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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #62994 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/62994)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Craters of the Moon, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Craters of the Moon
-       A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: August 21, 2020 [EBook #62994]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRATERS OF THE MOON ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
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-
-                              Handbook 139
-                          Craters of the Moon
-
-
-                     A Guide to Craters of the Moon
-                           National Monument
-                                 Idaho
-
-                            Produced by the
-                        Division of Publications
-                         National Park Service
-
-                    U.S. Department of the Interior
-                         Washington, D.C. 1991
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-
-                         _Using This Handbook_
-
-Craters of the Moon National Monument protects volcanic features of the
-Craters of the Moon lava field. Part 1 of this handbook introduces the
-park and recounts its early exploration. Part 2 explores how life has
-adapted to the park’s volcanic landscape—and how people have perceived
-it. Part 3 presents concise travel guide and reference materials for
-touring the park and for camping.
-
-National Park Handbooks are published to support the National Park
-Service’s management programs and to promote understanding and enjoyment
-of the more than 350 National Park System sites, which represent
-important examples of our country’s natural and cultural inheritance.
-Each handbook is intended to be informative reading and a useful guide
-before, during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles are in
-print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased by mail from the
-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
-Washington, DC 20402. This is handbook number 139.
-
-
-          _Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data_
-
-Craters of the Moon: A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument,
-Idaho/produced by the Division of Publications, National Park Service.
-
-
-  p. cm.—(Official national park handbook; 139)
-  1. Craters of the Moon National Monument (Idaho)—Guidebooks.
-  2. Geology—Idaho—Craters of the Moon National Monument—Guidebooks.
-    I. United States National Park Service. Division of Publications.
-    II. Series: Handbook (United States. National Park Service. Division
-          of Publications); 139.
-  F752.C7C73    1991    917.96'59—dc20    89-13670CIP
-  ISBN 0-912627-44-1
-
-
-  Part 1 Welcome to Craters of the Moon                                 4
-      Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain                           7
-  Part 2 From Moonscape to Landscape                                   20
-      Geology of the Craters of the Moon                               23
-      Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape                              35
-      Indians, Early Explorers, and Practicing Astronauts              47
-  Part 3 Guide and Adviser                                             52
-      Approaching Craters of the Moon                                  54
-      Visitor Center and Programs                                      56
-      Map                                                              58
-      Take the Driving Tour                                            59
-      Camping and Backcountry Use                                      60
-      Winter Recreation                                                61
-      Regulations and Safety                                           62
-      Nearby Attractions                                               63
-      Armchair Explorations                                            64
-
-
-
-
-                                 Part 1
-                     Welcome to Craters of the Moon
-
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-    [Illustration: _Rock or rope? Folds of lava rock look like coils of
-    irregular rope. Lava flows of this type are known as pahoehoe, a
-    Hawaiian word pronounced_ pah-hoy-hoy _and meaning ropey_.]
-
-
-
-
-                Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain
-
-
-Light playing on cobalt blue lavas of the Blue Dragon Flows caught the
-inner eye of explorer Robert Limbert: “It is the play of light at sunset
-across this lava that charms the spectator. It becomes a twisted, wavy
-sea. In the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery sheen. With
-changing conditions of light and air, it varies also, even while one
-stands and watches. It is a place of color and silence....”
-
-Limbert explored the Craters of the Moon lava field in Idaho in the
-1920s and wrote those words for a 1924 issue of _National Geographic
-Magazine_. “For several years I had listened to stories told by fur
-trappers of the strange things they had seen while ranging in this
-region,” wrote Limbert, a sometime taxidermist, tanner, and furrier from
-Boise, Idaho. “Some of these accounts seemed beyond belief.” To Limbert
-it seemed extraordinary “That a region of such size and scenic
-peculiarity, in the heart of the great Northwest, could have remained
-practically unknown and unexplored....” On his third and most ambitious
-trek, in 1924, Limbert and W. C. Cole were at times left speechless by
-the lava landscape they explored. Limbert recounted his impressions in
-magazine and newspaper articles whose publication was influential in the
-area’s being protected under federal ownership. In 1924, part of the
-lava field was proclaimed as Craters of the Moon National Monument,
-protected under the Antiquities Act. It was created “to preserve the
-unusual and weird volcanic formations.” The boundary has been adjusted
-and the park enlarged since then. In 1970, a large part of the national
-monument was designated by Congress as the Craters of the Moon
-Wilderness. It is further protected under the National Wilderness
-Preservation System.
-
-Until 1986, little was known about Limbert except for those facts
-recounted above. That year, however, a researcher compiling a history of
-the national monument located Limbert’s daughter in Boise. The daughter
-still possessed hundreds of items, including early glass plate
-negatives, photographs, and manuscripts of her father and that shed more
-light on his life, the early days of Idaho, and Craters of the Moon.
-Some of these photographs served as blueprints for the National Park
-Service in the rehabilitation of fragile spatter cone formations that
-have deteriorated over the years of heavy human traffic. The Limbert
-collection has been fully cataloged by Boise State University curators
-and has already proven to be a valuable resource to historians
-interested in Limbert and this fascinating part of Idaho. Preservation
-of the area owes much to Limbert’s imaginative advocacy in the true
-spirit of the West in its earlier days.
-
-Local legends, beginning in the late 1800s, held that this area
-resembled the surface of the moon, on which—it must now be remembered—no
-one had then walked! Geologist Harold T. Stearns first used the name
-Craters of the Moon when he suggested to the National Park Service, in
-1923, that a national monument be established here. Stearns found “the
-dark craters and the cold lava, nearly destitute of vegetation” similar
-to “the surface of the moon as seen through a telescope.” The name
-Craters of the Moon would stick after Limbert adopted it in _National
-Geographic Magazine_ in 1924. Later that year the name became official
-when the area was set aside by President Calvin Coolidge as a national
-monument under the Antiquities Act.
-
-Like some other areas in the National Park System, Craters of the Moon
-has lived to see the name that its early explorers affixed to it proved
-somewhat erroneous by subsequent events or findings. When Stearns and
-Limbert called this lava field Craters of the Moon, probably few persons
-other than science fiction buffs actually thought that human beings
-might one day walk on the moon and see firsthand what its surface is
-like. People have now walked on the moon, however, and we know that its
-surface does not, in fact, closely resemble this part of Idaho. Although
-there are some volcanic features on the surface of the moon, most of its
-craters were formed by the impact of meteorites colliding with the moon.
-
-Moonscape or not, early fur trappers avoided the lava flows along the
-base of the Pioneer Mountains at the north of today’s park. In doing so,
-they followed Indian trails such as one found by Limbert that “resembled
-a light streak winding through the lava. When the sun was directly
-overhead it could be seen to advantage, but at times was difficult to
-follow. Think of the years of travel,” Limbert marveled, “necessary to
-make that mark on rock!” At least one Indian trail was destined to
-become part of Goodale’s Cutoff, an alternative route on the Oregon
-Trail that pioneers in wagon trains used in the 1850s and 1860s. Many
-adjectives early used for this scene—weird, barren, exciting,
-awe-inspiring, monotonous, astonishing, curious, bleak, mysterious—still
-apply. It is not difficult today to see why pioneering folk intent on
-wresting a living from the land did not tackle this volcanic terrain.
-
-Geologists possessed the proper motivation to tackle it, however.
-Curiosity aroused by this lava field has led several generations of
-geologists, beginning with Israel C. Russell in 1901 and Harold T.
-Stearns in the 1920s, into a deeper understanding of its volcanic
-origins. With ever increasing penetration of its geological history, the
-apparent otherworldliness of Craters of the Moon has retreated—but not
-entirely. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
-brought the second set of astronauts who would walk on the moon to this
-alien corner of the galaxy before their moonshot. Here they studied the
-volcanic rock and explored an unusual, harsh, and unforgiving
-environment before embarking on their own otherworldly adventure.
-
-Most types of volcanic features in the park can be seen quite readily by
-first stopping at the visitor center and then driving the Loop Road. Far
-more features can be seen if you also walk the interpretive trails at
-the stops along the Loop Road. Still more await those who invest the
-time required to come to feel the mysterious timelessness and raw
-natural force implicit in this expansive lava field. Many travelers are
-en route to Yellowstone National Park and spend only a couple of hours
-visiting Craters of the Moon. This is ironic because here you are on the
-geological track of Yellowstone. In fact, Craters of the Moon represents
-what Yellowstone’s landscape will resemble in the future, and both areas
-can supplement your insight into what happens when the Earth’s
-unimaginable inner forces erupt to its surface.
-
-    [Illustration: _Silvery leaves of the buckwheat dot a cinder garden
-    with such regular spacing they almost look planted. Such spacing
-    results from the shortage of available surface water: Each plant
-    controls with its roots the space surrounding it, discouraging
-    competing plants. Rainwater and snowmelt penetrate volcanic cinders
-    so readily that their moisture quickly drops beyond reach of most
-    plants’ root systems. For a close-up view of a buckwheat, see page
-    36._]
-
-Although Idaho is famous for forests, rivers, and scenic mountain
-wilderness, its Snake River Plain region boasts little of these
-attributes. This plain arcs across southern Idaho from the Oregon border
-to the Yellowstone area at the Montana-Wyoming border. It marks the
-trail of the passage of the Earth’s crust over an unusual geologic heat
-source that now brings the Earth’s incendiary inner workings so close to
-its surface near Yellowstone. This heat source fuels Yellowstone’s
-bubbling, spewing, spouting geothermal wonders. Craters of the Moon
-therefore stands as a geologic prelude to Yellowstone, as its precursor
-and the ancestral stuff of its fiery secrets.
-
-When did all this volcanism at Craters of the Moon happen? Will it
-happen again? According to Mel Kuntz and other U.S. Geological Survey
-geologists who have conducted extensive field research at Craters of the
-Moon, the volcanic activity forming the Craters of the Moon lava field
-probably started _only_ 15,000 years ago. The last eruption in the
-volcanic cycle ended 2,000 years ago, about the time that Julius Caesar
-ruled the Roman Empire.
-
-Craters of the Moon is a dormant, but not extinct, volcanic area. Its
-sleeping volcanoes could become active again in the near future. The
-largest earthquake of the last quarter century in the contiguous United
-States shook Idaho’s tallest mountain, Borah Peak, just north of here in
-1983. When it did, some geologists wondered if it might initiate
-volcanic activity at Craters of the Moon. It did not. According to
-Kuntz, however, this is no reason not to expect another volcanic
-eruption here _soon_—probably “within the next 1,000 years.” Part Two of
-this handbook explores the still young and rapidly evolving
-understanding of the fascinating geologic story of Craters of the Moon.
-
-Today’s Craters of the Moon National Monument encompasses 83 square
-miles of the much larger Craters of the Moon lava field. Reaching
-southeastward from the Pioneer Mountains, the park boundary encloses a
-series of fissure vents, volcanic cones, and lava flows known as the
-Great Rift volcanic zone. This volcanic rift zone is a line of weakness
-in the Earth’s crust that can be traced for some 60 miles across the
-Snake River Plain. Recent volcanism marks much of its length. You can
-explore the Great Rift and some of its volcanic features via the park’s
-7-mile Loop Drive, as described in Part Three of this handbook. In the
-park’s northern part you will find spatter cones, cinder cones, lava
-flows, lava caves, and an unexpected variety of wildflowers, shrubs,
-trees, and wild animals. The much larger southern part of the park,
-designated by Congress in 1970 as the Craters of the Moon Wilderness
-Area, is a vast and largely untraveled region of stark volcanic features
-flanking the Great Rift. It offers a challenge to serious hikers and
-explorers—latter day Robert Limberts—who are prepared for rugged
-wilderness travel.
-
-Despite its seeming barrenness, Craters of the Moon is indeed home to a
-surprising diversity of plant and animal life. As Limbert noted in 1924:
-“In the West the term ‘Lava Beds of Idaho’ has always signified a region
-to be shunned by even the most venturesome travelers—a land supposedly
-barren of vegetation, destitute of water, devoid of animal life, and
-lacking in scenic interest.
-
-“In reality the region has slight resemblance to its imagined aspect.
-Its vegetation is mostly hidden in pockets, but when found consists of
-pines, cedars, junipers, and sagebrush: its water is hidden deep in
-tanks or holes at the bottom of large ‘blow-outs’ and is found only by
-following old Indian or mountain sheep trails or by watching the flight
-of birds as they drop into these places to quench their thirst. The
-animal life consists principally of migrant birds, rock rabbits,
-woodchucks, black and grizzly bears: its scenery is impressive in its
-grandeur.”
-
-Years of patient record-keeping by scientists have fit numbers to
-Limbert’s perceptive observations. The number of species identified
-includes more than 300 plants, 2,000 insects, 8 reptiles, 140 birds, 30
-mammals—and one amphibian, the western toad. We now call Limbert’s “rock
-rabbit” the pika. The grizzly is long gone here. With few exceptions,
-the park’s denizens live mostly under conditions of great environmental
-stress.
-
-Near constant winds, breeze-to-gale in strength, sweep across the park
-to rob moisture from all living things. Scant soils, low levels of
-precipitation, the inability of cinder cones to hold rainwater near the
-surface, and the heat of the summer sun—intensified by heat-absorbing
-black lavas—only aggravate such moisture theft. Cinder surfaces register
-summer soil temperatures of over 150°F and show a lack of plant cover.
-Plants cover generally less than 5 percent of the total surface of the
-cinder cones. A recent study found that when the area is looked at on a
-parkwide basis, most of the land is very sparsely vegetated (less than
-15 percent vegetative cover). On a scale of sand trap to putting green,
-this would approach the sand trap end of the scale.
-
-    [Illustration: _Winter snow transforms these landscapes, smoothing
-    out both contours and the jagged edges of lavas. Less lunar in
-    appearance now, the park nonetheless maintains an otherworldly
-    aura._]
-
-    [Illustration: _The park was named in 1924, 45 years before humans
-    walked on the Moon. Although we now know more about the Moon’s
-    actual surface, the park’s name still rings true. Only a few trees
-    immediately suggest that the large photo was taken on Earth. In the
-    inset photo, astronaut Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin walks on the Moon near
-    the lunar module._]
-
-Into this difficult environment wildlife researcher Brad Griffith
-ventured to count, mark, and scrutinize the mule deer of Craters of the
-Moon in May 1980. Griffith, of the University of Idaho, conducted a
-three-year study of the park’s mule deer population because the National
-Park Service was concerned that this protected and productive herd might
-multiply so much that it would eventually damage its habitat. Among
-other things, he would find that the herd has developed a drought
-evasion strategy that makes it behave unlike any mule deer population
-known anywhere else.
-
-“By late summer,” Griffith explains, “plants have matured and dried so
-that they no longer provide adequate moisture to sustain the deer in
-this landscape that offers them no free water. Following about 12 days
-of warm nights and hot days in late July, the deer migrate from 5 to 10
-miles north to the Pioneer Mountains. There they find free-flowing
-creeks and the cool, moist shade of aspen and Douglas-fir groves and
-wait out summer’s worst heat and dryness. Early fall rains trigger the
-deer’s return to the park’s wilderness from this oasis in late September
-to feed on the nutritious bitterbrush until November snowfalls usher
-them back to their winter range.”
-
-The pristine and high-quality forage of the Craters of the Moon
-Wilderness Area, historically nearly untouched by domestic livestock
-grazing, has inspired this migratory strategy for evading drought. In
-effect, the mule deer make use of a dual summer range, a behavioral
-modification unknown elsewhere for their species.
-
-“Their late summer and fall adaptations simply complete the mule deer’s
-yearlong strategy for coping with the limits that this volcanic
-landscape imposes on them,” Griffith explains.
-
-Taking a walk in the park on a mid-summer afternoon gives you a good
-opportunity to experience the influence of wind, heat, and lack of
-moisture. The park’s winds are particularly striking. The lava that has
-flowed out of the Great Rift has built up and raised the land surface in
-the park to a higher elevation than its surroundings so that it
-intercepts the prevailing southwesterly winds. Afternoon winds usually
-die down in the evening. As part of the dynamics of temperature and
-moisture that determine mule deer behavior, this daily wind cycle helps
-explain why they are more active at night than are mule deer elsewhere.
-These deer do not move around as much as mule deer in less ecologically
-trying areas. They have adapted behaviors to conserve energy and
-moisture in this environmentally stressful landscape.
-
-Early mornings may find park rangers climbing up a cinder cone to count
-the deer, continuing the collection of data that Brad Griffith set in
-motion with his three-year study. The rangers still conduct spring and
-late summer censuses: over a recent three-year period the deer
-populations averaged about 420 animals. Another several years of
-collecting will give the National Park Service a body of data on the
-mule deer that is available nowhere else.
-
-The uniqueness of this data about the park’s mule deer population would
-surely please the booster aspect of Robert Limbert’s personality.
-Likewise, the research challenges involved in obtaining it would appeal
-to his explorer self. History has justified Limbert on both counts.
-Publicity arising from his explorations led to creation of the national
-monument. Furthermore, that publicity put forth a rather heady claim
-that history has also unequivocally borne out: “Although almost totally
-unknown at present,” Limbert prophesied in 1924, “this section is
-destined some day to attract tourists from all America....”
-
-Every year tens of thousands of travelers fulfill Robert Limbert’s
-prophecy of more than a half-century ago.
-
-
-
-
-                                 Part 2
-                      From Moonscape to Landscape
-
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-    [Illustration: _What last happened here about 2,000 years ago looked
-    much like this photograph of a volcanic eruption in Hawaii.
-    Bubbling, pooling, and flowing lava blanketed the landscape as
-    molten materials poured or gushed out of the Earth. Most volcanic
-    phenomena preserved at Craters of the Moon have been seen in action
-    in Hawaii._]
-
-
-
-
-                   Geology of the Craters of the Moon
-
-
-A 400-mile-long arc known as the Snake River Plain cuts a swath from 30
-to 125 miles wide across southern Idaho. Idaho’s official state highway
-map, which depicts mountains with shades of green, shows this arc as
-white because there is comparatively little variation here compared to
-most of the state. Upon this plain, immense amounts of lava from within
-the Earth have been deposited by volcanic activity dating back more than
-14 million years. However, some of these lavas, notably those at Craters
-of the Moon National Monument, emerged from the Earth as recently as
-2,000 years ago. Craters of the Moon contains some of the best examples
-of basaltic volcanism in the world. To understand what happened here,
-you must understand the Snake River Plain.
-
-Basaltic and Rhyolitic Lavas. The lavas deposited on the Snake River
-Plain were mainly of two types classified as basaltic and rhyolitic.
-Magma, the molten rock material beneath the surface of the Earth, issues
-from a volcano as lava. The composition of this fluid rock material
-varies. Basaltic lavas are composed of magma originating at the boundary
-of the Earth’s mantle and its crustal layer. Rhyolitic lavas originate
-from crustal material. To explain its past, geologists now divide the
-Snake River Plain into eastern and western units. The following geologic
-story relates to the eastern Snake River Plain, on which Craters of the
-Moon lies.
-
-On the eastern Snake River Plain, basaltic and rhyolitic lavas formed in
-two different stages of volcanic activity. Younger basaltic lavas mostly
-lie atop older rhyolitic lavas. This portion of the plain runs from
-north of Twin Falls eastward to the Yellowstone area on the
-Wyoming-Montana border. Drilling to depths of almost 2 miles near the
-plain’s midline, geologists found ½ mile of basaltic lava flows lying
-atop more than 1½ miles of rhyolitic lava flows. How much deeper the
-rhyolitic lavas may extend is not known. No one has drilled deeper here.
-
-    [Illustration: _Crossing Idaho in an arc, the Snake River Plain
-    marks the path of the Earth’s crustal plate as it migrates over a
-    heat source unusually close to the surface. It is believed that the
-    heat source fueling Yellowstone’s thermal features today is
-    essentially the same one that produced volcanic episodes at Craters
-    of the Moon ending about 2,000 years ago._]
-
-This combination—a thinner layer of younger basaltic lavas lying atop an
-older and thicker layer of rhyolitic lavas—is typical of volcanic
-activity associated with an unusual heat phenomenon inside the Earth
-that some geologists have described as a mantle plume. The mantle plume
-theory was developed in the early 1970s as an explanation for the
-creation of the Hawaiian Islands. According to the theory, uneven
-heating within the Earth’s core allows some material in the overlying
-mantle to become slightly hotter than surrounding material. As its
-temperature increases, its density decreases. Thus it becomes relatively
-buoyant and rises through the cooler materials—like a tennis ball
-released underwater—toward the Earth’s crust. When this molten material
-reaches the crust it eventually melts and pushes itself through the
-crust and it erupts onto the Earth’s surface as molten lava.
-
-The Earth’s crust is made up of numerous plates that float upon an
-underlying mantle layer. Therefore, over time, the presence of an
-unusual heat source created by a mantle plume will be expressed at the
-Earth’s surface—floating in a constant direction above it—as a line of
-volcanic eruptions. The Snake River Plain records the progress of the
-North American crustal plate—350 miles in 15 million years—over a heat
-source now located below Yellowstone. The Hawaiian chain of islands
-marks a similar line. Because the mechanisms that cause this geologic
-action are not well understood, many geologists refer to this simply as
-a heat source rather than a mantle plume.
-
-Two Stages of Volcanism. As described above, volcanic eruptions
-associated with this heat source occur in two stages, rhyolitic and
-basaltic. As the upwelling magma from the mantle collects in a chamber
-as it enters the Earth’s lower crust, its heat begins to melt the
-surrounding crustal rock. Since this rock contains a large amount of
-silica, it forms a thick and pasty rhyolitic magma. Rhyolitic magma is
-lighter than the overlying crustal rocks, therefore, it begins to rise
-and form a second magma chamber very close to the Earth’s surface. As
-more and more of this gas-charged rhyolitic magma collects in this upper
-crustal chamber, the gas pressure builds to a point at which the magma
-explodes through the Earth’s crust.
