may judge -how impatient we were for something to be -going on. However, as it was dark, and we were -very tired, having had a great deal of fatigue -during the day, we lay down in the tent and -went to sleep.</p> - -<p>About midnight we were suddenly called up -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>« 82 »</span> -by one of our party, to witness the great Geyser -in its full glory. It threw up several jets, -should think of at least ninety feet high, and -sent off vast clouds of steam. There was only -just light enough for us to distinguish the water -and steam; but the effect was very grand, and -such as we shall never forget, though it did not -leave much behind in our minds to talk about, -as everything seemed indistinct and confused.</p> - -<p>The next morning, as soon as it was light, -there was a beautiful eruption of the <i>New Geyser</i>, -as it is called. The column of water was -eight feet in diameter, and full sixty feet high, -and the clouds of steam were prodigious. The -sun was just then rising, and the effect of his -rays through the water and stream, was exquisitely -beautiful, producing many little rainbows. -When the water had sunk down, its place was -taken by a tremendous jet of spray and steam, -rushing out with a deafening roar to nearly the -same height as the water.</p> - -<p>When we threw some large stones into the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>« 83 »</span> -pipe, the steam instantly carried them up to an -amazing height; and in several instances, when -they went up quite perpendicularly, kept them -within its influence for some minutes, throwing -them upwards several times successively, in a -very strange manner; the Geyser seemed to play -with them as a boy plays with his ball when he -throws it up and catches it again and again.</p> - -<p>We were not yet satisfied, because we had not -seen an eruption fairly from beginning to end; -so we waited some time longer. At about seven -o'clock in the morning, we heard low grumbling -sounds near the great Geyser, and the water in -the basin bubbled up a little more actively.</p> - -<p>We then had an hour and a half of anxious -expectation, during which we kept walking round -the hillock; there were then about a dozen -loud reports which made the earth tremble, and -the water rose to near the top of the basin, and -became so restless that many of the waves -washed over the edge.</p> - -<p>A little while afterwards, the reports became -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>« 84 »</span> -as loud as the firing of artillery; the ground -shook violently under our feet; we ran down -the mound, and had hardly got upon the level -ground before the water rushed up the pipe -with such thick clouds of steam, as completely -to conceal the stream. These bursts took place -in this manner to the height of about twenty -feet.</p> - -<p>There was then a rest for a few seconds, -which was followed by several jets from forty -to sixty feet high; and after them a column was -thrown up eighty feet high, and ten feet in -diameter. But the last jet was the most remarkable, -for it was more than ninety feet high, -and lasted for seven minutes.</p> - -<p>This great effort seemed to have wearied the -Geyser, for the water instantly sunk down out -of the basin into the pipe, quite out of sight; -but in a few minutes it rose again to within a -foot of the edge of the basin, and then remained -stationary.</p> - -<p>Besides the great perpendicular jets, there -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>« 85 »</span> -were many little ones curling and twisting about -in all directions; and we were taught to be careful -of these by one of my companions getting -badly scalded in the leg, for they were very sudden -and uncertain in their movements.</p> - -<p>When we were quite sure it was all over, we -tried the temperature of the water in the basin, -and found it to be twenty degrees cooler than -before the eruption, which was probably caused -by the exposure of the water which had been -thrown up into the air.</p> - -<p>It seems there are generally about five or six -eruptions of each of the two great Geysers, -within twenty-four hours. But while we were -on the spot, many of the smaller springs spouted -up much oftener, and one bustling little thing -darted out its waters in all directions, three or -four times in an hour.</p> - -<p>We did not see any jet from the great Geyser -above one hundred feet high; but some travellers -have asserted that they are at times two or -three hundred feet in height. It would appear -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>« 86 »</span> -that the force of the Geysers varies considerably, -and in some instances is affected by the earthquakes -which often happen here; some of which -seem to cripple, and others to strengthen them.</p> - -<p>Some of the water of the great Geyser falls -over the edge of the basin into a deep hole in -the rock below, which makes a capital warm -bath, for by the time the water reaches it, it is -of the desirable coolness. I can assure you, we -enjoyed a bathe in it very much indeed.</p> - -<p>There are several other springs in Iceland of -nearly the same character, and the most remarkable -are the Hot Springs of Reykium. The -largest of these has two openings, from one of -which the water is incessantly flowing to the -height of six or eight feet; the other opening is -about ten feet distant, and is surrounded by an -incrusted brim, like that of the great Geyser. -The eruptions take place from this about fifteen -times in twenty-four hours, to the height of -about thirty feet, accompanied with a great deal -of steam.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>« 87 »</span></p> - -<p>There is also a most wonderful spring in Reykium, -called the Badstofa. It flows into a great -cave, from the bottom of which the water keeps -on retreating and flowing like the waves of the -sea, with a deep rumbling sound for some time -before the eruption, when the water rushes up -to the height of nearly twenty feet.</p> - -<p>About half a mile from this place, there are -some Hot Springs that rise in the bed of a river, -and force themselves quite through the cold -water which covers them.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SULPHUR MOUNTAINS AND SULPHUR SPRINGS.</p> - -<p>There is a wonderful place in Iceland, which I -am sure you would like to hear about. It is in -the south-west part of the island nearer the sea -than the Geysers. Nearly the whole region consists -of sulphur, and hot clay, and hot dirty -water, and it contains some mountains, called -the <i>Sulphur Mountains</i>, from which great quantities -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>« 88 »</span> -of sulphur are collected by the peasants, -and sent to the continent of Europe for -sale.</p> - -<p>The vapour that is always rising from this -wretched-looking country, makes a sort of crust -over the hot clay; and you will sometimes come -to a spot that appears solid, and as you go over -it, your horse's hoofs will make holes which will -send out steam like little cauldrons. A gentleman -who would go over one of these on foot, -got terribly scalded by the crust breaking away -under him.</p> - -<p>There is here a sort of hut, from the bottom -of which much steam rises, and it is used as a -vapour bath. People that are affected with -various diseases, come to it from the surrounding -country in considerable numbers.</p> - -<p>At a little distance from this you come to the -brink of a cliff, and looking over it, you see -twelve large ponds or basins of black mud, boiling, -and splashing, and raging perpetually, with -large volumes of vapour rolling off their surfaces. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>« 89 »</span> -Beyond these some dismal black-looking -mountains make a back ground. Can you imagine -any thing more fearful to look upon?</p> - -<p>Besides these, there is a kind of Geyser of -mud, which just resembles the real Geysers in its -action; but instead of sending up beautiful clear -water, it throws out black unsightly mud, as -thick as porridge, which is caught in a nearly -round reservoir of more than one hundred feet -in diameter. It is situated near the summit of -a mountain called <i>Krabla</i> and the reservoir -seems to have been in time past a volcanic crater.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">HOW THE GEYSERS MAY BE CAUSED.</p> - -<p>Of course there cannot be hot water without -some source of heat, and there must, therefore, -be a source of heat taken into consideration in -the action of the Geysers. Now, I do not wish -to speak of this here, I only wish to make you -understand how it seems likely that the eruptions -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>« 90 »</span> -of the Geysers are occasioned, supposing -there was a supply of hot water.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp59" id="page90" style="max-width: 13.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page90.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This cut is intended to -represent what may be a -section of the subterranean -reservoir, <span class="allsmcap">S W</span>, of -the great Geyser, and -the pipe, <span class="allsmcap">P</span>, connected -with the saucer-shaped -basin, <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, at the top of -the mound. You see -the cracks in the rock -through which you must -suppose hot water constantly trickling into the -reservoir.</p> - -<p>The space <span class="allsmcap">S</span> will be constantly full of steam, -and the space below, <span class="allsmcap">W</span>, will be always full of -water. The water will continue to rise till it -gets to <span class="allsmcap">A</span>, and it will then quite stop up the -escape of the steam.</p> - -<p>The steam in <span class="allsmcap">S</span> will then press upon the surface -of the water, and force it up the pipe <span class="allsmcap">P</span> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>« 91 »</span> -with more or less violence, according to the supply -of heat; but when enough of the steam has -escaped to render the pressure less, and the water -has sunk to near <span class="allsmcap">I</span>, the eruption will cease.</p> - -<p>If you will take the trouble to understand this -section, you will see how reasonable it is that -the Geyser should be so constructed; and I have -seen a little apparatus made of glass, which -showed exactly the same sort of operations.</p> - -<p>Some little variation in the shape of the reservoir -and pipe, may perhaps be needed to account -for all that takes place; but the principle -of the activity being produced by the agency of -steam, acting in a space which may be enclosed -by the water in its rising to a certain height, -seems to be certain and satisfactory.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>« 92 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">OF THE ROCKS CALLED BASALTIC.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>n some parts of the world, there are rocks -which are not stratified and arranged like those -which I described to you some time ago, but are -laid over the surfaces, and in the crevices of -others in this manner:—</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page92" style="max-width: 13.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page92.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In this cut, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, are intended to -represent the stratified rocks, and <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>, -the others, which from their position -are sometimes called <i>overlying rocks</i>, -and they mostly consist of a substance -called <i>basalt</i>, which is nearly -black and very hard, and occasionally -with white and coloured minerals imbedded -in it. There are two states in -which it is found; in one, it occurs in masses -without any particular form, and in the other -state it constitutes pillars shaped with great accuracy -and regularity.</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_VIII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate VIII.</span> <i>p.93</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" style="max-width: 39.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_viii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">STAFFA.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>« 93 »</span></p> - -<p>The island of Staffa, one of the western islands -of Scotland, and the Giant's Causeway, on the -north coast of Ireland, near Londonderry, are -remarkable instances of the latter state; and as -I have seen them both, I will tell you what sort -of places they are.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">STAFFA.</p> - -<p>This wonderful island was not generally known -to exist, even by the inhabitants of Scotland, till -the last century, when Sir Joseph Bankes happened -to see it, and published an account of it. -Since then it has been visited by numbers, and -lately a steam-boat has regularly plied to it -twice a week, from the little town of Oban, in -Argyleshire.</p> - -<p>It was in this way that I went, and a most -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>« 94 »</span> -delightful trip we had of it. The steam-boat -left Oban in the afternoon, full of kind light-hearted -people, who seemed fully resolved to -enjoy themselves. In the evening we reached -the island of Mull, where we were to spend -the night.</p> - -<p>The inhabitants of Tobermory, (the little capital -of Mull,) anxiously look out for the arrival -of the steam-boat, for they are very poor, and -the little money which the passengers spend, is -a great object to them. On these occasions the -inns are seldom large enough to accommodate -all the strangers, and then a strange scramble -takes place to get lodgings for the night. Most -of our party succeeded in doing so, and the rest -remained on board the steam-boat.</p> - -<p>We went to see a beautiful little estate on -one side of the harbour of Tobermory, which -belongs to the son of the old Laird of Coll, -whom Dr. Johnson visited. The grounds are -nearly in the shape of a triangle, and the two -sides that are away from the sea, are formed by -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>« 95 »</span> -lofty rocks with several beautiful waterfalls; -and in the middle is a pretty lake. Except the -house on this estate, there are scarcely any good -houses in or near Tobermory, and the inhabitants -are very ignorant and poor. Many of them -who could not speak any other English words, -ran after us to ask us for pence and tobacco.</p> - -<p>We started early in the morning, and passed -several small islands of curious forms, composed -of basalt; one in particular, which is called the -Dutchman's cap, shaped like this.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page95a" style="max-width: 18.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page95a.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>As we approached Staffa, on the north side, -we could see scarcely anything of the pillars. -It appeared a mass of Basalt, of very irregular -shape, rising abruptly out of the sea, scantily -covered with grass on the upper surface.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page95b" style="max-width: 16.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page95b.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>« 96 »</span></p> - -<p>It is the south side of the island that is chiefly -remarkable, of which I will show you a picture -that I made on the spot.</p> - -<p>It has (as you may see) exactly the appearance -of a great layer of earth swelling out at -the edges, resting on a vast number of pillars -stuck close together. The colour of the pillars -is nearly black, and that of the stratum above, -lightish green, yellow, and brown, from the -grass and variously coloured lichens that grow -upon it. The sea is very deep, quite close to -the cliffs.</p> - -<p>The day I was there, was as fine as possible; -not a cloud was to be seen, and the great ocean -was as calm as a mill-pond, which is not very -common in these parts, for there is mostly a -considerable swell.</p> - -<p>The celebrated cave of Fingal, as it is called, -(but why, nobody knows,) is close to one extremity -of the south side.</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_IX"></a><span class="smcap">Plate IX.</span> <i>p. 97</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 37.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_ix.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">FINGAL'S CAVE</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>« 97 »</span></p> - -<p>It seems just as if it had been formed by cutting -away the middle of some of the pillars, -since you can see that many parts of the pillars -now remaining on the roof, are placed as if they -were continuations of the stumps on which you -walk at the bottom.</p> - -<p>We went into it in a boat, and when we were -at the farther end, we got out upon the broken -pillars and surveyed everything at our leisure.</p> - -<p>The length of the cave is two hundred and -fifty feet, the breadth about forty, and the height -above one hundred feet at the entrance, and -seventy at the inner end.</p> - -<p>Along the middle of the roof, is a deep cleft, -or fissure, which makes it something like a -pointed arch, resembling the roof of a cathedral. -The sides of the fissure are variegated, yellow, -red, brown, and white, in consequence of water -containing various substances, soaking through -from the surface above; and on each side of it, -there are several rows of the top of the broken -pillars, which look quite black.</p> - -<p>On the sides at the bottom, the stumps form -a sort of pavement like this, which is an exact -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>« 98 »</span> -copy of a small portion of it, and will show you -the forms of the pillars; some stand higher than -others; but there is not generally sufficient difference -to prevent you from walking over them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page98" style="max-width: 12.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page98.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Between these pavements -the water is very -deep, and as it flows direct -from the Atlantic -Ocean without any dirty -shore or shallows, it looks very beautiful,—of a -clear emerald green, showing at the bottom the -black basaltic pillars in ruins, and a very few -long luxuriant sea-weeds gracefully waving with -the undulations of the water.</p> - -<p>The exposed surfaces of the pillars, between -high and low water-marks, are covered with the -little shell-fish called <i>balanus</i>, or <span class="allsmcap">BARNACLE</span>, -of colours varying from pink, which is the hue of -those that are placed deepest, to yellow and -white, which are those that are least covered by -the water.</p> - -<p>The walls of the cave above these shells, are -of a deep slate colour. The pillars which compose -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>« 99 »</span> -them, are on the average about three feet -in diameter, and they are fitted so close together -that you cannot get a penknife in between them. -If separated at certain intervals, they break short -off, and leave a remarkably level surface without -the least splinter. Between these joints they -break roughly and irregularly.</p> - -<p>Here is a view of the inside of the cave.</p> - -<p>It is supposed that these wonderful pillars are -formed by the cooling of a melted mass, and that -this and other basaltic spots, are the remains of -streams of lava from a volcano long ago extinct.</p> - -<p>In some of the lava streams of Mount Vesuvius, -there has been noticed an approach to this structure, -though not quite so regular as what we -have been describing.</p> - -<p>You may understand in some measure how it -may come about, by examining starch, which -always hardens into little columns or pillars; -and if you look at the little sketch of a portion -of the pavement of the cave which I have given -you above, you will see that nearly all the pillars -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>« 100 »</span> -have six sides, the same as the pieces of -starch.</p> - -<p>It is remarkable what pains the basalt seems -to have taken to get into a six-sided form. I -should think about two-thirds of the columns -have six sides, though sometimes one side is -little more than a sharp edge blunted, because -it seems to have been prevented by its neighbour -making a similar effort to get its six sides -complete.</p> - -<p>None of the remaining third of the pillars, -have more than nine, or, of course, less than -three sides. You might look a long time before -you would find two pillars exactly alike.</p> - -<p>All this you will find occurring just in the -same manner in starch, except that the edges -of the basalt pillars are quite even, while those of -starch are more or less waved or twisted.</p> - -<p>Near the side of the cave there is a little rock -formed by pillars into a pretty regular cone, -which you may see in the plate. It has a very -striking appearance as you approach the island.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>« 101 »</span></p> - -<p>Close by the rock there is a little cave, the mouth -of which is formed by bent pillars, in this manner.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp77" id="page101" style="max-width: 8.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page101.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The water in this is not -very deep, but it was deep -enough to give one of my -companions a good ducking -as he was trying to reach a -shell which one of the ladies -of our party wanted to possess.</p> - -<p>You will also often see something like these -bent pillars in starch.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY.</p> - -<p>On the north coast of Ireland, the Giant's -Causeway is a collection of similar pillars of -rather a smaller size. They stretch far into the -sea, and at low water you may walk a long distance -upon the tops of them.</p> - -<p>The pillars get higher as they approach the -cliff, and in the cliff itself, just above them, is -a remarkable layer of fossil wood in the state -called lignite, which closely resembles charcoal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>« 102 »</span></p> - -<p>At some distance from the Causeway, some of -the pillars stand up by themselves, looking just -like tall chimneys. There are also some wonderful -caves in the Basaltic cliffs behind it, but -none of them consisting of pillars like the great -cave of Staffa. It is called the Giant's Causeway, -because some people have fancied that it resembled -the commencement of a great pier or -causeway, which some beings of superhuman -power had left unfinished. This is only a fancy -for poets to talk of; you and I are now engaged -about facts.</p> - -<p>There are some similar formations in Iceland, -of very great extent, and in several other parts -of the world; but those I have told you about, -are the most remarkable which are known to -exist.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>« 103 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">WHY PARLEY BELIEVES THAT THERE IS A GREAT SOURCE OF HEAT WITHIN THE GLOBE.</p> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>f you have attended to what I have already -told you, you will have seen that there must be -a close connection between the causes of volcanoes, -earthquakes, and hot springs, (if they are -not all to be ascribed to one cause,) from their -always occurring in the neighbourhood of each -other. But there is something else that you -ought to notice in reference to this connection.</p> - -<p>I said, that a volcanic eruption was almost always -preceded by shakings of the ground round -the root of the mountain. These shakings are -sometimes so violent as to be dreadful earthquakes, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>« 104 »</span> -and at other times the earthquake will -be at a long distance from the volcano.</p> - -<p>There was once a great earthquake which -kept on for some days on the north shore of -South America, and then stopped quite suddenly. -It was afterwards found out, that just at the -moment it stopped, a tremendous eruption burst -forth from a volcano in one of the West-India -islands, more than 150 miles off.</p> - -<p>You know what the safety-valve of a steam-engine -is. Now it would seem just as if volcanoes -were safety-valves for the power which -causes earthquakes.</p> - -<p>Very well.—I am now going to tell you what -people have thought this power has been owing -to. Before I do so, that you may not be disappointed, -I should tell you that we know very -little on the subject; nor shall we ever know -much till somebody can get down to the centre -of the earth, unless some of the little black spirits, -that the Rosicrucians called Gnomes, and -fabled to live in the middle of the globe, should -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>« 105 »</span> -be kind enough to give us some information on -the subject.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, we can only guess; but we -ought to guess as well as we can, and see whether -our guess is not much more likely to be -true than any of the others.</p> - -<p>Volcanic bands are always near the sea-shore, -and it has therefore been generally supposed -that water has something to do with their -action.</p> - -<p>If you take a mixture of sulphur and iron -filings, and mix them into a paste with water, -and then bury them in the ground, after a while -they will become hot and send out a great quantity -of steam. Some people have imagined that -this is the way in which volcanic activity is -produced, but no one thinks so now, and for -very good reasons, for there is nothing in the -action so produced at all capable of accounting -for long continued eruptions, or for the flowing -out of the lava.</p> - -<p>Sir Humphrey Davy found out, that nearly all -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>« 106 »</span> -kinds of salt and earth, which had been before -looked upon as simple substances, contained certain -metals united to oxygen, which, (as you -should know,) is one of the parts of water, and, -in the form of gas, of the air we breathe. If -you put a piece of one of these metals into -water, it is in such a hurry to join itself to the -oxygen of the water, that you set it -on fire. A little piece of <i>potassium</i>, -(the metal of the salt called <i>potash</i>, -or <i>pearlash</i>,) will float for a few -moments on the surface of the water, -burning with a purple flame in -the prettiest manner imaginable.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp52" id="page106" style="max-width: 7.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page106.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Sir Humphrey thought he had got the true -explanation of the thing. These wonderful metals -formed the basis of every substance in lava, -and supposing them to exist in the centre of the -globe, it was only necessary for water to get to -them to set them on fire, and thus to give rise -to earthquakes and volcanoes. It appeared only -to be required that a crack should be made at -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>« 107 »</span> -the bottom of the sea, and the water flow into -the beds of metal underneath, and the violent -action produced would burst through the surface, -and throw out streams of melted matter, -accompanied with great clouds of steam, just -as takes place in the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius -and other volcanoes.</p> - -<p>But you would find it very difficult to think -how this can account for continual and nearly -steady operations, such as have been known to -exist in the Geysers of Iceland for more than -1000 years, and in Mount Stromboli for much -longer than that, so we will try another guess.</p> - -<p>It has been observed in descending deep -mines, that the earth gets warmer the deeper -you go. The usual mode of trying it is to dig -little holes, as you go down, in the sides and -bottom of the mine, and put a thermometer -into them. A great many observations of this -kind, have been made in different parts of the -world, and the greatest care has been taken to -allow for all causes of irregularity, consisting -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>« 108 »</span> -in climate and local peculiarities. Comparing -these together, it has been determined that the -temperature increases about one degree every -fifteen feet of descent.</p> - -<p>A similar conclusion has been drawn from the -heat of the water of the Artesian Wells. But, -perhaps, you do not know what Artesian Wells -are, so I will tell you.</p> - -<p>They are deep borings in the earth, out of -which water rises to, or even above, the surface -of the ground. Wherever you bore, if you go -deep enough you may get plenty of water, and -this water is always found to be warmer in proportion -to the depth of the well in which it -rises. They are called <i>Artesian Wells</i>, from -<i>Artois</i>, a town in France, where the first was -constructed.</p> - -<p>In a well of this kind near Rochelle, which -was 316 feet deep, the water near the surface -was at a temperature of 55 degrees, and at the -bottom 60 degrees. It was afterwards sunk to -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>« 109 »</span> -the depth of 369 feet, and the temperature at -the bottom was then found to be 65 degrees.</p> - -<p>Do you not think it most likely that the heat -continues to increase quite as fast in proportion -below the deepest point that man has gone down -to? Well, if so, at the depth of some miles it -must be hot enough to melt anything, even granite, -and all kinds of stones.</p> - -<p>If we suppose, on this evidence, that the centre -of the globe is intensely heated, and that it gets -gradually cooler towards the surface, there is -what at once will account for the hot springs, -the increasing heat in descending mines, the -constant action of some volcanoes, the occasional -action of others, the streams of lava, and -the nature of all substances that are thrown out.</p> - -<p>It is very natural to imagine that every now -and then the action of the great heated mass -inside, would crack open the crust, and the sea -wearing away its bottom in some places as it -does, may have something to do in assisting this. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>« 110 »</span> -Thus, new volcanoes would be formed, and earthquakes -would happen where they never happened -before; and over these immense cracks -there would be a volcanic band.</p> - -<p>Then, after a time, these cracks might be partially, -or wholly, filled up by the matter thrown -into them, and the volcanoes on the surface -above may become quiet for a time.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp91" id="page110" style="max-width: 12.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page110.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>« 111 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY TELLS SOMETHING ABOUT THE HISTORY OF MOUNT VESUVIUS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> am going to relate to you the biography of -a Volcano, and I hope you will find it amusing.</p> - -<p>Before the time of the Roman Emperor Trajan, -Mount Vesuvius had been quiet for a great -many centuries. It is known that it had had -many eruptions before then, because there are -some great lava streams close by it, on which -some of the most ancient Italian cities are built. -In particular, Herculaneum, which was said to -have been built by the Demi-god Hercules, and -must therefore have been of the remotest antiquity, -was built chiefly of blocks of lava, and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>« 112 »</span> -founded upon a vast stream of the same substance.</p> - -<p>And besides, there is no doubt that the land -all about the neighbourhood in the remotest -times, bore evident marks of the action of fire; -for it was here that the Poets pretended that the -gate of Hell was, and close by the black and -dreary-looking lake Avernus, which you may read -about in the Æneid of Virgil. This was also the -place where the Cimmerians dwelt, whom Ulysses -is said to have visited, according to Homer, on -his way to the regions of the dead.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE GROTTO DEL CANO.</p> - -<p>Near here, too, was the celebrated Grotto del -Cano, the cave which used to destroy the lives -of small animals put into it, by means of the exhalations -that rose from the bottom; but as -these exhalations were heavier than the air, consisting -chiefly of the gas called carbonic acid, -they did not rise much above the bottom. This -is what an old writer, the account of whose -travels I am very fond of, says of it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>« 113 »</span></p> - -<p>"Whatsoever hath life, being thrust into the -farre end, doth die in an instant. Yet entred it -may be a good way with safety; neither heat nor -cold will oppress you, nor is there any damp or -vapour to be discerned; being perspicuous to -the bottome, and the sole thereof dusty. We -made triall with a dog; which we no sooner -had thrust in, but without crying, or otherwise -struggling than if shot to the heart, his tongue -hung out, and his eyes setled in his head, to -our no small amazement. Forthwith drawne -out, starke, and to our seeming without shew -of life, we threw him into the lake; when anon -he recovered, and swimming to the shore, ran -crying away as fast as hee could, to the not farre -distant <i>Osteria</i>: where they get no small part of -their living by shewing this place unto forreiners. -And it is a sport to see how the dogs -thereabout will steale away, and scud to the -tops of the mountaines, at the approach of a -stranger. The <i>French</i> King <i>Charles</i>, the eighth -of that name, who held the kingdome of <i>Naples</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>« 114 »</span> -for a while; made triall thereof with an Asse, -which immediately died. The like befell to a -foole-hardy souldier. <i>Peter of Toledo</i> caused two -offenders to be thrust thereinto, and both expired -in a moment. Nor found those three gallants -any better successe, who tempted God with -their desperate entrance. This place was not -unknowne to <i>Pliny</i>, who calleth it the Cave of -<i>Charon</i>. The cause of so deadly an effect, is -said to proceede from the fervent vapours ascending -at invisible pores, so thin, so dry, and -subtile, as not to be discerned: yet thickned by -the cold that enters at the mouth of the Cave, -convert into moisture, which hangs farre within -on the roofe like to drops of quick-silver; and -such esteemed to bee by a number. <i>Carona -Pighyus</i>, desirous to informe himselfe in the -mysteries hereof, ventured so farre in as to -touch one of those farre of shining drops, and -shewed it to his companions, who entred also, -and stayed therein about a minute of an houre: -sensibly perceiving the heat to arise from their -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>« 115 »</span> -feet to their thighs, till they did sweat at the -browes without the endammaging of their senses, -who return'd, to the wonder of the guide, -that thought they had preserved themselves by -enchantments. By this their experiment it appeares -that the aire is most deadly neere to the -pores where it first ascended; especially to such -creatures as hold their heads downeward, exhaling -at their nostrils the dry and hote vapours. -Thrust a torch neere the bottome, and it will -forthwith go out: yet advanced higher, re-inflames, -which approves the former assertion."