-
-Explosive Rhyolitic Volcanism. Rhyolitic explosions tend to be
-devastating. When the gas-charged molten material reaches the surface of
-the Earth, the gas expands rapidly, perhaps as much as 25 to 75 times by
-volume. The reaction is similar to the bubbles that form in a bottle of
-soda pop that has been shaken. You can shake the container and the
-pressure-bottled liquid will retain its volume as long as the cap is
-tightly sealed. Release the pressure by removing the bottle cap,
-however, and the soft drink will spray all over the room and occupy a
-volume of space far larger than the bottle from which it issued. This
-initial vast spray is then followed by a foaming action as the less
-gas-charged liquid now bubbles out of the bottle.
-
-Collectively, the numerous rhyolitic explosions that occurred on the
-Snake River Plain ejected hundreds of cubic miles of material into the
-atmosphere and onto the Earth’s surface. In contrast, the eruption of
-Mount Saint Helens in 1980, which killed 65 people and devastated 150
-square miles of forest, produced less than 1 cubic mile of ejected
-material. So much material was ejected in the massive rhyolitic
-explosions in the Snake River Plain that the Earth’s surface collapsed
-to form huge depressions known as calderas. (Like _caldron_, whose root
-meaning it shares, this name implies both bowl-shaped and warmed.) Most
-evidence of these gigantic explosive volcanoes in the Snake River Plain
-has been covered by subsequent flows of basaltic lava. However, traces
-of rhyolitic eruptions are found along the margins of the plain and in
-the Yellowstone area.
-
-Quiet Outpourings of Basaltic Lava. As this area of the Earth’s crust
-passed over and then beyond the sub-surface heat source, the explosive
-volcanism of the rhyolitic stage ceased. The heat contained in the
-Earth’s upper mantle and crust, however, remained and continued to
-produce upwelling magma. This was basaltic magma that, because it
-contained less silica than rhyolite, was very fluid.
-
-The basalt, like the rhyolite, collected in isolated magma chambers
-within the crust until pressures built up to force it to the surface
-through various cracks and fissures. These weak spots in the Earth’s
-crust were the results of earlier geologic activity, expansion of the
-magma chamber, or the formation of a rift zone.
-
-    [Illustration: _Microscopic cross section of basaltic rock._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Microscopic cross section of rhyolitic rock. Cross
-    sections show vastly different textures. Rhyolitic magma contains
-    more silica; it is very thick and does not allow trapped gas to
-    escape easily. Its volcanic eruptions blast large craters in the
-    Earth’s crust. Basaltic magma is more fluid and allows gas to escape
-    readily. It erupts more gently. Here in the eastern Snake River
-    Plain, basaltic lava flows almost completely cover earlier rhyolitic
-    deposits._]
-
-(_continued on page 28_)
-
-
-                       Identifying the Lava Flows
-
-  At Craters of the Moon the black rocks are lava flows. The surface
-  lava rocks, basaltic in composition, formed from magma originating
-  deep in the Earth. They are named for their appearances: Pahoehoe
-  (pronounced “pah-hoy-hoy” and meaning “ropey”), Aa (pronounced “ah-ah”
-  and meaning “rough”), or Blocky. Geologists have seen how these flows
-  behave in modern volcanic episodes in Hawaii and elsewhere.
-
-    [Illustration: _Pahoehoe lava_]
-
-  Pahoehoe More than half the park is covered by pahoehoe lava flows.
-  Rivers of molten rock, they harden quickly to a relatively smooth
-  surface, billowly, hummocky, or flat. Other pahoehoe formations
-  resemble coiled, heavy rope or ice jams.
-
-    [Illustration: _Aa lava_]
-
-  Aa Aa flows are far more rugged than pahoehoe flows. Most occur when a
-  pahoehoe flow cools, thickens, and then turns into aa. Often
-  impassable to those traveling afoot, aa flows quickly chew up hiking
-  boots. Blocky lava is a variety of aa lava whose relatively large
-  silica content makes it thick and often dense, glassy, and smooth.
-
-    [Illustration: _Blocky lava_]
-
-  Bombs Lava pieces blown out of craters may solidify in flight. They
-  are classed by shape: spindle, ribbon, and breadcrust. Bombs range
-  from ½ inch to more than 3 feet long.
-
-  Tree Molds When molten lava advances on a living forest, resulting
-  tree molds may record impressions of charred surfaces of trees in the
-  lava.
-
-    [Illustration: _Blue Dragon Flows lava_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Breadcrust bomb_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Spindle bomb_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Wood-like lava_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Tree mold_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Lava river_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Mt. St. Helens erupts in 1980. Because the lava
-    contained a large amount of silica, its explosive eruption contrasts
-    sharply with recent basaltic flows in volcanic activity in Hawaii._]
-
-    [Illustration: Basaltic flows in Hawaii.]
-
-Upon reaching the surface, the gases contained within the lava easily
-escaped and produced rather mild eruptions. Instead of exploding into
-the air like earlier rhyolitic activity, the more fluid basaltic lava
-flooded out onto the surrounding landscape. These flows were fairly
-extensive and often covered many square miles. After millions of years,
-most of the older rhyolitic deposits have been covered by these basaltic
-lava flows.
-
-The Great Rift and Craters of the Moon. Craters of the Moon National
-Monument lies along a volcanic rift zone. Rift zones occur where the
-Earth’s crust is being pulled in opposite directions. Geologists believe
-that the interactions of the Earth’s crustal plates in the vicinity of
-the Snake River Plain have stretched, thinned, and weakened the Earth’s
-crust so that cracks have formed both on and below the surface here.
-Magma under pressure can follow these cracks and fissures to the
-surface. While there are many volcanic rift zones throughout the Snake
-River Plain, the most extensive is the Great Rift that runs through
-Craters of the Moon. The Great Rift is approximately 60 miles long and
-it ranges in width from 1½ to 5 miles. It is marked by short cracks—less
-than 1 mile in length—and the alignment of more than 25 volcanic cinder
-cones. It is the site of origin for more than 60 different lava flows
-that make up the Craters of the Moon Lava Field.
-
-Eight Major Eruptive Periods. Most of the lavas exposed at Craters of
-the Moon formed between 2,000 and 15,000 years ago in basaltic eruptions
-that comprise the second stage of volcanism associated with the mantle
-plume theory. These eight eruptive periods each lasted about 1,000 years
-or less and were separated by periods of relative calm that lasted for a
-few hundred to more than 2,000 years. These sequences of eruptions and
-calm periods are caused by the alternating build up and release of
-magmatic pressure inside the Earth. Once an eruption releases this
-pressure, time is required for it to build up again.
-
-Eruptions have been dated by two methods: paleomagnetic and radiocarbon
-dating. Paleomagnetic dating compares the alignment of magnetic minerals
-within the rock of flows with past orientations of the Earth’s magnetic
-fields. Radiocarbon dating makes use of radioactive carbon-14 in
-charcoal created from vegetation that is overrun by lava flows. Dates
-obtained by both methods are considered to be accurate to within about
-100 years.
-
-A Typical Eruption at Craters of the Moon. Research at the monument and
-observations of similar eruptions in Hawaii and Iceland suggest the
-following scenario for a typical eruption at Craters of the Moon.
-Various forces combine to cause a section of the Great Rift to pull
-apart. When the forces that tend to pull the Earth’s crust apart are
-combined with the forces created as magma accumulates, the crust becomes
-weakened and cracks form. As the magma rises buoyantly within these
-cracks, the pressure exerted on it is reduced and the gases within the
-magma begin to expand. As gas continues to expand, the magma becomes
-frothy.
-
-At first the lava is very fluid and charged with gas. Eruptions begin as
-a long line of fountains that reach heights of 1,000 feet or less and
-are up to a mile in length. This “curtain of fire eruption” mainly
-produces cinders and frothy, fluid lava. After hours or days, the
-expansion of gases decreases and eruptions become less violent. Segments
-of the fissure seal off and eruptions become smaller and more localized.
-Cinders thrown up in the air now build piles around individual vents and
-form cinder cones.
-
-With further reductions in the gas content of the magma, the volcanic
-activity again changes. Huge outpourings of lava are pumped out of the
-various fissures or the vents of cinder cones and form lava flows. Lava
-flows may form over periods of months or possibly a few years. Long-term
-eruptions of lava flows from a single vent become the source of most of
-the material produced during a sustained eruption. As gas pressure falls
-and magma is depleted, flows subside. Finally, all activity stops.
-
-When Will the Next Eruption Occur? Craters of the Moon is not an extinct
-volcanic area. It is merely in a dormant stage of its eruptive sequence.
-By dating the lava flow, geologists have shown that the volcanic
-activity along the Great Rift has been persistent over the last 15,000
-years, occurring approximately every 2,000 years. Because the last
-eruptions took place about 2,000 years ago, geologists believe that
-eruptions are due here again—probably within the next 1,000 years.
-
-    [Illustration: _From the air the Great Rift looks like an
-    irregularly dashed line punctuated by tell-tale cones and craters._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Chainlike, the Hawaiian group of islands traces the
-    migration of Earth’s crustal plate over an unusual undersea heat
-    source. The Hawaiian chain of islands and the Snake River Plain map
-    similar happenings._]
-
-(_continued on page 34_)
-
-
-                             Indian Tunnel
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-  Indian Tunnel looks like a cave, but it is a lava tube. When a
-  pahoehoe lava flow is exposed to the air, its surface begins to cool
-  and harden. A crust or skin develops. As the flow moves away from its
-  source, the crust thickens and forms an insulating barrier between
-  cool air and molten material in the flow’s interior. A rigid roof now
-  exists over the stream of lava whose molten core moves forward at a
-  steady pace. As the flow of lava from the source vent is depleted, the
-  level of lava within the molten core gradually begins to drop. The
-  flowing interior then pulls away from the hardening roof above and
-  slowly drains away and out. The roof and last remnants of the lava
-  river inside it cool and harden, leaving a tube.
-
-    [Illustration: _Lava tube_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Great horned owl_]
-
-  Many lava tubes make up the Indian Tunnel Lava Tube System. These
-  tubes formed during the same eruption within a single lava flow whose
-  source was a fissure or crack in the Big Craters/Spatter Cones area. A
-  tremendous amount of lava was pumped out here, forming the Blue Dragon
-  Flows. (Hundreds of tiny crystals on its surface produce the color
-  blue when light strikes them.) Lava forced through the roof of the
-  tube system formed huge ponds whose surfaces cooled and began to
-  harden. Later these ponds collapsed as lava drained back into the lava
-  tubes. Big Sink is the largest of these collapses. Blue Dragon Flows
-  cover an area of more than 100 square miles. Hidden beneath are miles
-  of lava tubes, but collapsed roof sections called skylights provide
-  entry to only a small part of the system. Only time, with the collapse
-  of more roofs, will reveal the total extent of the system.
-
-    [Illustration: _Icicles (ice stalactites)_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Lava stalactites_]
-
-  Stalactites Dripped from hot ceilings, lava forms stalactites that
-  hang from above. Mineral deposits Sulfate compounds formed on many
-  lava tube ceilings from volcanic gases or by evaporation of matter
-  leached from rocks above. Ice In spring, ice stalactites form on cave
-  ceilings and walls. Ice stalagmites form on the cave floor. Summer
-  heat destroys these features. Wildlife Lava tube beetles, bushy-tailed
-  woodrats (packrats), and bats live in some dark caves. Violet-green
-  swallows, great horned owls, and ravens may use wall cracks and
-  shelves of well-lit caves for nesting sites.
-
-
-                     Cinder Cones and Spatter Cones
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-    [Illustration: _Cinder cone_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Spatter cone_]
-
-  Cinder Cones When volcanic eruptions of fairly moderate strength throw
-  cinders into the air, cinder cones may be built up. These cone-shaped
-  hills are usually truncated, looking as though their tops were sliced
-  off. Usually, a bowl- or funnel-shaped crater will form inside the
-  cone. Cinders, which cooled rapidly while falling through the air, are
-  highly porous with gas vesicles, like bubbles. Cinder cones hundreds
-  of feet high may be built in a few days. Big Cinder Butte is a cinder
-  cone. At 700 feet high it is the tallest cone in the park. The shape
-  develops because the largest fragments, and in fact most of the
-  fragments, fall closest to the vent. The angle of slope is usually
-  about 30 degrees. Some cinder cones, such as North Crater, the
-  Watchman, and Sheep Trail Butte, were built by more than one eruptive
-  episode. Younger lava was added to them as a vent was rejuvenated. If
-  strong winds prevailed during a cinder cone’s formation, the cone may
-  be elongated—in the direction the wind was blowing—rather than
-  circular. Grassy, Paisley, Sunset, and Inferno Cones are elongated to
-  the east because the dominant winds in this area come from the west.
-  The northernmost section of the Great Rift contains the most cinder
-  cones for three reasons: 1. There were more eruptions at that end of
-  the rift. 2. The lavas erupted there were thicker, resulting in more
-  explosive eruptions. (They are more viscous because they contain more
-  silica.) 3. Large amounts of groundwater may have been present at the
-  northern boundary of the lavas and when it came in contact with magma
-  it generated huge amounts of steam. All of these conditions lead to
-  more extensive and more explosive eruptions that tend to create cinder
-  cones rather than lava flows.
-
-  Spatter Cones When most of its gas content has dissipated, lava
-  becomes less frothy and more tacky. Then it is tossed out of the vent
-  as globs or clots of lava paste called spatter. The clots partially
-  weld together to build up spatter cones. Spatter cones are typically
-  much smaller than cinder cones, but they may have steeper sides. The
-  Spatter Cones area of the park (Stop 5 on the map of the Loop Drive)
-  contains one of the most perfect spatter-cone chains in the world.
-  These cones are all less than 50 feet high and less than 100 feet in
-  diameter.
-
-    [Illustration: _Lichens often pioneer new life on Earth. Two plants
-    in one, lichens are composed of an alga and a fungus growing
-    together to their mutual benefit, usually on rock. Hardy and
-    slow-growing, lichens help break down rock to soil-building mineral
-    matter._
-
-    _Eventually their vegetable matter decays, helping to form the first
-    soils that other plants can then use. Tough in the extreme, some
-    lichens can be heated to high temperatures and still be capable of
-    resuming normal growth when returned to viable conditions._]
-
-
-
-
-                  Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape
-
-
-Two thousand years after volcanic eruptions subsided, plants and animals
-still struggle to gain toeholds on this unforgiving lava field. Much of
-the world’s vegetation could not survive here at all. Environmental
-stresses created by scant soil and minimal moisture are compounded by
-highly porous cinders that are incapable of holding water near the
-ground surface where plants and other organisms can make ready use of
-it. Scarce at best—total average precipitation is between 15 to 20
-inches per year—rainwater and snowmelt quickly slip down out of reach of
-the plants growing on cinder cones. Summer’s hot, dry winds rob moisture
-from all living things exposed to them. Whisking across leaves and
-needles the winds carry away moisture precious to plant tissues. On the
-side of a cinder cone, summer day temperatures at ground level can be
-more than 150°F.
-
-The secret to survival here is adaptation. Most life forms cope by
-strategies of either resisting or evading the extremes of this semi-arid
-climate. To resist being robbed of moisture by winds and heat, a plant
-may feature very small leaves that minimize moisture loss. To evade
-heat, wind, and aridity, another plant may grow inside a crevice that
-provides life-giving shade and collects precious moisture and soil
-particles. Another plant may spend about 95 percent of the year dormant.
-It may rush through the germination, sprouting, leafing out, blooming,
-and fruiting stages and return to the dormancy of its seed stage in just
-two weeks. The dwarf buckwheat has adapted to life on porous cinders by
-evolving a root system that may spread out for up to 3 feet to support
-its aboveground part, which is a mere 4 inches high. This buckwheat only
-looks like a dwarf because you can not see its roots.
-
-                                                  (_continued on page 40_)
-
-
-                  Plants Adapt to a Volcanic Landscape
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-  Water is the limiting factor in plant growth and reproduction both on
-  the lava fields of Craters of the Moon and on the surrounding
-  sagebrush steppe. Plants have developed a combination of adaptations
-  to cope with drought conditions. There are three major strategies:
-
-  1. Drought tolerance Physiological adaptations leading to drought
-  tolerance are typical of desert plant species. The tissues of some
-  plants can withstand extreme dehydration without suffering permanent
-  cell damage. Some plants can extract water from very dry soils.
-  Sagebrush and antelope bitterbrush exemplify drought tolerance.
-
-    [Illustration: _Dwarf monkeyflower_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Buckwheat_]
-
-  2. Drought avoidance Certain structural modifications can enable
-  plants to retain or conserve water. Common adaptations of this type
-  include small leaves, hairiness, and succulence. The small leaves of
-  the antelope bitterbrush expose less area to evaporative influences
-  such as heat and wind. Hairs on the scorpionweed reduce surface
-  evaporation by inhibiting air flow and reflecting sunlight. Succulent
-  plants such as pricklypear cactus have tissues that can store water
-  for use during drought periods. Other plants, such as wire lettuce,
-  avoid drought by having very little leaf surface compared to their
-  overall volume.
-
-  3. Drought escape  Some plants, such as mosses and ferns, escape
-  drought by growing near persistent water supplies such as natural
-  potholes and seeps from ice caves. Many other drought escapers, such
-  as dwarf monkeyflower, simply carry out their full life cycle during
-  the moist time of the year. The rest of the year they survive in seed
-  form.
-
-    [Illustration: _Pricklypear cactus_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Ferns_]
-
-
-                          Plant Microhabitats
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-  Lava flows Most plants cannot grow on lava flows until enough soil has
-  accumulated to support them. The park’s older volcanic landscapes,
-  where soils are best developed, are clothed with sagebrush-grassland
-  vegetation. On younger lava flows, bits of soil first accumulate in
-  cracks, joints, and crevices. It is in these microhabitats that
-  vascular plants may gain footholds. Narrow cracks and joints may
-  contain desert parsley and lava phlox. Shallow crevices will hold
-  scabland penstemon, fernleaf fleabane, and gland cinquefoil. Deep
-  crevices can support the syringa, various ferns, bush rockspirea,
-  tansybush, and even limber pine. Not until full soil cover is achieved
-  can the antelope bitterbrush, rubber rabbitbrush, and sagebrush find
-  suitable niches. On lava flows soils first form from eroded lava and
-  the slow decomposition of lichens and other plants able to colonize
-  bare rock. These soils can be supplemented by wind-blown soil
-  particles until vascular plants gain footholds. As plants begin to
-  grow and then die, their gradual decomposition adds further soil
-  matter. These soil beginnings accumulate in cracks and crevices, which
-  also provide critical shade and wind protection. Deep crevices provide
-  lower temperatures favoring plant survival.
-
-    [Illustration: _Rubber rabbitbrush_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Syringa_]
-
-  Cinder gardens Compared to the lava flows, cinder cones are much more
-  quickly invaded by plants. Here, too, however, volcanic origins
-  influence plant growth. Compared to the relatively level lava flows,
-  steeply sloping cinder cones introduce a new factor that controls the
-  development of plant communities: topography. Here you find marked
-  differences in the plant communities between the north- and
-  south-facing slopes. South-facing slopes are exposed to prolonged,
-  intense sunlight, resulting in high evaporation of water. Because of
-  the prevailing winds, snow accumulates on northeast sides of cones,
-  giving them far more annual water than southwest-facing sides receive.
-  The pioneering herbs that first colonize cinder cones will persist on
-  southwest-facing slopes long after succeeding plant communities have
-  come to dominate north-facing slopes. It is on these north-facing
-  slopes that limber pine first develops in the cinder garden.
-  South-facing slopes may never support the limber pine but may be
-  dominated by shrubs. Unweathered cinder particles range in size from 3
-  to 4 inches in diameter down to very small particles. They average
-  about ¼ inch in diameter.
-
-    [Illustration: _Cinquefoil_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Wire lettuce_]
-
-Ecological conditions at Craters of the Moon are generally so harsh that
-slight changes can make the difference for the survival of a plant or
-other organism. Life thrives in many rock crevices that are surrounded
-by barren exposed lava rock of the same physical composition. These
-microhabitats provide the critical shade and increased soil and moisture
-content required for plant survival. Over the years, particles of soil
-will naturally collect in rock crevices, which also have the effect of
-funneling precipitation into their depths. Their shade further protects
-these pockets of soil and water from wind erosion, excessive heat, and
-evaporation and leaching by direct sunlight.
-
-    [Illustration: _Limber pines are the tree pioneers of the lava
-    terrain. Their seedlings often find suitable conditions for
-    germination in rock crevices long before surrounding landscapes
-    support tree growth. Most common of all the park’s trees, limber
-    pine is named for its flexible branches. Many park animals depend on
-    this tree in some fashion for their livelihoods._]
-
-    [Illustration: _Limber pine cones stay green and resinous through
-    their first year of development and then turn brown and woody as
-    their seeds mature in the second year. Cones grow to about 4 inches
-    long._]
-
-At Craters of the Moon, crevices are of such importance to plants that
-botanists differentiate between narrow, shallow, and deep crevices when
-studying this phenomenon. Narrow crevices will support dwarf goldenweed
-or hairy goldaster. Shallow crevices support scabland penstemon,
-fernleaf fleabane, and gland cinquefoil. Deep crevices give rise to
-syringa, ferns, bush rockspirea, tansybush, Lewis mockorange, and even
-the limber pine tree. Complete soil cover and then vegetative cover can
-develop on these lava flows only after crevices have first become filled
-with soil.
-
-Plants exploit other means of protection to survive in this harsh
-environment. Shaded and wind-sheltered, the northern side of a cinder
-cone can support grass, shrubs, and limber pine trees while the cone’s
-southern face supports only scattered herbs. Most cinder cones in the
-park show distinct differences of plant cover between their northern and
-southern exposures. Northern exposures are cooler and more moist than
-southern exposures, which receive far more direct sunlight. In addition,
-here at Craters of the Moon, the prevailing southwesterly winds compound
-the ability of the dry heat to rob porous cinder cone surfaces and their
-living organisms of precious moisture.