</p> - - -<p class="caption3">OF THE DEATH OF PLINY THE NATURALIST.</p> - -<p>But although there were such gloomy places -in the neighbourhood, in the reign of Trajan, less -than a hundred years after the Christian Era, -Mount Vesuvius was clothed with blooming -vineyards, and corn fields, studded with villas -and beautiful gardens, and with three or four -rich and populous cities near its foot.</p> - -<p>The height of the mountain was then much -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>« 116 »</span> -less than it is at present, and it seems to have had -a broad flat top, nearly surrounded by a ridge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page116" style="max-width: 28.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page116.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This shape will account for the spot being -chosen by the Roman rebel Spartacus to encamp -in, with his gladiators and slaves, when he -put Rome in danger.</p> - -<p>For some time before the first eruption on record, -there were dreadful earthquakes, of which -the effects are still to be seen in the cracked and -ruined walls of Pompeii and Herculaneum. -"There were great droughts," says the historian, -"and violent earthquakes, so that the whole plain -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>« 117 »</span> -boiled and bubbled, and the hills leapt, and there -were noises under ground like thunder, and -above ground like roaring; the seas made a -noise, and the Heavens resounded, and then -a sudden mighty crash was heard, as if the mountains -were dashed together; great stones were -then hurled upwards, and were followed by -mighty fires, and immense smoke, so that the -whole air was overshadowed, and the sun quite -hidden as in an eclipse."</p> - -<p>The same writer then tells us about some -wonderful giants appearing to wander about the -summit of the mountain, which neither you nor -I shall be ready to believe.</p> - -<p>Pliny, the great naturalist, was at that time -living at the town of Misenum, and as he was a -man always prying into nature, and wishing to -know the causes of things, you may suppose his -curiosity was very much excited by these strange -occurrences. But he paid dearly for this laudable -curiosity, as you shall hear in the account -which his nephew has left us of the event.</p> - -<p>"On the 24th of August, about one in the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>« 118 »</span> -afternoon, my mother desired him to observe a -cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and -shape. He had just returned from taking the -benefit of the sun, and after bathing himself in -cold water, and taking a slight repast, had retired -to his study. He immediately arose and -went out upon an eminence, from whence he -might more distinctly view this very uncommon -appearance. It was not at that distance discernible -from what mountain this cloud issued, -but it was found afterwards to ascend from -Mount Vesuvius. I cannot give a more exact -description of its figure, than by comparing it -to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up a great -height in the form of a trunk, which extended -itself at the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, -I imagine, either by a sudden gust of air -that impelled it, the force of which decreased as -it advanced upwards, or the cloud itself being -pressed back again by its own weight, expanded -in this manner: it appeared sometimes bright, -and sometimes dark and spotted, as it was more -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>« 119 »</span> -or less impregnated with earth and cinders. -This extraordinary phenomenon excited my uncle's -philosophical curiosity to take a nearer -view of it. He ordered a light vessel to be got -ready, and gave me the liberty, if I thought -proper, to attend him. I rather chose to continue -my studies; for, as it happened, he had -given me an employment of that kind. As he -was coming out of the house, he received a note -from Rectina, the wife of Bassus, who was in -the utmost alarm at the imminent danger which -threatened her; for her villa being situated at -the foot of Mount Vesuvius, there was no way -to escape but by sea: she earnestly entreated -him, therefore, to come to her assistance. He -accordingly changed his first design, and what -he began with a philosophical, he pursued with -an heroical turn of mind. He ordered the gallies -to put to sea, and went himself on board -with the intention of assisting not only Rectina, -but several others; for the villas stand extremely -thick upon that beautiful coast. When hastening -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>« 120 »</span> -to the place from whence others fled with the -utmost terror, he steered his direct course to -the point of danger, and with so much calmness -and presence of mind, as to be able to make -and dictate his observations upon the motion -and figure of that dreadful scene. He was now -so nigh the mountain, that the cinders, which -grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, -fell into the ships, together with pumice-stones, -and black pieces of burning rock: -they were likewise in danger, not only of being -aground by the sudden retreat of the sea, but -also from the vast fragments which rolled down -from the mountain, and obstructed all the shore. -Here he stopped to consider whether he should -return back again; to which the pilot advising -him, 'Fortune,' said he, 'befriends the brave; -carry me to Pomponianus.'"</p> - -<p>His nephew then goes on to relate that he -joined his friend who was in another vessel, -and went on shore, where he took a bath and -sat down to supper, not seeming to be in the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>« 121 »</span> -least alarmed, when everybody about him was in -the greatest consternation. He then went to -sleep so soundly, that he was heard to snore. The -ashes fell so thick in the court before his apartment, -that it was getting nearly impassable, and -his servants thought proper to awaken him. The -walls of the houses began to rock, and he and -his friends then resolved to go out into the fields, -lest the stones and bricks should fall upon them. -They tied pillows upon their heads, and went -out with torches, for though it was daytime, the -clouds of steam and ashes made it quite dark. -They went down to the sea, and found it in violent -commotion. Either a sudden gust of wind -then brought the effluvia of the volcano towards -them, or else a little stream of deadly vapour -burst out from a crack in the ground, which -dispersed the rest of the company. But Pliny, -who was a fat asthmatic old man, had laid down -upon the ground to watch what was going on. He -attempted to rise, but almost before he had got -on his feet, he fell down dead.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>« 122 »</span></p> - -<p>"As soon as it was light again," says his -nephew, "which was not till the third day after -this melancholy accident, his body was found -entire, and without any marks of violence upon -it, exactly in the same posture that he fell."</p> - -<p>It was in the same eruption that the two great -cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii were overwhelmed -by substances thrown out by the volcano. -It does not appear that a single stream -of lava flowed out till many years afterwards.</p> - -<p>There were several great eruptions between -this time and the year 1306, and then the volcano -was very nearly quiet for more than 300 -years. During this time the volcanic power -broke out in another place called Puzzuoli, at -several miles distance. After a succession of -violent eruptions, the earth was cleft open, and -a hill, which is now called the Monte Nuovo, -was thrown up in the space of a single night, -which is 440 feet high, and a mile and a half in -circumference.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>« 123 »</span></p> - -<p>At the end of this period Vesuvius was richly -covered with vegetation, even within the crater. -But since the year 1650, there has not been ten -years pass without an eruption.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page123" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page123.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The form of the mountain has quite changed, -and a little mountain has grown up out of the -old broad topped one, as you may see in the -above picture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>« 124 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">HERCULANEUM AND POMPEII.</p> - -<p>These cities which were of great extent and -importance, seem to have been almost forgotten -during more than 1600 years. They are not -often mentioned in Roman history, and, strange -to say, the Latin writers who describe the eruption -of Vesuvius, by which they must have been -buried, have said nothing about them, except a -very vague allusion or two, which would hardly -have attracted any notice, if what I am going to -tell you of, had not happened.</p> - -<p>In the year 1713, as some people were sinking -a well, they discovered two statues, one of Hercules, -and the other of Cleopatra; and continuing -to dig in several directions, they found they -had got into a Roman theatre, and after a while -they discovered that this Theatre was that of -the City of Herculaneum. But in consequence -of the hardness of the ground, and the great -depth of the city under the surface, which is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>« 125 »</span> -one hundred feet, they have only been able to -clear out a very few buildings, and those cannot -be seen except by torchlight, so that very little -is known about it.</p> - -<p>I cannot tell you exactly how the ruins of -Pompeii were first discovered to be the remains -of a city. It appears that an architect, who was -employed to make a subterranean canal to convey -water to the town of Torre dell'Annunziata, -nearly 300 years ago, met with some fragments -of buildings; and about eighty years afterwards, -enough was seen to convince the discoverers -that the ruins were extensive. In the year -1755, a regular plan of excavation was commenced, -and nearly the whole city is now exposed -to the light of day.</p> - -<p>The situation of Pompeii is considerably further -from the crater of Vesuvius than that of -Herculaneum, and to that circumstance is owing -the superiority of its preservation, and the -greater moveableness of the substances which -covered it. It is probable that both cities were -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>« 126 »</span> -originally assailed by alluvions, or streams of -mud, such as I told you of some time ago, -as well as by showers of cinders and stones. -But while Pompeii was only fourteen or fifteen -feet below the surface, and never had anything -besides cinders and earth above it, several -streams of lava flowed over Herculaneum, with -layers of the different substances, which the volcano -throws into the air, between them, so as to -raise the surface one hundred feet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page126" style="max-width: 18.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page126.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Pompeii was three miles in circumference, -and was a sea-port town, though it is now a -full mile from the sea. This is known, because -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>« 127 »</span> -the steps which used to lead down from the -quay, for the convenience of passengers going -into boats, are still remaining, and so are some -large metal rings which were intended for cables -to be fastened to.</p> - -<p>There are several inscriptions in both cities -commemorating the great injuries done by an -earthquake which happened in the reign of the -Emperor Nero, sixteen years before they were -destroyed. There are also great cracks to be -seen in some of the walls, testifying of the same -event. This was one of the efforts of the volcanic -power to get free before Vesuvius became -the safety-valve.</p> - -<p>It is very evident that there was ample warning -of the catastrophe before it happened, and -that most of the people had time to escape, for -the number of skeletons found has been but -small. In the barracks, there were the skeletons -of two soldiers chained in the stocks. -There were seventeen persons found in the -cellar of a house just out of the town, who seem -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>« 128 »</span> -to have fled there for safety, and the deluge of -mud then seems to have flowed in upon them, -for their bones were found in hardened mud. -One of the number was a woman, with an infant -in her arms, and the impression of her form in -the mud, was wonderfully perfect, though there -was nothing left of her but the bones. She -seems to have been the mistress of the house, -and a person of consequence, since she had a -chain of gold about her neck, and rich rings on -her fingers.</p> - -<p>In these instances, (and there are related -several others similar,) the destruction of the persons -seems to be accounted for by the peculiar -circumstances in which they were placed. The -soldiers, poor fellows, would, doubtless, have -gone off with their companions, if they had not -been in the stocks; and the family of seventeen -might have escaped if they had fled into the -open country, instead of into their cellar.</p> - -<p>The warning does not however seem to have -been very long before the sad event, perhaps only -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>« 129 »</span> -about an hour. There have recently been found -three skeletons, which seem to have belonged to -a father, mother, and daughter, (the latter of -whom was decorated with pearl-rings and ear-rings,) -who were in the act of rushing out of -their house. And in one of the squares of -the city, a traveller saw "a new altar of white -marble, exquisitely beautiful, and apparently -just out of the hands of the sculptor, which -had been erected there; an enclosure was -building all round; the mortar, just dashed -against the side of the wall, was but half spread -out; you saw the long sliding stroke of the trowel -about to return and obliterate its own track—but -it never did return: the hand of the workman -was suddenly arrested, and, after the lapse of -1800 years, the whole looks so fresh and new, -that you would almost say the mason was only -gone to his dinner, and about to come back immediately -to smooth the roughness."</p> - -<p>It is not unlikely that in the early part of the -eruption, the ashes and cinders which the volcano -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>« 130 »</span> -threw out, fell in showers on the cities, and -that the walls were shaken by the subterranean -movements, so that most of the inhabitants -thought themselves less in danger in the open -fields, like the people of Misenum, who went into -the fields with pillows tied on their heads, as described -by Pliny the younger, in the passage -I quoted just now. Some few others, less afraid -of their houses tumbling down about their ears, -than of the bombs and cinders, betook themselves -to their cellars, and such places as they -thought safest.</p> - -<p>I shall now tell you a little of what has been -discovered relating to the ancient state of the -City.</p> - -<p>Its walls were about three miles in circumference; -the streets were generally narrow, and -paved with great flags of lava, which are furrowed -by very deep ruts made by the wheels of the -carriages that once passed busily along them. -When the great hardness of the paving material -is considered, this circumstance is very remarkable, -and shows that the flags must have been -laid down for a very long period, for the like -is not to be seen in the streets of the most -ancient City in Europe.</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_X"></a><span class="smcap">Plate X.</span> <i>p. 131</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="platex" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_x.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">FORUM OF POMPEII.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>« 131 »</span></p> - -<p>The Forum was a very elegant building, and -if you look in the plate, you will see a correct -representation of what remains of it. The -Forums of ancient cities were not mere marketplaces, -although provisions and other commodities -were offered in them for sale; but they also -contained places fitted for meetings of the people, -and other public uses. You will thus understand -how it was that a place not larger than -Pompeii had such an extensive Forum.</p> - -<p>The names of the owners over the door of -each house are still to be seen, and some of them -are perfectly legible; and the colours of the -paintings on the walls of the houses, are as fresh -as if they had been painted yesterday. Some -books have been found, but they are less perfect -than those in Herculaneum, where a whole -library has been discovered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>« 132 »</span></p> - -<p>The wood of the houses in Herculaneum is -astonishingly perfect if you just scrape off the -surface, and some linen has been discovered, of -which the texture could be distinctly seen. -There were also some vessels full of almonds, -chesnuts, and walnuts, in a fruiterer's shop, -which preserved their form entire. A baker -lived near neighbour to this fruiterer, and in his -shop was a loaf with his stamp upon it, "<span class="allsmcap">ELERIS -Q. CRANI RISER</span>." Not far off was an apothecary's -shop, in which was a box of pills, and a -little roll of some kind of medicine ready to be -cut into pills, with a jar of herbs and other medicines. -Another shop contained some sauces -and olives, which were quite moist. These curious -relics have been sealed up in glass, and placed -in the Museum of Naples.</p> - -<p>There is a house in one of the streets of -Pompeii, on one of the walls of which there has -been scratched with some sharp-pointed instrument, -a rude device like this:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>« 133 »</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page133" style="max-width: 28.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page133.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The letters in the corner, are, "<i>Campani victoria -una cum Nucerinis peristis</i>." <i>Campanians, you -perished in the victory along with the Nucerians.</i> -This was a jest of some merry fellow making -fun of the inhabitants of Nuceria, a neighbouring -city, and of some other parts of Campania, -over whom they had gained a victory in a -squabble. We are told that the Nucerians, -when they were dead beaten, went like cowards -to the Emperor Nero, and laid their case before -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>« 134 »</span> -him. He decided in their favour, and punished -the Pompeians in what may seem a strange way -to you,—he forbade them to have any amusements -in their theatre for ten years. However, -from what we know of the general disposition -and habits of the ancient Greeks and Romans, -this was a very severe punishment to them. -From the scarcity of books, arising from their -being copied by hand, instead of being printed, -but few of them could spend their leisure time -in reading, as so many of us do now; and in -consequence of this, the theatre was to them at -once the principal source of literary improvement -and of amusement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page134" style="max-width: 16.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page134.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XI"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XI.</span> <i>p. 136</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="platexi" style="max-width: 37.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xi.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">FALLS OF NIAGARA</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>« 135 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_I_CH_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY DESCRIBES THE FALLS OF NIAGARA.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>he river Niagara runs out of Lake Erie into -Lake Ontario, and you may see the direction it -takes if you look in the map of North America. -You may likewise observe that Lake Erie is connected -with three other vast Lakes, and as its -level is lower than theirs, the whole of their -waters pass through it into the Niagara.</p> - -<p>Nearly half way between the Lakes Erie and -Ontario, where the river is about three quarters -of a mile wide, it tumbles over a precipice of -160 feet in height. I shall try to describe to you -what I saw when I visited this place; but I am -quite certain I shall not be able to do justice to -the scene. You must form your conceptions of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>« 136 »</span> -it rather from the bare facts I tell you respecting -the mass of water and the height of the rocky -ledge over which it falls.</p> - -<p>As we travelled along from the town of Waterloo -on a level road on the west bank, we saw -the river gradually become wider till it was cut -into two streams by a long narrow island some -miles in length. The streams after passing the -island, unite into one again, which continues its -course as before.</p> - -<p>There is a sullen unpretending majesty about -this part of the river, as if it did not think it -worth while to remind the traveller of the vast -distance which its mighty waters have come, -or of the stupendous scene to which they are -travelling onward. There is nothing remarkable -in its appearance, and that very circumstance, -coupled with what we knew and what -we shortly expected to see, made us full of intense -feeling; and often and often did we put -our ears to the ground to hear whether the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>« 137 »</span> -sound of the falls could reach us, and then remount -and impatiently spur on our horses.</p> - -<p>They say that the roar of the falls may be -heard fifteen miles off when the wind is favourable. -But the day we went, there was hardly -any wind, and we were within six miles of the -spot before we heard the sound.</p> - -<p>At the distance of three miles the waters -seemed fretful and discontented, as they approached -what are called the rapids; we could -see afar off "a silver cloud rising slowly into the -sky—the everlasting incense of the waters," -consisting of vapour, or rather fine spray, which -is dashed out by the violence of the fall; and the -roar seemed deeper and more tumultuous.</p> - -<p>Within half a mile the rapids commence in -good earnest. A rapid means the descent of a -river down an inclined bed less sudden than -a fall. The descent here in half a mile, is fifty -feet. The bed is rocky, and the waters in rushing -over it foam, and eddy, and tear along in all -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>« 138 »</span> -directions in which they can possibly approach -the awful precipice. The unity of the stream is -broken by thousands of rocks and stones, and -every part of its broad surface seems earnestly -taken up with driving forward to the falls.</p> - -<p>After we had enjoyed this scene awhile, we -turned into the road again, and lost sight of the -river till we reached a public-house, where we -took refreshment and put up our horses.</p> - -<p>The precipice which here breaks the course -of the river, is divided into three parts by two -large islands, and thus are formed three distinct -falls. One of these is called the <i>Great</i>, or <i>Horse -Shoe Fall</i>, from its peculiar shape, which you -will see represented in the picture. This is by -far the most extensive waterfall in the world, -and is considered to be above a quarter of a mile -in length. Then comes an island a thousand -feet in width, called Goat Island, which has a -great deal of wood growing on it. After that -the Second Fall, not more than twenty feet in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>« 139 »</span> -width, then an island considerably smaller than -the first; and lastly, Fort Scloper Fall, about a -thousand feet wide, which joins the opposite -bank of the river.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page139" style="max-width: 27.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page139.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The quantity of water which descends every -minute in the three falls, has been estimated to -be about 700,000 tons.</p> - -<p>Well, a path through the garden of the Inn -at which we were, led us down a steep and -thickly wooded bank, to a complete shelf of -rock, about a foot in thickness, called the Table -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>« 140 »</span> -Rock, which stands out over the river.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> Since -I was there this piece of rock has broken away -and fallen into the stream. I was not at all surprised -when I heard this intelligence, for I can -assure you that though I am no coward, it did -not seem very secure when I was standing on it, -and if I had not been quite taken up with what -I was looking at, I should not have staid there -long. Here the whole scene on a sudden broke -upon us. We were on a level with the top of -the precipice, with the Horse Shoe Fall just opposite, -and to our left, the Second, and Fort -Scloper Falls.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[A]</a> The print is copied by the kind permission of Messrs. Ackermann, -from one of the elegant series of engravings of the Falls of Niagara, published -by them.</p></div> - -<p>In spite of the loud roar and the violent rushing -of the waters, the scene altogether produced -on us feelings of deep tranquillity and -beauty. The portion of the river that falls over -the Horse Shoe Fall, comes on in such an unbroken -mass, as if nothing dared to oppose the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>« 141 »</span> -progress of a single drop of its water. Then -the deep transparent green of the middle stream, -showing at a little depth beneath its surface, -shreds of milky foam, the beautiful cloud of -fine spray ever decorated with a rich rainbow -when the sun shines, and the thick woods of -Goat Island, (the island that limits the Horse -Shoe Fall,) are in such lovely harmony. Altogether, -I should say that the scene from the -Table Rock, is more remarkable for its beauty -than its grandeur, though its grandeur is quite -equal to that of anything I ever looked upon in -my life.</p> - -<p>We got down to the bottom of the falls by -means of some rough steps which have been cut -in the rock. As we stood on some large fragments -which have fallen down from the cliff -above, the roar fell with overpowering heaviness -upon our ears, the fall was nearly hid from our -eyes by the spray, and the river rushed past our -feet in a terrible tumult of white foam. By getting -along on the stones under the cliff, we went -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>« 142 »</span> -in under the fall so as actually to be between -the rock and the descending sheet of water. -Your imagination must tell you better than I -can, the character of what we then saw by the -broken light that made its way through the -descending mass of waters. We stopped there, -overpowered by indescribable feelings, till we -got wet through by the spray, and then went -back to the inn, stored with recollections, which -will be a feast for us as long as we live.</p> - -<p>A traveller who visited the Falls in winter, -adds some particulars which will be interesting -to you.</p> - -<p>"At the time of my visit," says he, "the wind -drove the floating ice out of Lake Erie, with the -drift wood of its tributary rivers, and these were -constantly precipitated over the Falls, but we -were not able to discover any vestiges of them -in the eddies below. Immediately in front of -the sheet of falling water, on the American side, -there was also an enormous bank of snow, of -nearly a hundred feet in height, which the power -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>« 143 »</span> -of the sun had not been fierce enough to dissolve, -and which, by giving an Icelandic character -to the landscape, produced a fine effect. -It appeared to me to owe its accumulation to -the fallen particles of frozen spray.</p> - -<p>"What has been said by Goldsmith, and repeated -by others, respecting the destructive influence -of the rapids above, to ducks and other -water-fowl, is only an effect of the imagination. -So far from being the case, the wild duck is -often seen to swim down the rapid to the brink -of the Falls, and then fly out, and repeat the -descent, seeming to take a delight in the exercise. -Neither are small land-birds affected on -flying over the Falls, in the manner that has -been stated. I observed the blue bird and the -wren, which had already made their annual visit -to the banks of the Niagara, frequently fly -within one or two feet of the brink, apparently -delighted with the gift of their wings, which -enabled them to sport over such frightful precipices, -without danger."</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>« 144 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_II">PART II.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">WONDERS OF THE SEA.</p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY TELLS ABOUT THE FROZEN OCEAN.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">Y</span>our old friend Peter loves to talk about the -sea. Ever since he was a child, he loved everything -belonging to the sea, and when he was a -young man he went many long voyages, and -met with many strange adventures, on the sea. -Perhaps he did not find it quite so delightful to -be shut up in the narrow compass of a ship, -during long voyages, as he dreamt he should in -his childhood. But he does not now regret whatever -labours or sufferings he may have endured, -for the pleasure he finds in telling you of them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>« 145 »</span></p> - -<p>But I do not intend here to spin you a yarn -(as the sailors say) about myself, but merely to -describe to you some of the wonderful things I -have seen during my voyages, that you may love -and admire them.</p> - -<p>You have never seen the sea frozen over in -the same manner as you have seen ponds and -rivers in winter. The waters of the sea, everywhere, -contain a large portion of salt, as you -know from their taste, and this prevents them -from freezing, except where it is very cold. It -is only near the poles of the earth that the -ocean freezes, and there are large masses of ice, -both at the north and south poles, which are -never thawed, but stand as stedfast as the everlasting -hills of granite.</p> - -<p>Icebergs are large bodies of ice filling the -valleys between the high mountains in northern -latitudes. Sometimes they get loosened from -the places where they were formed, by parts of -them thawing, in seasons which are less cold than -usual, and then rush down towards the sea, where -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>« 146 »</span> -they float about in all manner of fantastic and -majestic forms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page146" style="max-width: 23.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page146.png" alt="" /> - <div class="fig_caption"><i>Icebergs.</i></div> -</div> - -<p>These icebergs are the creation of ages, and -annually increase by the falling of snows, and of -rain, which instantly freezes, and more than repairs -the loss occasioned by the heat of the sun.</p> - -<p>I must tell you a little about the way in which -cold converts water into ice.</p> - -<p>Everything in nature is expanded or increased -in bulk by heat. You may see in a thermometer -how the quick-silver or the coloured spirit rises -in the tube, because it expands when the instrument -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>« 147 »</span> -is in a warm place, and how it sinks in a -cold place. It is just the same with solids and -gases. This would seem to be a universal law of -nature, if it were not for the <i>single</i> exception of -water at the moment of its freezing. If water is -cooled down to the freezing point, it will gradually -diminish in bulk, but at the moment it -turns into ice, it seems to spring outward, and -increases considerably. In this way bottles are -broken when the water in them freezes; and -rocks are often split open in the same manner -when the cracks in them contain water.</p> - -<p>You have seen that ice does not sink in water, -but floats upon the surface; this takes place, because -from the circumstance which I have told -you, a certain quantity of ice by weight, occupies -more space than the same quantity of water. -Now it is worth while for you to see how wisely -this is arranged, as it respects our own climate -and country; for if ice were to sink to the bottom, -the lakes, and rivers, and ponds, would become -solid masses of ice during winter, which -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>« 148 »</span> -the sun's rays would never thoroughly thaw in -summer, because, after the surface had been -thawed, the rays would have to pass through the -water to get at the ice at the bottom, and thus -our climate would be rendered very much colder -than it is at present, and perhaps the springs -would not circulate, so that we should often -suffer from scarcity of water.</p> - -<p>But when the salt water freezes, the ice is -very porous, almost like a honeycomb, so that -it is much lighter than frozen fresh water, and -is very buoyant upon the sea, and stands out -boldly to a great height, as is represented in the -cut of the Icebergs.</p> - -<p>I will tell you of a perilous situation in which -I was placed in my younger days, when I went -a voyage to Greenland in a whale ship. It was -at the end of the fishing season, and our ship -was the last but one of the oil traders left in -those seas; we had been very unsuccessful, -having only taken five small whales, and we -were anxious to amend our ill luck by tarrying -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>« 149 »</span> -after all the other ships had sailed, in hopes of -better success. We were gently sailing about -in search of whales amidst the broken ice when -there suddenly arose a rather brisk breeze, at -which time our ship was situated between two -icebergs,—one of them very high and resembling -a lofty mountain, and the other considerably -smaller.</p> - -<p>Well, at the time the breeze sprung up, the large -iceberg was to the windward of us, that is, on -that side from whence the wind blew, and having -a very large surface which caught the wind, -it came sailing towards us very fast.</p> - -<p>The vast bulk of this iceberg sheltered the -smaller one, which was to the leeward of us, so -that it did not move in the least, and we who -were between the two, were completely becalmed. -The ship was not advancing a knot in an hour, -and we could do nothing whatever to help ourselves. -We were in the greatest dismay, and -could only consider the way in which we should -meet our entire destruction. The larger mountain -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>« 150 »</span> -of ice continued to bear down upon us, and -in a few minutes our vessel was crushed between -it and the smaller one, as if it had been put in -a huge smith's vice.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, however, for us, the two icebergs -clung together, the greater one impelling the -lesser one forward, and we thus had time to get -out of the ship all our sea-chests, a large quantity -of cordage, nearly all our provisions, and -everything portable; but the smaller iceberg -soon shifted round the large one and let our ship -loose, which instantly sank, and we, being on the -small iceberg, were left floating on the ocean -with despair staring us in the face. Our despair, -however, was soon put to flight, for we perceived -a ship at a short distance, to which we made -signal, and they came to our assistance.</p> - -<p>But, now I come to a part of the event which -I grieve to record.—The captain and crew of the -vessel which came to our succour, seeing that -we had no other alternative, thought they could -make an easy prey of us, and before they would -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>« 151 »</span> -consent to save us, required that we should give -up to them all the things which we had been enabled -to rescue from our wrecked ship!—In such -circumstances you need not ask what we did,—life -is sweet, it is said, and the pitiless prospect -of the frozen regions around us, sharpened our -appetite for the enjoyment of it, and we surrendered -all but the clothes in which we stood.</p> - -<p>Shall I tell you the place where these savages -came from? No. I will only tell you that it lies -in about 56 degrees North latitude, by 4½ West -longitude; you may, if you please, find its name -by looking in the map.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="page151" style="max-width: 9.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page151.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>« 152 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE STORY OF A LONG JOURNEY OVER THE ICE.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page152" style="max-width: 22.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page152.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>he Esquimaux live in the most northern -parts of America, where there is hardly anything -but ice and snow to be seen from year's -end to year's end. They build their houses of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>« 153 »</span> -snow, and make their longest journeys in sledges -upon ice along the sea-shore.</p> - -<p>You, who have been used to a very different -kind of life, may wonder how they can enjoy -themselves, or even endure existence in such inhospitable -regions. But I can assure you they -love their native country so much, that they -could by no means be happy out of it; and their -pleasures are real pleasures, though they would -not be pleasures to you. And thus you may -learn that God wishes everybody to be happy, -and enables them to be so if they choose to act -according to the light which He has given them, -and not be ever struggling for something which -they <i>cannot</i>, and therefore <i>ought</i> not, to possess.</p> - -<p>And not only do the natives of these frozen -countries endure perpetual frost and snow, but -good men have chosen to go and live among -them for the purpose of teaching the natives the -doctrines of Christianity. I shall relate to you -a most interesting narrative of some of these -men who were Moravians, and it will give you -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>« 154 »</span> -a better notion of the character of these parts -of the world, and of the sort of life men lead in -them, than anything I could you of my own, for -the story is extremely well told.</p> - -<p>"Brother Samuel Liebisch was entrusted with -the general care of the brethren's missions on -the coast of Labrador, and the duties of his -office required a visit to Okkak, the most northern -of our settlements, and about one hundred -and fifty English miles distant from Nain, the -place where he resided. Brother William Turner -being appointed to accompany him, they left -Nain on March the 11th, 1782, early in the -morning, with very clear weather, the stars -shining with uncommon lustre. The sledge was -driven by the baptized Esquimaux Mark, and -another sledge with Esquimaux joined company.</p> - -<p>"An Esquimaux sledge is drawn by a species -of dogs, not unlike a wolf in shape. Like them, -they never bark, but howl disagreeably. They -are kept by the Esquimaux in greater or larger -packs or teams, in proportion to the affluence of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>« 155 »</span> -the master. They quietly submit to be harnessed -for their work, and are treated with little -mercy by the heathen Esquimaux, who make -them do hard duty for the small quantity of food -they allow them. This chiefly consists in offal, -old skins, entrails, such parts of whale-flesh as -are unfit for other use, rotten whale-fins, &c., -and if they are not provided with this kind of -dogs' meat, they leave them to go and seek dead -fish or muscles upon the beach.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page155" style="max-width: 26em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page155.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>"When pinched with hunger they will swallow -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>« 156 »</span> -almost anything, and on a journey it is necessary -to secure the harness within the snow-house -over night, lest by devouring it, they -should render it impossible to proceed in the -morning. When the travellers arrive at their -night-quarters, and the dogs are unharnessed, -they are left to burrow in the snow, where they -please, and in the morning are sure to come at -their driver's call, when they receive some food. -Their strength and speed, even with an hungry -stomach, is astonishing. In fastening them to -the sledge, care is taken not to let them go -abreast. They are tied by separate thongs, of -unequal lengths, to an horizontal bar on the -fore-part of the sledge; an old knowing one -leads the way, running ten or twenty paces ahead, -directed by the driver's whip, which is of -great length, and can be well managed only by -an Esquimaux. The other dogs follow like a -flock of sheep. If one of them receives a lash, -he generally bites his neighbour, and the bite -goes round.</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XII.</span> <i>p. 157</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp97" id="platexii" style="max-width: 36.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">ESCAPE ON THE ICE</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>« 157 »</span></p> - -<p>"To return to our travellers: the two sledges -contained five men, one woman, and a child. -All were in good spirits, and appearances being -much in their favour, they hoped to reach Okkak -in safety in two or three days. The tract over -the frozen sea was in the best possible order, -and they went with ease at the rate of six or -seven miles an hour. After they had passed the -islands in the bay of Nain, they kept at a considerable -distance from the coast, both to gain the -smoothest part of the ice, and to weather the -high rocky promontory of Kiglapeit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" id="page157" style="max-width: 18.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page157.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>"About eight o'clock they met a sledge with -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>« 158 »</span> -Esquimaux turning in from the sea. After the -usual salutation, the Esquimaux alighting, held -some conversation, as is their general practice, -the result of which was, that some hints were -thrown out by the strange Esquimaux, that it -might be better to return. However, as the -missionaries saw no reason whatever for it, and -only suspected that the Esquimaux wished to -enjoy the company of their friends a little -longer, they proceeded.</p> - -<p>"After some time their own Esquimaux hinted -that there was a ground swell under the ice. It -was then hardly perceptible, except on lying -down and applying the ear close to the ice, when -a hollow disagreeable grating and roaring noise -was heard, as if ascending from the abyss. The -weather remained clear, except towards the east, -where a bank of light clouds appeared, interspersed -with some dark streaks. But the wind -being strong from the North-west, nothing less -than a sudden change of weather was expected.</p> - -<p>"The sun had now reached its height, and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>« 159 »</span> -there was as yet little or no alteration in the appearance -of the sky. But the motion of the sea -under the ice had grown more perceptible, so as -rather to alarm the travellers, and they began to -think it prudent to keep closer to the shore. -The ice had cracks and large fissures in many -places, some of which formed chasms of one or -two feet wide; but as they are not uncommon -even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap -over them, the sledge following without danger, -they are only terrible to new comers.</p> - -<p>"As soon as the sun declined towards the -west, the wind increased and rose to a storm, -the bank of clouds from the east began to ascend, -and the dark streaks to put themselves in -motion against the wind. The snow was violently -driven about by partial whirlwinds, both -on the ice, and from off the peaks of the high -mountains and filled the air. At the same time -the ground swell had increased so much, that -its effect upon the ice became very extraordinary -and alarming. The sledges, instead of gliding -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>« 160 »</span> -along smoothly upon an even surface, sometimes -ran with violence after the dogs, and shortly -after seemed with difficulty to ascend the rising -hill, for the elasticity of so vast a body of ice, -of many leagues square, supported by a troubled -sea, though in some places three or four yards -in thickness, would, in some degree, occasion an -undulatory motion not unlike that of a sheet of -paper accommodating itself to the surface of a -rippling stream. Noises were now likewise distinctly -heard in many directions, like the report -of cannon, owing to the bursting of the ice at -some distance.</p> - -<p>"The Esquimaux therefore drove with all -haste towards the shore, intending to take up -their night-quarters on the south side of the -Nivak. But as it plainly appeared that the ice -would break and disperse in the open sea, Mark -advised to push forward to the north of the -Nivak, from whence he hoped the track to -Okkak might still remain entire.</p> - -<p>"To this proposal the company agreed, but -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>« 161 »</span> -when the sledges approached the coast, the -prospect before them was truly terrific. The -ice having broken loose from the rocks, was -forced up and down, grinding and breaking into -a thousand pieces against the precipices, with a -tremendous noise, which added to the raging of -the wind, and the snow driving about in the air, -deprived the travellers almost of the power of -hearing and seeing anything distinctly.</p> - -<p>"To make the land at any risk, was now the -only hope left, but it was with the utmost difficulty -the frightened dogs could be forced forward, -the whole body of ice sinking frequently -below the surface of the rocks, then rising above -it. As the only moment to land was that, when -it gained the level of the coast, the attempt was -extremely nice and hazardous. However, by -God's mercy, it succeeded; both sledges gained -the shore, and were drawn up the beach with -much difficulty.</p> - -<p>"The travellers had hardly time to reflect -with gratitude to God on their safety, when that -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>« 162 »</span> -part of the ice from which they had just now -made good their landing burst asunder, and the -water forcing itself from below, covered and -precipitated it into the sea. In an instant, as if -by a signal given, the whole mass of ice, extending -for several miles from the coast, and as far -as the eye could reach, began to burst and be -overwhelmed by the immense waves towering -above.</p> - -<p>"The sight was tremendous and awfully -grand; the large fields of ice, raising themselves -out of the water, striking against each -other, and plunging into the deep with a violence -not to be described, and a noise like the -discharge of innumerable batteries of heavy -guns. The darkness of the night, the roaring -of the wind and sea, and the dashing of the -waves and ice against the rocks, filled the travellers -with sensations of awe and horror, so -as almost to deprive them of the power of utterance. -They stood overwhelmed with astonishment -at their miraculous escape, and even -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>« 163 »</span> -the heathen Esquimaux expressed gratitude to -God for their deliverance.</p> - -<p>"The Esquimaux now began to build a snow-house, -about thirty paces from the beach; but -before they had finished their work, the waves -reached the place where the sledges were secured, -and they were with difficulty saved from -being washed into the sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page163" style="max-width: 24.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page163.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>"About nine o'clock all of them crept into -the snow-house, thanking God for this place of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>« 164 »</span> -refuge; for the wind was piercingly cold and so -violent, that it required great strength to be -able to stand against it.</p> - -<p>"Before they entered this habitation, they -could not help once more turning to the sea, -which was now free from ice, and beheld with -horror, mingled with gratitude, the enormous -waves, driving furiously before the wind, like -huge castles, and approaching the shore, where -with dreadful noise, they dashed against the -rocks, foaming and filling the air with the spray. -The whole company now got their supper, and -having sung an evening hymn in the Esquimaux -language, lay down to rest about ten o'clock. -They lay so close, that if any one stirred, his -neighbours were roused by it.</p> - -<p>"The Esquimaux were soon fast asleep, but -brother Liebisch could not get any rest, partly -on account of the dreadful roaring of the wind -and sea, and partly owing to a sore throat, -which gave him great pain. Both missionaries -were also much engaged in their minds in contemplating -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>« 165 »</span> -the dangerous situations into which -they had been brought, and amidst all thankfulness -for their great deliverance from immediate -death, could not but cry unto their Heavenly -Father for his help in this time of need.</p> - -<p>"The wakefulness of the missionaries proved -the deliverance of the whole party from sudden -destruction. About two o'clock in the morning, -brother Liebisch perceived some salt water to -drop from the roof of the snow-house upon his -lips. Though rather alarmed on tasting the -salt, which could not proceed from a common -spray, he kept quiet, till the same dropping -being more frequently repeated, just as he was -about to give the alarm, on a sudden a tremendous -surf broke close to the house, discharging -a quantity of water into it; a second soon followed, -and carried away the slab of snow placed -as a door before the entrance. The missionaries -immediately called aloud to the sleeping Esquimaux, -to rise and quit the place. They jumped -up in an instant, one of them with a large knife -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>« 166 »</span> -cut a passage through the side of the house, and -each seizing some part of the baggage, it was -thrown out upon a higher part of the beach, -brother Turner assisting the Esquimaux. Brother -Liebisch and the woman and child fled to -a neighbouring eminence. The latter were -wrapt up by the Esquimaux in a large skin, and -the former took shelter behind a rock, for it was -impossible to stand against the wind, snow, and -sleet. Scarcely had the company retreated to -the eminence when an enormous wave carried -away the whole house, but nothing of consequence -was lost."</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page166" style="max-width: 9.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page166.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>« 167 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE JOURNEY OVER THE ICE CONTINUED.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">"T</span>hey now found themselves a second time -delivered from the most imminent danger of -death; but the remaining part of the night, before -the Esquimaux could seek and find another -more safe place for a snow-house, were hours of -great trial to mind and body, and filled every -one with painful reflections. Before the day -dawned, the Esquimaux cut a hole into a large -drift of snow, to screen the woman and child, -and the two missionaries.</p> - -<p>"Brother Liebisch, however, could not bear -the closeness of the air, and was obliged to sit -down at the entrance, where the Esquimaux -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>« 168 »</span> -covered him with skins, to keep him warm, as -the pain in his throat was very great.</p> - -<p>"As soon as it was light, they built another -snow-house, and miserable as such an accommodation -is at all times, they were glad and thankful -to creep into it. It was about eight feet -square and six or seven feet high. They now -congratulated each other on their deliverance, -but found themselves in a very bad plight.</p> - -<p>"The missionaries had taken but a small stock -of provisions with them, merely sufficient for the -short journey to Okkak. Joel, his wife and -child, and Kassigiak, the sorcerer, had nothing -at all. They were obliged, therefore, to divide -the small stock into daily portions, especially as -there appeared no hopes of soon quitting this -place and reaching any dwellings. Only two -ways were left for this purpose, either to attempt -the land passage across the wild and unfrequented -mountain Kiglapeit, or wait for a -new ice track over the sea, which it might -require much time to form; they therefore -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>« 169 »</span> -resolved to serve out no more than a biscuit -and a half per day.</p> - -<p>"But as this would not by any means satisfy -an Esquimaux's stomach, the missionaries offered -to give one of their dogs to be killed for them, -on condition, that in case distress obliged them -to resort again to that expedient, the next dog -killed should be one of the Esquimaux's team. -They replied that they should be glad of it, if -they had a kettle to boil the flesh in, but as that -was not the case, they must even suffer hunger, -for they could not, even now, eat dogs' flesh in -its raw state. The missionaries now remained -in the snow-house, and every day endeavoured -to boil so much water over their lamp, as might -serve for two dishes of coffee a-piece. Through -mercy, they were preserved in good health, and -brother Liebisch quite unexpectedly recovered -on the first day of his sore throat. The Esquimaux -also kept up their spirits, and even the -rough heathen Kassigiak declared, that it was -proper to be thankful that they were still alive, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>« 170 »</span> -adding, that if they had remained a very little -longer upon the ice yesterday, all their bones -would have been broken to pieces in a short -time. He had, however, his heels frozen, and -suffered considerable pain. In the evening, the -missionaries sung an hymn with the Esquimaux, -and continued to do it every morning and evening. -God was present with them, and comforted -their hearts by his peace.</p> - -<p>"Towards noon of the thirteenth, the weather -cleared up and the sea was seen, as far as the -eye could reach, quite freed from ice. Mark -and Joel went up the hills to reconnoitre, and -returned with the disagreeable news that not a -morsel of ice was to be seen even from thence, -in any direction, and that it had even been -forced away from the coast at Nuasornak. They -were, therefore, of opinion, that we could do -nothing but force our way across the mountain -Kiglapeit.</p> - -<p>"To-day Kassigiak complained much of hunger, -probably to obtain from the missionaries -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>« 171 »</span> -a larger portion than the common allowance. -They represented to him, that they had no more -themselves, and reproved him for his impatience. -Whenever the victuals were distributed, he always -swallowed his portion very greedily, and -put out his hand for what he saw the missionaries -had left, but was easily kept from any further -attempt by serious reproof.</p> - -<p>"The Esquimaux eat to-day an old sack made -of fish-skin, which proved indeed a dry and miserable -dish. While they were at this singular -meal, they kept repeating, in a low humming -tone, 'you was a sack but a little while ago, -and now you are food for us.' Towards evening -some flakes of ice were discovered driving -towards the coast, and on the fourteenth in the -morning, the sea was covered with them. But -the weather was again very strong, and the Esquimaux -could not quit the snow-house, which -made them very low spirited and melancholy. -Kassigiak suggested, that it would be well to -attempt to make good weather, by which he -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>« 172 »</span> -meant to practise his art, as a sorcerer, to make -the weather good.</p> - -<p>"The missionaries opposed it, and told him -that his heathenish practices were of no use, but -that the weather would become favourable as -soon as it should please God. Kassigiak then -asked, whether <i>Jesus</i> could make good weather. -He was told, that to <i>Jesus</i> was given all power -in heaven and earth; upon which he demanded, -that he should be applied to. Another time he -said, I shall tell my countrymen at Seglek. The -missionaries replied. 'Tell them that in the -midst of this affliction, we placed our only hope -and trust in Jesus Christ our Saviour, who loves -all mankind, and has shed his blood to redeem -them from eternal misery.'</p> - -<p>"To-day the Esquimaux began to eat an old, -filthy, and worn-out skin, which had served them -for a mattress.</p> - -<p>"On the fifteenth the weather continued extremely -boisterous, and the Esquimaux appeared -every now and then to sink under disappointment. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>« 173 »</span> -But they possess one good quality, -namely, a power of going to sleep when they -please, and, if need be, they will sleep for days -and nights together.</p> - -<p>"In the evening the sky became clear, and -their hopes revived. Mark and Joel went out -to reconnoitre, and brought word that the ice -had acquired a considerable degree of solidity, -and might soon be fit for use. The poor dogs -had, meanwhile, fasted for nearly four days, but -now in the prospect of a speedy release, the missionaries -allowed to each a few morsels of food. -The temperature of the air having been rather -mild, it occasioned a new source of distress, for -by the warm exhalations of the inhabitants, the -roof of the snow-house got to be in a melting -state; which occasioned a continual dropping, -and by degrees made every thing soaking wet. -The missionaries report, that they considered -this the greatest hardship they had to endure, -for they had not a dry thread about them, nor -a dry place to lie down in.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>« 174 »</span></p> - -<p>"On the sixteenth early, the sky cleared, but -the fine particles of snow were driven about -like clouds. Joel and Kassigiak resolved to -pursue their journey to Okkak, by the way of -Nuasornak, and set out, with the wind and snow -full in their faces. Mark could not resolve to -proceed farther north, because, in his opinion, -the violence of the wind had driven the ice off -the coast at Tikkerasuk, so as to render it impossible -to land; but he thought he might yet -proceed to the south with safety, and get round -Kiglapeit. The missionaries endeavoured to -persuade him to follow the above mentioned -company to Okkak, but it was in vain; and they -did not feel at liberty to insist upon it, not being -sufficiently acquainted with the circumstances. -Their present distress dictated the necessity of -venturing something to reach the habitations -of men, and yet they were rather afraid of passing -over the newly frozen sea under Kiglapeit, -and could not immediately determine what to -do. Brother Turner therefore went again with -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>« 175 »</span> -Mark to examine the ice, and both seemed -satisfied that it would hold. They therefore -came at last to a resolution to return to -Nain.</p> - -<p>"On the seventeenth, the wind had considerably -increased, with heavy showers of snow -and sleet, but they set off at half-past ten o'clock -in the afternoon. Mark ran all the way round -Kiglapeit, before the sledge, that he might -find a good track, and about one o'clock, -they were quite out of danger and reached -the bay. Here they found a good track upon -smooth ice, made a meal of the remnant of their -provisions, and got some warm coffee. Thus -refreshed, they resolved to proceed without -stopping, till they reached Nain, where they arrived -at twelve o'clock at night.</p> - -<p>"The brethren at Nain rejoiced exceedingly -to see them return, for by several hints of the -Esquimaux, who first met them going out to -sea, and who then in their own obscure way, -had endeavoured to warn them of their danger -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>« 176 »</span> -of the ground-swell, but had not been attended -to, their fellow-missionaries, and especially their -wives, had been much terrified. One of these -Esquimaux, whose wife had made some article -of dress for brother Liebisch, whom they called -Samuel, addressed her in the following manner:—'I -should be glad of the payment for my wife's -work.' 'Wait a little,' answered sister Liebisch, -'and when my husband returns he will settle -with you, for I am unacquainted with the bargain -made between you.' 'Samuel and William,' -replied the Esquimaux, 'will not return -any more to Nain.' 'How not return! what -makes you say so?' After some pause the Esquimaux -replied in a low tone, 'Samuel and -William are no more! all their bones are broken, -and in the stomachs of the sharks.'</p> - -<p>"Terrified at this alarming account, sister -Liebisch called in the rest of the family, and the -Esquimaux was examined as to his meaning; -but his answers were little less obscure. He -seemed so certain of the destruction of the missionaries, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>« 177 »</span> -that he was with difficulty prevailed -on to wait some time for their return. He -could not believe that they could have escaped -the effects of so furious a tempest, considering -the course they were taking.</p> - -<p>"It may easily be conceived, with what gratitude -to God the whole family at Nain bid them -welcome. During the storm, they had considered -with some dread, what might be the fate -of their brethren, though at Nain its violence -was not felt so much as on a coast, unprotected -by any islands. Added to this, the hints of the -Esquimaux had considerably increased their apprehensions -for their safety, and their fears -began to get the better of their hopes. All therefore -joined most fervently in praise and thanksgiving -to God, for this signal deliverance."</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>« 178 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE WHALE.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>t seems strange that the largest animal in -nature should live in these regions, where you -would think everything must be starved by -the cold. But so it is, and it should lead you -to reflect, how wonderfully the principle which -animates living beings, by the outward form and -constitution which it gives to the bodies of -animals, adapts them to support the various circumstances -in which they are placed.</p> - -<p>There are many kinds of whale which all -agree in these particulars. They are very much -larger than any other creatures existing; they -live in the sea and yet suckle their young with -milk, and have warm blood and lungs like land -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>« 179 »</span> -animals, so that they can only breathe by putting -their heads above water. Some people have -doubted whether it was proper to call the whale -a fish, but on the whole it is certainly more like -fishes than it is like any other of the great divisions -of animals, seeing that it swims with -fins, and cannot live out of the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page179" style="max-width: 26.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page179.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Greenland whale (naturalists call it <i>Balena -Mysticetus</i>,) is the most important of the -varieties, as it is the one which produces train -oil in the largest quantities, and whalebone. In -common with all the others, it is a most awkward -looking creature. Here is a picture of one. -Its usual length is from 40 to 60 feet; and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>« 180 »</span> -the circumference of its body about 40. It -not unfrequently weighs 60 or 70 tons, which -is more than the weight of 180 fat oxen.</p> - -<p>The tail is commonly about 6 feet long, and -25 feet wide. It lies flat upon the water, and is -what the creature principally uses in swimming, -for the fins near the head appear to be used -merely to keep the body steady in the water. -It is also a weapon of defence, and possesses -prodigious strength, as you shall hear by and -by.</p> - -<p>The inside of the mouth is, perhaps, the most -wonderful part of the whale, both from its size -and construction. I was once in one, which -was 15 feet in length and 7 feet wide.</p> - -<p>It is from the mouth that the <i>Whalebone</i>, as -it is called, comes. The jaws are not furnished -with teeth, but in their place there is something -which forms a curious sort of shrimp-trap, which -I will describe to you. The whalebone is ranged -along in blades upon the jaws, like the laths of a -Venetian blind, and the inner edge of each blade -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>« 181 »</span> -is furnished with a fringe of fibrous stuff almost -like hair.</p> - -<p>The natural position of the whale's mouth -seems to be open, and it mostly swims along or -lies near the surface, with its lower jaw hanging -down. Little fish and insects, most of them of -the smallest size, thus come in contact with the -smooth edge of the blades of bone, slip between -them, and become entangled in the hairy fringe -of the inner edge, so that they can never get -out again. When the whale thinks he has got -enough in his mouth, he immediately raises his -enormous lower jaw and swallows. One of -his mouthfuls must often consist of millions -of living creatures, respecting the kinds of -which I shall have something to tell you in a -future page.</p> - -<p>I told you that he was obliged to rise to the -surface of the water to breathe. You would -like to see him ascend for this purpose, and -snort out a jet of thick vapour to the height -of twenty feet, or more, and making such a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>« 182 »</span> -noise, as may be heard at a distance of several -miles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page182" style="max-width: 24em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page182.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Under the skin, all over the body, there is -a covering of yellowish fat of about a foot thick, -which keeps the animal warm, answering the -same purpose as the fur does on land animals. -It is necessary, because the whale is not cold in -the inside like other fish, but has warm, red -blood, which is of a higher temperature even than -that of a human being. This is another circumstance -which becomes the more remarkable from -the cold climate in which he lives.