-
-The build-up of successive lava flows has so raised the landscape that
-it now intercepts wind currents that operate higher above surrounding
-plains. Limber pine trees find footholds on the shaded and sheltered
-northern exposures of cinder cones. Bitterbrush and rabbitbrush shrubs
-that can barely survive on the lower skirts of a cinder cone’s southern
-side may grow two-thirds of the way up its protected northern face. For
-many species of plants the limits of habitability on this volcanic
-landscape are narrowly defined. Very small variations in their
-situations can determine success or failure.
-
-Travelers often ask park rangers whether or not some of the park’s
-plants were planted by people. The plants in question are dwarf
-buckwheats and grow in cinder gardens. It is their incredibly even
-spacing that creates an orderliness that is easy to mistake for human
-design. The regular spacing comes about because of the competition for
-moisture, however. The root systems of these plants exploit the
-available water from an area of ground surface much larger than the
-spread of their foliage. In this way, mature plants can fend off
-competition by using the moisture that would be required for a
-potentially encroaching plant to become established. The effect is an
-even spacing that makes it appear, indeed, as though someone had set out
-the plants on measured centers.
-
-Craters of the Moon abounds with these surprising plant microhabitats
-that delight explorers on foot. The bleak lava flows separate these
-emerging pockets of new life, isolating them like islands or oases
-within their barren volcanic surroundings.
-
-Scientists have studied Carey Kipuka, an island of plantlife in the most
-southern part of the park, to find out what changes have occurred in the
-biologic community. _Kipuka_ is a Hawaiian name given to an area of
-older land that is surrounded by younger lava flows. Recent lava flows
-did not overrun Carey Kipuka, so its plant cover is unaltered. Shortage
-of water protected it from livestock grazing that might have changed its
-character. Its vegetation is a benchmark for comparing plant cover
-changes on similar sites throughout southern Idaho.
-
-For the National Park Service and other managers of wildlands,
-kipukas—representing isolated and pristine plant habitat unchanged by
-human influence—provide the best answer that we have to the important
-question, “What is natural?” Armed with a satisfactory answer to that
-question, it is possible to manage the land ecologically. Park managers
-can seek to restore natural systems and to allow them to be as
-self-regulating as possible. It is ironic that Craters of the Moon, a
-volcanic landscape subjected to profound change, should also protect
-this informative glimpse of what remains unchanged.
-
-    [Illustration: _From the park’s mazes of jumbled rock, ground
-    squirrels fashion homes with many entrances and exits. Opportunistic
-    feeders on vegetable matter, these engaging rodents fall prey to
-    hawks and owls from above and small predatory mammals on the ground.
-    They therefore serve as an important transfer point between plant
-    and animal layers of the park’s food energy scheme._]
-
-    [Illustration: _In the 1920s, members of the Limbert Expedition,
-    described on pages 50 and 51, followed the flight of doves to locate
-    water as they explored what later became the park._]
-
-(_continued on page 46_)
-
-
-                              Wildflowers
-
-  Wildflowers carpet Craters of the Moon’s seemingly barren lava fields
-  from early May to late September. The most spectacular shows of
-  wildflowers come with periods of precipitation. In late spring,
-  moisture from snowmelt—supplemented now and then by rainfall—sees the
-  blossoming of most of the delicate annual plants.
-
-  Many of the park’s flowering plants, having no mechanisms for
-  conserving moisture, simply complete their life cycles before the
-  middle of summer. This is particularly true of those that grow on the
-  porous cinder gardens into which moisture quickly descends beyond
-  reach of most plants’ root systems.
-
-  As summer continues and supplies of moisture slowly dwindle, only the
-  most drought-resistant of flowering plants continue to grow and to
-  bloom. With the onset of autumn rains, only the tiny yellow blossoms
-  of the sagebrush and rabbitbrush remain.
-
-    [Illustration: _Blazing star_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Monkeyflower_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Desert parsley_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Wild onion_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Bitterroot_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Paintbrush_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Scabland penstemon_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Arrow-leaved balsamroot_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Scorpionweed_]
-
-
-                               Mule Deer
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-  Brad Griffith could be called the mule deer man. In 1980, this
-  wildlife researcher began a three-year study of the mule deer herd
-  that summers in the park. The immediate concern was that the deer,
-  protected inside the park, might be overpopulating their range and
-  endangering their habitat. Griffith set out to find out just how the
-  deer use the area, what their population level is, and how certain
-  factors—production, mortality, and distribution—affect their
-  population dynamics. The mule deer use the park April through November
-  only, because winter brings snows too deep for the deer to find food
-  here. The most striking finding of Griffith’s research is that the
-  mule deer at Craters of the Moon—unlike mule deer studied
-  elsewhere—have a dual summer range. Put simply, the mule deer have had
-  to undergo behavior modification to live here. The deer move back into
-  the southern park in mid-April, living in the protected wilderness
-  area there. While in the wilderness area, the park’s deer routinely
-  live up to nearly 10 miles from open water, getting their water from
-  food, dew, fog, and temporary puddles. This area has higher quality
-  forage for these deer than any other part of their annual range. The
-  trade-off is that the wilderness area has almost no open water. When
-  the moisture content of their forage decreases in summer, usually in
-  July, the deer move up to the northern part of the park where there is
-  open water. Their habits in the northern part of the park are unusual,
-  too, Griffith says, because there the deer live in much closer
-  quarters than other herds are known to tolerate on summer ranges. They
-  live in this wildlife equivalent of an apartment complex until the
-  fall rains come. Then they move back down to the wilderness area. The
-  deer make this unusual summer migration, Griffith suggests, to avail
-  themselves of the high quality forage in the southern park. “The park
-  serves as an island of high quality habitat for mule deer,” he wrote
-  in his report. It is now known the deer will leave the wilderness area
-  for the northern park after 12 days with daytime highs above 80°F and
-  nighttime lows above 50°F in summer. “We can’t really predict this,”
-  Park Ranger Neil King says, “but the deer know when this is.” What is
-  happening is that the percentage of water in their forage plants falls
-  below what is necessary to sustain the deer with increasingly hot
-  weather. As you would expect, does nursing two fawns leave a couple
-  days earlier than does with only one fawn. The rate at which their
-  fawns survive to the fall of the year is astonishing. “This is an
-  incredibly productive herd,” Griffith says, “right up there with the
-  highest fawn survival rate of any western mule deer herd.” Park
-  rangers continue Griffith’s studies by taking deer census counts.
-
-    [Illustration: {Map showing fall, summer, and spring migrations}]
-
-    [Illustration: _The Northern Shoshone regularly passed through the
-    Craters of the Moon area on their annual summer migration from the
-    Snake River to the Camas Prairie, west of the park. They took this
-    journey to get out of the hot desert and into the cooler mountains.
-    There they could gather root crops and hunt marmots, jackrabbits,
-    porcupines, and ground squirrels. As they passed through today’s
-    park, they left behind arrowheads, choppers, and scrapers and built
-    stone circles that may have been used for ceremonial purposes. These
-    artifacts and structures are evidence the Indians were temporary
-    visitors to this vast volcanic landscape._]
-
-
-
-
-           Indians, Early Explorers And Practicing Astronauts
-
-
-Not surprisingly, archeologists have concluded that Indians did not make
-their homes on this immense lava field. Astronauts would one day trek
-about Craters of the Moon in hopes that experiencing its harshly alien
-environment would make walking on the moon less disorienting for them.
-No wonder people have not chosen to live on these hot, black, sometimes
-sharp lava flows on which you must line the flight of doves to locate
-drinking water.
-
-Indians did traverse this area on annual summer migrations, however, as
-shown by the developed trails and many sites where artifacts of Northern
-Shoshone culture have been found. Most of these archeological sites are
-not easily discerned by the untrained eye, but the stone windbreaks at
-Indian Tunnel are easily examined. Rings of rocks that may have been
-used for temporary shelter, hunting blinds, or religious purposes,
-numerous stone tools, and the hammerstones and chippings of arrowhead
-making are found scattered throughout the lava flows. Some of the
-harder, dense volcanic materials found here were made into crude cutting
-and scraping tools and projectile points. Such evidence suggests only
-short forays into the lavas for hunting or collecting by small groups.
-
-The Northern Shoshone were a hunting and gathering culture directly
-dependent on what the land offered. They turned what they could of this
-volcanic environment to their benefit. Before settlement by Europeans,
-the vicinity of the park boasted several game species that are rare or
-absent from Craters of the Moon today. These included elk, wolf, bison,
-grizzly and black bear, and the cougar. Bighorn sheep, whose males sport
-characteristic headgear of large, curled horns, have been absent from
-the park since about 1920.
-
-Military explorer U.S. Army Capt. B.L.E. Bonneville left impressions of
-the Craters of the Moon lava field in his travel diaries in the early
-1800s. In _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_, which were based on
-the diaries, 19th-century author Washington Irving pictures a place
-“where nothing meets the eye but a desolate and awful waste, where no
-grass grows nor water runs, and where nothing is to be seen but lava.”
-Irving is perhaps most famous for _The Legend of Sleepy Hollow_, but his
-_Adventures_ is considered a significant period work about the West and
-provided this early, if brief, glimpse of a then unnamed Craters of the
-Moon.
-
-Pioneers working westward in the 19th century sought either gold or
-affordable farm or ranch lands so they, like the Northern Shoshone,
-bypassed these lava wastes. Later, nearby settlers would venture into
-this area in search of additional grazing lands. Finding none, they left
-Craters of the Moon substantially alone.
-
-Early pioneers who left traces in the vicinity of the park did so by
-following what eventually came to be known as Goodale’s Cutoff. The
-route was based on Indian trails that skirted the lava fields in the
-northern section of the park. It came into use in the early 1850s as an
-alternate to the regular route of the Oregon Trail. Shoshone Indian
-hostilities along the Snake River part of the trail—one such incident is
-memorialized in Idaho’s Massacre Rocks State Park—led the emigrants to
-search for a safer route. They were headed for Oregon, particularly the
-Walla Walla area around Whitman Mission, family groups in search of
-agricultural lands for settlement. Emigrants traveling it in 1854
-noticed names carved in rocks and trees along its route. It was named in
-1862 by travelers apparently grateful to their guide, Tim Goodale, whose
-presence, they felt, had prevented Indian attacks. Illinois-born Goodale
-was cut in the mold of the typical early trapper and trader of the Far
-West. He was known to the famous fur trade brothers Solomon and William
-Sublette. His name turned up at such fur trade locales as Pueblo, Taos,
-Fort Bridger, and Fort Laramie over a period of at least 20 years.
-
-After the discovery of gold in Idaho’s Salmon River country, a party of
-emigrants persuaded Goodale to guide them over the route they would name
-for him. Goodale was an experienced guide: in 1861, he had served in
-that capacity for a military survey west of Denver. The large band of
-emigrants set out in July and was joined by more wagons at Craters of
-the Moon. Eventually their numbers included 795 men and 300 women and
-children. Indian attacks occurred frequently along the Oregon Trail at
-that time, but the size of this group evidently discouraged such
-incursions. The trip was not without incident, but Goodale’s reputation
-remained sufficiently intact for his clients to affix his name to the
-route. Subsequent modifications and the addition of a ferry crossing on
-the Snake River made Goodale’s Cutoff into a popular route for western
-emigration. Traces of it are still visible in the vicinity of the park
-today.
-
-Curiosity about this uninhabitable area eventually led to more detailed
-knowledge of Craters of the Moon and knowledge led to its preservation.
-Geologists Israel C. Russell and Harold T. Stearns of the U.S.
-Geological Survey explored here in 1901 and 1923, respectively.
-Taxidermist-turned-lecturer Robert Limbert explored the area in the
-early 1920s. Limbert made three trips. On the first two, he more or less
-retraced the steps of these geologists. On his third and most ambitious
-trek, Limbert and W. L. Cole traversed what is now the park and the
-Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area south to north, starting from the
-nearby community of Minidoka. Their route took them by Two Point Butte,
-Echo Crater, Big Craters, North Crater Flow and out to the Old
-Arco-Carey Road, then known as the Yellowstone Park and Lincoln Highway.
-These explorations and their attendant publicity in _National Geographic
-Magazine_ were instrumental in the proclamation of Craters of the Moon
-as a national monument by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924.
-
-Since Limbert’s day, astronauts have walked both here and on the moon.
-Despite our now detailed knowledge of the differences between these two
-places, the name—and much of the park’s awe-inspiring appeal—remains the
-same. It is as though by learning more about both these niches in our
-universe we somehow have learned more about ourselves as well.
-
-    [Illustration: _In the mid-1800s the Oregon Trail served as a major
-    route to the West for pioneers. But when hostilities developed along
-    the trail with the Shoshone-Bannock Indians, many of the emigrants
-    began using an alternate route known as Goodale’s Cutoff. This trail
-    went further north and passed through the present-day park
-    boundary._]
-
-(_continued on page 52_)
-
-
-               Early Explorers and the Limbert Expedition
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-  The first known explorations of these lava fields were conducted by
-  two Arco, Idaho, cattlemen in 1879. Arthur Ferris and J.W. Powell were
-  looking for water for their livestock. The first scientific
-  explorations were carried out by Israel C. Russell, surveying the area
-  for the U.S. Geological Survey in 1901 and 1903. Beginning in 1910,
-  Samuel A. Paisely, later to become the park’s first custodian, also
-  explored these lava fields. In 1921, the U.S.G.S. sent two geologists
-  here, Harold T. Stearns and O.E. Meinzer, with a geologist from the
-  Carnegie Institute. Based on this field work, Stearns recommended that
-  a national monument be created here. Also during the early 20s, the
-  explorations of Idaho entrepreneur Robert W. Limbert caught the
-  public’s fancy. A report of the explorations of “Two-gun” Bob Limbert
-  was published in the March 1924 _National Geographic Magazine_.
-  Limbert was a Boise, Idaho, taxidermist, tanner, and furrier. He was
-  also an amateur wrestler and quick-draw artist who later performed on
-  the national lecture circuit. Reportedly, Limbert once challenged Al
-  Capone to a pistol duel at 10 paces. Evidently Capone declined.
-  Limbert made three treks into the lava fields between 1921 and 1924.
-  He first explored the more easily accessible northern portion of the
-  lava fields. Limbert’s third expedition crossed the area from south to
-  north, however, starting from Minidoka.
-
-
-                                The Limbert Trek
-
-    [Illustration: _On his third expedition, Limbert, Cole, and a dog
-    traversed the lava flows from south to north. The photos that
-    appeared in_ The National Geographic Magazine _in 1924 were taken on
-    various expeditions._]
-
-  With Limbert were W.L. Cole and an Airedale terrier. Taking the dog
-  along was a mistake, Limbert wrote, “for after three days’ travel his
-  feet were worn raw and bleeding.” Limbert said it was pitiful to watch
-  the dog as it hobbled after them. The landscape was so unusual that
-  Limbert and Cole had difficulty estimating distances. Things would be
-  half again as far away as they had reckoned. In some areas their
-  compass needles went wild with magnetic distortions caused by high
-  concentrations of iron in the lava rock. Bizarre features they
-  found—such as multi-colored, blow-out craters—moved Limbert to write:
-  “I noticed that at places like these we had almost nothing to say.”
-  Limbert and Cole discovered ice caves with ice stalactites. They found
-  water by tracking the flights of mourning doves. They found pockets of
-  cold water (trapped above ground by ice deposits below the surface)
-  covered with yellowjackets fatally numbed by the cold. They drank the
-  water anyway. In desert country, said Limbert, one can’t be too picky.
-  Between Limbert’s lively article in the _National Geographic
-  Magazine_, and the reports of geologist Stearns, President Calvin
-  Coolidge was induced to designate part of the lava fields as Craters
-  of the Moon National Monument on May 2, 1924.
-
-    [Illustration: {untitled}]
-
-    [Illustration: {untitled}]
-
-
-
-
-                                 Part 3
-                           Guide and Adviser
-
-
-    [Illustration: ]
-
-
-
-
-                    Approaching Craters of the Moon
-
-
-_Craters of the Moon National Monument is located in south-central
-Idaho’s Snake River Plain, midway between Boise, Idaho, and Grand Teton
-and Yellowstone National Parks. The park includes 53,545 acres, and the
-elevation at the visitor center is 5,900 feet above sea level. U.S.
-20-26-93 gives access to the park. Nominal entrance fees are charged.
-Golden Eagle, Golden Age, and Golden Access passports are honored and
-may be obtained at the entrance station._
-
-
-                          Seasons and Weather.
-
-Park facilities are open and naturalist programs are conducted from
-mid-June through Labor Day. From November to April, the Loop Drive (see
-map) is closed by snow and park facilities are limited. In spring and
-fall, the opening and closing of facilities and the Loop Drive are
-determined by weather conditions, which vary greatly from year to year.
-In spring the weather is unpredictable. Strong winds may occur and snow
-and/or freezing rain are not uncommon. Temperatures range from highs in
-the 50s to lows in the 20s°F. Summer features warm to hot days and cool
-nights. Expect afternoon winds. There may be very sporadic afternoon
-thunderstorms, and temperatures may range from the 40s to the 90s. Fall
-offers generally fair weather with low precipitation and infrequent
-winds. Early snowstorms are possible, and snow is certain by late fall.
-Fall temperatures range from highs in the 60s to lows in the 30s. Winter
-brings the possibility of severe storms with drifting snow. Highway
-access is often best described as snow-packed. On bright sunny days
-temperatures may reach into the 40s, but the range is generally from
-highs in the 30s to lows around minus 10.
-
-    [Illustration: _Today’s park encompasses a small portion of the
-    Great Rift and the greater portion of the Craters of the Moon Lava
-    Field near Arco, Idaho. Blue arrows on this map show the route of
-    the Limbert Expeditions in the 1920s. The detail map appears on page
-    58._]
-
-
-  Limbert’s route
-    From Minidoka.
-    Two Point Butte
-    Vermillion Chasm
-    Sheep Trail Butte
-    Echo Crater
-      Bridge of Tears
-    Big Cinder Butte
-    Big Craters
-    North Crater Flow
-    Old Arco Carey Road
-    Martin P.O.
-  See detail map
-    Visitor Center
-
-
-                          Handicapped Access.
-
-The park visitor center, restrooms, and amphitheater are accessible to
-the disabled.
-
-
-                            Travel Planning.
-
-U.S. 20-26-93 provides access to Craters of the Moon. No public
-transportation serves the park. Scheduled airlines serve Idaho Falls,
-Twin Falls, and Hailey, Idaho. Rental cars are generally available at
-these airports, but advance reservations are advised. It is about a
-three-hour drive from the park to Grand Teton National Park, and about a
-four-hour drive to Yellowstone National Park. The official Idaho State
-Highway Map is available from the Idaho Transportation Department, P.O.
-Box 7129, Boise, ID 83707, telephone (208) 334-8000. Idaho’s travel
-office provides information about cultural activities, scenic tours,
-outfitters and guides, chambers of commerce, hotels, and motels
-throughout the state. Write or call Idaho’s Travel Promotion Division,
-700 West State Street, Boise, ID 83720-2700, telephone (208) 334-2470.
-
-
-                             Stay on Roads.
-
-Please stay on roadways and parking pullouts that are provided. If a
-vehicle goes off the roadway onto cinders, the cinders are compacted and
-the tracks may remain visible for 10 to 20 years or more.
-
-Information about the Park. Address specific inquiries about the park to
-the Superintendent, Craters of the Moon National Monument, P.O. Box 29,
-Arco, ID 83213, or telephone (208) 527-3257.
-
-    [Illustration: _Make the visitor center your first stop in the park.
-    Ask at the information desk for schedules of ranger-led walks,
-    talks, and other programs and for advice about camping._]
-
-    [Illustration: {uncaptioned}]
-
-
-
-
-                      Visitor Center and Programs
-
-
-The park visitor center is located near the only entrance to the park.
-Here you will find displays and information to help you plan your visit.
-Slides, postcards, maps, and other publications about the park are
-displayed for sale. Park Service rangers at the information counter can
-answer your questions and help you plan your stay in the park.
-
-The displays alert you to wildflowers and wild animals you might expect
-to see here. Other exhibits describe the park’s geologic history. A film
-explains how lava flowed from fissures in the Earth to create the cinder
-cones, lava flows, and other volcanic features you will see at Craters
-of the Moon. The film includes actual footage of eruptions of the same
-type that occurred here some 2,000 years ago. Check at the visitor
-center for the schedules of conducted walks and campfire programs. You
-also can get information here about two self-guiding nature trails and
-the park’s Loop Drive (see page 59).
-
-
-                    Activities and Evening Programs.
-
-In summer, ranger-guided walks and other programs give visitors an
-intimate look at various aspects of the park. Program schedules vary; we
-suggest that you contact the park for current information prior to
-arrival. Several sites have been designed to make it easy to see the
-park on your own. The visitor center is a good place to stop and plan
-your visit. Evening programs may find you wanting a sweater or light
-jacket to ward off the chill, despite the hot summer days. These
-programs explore such topics as the park’s wildlife and its survival,
-the powers of nature, and this landscape’s volcanic origins. Some
-programs are illustrated with slides or movies and take place in the
-amphitheater.
-
-
-                          Self-guiding Trails.
-
-Explore three representative areas of the park on self-guiding nature
-trails. Devils Orchard Trail helps you understand the complex
-environmental concerns facing Craters of the Moon. A pamphlet available
-at the trailhead discusses the major impacts visitors, neighbors, and
-managers have on the fragile lava landscape. Numbered explanations
-correspond to markers along the trail. You can walk this trail in about
-20 minutes. North Crater Flow Trail takes you through a lava flow that
-includes rafted blocks (crater wall fragments) and other interesting
-features characteristic of basaltic lava flows, which are explained by
-wayside exhibits. This trail goes through one of the most recent lava
-flows in the park. The shiny lava flows made early explorers think the
-volcanic eruptions had happened only a few years before. Please stay on
-trails in this very fragile area. The park was established to provide
-protection for its unusual landscape features. These require continuing
-protection and you can help provide it. Caves Trail allows you the
-opportunity to explore a lava tube. These caves formed when the surface
-of lava flow cooled and hardened while the interior remained molten and
-continued to drain. After the lava drained away, a hollow tube remained.