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>« 183 »</span></p> - -<p>This fat is generally called blubber, and is -what the oil comes from. When first it is taken -from the whale, it has not the least unpleasant -smell, and it is not till the cargo is unstowed -that a whale ship is at all disagreeable.</p> - -<p>The largest sort of whale is called the <i>razor -back</i>, from a ridge that runs along his back. -They are often 100 feet in length. I never saw -one of these taken, but the sailors told me that -they were very difficult to come near, and after -all, not worth the trouble of killing, for they -have very little blubber.</p> - -<p>Then there is the Cachalot, or Sperm Whale, -which is smaller, and much more slender than -the common whale. It has teeth, and is of a -very quarrelsome temper. It often fights with -its own kind, and I have seen several of them -which had been wounded in the jaws, and made -blind by such conflicts. It is from the head of -this animal that spermaceti is obtained.</p> - -<p>A number of vessels are sent out every year to -catch these great creatures, and this is the way -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>« 184 »</span> -in which they manage their work. Every vessel -is furnished with five or six boats which are -hung on the sides of the vessel in such a way as -to be easily lowered into the water on the shortest -notice. One or two of the boats are usually -kept upon the look out, in each of which there -is a harpoon attached to a rope above 700 feet -in length, and about as thick as a man's thumb. -This is the shape of the harpoon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page184" style="max-width: 27.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page184.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>When they see a whale showing himself above -the surface of the water, the man who is to -throw the harpoon, stations himself at the bow, -and the rest pull away as fast as they are able -till they approach the whale as near as possible, -and this is often to within a very short distance -in consequence of his being slower of hearing -than most other animals.</p> - -<p>The harpooner then throws the harpoon with -all his might, and if he is lucky, it goes through -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>« 185 »</span> -the poor creature's skin and blubber, into his -flesh. The moment he feels the wound, he -mostly sinks to a great depth, and drags out the -line which is carefully coiled at the bottom of -the boat, at a tremendous rate. One man stands -by with a mop to keep the edge of the boat over -which the rope runs constantly wet, lest the friction -should set the boat on fire, and another -holds a hatchet ready to chop it in two in case -it should become entangled. If it goes out -smoothly, they add lines as long as they are -necessary: and on one occasion, for a whale -which was very refractory, Captain Scoresby -actually joined together three miles and three -quarters of rope, the weight of which was nearly -two tons! Was not this a great fishing-line?</p> - -<p>As soon as the whale is struck, they hoist a -flag, and the men who are in the ship, and constantly -upon the look out, immediately come -to their assistance. If the signal is made when -any of them are asleep, up they come with their -clothes under their arms, and dress afterwards -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>« 186 »</span> -as they can, for not a moment is to be lost. -This is no joke, when the cold is more than -thirty degrees below the freezing point.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page186" style="max-width: 27.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page186.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>However, they are obliged to go; and as -many boats as there may be, then watch anxiously -for the re-appearance of the whale on the -surface. As soon as he shows himself, the men -of the other boats immediately strike their harpoons -into him, and so secure him till he is faint -from loss of blood, and at last comes up to the -surface, spouting out blood mixed with the vapour -from his nostrils. They then despatch him -with an instrument called a lance, -and the great carcass rolls over upon its back. -It is afterwards lashed by strong ropes to the -side of the ship, and the blubber is cut up into -lumps of convenient size, and stowed in casks.</p> - -<p>It occasionally happens, after the harpooner -has thrown his weapon, that the creature in -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>« 187 »</span> -agony, flaps about his tail with tremendous violence -before he goes down. Many boats have -been upset in this manner, and Captain Scoresby -relates an instance of a boat being dashed completely -in two.</p> - -<p>Some people have thought the whale a very -stupid creature, but there does not seem much -ground for this notion, though we can never be -in a condition to see much of its instinctive wisdom. -As far as we can see, it is the very best -thing it could do when struck by the harpoon, to -go downwards as it does; and this seems to prove -that it has quite its share of intelligence; and it -is still more remarkable, that if a mass of ice be -near when it is pursued, either before or after -it has been struck, it gets under it as quickly -as possible, and often thus baffles its pursuers.</p> - -<p>But the most interesting thing in the character -of the whale is, its extreme love for its -offspring, and a cruel use is often made by the -whalers of this beautiful disposition. They often -strike a <i>cub</i> or <i>sucker</i>, as they call the young -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>« 188 »</span> -whales, which would not be worth taking itself, -because they know its mother will instantly expose -herself to an attack in its defence. You -shall hear what Captain Scoresby says on this, -"When the young whale is struck, its mother -joins it at the surface of the water, whenever it -has occasion to rise for respiration; encourages -it to swim off; assists its flight, by taking it -under her fin; and seldom deserts it while life -remains. She is then dangerous to approach; -but affords frequent opportunities for attack. -She loses all regard for her own safety, in -anxiety for the preservation of her young;—dashes -through the midst of her enemies;—despises -the danger that threatens her;—and even -voluntarily remains with her offspring, after various -attacks on herself from the harpoons of the -fishers. In June 1811, one of my harpooners -struck a sucker, with the hope of its leading to -the capture of the mother. Presently she arose -close by the 'fast-boat;' and seizing the young -one, dragged about a hundred fathoms of line -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>« 189 »</span> -out of the boat with remarkable force and velocity. -Again she arose to the surface; darted -furiously to and fro; frequently stopped short, -or suddenly changed her direction, and gave -every possible intimation of extreme agony. For -a length of time she continued thus to act, -though closely pursued by the boats; and, inspired -with courage and resolution by her concern -for her offspring, seemed regardless of the -danger which surrounded her. At length, one -of the boats approached so near, that a harpoon -was hove at her. It hit, but did not attach -itself. A second harpoon was struck; this also -failed to penetrate: but a third was more effectual, -and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, -but allowed other boats to approach; so -that, in a few minutes, three more harpoons -were fastened; and, in the course of an hour -afterwards, she was killed."</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>« 190 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">A VOYAGE ON A TROPICAL SEA.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>o you, my little friends, who have always -lived in a climate in which it seems as if the -wind changed, and it became sun-shiny or -cloudy, wet or dry, cold or hot, without any -law or regularity, it is something strange to -hear of places where the inhabitants know almost -to a day that the wind will blow constantly -in one direction during so many months in the -year, and constantly in some other direction during -the rest: and where, with equal certainty, -they know when to expect rain and when fine -weather.</p> - -<p>The truth is, our changeable weather is under -the influence of laws quite as certain and fixed -as their uniform weather is, only that there are -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>« 191 »</span> -more partial causes operating in our climate, so -that the effects are not so strictly periodical. -We know as little about the way in which the -laws operate in one case, as in the other.</p> - -<p>The winds that always blow in one direction -are called the Trade Winds, and those which -blow in one direction regularly during a certain -portion of the year, are called monsoons. They -make navigation in some parts of the ocean, very -certain, and you cannot think how odd it seems -to a young sailor the first time he sails in them. -He leads then a lazy sort of life; there is no -tacking about, but day after day he has nothing to -do but just such things as might be done on land.</p> - -<p>When the sailors of Columbus first found -themselves in the Trade Wind blowing from the -eastward, having sailed before it for many days, -they gave themselves up to despair, because they -thought they should never be able to make their -way back against it to their dear native country. -They did not know that it would by and by -blow quite as certainly in another direction.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>« 192 »</span></p> - -<p>These uniform winds blow only within a certain -distance of the equator, and the cause of -them is this. The heat of the climate there occasions -the air next to the surface of the earth -to be always ascending, and other air rushes in -from other parts of the world to supply its place. -The motion of the earth upon its axis operates -with this, by bringing the parts of its surface -successively in contact with any certain point in -the atmosphere, which does not revolve so rapidly -as the earth itself, and a fixed direction is -thus given to the wind.</p> - -<p>But it is still much more dull to find one's -self in a calm on a tropical sea. Only imagine -to yourselves a stagnant and shoreless sea, often -with unsightly masses of sea-weed floating on -it, a sky constantly of a gloomy-looking red, -and nothing to be seen day after day except -this sky and sea; insupportable thirst and bad -water to quench it, and the ship all the time -rocking to and fro with a nasty dull motion, and -the ropes and sails idly flapping against the -mast and yards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>« 193 »</span></p> - -<p>But though I have seen and felt all this, I -cannot describe it to you so well as the poet, so -I will give you his words.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">'Twas sad as sad could be,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">And we did speak only to break</div> - <div class="verse indent2">The silence of the sea.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"All in a hot and copper sky,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">The bloody sun at noon,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Right up above the mast did stand</div> - <div class="verse indent2">No bigger than the moon.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Day after day, day after day,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">We stuck, nor breath nor motion;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">As idle as a painted ship</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Upon a painted ocean.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Water, water, everywhere,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And all the boards did shrink;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Water, water, everywhere,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Nor any drop to drink."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>« 194 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE WATER-SPOUT.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">W</span>ell! one morning when we were only a few -leagues off the West Coast of Africa, to the -South of the Cape Verd Islands, we thought we -were going to have just such a calm as the poet -has described. There had been a violent storm -during the night, but every breath of wind had -died away, and left a long sleepy swell upon -the sea.</p> - -<p>About nine o'clock, we noticed a cloud rising, -or rather seeming to form, at some distance from -us, and just below it a white spot of foam appeared -on the surface of the water, and the -waves raged over a little round space in a way -that made me feel I don't know how, for I had -never seen such a thing before. The cloud -grew blacker and blacker, and presently seemed -to move down towards the sea and swell out in -the same direction, as if to provoke the waves -below, which seemed straining up towards it.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XIII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XIII.</span> <i>p. 194</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" id="platexiii" style="max-width: 36.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">WATER SPOUTS</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>« 195 »</span></p> - -<p>There suddenly seemed to grow out of the -middle of the spot of waves, a complete pillar of -water of a tapering shape, and at the same moment -the lower part of the cloud seemed to condense -and turn to water, and shot downwards -in a cone to meet it. They united and formed -one pillar, almost as distinct as if it had been of -ice instead of water. You will see a correct representation -of this in the picture.</p> - -<p>The size at the base must have been very -large, not less than 250 feet in diameter, but it -tapered off so much that at the middle it was -not more than three or four feet. Above the -middle it increased in size, and its solidity -seemed to get gradually less till it ended in a -great black cloud. Its height might have been -about 700 feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>« 196 »</span></p> - -<p>Its form changed considerably. It generally -seemed as if it was composed of water sucked -upwards in a spiral direction, and looked almost -like a great cable; but now and then it looked -like a simple hollow tube.</p> - -<p>Sometimes it inclined a little one way, and -then another; and sometimes it was very considerably -bent, and then suddenly straightened -itself again.</p> - -<p>When the ship was nearest to it, we heard a -noise from it like the rushing of a waterfall, -and before it was over, heavy rain came on with -lightning, but no thunder. The wind all the -time was very unsteady, though it was not -violent.</p> - -<p>While we were looking at it, two smaller ones -formed at some distance under very nearly the -same circumstances. One of them stood quite -still for some seconds, and then disappeared; -but the other moved steadily on in a straight -line, for several minutes.</p> - -<p>The great one continued moving also very -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>« 197 »</span> -slowly for nearly half an hour, and then seemed -to snap in two, and one half sank rapidly into the -sea, as if it had been unhooked from above, and -the other half remained hanging from the cloud -for some time, and then curled upwards and disappeared, -throwing down a heavy torrent of rain.</p> - -<p>I have seen many water-spouts since, in my -voyages over the great ocean, but have never -been so struck with the appearance of any one as -of this.</p> - -<p>There is a common notion that a cannon fired -at a water-spout, will disperse it by making a -great concussion of the air; but I do not think -that this is true, unless the water-spout be very -small. At all events, it was not true in this -case, for we fired right at the large one several -times, and it took no effect except in splashing -the water about as the ball went through.</p> - -<p>It is also generally imagined that they are -very dangerous to ships, and if they come close, -that they throw such a quantity of water into -them as to sink them. I have somewhere read -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>« 198 »</span> -an account of a vessel having once been put in -danger by one off the Coast of Guinea, and two -or three of the men being washed overboard, -and I once saw the sails and deck of a vessel, -made very wet by a small one, myself. But my -own opinion is, that there is not much to be -dreaded from them, for they are not a solid mass -of water, but merely condensed vapour in the -form of a tube, with a hollow space in the middle. -And I think if you were right under one of them, -it would be no worse than rain descending in -very large drops.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp64" id="page198" style="max-width: 14.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page198.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Once I saw a much -smaller water-spout on -land. It was a gusty, -cloudy day, and the wind -had changed several -times, when a dark cloud -at some distance from -where I was, extended -downwards till it came -nearly to a point.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>« 199 »</span></p> - -<p>It seemed to reach about three-fourths of the -distance from the cloud to the ground, and -moved along slowly for about ten minutes. -When I afterwards made inquiry of the people -over whose houses it passed, they told me that -it had let fall in its progress a tremendous quantity -of rain, so as considerably to injure several -houses.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">HOW PARLEY SUPPOSES WATER-SPOUTS -TO BE CAUSED.</p> - -<p>I suppose you would now like me to tell you -how water-spouts are caused. I wish I could, -for your sakes; and, besides, I should very -much like to know myself. I have, however, a -tolerable guess upon the subject, and that I -will tell you of.</p> - -<p>I dare say you have often seen little eddies of -wind which take up dust, straw, and other light -substances, and carry them up, twirling them -round in a spiral direction like a cork-screw.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>« 200 »</span></p> - -<p>When these occur on a larger scale, they are -called whirlwinds, and are often very destructive -in their effects, unroofing houses, and doing various -other mischief. They are sometimes occasioned -by draughts of air being disturbed in their -course by mountains or hills, and meeting each -other. But the largest are caused by two or -more currents of wind, produced by what ordinarily -influences the direction of the wind, meeting -from different quarters, and then twisting -round each other just as two strings, with weights -at their ends, would do if you swung them forcibly -together so as to meet about the middle.</p> - -<p>A whirlwind occurred some years ago, near -where I was living; it lasted about ten minutes, -and produced some very curious effects. It first -met with a milk-maid, who was carrying a pail -of milk upon her head, and tore off her bonnet -along with the pail, and carried both to a great -distance, where they were not found till some -days afterwards. It next twisted a wagon in -pieces, and blew most of the fragments over a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>« 201 »</span> -wall; it unroofed a house, and carried some of -the tiles to a great distance; next it dashed -through the window of the room where I was -sitting, swept all the ornaments off the mantelpiece, -and made strange havock with some of -the furniture. It then passed on to a neighbouring -park, where it tore up several trees. The -wind had not been extremely violent before, -neither was it immediately afterwards.</p> - -<p>Suppose a cloud happens to be exactly in the -point of union of two currents of wind, meeting -as they did in this whirlwind, it then becomes -twisted in along with them, and partially condensed; -and if it is over the land, this is all that -seems necessary to form the water-spout.</p> - -<p>And if it happens to be over the sea, the wind, -as it eddies round, works up the waves into a -ferment, and much spray and foam is produced, -which is twisted in with the whirlwind in the -same manner as the cloud, and carried upwards -to meet it.</p> - -<p>Whether this is just the way in which the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>« 202 »</span> -thing takes place, or not, it is pretty certain that -the water-spout is caused by the meeting of -winds from various quarters, from what Dr. -Franklin tells us in one of his letters which I -read the other day. He says that a sailor informed -him that he was in one of three vessels -which chanced to be placed as at the three corners -of a triangle; a water-spout was formed -between them which seemed to be to the leeward -of each of them.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp80" id="page202" style="max-width: 15.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page202.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The cut will enable -you to understand what -I mean. The star in -the middle represents -the water-spout, and -the three arrows the directions -in which each -of the three vessels -found the wind come, -which shows that three diverse currents of air -all set towards the water-spout.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>« 203 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">CORAL REEFS AND ISLANDS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">W</span>hen we were sailing through the Pacific -Ocean, I saw a great many coral reefs and -islands; and perhaps there is hardly one of the -wonderful things which I have seen in my travels, -that I remember with more pleasure, or -love more to think about, so I shall be glad to -tell you all I know of them.</p> - -<p>You are acquainted with the appearance of -Coral, as you have often seen pieces of it in cabinets, -and employed as ornaments; and you -therefore know that it always abounds with -little holes, but its form, and the shape of these -holes, vary considerably. Some of it occurs in -branches, like the branches of trees, and in consequence -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>« 204 »</span> -of this, and because it was known to -increase in size from time -to time, it was taken for -a marine plant, before its -nature was fully investigated. -The openings in -this sort are placed in -the form of -stars, as you -will see in this little piece of one -of the branches magnified.</p> - -<table summary="illos"> -<tr> - <td style="width:220px"><div class="figcenter" id="page204a" style="max-width: 13.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page204a.png" alt="" /></div></td> - <td style="width:160px"><div class="figcenter" id="page204b" style="max-width: 8.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page204b.png" alt="" /></div></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>Sometimes it is in large roundish masses, -called brain stones, -from its resemblance -to the brain of an animal; -the openings are -then long holes placed -in two rows between -high ridges, like this.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp100" id="page204c" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page204c.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>And a third form is found consisting of thin -pieces, thinner than writing paper, placed on -edge, spreading out from a centre, or from a line -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>« 205 »</span> -down the middle of a long strip, and the openings -are then plain deep furrows, running from -the middle to the outside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page205" style="max-width: 26.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page205.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There is also the precious red Coral of which -beads and other trinkets are made, found principally -in the Mediterranean Sea, and several -other sorts, more or less rare. But what I have -described to you are the commonest.</p> - -<p>This curious substance extends over hundreds -of miles in various parts of the Tropical Seas, in -islands of different forms. But before I describe -these to you, I must tell you what is known -respecting the little animals by which it is manufactured, -for it is proved to be the work of certain -kinds of the little creatures called Polypes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>« 206 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE CORAL-MAKING POLYPES.</p> - -<p>The Polypes are a kind of animals apparently -of very simple structure, without bones, or -shells, or heads, or brains. They have very -large mouths surrounded by a great number of -<i>tentacula</i>, or feelers, which are threads of flesh -possessing the sense of touch in great perfection; -and to these <i>tentacula</i> they owe the name <i>Polypes</i>, -which comes from two Greek words signifying -<i>many feet</i>. The ancient naturalists who -named them, I suppose did not know but that -they were feet.</p> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XIV"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XIV.</span> <i>p. 206</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp57" style="max-width: 27.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xiv.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">ACTINIÆ CORAL BUILDERS</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>« 207 »</span></p> - -<p>If this was the case, they were not, however, -quite right. Most kinds of Polypes very -seldom move from one place to another in any -way, but stick themselves upon a rock by -means of the flat part of their bodies, and there -remain; and when they let go they generally -suffer themselves to be washed by the waves to -some other place, where they can conveniently -fix again. If you have ever been at -Brighton, or at any other places by the sea -side, for any length of time, I dare say you have -seen the <i>sea anemones</i>, or <i>sea flowers</i>, as they are -called, carried round by the fish people to show -to their customers; or possibly you may have -seen them in the holes on the rocks. They are -proper Polypes, and the scientific name of them -is <i>Actiniæ</i>. As they lead their lazy lives as if -they were rooted in the rock, when they are -hungry they spread out their tentacula to catch -any little insects or minute fish, such as crabs -and shrimps, which may come in their way. -The instant they feel anything, they close in all -their tentacula with surprising force. It is -worth while to put one's finger just in the centre -of one of these "flowers," to feel how strongly -they can draw anything in. I have seen one -suck in a little crab half as large as its own -body, in this manner.</p> - -<p>When closed up they look an insensible lump -of pulpy flesh, but when their fringe of tentacula -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>« 208 »</span> -is expanded, they are very beautiful indeed, -and exhibit various rich colours. You may see -them in each state in the <a href="#Plate_XIV">plate</a> (fig. 1.), where -one is represented closed up, and two are open.</p> - -<p>If one of these curious creatures is cut into -several pieces in certain directions, each piece -will become an animal. You will say that this -seems more like a plant which is propagated by -cuttings, than a proper animal. But for all this, -and although it only appears to possess the same -sort of sensibility, in regard to light and touch, -as some plants do, I can give you a very good -reason for its being considered as an animal,—it -can move itself according to its own <i>will</i>, and -in choosing the time in which it moves, it exhibits -instinctive intelligence. When it finds its -little inch of rock in any respect inconvenient -from its being too high above low water mark, -or not sufficiently in the way of the little creatures -on which it wants to satisfy its appetite, it sucks -in a great quantity of water, and swells itself -out so as to become nearly as light as the water, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>« 209 »</span> -and then looses its hold and continues to float -about till it comes in contact with some more -convenient home. When I first saw them thus -full of water, and carried about by the waves, -I thought they were dead.</p> - -<p>Now the coral builders are all of the same general -character as the Actiniæ, in the construction -of their bodies, their various colours, great -mouths surrounded by feelers, and habits of -taking their meals. But besides their being such -wonderful architects, they differ from the English -creature in being very sociable, and living together -in immense companies. When you read of -the Pyramids of Egypt, or of any other great -structures, you may justly think them wonderful -proofs of what the labours of many men may do -when directed to a single object; but here you -have not houses, pyramids, cities, nor even mere -islands, but whole continents constructed by the -combined labours of little insects.</p> - -<p>I cannot tell you, neither can any one else, in -what manner these little workmen perform their -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>« 210 »</span> -work. It is only certain that they have some -faculty by which they appropriate the particles -of carbonate of lime contained in the sea water, -and dispose them in the various forms I have -mentioned to you. When the coral is in progress, -it is coated with a soft gluey sort of substance, -and over the star-like clusters of openings, -there may be seen, when the creatures are -hungry, little rosettes of tentacula, more beautiful -than you can conceive.</p> - -<p>In fig. 2 of the plate, you may see some of -these animals showing their rich rosettes on a -piece of branch coral, such as is represented -in the first wood cut, <a href="#Page_204">page 204</a>.</p> - -<p>There is another sort of branch coral, where -the animal always lives at the end of the branch, -the whole of which it has to itself, and will then -spread out its tentacula in a star on the extremity, -as you may see in figs. 3 and 4.</p> - -<p>In fig. 5, you may see one of the animals -which construct the sort of coral represented in -the cut, <a href="#Page_205">page 205</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>« 211 »</span></p> - -<p>Since these little creatures can lay down their -tentacula in the openings of their stony houses, -when they are not hungry, or when they are -alarmed by the approach of anything that would -hurt them, they do not want the tough skin -with which the Actinia is covered, but have -bodies of a very soft and yielding texture.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">FORMS OF THE CORAL REEFS.</p> - -<p>As I have now introduced to you, as well as I -can by means of description and pictures, the -inhabitants of these wonderful submarine continents, -I shall now tell you something of the form -in which they arrange their habitations. Those -that I saw about the Society and Friendly Islands, -were mostly in three different conditions. -One kind forms a nearly circular reef, sometimes -with an opening in it. It is a part of the common -design of the Polypes always to make this -opening on the Leeward side, when the place is -one in which any particular wind blows during -a great part of the year. I cannot tell you why -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>« 212 »</span> -this is, but it is constantly observed wherever -coral reefs are found. This peculiarity makes -the enclosed spaces of water, (which are called -Lagoons,) capital harbours for ships to anchor in, -for they are nearly always smooth, the windward -side of the reef acting as a breakwater. Here -is a map of three reefs of this form, in a part of -the ocean where the prevailing wind is South -East, and you will see all the openings are towards -the North West.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page212" style="max-width: 17.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page212.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Another sort have an island of which the -foundation is coral, in the middle of a ring like -the above; and a third sort are merely the same -kind of rings round large islands, composed of -other sorts of rocks and earth. A very great -number of the islands hereabouts,—perhaps most -of them, are surrounded in this manner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>« 213 »</span></p> - -<p>I well remember the first impressions which -the sight of a coral reef made upon me. I -always like to treasure up in my mind the first -impression produced by a beautiful scene; for -however wonderful the objects may be, when -you have seen them many times, you become in -some degree indifferent to them. This first impression -that I am going to describe to you, is a -continual feast to me when I think upon it, and -I wish you could enjoy it with me.</p> - -<p>The first parts of the reef we saw were black, -roundish masses, standing up out of the water, -having just the appearance of black men's heads, -and when I asked the sailors what they were, -they told me they were "negroes' heads." I was -curious, as you may suppose, to know what they -could be, and I afterwards found they were -masses of coral, which were not covered by the -sea, except at very high tides, and had become -blackened by the weather.</p> - -<p>The sun was shining brightly, and there was -a smart breeze. The waves breaking over the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>« 214 »</span> -ragged surface of the coral threw up abundance -of spray, which the sun's rays, every now and -then, painted with the most beautiful rainbow -colours. We sailed through an opening, and -when we had got into the Lagoon, the sea was -perfectly smooth. The water was as clear as -crystal, and we saw the bottom, and what was -going on there, nearly as well as if we had been -close to it, though the depth was very considerable.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp100" id="page214" style="max-width: 13.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page214.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>No flower garden was ever more exquisitely -varied, both as to form and colour, than the -scene under the water. The coral itself, standing -up in the forms of shrubs, wheat-sheaves, -mushrooms, stags'-horns, cabbages, and cauliflowers, -was mostly covered with millions of the -little polypes, displaying their graceful rosettes -of green, purple, yellow, -brown and white. Among -these were strewn innumerable -shells from the -smallest to the largest, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>« 215 »</span> -and amongst the most conspicuous were the -gigantic clams, of which many specimens weigh -hundreds of pounds.</p> - -<p>Then there were seen fish darting in and out -as they</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"><span style="margin-left:12em">"With quick glance,</span></div> - <div class="verse indent0">Showed to the Sun their waved coats dropt with gold,"</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>the variegated Zebra fish, and a hundred other -species, often popping up from deep holes and -caves, of which we could not see the bottom. -All seemed life, beauty, and enjoyment, and when -I had looked at it a long time, it brought to my -mind the time when God looked upon what he -had formed, and said that it was good, for you -could not wish anything to be different from -what it was; the scene appeared faultless, and -quite filled up the heart with emotions of love -and beauty.</p> - -<p>This reef was one of those which surrounded -a good-sized island. The cut will show you -nearly how it appeared to be situated in regard -to the land; <i>a</i> is the land; <i>b</i> the coral; and <i>c</i> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>« 216 »</span> -the Lagoon, the width of which was about a -quarter of a mile.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page216" style="max-width: 25.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page216.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There were in it several masses of coral of a -very curious shape, such as I have since found -always exist in Lagoons. They are first built -up in the form of a sugar-loaf, and when they -get up somewhere between high and low-water-mark, -the polypes extend them at the sides so -as to make a sort of mushroom top, closely -resembling the stones which farmers place ricks -upon, to keep them out of the way of rats and -mice. Their constructing these rocks in the -sugar-loaf form, so as to make them as firm as -possible, is a proof that the labours of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>« 217 »</span> -polypes are directed by a common instinct, and -that each one does not do as he likes, without -regard to the rest. I suppose the reason why -they spread them out at top, is because they -love best the highest habitations they can get, -that are not quite out of the water; and therefore -as many polypes as can, make their residences -there.</p> - -<p>As the tide went down, a considerable space of -the shore of the reef was left dry, towards the -Lagoon, where it slanted off gently. Upon this -there were some of the large clam shells, such as -you saw a cut of just now. They generally lay -about half open, but they would occasionally -shut their shells together with a loud report, and -then spout up a stream of water three or four -feet high. We boiled one of these fish and tasted -it, but found it very disagreeable. The fish -weighed about four pounds, and the shell about -fifty. There were many of a much larger size.</p> - -<p>The reefs towards the sea outside the Lagoons -go down very suddenly, and the soundings are -generally deep, close alongside them. This is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>« 218 »</span> -ascribed to their being built upon the tops of submarine -hills and mountains, for it is believed that -the polypes cannot work at very great depths.</p> - -<p>The surface of the reef is seldom quite so high -as high-water-mark; but they sometimes go -along an incredible distance without interruption, -very near that point. The inhabitants of -the group of islands called Disappointment -Islands, and also of those called Duff's Islands, -pay visits to each other over a bridge of coral -600 miles in length, on a great part of which -their feet are close to the water, so that they look -when on their journey at the time of high-water, -just like troops marching on the surface of the -ocean.</p> - -<p>The natives of some of the Polynesian islands -have actually employed some of these wonderful -little masons to build quays and piers. The -way they do this, is to break off large masses of -coral from any reef that may be near, and drop -them down where they want to form the pier. -In a short time the polypes will have stuck them -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>« 219 »</span> -together as firmly as possible. In an island -called Barabora, a very fine quay has been thus -constructed, where a good-sized vessel may conveniently -take in or discharge its cargo.</p> - -<p>There were once coral islands where England -is now, for in many counties fossil coral is found -in great quantities. It is indeed most likely that -there are large tracts in every part of the world, -which owe their existence to the labours of -polypes.</p> - -<p>This would most probably be the history of the -formation of one of these tracts, if it were in the -Pacific Ocean. A volcanic eruption would throw -up a mountain from the bottom of the sea, the -top of which might be 60 or 70 feet below the surface. -As soon as the eruption had ceased, some -polypes who may have left their position on a -neighbouring reef, might be brought by the tide -into contact with the summit, and would immediately -begin to work. The race of polypes -would multiply, and the building would go on -year after year, till the reef reached the surface. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>« 220 »</span> -Pieces of wood which are always drifting about -in the ocean, might be washed into the Lagoon -and rest upon the shore. A little soil might thus -be formed in the course of years, and a cocoa-nut -or some other sort of seed, which would -equally well bear soaking in the salt water, -might be brought from some distant land, and -may take root and produce a tree. The steady -trade winds would also bring some of those -seeds which are provided with wings, such as -thistles. Various sea birds might build their -nests upon the infant land, which would thus be -increased in a hundred different ways. Small -animals driven out to sea on pieces of timber or -trees, torn away from their original position by -hurricanes, might land upon it; and after a succession -of ages, man would take possession, and -a populous country in time be formed.</p> - -<p>If you are fond of poetry, you would be much -pleased with a very beautiful description of such -a process as this, in James Montgomery's poem, -called the Pelican Island, which you should -read.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>« 221 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE LUMINOUS APPEARANCE OF THE SEA.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>f you were to go on a long voyage, there is -nothing that you would be much more pleased -with, than the occasional bright appearance of -the sea at night. You might see this in all latitudes, -but more frequently in the tropical, than -in colder climates. It occurs in a variety of -modes, and, as it seems, arises from several different -causes. Sometimes the wake of the vessel -looks like a waving line of beautiful silver -light; sometimes the surface will be studded -with spots of bright light, about as large as your -heads; not unfrequently you may see large islands -of light; and now and then a shoal of Albicores, -or some other fish, will pass the vessel, shaking -sparks of dazzling brightness from their fins in -all directions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>« 222 »</span></p> - -<p>It has been supposed by some that the brightness -in the track of a vessel, and that which -sparkles and flashes in the spray on the tops of -the waves, is electrical light: whether it is so -or not, I cannot tell you.</p> - -<p>The effect is, no doubt, sometimes produced -by decayed animal and vegetable bodies, which -appear bright in the dark. I dare say you have -seen the bodies of dead fish, and the surface of -rotten wood have this appearance. The particles -in which the brightness exists are so small, -that you cannot see them, for, if you touch the -luminous body, particularly if it is a stinking -fish, your fingers will immediately appear bright -in the dark, and when you look at them in the -light, you will not be able to see anything on the -surface of the skin.</p> - -<p>But the most wonderful and extensive cause -of all, is the existence of countless myriads of -fish and insects, which are supplied with a fluid -substance that oozes out of their bodies, and -shines with a greenish light upon their surface. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>« 223 »</span> -Some of them may easily be taken, by dropping -over a net where the luminous spots appear. A -few of them are small shell-fish, of the crab or -lobster kind. However, the greater part are -an immense family of creatures called <i>Acalephæ</i>, -or <i>sea nettles</i>. The word <i>Acalepha</i> is the Greek -for a sting nettle, and they are so called for a -reason which I will tell you presently.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp53" id="page223" style="max-width: 8.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page223.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There are a great many different forms of -them, but they mostly agree in having their bodies -shaped something like an umbrella, with -long filaments hanging down from them. This -is a picture of one of the kind -called Berenice. It takes its -name from the resemblance of its -filaments, to the long hair of a -lady. Berenice was the wife of -a warrior, who made a vow to -sacrifice the hair of her head, -which was singularly beautiful, to Venus, if her -husband returned from some successful exploit -in which he was engaged. He did so, and the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>« 224 »</span> -lady accordingly hung up her hair in the temple -of Venus, and thereby gained the honor of -giving her name to a constellation called the -hair of Berenice, and the curious animal figured -in the cut.</p> - -<p>The substance of the body is a mere mass of -jelly, mostly quite transparent, but sometimes -tinged with blue or green; and when deprived -of life it becomes merely a salt liquid, and an -extremely thin skin, weighing only a few grains.</p> - -<p>The mouth is underneath, in amongst the -filaments, which seem to be placed where they -are for the purpose of entangling small fish -and insects, to hold them till the Acalepha can -swallow them. A very great number of them -are of a kind called Medusa, from the resemblance -of their filaments to the snakes, which were said -to take the place of hair upon the head of Medusa, -one of the Furies. One or two sorts have a -crest which they erect as a sail, and thus move -along before the wind, on the surface of the sea, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>« 225 »</span> -in calm weather. I will show you the picture of -one of these called the Physalia.</p> - -<div class="figright illowp32" id="page225" style="max-width: 12.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page225.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The size varies from that -of a pin's head, to a foot -or more in diameter, and -it is said that some have -been found to weigh as -much as 50 pounds. Their -weight is a very little more -in proportion to their bulk -than that of salt water, -and they keep themselves -afloat on the surface, as -long as they are inclined, -by moving very slowly -along, which they do by -alternately contracting and -expanding a very light -ring of muscle, which -surrounds the umbrella. -When they are tired of their snail's gallop, or -they want to descend on any other account, they -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>« 226 »</span> -cease moving, and down they go. In this respect -they are just like a man swimming, who -sinks if he ceases to strike with his limbs.</p> - -<p>There are some species peculiar to hot climates, -where they are generally larger, and -more luminous; and some to cold. But what -is wanting in size is amply made up in number, -in the Arctic regions. A certain naturalist calculated -by a fair average, how many Acalephæ -there were in two square miles of sea, and the -result of his calculation would fill up a whole line -of this work with figures; you may judge something -of it, by his saying that to count the number -would have taken 80,000 persons all the -time that has elapsed since the creation of the -world, counting as fast as they could! It is on -these creatures, most of them so small that they -cannot be seen without a microscope, that the -vast bodies of the whales are supported, caught -in the wonderful shrimp-trap, which I described -to you in a former page!</p> - -<p>Two or three kinds are found on your own -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>« 227 »</span> -shores, and I should not wonder if some of you -may not before now have found them lying on -the sea-shore, which the tide has left dry, and -taken them up in your hands. If so, I am sure -you will not forget it, nor be in any difficulty -to know why they are called <i>sea nettles</i>. They -have a stinging power, which will make the hand -smart that touches them. This is owing to a -caustic fluid with which a part of their bodies is -constantly covered.</p> - -<p>It is this caustic fluid which is luminous. It -oozes through the skin all round the muscular -ring by which they move, and at the large filaments. -The whole body of the creature looks -bright, but it is only from the light transmitted -by these parts. You may get a very fair notion -of the appearance of one of their bodies, by -rubbing together two partly transparent pebbles -in the dark; the light is of nearly the same -colour, and though it is only produced just at -the points of contact of the pebbles, it illuminates -their whole substance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>« 228 »</span></p> - -<p>As they move along they are much brighter -when they contract their bodies, than when -they expand them; this is because in contracting -they press out the luminous fluid. I will -tell you of some experiments and observations, -which have been made on them.</p> - -<p>The body of an Acalepha was squeezed over a -glass of warm fresh water, and the fluid that -dropped out communicated its luminous property -to the water. The same was then done -with a glass of warm salt water, but the effect -was not nearly so great.</p> - -<p>One was squeezed over a vessel containing -nearly a quart of milk, which it made so resplendent -that one could see to read by it. The -milk retained its brightness for several hours, -and when it faded, it could be restored by stirring: -even three days afterwards it was made -bright by being warmed.</p> - -<p>In this manner the Acalephæ communicate a -slight degree of light to the sea-water, in which -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>« 229 »</span> -they swim; but, if they are put into fresh water, -the light spreads much further.</p> - -<p>I have often seen them round the ship, looking -like so many moons, and emitting light -enough for me to read by, some on the surface, -and others at various depths below it. Their -appearance was exquisitely beautiful when the -weather was still and the night dark; but as I -thought about it, I could not help having something -of a melancholy feeling at the strange -kind of half-life these creatures lead. They -might enjoy themselves, but I could not tell -how, for they had no sight nor hearing; they -loved no light except their own selfish light; -they moved about in the open sea, without seeming -to enjoy their freedom, for they did not -care which way they moved; they had no fixed -homes or neighbourhoods to love, like the coral -insects; and above all, they did not care for -their kind, for they appear to come near each -other only by chance as the wind or the waves -may drive them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>« 230 »</span></p> - -<p>But as they were created by God, their life -was given them for some wise end, and no doubt -they have something to do in creation, and they -are capable of enjoyment, though perhaps of -nothing that would be enjoyment to us.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="page230" style="max-width: 15.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page230.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XV"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XV.</span> <i>p. 231</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" style="max-width: 37.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xv.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">SEPIAS</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>« 231 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE CUTTLE FISH.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figright illowp100" id="page231" style="max-width: 14.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page231.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">H</span>ave you ever seen the bone of a cuttle fish? -It is a flat, white, very light thing, about the -shape and size of a small sole, or flat fish, which -may be often picked up -on the sea-shore. One -side is covered with -a very hard substance, -which stands out and forms a border all round; -but the other side, which has no covering, is so -soft that you can easily scrape it into powder -with your nail. It is often used for making -tooth-powder, and polishing certain things, such -as hard woods and tortoise-shell.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>« 232 »</span></p> - -<p>This comes from some of a most curious family -of fishes, called by the general name of -<i>Cephalopods</i>, from the Greek words for head and -feet, because their feet are placed round their -heads, and they walk along with their heads -downwards.</p> - -<p>There are several kinds represented in the -plate, which will give you a general notion of -their form and appearance. In the structure of -their bodies they possess much more in common -with the kind of animals with which you are -familiar, than the Actiniæ which make the coral, -or the Acalephæ which produce the luminous appearance -on the sea; though nothing can be more -strange or unsightly than their aspect. They -have a complete system of circulation, though -their blood is neither warm nor red as ours is; -their brains are enclosed in a strong case or -skull of gristle, and their organs of sense are -well developed; they have large and perfect eyes, -(as you may see in the picture,) standing out -prominently, and ears on each side of the brain. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>« 233 »</span> -Their mouths are armed with very strong horny -lips not unlike the bill of a parrot, between which -is a very rough tongue. They have no noses, -but it has been proved by experiment that they -like some smells and dislike others, and it has -been supposed that the quality of substances -which affects merely the organ of smell in us, -affects in like manner the whole surface of their -bodies, or at least, of their heads. They not -only resemble birds in their mouths, but also in -having gizzards.</p> - -<p>Their great arms or legs, for they serve both -purposes equally well, of which they generally -have eight, are very wonderful. They have no -bones in them to act as levers, but are merely -long and muscular masses of flesh which they -move about with wonderful activity and power -in all directions, having the most complete command -over them. On their surfaces are great -numbers of little suckers or cups resembling leather, -which adhere very strongly to anybody -which the animal chooses to embrace.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>« 234 »</span></p> - -<p>You have, no doubt, often played with a round -piece of thick leather with a string through it, -by wetting it and pressing it with your foot -upon a stone, so as to lift the stone up, if it be -not too heavy. It is just on the same principle -that the suckers of the Cuttle Fish act.</p> - -<p>These curious creatures gather up some of -their arms into a point, as a sort of cut-water, as -sailors would call it, and swim very rapidly, by -means of the others, having their heads behind. -They crawl in all directions with equal facility.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp100" id="page234" style="max-width: 17.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page234.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Their skin changes colour in spots like that -of the Chameleon. But I shall now tell you their -most remarkable peculiarities. They are provided -with a bag filled with black stuff, very like -printer's ink. This -bag they can at -pleasure open, and -press out some of -the ink; so when any voracious fish approaches, -which the Cuttle Fish thinks will be too strong -for him, he squeezes his ink-bag and colours the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>« 235 »</span> -water round him, and thus all of a sudden -becomes enveloped in a dark cloud, in which his -enemy gropes about in vain, while he makes the -best of his way off. Is not this a most astonishing -mode of defence?</p> - -<p>The kind which is found most frequently in -our country is represented in the <a href="#Plate_XV">plate</a> fig. 2. Its -skin is smooth and often of a dusky white, with -reddish brown spots, and its length about a foot. -It is eaten by the poor people on the coasts of -the Mediterranean Sea. I never tasted it, but -I do not think that either you or I should like -it, from the look of its flesh.</p> - -<p>There is another species of which the ink -makes the colour called sepia, which is of great -value to artists.</p> - -<p>The largest is called Octopus, and is figured -No. 1, in the <a href="#Plate_XV">plate</a>. It is a very powerful creature, -and very ferocious in its disposition. It is -mostly found in the Indian Ocean, where it has -been known to drown men by throwing its great -arms round their limbs as they were swimming. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>« 236 »</span> -It is also much dreaded by the natives of some -of the islands, who sail in small canoes; for an -Octopus will sometimes cast one of its arms -over the side of the canoe, and will be sure to -overturn it, if the man does not instantly chop -the arm off.</p> - -<p>Like most other very wonderful things, the -accounts of the Octopus seem to have been -strangely exaggerated, though we should not be -too ready to deny what a man who seems to be -sensible and honest relates, merely because it is -not like our own experience. In regard to the -largest size to which the creature has been -known to attain, it is very difficult to tell what -is the truth. I will relate to you what has been -said on the subject.</p> - -<p>Some navigators have asserted that the largest -vessels have been put in danger by an Octopus -raising its arms so as to get them entangled -in the rigging; and a great many have said -the same respecting large boats.</p> - -<p>Pliny, the Roman Naturalist, tells a story of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>« 237 »</span> -one in particular, which was a sad thief. I should -tell you that the Octopus is able to walk on -land when the surface is uneven, so that he can -get something for his suckers to adhere to. -Well, this individual that Pliny mentions, used -to visit a house near the sea-side, and steal all -the provisions within his reach. He was seen -once or twice before he could be taken; but at -last his thefts were so important, that the inhabitants -of the house watched for him all night, -and caught him by the help of dogs, as he was -striding over the rocks towards the sea. It is -said that he weighed 700 pounds, and that his -arms were 30 feet in length, and so stout that a -man could not embrace them.</p> - -<p>Still more wonderful are the narrations which -were commonly believed about 150 years ago, -respecting some Sepias that frequented the coast -of Norway. They were then generally called -Krakens, and were supposed to be at times -nearly a quarter of a mile in length. It is related -that sailors not unfrequently mistook them -for islands.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>« 238 »</span></p> - -<p>This is alluded to by Milton in a passage of -the Paradise Lost,—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Him haply slumbering on the Norway foam</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The pilot of some small night-foundered skiff,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Deeming some island, oft, as seamen tell,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">With fixed anchor on his scaly rind,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Moors by his side under the lee, and waits</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The wished approach of morn.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>I dare say you will be ready to think that -these things are very unlikely, and I shall not -much differ from you if you do. But no doubt -some of these creatures must be very large, and -much to be dreaded, or such things would never -have been said of them.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XVI"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XVI.</span> <i>p. 239</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 35.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xvi.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">PAPER NAUTILUS.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>« 239 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_II_CH_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE NAUTILUS.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">B</span>ut there is one of these Sepias, or Cuttle -Fish, which I like very much, though its character -rests under as severe an imputation for -dishonesty and rapacity, as that of the rest. -It is that one which inhabits the beautiful white -semi-transparent shell, and is called the Paper -Nautilus, or Argonaut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page239" style="max-width: 15.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page239.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Its body is represented out of the shell in the -plate, fig. 3, and you will there see that it is not -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>« 240 »</span> -very different from those that are not provided -with shells, except in having two of its eight -arms spread out at the ends into a thin membrane -or web. You shall hear presently the -pretty use which it makes of these webs.</p> - -<p>It has no muscular attachment to the shell, -as most other shell-fish have, but merely adheres -to it by means of its suckers. On this account, -some have thought that the Sepia must be an -usurper, who has murdered the original master -of the shell, and taken possession of his house. -But I do not believe there is any truth in this -charge, for the same sort of animal is always -found in the same shell, and if it be taken out, -though it may be kept in salt water, it is sure -to die.</p> - -<p>When at the bottom of the sea, he walks -about with his shell uppermost, like a snail, but -of course with a much more rapid motion, and -every now and then snatches any mouthful that -may take his fancy, with two of his long arms, -and conveys it to his horny beak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>« 241 »</span></p> - -<p>When the weather is fine, and he is disposed -to enjoy it, he partly empties his shell of water, -so as to make himself lighter than the surrounding -sea, and comes up to the surface, on which -he floats like a little ship.</p> - -<p>I once had an excellent opportunity of watching -one. The sea was beautifully calm, and blue, -and the sky perfectly clear, when I caught sight -of something white coming upwards at a little -distance from the ship. In an instant the delicate -white shell popped above the surface, twirled -round, and the Sepia spouted out the water remaining -in his shell, spread out his two sails, and -threw out his six remaining feet, three on each -side of the edge of his shell, which acted as oars, -and scudded away before the wind. If you had -but seen the glad little creature, it would have -done your heart good. He seemed full of freedom, -and life, and joy. The dark deep caves -of ocean, with their corals and sea-weeds, and -strange variety of inhabitants; the broad surface -of the sea, the fresh breeze, the lovely blue sky, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>« 242 »</span> -and the glorious light of the sun, were all at -his command.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Thou the light sail boldly spreadest,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">O'er the furrowed waters gliding,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Thou nor wreck nor foeman dreadest,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Thou nor help nor comfort needest,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">While the sun is bright above thee,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">While the bounding surges love thee,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">In their deepening bosoms hiding,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Thou canst not fear</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Small marinere;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">For though the tides with restless motion</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Bear thee to the desert ocean,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Far as the ocean stretches to the sea,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">'Tis all thy own, 'tis all thy empery.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Lame is Art, and her endeavour</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Follows Nature's course but slowly,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Guessing, toiling, seeking, ever,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Still improving, perfect never.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Little Nautilus, thou showest</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Deeper wisdom than thou knowest;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Lore, which man should study slowly;</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Bold faith and cheer,</div> - <div class="verse indent10">Small marinere.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Are thine within thy pearly dwelling;</div><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>« 243 »</span> - <div class="verse indent1">Thine, a law of life compelling</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Obedience, perfect, simple, glad and free,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">To the Great Will that animates the sea."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="tdr2"> -(<i>Hartley Coleridge.</i>)<br /> -</p> - -<p>You should read these exquisite lines with -deep attention. There is an allusion in the second -verse to the common notion that the form -of a ship was first taken from the Nautilus; and, -indeed, there is a very distinct resemblance in a -part of the shell to the keel, and in another part -to the poop. The sails and oars you will see -best in the picture.</p> - -<p>Do you think that if the Sepia were a murderer -and a thief, in possession of what does not -belong to him, according to the notion of some -naturalists which I was telling you of just now, -that he could be so happy,—so in every way at -home,—in his silver boat? If you had seen him -as I did, I am sure you would agree with me in -saying that he could not be any other than the -rightful owner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>« 244 »</span></p> - -<p>After "the small marinere" had sailed some -distance, he folded up his sails and packed them -and his oars close into his shell, and went down -like a stone.</p> - -<p>The Paper Nautilus is mostly found in hot -climates. It is never seen on the surface unless -at a long distance from land, and it is very shy -of danger, so that it is not often you can get -such a good chance of observing one as I had. -I have been told by a person who was to be -trusted, that sometimes the Sepia will lay hold -of a piece of drift wood, a large leaf, or any -other floating substance, and use it as a raft, -when it is not inclined to take the trouble of -balancing its shell with its feet, and spreading -its sails.</p> - -<p>And now, my little friends, what I have told -you respecting these marvellous Sepias, reminds -me of something on which I may give you a -useful caution. Many people are very fond -of congratulating you on the great wisdom -and knowledge of the times in which you live, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>« 245 »</span> -and of making very light of what the ancients -knew, or thought they knew, especially respecting -natural history. In doing this they are not -just to those who lived before us, and very often -deceive themselves in regard to the present state -of our knowledge. Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander -the Great, did more in investigating the -nature of the Nautilus, and all other kinds of -Cuttle fish, than any other naturalist has done, -and in his writings, (if you could read them,) -you might find nearly all the particulars I have -mentioned, and a great many besides. As to -some foolish things that may be found related by -him and other old writers, which are held up for -your ridicule, it is not at all unlikely that future -ages may find flaws and follies in what writings -we may leave behind us, as we now do in what -our predecessors have left us.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, &C.</p> - -<p>There is another kind of Nautilus, the shell -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>« 246 »</span> -of which is very strong, and marked with brown -streaks. You will see it in <a href="#Plate_XV">plate XV</a>, fig. 4. It -also differs from the Paper Nautilus, in being divided -into a succession of cells or chambers, in -this manner.