-A pamphlet at the trailhead provides a map of the cave area and tells
-you what to expect as you explore these lava tubes on your own. Wayside
-exhibits point out the most interesting lava formations along the trail.
-To see only Indian Tunnel, the largest of the lava tubes, will require
-nearly one hour.
-
-    [Illustration: _Visitors read a wayside exhibit beneath imposing
-    monoliths. Flows of lava rafted such fragments of broken crater
-    walls into otherwise inexplicable positions._]
-
-
-
-
-                                  Map
-
-
-[Illustration: Craters of the Moon National Monument]
-
-
-  Wilderness area
-    Grassy Cone
-      1925 m
-      _6315 ft_
-    Sunset Cone
-      1954 m
-      _6415 ft_
-  Backcountry area
-  Trail
-  Point of interest
-  ①
-    Visitor Center
-      To Arco
-      To Carey
-    Campground
-  ②
-    North Crater Flow Trail
-    North Crater Trail
-      Silent Cone
-        1838 m
-        _6357 ft._
-      North Crater
-        1908 m
-        _8244 ft_
-  ③
-    Devils Orchard Nature Trail
-    Paisley Cone
-      1881 m
-      _6107 ft_
-  ④
-    Inferno Cone
-      1884 m
-      _6181 ft_
-  ⑤
-    Snow Cone
-    Spatter Cones
-    North Crater Trail
-  ⑥
-    GREAT RIFT ZONE
-    BIG SINK
-    Broken Top
-      1846 m
-      _5058 ft_
-    Buffalo Cave
-    Half Cone
-      1845 m
-      _5055 ft_
-    Big Cinder Butte
-      1988 m
-      _5516 ft_
-    TREE MOLDS
-  ⑦
-    Dewdrop Cave
-    Surprise Cave
-    Beauty Cave
-    Boy Scout Cave
-    Indian Tunnel
-  PIONEER MOUNTAINS
-  GREEN DRAGON FLOWS
-  SERRATE FLOW
-  BLUE DRAGON FLOWS
-  BROKEN TOP FLOW
-  LAVA CASCADES
-  BIG CRATERS
-
-
-
-
-                         Take The Driving Tour
-
-
-You can see most of the features for which Craters of the Moon is famous
-by a combined auto and foot tour along the Loop Drive. With several
-short walks included, you can make the drive in about two hours.
-Numbered stops are keyed to the map in the park folder.
-
-1. Visitor Center. The 7-mile Loop Drive begins at the visitor center.
-Most of the drive is one-way. Spur roads and trailheads enable you to
-explore this lava field even further.
-
-2. North Crater Flow. A short foot trail crosses the North Crater Flow
-to a group of crater wall fragments transported by lava flows. This is
-one of the youngest flows here. The triple twist tree and its 1,350
-growth rings have in the past helped date the recency of the last flows
-here. Along this trail you can see fine examples of pahoehoe lava and aa
-lava flows (see page 26). Just beyond the North Crater Flow Trail is the
-North Crater Trail. This short, steep, self-guiding nature trail leads
-you to the vent overlooking the crater of a cinder cone.
-
-3. Devils Orchard. Devils Orchard is a group of lava fragments that
-stand like islands in a sea of cinders. This marks the resting place for
-blocks of material from the walls of North Crater that broke free and
-were rafted here on lava flows. The short spur road leads to a
-self-guiding trail through these weird features. You can easily walk the
-trail in about 20 minutes. An early morning or evening visit may allow
-you to observe park wildlife. In springtime, the wildflower displays in
-the cinder gardens are glorious. In June and early July, dwarf blooming
-monkeyflowers give the ground a magenta cast.
-
-4. Inferno Cone Viewpoint. From the viewpoint atop Inferno Cone, a
-landscape of volcanic cinder cones spreads before you to the distant
-mountain ranges beyond. Notice that the cooler, moister northern slopes
-of the cones bear noticeably more vegetation than the drier southern
-slopes, which receive the brunt of sunshine. If you take the short,
-steep walk to the summit of Inferno Cone, you can easily recognize the
-chain of cinder cones that defines the Great Rift. Perhaps nowhere else
-in the park is it so easy to visualize how the volcanic activity broke
-out along this great fissure in the Earth. Towering in the distance
-above the lava plain is Big Cinder Butte, one of the world’s largest,
-purely basaltic, cinder cones.
-
-5. Big Craters and Spatter Cones Area. Spatter cones formed along the
-Great Rift fissure where clots of pasty lava stuck together when they
-fell. The materials and forces of these eruptions originated at depths
-of approximately 40 miles within the Earth. A short, steep walk to the
-top of Big Craters offers a view of a series of volcanic vents.
-
-6. Trails to Tree Molds and the Wilderness Area. A spur road just beyond
-Inferno Cone takes you to trails to the Tree Molds Area and the Craters
-of the Moon Wilderness. Tree molds formed where molten lava flows
-encased trees and then hardened (see page 27). The cylindrical molds
-that remained after the wood burned and rotted away range from a few
-inches to more than 1 foot in diameter.
-
-7. Cave Area. At this final stop on the Loop Drive, a ½-mile walk takes
-you to the lava tubes. Here you can see Dewdrop, Boy Scout, Beauty, and
-Surprise Caves and the Indian Tunnel. (For how these lava tubes formed,
-see page 30.) Carry a flashlight in all caves except Indian Tunnel.
-
-
-
-
-                      Camping and Backcountry Use
-
-
-The campground has about 50 sites. These are available on a first-come,
-first-served basis. Reservations are not accepted. A daily fee for
-camping is charged. Water and restrooms are provided in the campground,
-but there are no showers, dump station, or hookups. Wood fires are
-prohibited in the park, but grills at each campsite may be used for
-charcoal fires. The campground accommodates both RVs and tents. During
-the summer, park rangers present evening programs at the campground
-amphitheater.
-
-
-                            Backcountry Use.
-
-Some of the park’s most intriguing landscapes lie beyond the road’s end
-in the 68-square-mile Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area. Only two
-trails penetrate the wilderness, and these for only short distances.
-After the three-mile trail to Echo Crater runs out, you are on your own.
-For further exploration, you can simply follow the Great Rift and its
-chain of cinder cones. These landmarks help you find your way.
-
-To explore farther afield, you should have a good topographic map and
-basic map skills. You can purchase such a map at the visitor center. All
-hikers who plan to stay overnight in the wilderness are required to
-register with a park ranger. Backcountry use permits are available free
-at the visitor center.
-
-Each hiker should carry at least one gallon of water for each day out;
-even more may be necessary during the hot summer. There is no drinking
-water available in the wilderness. The best times for wilderness travel
-are May-June and September-October. Daytime temperatures are usually
-mild then, while nights are cool, but you must be prepared for inclement
-and very cold weather in these transitional months. Summer daytime
-temperatures climb into the 90s, and reflected heat off the lavas may be
-even higher. Long distance hiking is not very pleasant then, and the
-weight of necessary drinking water is burdensome.
-
-
-                                Safety.
-
-Sturdy boots and long pants are necessary gear for the jagged aa lava
-flows. Bring clothing for both hot and cool weather; both can occur the
-same day in this desert climate. (See drinking water warning above.)
-
-
-                              Regulations.
-
-Campfires are prohibited in the backcountry. Carry a self-contained
-backpack stove and fuel. Mechanized vehicles, including bicycles, are
-prohibited in the wilderness area. Pets are also prohibited in the
-wilderness. Pack out everything that you pack in—and any trash you find
-that others left behind. A good admonition is: “Take only pictures, and
-try not to leave so much as a footprint.”
-
-
-
-
-                           Winter Recreation
-
-
-The visitor center is open every day except winter holidays. Winter
-hours are 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Wilderness permits, topographic maps, and
-information are available here. To find out about current snow
-conditions, call (208) 527-3257.
-
-Skiing. Crosscountry skiing provides an enjoyable experience of the
-park’s landscape transformed by snow. When heavy snows accumulate,
-usually in late November, the 7-mile Loop Drive is closed and it becomes
-a natural ski trail. Most of the Loop Drive follows fairly level
-terrain. The best months for skiing are January to March in most
-winters. Usually there is about 18 inches of snowpack by January and 3
-feet by March. Temperatures range from 45°F to well below zero. Be
-prepared for inclement weather and high winds at all times. Blizzards
-may be encountered.
-
-Hazards. Skiing off the Loop Drive is allowed but not recommended. Most
-of the park is covered by sharp, jagged lava, and snow cover may mask
-cracks and caverns underneath.
-
-Camping. Winter camping is permitted in the main campground. The
-campground is not plowed; be prepared to camp in the snow. Wood fires
-are not permitted anywhere in the park.
-
-Wilderness use. The wilderness is ideal for overnight ski trips. You
-should be well equipped and experienced at winter camping, however. A
-free wilderness use permit, available at the visitor center, is required
-for all overnight use outside the park campground.
-
-    _Both backpackers and crosscountry skiers find solitude in their
-    respective seasons in the park. Others may prefer ranger-led
-    explorations of the park’s many unusual features._
-
-    [Illustration: Backpackers]
-
-    [Illustration: Crosscountry skiers]
-
-    [Illustration: Ranger-led explorations]
-
-
-
-
-                         Regulations and Safety
-
-
-Many management concerns, regulations, and safety tips are given under
-specific subjects in this handbook. Here are some other things to
-consider.
-
-Precautions must be taken when you explore the park because of the
-rugged terrain, heat, and lack of naturally available drinking water.
-You will need sturdy boots, a hat, and ample, leakproof water
-containers. Make sure containers are watertight before you leave home.
-Exploring caves requires flashlights.
-
-Camp only in the park campground. All other overnight use, even in
-winter, requires a wilderness use permit. A day-use permit is required
-to visit the area of the park that lies north of Highway 20-26-93.
-
-
-                                 Pets.
-
-Pets are allowed only in the campground and on the Loop Drive, but they
-must be kept on a leash at all times. Pets are prohibited in all public
-buildings, on trails, or in off-road areas.
-
-
-                               Vehicles.
-
-All motor vehicles and bicycles must stay on paved roads only. They are
-not allowed on trails.
-
-
-                               Firearms.
-
-Firearm restrictions are enforced: No hunting is allowed in the park.
-
-
-                              Collecting.
-
-The collection, removal, or disturbance of any natural features within
-the park is strictly prohibited.
-
-    [Illustration: _For contemporary explorers the driving tour and its
-    associated trails make the safest trek routes. Exercise great
-    caution—and close oversight of young children—at all times on your
-    park expeditions._]
-
-    [Illustration: {trail}]
-
-
-
-
-                           Nearby Attractions
-
-
-Yellowstone National Park is world famous for its geysers and mudpots,
-canyons and waterfalls, and wildlife and wilderness. For information
-write or call, Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190,
-(307) 344-7381.
-
-    [Illustration: _Minerva Terrace, Yellowstone_]
-
-
-Grand Teton National Park features the spectacularly scenic Teton Range
-and lovely lakes at its base. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway
-joins Grand Teton with Yellowstone. For information write or call,
-Superintendent, Grand Teton National Park, P.O. Drawer 170, Moose, WY
-83012, (307) 733-2880.
-
-    [Illustration: _Grand Teton in winter_]
-
-
-Nez Perce National Historical Park includes 24 widely scattered sites in
-north-central Idaho that present the history of this ancestral homeland
-of the Nez Perce tribe. For information write or call, Superintendent,
-Nez Perce National Historical Park, P.O. Box 93, Spalding, ID 83551,
-(208) 843-2261.
-
-    [Illustration: _A Nez Perce today_]
-
-
-Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument, authorized in 1988, preserves
-Pliocene fossil sites along Idaho’s Snake River. The National Park
-Service is planning for future needs. Facilities have not been
-developed. For information write or call, Superintendent, Hagerman
-Fossil Beds National Monument, P.O. Box 570, Hagerman, ID 83332, (208)
-837-4793.
-
-
-City of Rocks National Reserve is a fascinating landscape of monoliths,
-spires, and domes used historically by Northern Shoshone Indians and
-emigrants on the California Trail. It has become a mecca for
-recreational rock climbers. Primitive facilities. For information write,
-Manager, City of Rocks National Reserve, P.O. Box 169, Almo, ID 83312.
-
-
-
-
-                         Armchair Explorations
-
-
-The nonprofit Craters of the Moon Natural History Association sells
-books, maps, and other publications at the visitor center or by mail.
-For a free list write to the park address on page 55. The following
-selected books may also be of interest.
-
-Belknap, William J. “Man on the Moon in Idaho,” _National Geographic
-Magazine_, Volume 119 (October, 1960).
-
-Bonnichsen, Bill and Roy M. Breckenridge et al. _Cenozoic Geology of
-Idaho_, Idaho Geologic Survey, University of Idaho, 1982.
-
-Bullard, Fred M. _Volcanoes of the Earth_, University of Texas Press,
-1976.
-
-Chronic, Halka. _Pages of Stone: The Geologic Story of Our Western Parks
-and Monuments_, The Mountaineers, 1984.
-
-Clark, David R. _Craters of the Moon—Idaho’s Unearthly Landscape_,
-Craters of the Moon Natural History Association, 1990.
-
-Henderson, Paul A. _Around the Loop: Craters of the Moon_, Craters of
-the Moon Natural History Association, 1986.
-
-Limbert, Robert W. “Among Craters of the Moon,” _National Geographic
-Magazine_, Volume 45 (March, 1924).
-
-McKee, Bates. _Cascadia_, McGraw-Hill, 1972.
-
-Moser, Don. _The Snake River Country_, Time-Life Books, 1974.
-
-National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). _Volcanism of the
-Eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho: A Comparative Planetary Geology
-Guidebook_, Washington, D.C., 1977.
-
-Schwartz, Susan. _Nature in the Northwest_, Prentice-Hall, 1983.
-
-
-Other National Park Handbooks in this series. You might enjoy other
-official National Park Handbooks about areas in Idaho, Wyoming, and
-Montana. These handbooks include: Grand Teton National Park; Nez Perce
-National Historical Park; Devils Tower National Monument; and Fort
-Laramie National Historic Site.
-
-These informative handbooks are available at the parks or by mail from:
-Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
-Washington, DC 20402. For a list of handbooks write to: National Park
-Service, Office of Information, P.O. Box 37127, Washington, DC
-20013-7127.
-
-
-★GPO: 1990—262-098/20002
-
-
-
-
-                         National Park Service
-                    U.S. Department of the Interior
-
-
-As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the
-Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public
-lands and natural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our
-land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving
-the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and
-historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through
-outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral
-resources and works to assure that their development is in the best
-interest of all our people. The Department also promotes the goals of
-the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and
-citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen
-participation in their care. The Department also has major
-responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for
-people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.
-
-The National Park Service expresses its appreciation to all those
-persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook
-possible. Special thanks are due the Craters of the Moon Natural History
-Association for financial support. Unless credited below, photographs
-and illustrations come from the files of Craters of the Moon National
-Monument and the National Park Service.
-
-
-  Gary Braasch 28 top
-  Bureau of Land Management 29 top
-  Vern Crawford 30-31
-  Jeff Gnass 4-5, 6, 27 tree mold
-  Charley Gurche 10-11, 32-33, 36 monkeyflower
-  Russell Lamb 63 Nez Perce
-  Roger McGehee 30 owl
-  NASA 16 inset
-  National Geographic Society 50-51, 63 Grand Teton (David Alan Harvey)
-  U.S. Geological Survey 25 both
-  Glenn Van Nimwegen 34, 36-37
-  Williams and Heintz Map Corporation 58
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding
-  images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”.
-
-—Silently corrected a few palpable typos.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Craters of the Moon, by Anonymous
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Craters of the Moon, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Craters of the Moon
-       A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: August 21, 2020 [EBook #62994]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRATERS OF THE MOON ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
-
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-
-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho" width="500" height="694" />
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<h1>Handbook 139
-<br />Craters of the Moon</h1>
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">A Guide to Craters of the Moon
-<br />National Monument
-<br />Idaho</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">Produced by the
-<br />Division of Publications
-<br />National Park Service</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="ss">U.S. Department of the Interior
-<br />Washington, D.C. 1991</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i02.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="570" />
-</div>
-<h4 id="ccc1"><i>Using This Handbook</i></h4>
-<p>Craters of the Moon National Monument protects
-volcanic features of the Craters of the Moon lava
-field. <a href="#c1">Part 1</a> of this handbook introduces the park
-and recounts its early exploration. <a href="#c3">Part 2</a> explores
-how life has adapted to the park&rsquo;s volcanic landscape&mdash;and
-how people have perceived it. <a href="#c7">Part 3</a> presents
-concise travel guide and reference materials for touring
-the park and for camping.</p>
-<p>National Park Handbooks are published to support
-the National Park Service&rsquo;s management programs
-and to promote understanding and enjoyment of the
-more than 350 National Park System sites, which
-represent important examples of our country&rsquo;s natural
-and cultural inheritance. Each handbook is
-intended to be informative reading and a useful
-guide before, during, and after a park visit. More
-than 100 titles are in print. They are sold at parks
-and can be purchased by mail from the Superintendent
-of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
-Washington, DC 20402. This is handbook number 139.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc2"><i>Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data</i></h4>
-<p>Craters of the Moon: A Guide to Craters of the Moon
-National Monument, Idaho/produced by the Division
-of Publications, National Park Service.</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>p. cm.&mdash;(Official national park handbook; 139)</dt>
-<dt>1. Craters of the Moon National Monument (Idaho)&mdash;Guidebooks.</dt>
-<dt>2. Geology&mdash;Idaho&mdash;Craters of the Moon National Monument&mdash;Guidebooks.</dt>
-<dd>I. United States National Park Service. Division of Publications.</dd>
-<dd>II. Series: Handbook (United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications); 139.</dd>
-<dt>F752.C7C73<span class="hst"> 1991</span><span class="hst"> 917.96'59&mdash;dc20</span><span class="hst"> 89-13670CIP</span></dt>
-<dt>ISBN 0-912627-44-1</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<dl class="toc">
-<dt><a href="#c1">Part 1 Welcome to Craters of the Moon</a> 4</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c2">Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain</a> 7</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c3">Part 2 From Moonscape to Landscape</a> 20</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c4">Geology of the Craters of the Moon</a> 23</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c5">Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape</a> 35</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c6">Indians, Early Explorers, and Practicing Astronauts</a> 47</dd>
-<dt><a href="#c7">Part 3 Guide and Adviser</a> 52</dt>
-<dd><a href="#c8">Approaching Craters of the Moon</a> 54</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c9">Visitor Center and Programs</a> 56</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c10">Map</a> 58</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c11">Take the Driving Tour</a> 59</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c12">Camping and Backcountry Use</a> 60</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c13">Winter Recreation</a> 61</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c14">Regulations and Safety</a> 62</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c15">Nearby Attractions</a> 63</dd>
-<dd><a href="#c16">Armchair Explorations</a> 64</dd>
-</dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Part 1</span>
-<br />Welcome to Craters of the Moon</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i03.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="539" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_6">6</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/i04.jpg" alt="" width="680" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Rock or rope? Folds of lava
-rock look like coils of irregular
-rope. Lava flows of this
-type are known as pahoehoe,
-a Hawaiian word pronounced</i>
-pah-hoy-hoy <i>and meaning
-ropey</i>.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_7">7</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain</span></h2>
-<p>Light playing on cobalt blue lavas of the Blue Dragon
-Flows caught the inner eye of explorer Robert Limbert:
-&ldquo;It is the play of light at sunset across this lava that
-charms the spectator. It becomes a twisted, wavy
-sea. In the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery
-sheen. With changing conditions of light and air, it
-varies also, even while one stands and watches. It is a
-place of color and silence....&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Limbert explored the Craters of the Moon lava
-field in Idaho in the 1920s and wrote those words for
-a 1924 issue of <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>. &ldquo;For
-several years I had listened to stories told by fur
-trappers of the strange things they had seen while
-ranging in this region,&rdquo; wrote Limbert, a sometime
-taxidermist, tanner, and furrier from Boise, Idaho.
-&ldquo;Some of these accounts seemed beyond belief.&rdquo; To
-Limbert it seemed extraordinary &ldquo;That a region of
-such size and scenic peculiarity, in the heart of the
-great Northwest, could have remained practically
-unknown and unexplored....&rdquo; On his third and most
-ambitious trek, in 1924, Limbert and W. C. Cole were
-at times left speechless by the lava landscape they
-explored. Limbert recounted his impressions in magazine
-and newspaper articles whose publication was
-influential in the area&rsquo;s being protected under federal
-ownership. In 1924, part of the lava field was
-proclaimed as Craters of the Moon National Monument,
-protected under the Antiquities Act. It was
-created &ldquo;to preserve the unusual and weird volcanic
-formations.&rdquo; The boundary has been adjusted and
-the park enlarged since then. In 1970, a large part of
-the national monument was designated by Congress
-as the Craters of the Moon Wilderness. It is further
-protected under the National Wilderness Preservation
-System.</p>
-<p>Until 1986, little was known about Limbert except
-for those facts recounted above. That year, however,
-a researcher compiling a history of the national
-monument located Limbert&rsquo;s daughter in Boise. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-daughter still possessed hundreds of items, including
-early glass plate negatives, photographs, and manuscripts
-of her father and that shed more light on his
-life, the early days of Idaho, and Craters of the Moon.