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp98" id="page246a" style="max-width: 9.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page246a.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In this respect it is like the immense family -of extinct shells called Ammonites, or Cornua -Ammonis; but the partitions of the chambers of -the latter are undulated, thus</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp97" id="page246b" style="max-width: 11.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page246b.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>As the cells are mostly filled with various -hard earthy substances, so as to form one solid -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>« 247 »</span> -mass, they used to be called snake-stones, because -it was fancied they were petrified snakes. -There are a great number of them on the coast -of Yorkshire, and the story was once believed -that the place had been infested with an immense -quantity of snakes which were changed -into stone at the prayer of St. Hilda. What I -am going to tell you, relates both to the Ammonites -and the Nautilus.</p> - -<p>If you examine the first cut, you will see -small openings connecting all the cells with each -other, and the continuous passage thus formed -through the whole of the shell, is called the -siphuncle. The inhabitant of the shell is an -animal of the Sepia kind, but without the webs -which serve the Paper Nautilus for sails, and -with its arms not so long. It always resides in -the outermost chamber, and it is supposed that -it forms a new partition every year, so that the -age of the animal may be known by counting -the number of chambers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>« 248 »</span></p> - -<p>When the Pearly Nautilus wishes to rise to -the surface, it pumps out the water from its -shell through the siphuncle, and makes itself -light. It floats often with its shell upwards, and -at other times it moves along backwards for a -considerable distance, by means of spouting out -water over the front edge of the shell. It never -floats with the same beautiful stateliness as the -Argonaut.</p> - -<p>There is also the pretty little shell of the -Nautilus Spirula, not much larger than a shilling, -<a href="#Plate_XVI">plate XVI</a>, fig. 5, which does not contain a -fish, but is merely annexed to the body of a -Sepia, as is represented, fig. 6. Its use appears -to be just the same as that of the shell of the -Pearly Nautilus, to answer the purpose of a float.</p> - -<p>These two kinds are very rarely seen floating -on the surface, though there must be many of -both of them in the ocean, from the number -of their empty shells which are found. Perhaps -this arises from their not being so buoyant -as the Argonauts, and hence they more -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>« 249 »</span> -readily dip under the surface at the approach of -a vessel.</p> - -<p>It is now time for us to bid adieu to the sea -and its wonderful inhabitants, since I have promised -to tell you of some of the wonders of the -sky, (though I remember a great many more -things that I should like to tell you of).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp96" id="page249" style="max-width: 14.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page249.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>« 250 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_III">PART III.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">WONDERS OF THE SKY.</p> - - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">COLOUR OF THE SKY.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">B</span>efore I tell you of some of the wonders of -the sky, I should like to tell you what the sky -is: it is true you know pretty nearly as much as -I do about it, but you perhaps have not thought -so much on what you know. The sky is everything -above our heads which is not connected -with the earth: thus, you may speak of a cloudy -sky, or a clear sky; or of the stars, sun, and -moon, being in the sky.</p> - -<p>It may however be more proper to restrict -the word to the blue appearance which the atmosphere -above us assumes when it is not concealed -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>« 251 »</span> -by clouds. This appearance is caused -by looking into the air, which surrounds the -globe to the height of forty or fifty miles above -its surface, and not by anything which exists -above it; for mountains, when seen from a great -distance, appear of the same colour, evidently -from the extent of the air between the spectator -and them.</p> - -<p>Climate and the season of the year, have a -considerable influence on the colour of the sky. -You know what a rich full blue is over us in -the hot months of summer; and I hope you have -before now enjoyed the pale blue of a clear winter's -day, when the brown and bare branches of -the trees have showed against it, and all the -rivers and ponds have been frozen as solid as a -stone pavement. When I see some of you -sliding and skating on the glassy ice, at such -times I am ready to wish I was a boy again, to -join in your pleasures. However, I have had -my turn, and old age has its pleasures as well -as youth, only we are apt to get into a way of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>« 252 »</span> -looking at all past times as happier than the -present, which is both foolish and wicked. If -we were to keep ourselves diligently engaged in -doing our duty, we should always be happy, -whether old or young.</p> - -<p>But the darkest blue sky you have ever seen -in your country, is light compared with the -skies of hot climates. In them you often see a -deep rich indigo; at other times you are under -a canopy of reddish orange, almost copper -colour, like that which was called in the poem -I quoted to you when describing the tropical sea, -"a hot and copper sky."</p> - -<p>The elevation of the observer above the surface -of the earth, is likewise another cause of -variation. I have never myself ascended a mountain -sufficiently high to see this, but I have -been told by a gentleman who had been at the -top of Mont Blanc, that the sky there looked -nearly black.</p> - -<p>As you must have seen them yourselves, I -need only remind you of the glorious changes of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>« 253 »</span> -colour by the alteration of the light at the different -times of day. I hope none of you are so -lazy as not often to have enjoyed the rosy mornings; -then there is the grey twilight of evening, -and the splendours of the setting sun in the -west, round which the deep orange shades off -into the most delicate yellow, which again glides -imperceptibly into pale blue towards the east. -Then the moon, when she has the heavens all to -herself, and the stars, when they are shining out -boldly in her absence, each make the sky so -beautiful, and are so beautiful in themselves, -that one cannot exceed the other.</p> - -<p>I love to look at the moon when the winds -rend the clouds asunder, and drive them tumultuously -along, and you see her now and then in -the dark blue depths between. But if I were -to tell you all the ordinary appearances in the -sky which I love, I should leave no room to describe -its wonders; which will not do, because I -meant this book to give you an account of things -which most of you have not seen.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>« 254 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE AURORA BOREALIS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">D</span>uring the winter months in the Polar Regions, -the sun never rises above the horizon; -and during summer it performs in appearance a -little circle round the pole of the Heavens, and -never goes out of sight. You may learn in what -manner this is occasioned by the position of those -countries on the surface of the earth, from the -book called "The Wonders of the Telescope."</p> - -<p>The year is thus in reality divided into one -long day and one long night. While the night -continues, the ground is covered with snow, and -no vegetable life is to be seen, and the animals -have much to do to support themselves on what -fish they may chance to pick up on the sea -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>« 255 »</span> -shore, by preying on each other, or else by -scraping away the snow to get at that scanty -vegetation which exists underneath. The odd-looking -Esquimaux and Greenlanders would indeed -be very badly off, if it were not for the -beautiful atmospheric phenomena which I am -going to describe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page255" style="max-width: 24.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page255.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There are seldom intervals of many hours -which are not illuminated by these beautiful -meteors, called Auroræ Boreales, or Northern -Lights, occurring in a never-ending variety of -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>« 256 »</span> -form, colour, and intensity. They generally -have a tendency to form an irregular arch, and -one side of them is always much better defined -than the other. The more ragged side sends -out brilliant corruscations, shooting out into -the sharpest angles.</p> - -<p>Sir John Ross describes one which was -nearly the colour of the full moon, and of -equal brightness, in the form of a well-defined -arch extending quite across the heavens, and -reminded him of what he conceived must be the -effect of Saturn's ring seen by the inhabitants -of that planet from its surface. It lasted for -several hours, and at last broke up as it were -into fragments of light, and disappeared.</p> - -<p>The distinctness of its form is much influenced -by the wind, and when the air becomes agitated, -showers of rays spread out in every direction -with the quickness of lightning. Sir Edward -Parry describes long bands of light extending -with immense rapidity, but always appearing to -form round a fixed point, something like a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>« 257 »</span> -riband held in the hand and shaken with an -undulatory motion.</p> - -<p>Little scraps of the brightest light dart about -in the heavens, called by the sailors, "merry -dancers." In stormy weather these wild little -things assume all manner of fanciful shapes; -sometimes they shoot like rockets across the -firmament, then take a zigzag or waving direction, -and frequently seem to become invisible, -and shine out again a little further on. The -Esquimaux say that these appearances are the -spirits of their ancestors playing at ball with -the head of a Walrus! You may perhaps laugh -at this odd notion, and I will laugh with you, if -you will learn a lesson from it. You see that -men in various states of society, are always -looking out for the appearance of spiritual -beings, and therefore that this disposition is -a part of their constitution which is given -them by God: and although their fancies may -form strange notions at times, yet the exercise -of the faculty, in some way or other, is very important. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>« 258 »</span> -Men had much better think that they -see spirits in the Aurora Borealis, and that -they hear them in the wind, than forget that -there are such things as spirits, and that they -have spirits within them, which will live when -their bodies are turned into dust.</p> - -<p>But for you, my little friends, who are better -instructed, there is no occasion to think you can -see or hear spirits with your bodily ears and -eyes; but I trust you will always <i>feel</i> inwardly -that there are spirits within you and around -you, and one Great Spirit above you.</p> - -<p>The most beautiful form of the Aurora, is -called the Corona. It is a luminous ring generally -just overhead, with long distinct rays very -slender, but extremely bright, diverging from it -all round. It only lasts a few seconds, and then -seems to burst like a firework, scattering sparks -in all directions.</p> - -<p>The stars mostly shine through the Aurora, -as through a veil of thin gauze. The darkness -of the sky, with the stars shining in it above -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>« 259 »</span> -and below, produces a most astonishing effect, -which you may see very well represented in the -frontispiece, where there is depicted a small -portion of the middle of a luminous arch, very -clearly defined.</p> - -<p>It was considered, till quite lately, that the -Aurora in the Northern regions, made a sort of -rushing and rattling noise. This, however, seems -to be false, for Captain Lyons used to stand on -the ice with his ears uncovered till they were -nearly frost-bitten, listening with the utmost -attention, but he could never hear the slightest -sound. A very intelligent Danish traveller says, -that he has often heard the sound, but that he -is convinced of its being produced by the wind -blowing upon the ice. The reason of its being -heard while the Aurora is shining, seems to be -that the Aurora often appears when it is windy, -or has something to do with a change of weather, -which also occasions the noise.</p> - -<p>The Aurora often appears in this country, but -not with nearly so much brilliancy or frequency, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>« 260 »</span> -as in more northern countries. I have, however, -seen it very beautifully developed in light tints -of red, yellow, and green, but very seldom with -a clear outline and determinate form. It appears -that it has been observed here much -oftener than formerly, within the last hundred -years, and this applies to nearly the whole of -Europe, where it occurs. In Sweden, before the -year 1716, it was a great rarity, and about the -same time the inhabitants of Iceland were alarmed -at its becoming so much more frequent than it -had previously been, supposing that it portended -some great misfortunes to be coming -upon them. A similar fancy prevailed amongst -ignorant persons in this country, and I have -heard that people used to imagine that the appearance -was a sign of an approaching war.</p> - -<p>I have very little to say to you respecting the -cause of this wonderful phenomenon. The -most reasonable notion seems to be, that it is -occasioned by electric fluid playing about, and -diffusing itself in the upper regions of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>« 261 »</span> -atmosphere, where the air is very thin. A similar -kind of light is produced by a very pretty experiment, -which consists in sending an electric -spark through a long glass vessel, from which -the air has been exhausted. When the air is -more compressed, as it is near the surface of the -earth, the electric fluid does not so spread itself -abroad, but moves in more direct lines, and in -more compact masses, as you may see in lightning, -or in the sparks of an electrifying machine -sent into the atmosphere under ordinary -circumstances of density.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>« 262 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">PARLEY TELLS OF SOME OTHER METEORS.</p> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">PARHELIA OR MOCK SUNS.</p> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here are a great many very wonderful appearances -in a polar sky, besides the Aurora -Borealis. Perhaps the most remarkable of these -are Parhelia, or "mock suns," which are often -seen to shine in various parts of the sky. As -many as six of them are sometimes seen at -once, all shining with great brilliancy. They -are generally brightest just before day-break, -and fade away as the true sun ascends.</p> - -<p>Parhelia have also been seen at different times -on the continent of Europe. At Marienberg, in -Prussia, many years ago, towards evening, one -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>« 263 »</span> -was observed which seemed attached to a small -white cloud that was situated just below the sun. -It was at first of a reddish colour, but as the sun -descended towards it, it assumed the aspect of -the sun itself.</p> - -<p>Three at once were seen at Sudbury, in Suffolk, -and two were seen in a part of Rutlandshire. -There are recorded many other appearances -of this remarkable phenomenon, but they -do not seem to differ much from each other.</p> - -<p>There is great uncertainty as to what occasions -these mock suns. Perhaps they are -merely reflections of the image of the true sun -upon reflecting clouds, such as I shall describe -to you presently. The circumstance that seems -to render this probable, is that they sometimes -become brighter as the sun approaches them, -which cannot easily be accounted for by supposing -them to have any source of light in themselves. -On the contrary, their fading away at -times as he rises, may be occasioned by the -clouds on which they are reflected, becoming -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>« 264 »</span> -rarified; or the effect may be only comparative, -just as the moon grows paler, and at last disappears, -as day comes on. Thus you see the two -opposite effects of the sun's approach may be -equally well accounted for, on the supposition -of the Parhelia being mere reflections of the sun, -and I do not think that they could on any other.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">IGNES FATUI.</p> - -<p>The name Ignis Fatuus, or False Fire, is applied -to a flickering, bluish light, which is often -seen in marshy districts, and in damp burial -grounds, either on the surface of the earth or -only a small distance above it. So you see it is -not strictly a wonder of the sky; but I introduce -it here because it seems to be somewhat similar -to some of the higher meteors, in the manner in -which it is occasioned.</p> - -<p>A great many entertaining stories are told of -persons having mistaken these Ignes Fatui for -real lights, and it is said that benighted travellers -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>« 265 »</span> -have frequently been led far astray by them. -They are vulgarly called in various parts of -the country, Will-o'-the-Whisp, Jack-o'-the-Lantern, -Peg with her Lantern, and in burying -grounds in Scotland, Grave Candles; and strange -superstitious notions are annexed to them. -They keep constantly in motion; now rising a -few feet above the earth, now sinking to the -surface; now seeming to be close to you, disappearing -in an instant, and shining out at some -distance; at times one of them dividing into -two, or two seeming to join into one.</p> - -<p>I will presently tell you how you can try a -simple experiment, that will go a great way -towards accounting for these idle Will-o'-the-Whisps. -The inflammable gas called Hydrogen, -is copiously produced by the decomposition of -animal and vegetable bodies. The substance -called Phosphorus, is contained in animal bodies, -and is set at liberty in small quantities by their -decomposition. When phosphorus and hydrogen -come together under certain circumstances, they -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>« 266 »</span> -mix, and a gas called Phosphuretted Hydrogen -is the result.</p> - -<p>There is, therefore, no difficulty in supposing -that most marshy grounds may produce this -gas; and this experiment will show that it is -very likely that the Will-o'-the-Whisp is nothing -more.</p> - -<p>Hydrogen may be obtained by pouring diluted -Sulphuric acid on small pieces of Iron or -Zinc. If you mix very small pieces of Phosphorus -with very small pieces of Zinc, and put them -into a glass, and pour over them the acid, Phosphuretted -Hydrogen will be sent off, and the -surface of the acid will be covered with a beautiful -blue flame of the very colour of the Ignis -Fatuus. The cause of the flame is, that the phosphuretted -hydrogen is so wonderfully inflammable, -that the moment it comes into air of a -common temperature, it bursts into flame. If -you try this experiment, you will see how likely -it is that the Will-o'-the-Whisp is an escape of -this gas from the surface of the earth.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>« 267 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">SHOOTING STARS.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here are few of you who have not seen <i>falling</i> -or <i>shooting stars</i>, as they are called. Perhaps -some of you have loved to walk out when -the stars have been shining brightly in the blue -sky overhead, to watch for these shy wanderers -that seem to come from no where, just to -draw a line of silver light across the heavens, -and then disappear. When I was a little child, -I used to think that each appearance of this -kind was the destruction of one of the countless -worlds that surround us, and possibly the same -fancy may, at some time or other, have occurred -to you.</p> - -<p>If you have taken delight in watching for -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>« 268 »</span> -them, you have many a time been disappointed, -because they would not show themselves more -frequently. It is, for the most part, only now -and then that you can catch sight of one; but -there have been some occasions on which they -have appeared in immense numbers.</p> - -<p>The most astonishing multitude of them on -record, appeared in the year 1833, in the night -of the 13th of November, and was seen over -nearly the whole of North America, from the -Gulf of Mexico to Baffin's Bay. They came -from all quarters of the Heavens, and are said -at one time to have been half as thick as the -flakes in a heavy fall of snow. It was calculated, -on the most moderate grounds, that -36,000 must have appeared every hour for seven -hours successively.</p> - -<p>Previously, in the year 1799, also on the 13th -of November, a similar phenomenon was observed -by Humboldt, the celebrated traveller, by -some Moravian Missionaries in Greenland, and -by many persons in Germany.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>« 269 »</span></p> - -<p>In the year 1822, on the same day of the -same month, almost as great a number were -seen in several parts of Europe and Asia.</p> - -<p>In the year 1831, a French Officer states, that -on the 13th of November, while off the coast of -Spain, he saw on an average more than two a -minute during several hours of the night.</p> - -<p>Similar observations were made in the year -1835, in some parts of France; and from several -other instances, there seems to be good reason -for believing that there are more falling -stars about the middle of November, than during -any other part of the year.</p> - -<p>There have been a great many vague and silly -notions devised to account for these remarkable -phenomena, and some that are not unreasonable, -though none perhaps quite satisfactory. -It has been considered that they were clouds -of hydrogen gas, suddenly ignited by electricity, -within the range of our own atmosphere, and -indeed only a very few miles above the earth. -Recent investigations have, however, rendered it -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>« 270 »</span> -most probable that they are at very considerable -elevations, often as much as 500 miles above us.</p> - -<p>But supposing the circumstance of great multitudes -of them appearing just at one particular -period of the year, to be a fact, a new light is -thrown upon their origin which must then be -considered as decidedly of an astronomical character. -The theory which has been proposed, -is this:—that immense quantities of fragments -of matter revolve in regular orbits in our solar -system in various planes, and that on the 13th -of November the earth passes near the orbit in -which the greatest number of such fragments -move. Whether they are matter in a gaseous -state, or approaching it, or quite solid; or whether -they are constantly illuminated, or are only -rendered luminous by their relation to other -bodies, such as reflection, or meeting with electric -fluid, and so becoming ignited, are questions -which must remain unanswered. There may be -a slight evidence in favour of the notion of -their light not being permanent in themselves, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>« 271 »</span> -from the fact of a French naturalist having -observed on the 17th of June in 1777, a very -large number of small black spots pass over the -sun's disc. If these spots were really bodies, -which under other circumstances would have -been falling stars, it should not be forgotten -that the earth in June is nearly in the opposite -part of its orbit to that which it passes over in -November.</p> - -<p>Well, after all, this is a very doubtful subject, -and we may possibly be very much out in our -notions; but it is always worth while to see -which is the best of two theories, though there -may be ever so little to choose between them. -We should make the best of what knowledge we -have, and never lazily satisfy ourselves by saying—"nobody -can tell which is true," which is -almost as bad as being too obstinate and dogmatical. -For even if we adopt a conclusion -which is wrong, we shall be more ready to receive -the truth when our knowledge may be -increased, than if we have no conclusion at all. -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>« 272 »</span> -One of the wisest men who ever lived, said—"Truth -comes more easily out of positive error -than out of confusion."</p> - -<p>You who have been interested with what I -have told you respecting shooting stars, should -compare with it what I shall tell you in my -next chapter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp79" id="page272" style="max-width: 14.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page272.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>« 273 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">METEORIC STONES OR AEROLITES.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here were a great many accounts in very -early times, of stones having fallen from the sky. -In China and some other eastern nations, they -have long had a notion that such occurrences -were connected with political events, and accordingly -they have kept careful records of -what they have known to fall for centuries -back. This was a vain superstition, but it was -not more vain than the incredulity with which -these reports were received by nearly all the -learned of Europe, till about forty years ago. -They denied the existence of aerolites, for no -other reason than because they had not seen -them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>« 274 »</span></p> - -<p>Some new statements attracted the attention -of scientific men in England and on the Continent, -to the subject, about the beginning of the present -century, and the conclusion of their researches -was, that stones of various sizes do, in reality, -not unfrequently fall from above to the earth.</p> - -<p>It appears that sometimes they fall singly, -and at other times in great numbers. I will relate -to you some particular instances.</p> - -<p>Near Benares, in the East Indies, in the month -of December in the year 1798, a very bright -meteor seemed to fall to the earth, about 8 -o'clock in the evening, and a loud noise like -thunder was heard, which was followed by a -shock like the fall of heavy bodies. No cloud -was to be seen in the sky. The light of the -meteor was so great as to cast very distinct -shadows of the objects in its way. The ground -where it appeared to have fallen, was afterwards -examined, and was found to be strangely torn -up, having a number of small holes in it about -six inches deep. At the bottom of each hole was -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>« 275 »</span> -an aerolite weighing on the average about one -pound and a half.</p> - -<p>In the year 1803, a similar event took place -in Normandy. The meteor, when first seen, -must have been at a very great elevation, for -the inhabitants of two places more than a league -distant from each other, thought it was just -over their respective towns. A hissing noise was -also heard, like that of a stone hurled by a sling. -The space over which the stones were dispersed, -must have been more than eight miles long and -three wide. There were about two thousand of -them collected, of various weights, from two -drachms to seventeen pounds.</p> - -<p>Two stones, one of which weighed 200 and -the other 300 pounds, fell in the year 1668, at -Verona. In 1680, several small ones are said -to have fallen in London. In 1628, several -fell near Hatford, in Berkshire, one of which -weighed twenty-four pounds. In 1795, one -weighing fifty-five pounds, fell in Yorkshire. -In 1810, a large aerolite fell, which was the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>« 276 »</span> -means of setting fire to five villages, and killing -several persons, in India. The largest of these -are, however, small compared with some which -are said, and there is good reason to believe, to -have fallen from the sky, at some time or other. -One of these, now at Bahia, in Brazil, weighs -14,000 pounds.</p> - -<p>This is a cut of an aerolite in the British -Museum, which fell in Buenos Ayres. It weighs -1,400 pounds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page276" style="max-width: 29.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page276.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>They are generally covered over with a thin -crust, which is quite black, and have a very -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>« 277 »</span> -rough surface. Internally, they are greyish and -of a granulated texture. By the help of a microscope, -you may distinguish roundish grains -of a grey colour; others, like rusty iron; some, -angular pieces of perfectly metallic iron, which -are attracted by the magnet; and the rest is an -earthy sort of cement in which the others are -embedded. Their chemical composition is very -uniform, with the exception of some that consist -almost entirely of iron; of which sort is the one -represented on the preceding page.</p> - -<p>Their descent appears to be quite independent -of the state of the atmosphere, from whence we -may infer that the clouds have nothing at all to -do with them, but that they come from much -higher regions. When they have been found -soon after falling, they have always been extremely -hot, and, as I told you of one in India, -they have been known to set on fire what they -have come in contact with on the surface of the -earth.</p> - -<p>There have been four schemes devised to account -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>« 278 »</span> -for the existence of aerolites. It has been -imagined that they were substances which had -been cast out by volcanoes to immense heights -from distant parts of the world; but this is disproved -by the fact that no substance of the same -composition as aerolites, has ever been discovered -amongst the known products of volcanoes.</p> - -<p>The celebrated Frenchman, La Place, thought -they were substances that had been cast out by -volcanoes in the moon, with such violence as to -send them within the limits of the earth's attraction.</p> - -<p>Some have conjectured that they are formed -in the air by the consolidation of clouds of gaseous -matters exhaled from the earth; but according -to Sir H. Davy's view of the nature of -flame, the light of meteors must arise from the -ignition of <i>solid</i> bodies, so that at least they -must become solid while they are in the condition -of meteors, and long enough before they -approach the earth.</p> - -<p>I will tell you what I think, according to the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>« 279 »</span> -present state of our knowledge, the likeliest explanation, -though I do not say that the reasons -in favour of it are very conclusive. You will -remember what I told you respecting the probability -of falling stars being fragments of matter -revolving in orbits, which the earth at certain -times comes near in its annual course round the -sun. I suppose shooting stars and aerolites to -be the same things, only they are shooting stars -while they show in the sky, and aerolites after -they have reached the earth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp96" id="page279" style="max-width: 15.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page279.png" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>« 280 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">BLOODY RAIN.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here are on record several instances of a fall -of red liquid exactly resembling blood in appearance, -which has often been accompanied by -a descent of aerolites. On the 15th of November -1755, there was a heavy shower of this kind -at Ulm, and several parts of Russia and Sweden. -There was another, March 5, 1803, in Apulia, -where it seemed to fall from a reddish black -cloud. A descent of large quantities of dry -dust preceded the latter, and has on several occasions -occurred by itself.</p> - -<p>Before this phenomenon was understood, you -will easily suppose that it was looked upon as -something dreadfully portentous, and the more -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>« 281 »</span> -so from its occurring so unfrequently. It is -now known to be closely related to the aerolites, -as you shall hear.</p> - -<p>Some of the liquid, looking just like congealed -blood, which fell at Ulm, was examined. It -was found to have a sour taste, owing, as it was -thought, to the presence of sulphuric acid. -When dried, the dust that remained, which constituted -the colouring matter, was found to be -subject to magnetic attraction, and in other -respects to resemble the substance of the meteoric -stones; so there can be no doubt that the -dust is nothing more than what is caused by the -fracture or the friction one against the other, -of aerolites, and that the rain is made red by -the dust falling on the clouds, from which it is -precipitated.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">RED SNOW.</p> - -<p>Several travellers have witnessed the existence -of snow of a bright red colour, in various -parts of Baffin's Bay; and at Arezzo, in Italy, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>« 282 »</span> -in March 1813, there was a fall of it, which -lasted many hours.