-Some of these photographs served as blueprints for
-the National Park Service in the rehabilitation of
-fragile spatter cone formations that have deteriorated
-over the years of heavy human traffic. The Limbert
-collection has been fully cataloged by Boise State
-University curators and has already proven to be a
-valuable resource to historians interested in Limbert
-and this fascinating part of Idaho. Preservation of
-the area owes much to Limbert&rsquo;s imaginative advocacy
-in the true spirit of the West in its earlier days.</p>
-<p>Local legends, beginning in the late 1800s, held
-that this area resembled the surface of the moon, on
-which&mdash;it must now be remembered&mdash;no one had
-then walked! Geologist Harold T. Stearns first used
-the name Craters of the Moon when he suggested to
-the National Park Service, in 1923, that a national
-monument be established here. Stearns found &ldquo;the
-dark craters and the cold lava, nearly destitute of
-vegetation&rdquo; similar to &ldquo;the surface of the moon as
-seen through a telescope.&rdquo; The name Craters of the
-Moon would stick after Limbert adopted it in <i>National
-Geographic Magazine</i> in 1924. Later that year
-the name became official when the area was set aside
-by President Calvin Coolidge as a national monument
-under the Antiquities Act.</p>
-<p>Like some other areas in the National Park System,
-Craters of the Moon has lived to see the name
-that its early explorers affixed to it proved somewhat
-erroneous by subsequent events or findings. When
-Stearns and Limbert called this lava field Craters of
-the Moon, probably few persons other than science
-fiction buffs actually thought that human beings
-might one day walk on the moon and see firsthand
-what its surface is like. People have now walked on
-the moon, however, and we know that its surface
-does not, in fact, closely resemble this part of Idaho.
-Although there are some volcanic features on the
-surface of the moon, most of its craters were formed
-by the impact of meteorites colliding with the moon.</p>
-<p>Moonscape or not, early fur trappers avoided the
-lava flows along the base of the Pioneer Mountains
-at the north of today&rsquo;s park. In doing so, they
-followed Indian trails such as one found by Limbert
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-that &ldquo;resembled a light streak winding through the
-lava. When the sun was directly overhead it could be
-seen to advantage, but at times was difficult to
-follow. Think of the years of travel,&rdquo; Limbert marveled,
-&ldquo;necessary to make that mark on rock!&rdquo; At
-least one Indian trail was destined to become part of
-Goodale&rsquo;s Cutoff, an alternative route on the Oregon
-Trail that pioneers in wagon trains used in the
-1850s and 1860s. Many adjectives early used for this
-scene&mdash;weird, barren, exciting, awe-inspiring, monotonous,
-astonishing, curious, bleak, mysterious&mdash;still
-apply. It is not difficult today to see why
-pioneering folk intent on wresting a living from the
-land did not tackle this volcanic terrain.</p>
-<p>Geologists possessed the proper motivation to
-tackle it, however. Curiosity aroused by this lava field
-has led several generations of geologists, beginning
-with Israel C. Russell in 1901 and Harold T. Stearns
-in the 1920s, into a deeper understanding of its
-volcanic origins. With ever increasing penetration of
-its geological history, the apparent otherworldliness
-of Craters of the Moon has retreated&mdash;but not
-entirely. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
-(NASA) brought the second set of astronauts
-who would walk on the moon to this alien
-corner of the galaxy before their moonshot. Here
-they studied the volcanic rock and explored an
-unusual, harsh, and unforgiving environment before
-embarking on their own otherworldly adventure.</p>
-<p>Most types of volcanic features in the park can be
-seen quite readily by first stopping at the visitor
-center and then driving the Loop Road. Far more
-features can be seen if you also walk the interpretive
-trails at the stops along the Loop Road. Still more
-await those who invest the time required to come to
-feel the mysterious timelessness and raw natural
-force implicit in this expansive lava field. Many
-travelers are en route to Yellowstone National Park
-and spend only a couple of hours visiting Craters of
-the Moon. This is ironic because here you are on the
-geological track of Yellowstone. In fact, Craters of
-the Moon represents what Yellowstone&rsquo;s landscape
-will resemble in the future, and both areas can supplement
-your insight into what happens when the
-Earth&rsquo;s unimaginable inner forces erupt to its surface.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/i05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="570" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Silvery leaves
-of the buckwheat dot a cinder
-garden with such regular
-spacing they almost look
-planted. Such spacing results
-from the shortage of available
-surface water: Each plant controls
-with its roots the space
-surrounding it, discouraging
-competing plants. Rainwater
-and snowmelt penetrate volcanic
-cinders so readily that
-their moisture quickly drops
-beyond reach of most plants&rsquo;
-root systems. For a close-up
-view of a buckwheat, see
-<a href="#Page_36">page 36</a>.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div>
-<p>Although Idaho is famous for forests, rivers, and
-scenic mountain wilderness, its Snake River Plain
-region boasts little of these attributes. This plain arcs
-across southern Idaho from the Oregon border to
-the Yellowstone area at the Montana-Wyoming border.
-It marks the trail of the passage of the Earth&rsquo;s
-crust over an unusual geologic heat source that now
-brings the Earth&rsquo;s incendiary inner workings so close
-to its surface near Yellowstone. This heat source
-fuels Yellowstone&rsquo;s bubbling, spewing, spouting geothermal
-wonders. Craters of the Moon therefore
-stands as a geologic prelude to Yellowstone, as its
-precursor and the ancestral stuff of its fiery secrets.</p>
-<p>When did all this volcanism at Craters of the
-Moon happen? Will it happen again? According to
-Mel Kuntz and other U.S. Geological Survey geologists
-who have conducted extensive field research at
-Craters of the Moon, the volcanic activity forming
-the Craters of the Moon lava field probably started
-<i>only</i> 15,000 years ago. The last eruption in the
-volcanic cycle ended 2,000 years ago, about the time
-that Julius Caesar ruled the Roman Empire.</p>
-<p>Craters of the Moon is a dormant, but not extinct,
-volcanic area. Its sleeping volcanoes could become
-active again in the near future. The largest earthquake
-of the last quarter century in the contiguous
-United States shook Idaho&rsquo;s tallest mountain, Borah
-Peak, just north of here in 1983. When it did, some
-geologists wondered if it might initiate volcanic
-activity at Craters of the Moon. It did not. According
-to Kuntz, however, this is no reason not to expect
-another volcanic eruption here <i>soon</i>&mdash;probably &ldquo;within
-the next 1,000 years.&rdquo; Part Two of this handbook
-explores the still young and rapidly evolving understanding
-of the fascinating geologic story of Craters
-of the Moon.</p>
-<p>Today&rsquo;s Craters of the Moon National Monument
-encompasses 83 square miles of the much larger
-Craters of the Moon lava field. Reaching southeastward
-from the Pioneer Mountains, the park boundary
-encloses a series of fissure vents, volcanic cones,
-and lava flows known as the Great Rift volcanic
-zone. This volcanic rift zone is a line of weakness in
-the Earth&rsquo;s crust that can be traced for some 60 miles
-across the Snake River Plain. Recent volcanism
-marks much of its length. You can explore the Great
-Rift and some of its volcanic features via the park&rsquo;s
-7-mile Loop Drive, as described in Part Three of this
-handbook. In the park&rsquo;s northern part you will find
-<span class="pb" id="Page_13">13</span>
-spatter cones, cinder cones, lava flows, lava caves,
-and an unexpected variety of wildflowers, shrubs,
-trees, and wild animals. The much larger southern
-part of the park, designated by Congress in 1970 as
-the Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area, is a vast
-and largely untraveled region of stark volcanic features
-flanking the Great Rift. It offers a challenge to
-serious hikers and explorers&mdash;latter day Robert
-Limberts&mdash;who are prepared for rugged wilderness
-travel.</p>
-<p>Despite its seeming barrenness, Craters of the
-Moon is indeed home to a surprising diversity of
-plant and animal life. As Limbert noted in 1924: &ldquo;In
-the West the term &lsquo;Lava Beds of Idaho&rsquo; has always
-signified a region to be shunned by even the most
-venturesome travelers&mdash;a land supposedly barren of
-vegetation, destitute of water, devoid of animal life,
-and lacking in scenic interest.</p>
-<p>&ldquo;In reality the region has slight resemblance to its
-imagined aspect. Its vegetation is mostly hidden in
-pockets, but when found consists of pines, cedars,
-junipers, and sagebrush: its water is hidden deep in
-tanks or holes at the bottom of large &lsquo;blow-outs&rsquo; and
-is found only by following old Indian or mountain
-sheep trails or by watching the flight of birds as they
-drop into these places to quench their thirst. The
-animal life consists principally of migrant birds, rock
-rabbits, woodchucks, black and grizzly bears: its
-scenery is impressive in its grandeur.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Years of patient record-keeping by scientists have
-fit numbers to Limbert&rsquo;s perceptive observations.
-The number of species identified includes more than
-300 plants, 2,000 insects, 8 reptiles, 140 birds, 30
-mammals&mdash;and one amphibian, the western toad.
-We now call Limbert&rsquo;s &ldquo;rock rabbit&rdquo; the pika. The
-grizzly is long gone here. With few exceptions, the
-park&rsquo;s denizens live mostly under conditions of great
-environmental stress.</p>
-<p>Near constant winds, breeze-to-gale in strength,
-sweep across the park to rob moisture from all living
-things. Scant soils, low levels of precipitation, the
-inability of cinder cones to hold rainwater near the
-surface, and the heat of the summer sun&mdash;intensified
-by heat-absorbing black lavas&mdash;only aggravate such
-moisture theft. Cinder surfaces register summer soil
-temperatures of over 150&deg;F and show a lack of plant
-cover. Plants cover generally less than 5 percent of
-the total surface of the cinder cones. A recent study
-found that when the area is looked at on a parkwide
-basis, most of the land is very sparsely vegetated (less
-than 15 percent vegetative cover). On a scale of sand
-trap to putting green, this would approach the sand
-trap end of the scale.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_14">14</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/i06.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="572" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Winter snow
-transforms these landscapes,
-smoothing out both contours
-and the jagged edges of lavas.
-Less lunar in appearance now,
-the park nonetheless maintains
-an otherworldly aura.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/i07.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="569" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The park was
-named in 1924, 45 years before
-humans walked on the Moon.
-Although we now know more
-about the Moon&rsquo;s actual surface,
-the park&rsquo;s name still rings
-true. Only a few trees immediately
-suggest that the large
-photo was taken on Earth. In
-the inset photo, astronaut
-Edwin E. &ldquo;Buzz&rdquo; Aldrin walks
-on the Moon near the lunar
-module.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<p>Into this difficult environment wildlife researcher
-Brad Griffith ventured to count, mark, and scrutinize
-the mule deer of Craters of the Moon in May
-1980. Griffith, of the University of Idaho, conducted
-a three-year study of the park&rsquo;s mule deer population
-because the National Park Service was concerned
-that this protected and productive herd might multiply
-so much that it would eventually damage its
-habitat. Among other things, he would find that the
-herd has developed a drought evasion strategy that
-makes it behave unlike any mule deer population
-known anywhere else.</p>
-<p>&ldquo;By late summer,&rdquo; Griffith explains, &ldquo;plants have
-matured and dried so that they no longer provide
-adequate moisture to sustain the deer in this landscape
-that offers them no free water. Following about
-12 days of warm nights and hot days in late July, the
-deer migrate from 5 to 10 miles north to the Pioneer
-Mountains. There they find free-flowing creeks and
-the cool, moist shade of aspen and Douglas-fir
-groves and wait out summer&rsquo;s worst heat and dryness.
-Early fall rains trigger the deer&rsquo;s return to the
-park&rsquo;s wilderness from this oasis in late September to
-feed on the nutritious bitterbrush until November
-snowfalls usher them back to their winter range.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>The pristine and high-quality forage of the Craters
-of the Moon Wilderness Area, historically nearly
-untouched by domestic livestock grazing, has inspired
-this migratory strategy for evading drought. In
-effect, the mule deer make use of a dual summer
-range, a behavioral modification unknown elsewhere
-for their species.</p>
-<p>&ldquo;Their late summer and fall adaptations simply
-complete the mule deer&rsquo;s yearlong strategy for coping
-with the limits that this volcanic landscape
-imposes on them,&rdquo; Griffith explains.</p>
-<p>Taking a walk in the park on a mid-summer
-afternoon gives you a good opportunity to experience
-the influence of wind, heat, and lack of moisture.
-The park&rsquo;s winds are particularly striking. The
-lava that has flowed out of the Great Rift has built up
-<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span>
-and raised the land surface in the park to a higher
-elevation than its surroundings so that it intercepts
-the prevailing southwesterly winds. Afternoon winds
-usually die down in the evening. As part of the
-dynamics of temperature and moisture that determine
-mule deer behavior, this daily wind cycle helps
-explain why they are more active at night than are
-mule deer elsewhere. These deer do not move around
-as much as mule deer in less ecologically trying
-areas. They have adapted behaviors to conserve
-energy and moisture in this environmentally stressful
-landscape.</p>
-<p>Early mornings may find park rangers climbing up
-a cinder cone to count the deer, continuing the
-collection of data that Brad Griffith set in motion
-with his three-year study. The rangers still conduct
-spring and late summer censuses: over a recent
-three-year period the deer populations averaged
-about 420 animals. Another several years of collecting
-will give the National Park Service a body of data
-on the mule deer that is available nowhere else.</p>
-<p>The uniqueness of this data about the park&rsquo;s mule
-deer population would surely please the booster
-aspect of Robert Limbert&rsquo;s personality. Likewise, the
-research challenges involved in obtaining it would
-appeal to his explorer self. History has justified
-Limbert on both counts. Publicity arising from his
-explorations led to creation of the national monument.
-Furthermore, that publicity put forth a rather
-heady claim that history has also unequivocally
-borne out: &ldquo;Although almost totally unknown at
-present,&rdquo; Limbert prophesied in 1924, &ldquo;this section
-is destined some day to attract tourists from all
-America....&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Every year tens of thousands of travelers fulfill
-Robert Limbert&rsquo;s prophecy of more than a half-century
-ago.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Part 2</span>
-<br />From Moonscape to Landscape</h2>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i08.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="549" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/i09.jpg" alt="" width="659" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>What last happened here
-about 2,000 years ago looked
-much like this photograph of
-a volcanic eruption in Hawaii.
-Bubbling, pooling, and flowing
-lava blanketed the landscape
-as molten materials
-poured or gushed out of the
-Earth. Most volcanic phenomena
-preserved at Craters of
-the Moon have been seen in
-action in Hawaii.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_23">23</div>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">Geology of the Craters of the Moon</span></h2>
-<p>A 400-mile-long arc known as the Snake River Plain
-cuts a swath from 30 to 125 miles wide across
-southern Idaho. Idaho&rsquo;s official state highway map,
-which depicts mountains with shades of green, shows
-this arc as white because there is comparatively little
-variation here compared to most of the state. Upon
-this plain, immense amounts of lava from within the
-Earth have been deposited by volcanic activity dating
-back more than 14 million years. However, some of
-these lavas, notably those at Craters of the Moon
-National Monument, emerged from the Earth as
-recently as 2,000 years ago. Craters of the Moon
-contains some of the best examples of basaltic
-volcanism in the world. To understand what happened
-here, you must understand the Snake River Plain.</p>
-<p><b>Basaltic and Rhyolitic Lavas.</b> The lavas deposited
-on the Snake River Plain were mainly of two types
-classified as basaltic and rhyolitic. Magma, the molten
-rock material beneath the surface of the Earth,
-issues from a volcano as lava. The composition of
-this fluid rock material varies. Basaltic lavas are
-composed of magma originating at the boundary of
-the Earth&rsquo;s mantle and its crustal layer. Rhyolitic
-lavas originate from crustal material. To explain its
-past, geologists now divide the Snake River Plain
-into eastern and western units. The following geologic
-story relates to the eastern Snake River Plain, on
-which Craters of the Moon lies.</p>
-<p>On the eastern Snake River Plain, basaltic and
-rhyolitic lavas formed in two different stages of
-volcanic activity. Younger basaltic lavas mostly lie
-atop older rhyolitic lavas. This portion of the plain
-runs from north of Twin Falls eastward to the
-Yellowstone area on the Wyoming-Montana border.
-Drilling to depths of almost 2 miles near the plain&rsquo;s
-midline, geologists found &frac12; mile of basaltic lava
-flows lying atop more than 1&frac12; miles of rhyolitic lava
-flows. How much deeper the rhyolitic lavas may
-extend is not known. No one has drilled deeper here.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/i10.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="591" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Crossing Idaho in an arc, the
-Snake River Plain marks the
-path of the Earth&rsquo;s crustal
-plate as it migrates over a
-heat source unusually close
-to the surface. It is believed
-that the heat source fueling
-Yellowstone&rsquo;s thermal features
-today is essentially the same
-one that produced volcanic
-episodes at Craters of the
-Moon ending about 2,000
-years ago.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>This combination&mdash;a thinner layer of younger
-basaltic lavas lying atop an older and thicker layer of
-rhyolitic lavas&mdash;is typical of volcanic activity associated
-with an unusual heat phenomenon inside the Earth
-that some geologists have described as a mantle
-plume. The mantle plume theory was developed in
-the early 1970s as an explanation for the creation of
-the Hawaiian Islands. According to the theory, uneven
-heating within the Earth&rsquo;s core allows some material
-in the overlying mantle to become slightly hotter
-than surrounding material. As its temperature
-increases, its density decreases. Thus it becomes
-relatively buoyant and rises through the cooler
-materials&mdash;like a tennis ball released underwater&mdash;toward
-the Earth&rsquo;s crust. When this molten material
-reaches the crust it eventually melts and pushes itself
-through the crust and it erupts onto the Earth&rsquo;s
-surface as molten lava.</p>
-<p>The Earth&rsquo;s crust is made up of numerous plates
-that float upon an underlying mantle layer. Therefore,
-over time, the presence of an unusual heat source
-created by a mantle plume will be expressed at the
-Earth&rsquo;s surface&mdash;floating in a constant direction
-above it&mdash;as a line of volcanic eruptions. The Snake
-River Plain records the progress of the North American
-crustal plate&mdash;350 miles in 15 million years&mdash;over a
-heat source now located below Yellowstone. The
-Hawaiian chain of islands marks a similar line.
-Because the mechanisms that cause this geologic
-action are not well understood, many geologists refer
-to this simply as a heat source rather than a mantle
-plume.</p>
-<p><b>Two Stages of Volcanism.</b> As described above,
-volcanic eruptions associated with this heat source
-occur in two stages, rhyolitic and basaltic. As the
-upwelling magma from the mantle collects in a
-chamber as it enters the Earth&rsquo;s lower crust, its heat
-begins to melt the surrounding crustal rock. Since
-this rock contains a large amount of silica, it forms a
-thick and pasty rhyolitic magma. Rhyolitic magma is
-lighter than the overlying crustal rocks, therefore, it
-begins to rise and form a second magma chamber
-very close to the Earth&rsquo;s surface. As more and more
-of this gas-charged rhyolitic magma collects in this
-upper crustal chamber, the gas pressure builds to a
-point at which the magma explodes through the
-Earth&rsquo;s crust.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div>
-<p><b>Explosive Rhyolitic Volcanism.</b> Rhyolitic explosions
-tend to be devastating. When the gas-charged
-molten material reaches the surface of the Earth, the
-gas expands rapidly, perhaps as much as 25 to 75
-times by volume. The reaction is similar to the
-bubbles that form in a bottle of soda pop that has
-been shaken. You can shake the container and the
-pressure-bottled liquid will retain its volume as long
-as the cap is tightly sealed. Release the pressure by
-removing the bottle cap, however, and the soft drink
-will spray all over the room and occupy a volume of
-space far larger than the bottle from which it issued.
-This initial vast spray is then followed by a foaming
-action as the less gas-charged liquid now bubbles out
-of the bottle.</p>
-<p>Collectively, the numerous rhyolitic explosions
-that occurred on the Snake River Plain ejected
-hundreds of cubic miles of material into the atmosphere
-and onto the Earth&rsquo;s surface. In contrast, the eruption
-of Mount Saint Helens in 1980, which killed 65
-people and devastated 150 square miles of forest,
-produced less than 1 cubic mile of ejected material.
-So much material was ejected in the massive rhyolitic
-explosions in the Snake River Plain that the Earth&rsquo;s
-surface collapsed to form huge depressions known as
-calderas. (Like <i>caldron</i>, whose root meaning it shares,
-this name implies both bowl-shaped and warmed.)
-Most evidence of these gigantic explosive volcanoes
-in the Snake River Plain has been covered by
-subsequent flows of basaltic lava. However, traces of
-rhyolitic eruptions are found along the margins of
-the plain and in the Yellowstone area.</p>
-<p><b>Quiet Outpourings of Basaltic Lava.</b> As this area
-of the Earth&rsquo;s crust passed over and then beyond the
-sub-surface heat source, the explosive volcanism of
-the rhyolitic stage ceased. The heat contained in the
-Earth&rsquo;s upper mantle and crust, however, remained
-and continued to produce upwelling magma. This
-was basaltic magma that, because it contained less
-silica than rhyolite, was very fluid.</p>
-<p>The basalt, like the rhyolite, collected in isolated
-magma chambers within the crust until pressures
-built up to force it to the surface through various
-cracks and fissures. These weak spots in the Earth&rsquo;s
-crust were the results of earlier geologic activity,
-expansion of the magma chamber, or the formation
-of a rift zone.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/i10b.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="286" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Microscopic cross section of
-basaltic rock.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/i10c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="286" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Microscopic cross section of
-rhyolitic rock. Cross sections show vastly different
-textures. Rhyolitic
-magma contains more silica;
-it is very thick and does not
-allow trapped gas to escape
-easily. Its volcanic eruptions
-blast large craters in the
-Earth&rsquo;s crust. Basaltic magma
-is more fluid and allows gas to
-escape readily. It erupts more
-gently. Here in the eastern
-Snake River Plain, basaltic
-lava flows almost completely
-cover earlier rhyolitic deposits.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="small">(<i>continued on <a href="#Page_28">page 28</a></i>)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Identifying the Lava Flows</h4>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>At Craters of the Moon the
-black rocks are lava flows. The
-surface lava rocks, basaltic
-in composition, formed from
-magma originating deep in the
-Earth. They are named for their
-appearances: <b>Pahoehoe</b> (pronounced
-&ldquo;pah-hoy-hoy&rdquo; and
-meaning &ldquo;ropey&rdquo;), <b>Aa</b> (pronounced
-&ldquo;ah-ah&rdquo; and meaning
-&ldquo;rough&rdquo;), or <b>Blocky</b>. Geologists
-have seen how these flows
-behave in modern volcanic episodes
-in Hawaii and elsewhere.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/i11.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Pahoehoe lava</i></p>
-</div>
-<p><b>Pahoehoe</b> More than half the
-park is covered by pahoehoe
-lava flows. Rivers of molten
-rock, they harden quickly to
-a relatively smooth surface,
-billowly, hummocky, or flat.
-Other pahoehoe formations resemble
-coiled, heavy rope or
-ice jams.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/i11a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="499" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Aa lava</i></p>
-</div>
-<p><b>Aa</b> Aa flows are far more rugged
-than pahoehoe flows. Most
-occur when a pahoehoe flow
-cools, thickens, and then turns
-into aa. Often impassable to
-those traveling afoot, aa flows
-quickly chew up hiking boots.
-Blocky lava is a variety of
-aa lava whose relatively large
-silica content makes it thick
-and often dense, glassy, and
-smooth.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/i11c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Blocky lava</i></p>
-</div>
-<p><b>Bombs</b> Lava pieces blown
-out of craters may solidify in
-flight. They are classed by
-shape: spindle, ribbon, and
-breadcrust. Bombs range from
-&frac12; inch to more than 3 feet long.</p>
-<p><b>Tree Molds</b> When molten lava
-advances on a living forest,
-resulting tree molds may record
-impressions of charred
-surfaces of trees in the lava.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/i11e.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="494" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Blue Dragon Flows lava</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/i11f.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="490" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Breadcrust bomb</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/i11g.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="487" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Spindle bomb</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/i11h.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Wood-like lava</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/i11j.jpg" alt="" width="498" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Tree mold</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/i11k.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Lava river</i></p>
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="interlude"></div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/i12.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="611" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Mt. St. Helens erupts in 1980.
-Because the lava
-contained a large amount of
-silica, its explosive eruption
-contrasts sharply with recent
-basaltic flows in volcanic activity
-in Hawaii.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/i12a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="616" />
-<p class="pcap">Basaltic flows in Hawaii.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Upon reaching the surface, the gases contained
-within the lava easily escaped and produced rather
-mild eruptions. Instead of exploding into the air like
-earlier rhyolitic activity, the more fluid basaltic lava
-flooded out onto the surrounding landscape. These
-flows were fairly extensive and often covered many
-square miles. After millions of years, most of the
-older rhyolitic deposits have been covered by these
-basaltic lava flows.</p>
-<p><b>The Great Rift and Craters of the Moon.</b> Craters
-of the Moon National Monument lies along a volcanic
-rift zone. Rift zones occur where the Earth&rsquo;s crust is
-being pulled in opposite directions. Geologists believe
-that the interactions of the Earth&rsquo;s crustal plates in
-the vicinity of the Snake River Plain have stretched,
-thinned, and weakened the Earth&rsquo;s crust so that
-cracks have formed both on and below the surface
-here. Magma under pressure can follow these cracks
-and fissures to the surface. While there are many
-volcanic rift zones throughout the Snake River Plain,
-the most extensive is the Great Rift that runs through
-Craters of the Moon. The Great Rift is approximately
-60 miles long and it ranges in width from 1&frac12; to 5
-miles. It is marked by short cracks&mdash;less than 1 mile
-in length&mdash;and the alignment of more than 25 volcanic
-cinder cones. It is the site of origin for more than 60
-different lava flows that make up the Craters of the
-Moon Lava Field.</p>
-<p><b>Eight Major Eruptive Periods.</b> Most of the lavas
-exposed at Craters of the Moon formed between
-2,000 and 15,000 years ago in basaltic eruptions that
-comprise the second stage of volcanism associated
-with the mantle plume theory. These eight eruptive
-periods each lasted about 1,000 years or less and
-were separated by periods of relative calm that
-lasted for a few hundred to more than 2,000 years.
-These sequences of eruptions and calm periods are
-caused by the alternating build up and release of
-magmatic pressure inside the Earth. Once an eruption
-releases this pressure, time is required for it to build
-up again.</p>
-<p>Eruptions have been dated by two methods:
-paleomagnetic and radiocarbon dating. Paleomagnetic
-dating compares the alignment of magnetic minerals
-within the rock of flows with past orientations of the
-Earth&rsquo;s magnetic fields. Radiocarbon dating makes
-use of radioactive carbon-14 in charcoal created
-<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span>
-from vegetation that is overrun by lava flows. Dates
-obtained by both methods are considered to be
-accurate to within about 100 years.</p>
-<p><b>A Typical Eruption at Craters of the Moon.</b> Research
-at the monument and observations of similar
-eruptions in Hawaii and Iceland suggest the following
-scenario for a typical eruption at Craters of the
-Moon. Various forces combine to cause a section of
-the Great Rift to pull apart. When the forces that
-tend to pull the Earth&rsquo;s crust apart are combined
-with the forces created as magma accumulates, the
-crust becomes weakened and cracks form. As the
-magma rises buoyantly within these cracks, the
-pressure exerted on it is reduced and the gases
-within the magma begin to expand. As gas continues
-to expand, the magma becomes frothy.</p>
-<p>At first the lava is very fluid and charged with gas.
-Eruptions begin as a long line of fountains that reach
-heights of 1,000 feet or less and are up to a mile in
-length. This &ldquo;curtain of fire eruption&rdquo; mainly produces
-cinders and frothy, fluid lava. After hours or
-days, the expansion of gases decreases and eruptions
-become less violent. Segments of the fissure seal off
-and eruptions become smaller and more localized.
-Cinders thrown up in the air now build piles around
-individual vents and form cinder cones.</p>
-<p>With further reductions in the gas content of the
-magma, the volcanic activity again changes. Huge
-outpourings of lava are pumped out of the various
-fissures or the vents of cinder cones and form lava
-flows. Lava flows may form over periods of months or
-possibly a few years. Long-term eruptions of lava
-flows from a single vent become the source of most
-of the material produced during a sustained eruption.
-As gas pressure falls and magma is depleted, flows
-subside. Finally, all activity stops.</p>
-<p><b>When Will the Next Eruption Occur?</b> Craters of
-the Moon is not an extinct volcanic area. It is merely
-in a dormant stage of its eruptive sequence. By
-dating the lava flow, geologists have shown that the
-volcanic activity along the Great Rift has been
-persistent over the last 15,000 years, occurring
-approximately every 2,000 years. Because the last
-eruptions took place about 2,000 years ago, geologists
-believe that eruptions are due here again&mdash;probably
-within the next 1,000 years.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/i12c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="620" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>From the air the Great Rift
-looks like an irregularly
-dashed line punctuated by tell-tale
-cones and craters.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/i12d.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="612" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Chainlike, the Hawaiian group
-of islands traces the migration
-of Earth&rsquo;s crustal plate over
-an unusual undersea heat
-source. The Hawaiian chain
-of islands and the Snake River
-Plain map similar happenings.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="small">(<i>continued on <a href="#Page_34">page 34</a></i>)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Indian Tunnel</h4>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i13.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="247" />
-</div>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>Indian Tunnel looks like a cave,
-but it is a lava tube. When a
-pahoehoe lava flow is exposed
-to the air, its surface begins to
-cool and harden. A crust or
-skin develops. As the flow
-moves away from its source,
-the crust thickens and forms
-an insulating barrier between
-cool air and molten material in
-the flow&rsquo;s interior. A rigid roof
-now exists over the stream of
-lava whose molten core moves
-forward at a steady pace. As
-the flow of lava from the source
-vent is depleted, the level of
-lava within the molten core
-gradually begins to drop. The
-flowing interior then pulls away
-from the hardening roof above
-and slowly drains away and
-out. The roof and last remnants
-of the lava river inside it
-cool and harden, leaving a
-tube.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/i13a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="491" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Lava tube</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/i13b.jpg" alt="" width="914" height="901" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Great horned owl</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>Many lava tubes make up the
-Indian Tunnel Lava Tube System.
-These tubes formed during
-the same eruption within a
-single lava flow whose source
-was a fissure or crack in the
-Big Craters/Spatter Cones
-area. A tremendous amount of
-lava was pumped out here,
-forming the Blue Dragon
-Flows. (Hundreds of tiny crystals
-on its surface produce the
-color blue when light strikes
-them.) Lava forced through the
-roof of the tube system formed
-huge ponds whose surfaces
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-cooled and began to harden.
-Later these ponds collapsed
-as lava drained back into the
-lava tubes. Big Sink is the
-largest of these collapses.
-Blue Dragon Flows cover
-an area of more than 100
-square miles. Hidden beneath
-are miles of lava tubes,
-but collapsed roof sections
-called skylights provide entry
-to only a small part of the system.
-Only time, with the collapse
-of more roofs, will reveal
-the total extent of the system.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/i13c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="493" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Icicles (ice stalactites)</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/i13d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Lava stalactites</i></p>
-</div>
-<p><b>Stalactites</b> Dripped from
-hot ceilings, lava forms
-stalactites that hang from
-above. <b>Mineral deposits</b>
-Sulfate compounds formed
-on many lava tube ceilings
-from volcanic gases or by
-evaporation of matter leached
-from rocks above. <b>Ice</b> In
-spring, ice stalactites form on
-cave ceilings and walls. Ice
-stalagmites form on the cave
-floor. Summer heat destroys
-these features. <b>Wildlife</b> Lava
-tube beetles, bushy-tailed
-woodrats (packrats), and bats
-live in some dark caves.
-Violet-green swallows, great
-horned owls, and ravens may
-use wall cracks and shelves of
-well-lit caves for nesting sites.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Cinder Cones and Spatter Cones</h4>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i14.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="451" />
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/i14c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Cinder cone</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/i14d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Spatter cone</i></p>
-</div>
-<p><b>Cinder Cones</b> When volcanic
-eruptions of fairly moderate
-strength throw cinders into the
-air, cinder cones may be built
-up. These cone-shaped hills
-are usually truncated, looking
-as though their tops were sliced
-off. Usually, a bowl- or funnel-shaped
-crater will form inside
-the cone. Cinders, which
-cooled rapidly while falling
-through the air, are highly
-porous with gas vesicles, like
-bubbles. Cinder cones hundreds
-of feet high may be built
-in a few days. Big Cinder Butte
-is a cinder cone. At 700 feet
-high it is the tallest cone in
-the park. The shape develops
-because the largest fragments,
-and in fact most of the fragments,
-fall closest to the vent.
-The angle of slope is usually
-about 30 degrees. Some cinder
-cones, such as North Crater,
-the Watchman, and Sheep
-Trail Butte, were built by more
-than one eruptive episode.
-Younger lava was added to
-them as a vent was rejuvenated.
-If strong winds prevailed
-during a cinder cone&rsquo;s
-formation, the cone may be
-elongated&mdash;in the direction the
-wind was blowing&mdash;rather than
-circular. Grassy, Paisley, Sunset,
-and Inferno Cones are
-elongated to the east because
-the dominant winds in this
-area come from the west. The
-northernmost section of the
-Great Rift contains the most
-<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span>
-cinder cones for three reasons:
-<b>1.</b> There were more eruptions
-at that end of the rift. <b>2.</b> The
-lavas erupted there were
-thicker, resulting in more explosive
-eruptions. (They are
-more viscous because they
-contain more silica.) <b>3.</b> Large
-amounts of groundwater may
-have been present at the northern
-boundary of the lavas and
-when it came in contact with
-magma it generated huge
-amounts of steam. All of these
-conditions lead to more extensive
-and more explosive eruptions
-that tend to create cinder
-cones rather than lava flows.</p>
-<p><b>Spatter Cones</b> When most of
-its gas content has dissipated,
-lava becomes less frothy and
-more tacky. Then it is tossed
-out of the vent as globs or
-clots of lava paste called spatter.
-The clots partially weld
-together to build up spatter
-cones. Spatter cones are typically
-much smaller than cinder
-cones, but they may have
-steeper sides. The Spatter
-Cones area of the park (Stop 5
-on the <a href="#c10">map of the Loop Drive</a>)
-contains one of the most perfect
-spatter-cone chains in the
-world. These cones are all less
-than 50 feet high and less than
-100 feet in diameter.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="interlude"></div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/i15.jpg" alt="" width="682" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Lichens often pioneer new life
-on Earth. Two plants in one,
-lichens are composed of an
-alga and a fungus growing
-together to their mutual benefit,
-usually on rock. Hardy
-and slow-growing, lichens help
-break down rock to soil-building
-mineral matter.</i></p>
-<p class="pcapc"><i>Eventually their vegetable
-matter decays, helping to form
-the first soils that other plants
-can then use. Tough in the
-extreme, some lichens can be
-heated to high temperatures
-and still be capable of resuming
-normal growth when
-returned to viable conditions.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape</span></h2>
-<p>Two thousand years after volcanic eruptions subsided,
-plants and animals still struggle to gain toeholds on
-this unforgiving lava field. Much of the world&rsquo;s
-vegetation could not survive here at all. Environmental
-stresses created by scant soil and minimal moisture
-are compounded by highly porous cinders that are
-incapable of holding water near the ground surface
-where plants and other organisms can make ready
-use of it. Scarce at best&mdash;total average precipitation
-is between 15 to 20 inches per year&mdash;rainwater and
-snowmelt quickly slip down out of reach of the
-plants growing on cinder cones. Summer&rsquo;s hot, dry
-winds rob moisture from all living things exposed to
-them. Whisking across leaves and needles the winds
-carry away moisture precious to plant tissues. On the
-side of a cinder cone, summer day temperatures at
-ground level can be more than 150&deg;F.</p>
-<p>The secret to survival here is adaptation. Most life
-forms cope by strategies of either resisting or evading
-the extremes of this semi-arid climate. To resist
-being robbed of moisture by winds and heat, a plant
-may feature very small leaves that minimize moisture
-loss. To evade heat, wind, and aridity, another plant
-may grow inside a crevice that provides life-giving
-shade and collects precious moisture and soil particles.
-Another plant may spend about 95 percent of the
-year dormant. It may rush through the germination,
-sprouting, leafing out, blooming, and fruiting stages
-and return to the dormancy of its seed stage in just
-two weeks. The dwarf buckwheat has adapted to life
-on porous cinders by evolving a root system that may
-spread out for up to 3 feet to support its aboveground
-part, which is a mere 4 inches high. This buckwheat
-only looks like a dwarf because you can not see its
-roots.</p>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="small">(<i>continued on <a href="#Page_40">page 40</a></i>)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Plants Adapt to a Volcanic Landscape</h4>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i16.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="300" />
-</div>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>Water is the limiting factor in
-plant growth and reproduction
-both on the lava fields of Craters
-of the Moon and on the
-surrounding sagebrush steppe.
-Plants have developed a combination
-of adaptations to cope
-with drought conditions. There
-are three major strategies:</p>
-<p><b>1. Drought tolerance</b> Physiological
-adaptations leading to
-drought tolerance are typical
-of desert plant species. The
-tissues of some plants can withstand
-extreme dehydration
-without suffering permanent
-cell damage. Some plants can
-extract water from very dry
-soils. Sagebrush and antelope
-bitterbrush exemplify drought
-tolerance.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/i16a.jpg" alt="" width="917" height="910" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Dwarf monkeyflower</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/i16b.jpg" alt="" width="918" height="910" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Buckwheat</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<p><b>2. Drought avoidance</b> Certain
-structural modifications can
-enable plants to retain or conserve
-water. Common adaptations
-of this type include small
-leaves, hairiness, and succulence.
-The small leaves of the
-antelope bitterbrush expose
-less area to evaporative influences
-such as heat and wind.
-Hairs on the scorpionweed reduce
-surface evaporation by
-inhibiting air flow and reflecting
-sunlight. Succulent plants
-such as pricklypear cactus
-have tissues that can store
-water for use during drought
-periods. Other plants, such
-as wire lettuce, avoid drought
-by having very little leaf surface
-compared to their overall
-volume.</p>
-<p><b>3. Drought escape</b>  Some
-plants, such as mosses and
-ferns, escape drought by growing
-near persistent water supplies
-such as natural potholes
-and seeps from ice caves.
-Many other drought escapers,
-such as dwarf monkeyflower,
-simply carry out their full life
-cycle during the moist time of
-the year. The rest of the year
-they survive in seed form.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/i16c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="492" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Pricklypear cactus</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/i16d.jpg" alt="" width="922" height="906" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Ferns</i></p>
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_38">38</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Plant Microhabitats</h4>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i17.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="266" />
-</div>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p><b>Lava flows</b> Most plants cannot
-grow on lava flows until
-enough soil has accumulated
-to support them. The park&rsquo;s
-older volcanic landscapes,
-where soils are best developed,
-are clothed with sagebrush-grassland
-vegetation. On younger
-lava flows, bits of soil first
-accumulate in cracks, joints,
-and crevices. It is in these
-microhabitats that vascular
-plants may gain footholds. Narrow
-cracks and joints may contain
-desert parsley and lava
-phlox. Shallow crevices will
-hold scabland penstemon,
-fernleaf fleabane, and gland
-cinquefoil. Deep crevices can
-support the syringa, various
-ferns, bush rockspirea, tansybush,
-and even limber pine.
-Not until full soil cover is
-achieved can the antelope
-bitterbrush, rubber rabbitbrush,
-and sagebrush find suitable
-niches. On lava flows soils first
-form from eroded lava and the
-slow decomposition of lichens
-and other plants able to colonize
-bare rock. These soils can
-be supplemented by wind-blown
-soil particles until vascular
-plants gain footholds. As
-plants begin to grow and then
-die, their gradual decomposition
-adds further soil matter.
-These soil beginnings accumulate
-in cracks and crevices,
-which also provide critical
-shade and wind protection.
-Deep crevices provide lower
-temperatures favoring plant
-survival.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/i17a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="495" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Rubber rabbitbrush</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/i17b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="491" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Syringa</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div>
-<p><b>Cinder gardens</b> Compared to
-the lava flows, cinder cones
-are much more quickly invaded
-by plants. Here, too, however,
-volcanic origins influence plant
-growth. Compared to the relatively
-level lava flows, steeply
-sloping cinder cones introduce
-a new factor that controls the
-development of plant communities:
-topography. Here you
-find marked differences in the
-plant communities between
-the north- and south-facing
-slopes. South-facing slopes are
-exposed to prolonged, intense
-sunlight, resulting in high evaporation
-of water. Because of
-the prevailing winds, snow
-accumulates on northeast
-sides of cones, giving them
-far more annual water than
-southwest-facing sides receive.
-The pioneering herbs that first
-colonize cinder cones will persist
-on southwest-facing slopes
-long after succeeding plant
-communities have come to
-dominate north-facing slopes.
-It is on these north-facing
-slopes that limber pine first
-develops in the cinder garden.
-South-facing slopes may never
-support the limber pine but
-may be dominated by shrubs.
-Unweathered cinder particles
-range in size from 3 to 4 inches
-in diameter down to very small
-particles. They average about
-&frac14; inch in diameter.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/i17c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Cinquefoil</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/i17d.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="492" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Wire lettuce</i></p>
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="interlude"></div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div>
-<p>Ecological conditions at Craters of the Moon are
-generally so harsh that slight changes can make the
-difference for the survival of a plant or other organism.
-Life thrives in many rock crevices that are surrounded
-by barren exposed lava rock of the same physical
-composition. These microhabitats provide the critical
-shade and increased soil and moisture content required
-for plant survival. Over the years, particles of soil will
-naturally collect in rock crevices, which also have
-the effect of funneling precipitation into their depths.
-Their shade further protects these pockets of soil
-and water from wind erosion, excessive heat, and
-evaporation and leaching by direct sunlight.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/i18.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="616" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Limber pines are the tree pioneers
-of the lava terrain. Their seedlings
-often find suitable
-conditions for germination
-in rock crevices long
-before surrounding landscapes
-support tree growth. Most
-common of all the park&rsquo;s
-trees, limber pine is named
-for its flexible branches. Many
-park animals depend on this
-tree in some fashion for their
-livelihoods.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/i18a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="287" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Limber pine cones
-stay green and resinous
-through their first year of
-development and then turn
-brown and woody as their
-seeds mature in the second
-year. Cones grow to about 4
-inches long.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>At Craters of the Moon, crevices are of such
-importance to plants that botanists differentiate
-between narrow, shallow, and deep crevices when
-studying this phenomenon. Narrow crevices will
-support dwarf goldenweed or hairy goldaster. Shallow
-crevices support scabland penstemon, fernleaf fleabane,
-and gland cinquefoil. Deep crevices give rise to
-syringa, ferns, bush rockspirea, tansybush, Lewis
-mockorange, and even the limber pine tree. Complete
-soil cover and then vegetative cover can develop on
-these lava flows only after crevices have first become
-filled with soil.</p>
-<p>Plants exploit other means of protection to survive
-in this harsh environment. Shaded and wind-sheltered,
-the northern side of a cinder cone can support grass,
-shrubs, and limber pine trees while the cone&rsquo;s southern
-face supports only scattered herbs. Most cinder
-cones in the park show distinct differences of plant
-cover between their northern and southern exposures.