</p> - -<p>There seems some reason to suppose that in -the latter instance the redness was caused by -aerolite dust; but a microscopic examination of -some of that at Baffin's Bay, has proved that its -colour is owing to a still more wonderful cause. -The colouring particles are actually small plants -or fungi, which take root and grow, and bear -seed upon the snow itself!</p> - -<p>What do you think of this Lilliputian vegetation? -One full-sized plant is no more than -1-1600th of an inch in diameter; and to cover a -single square inch of its <i>cold bed</i> of snow, -2,500,000 are necessary! It has been named by -its discoverer, Mr. Bauer, <i>Uredo Nivalis</i>.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">SHOWERS OF FROGS AND FISH.</p> - -<p>I dare say you have heard, before now, of its -raining frogs and fish. I like that you should -have correct notions on these things, so I shall -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>« 283 »</span> -just tell you what seems to have given rise to -these reports.</p> - -<p>If you understood what I told you respecting -the water-spout, you will see how likely it is that -any small fish that may be on the spot, should -be sucked upwards along with the water, even to -the very top of the spout; now they might be -kept up there as long as the whirlwind kept up -a rotatory motion in the cloud, after it had ceased -to sustain the column of water drawn up from -the sea. When the whirlwind was exhausted, -the little fish would naturally fall out of the -cloud, perhaps after it had travelled far from -where the water-spout occurred.</p> - -<p>If the water-spout had passed over fresh-water -lakes or rivers, frogs might be drawn up instead -of fish, and let fall in the same manner.</p> - -<p>But I will relate to you another circumstance, -which may have been imputed to a descent of -fish from the clouds. I told you in the first -part of this book respecting the alluvions, or -torrents of mud, which make their way after an -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>« 284 »</span> -eruption down the sides of Mount Vesuvius. In -some of the great volcanoes of South America, -these alluvions have not to be formed in the regular -way, but mud of the consistence of pap is -ejected from the craters themselves in amazing -quantities. This mud is supplied by subterranean -waters connected with the volcanic channel, -and it often contains myriads of little fishes -of the kind called <i>Pimelodes Cyclopum</i>: they are -generally about four inches long, and they exist -in such vast numbers, that their putrifying has -before now bred a pestilence in the neighbourhood -of the Volcano. There are plenty of the -same fish in the contiguous streams. What -renders the circumstance so wonderful, is their -being raised up to the level of 8 or 9000 feet, -and then thrown out from the crater with very -little injury.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XVIII"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XVIII.</span> <i>p. 285</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 37.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xviii.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>« 285 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">THE SPECTRE OF THE BROCKEN.</p> -</div> - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span> am going to tell you respecting some of the -appearances produced by clouds which reflect -like mirrors; and by those changes in the atmosphere -which turn aside, in an irregular manner, -the rays of light, which, as they pass from -an object to the eye which is looking at it, excite -the sensation called vision.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable of these, has -long been known by the name of "The Spectre -of the Brocken." The Brocken is the loftiest -summit of the Hartz Mountains, in Germany; it -is said to be 3,300 feet above the level of the sea, -and to command the prospect of a tract of land -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>« 286 »</span> -which is inhabited by more than five millions of -people.</p> - -<p>It appears that clouds, from some cause or -other, which perhaps we shall never perfectly -know, are wont at times to collect on the neighbouring -heights, and reflect a very distinct shadow -of great size of whatever object may be on -the summit of the Brocken, when the sun is rising -and casts his beams horizontally. The best account -of this wonderful spectacle, is given by -the Abbe Hauy, who visited it in 1797, and I -shall give you his own statement.</p> - -<p>"After having been here for the thirtieth -time," says Mons. Hauy, "I was at length so -fortunate as to have the pleasure of seeing the -Spectre. The sun rose about four o'clock, and -the atmosphere being quite serene towards the -east, his rays could pass without any obstruction -over the Heinrichshohe.[A] In the south-west, -however, towards Achtermanshohe,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>« 287 »</span> -brisk west wind carried before it thin transparent -vapours, which were not yet condensed -into thick heavy clouds. About a quarter past -four I went towards the inn, and looked round -to see whether the atmosphere would permit me -to have a free prospect to the south-west; when -I observed, at a very great distance towards -Achtermanshohe, a human figure of a monstrous -size. A violent gust of wind having almost -carried away my hat, I clapped my hand to it -by moving my arm towards my head, and the -colossal figure did the same. The pleasure -which I felt on this discovery can hardly be described, -for I had already walked many a weary -step in the hopes of seeing this shadowy image, -without being able to gratify my curiosity. I -immediately made another movement by bending -my body, and the colossal figure before me -repeated it. I was desirous of doing the same -thing once more; but my colossus had vanished: -I remained in the same position, waiting to see -whether it would return, and in a few minutes -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>« 288 »</span> -it again made its appearance on the Achtermanshohe. -I paid my respects to it a second -time, and it did the same to me. I then called -the landlord of the Brocken; and having both -taken the same position which I had taken -alone, we looked towards the Achtermanshohe, -but saw nothing. We had not, however, stood -long, when two such colossal figures were formed -over the above eminence, which repeated our -compliments by bending their bodies as we did; -after which they vanished. We retained our -position, kept our eyes fixed on the same spot, -and in a little time the two figures again stood -before us, and were joined by a third," (most -likely by the double reflection of one of the spectators.) -"Every movement that we made by -bending our bodies, these figures imitated; but -with this difference, that the phenomenon was -sometimes weak and faint, sometimes strong -and well defined."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[B]</a> Two others of the Hartz mountains.</p></div> - -<p>There are some remarkable circumstances attending -the Brocken, that are doubtless in some -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>« 289 »</span> -degree connected with "The Spectre," which -was once looked upon as a supernatural apparition. -When Christianity was introduced into -Germany, the priests and votaries of the old superstition, -retired to the Brocken as a refuge, -and there long kept up the dark and mysterious -rites of the great Saxon idol, Cortho. It is a very -wild place, full of clefts and caverns, and with rivulets -and waterfalls on all sides of it, so that it -would answer their purpose remarkably well. -After the inhabitants had taken up the profession -of Christianity, they used to celebrate on this -mountain a festival on Midsummer night, in honour -of St. Walpurgis, a female saint, who had first -introduced Christianity among them. A legend -then prevailed, that the summit of the mountain -was occasionally haunted by a demon, which could -have been no other than the Spectre. Everything -about the mountain was looked upon with -awe and veneration. A beautiful spring which -runs down its side, is at this day called the Magic -Spring; a pretty little lily that abounds on the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>« 290 »</span> -Mountain, is called the Wizard's Flower; and -two great square granite rocks are called the -Wizard's Chair. These names may be looked -upon as monuments of the estimation in which -the mountain was once held.</p> - -<p>While you ought, my young friends, to feel -happy and grateful in being taught what these -natural things really are, and released from all -superstitious fears or notions respecting them; -you should be most careful not to forget what -you owe to a purer faith, of which the character -is to invite you to inquire into, and to know -everything within your reach.</p> - -<p>I shall say something to you respecting the -cause of the Spectre, in a future chapter.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>« 291 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">SOME OTHER INSTANCES OF AERIAL REFLECTION.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here has been something very like the Spectre -of the Brocken, seen on Souter Fell, a mountain -about half a mile high, in Cumberland.</p> - -<p>One summer's evening, in the year 1743, as a -farmer, named John Wren, and his servant were -sitting at the door of his cottage, they saw a -man with a dog furiously chasing some horses -along a ledge on the side of the mountain which -they knew was so narrow that a horse could -hardly stand upon it. They seemed to go round -one end of the mountain, and disappeared.</p> - -<p>The next morning the farmer and his servant -went round the track which the horses and man -had seemed to take, fully expecting to find that -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>« 292 »</span> -they had fallen over and been killed. You may -guess how surprised they were to find no trace -whatever of them, not even the mark of a hoof -on the ground.</p> - -<p>Well, they said nothing of what they had seen, -and perhaps they almost forgot it by nearly the -same season in the following year, when the servant, -whose name was Daniel Strickett, saw one -evening a whole troop of horsemen trot along -the mountain-side, near the same spot. It -seems that he had been laughed at by those to -whom he had related the other apparition, so -he was rather timid, and resolved to be well assured -of the reality of this one before he mentioned -it. He looked at the figures for a considerable -time, and then called another person to -witness the sight with him. Several others afterwards -joined them, and continued looking at -the aerial horsemen till it was quite dark. All -these circumstances were attested before a magistrate -in the year 1785: twenty-six persons -are said to have been spectators of the sight.</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XIX"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XIX.</span> <i>p. 293</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" style="max-width: 28.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xix.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">DOVER CASTLE</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>« 293 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">WHAT A FRIEND OF PARLEY'S SAW.</p> - -<p>A gentleman with whom I am acquainted, -who lives in the country, told me that he once -left some labourers at the bottom of a very steep -hill, whom he had ordered to do some earth -work. As he was going down, intending to visit -them again, about sun-set, he saw a part of the -hill which he was descending, and one of the -labourers wheeling a barrow upon the side of it, -reflected on a cloud opposite with the greatest -distinctness. Though it was quite impossible -that he could see the men in their true position, -he knew exactly what this man was about, and -what work had been done, from the reflected -image.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">DOVER CASTLE.</p> - -<p>Dover Castle stands upon the side of a hill, -and when looked at from the side towards Ramsgate, -its four turrets may be just seen peeping over -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>« 294 »</span> -the top of the hill. You may see how it appears in -the upper figure of <a href="#Plate_XIX">plate XIX</a>. On the 6th of August -1806, when Professor Vince, of Cambridge, -was staying near Ramsgate, he was astonished to -see the appearance of the castle as if it stood on -the side of the hill next to him, as is represented -in the lower figure of the plate. It continued so -for nearly half an hour, during which he looked -at it several times with a telescope, and the image -appeared quite clear and distinct.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">WHAT HUMBOLDT SAW IN SOUTH AMERICA.</p> - -<p>When Humboldt was residing at Cumana, he -frequently saw two small islands which lie off -the coast, suspended in the air. He once saw -some fishing boats seeming to float in the air for -several minutes. In another place he and his -companion saw the figures of cows in the air at -a great height; and they were told by a person -worthy of credit, that he had seen the forms of -horses suspended in like manner, but with their -legs upwards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>« 295 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">WHAT CAPTAIN SCORESBY SAW IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS.</p> - -<p>Captain Scoresby relates several remarkable -appearances of a similar kind, one of which I -will describe to you. He saw one morning the -inverted image of a ship in the air, which he at -once recognized to be that in which his father -was sailing. "It was," says he, "so well defined, -that I could distinguish by a telescope -every sail, the general rig of the ship, and its -particular character; insomuch that I confidently -pronounced it to be my father's ship, -'The Fame,' which it afterwards proved to be; -though on comparing notes with my father, I -found that our relative position at the time, -gave a distance from one another of thirty miles, -being about seventeen miles beyond the horizon, -and some leagues beyond the limit of direct -vision."</p> - -<p>Many other such things have been related by -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>« 296 »</span> -travellers, but with very little variation of circumstance.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">APPARENT DISTANCE OF OBJECTS.</p> - -<p>If you have never noticed the fact, you will -be surprised to observe what a great difference -appears to exist in the distance of the same objects -under different states of the atmosphere. -I do not mean when it is merely clearer than at -another time, but when it is equally clear, the -same object will show much higher above the -horizon, and therefore seem to be nearer to -some given spot, than at other times. We who -have been at sea, have often seen this when we -have been approaching land; but you will better -understand an instance which occurred at Hastings, -on the coast of Sussex. The gentleman -who related it was surprised one day to see a -crowd of people running down to the sea-side, -and on inquiry he found they were going in -consequence of a report that the coast of France -had become visible to the naked eye.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>« 297 »</span></p> - -<p>He went down to the beach, and actually saw -the coast of France so plainly as to be able to -distinguish objects, and with a telescope he -even clearly saw French fishing-boats at anchor, -close to the shore. The illusion lasted for more -than an hour, and occasionally grew faint and -then brightened again. The distance is fifty -miles, and Hastings would therefore be hidden -from the opposite coast of France by the convexity -of the earth; so that if a straight line -were drawn from one to the other, it would pass -through the sea.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>« 298 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">OF THE FATA MORGANA AND THE MIRAGE.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">T</span>here is a very remarkable spectacle to be -occasionally seen between the coasts of Italy -and Sicily, which the inhabitants call Fata Morgana, -or <i>Fairy Illusion</i>.</p> - -<p>The shores on each side are rich and beautiful -in the extreme, and the narrow strait being -very deep, looks always blue and fresh. According -to the best accounts of the Fata Morgana, -it appears only when the sun is elevated -at an angle of 45°. It consists in a reflection -of the objects on the shore more or less magnified, -multiplied, distorted, and often decorated -with the hues of the rainbow on the surface of -the sea itself, and the portion of the atmosphere -which is in immediate contact with it. The -inhabitants of the neighbourhood look on it as -a good omen, and whenever it appears, run -down to the sea-side joyously crying out, Morgana! -Morgana!</p> - - -<p class="tdl2"><a id="Plate_XX"></a><span class="smcap">Plate XX.</span> <i>p. 299</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" style="max-width: 37.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plate_xx.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="fig_caption">FATA MORGANA</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>« 299 »</span></p> - -<p>Those who have seen it, declare that nothing -can be more beautiful. The scene must look as -wonderful as anything you have ever read about -in a fairy tale. Castles, palaces, temples, of the -utmost magnificence, houses, hills and valleys, -woods, green pastures, all of the brightest colours, -and indeed every one of the beautiful objects -on shore, beautified tenfold. You will see -in the <a href="#Plate_XX">plate</a> the attempt of an intelligent traveller -to convey a notion of this glorious phenomenon.</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE MIRAGE.</p> - -<p>This name is given to similar illusions which -are seen in various parts of the world, and more -particularly to the illusive appearance of water, -which is frequent in the sandy deserts of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>« 300 »</span> -East. You shall hear what the celebrated traveller, -Dr. Clarke, says of it.</p> - -<p>"We procured asses for our party, and, setting -out for Rosetta, began to re-cross the desert, -which appeared like an ocean of sand, but -flatter and firmer as to its surface, than before. -The Arabs, uttering their harsh guttural language, -ran chattering by the side of our asses; -until some of them calling out '<i>Raschid!</i>' we -perceived its domes and turrets, apparently -upon the opposite side of an immense lake or -sea, that covered all the intervening space between -us and the city. Not having in my own -mind, at the time, any doubt as to the certainty -of its being water, and seeing the tall minarets -and buildings of Rosetta, with all its groves of -dates and sycamores, as perfectly reflected by it -as by a mirror, insomuch that even the minutest -detail of the architecture, and of the trees, -might have been thence delineated, I applied to -the Arabs to be informed in what manner we -were to pass the water. Our interpreter, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>« 301 »</span> -although a Greek, and therefore likely to have -been informed of such a phenomenon, was as -fully convinced as any of us that we were drawing -near to the water's edge, and became indignant -when the Arabs maintained, that within -an hour we should reach Rosetta, by crossing -the sands in the direct line we then pursued, -and that there was no water. 'What,' said he, -giving way to his impatience, 'do you suppose -me an idiot, to be persuaded contrary to the -evidence of my senses?' The Arabs, smiling, -soon pacified him, and completely astonished the -whole party, by desiring us to look back at the -desert we had already passed, where we beheld -a precisely similar appearance. It was, in fact, -<i>the Mirage</i>, a prodigy to which every one of us -were then strangers, although it afterwards became -more familiar. Yet upon no future occasion -did we ever behold this extraordinary illusion -so marvellously displayed. The view of it -enabled us to imagine the horrible despondency -to which travellers must sometimes be exposed, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>« 302 »</span> -who, in traversing the interminable desert, destitute -of water, and perishing with thirst, have -sometimes this deceitful prospect before their -eyes."</p> - -<p>Another traveller adds a particular which is -well worthy of notice.</p> - -<p>"The most singular quality of this vapour is -its power of reflection. When a near observer -is a little elevated, as on horseback, he will see -trees and other objects reflected as from the -surface of a lake. The vapour, when seen at a -distance of six or seven miles, appears to lie -upon the earth like an opaque mass; and it certainly -does not rise many feet above the ground, -for I observed that, while the lower part of the -town of Abusheher was hid from the view, some -of the more elevated buildings, and the tops of -a few date-trees, were distinctly visible."</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>« 303 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PT_III_CH_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">HOW PARLEY SUPPOSES THESE APPEARANCES TO BE PRODUCED.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p0"><span class="larger">I</span>f you wish to understand the manner in which -it is most probable that these illusions are produced, -you must closely attend to what I am -going to tell you. I will make my explanation -as simple as I can, but I shall be able to teach -you nothing, unless you do your part by paying -attention.</p> - -<p>You know that vision is produced by rays of -light passing from the object seen, to the eye of -the spectator. These rays have a tendency -to form straight lines, and they would be perfectly -straight, if they had only to pass through -empty space; but this cannot be the case near -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>« 304 »</span> -the surface of the earth, as they there have to -go through air, and frequently through other -transparent substances.</p> - -<p>When these rays meet with a substance which -they cannot go through, and which is therefore -called opaque, such as a man or a house, they -are turned back or <i>reflected</i>, and strike the eye -of the person who may be looking in that direction, -so as to cause vision.</p> - -<p>But when they meet with a body which they -can pass through, called therefore transparent, -such as water or glass, they are turned aside -out of their original course or <i>refracted</i>; and -this refraction takes place in different degrees, -according to the density of the substance.</p> - -<p>Thus, in looking at objects through air, you -do not see anything exactly in its real position; -but in looking at them through water, the variation -between the reality and the appearance -is still greater, because the density of water -being greater than that of air, it will refract -more. To prove this you need only put a stick -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>« 305 »</span> -obliquely into water, and it will look as if it -were broken or bent at the surface of the water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page305a" style="max-width: 11.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page305a.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The true position of the stick is marked by -<span class="allsmcap">A B</span>, and the apparent position, by <span class="allsmcap">A C</span>.</p> - -<p>We see the rising sun some minutes before he -has risen above our horizon, and the setting sun -after he has sunk below it, because his rays are -refracted by our atmosphere.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page305b" style="max-width: 25.4375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page305b.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If the sun be at <span class="allsmcap">A</span>, he will appear to a spectator -on the surface of the earth at <span class="allsmcap">C</span>, as if he were -at <span class="allsmcap">B</span>, because the rays will be refracted at <span class="allsmcap">D</span>, which -represents the limit of the atmosphere, towards <span class="allsmcap">C</span>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>« 306 »</span></p> - -<p>Perhaps you knew all this before. Well, the -knowledge of these laws will very nearly enable -you to understand the wonders of which I have -told you. I will try to explain to you the manner -in which it seems that the appearances are -produced by the operation of the laws.</p> - -<p>If a ray pass through a body that refracts it -from its original course, it will go on when it -has got through, in a line parallel with its first -direction.</p> - -<p>Thus, let <span class="allsmcap">A B</span> be a thick piece of glass, and -<span class="allsmcap">C D</span>, a ray of light passing through it, which -would be refracted from <i>c</i> to <i>d</i>; <span class="allsmcap">C</span> <i>c</i> would be -exactly parallel to <i>d</i> <span class="allsmcap">D</span>, and the point <span class="allsmcap">C</span> would -be seen from <span class="allsmcap">D</span> as if it were at <span class="allsmcap">E</span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="page306" style="max-width: 11.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page306.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>« 307 »</span></p> - -<p>If you think a little upon this, you will see -that nothing is necessary to account for objects -appearing nearer to a given point at one time -than another, or objects upon the earth appearing -high up in the air, except different degrees -of refraction. Thus in the instance of the coast -of France seeming to approach Hastings, it is -evident that the effect would be produced by an -extraordinary degree of refraction in a stratum -of air over the sea, through which the rays of -light producing vision must come.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page307" style="max-width: 26.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page307.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The explanation will be the same as that of -the diagram of the rising sun in a former -page; if the ray from <span class="allsmcap">A</span> took the direction -<span class="allsmcap">D</span>, as under ordinary circumstances it would do, -it is evident that a spectator at <span class="allsmcap">C</span> would see -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>« 308 »</span> -nothing. But instead of this, the ray was refracted -near the middle to the point <span class="allsmcap">C</span>, which -represents the town of Hastings, and therefore -the object <span class="allsmcap">A</span> appeared as if it had been placed -at <span class="allsmcap">B</span>. You shall now hear what causes are likely -to alter the refracting power of the air at times.</p> - -<p>When air, water, or any other substance, is -made hot, it becomes rarified, and its refracting -power is thereby diminished. Have you ever -watched, while you have been on one side of -a stove, or of any heated body, the appearance -of things on the other side through the -air above it? If so, you must have seen how -strangely they seem to tremble. Now this is -caused by a stream of irregularly heated air -rising from the stove, and enabling you every -instant to see the things beyond it more nearly -in their true position than you can through -air of the ordinary temperature.</p> - -<p>If you look through a magnifying glass at -distant objects, they will appear upside down. -You may learn why this takes place from books -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>« 309 »</span> -on optics. The same effect is produced by rays -passing through a medium which becomes gradually -denser, instead of suddenly passing from -one state to another. Thus, if you take a square -glass bottle and put some clear syrup into it, -and then carefully pour water on the top of that, -anything, such as a written or printed line, seen -through the space where the liquids are mixing, -will appear inverted.</p> - -<p>Again, if you take a tin tube full of water, -stopped with a piece of plain glass at each end, -warm the middle of the tube, and then look at -one end, you will see an object at the other end, -if held at a proper distance, magnified, and -distant objects turned upside down, just as they -would be by a convex lens. If, on the contrary, -you cool the middle of the tube, by applying ice -to it, the same ensues as by using a concave lens. -If a space of cold air be between two spaces of -hot air, or the contrary, a space of hot air be -between two spaces of cold air, the effects would -be the same, only they could not be produced -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>« 310 »</span> -in so small a compass as they could with water. -The space where the two different temperatures -were gradually mixing, would influence the rays -of light in the same manner as a lens on a very -large scale.</p> - -<p>Now portions of air are often made of different -temperature by the sun's rays, by evaporation, as -from the surface of the sea, or of lakes, or from -marshy districts, and by winds operating under -particular local circumstances. I do not want -to lengthen out this dry story, but if you have -read attentively what I have said, you will see -that various positions of masses of air heated -to different degrees, is all that is necessary to -account for the instances which I have mentioned, -in which objects have appeared inverted -and out of their true positions; such as Dover -Castle, Captain Scoresby's father's ship, the -French coast opposite Hastings, and the islands, -and horses with their legs upwards, described -by Humboldt.</p> - -<p>The apparitions of Souter Fell may be -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>« 311 »</span> -accounted for in like manner. The latter one -was seen at a time of civil commotion, when -there were private troops of horse exercised in -all parts of the country, and so the fact of armed -horsemen being in the neighbourhood, is rendered -very probable. We have only to suppose -the image of such a troop to be brought to the -side of Souter Fell, perhaps from the opposite -side of the mountain, by a complicated refraction, -like that which appeared to move Dover -Castle out of its place.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>But the Spectre of the Brocken, the Fata -Morgana, and the image which my friend saw -of the side of the hill on which he was, require -another sort of explanation, because the object -and the image are seen both at once; the latter -could therefore have been no other than the -reflection of the first.</p> - -<p>It seems likely that some vapours are capable -of receiving shadows. When I have been bathing -in a river with a muddy bottom, I have often -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>« 312 »</span> -seen my shadow on the cloud of muddy particles -which I have disturbed from the bottom, -in a manner something similar to that in which -I should think this may occasionally take place.</p> - -<p>There is, however, another theory of it. When -rays pass from a thin medium into a denser -medium, the whole do not go through, but they -are <i>strained</i>, as it were, and a part are kept -back and reflected. It is thus that you see a -reflection on a transparent pane of glass.</p> - -<p>If you breathe very lightly upon it, the reflection -will be still more distinct, and the -resemblance to the phenomenon we are describing -probably greater. There are then two -causes of reflection, the change of refracting -power, and the presence of the watery particles.</p> - -<p>Something of this kind perhaps occurs on the -top of the Brocken. A rush of cold air may -set up from deep ravines, with water and marshy -land at the bottom, on the West side, while the -rising sun is genially warming the air on the east -side of the mountains. Mind, I do not say that -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>« 313 »</span> -it is so, but it does not seem unlikely that two -currents, one of cold air and the other of hot, -thus ascend close to each other; and according -to what I have told you, there would be a reflecting -power in the plane of contact, which -might be increased by the watery particles -carried upwards.</p> - -<p>A kind of aerial screen would thus be formed, -which might catch the shadow of a person on -the opposite summit, cast upon it by the horizontal -rays of the morning sun. Thus you may -account for the image, and its being so greatly -magnified, requires no further explanation than -I have given above; as it only needs the supposition -of a mass of heated air, with two colder -ones on each side, being between the persons -and the reflecting substance.</p> - -<p>The doubling of one of the figures was possibly -occasioned by a reflecting surface having -been formed on a different plane from the first, -which might very easily occur.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>« 314 »</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONCLUSION">CONCLUSION.</h2> - -<p class="caption3">OF SOME OTHER WONDERS, AND HOW WE OUGHT TO USE OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE WONDERS -OF NATURE.</p> -</div> - - -<p>I. I have now given you, my little friends -an account of a few of the wonders of the wonderful -world we live in, and I hope they have -entertained you. I should like to have spoken -to you of a great many other things, but it -would make my book too large.</p> - -<p>Some of you, I dare say, are fond of some -branch or other of natural history, and perhaps -you may be in the habit of collecting shells, -plants, insects, or fossils. Well, I hope a great -many of you do so, for it is a very delightful -employment, when you are not learning your -regular lessons. When I was a school-boy, I -loved to dig fossils out of the earth, and many -a sunny day have I spent with my hammer -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>« 315 »</span> -and chisel under the cliffs by the sea-side, or in -a stone-quarry. Many times I laboured long -without success, but at last I scraped together a -very pretty collection, and always managed to -enjoy myself on these fossil-hunting days, whether -I was successful or not.