-Northern exposures are cooler and more moist than
-southern exposures, which receive far more direct
-sunlight. In addition, here at Craters of the Moon,
-the prevailing southwesterly winds compound the
-ability of the dry heat to rob porous cinder cone
-surfaces and their living organisms of precious
-moisture.</p>
-<p>The build-up of successive lava flows has so raised
-the landscape that it now intercepts wind currents
-that operate higher above surrounding plains. Limber
-pine trees find footholds on the shaded and sheltered
-northern exposures of cinder cones. Bitterbrush and
-rabbitbrush shrubs that can barely survive on the
-lower skirts of a cinder cone&rsquo;s southern side may
-grow two-thirds of the way up its protected northern
-face. For many species of plants the limits of habitability
-on this volcanic landscape are narrowly defined.
-Very small variations in their situations can determine
-success or failure.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div>
-<p>Travelers often ask park rangers whether or not
-some of the park&rsquo;s plants were planted by people.
-The plants in question are dwarf buckwheats and
-grow in cinder gardens. It is their incredibly even
-spacing that creates an orderliness that is easy to
-mistake for human design. The regular spacing comes
-about because of the competition for moisture,
-however. The root systems of these plants exploit the
-available water from an area of ground surface much
-larger than the spread of their foliage. In this way,
-mature plants can fend off competition by using the
-moisture that would be required for a potentially
-encroaching plant to become established. The effect
-is an even spacing that makes it appear, indeed, as
-though someone had set out the plants on measured
-centers.</p>
-<p>Craters of the Moon abounds with these surprising
-plant microhabitats that delight explorers on foot.
-The bleak lava flows separate these emerging pockets
-of new life, isolating them like islands or oases within
-their barren volcanic surroundings.</p>
-<p>Scientists have studied Carey Kipuka, an island of
-plantlife in the most southern part of the park, to
-find out what changes have occurred in the biologic
-community. <i>Kipuka</i> is a Hawaiian name given to an
-area of older land that is surrounded by younger lava
-flows. Recent lava flows did not overrun Carey Kipuka,
-so its plant cover is unaltered. Shortage of water
-protected it from livestock grazing that might have
-changed its character. Its vegetation is a benchmark
-for comparing plant cover changes on similar sites
-throughout southern Idaho.</p>
-<p>For the National Park Service and other managers
-of wildlands, kipukas&mdash;representing isolated and
-pristine plant habitat unchanged by human influence&mdash;provide
-the best answer that we have to the important
-question, &ldquo;What is natural?&rdquo; Armed with a satisfactory
-answer to that question, it is possible to manage the
-land ecologically. Park managers can seek to restore
-natural systems and to allow them to be as self-regulating
-as possible. It is ironic that Craters of the
-Moon, a volcanic landscape subjected to profound
-change, should also protect this informative glimpse
-of what remains unchanged.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/i18c.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="622" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>From the park&rsquo;s mazes of jumbled
-rock, ground squirrels
-fashion homes with many
-entrances and exits. Opportunistic
-feeders on vegetable
-matter, these engaging rodents
-fall prey to hawks and owls
-from above and small predatory
-mammals on the ground.
-They therefore serve as an
-important transfer point
-between plant and animal
-layers of the park&rsquo;s food
-energy scheme.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/i18d.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="288" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>In the 1920s, members of the Limbert Expedition,
-described on pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_50">50</a> and <a class="pgref" href="#Page_51">51</a>, followed the flight of
-doves to locate water as they explored what later became the park.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="small">(<i>continued on <a href="#Page_46">page 46</a></i>)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Wildflowers</h4>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>Wildflowers carpet Craters of
-the Moon&rsquo;s seemingly barren
-lava fields from early May to
-late September. The most
-spectacular shows of wildflowers
-come with periods of
-precipitation. In late spring,
-moisture from snowmelt&mdash;supplemented
-now and then
-by rainfall&mdash;sees the blossoming
-of most of the delicate
-annual plants.</p>
-<p>Many of the park&rsquo;s flowering
-plants, having no mechanisms
-for conserving moisture, simply
-complete their life cycles
-before the middle of summer.
-This is particularly true of those
-that grow on the porous cinder
-gardens into which moisture
-quickly descends beyond
-reach of most plants&rsquo; root
-systems.</p>
-<p>As summer continues and
-supplies of moisture slowly
-dwindle, only the most
-drought-resistant of flowering
-plants continue to grow and to
-bloom. With the onset of
-autumn rains, only the tiny yellow
-blossoms of the sagebrush
-and rabbitbrush remain.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/i19.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Blazing star</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/i19b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="500" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Monkeyflower</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/i19c.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Desert parsley</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/i19e.jpg" alt="" width="484" height="486" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Wild onion</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/i19f.jpg" alt="" width="489" height="491" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Bitterroot</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/i19g.jpg" alt="" width="493" height="486" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Paintbrush</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/i19h.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="503" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Scabland penstemon</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/i19j.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="501" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Arrow-leaved balsamroot</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/i19k.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="504" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Scorpionweed</i></p>
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Mule Deer</h4>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i20.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="700" height="667" />
-</div>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>Brad Griffith could be called
-the mule deer man. In 1980,
-this wildlife researcher began
-a three-year study of the mule
-deer herd that summers in the
-park. The immediate concern
-was that the deer, protected
-inside the park, might be
-overpopulating their range
-and endangering their habitat.
-Griffith set out to find out just
-how the deer use the area,
-what their population level
-is, and how certain factors&mdash;production,
-mortality, and distribution&mdash;affect
-their population
-dynamics. The mule deer
-use the park April through
-November only, because winter
-brings snows too deep for
-the deer to find food here.
-The most striking finding of
-Griffith&rsquo;s research is that the
-mule deer at Craters of the
-Moon&mdash;unlike mule deer studied
-elsewhere&mdash;have a dual
-summer range. Put simply, the
-mule deer have had to undergo
-behavior modification to live
-here. The deer move back into
-the southern park in mid-April,
-living in the protected wilderness
-area there. While in the
-wilderness area, the park&rsquo;s
-deer routinely live up to nearly
-10 miles from open water, getting
-their water from food, dew,
-fog, and temporary puddles.
-This area has higher quality
-forage for these deer than any
-other part of their annual
-range. The trade-off is that the
-wilderness area has almost no
-open water. When the moisture
-content of their forage
-decreases in summer, usually
-in July, the deer move up to
-the northern part of the park
-<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span>
-where there is open water.
-Their habits in the northern
-part of the park are unusual,
-too, Griffith says, because
-there the deer live in much
-closer quarters than other
-herds are known to tolerate on
-summer ranges. They live in
-this wildlife equivalent of an
-apartment complex until the
-fall rains come. Then they
-move back down to the wilderness
-area. The deer make this
-unusual summer migration,
-Griffith suggests, to avail themselves
-of the high quality forage
-in the southern park. &ldquo;The
-park serves as an island of
-high quality habitat for mule
-deer,&rdquo; he wrote in his report. It
-is now known the deer will
-leave the wilderness area for
-the northern park after 12 days
-with daytime highs above
-80&deg;F and nighttime lows
-above 50&deg;F in summer. &ldquo;We
-can&rsquo;t really predict this,&rdquo; Park
-Ranger Neil King says, &ldquo;but
-the deer know when this is.&rdquo;
-What is happening is that the
-percentage of water in their
-forage plants falls below what
-is necessary to sustain the deer
-with increasingly hot weather.
-As you would expect, does
-nursing two fawns leave a couple
-days earlier than does with
-only one fawn. The rate at
-which their fawns survive to
-the fall of the year is astonishing.
-&ldquo;This is an incredibly productive
-herd,&rdquo; Griffith says,
-&ldquo;right up there with the highest
-fawn survival rate of any
-western mule deer herd.&rdquo; Park
-rangers continue Griffith&rsquo;s
-studies by taking deer census
-counts.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i20b.jpg" alt="{Map showing fall, summer, and spring migrations}" width="500" height="534" />
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="interlude"></div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/i21.jpg" alt="" width="688" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>The Northern Shoshone regularly
-passed through the Craters
-of the Moon area on their
-annual summer migration
-from the Snake River to the
-Camas Prairie, west of the
-park. They took this journey
-to get out of the hot desert
-and into the cooler mountains.
-There they could gather
-root crops and hunt marmots,
-jackrabbits, porcupines, and
-ground squirrels. As they
-passed through today&rsquo;s park,
-they left behind arrowheads,
-choppers, and scrapers and
-built stone circles
-that may have been used for
-ceremonial purposes. These
-artifacts and structures are evidence
-the Indians were temporary
-visitors to this vast
-volcanic landscape.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">Indians, Early Explorers And Practicing Astronauts</span></h2>
-<p>Not surprisingly, archeologists have concluded that
-Indians did not make their homes on this immense
-lava field. Astronauts would one day trek about
-Craters of the Moon in hopes that experiencing its
-harshly alien environment would make walking on
-the moon less disorienting for them. No wonder
-people have not chosen to live on these hot, black,
-sometimes sharp lava flows on which you must line
-the flight of doves to locate drinking water.</p>
-<p>Indians did traverse this area on annual summer
-migrations, however, as shown by the developed trails
-and many sites where artifacts of Northern Shoshone
-culture have been found. Most of these archeological
-sites are not easily discerned by the untrained eye,
-but the stone windbreaks at Indian Tunnel are easily
-examined. Rings of rocks that may have been used
-for temporary shelter, hunting blinds, or religious
-purposes, numerous stone tools, and the hammerstones
-and chippings of arrowhead making are found scattered
-throughout the lava flows. Some of the harder, dense
-volcanic materials found here were made into crude
-cutting and scraping tools and projectile points.
-Such evidence suggests only short forays into the
-lavas for hunting or collecting by small groups.</p>
-<p>The Northern Shoshone were a hunting and
-gathering culture directly dependent on what the
-land offered. They turned what they could of this
-volcanic environment to their benefit. Before
-settlement by Europeans, the vicinity of the park
-boasted several game species that are rare or absent
-from Craters of the Moon today. These included elk,
-wolf, bison, grizzly and black bear, and the cougar.
-Bighorn sheep, whose males sport characteristic
-headgear of large, curled horns, have been absent
-from the park since about 1920.</p>
-<p>Military explorer U.S. Army Capt. B.L.E. Bonneville
-left impressions of the Craters of the Moon lava field
-in his travel diaries in the early 1800s. In <i>The
-Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i>, which were based
-<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span>
-on the diaries, 19th-century author Washington Irving
-pictures a place &ldquo;where nothing meets the eye but a
-desolate and awful waste, where no grass grows nor
-water runs, and where nothing is to be seen but lava.&rdquo;
-Irving is perhaps most famous for <i>The Legend of
-Sleepy Hollow</i>, but his <i>Adventures</i> is considered a
-significant period work about the West and provided
-this early, if brief, glimpse of a then unnamed Craters
-of the Moon.</p>
-<p>Pioneers working westward in the 19th century
-sought either gold or affordable farm or ranch lands
-so they, like the Northern Shoshone, bypassed these
-lava wastes. Later, nearby settlers would venture into
-this area in search of additional grazing lands. Finding
-none, they left Craters of the Moon substantially
-alone.</p>
-<p>Early pioneers who left traces in the vicinity of the
-park did so by following what eventually came to be
-known as Goodale&rsquo;s Cutoff. The route was based on
-Indian trails that skirted the lava fields in the northern
-section of the park. It came into use in the early
-1850s as an alternate to the regular route of the
-Oregon Trail. Shoshone Indian hostilities along the
-Snake River part of the trail&mdash;one such incident is
-memorialized in Idaho&rsquo;s Massacre Rocks State Park&mdash;led
-the emigrants to search for a safer route. They
-were headed for Oregon, particularly the Walla
-Walla area around Whitman Mission, family groups
-in search of agricultural lands for settlement. Emigrants
-traveling it in 1854 noticed names carved in rocks
-and trees along its route. It was named in 1862 by
-travelers apparently grateful to their guide, Tim
-Goodale, whose presence, they felt, had prevented
-Indian attacks. Illinois-born Goodale was cut in the
-mold of the typical early trapper and trader of the
-Far West. He was known to the famous fur trade
-brothers Solomon and William Sublette. His name
-turned up at such fur trade locales as Pueblo, Taos,
-Fort Bridger, and Fort Laramie over a period of at
-least 20 years.</p>
-<p>After the discovery of gold in Idaho&rsquo;s Salmon
-River country, a party of emigrants persuaded Goodale
-to guide them over the route they would name for
-him. Goodale was an experienced guide: in 1861, he
-had served in that capacity for a military survey west
-of Denver. The large band of emigrants set out in
-July and was joined by more wagons at Craters of the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span>
-Moon. Eventually their numbers included 795 men
-and 300 women and children. Indian attacks occurred
-frequently along the Oregon Trail at that time, but
-the size of this group evidently discouraged such
-incursions. The trip was not without incident, but
-Goodale&rsquo;s reputation remained sufficiently intact for
-his clients to affix his name to the route. Subsequent
-modifications and the addition of a ferry crossing on
-the Snake River made Goodale&rsquo;s Cutoff into a
-popular route for western emigration. Traces of it
-are still visible in the vicinity of the park today.</p>
-<p>Curiosity about this uninhabitable area eventually
-led to more detailed knowledge of Craters of the
-Moon and knowledge led to its preservation. Geologists
-Israel C. Russell and Harold T. Stearns of the U.S.
-Geological Survey explored here in 1901 and 1923,
-respectively. Taxidermist-turned-lecturer Robert
-Limbert explored the area in the early 1920s. Limbert
-made three trips. On the first two, he more or less
-retraced the steps of these geologists. On his third
-and most ambitious trek, Limbert and W. L. Cole
-traversed what is now the park and the Craters of the
-Moon Wilderness Area south to north, starting from
-the nearby community of Minidoka. Their route
-took them by Two Point Butte, Echo Crater, Big
-Craters, North Crater Flow and out to the Old
-Arco-Carey Road, then known as the Yellowstone
-Park and Lincoln Highway. These explorations and
-their attendant publicity in <i>National Geographic
-Magazine</i> were instrumental in the proclamation of
-Craters of the Moon as a national monument by
-President Calvin Coolidge in 1924.</p>
-<p>Since Limbert&rsquo;s day, astronauts have walked both
-here and on the moon. Despite our now detailed
-knowledge of the differences between these two
-places, the name&mdash;and much of the park&rsquo;s awe-inspiring
-appeal&mdash;remains the same. It is as though
-by learning more about both these niches in our
-universe we somehow have learned more about
-ourselves as well.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/i22.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="589" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>In the mid-1800s the Oregon
-Trail served as a major route
-to the West for pioneers. But
-when hostilities developed
-along the trail with the
-Shoshone-Bannock Indians,
-many of the emigrants began
-using an alternate route
-known as Goodale&rsquo;s Cutoff.
-This trail went further north
-and passed through the
-present-day park boundary.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="jr1"><span class="small">(<i>continued on <a href="#Page_52">page 52</a></i>)</span></p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div>
-<h4 class="interlude">Early Explorers and the Limbert Expedition</h4>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i23.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="800" height="357" />
-</div>
-<blockquote class="ssn">
-<p>The first known explorations
-of these lava fields were conducted
-by two Arco, Idaho, cattlemen
-in 1879. Arthur Ferris
-and J.W. Powell were looking
-for water for their livestock.
-The first scientific explorations
-were carried out by Israel C.
-Russell, surveying the area for
-the U.S. Geological Survey in
-1901 and 1903. Beginning in
-1910, Samuel A. Paisely, later
-to become the park&rsquo;s first custodian,
-also explored these
-lava fields. In 1921, the
-U.S.G.S. sent two geologists
-here, Harold T. Stearns and
-O.E. Meinzer, with a geologist
-from the Carnegie Institute.
-Based on this field work,
-Stearns recommended that a
-national monument be created
-here. Also during the early 20s,
-the explorations of Idaho entrepreneur
-Robert W. Limbert
-caught the public&rsquo;s fancy. A
-report of the explorations of
-&ldquo;Two-gun&rdquo; Bob Limbert was
-published in the March 1924
-<i>National Geographic Magazine</i>.
-Limbert was a Boise,
-Idaho, taxidermist, tanner, and
-furrier. He was also an amateur
-wrestler and quick-draw
-artist who later performed on
-the national lecture circuit.
-Reportedly, Limbert once challenged
-Al Capone to a pistol
-duel at 10 paces. Evidently
-Capone declined. Limbert
-made three treks into the lava
-fields between 1921 and 1924.
-He first explored the more easily
-accessible northern portion
-of the lava fields. Limbert&rsquo;s
-third expedition crossed the
-area from south to north, however,
-starting from Minidoka.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc3">The Limbert Trek</h4>
-<div class="img" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/i23a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="496" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>On his third expedition,
-Limbert, Cole, and a dog traversed
-the lava flows from south
-to north. The photos that
-appeared in</i> <b>The National
-Geographic Magazine</b> <i>in
-1924 were taken on various
-expeditions.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div>
-<p>With Limbert were W.L. Cole
-and an Airedale terrier. Taking
-the dog along was a mistake,
-Limbert wrote, &ldquo;for after three
-days&rsquo; travel his feet were worn
-raw and bleeding.&rdquo; Limbert
-said it was pitiful to watch the
-dog as it hobbled after them.
-The landscape was so unusual
-that Limbert and Cole had difficulty
-estimating distances.
-Things would be half again as
-far away as they had reckoned.
-In some areas their compass
-needles went wild with magnetic
-distortions caused by
-high concentrations of iron in
-the lava rock. Bizarre features
-they found&mdash;such as multi-colored,
-blow-out craters&mdash;moved
-Limbert to write: &ldquo;I
-noticed that at places like these
-we had almost nothing to say.&rdquo;
-Limbert and Cole discovered
-ice caves with ice stalactites.
-They found water by tracking
-the flights of mourning doves.
-They found pockets of cold
-water (trapped above ground
-by ice deposits below the surface)
-covered with yellowjackets
-fatally numbed by the cold.
-They drank the water anyway.
-In desert country, said Limbert,
-one can&rsquo;t be too picky. Between
-Limbert&rsquo;s lively article
-in the <i>National Geographic
-Magazine</i>, and the reports of
-geologist Stearns, President
-Calvin Coolidge was induced
-to designate part of the lava
-fields as Craters of the Moon
-National Monument on May 2,
-1924.</p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i23c.jpg" alt="{untitled}" width="500" height="498" />
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i23d.jpg" alt="{untitled}" width="500" height="499" />
-</div>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="interlude"></div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">Part 3</span>
-<br />Guide and Adviser</h2>
-<div class="img" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/i24.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="537" />
-<p class="pcap"></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<h2 id="c8"><span class="small">Approaching Craters of the Moon</span></h2>
-<p><i>Craters of the Moon National Monument
-is located in south-central Idaho&rsquo;s
-Snake River Plain, midway between
-Boise, Idaho, and Grand Teton and
-Yellowstone National Parks. The park
-includes 53,545 acres, and the elevation
-at the visitor center is 5,900 feet
-above sea level. U.S. 20-26-93 gives
-access to the park. Nominal entrance
-fees are charged. Golden Eagle, Golden
-Age, and Golden Access passports are
-honored and may be obtained at the
-entrance station.</i></p>
-<h4 id="ccc4"><b>Seasons and Weather.</b></h4>
-<p>Park facilities
-are open and naturalist programs are
-conducted from mid-June through Labor
-Day. From November to April, the
-Loop Drive (see <a href="#c10">map</a>) is closed by
-snow and park facilities are limited. In
-spring and fall, the opening and closing
-of facilities and the Loop Drive are
-determined by weather conditions,
-which vary greatly from year to year. In
-spring the weather is unpredictable.
-Strong winds may occur and snow
-and/or freezing rain are not uncommon.
-Temperatures range from highs
-in the 50s to lows in the 20s&deg;F. Summer
-features warm to hot days and cool
-nights. Expect afternoon winds. There
-may be very sporadic afternoon thunderstorms,
-and temperatures may range
-from the 40s to the 90s. Fall offers
-generally fair weather with low precipitation
-and infrequent winds. Early snowstorms
-are possible, and snow is certain
-by late fall. Fall temperatures range
-from highs in the 60s to lows in the 30s.
-Winter brings the possibility of severe
-storms with drifting snow. Highway access
-is often best described as snow-packed.
-On bright sunny days temperatures
-may reach into the 40s, but the
-range is generally from highs in the 30s
-to lows around minus 10.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/i25.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="642" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Today&rsquo;s park encompasses a
-small portion of the Great
-Rift and the greater portion
-of the Craters of the Moon
-Lava Field near Arco, Idaho.
-Blue arrows on this map
-show the route of the Limbert
-Expeditions in the 1920s. The
-detail map appears on <a href="#Page_58">page 58</a>.</i></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Limbert&rsquo;s route</dt>
-<dd>From Minidoka.</dd>
-<dd>Two Point Butte</dd>
-<dd>Vermillion Chasm</dd>
-<dd>Sheep Trail Butte</dd>
-<dd>Echo Crater</dd>
-<dd class="t">Bridge of Tears</dd>
-<dd>Big Cinder Butte</dd>
-<dd>Big Craters</dd>
-<dd>North Crater Flow</dd>
-<dd>Old Arco Carey Road</dd>
-<dd>Martin P.O.</dd>
-<dt>See detail map</dt>
-<dd>Visitor Center</dd></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
-<h4 id="ccc5"><b>Handicapped Access.</b></h4>
-<p>The park visitor
-center, restrooms, and amphitheater
-are accessible to the disabled.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc6"><b>Travel Planning.</b></h4>
-<p>U.S. 20-26-93 provides
-access to Craters of the Moon.
-No public transportation serves the
-park. Scheduled airlines serve Idaho
-Falls, Twin Falls, and Hailey, Idaho.
-Rental cars are generally available at
-these airports, but advance reservations
-are advised. It is about a three-hour
-drive from the park to Grand
-Teton National Park, and about a four-hour
-drive to Yellowstone National Park.