</p> - -<p>But what I want particularly to say to you -before we part is, that I hope none of you will -rest satisfied with merely listening to what -others tell you, with making an orderly collection -of specimens, or recollecting merely the -outsides of things. Though all these are very -good when in their proper places, they are not -enough. You should compare together different -facts, and often turn them over in your minds, -always keeping in view that there is something -to be learned from them more interesting and -more important than any knowledge, however -correct, respecting the shapes of crystals, shells, -or plants, or the habits of animals.</p> - -<p>If you are diligent in thinking on what you -know, you will see that nothing stands alone in -nature; every single thing is connected with -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>« 316 »</span> -other things, so as to make up one great whole. -It is true that you will sometimes see what -seems to be an exception to this; you will see -instances of conflict and disorder, and, as it seems, -things destroyed without a reason; but you will -also very often find, as you come to know more, -that what seemed at first an exception was not -such in reality, and that it was what tends as -much to the order and beauty of the whole, as -any of the particular things you admired at first.</p> - -<p>II. The ancients supposed that those parts of -the world which were in the torrid zone, and -those towards the North Pole, could not be inhabited -by man; and we find from their writings, -that it was something of a puzzle to know of -what use they could be. They did not, however, -know much about the extent of them, for even -the shape of the earth was then unknown,—some -contending that it was in the form of a -cylinder, some that it was pear-shaped, and -others that it was round and flat like a trencher. -A very few made a shrewd guess at its true -figure. No one was quite certain on the subject, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>« 317 »</span> -till navigators had sailed round it, so as to -reach, by continually going forward, the same -spot as they started from.</p> - -<p>What men have learned within the last four -centuries, has taught us that only a small portion -of the surface of the earth is uninhabitable. -Man, by the wonderful constitution of his nature, -is enabled to bear the extremes of heat -and cold better than any of the animals that -are sent for his use, each of which is adapted -for the particular climate in which it may be -placed. Under the most extreme variations of -the temperature of the atmosphere, the heat of -our bodies, when we are in health, is never -increased or diminished more than a very few -degrees; so that a thermometer, with the bulb -put into the mouth of an Esquimaux, in a -climate much below freezing, will be only three -or four degrees below what it will be in the -mouth of an inhabitant of the East Indies, where -the temperature often exceeds 100 degrees.</p> - -<p>The dog is almost the only animal that is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>« 318 »</span> -prepared to accompany man in all climates. The -form and habits of this faithful creature vary -most surprisingly, according to the circumstances -in which he is placed; but he is everywhere -the loving friend and faithful associate of man, -and ready to defend him and to share his toil, in -the hot and parched deserts of the East, or the -icy regions of the North.</p> - -<p>There are a few animals that undergo remarkable -changes, to enable them to bear the vicissitudes -of the climate in which they may be -placed. The hares and the foxes of the Northern -regions become covered with white hair in -winter. Now, it is proved, that a body hotter -than the surrounding atmosphere which has a -white covering, cools much more slowly than -one covered with a dark colour: hence, the heat -generated inwardly is preserved and economized -by the winter coats of these animals, to the great -benefit of their health and comfort.</p> - -<p>III. Some kinds of birds that love warm climates, -are taught to assemble together at a -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>« 319 »</span> -certain season near the end of summer, almost to a -day, and start off on a pilgrimage to distant -lands, where nature is still blooming. There are -these birds which all live nearly the same sort of -life,—the swift, the swallow, and the house marten, -which all bear a strong resemblance to each other. -They all come to us from the south in spring, -and take their departure before the next winter. -The swifts form themselves into companies, and -take their leave of us before the middle of -August; the swallows do the same about the -middle of October, and the martens at the end -of the same month. Thus these happy creatures -manage to live all their life long in summer and -sunshine.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp99" id="page320" style="max-width: 18.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page320.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>They are furnished with astonishing capabilities -for performing these very long journeys. -You are acquainted with their slender forms, so -exactly adapted for cutting through the air, and -their long, beautiful wings. Each of these -wings is moved by a muscle of prodigious -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>« 320 »</span> -power, situated on each side of the breast-bone. -Possibly you may have noticed in larks and other -birds, that are in the habit of flying long distances, -which are eaten, what a large proportion -of their flesh is in these two muscles; in the -swallow, it greatly exceeds the weight of the -flesh of all the other parts of the body. You will -hardly believe it when I tell you, that the swift -is able to fly at the rate of more than a hundred -miles in an hour. The little bird that perched -upon your chimney this morning, may perch to-morrow -night upon one of the pyramids of Egypt, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>« 321 »</span> -and next week may be at the Cape of Good -Hope. You think a great deal of travelling -twenty miles an hour on a railway, but you see -that is slow compared with the travelling of the -swallows.</p> - -<p>Instead of thus following the summer about -over the surface of the earth, some creatures, -that love warmth, make the best of it where they -are. Some birds get into holes and other sheltered -places, put their heads under their wings, -and so sleep away the winter months. The -pretty little black-eyed dormouse makes up a -snug nest, and does the same, and so do some -other of our common animals. During this -inactive period, all the functions which are -necessary to support life become fitted to a state -of repose; the circulation gets slower, and the -supply of inward heat sinks to the lowest temperature -which life will bear.</p> - -<p>I dare say you have often found some sorts of -snail-shells with the snail inside, and the mouth -sealed up firmly, and have taken them for dead: -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>« 322 »</span> -this is not the case. The covering is only put -over for the winter to keep out the cold, and the -creature lives till spring without food or motion. -How it must enjoy the first bright days of -spring, when it opens its eyes after its long nap, -reaching out its horns, and dragging its shell -over the green grass.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page322" style="max-width: 23.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page322.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>IV. Then, in the distribution of different animals, -there is not less to engage our attention. -The rein-deer is the support and comfort of the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>« 323 »</span> -Laplanders. It lives constantly on the scantiest, -and apparently least nourishing diet, and when -brought into warmer climates it soon languishes -and dies. The camel only flourishes where -there are large sandy deserts, with precarious -supplies both of water and solid food; and to -fit him for his peculiar line of usefulness, he has -a receptacle to contain a stock of water, which -he can at pleasure turn into his stomach, and -can go eight or nine days without a fresh supply; -he eats any kind of vegetables, however -dry they may be; and a pound a day is sufficient -to support him for weeks together; though he -is very much larger than any of the animals -which inhabit your country. It is usual for -camels to go the whole distance from Cairo to -Suez, in Egypt, without tasting a morsel, and -this remarkable faculty has been supposed to -arise from the hump upon their backs. When -the animal is well fed, this hump, which is of a -fatty substance, fills out and becomes solid; but -when his food is scanty, it wastes away, and its -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>« 324 »</span> -substance appears to go to the nourishment of -the more vital parts of his frame. His large -feet rest upon the sand without sinking in, and -at the rate of about two miles an hour, he will -travel thirty miles a day over a parched desert, -bearing a burden of seven or eight hundred -weight. He is called by the Arabs the Ship of -the Desert.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="page324" style="max-width: 23.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page324.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>V. You may see that there is, in every variety -of circumstance, something that enjoys itself, and -has a place to fill up and a part to act amongst -the creatures which God has made. But this is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>« 325 »</span> -not all: the existence of the cold of the Poles, -and of the heat of the Tropics, is necessary to -the well-being of the whole.</p> - -<p>The free air that surrounds the globe, which -we breathe, and through which we see, and hear, -and smell, and move, is the same in composition -in every part of the world. It contains just the -same proportions of the two gases, oxygen and -nitrogen, in the coldest and the hottest climates, -in the deepest valleys and on the tallest mountains. -Now, this air, considered on a large scale, -is always blowing from the Poles towards the -Equator. The more direct rays of the sun heat -that portion of the earth's surface which lies in -the Torrid Zone, and therefore the air above it is -perpetually ascending to the upper regions of the -atmosphere, to make room for that which presses -upon it from the Poles, because it is cooler and -heavier.</p> - -<p>It is this process, united with the motion of -the earth on its axis, which causes the Trade -Winds and Monsoons.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>« 326 »</span></p> - -<p>Now, do you not see how necessary the cold -Poles are to keep the rest of the world from -becoming too hot, by supplying constant currents -of fresh air setting in upon the hotter -regions from both sides? Then the air, which -ascends from the Equator, becomes cool, and travels -down again to join the air from the Poles; -and so a healthful circulation is kept up, which -is necessary for all climates.</p> - -<p>VI. It is very interesting to trace the dependance -of the various tribes of vegetables and animals -on each other, and to observe how one -flourishes through the dissolution of another; and -still more so to notice the gradual development -of the same parts in the kinds, as they ascend -one above another. You may see an instance -of this in three of the animals that I described -to you, which were different enough in other -respects, but agreed in being without a bony -skeleton, and in having long organs round their -mouths to catch their food with.</p> - -<p>In the Acalephæ, or sea-nettles, these organs -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>« 327 »</span> -were merely filaments without sensation, of which -the use seemed to be, to entangle little creatures -in, which chance might bring in their way. -The animals themselves would seem, at first -sight, to be very ill able to destroy small crabs -and other shell-fish. You would suppose that -the struggles they would make with their hard -pointed legs, would tear the tender bodies of -the Acalephæ; but the deficiency is supplied by -the caustic luminous fluid which paralyzes the -victim, and disables it for violent struggles -while it is detained by the filaments, before the -Acalepha attempts to swallow it.</p> - -<p>In the Actiniæ, you will find the loose disorderly -filaments changed into feelers, with -wonderfully acute sensation, regularly disposed -in a star. When a substance touches the feelers -they close in with considerable power, but seem -to act more like a mechanical trap,—as the -leaves of certain plants catch flies and other -insects,—than in direct dependance on the will -of the animal. However, the Actinia has the -sense of feeling, and has a perception of light -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>« 328 »</span> -and of odours, though without eyes or nose. -Having greater muscular strength and more compactures -of film, he does not need the destructive -fluid with which the Acalepha is furnished. -Thus, one sort of power is made to compensate -for the loss of another.</p> - -<p>The Sepia also catches his food by means of -fleshy organs placed round his mouth; but in -him you find them possessed of amazing power, -moving in strict subjection to his will; never -loosely floating about as in the others. Then -he tastes, sees, and hears, by means of a tongue, -eyes, and ears, distinctly formed.</p> - -<p>A similar gradation is observed in the development -of the various parts composing the -hand and arm in animals with perfect skeletons, -in which the bones act as levers. There is a -very interesting book<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> written on this subject, -which you would do well to read; and you will -see in it that all sorts of birds, quadrupeds, and -even fishes, have, in their fore feet, wings, and -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>« 329 »</span> -fore fins, elements resembling those of the human -hand and arm. Often, in comparing only -two animals, you might fail to trace the slightest -resemblance; but when one or two or more of -other kinds are placed between them, you find -a sort of ladder which, in an evident manner, -unites the lowest with the highest tribes.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[C]</a> Sir Charles Bell's Treatise on the Hand.</p></div> - -<p>At distant periods of the earth's history, you -may see the same sort of organs, and the same -dependance of the creatures one on another. -The fierce Icthyosaurus, and the sly, long-necked -Plesiosaurus, had eyes, ears, tongues, and other -parts, the same as our contemporaries; and they -ate and digested their food, and moved from -place to place, and preyed on each other in no -other manner.</p> - -<p>If our acquaintance with nature were much -greater than it is, we should doubtless be able to -bring proofs that there is no sort of stones, of -vegetables, or of animals, nor any process or -movement of the elements, in which we have not -an interest. There is no fact that is not in some -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>« 330 »</span> -way or other connected with the whole, so as to -influence its well-being.</p> - -<p>VII. Not only are the creatures which inhabit -the earth united together by bonds of similarity of -structure and appetite, of common wants and -enjoyments, and of mutual support; but we are -also united with the boundless system of worlds -which the night unveils to our view. The -principle of gravitation, and the beneficent -rays of the sun operating on the planets -and their moons, throw over us a plain and -obvious tie of brotherhood with the stars that -we may see night after night making their way -amongst the constellations, as they move in -their orbits, distinguished by their steady light -from the twinkling multitude of fixed stars. -The law that unites us to them is the same -as causes a drop of rain to descend, or a -weary fly to settle on the earth.</p> - -<p>It is not improbable, that the aerolites (if the -theory which I hinted at in a former chapter -be true) may be fragments of original matter, -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>« 331 »</span> -which have never been appropriated by any -globe, and now sometimes pitch on one planet, -and sometimes on another. If this be the case, -we should be warranted in concluding that the -matter of our solar system is everywhere the -same, chemically considered, and is, therefore, -governed by the same chemical laws; for the -aerolites contain no substance which is not to -be found far below the surface of the earth.</p> - -<p>Some ignorant persons, in all ages of the -world, have fancied that the relative positions of -the stars to each other, at the moment of the -birth of an individual, must have an influence -upon his character and the future circumstances -of his life. Thus arose what was called the -<i>science</i> of astrology, and the practice of <i>casting -nativities</i>; and in vulgar conversation it is not -unfrequent for people, who do not know the -origin of the expression, to "thank their stars," -or to talk of their "unlucky stars," which arose -from the prevalence of such a belief. This, I -need hardly tell you, is all nonsense, from -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>« 332 »</span> -beginning to end; but you may now know that -there is, in reality, quite as wonderful a connection, -and as direct a one, between yourselves -and the stars, as this which was fancied to -exist.</p> - -<p>VIII. But who can tell how wide the relationship -of our earth and everything upon it is extended, -through the agency of those wonderful -principles Light, Heat, and Electricity? It may -seem to you impossible, when I tell you that there -is not a blade of grass or a flower on this earth, -which may not, in its little degree, affect the -climate of a star far beyond the limits of our -solar system; but if you will consider the way -in which the falling of dews is regulated, you -will see that there are grounds for such a notion.</p> - -<p>I must first tell you that it is a property of -Heat, like Light, to <i>radiate</i> or expand itself in -all directions, without limit; so that a heated -body is always sending out its heat.</p> - -<p>Now, this radiation is influenced by the surfaces -of bodies: Heat will radiate more from -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>« 333 »</span> -a black rough surface than from a smooth white -one, and a black body will therefore much -sooner get cool than a white one, as I had occasion -to tell you just now. The heat radiates -rapidly from the leaves of vegetables, though -from different kinds of plants in very different -degrees, while from stones and dry wood it radiates -very slowly.</p> - -<p>Heat is also <i>reflected</i>, or turned back, by -meeting with certain objects; and in this respect, -too, it resembles light. You have possibly -seen experiments showing this, made with polished -metal mirrors.</p> - -<p>At night time, when the sun's rays are not -present, as the heat radiates quickly from the -plants on the ground, each plant becomes -thereby cooler than the earth and stones -which surround it. This causes the watery -particles which the air contains, to condense -on its leaves and flowers, in the same manner -as you see the moisture in the air of a crowded -room, settle on the outside of a glass of cold -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>« 334 »</span> -water; and, what is most wonderful, the surface -of each plant is so constructed as to allow the -escape of just so much heat, and to receive just -so much dew in return, as its peculiar nature -requires. You may see, if you look, that some -plants always have more dew on them than -others.</p> - -<p>On a cloudy night, when dews are not so -much required, a great part of the heat thus -radiated is sent back, being reflected by the -clouds. Hence the dew falls less heavily at such -a time than on a clear starlight night, when -every blade of grass and every little flower sends -out its ray of heat to an indefinite extent, and -may possibly meet another ray from the Dog-stars -or one of the Pleiades!</p> - -<p>This is very wonderful; but if you think, you -will perceive that it is not more wonderful than -that a ray of light should travel so far. Every -particle of the surface of these stars does its -part in emitting light, and by that the light of -our nights is increased; and if Light is affected -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>« 335 »</span> -by such remote influences, why should not Climate -be so affected?</p> - -<p>IX. As everything has a place to fill up -amongst the creatures by which it becomes connected -with the universal system, we find innumerable -instances of things being most wonderfully -provided with powers of retaining the -position for which they were created, when circumstances -may oppose it. The tendency which -every animal has to preserve its own life, supplies -abundant illustration. It is this which causes -the Arctic animals to change their colour to -white in winter, and the swallows to migrate to -warmer regions. But there is something selfish -in this, as the provision is merely to save the -animal's own life. Much more beautiful is it -to observe the operation of the affections of parent -animals towards their offspring, by which -the young, when they are incapable of taking -care of themselves, are kept alive and preserved -from injury often at the sacrifice of the enjoyment, -and even of the life of their parent. You -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>« 336 »</span> -will remember what I told you respecting the -love of the old whales towards the <i>suckers</i>. Nothing -parts with its own life willingly, but in a -great many animals it may be seen that there is -a greater regard to the preservation of their race -than of their own individual lives.</p> - -<div class="figleft illowp34" id="page326" style="max-width: 11em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/page326.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>X. These tendencies may -be seen in vegetables as well -as in animals. The young -buds of various plants, of the -common poppy for example, -hang down their heads, so -that the bottom of the <i>calyx</i>, -as it is called by botanists, is -placed upwards, and forms -a sort of thatch or roof. -When the flower spreads out -its bright broad leaves, although -its weight is increased, -yet it then boldly lifts up its -head to the sun, and the -neck of the stalk which seemed unable to bear -up the bud, is well able to sustain the full -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>« 337 »</span> -flower. Now if it were otherwise, and if the -bud held the same position as the flower, the -rain would run into the calyx and would lie -there, so as to cause the <i>petals</i> or leaves of the -future flower to become rotten.</p> - -<p>In this Kingdom of Nature, the unwillingness -to part with life is even more wonderfully exhibited -than in animals.</p> - -<p>Seeds have been known to retain their principle -of life for centuries, and long after they -have seemed perfectly dead and dry, when -placed in proper circumstances, they have sent -out shoots and borne flowers and fruit. Mr. -White relates, that when some old beech trees -were removed from a spot in the neighbourhood -of Selborne, where they must have stood for -ages, some strawberry plants sprung up, of -which the seeds must have lain dormant under -the roots of the beeches. When the Spaniards -took possession of Peru, many of the race of -Incas, the rulers of that country, fled to the -deserts and took with them what provisions they -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>« 338 »</span> -could carry. There are now, sometimes, found -in these deserts, ancient vessels with very narrow -mouths, containing at the bottom a few -grains of <i>maize</i> or Indian corn, the remains of -the stock of those poor exiles. I have got one -of the vessels; and the maize which came out -of it was sown, and took root and bore seed, -though it must have been bottled up for considerably -more than three centuries.</p> - -<p>But now I am going to tell you something -still more surprising than this. The Ancient -Egyptians, from some notion connected with -their religion, used at times to place in the -hands and under the soles of the feet of the -bodies they embalmed, the roots of a kind of lily. -The roots are of a bulbous sort, not much unlike -an onion, and they have often been found -on those mummies which have been uncovered. -One or two of them have been set to vegetate, -and have actually borne flowers and seed, after -having slumbered in a mummy coffin for considerably -more than 2000 years!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>« 339 »</span></p> - -<p>XI. You know that some seeds have wings or -sails, by means of which they are transported -by the winds over land and sea for very many -miles. The thistle-down everybody is acquainted -with. There is an eastern annual plant -whose seeds are provided with wings, which, in -a most curious manner, it only uses when it -needs them, as you shall hear. It grows in the -little pools that occur here and there in the deserts -of Arabia, which, as you may suppose, in a -hot climate and a sandy soil, are very apt to dry -up at some seasons of the year. The seeds grow -on the stalk enclosed in a roll of flaxen fibres, -and when they are ripe they fall off, and if the -water continues till the next year, they spring -up close by where their parent plant lived. But -should the pool dry up, the flaxen fibres become -dry and spread out into wings, the wind takes -hold of them, and away flies the seed till it -reaches a more favoured spot. When it is lucky -enough to get to the water, the pod speedily -bursts open, and the seeds take root at the -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>« 340 »</span> -bottom. You see how, by a simple mechanical -contrivance, this plant is enabled to do the same -for the preservation of its species, as I told you -the Actinia did by a very simple exercise of instinct, -for the preservation of itself.</p> - -<p>XII. Because you wonder at the works of creation, -you feel a desire to search into them. You -will find out many things, and you may learn to -explain a great many things, the reasons of which -you are ignorant of at present. Still, your -wonder will not be satisfied; on the contrary, -the further you go, the more it will be excited. -You will have to go wondering on, but if you -proceed in the right disposition, every addition -to your knowledge will increase your admiration -and love; for everything was made by the -loving and wise God, and therefore the whole -must necessarily be beautiful and harmonious, -and there is nothing which has not its place to -fill, and its part to act. May you, my little -friends, ever keep in mind that you are not -left out of this Divine Plan; and that there is -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>« 341 »</span> -a place to be filled, and duties to be performed, -by each one of you, which are not left to a mechanical -contrivance nor to animal instinct; -but must be found out and fulfilled by a never -dying Spirit, which must be conscious of what -it is about, and is responsible to God for every -action.</p> - - -<p>J. GREEN AND CO., PRINTERS, BARTLETT'S BUILDINGS.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_Ad1"></a>« Ad1 »</span></p> - - -<p>WORKS RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY</p> - -<p>DARTON AND CLARK,</p> - -<p>HOLBORN HILL.</p> - - -<p>BIRDS AND FLOWERS;</p> - -<p>AND OTHER COUNTRY THINGS.</p> - -<p>BY MARY HOWITT.</p> - -<p>BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED IN A NEW STYLE.</p> - -<p><i>Handsomely Bound in Saxony, Gilt Edges. Royal 18mo. Price 6s.</i></p> - -<p>"This is a charming addition to the gift books of the season. The topics Mrs. -Howitt has chosen are "Birds and Flowers, and other Country Things;" and these -are varied with skill, and executed with much taste, delicacy, and a pastoral-poetical -feeling."—<i>Spectator.</i></p> - -<p>"We shall speak of this work with unreserved commendation.—The wood-cuts -are exquisite."—<i>Athenæum.</i></p> - - -<p><i>In the Press.</i></p> - -<p>HYMNS AND FIRESIDE VERSES:</p> - -<p>BY MARY HOWITT.</p> - -<p>BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED,</p> - -<p>AS A COMPANION TO BIRDS AND FLOWERS.</p> - - -<p>TALES IN VERSE:</p> - -<p>BY MARY HOWITT.</p> - -<p>WITH BEAUTIFUL ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> - -<p><i>Price 5s. in Elegant Binding; or in Fancy Wrapper, 3s. 6d.</i></p> - - -<p>TALES IN PROSE:</p> - -<p>BY MARY HOWITT.</p> - -<p>"Sweet Mary Howitt! Her name brings a magic with it, let us see it when and -where we will; it is one crowded with pleasant associations, telling of wisdom -learned by the wayside and under the hedge-rows breathing perfume,—<i>not</i> the -perfume of balls and routs, but of violets and wild-flowers,—leading the mind -to pure and pleasant thoughtfulness."—<i>New Monthly Magazine.</i></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_Ad2"></a>« Ad2 »</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE LITTLE CONCHOLOGIST;</p> - -<p class="tdc">A GUIDE TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS:</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">WITH A COPIOUS INDEX OF THEIR VULGAR NAMES:</p> - -<p class="caption4nb">BY THE REV. T. WILSON.</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">SECOND EDITION.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Square 36mo. Gilt Edges, Coloured Frontispiece, -and Copper-Plates. Price 1s.</i></p> - -<p class="vsmall">"A nice sea-side book, in a pretty exterior."—<i>Tait's Magazine.</i></p> - -<p class="vsmall">"Ably drawn up, and beautifully printed."—<i>Family Magazine.</i></p> - -<p class="vsmall">"A little gem."—<i>Monthly Review.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 4.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/bar_bow.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="antiqua">Just Published,</span></p> - -<p class="caption3">THE LITTLE MINERALOGIST;</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">OR, FIRST BOOK OF MINERALOGY.</p> - -<p class="tdc">BY THE REV. T. WILSON.</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>With Coloured Plates, a Companion to the above. Price 1s.</i></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 4.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/bar_bow.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc"><i>In the Press. By the same Author.</i></p> - -<p class="caption3">THE LITTLE GEOLOGIST;</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">OR, FIRST BOOK OF GEOLOGY</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" style="max-width: 4.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/bar_bow.png" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdc"><i>With Numerous Illustrative Plates, and Gilt Edges,<br /> -Royal 36mo. Fancy Cloth Boards.<br /> -Price 1s. 6d.</i></p> - -<p class="caption3">THE LITTLE BOOK OF BOTANY;</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">OR,</p> - -<p class="tdc">FAMILIAR EXPOSITION OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE;</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">SIMPLIFIED AND WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR</p> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="antiqua">Young Botanists.</span></p> - -<p class="tdc">BY DANIEL COOPER, A.L.S.</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">CURATOR TO THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONG AND AUTHOR OF -"BOTANICAL RAMBLES WITHIN THIRTY MILES OF LONDON."</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_Ad3"></a>« Ad3 »</span></p> - - -<p class="tdc"><i>A New Illustration of the Geography of Holy Scripture, upon an<br /> -original plan, expressly adapted for SCHOOLS and<br /> -FAMILY INSTRUCTION.</i></p> - -<hr class="r20" /> - -<p class="tdc"><span class="antiqua">Just Published,</span></p> - -<p class="caption3">PALESTINE, AND PART OF EGYPT,</p> - -<p class="tdc">WITH THE COUNTRIES ADJACENT;</p> - -<p>Showing the Route of the Israelites through the Wilderness, -and the Division of Canaan among the Tribes; and -the Holy Land in the Time of our Saviour; all the Countries -visited by the Apostles, and the great Empires of the -East; being a complete Geographical Illustration of the -Sacred Scriptures.</p> - - -<p class="tdc">BY WILLIAM MARTIN,</p> - -<p class="tdc vsmall">EDITOR OF THE "EDUCATIONAL MAGAZINE."</p> - -<p class="tdc"><i>Size, 39 by 26 inches, price 10s. 6d.—in a case, 14s.<br /> -Canvas and Roller, Varnished, 21s.</i></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p class="smaller"><img src="images/inv_asterism.png" width="16" height="20" alt="inv asterism" /> <i>The physical peculiarities of the countries represented, and -the sites of particular events, with references to the passages of Scripture -in which they are recorded, are laid down in this Map with -peculiar accuracy and clearness.</i></p></div> - -<hr class="r20" /> - - -<p>DARTON AND CLARK, HOLBORN HILL.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="transnotes"> -<p class="caption3">Transcriber Note</p> - - -<p>Some of the quoted passages have unusual spelling for some words. These -were left as is; but other minor typos have been corrected.</p> - -<p>The <a href="#CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a> and <a href="#Page_69">page 69</a> list name "Skapta-Jokul" and -"Skaptar Jokul" respectively. A web search shows that the more common -spelling was "Skapta Jokul" and both were changed to that. Some page -references in the Table of Contents were corrected. A reference to -"Plate XVI, fig. 4" on <a href="#Page_246">page 246</a> has been corrected to "Plate XV, fig. -4". Illustrations were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. -All materials were obtained from The Internet Archive and any files -produced are placed in the Public Domain.</p> -</div> - - - - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Peter Parley's Wonders of the earth, -sea, and sky, by Samuel G. 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