-The official Idaho State Highway Map is
-available from the Idaho Transportation
-Department, P.O. Box 7129, Boise, ID
-83707, telephone (208) 334-8000. Idaho&rsquo;s
-travel office provides information about
-cultural activities, scenic tours, outfitters
-and guides, chambers of commerce,
-hotels, and motels throughout
-the state. Write or call Idaho&rsquo;s Travel
-Promotion Division, 700 West State
-Street, Boise, ID 83720-2700, telephone
-(208) 334-2470.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc7"><b>Stay on Roads.</b></h4>
-<p>Please stay on roadways
-and parking pullouts that are
-provided. If a vehicle goes off the
-roadway onto cinders, the cinders are
-compacted and the tracks may remain
-visible for 10 to 20 years or more.</p>
-<p><b>Information about the Park.</b> Address
-specific inquiries about the park to the
-<b>Superintendent, Craters of the Moon
-National Monument, P.O. Box 29, Arco,
-ID 83213</b>, or telephone (208) 527-3257.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/i25a.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="491" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Make the visitor center
-your first stop in the park.
-Ask at the information desk
-for schedules of ranger-led
-walks, talks, and other programs
-and for advice about
-camping.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i25c.jpg" alt="{uncaptioned}" width="500" height="496" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<h2 id="c9"><span class="small">Visitor Center and Programs</span></h2>
-<p>The park visitor center is located near
-the only entrance to the park. Here
-you will find displays and information
-to help you plan your visit. Slides,
-postcards, maps, and other publications
-about the park are displayed for
-sale. Park Service rangers at the information
-counter can answer your questions
-and help you plan your stay in the
-park.</p>
-<p>The displays alert you to wildflowers
-and wild animals you might expect to
-see here. Other exhibits describe the
-park&rsquo;s geologic history. A film explains
-how lava flowed from fissures in the
-Earth to create the cinder cones, lava
-flows, and other volcanic features you
-will see at Craters of the Moon. The
-film includes actual footage of eruptions
-of the same type that occurred
-here some 2,000 years ago. Check at
-the visitor center for the schedules of
-conducted walks and campfire programs.
-You also can get information
-here about two self-guiding nature trails
-and the park&rsquo;s Loop Drive (see <a href="#Page_59">page 59</a>).</p>
-<h4 id="ccc8"><b>Activities and Evening Programs.</b></h4>
-<p>In summer, ranger-guided walks and other
-programs give visitors an intimate look
-at various aspects of the park. Program
-schedules vary; we suggest that you
-contact the park for current information
-prior to arrival. Several sites have
-been designed to make it easy to see
-the park on your own. The visitor
-center is a good place to stop and plan
-your visit. Evening programs may find
-you wanting a sweater or light jacket to
-ward off the chill, despite the hot summer
-days. These programs explore such
-topics as the park&rsquo;s wildlife and its survival,
-the powers of nature, and this landscape&rsquo;s
-volcanic origins. Some programs
-are illustrated with slides or movies
-and take place in the amphitheater.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc9"><b>Self-guiding Trails.</b></h4>
-<p>Explore three representative
-areas of the park on self-guiding
-nature trails. <b>Devils Orchard
-Trail</b> helps you understand the complex
-environmental concerns facing
-Craters of the Moon. A pamphlet available
-at the trailhead discusses the major
-impacts visitors, neighbors, and managers
-have on the fragile lava landscape.
-Numbered explanations correspond to
-markers along the trail. You can walk
-this trail in about 20 minutes. <b>North
-Crater Flow Trail</b> takes you through a
-lava flow that includes rafted blocks
-(crater wall fragments) and other interesting
-features characteristic of basaltic
-lava flows, which are explained by wayside
-exhibits. This trail goes through
-one of the most recent lava flows in the
-park. The shiny lava flows made early
-explorers think the volcanic eruptions
-had happened only a few years before.
-Please stay on trails in this very fragile
-area. The park was established to provide
-protection for its unusual landscape
-features. These require continuing
-protection and you can help provide it.
-<b>Caves Trail</b> allows you the opportunity
-to explore a lava tube. These caves
-formed when the surface of lava flow
-cooled and hardened while the interior
-remained molten and continued to drain.
-After the lava drained away, a hollow
-tube remained. A pamphlet at the trailhead
-provides a map of the cave area
-and tells you what to expect as you
-explore these lava tubes on your own.
-Wayside exhibits point out the most
-interesting lava formations along the
-trail. To see only Indian Tunnel, the
-largest of the lava tubes, will require
-nearly one hour.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/i26.jpg" alt="" width="669" height="1000" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Visitors read
-a wayside exhibit beneath
-imposing monoliths. Flows of
-lava rafted such fragments of
-broken crater walls into otherwise
-inexplicable positions.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div>
-<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">Map</span></h2>
-<div class="img" id="map1">
-<img src="images/map_lr.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="557" />
-<p class="caption">Craters of the Moon National Monument</p><p class="center"><a class="ab1" href="images/map_hr.jpg">High-resolution Version</a></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Wilderness area</dt>
-<dd>Grassy Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t">1925 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>6315 ft</i></dd>
-<dd>Sunset Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t">1954 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>6415 ft</i></dd>
-<dt>Backcountry area</dt>
-<dt>Trail</dt>
-<dt>Point of interest</dt>
-<dt>&#9312;</dt>
-<dd>Visitor Center</dd>
-<dd class="t">To Arco</dd>
-<dd class="t">To Carey</dd>
-<dd>Campground</dd>
-<dt>&#9313;</dt>
-<dd>North Crater Flow Trail</dd>
-<dd>North Crater Trail</dd>
-<dd class="t">Silent Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t2">1838 m</dd>
-<dd class="t2"><i>6357 ft.</i></dd>
-<dd class="t">North Crater</dd>
-<dd class="t2">1908 m</dd>
-<dd class="t2"><i>8244 ft</i></dd>
-<dt>&#9314;</dt>
-<dd>Devils Orchard Nature Trail</dd>
-<dd>Paisley Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t">1881 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>6107 ft</i></dd>
-<dt>&#9315;</dt>
-<dd>Inferno Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t">1884 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>6181 ft</i></dd>
-<dt>&#9316;</dt>
-<dd>Snow Cone</dd>
-<dd>Spatter Cones</dd>
-<dd>North Crater Trail</dd>
-<dt>&#9317;</dt>
-<dd>GREAT RIFT ZONE</dd>
-<dd>BIG SINK</dd>
-<dd>Broken Top</dd>
-<dd class="t">1846 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>5058 ft</i></dd>
-<dd>Buffalo Cave</dd>
-<dd>Half Cone</dd>
-<dd class="t">1845 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>5055 ft</i></dd>
-<dd>Big Cinder Butte</dd>
-<dd class="t">1988 m</dd>
-<dd class="t"><i>5516 ft</i></dd>
-<dd>TREE MOLDS</dd>
-<dt>&#9318;</dt>
-<dd>Dewdrop Cave</dd>
-<dd>Surprise Cave</dd>
-<dd>Beauty Cave</dd>
-<dd>Boy Scout Cave</dd>
-<dd>Indian Tunnel</dd>
-<dt>PIONEER MOUNTAINS</dt>
-<dt>GREEN DRAGON FLOWS</dt>
-<dt>SERRATE FLOW</dt>
-<dt>BLUE DRAGON FLOWS</dt>
-<dt>BROKEN TOP FLOW</dt>
-<dt>LAVA CASCADES</dt>
-<dt>BIG CRATERS</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div>
-<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">Take The Driving Tour</span></h2>
-<p>You can see most of the features for
-which Craters of the Moon is famous
-by a combined auto and foot tour
-along the Loop Drive. With several
-short walks included, you can make
-the drive in about two hours. Numbered
-stops are keyed to the map in the
-park folder.</p>
-<p><b>1. Visitor Center.</b> The 7-mile Loop
-Drive begins at the visitor center. Most
-of the drive is one-way. Spur roads and
-trailheads enable you to explore this
-lava field even further.</p>
-<p><b>2. North Crater Flow.</b> A short foot
-trail crosses the North Crater Flow to a
-group of crater wall fragments transported
-by lava flows. This is one of the
-youngest flows here. The triple twist
-tree and its 1,350 growth rings have in
-the past helped date the recency of the
-last flows here. Along this trail you can
-see fine examples of pahoehoe lava
-and aa lava flows (see <a href="#Page_26">page 26</a>). Just
-beyond the North Crater Flow Trail is
-the North Crater Trail. This short,
-steep, self-guiding nature trail leads
-you to the vent overlooking the crater
-of a cinder cone.</p>
-<p><b>3. Devils Orchard.</b> Devils Orchard
-is a group of lava fragments that stand
-like islands in a sea of cinders. This
-marks the resting place for blocks of
-material from the walls of North Crater
-that broke free and were rafted
-here on lava flows. The short spur road
-leads to a self-guiding trail through
-these weird features. You can easily
-walk the trail in about 20 minutes. An
-early morning or evening visit may
-allow you to observe park wildlife. In
-springtime, the wildflower displays in
-the cinder gardens are glorious. In
-June and early July, dwarf blooming
-monkeyflowers give the ground a magenta
-cast.</p>
-<p><b>4. Inferno Cone Viewpoint.</b> From
-the viewpoint atop Inferno Cone, a
-landscape of volcanic cinder cones
-spreads before you to the distant mountain
-ranges beyond. Notice that the
-cooler, moister northern slopes of the
-cones bear noticeably more vegetation
-than the drier southern slopes, which
-receive the brunt of sunshine. If you
-take the short, steep walk to the summit
-of Inferno Cone, you can easily
-recognize the chain of cinder cones
-that defines the Great Rift. Perhaps
-nowhere else in the park is it so easy to
-visualize how the volcanic activity broke
-out along this great fissure in the Earth.
-Towering in the distance above the
-lava plain is Big Cinder Butte, one of
-the world&rsquo;s largest, purely basaltic, cinder
-cones.</p>
-<p><b>5. Big Craters and Spatter Cones
-Area.</b> Spatter cones formed along the
-Great Rift fissure where clots of pasty
-lava stuck together when they fell. The
-materials and forces of these eruptions
-originated at depths of approximately
-40 miles within the Earth. A short,
-steep walk to the top of Big Craters
-offers a view of a series of volcanic
-vents.</p>
-<p><b>6. Trails to Tree Molds and the Wilderness
-Area.</b> A spur road just beyond
-Inferno Cone takes you to trails to the
-Tree Molds Area and the Craters of
-the Moon Wilderness. Tree molds
-formed where molten lava flows encased
-trees and then hardened (see
-<a href="#Page_27">page 27</a>). The cylindrical molds that
-remained after the wood burned and
-rotted away range from a few inches to
-more than 1 foot in diameter.</p>
-<p><b>7. Cave Area.</b> At this final stop on
-the Loop Drive, a &frac12;-mile walk takes
-you to the lava tubes. Here you can see
-Dewdrop, Boy Scout, Beauty, and Surprise
-Caves and the Indian Tunnel.
-(For how these lava tubes formed, see
-<a href="#Page_30">page 30</a>.) Carry a flashlight in all caves
-except Indian Tunnel.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div>
-<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">Camping and Backcountry Use</span></h2>
-<p>The campground has about 50 sites.
-These are available on a first-come,
-first-served basis. Reservations are not
-accepted. A daily fee for camping is
-charged. Water and restrooms are provided
-in the campground, but there
-are no showers, dump station, or hookups.
-Wood fires are prohibited in the
-park, but grills at each campsite may
-be used for charcoal fires. The campground
-accommodates both RVs and
-tents. During the summer, park rangers
-present evening programs at the
-campground amphitheater.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc10">Backcountry Use.</h4>
-<p>Some of the park&rsquo;s
-most intriguing landscapes lie beyond
-the road&rsquo;s end in the 68-square-mile
-Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area.
-Only two trails penetrate the wilderness,
-and these for only short distances.
-After the three-mile trail to
-Echo Crater runs out, you are on your
-own. For further exploration, you can
-simply follow the Great Rift and its
-chain of cinder cones. These landmarks
-help you find your way.</p>
-<p>To explore farther afield, you should
-have a good topographic map and basic
-map skills. You can purchase such a
-map at the visitor center. All hikers
-who plan to stay overnight in the wilderness
-are required to register with a
-park ranger. Backcountry use permits
-are available free at the visitor center.</p>
-<p><b id="water">Each hiker should carry at least one
-gallon of water for each day out</b>; even
-more may be necessary during the hot
-summer. There is no drinking water
-available in the wilderness. The best
-times for wilderness travel are May-June
-and September-October. Daytime
-temperatures are usually mild then,
-while nights are cool, but you must be
-prepared for inclement and very cold
-weather in these transitional months.
-Summer daytime temperatures climb
-into the 90s, and reflected heat off the
-lavas may be even higher. Long distance
-hiking is not very pleasant then,
-and the weight of necessary drinking
-water is burdensome.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc11">Safety.</h4>
-<p>Sturdy boots and long pants
-are necessary gear for the jagged aa
-lava flows. Bring clothing for both hot
-and cool weather; both can occur the
-same day in this desert climate. (See
-drinking water warning <a href="#water">above</a>.)</p>
-<h4 id="ccc12">Regulations.</h4>
-<p>Campfires are prohibited
-in the backcountry. Carry a self-contained
-backpack stove and fuel.
-Mechanized vehicles, including bicycles,
-are prohibited in the wilderness
-area. Pets are also prohibited in the
-wilderness. Pack out everything that
-you pack in&mdash;and any trash you find
-that others left behind. A good admonition
-is: &ldquo;Take only pictures, and try
-not to leave so much as a footprint.&rdquo;</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div>
-<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">Winter Recreation</span></h2>
-<p>The visitor center is open every day
-except winter holidays. Winter hours
-are 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Wilderness
-permits, topographic maps, and information
-are available here. To find out
-about current snow conditions, call
-(208) 527-3257.</p>
-<p><b>Skiing.</b> Crosscountry
-skiing provides an enjoyable experience
-of the park&rsquo;s landscape transformed
-by snow. When heavy snows accumulate,
-usually in late November, the 7-mile
-Loop Drive is closed and it becomes a
-natural ski trail. Most of the Loop
-Drive follows fairly level terrain. The
-best months for skiing are January to
-March in most winters. Usually there
-is about 18 inches of snowpack by
-January and 3 feet by March. Temperatures
-range from 45&deg;F to well below
-zero. Be prepared for inclement weather
-and high winds at all times. Blizzards
-may be encountered.</p>
-<p><b>Hazards.</b> Skiing
-off the Loop Drive is allowed but not
-recommended. Most of the park is
-covered by sharp, jagged lava, and
-snow cover may mask cracks and caverns
-underneath.</p>
-<p><b>Camping.</b> Winter
-camping is permitted in the main campground.
-The campground is not plowed;
-be prepared to camp in the snow.
-Wood fires are not permitted anywhere
-in the park.</p>
-<p><b>Wilderness use.</b> The wilderness
-is ideal for overnight ski trips.
-You should be well equipped and experienced
-at winter camping, however. A free
-wilderness use permit, available at the
-visitor center, is required for all overnight
-use outside the park campground.</p>
-<p class="pcap"><i>Both backpackers and crosscountry
-skiers find solitude in
-their respective seasons in the
-park. Others may prefer
-ranger-led explorations of the
-park&rsquo;s many unusual features.</i></p>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i28.jpg" alt="Backpackers" width="500" height="498" />
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i28b.jpg" alt="Crosscountry skiers" width="500" height="500" />
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i28c.jpg" alt="Ranger-led explorations" width="500" height="502" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_62">62</div>
-<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">Regulations and Safety</span></h2>
-<p>Many management concerns, regulations,
-and safety tips are given under
-specific subjects in this handbook. Here
-are some other things to consider.</p>
-<p>Precautions must be taken when you
-explore the park because of the rugged
-terrain, heat, and lack of naturally
-available drinking water. You will need
-sturdy boots, a hat, and ample, leakproof
-water containers. Make sure containers
-are watertight <b>before</b> you leave home.
-Exploring caves requires flashlights.</p>
-<p>Camp only in the park campground.
-All other overnight use, even in winter,
-requires a wilderness use permit. A
-day-use permit is required to visit the
-area of the park that lies north of
-Highway 20-26-93.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc13">Pets.</h4>
-<p>Pets are allowed only in the
-campground and on the Loop Drive,
-but they must be kept on a leash at all
-times. Pets are prohibited in all public
-buildings, on trails, or in off-road areas.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc14">Vehicles.</h4>
-<p>All motor vehicles and bicycles
-must stay on paved roads only.
-They are not allowed on trails.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc15">Firearms.</h4>
-<p>Firearm restrictions are enforced:
-No hunting is allowed in the
-park.</p>
-<h4 id="ccc16">Collecting.</h4>
-<p>The collection, removal,
-or disturbance of any natural features
-within the park is strictly prohibited.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/i29.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="492" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>For contemporary explorers
-the driving tour and its associated
-trails make the safest trek
-routes. Exercise great caution&mdash;and
-close oversight of
-young children&mdash;at all times
-on your park expeditions.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img">
-<img src="images/i29a.jpg" alt="{trail}" width="500" height="498" />
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div>
-<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">Nearby Attractions</span></h2>
-<p><b>Yellowstone National Park</b> is world famous
-for its geysers and mudpots, canyons
-and waterfalls, and wildlife and
-wilderness. For information write or
-call, Superintendent, Yellowstone National
-Park, WY 82190, (307) 344-7381.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/i29c.jpg" alt="" width="497" height="486" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Minerva Terrace, Yellowstone</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="tb"><b>Grand Teton National Park</b> features
-the spectacularly scenic Teton Range
-and lovely lakes at its base. <b>John D.
-Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway</b>
-joins Grand Teton with Yellowstone.
-For information write or call, Superintendent,
-Grand Teton National Park,
-P.O. Drawer 170, Moose, WY 83012,
-(307) 733-2880.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/i29d.jpg" alt="" width="496" height="490" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>Grand Teton in winter</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="tb"><b>Nez Perce National Historical Park</b>
-includes 24 widely scattered sites in
-north-central Idaho that present the
-history of this ancestral homeland of
-the Nez Perce tribe. For information
-write or call, Superintendent, Nez Perce
-National Historical Park, P.O. Box 93,
-Spalding, ID 83551, (208) 843-2261.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/i29e.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="488" />
-<p class="pcap"><i>A Nez Perce today</i></p>
-</div>
-<p class="tb"><b>Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument</b>,
-authorized in 1988, preserves
-Pliocene fossil sites along Idaho&rsquo;s Snake
-River. The National Park Service is
-planning for future needs. Facilities
-have not been developed. For information
-write or call, Superintendent,
-Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument,
-P.O. Box 570, Hagerman, ID
-83332, (208) 837-4793.</p>
-<p class="tb"><b>City of Rocks National Reserve</b> is a
-fascinating landscape of monoliths,
-spires, and domes used historically by
-Northern Shoshone Indians and emigrants
-on the California Trail. It has
-become a mecca for recreational rock
-climbers. Primitive facilities. For information
-write, Manager, City of Rocks
-National Reserve, P.O. Box 169, Almo,
-ID 83312.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div>
-<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Armchair Explorations</span></h2>
-<p>The nonprofit Craters of the Moon
-Natural History Association sells books,
-maps, and other publications at the
-visitor center or by mail. For a free list
-write to the park address on <a href="#Page_55">page 55</a>.
-The following selected books may also
-be of interest.</p>
-<p>Belknap, William J. &ldquo;Man on the Moon
-in Idaho,&rdquo; <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>,
-Volume 119 (October, 1960).</p>
-<p>Bonnichsen, Bill and Roy M. Breckenridge
-et al. <i>Cenozoic Geology of Idaho</i>,
-Idaho Geologic Survey, University of
-Idaho, 1982.</p>
-<p>Bullard, Fred M. <i>Volcanoes of the Earth</i>,
-University of Texas Press, 1976.</p>
-<p>Chronic, Halka. <i>Pages of Stone: The
-Geologic Story of Our Western Parks
-and Monuments</i>, The Mountaineers,
-1984.</p>
-<p>Clark, David R. <i>Craters of the Moon&mdash;Idaho&rsquo;s
-Unearthly Landscape</i>, Craters
-of the Moon Natural History Association,
-1990.</p>
-<p>Henderson, Paul A. <i>Around the Loop:
-Craters of the Moon</i>, Craters of the
-Moon Natural History Association, 1986.</p>
-<p>Limbert, Robert W. &ldquo;Among Craters of
-the Moon,&rdquo; <i>National Geographic Magazine</i>,
-Volume 45 (March, 1924).</p>
-<p>McKee, Bates. <i>Cascadia</i>, McGraw-Hill,
-1972.</p>
-<p>Moser, Don. <i>The Snake River Country</i>,
-Time-Life Books, 1974.</p>
-<p>National Aeronautics and Space Administration
-(NASA). <i>Volcanism of the
-Eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho: A
-Comparative Planetary Geology Guidebook</i>,
-Washington, D.C., 1977.</p>
-<p>Schwartz, Susan. <i>Nature in the Northwest</i>,
-Prentice-Hall, 1983.</p>
-<p class="tb"><b>Other National Park Handbooks in this
-series.</b> You might enjoy other official
-National Park Handbooks about areas
-in Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana.
-These handbooks include: Grand Teton
-National Park; Nez Perce National Historical
-Park; Devils Tower National
-Monument; and Fort Laramie National
-Historic Site.</p>
-<p>These informative handbooks are
-available at the parks or by mail from:
-Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
-Government Printing Office, Washington,
-DC 20402. For a list of handbooks
-write to: <b>National Park Service, Office
-of Information, P.O. Box 37127, Washington,
-DC 20013-7127.</b></p>
-<p class="tb">&#9733;GPO: 1990&mdash;262-098/20002</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div>
-<h2 id="c17"><span class="small">National Park Service</span>
-<br />U.S. Department of the Interior</h2>
-<p>As the Nation&rsquo;s principal conservation agency, the
-Department of the Interior has responsibility for
-most of our nationally owned public lands and
-natural resources. This includes fostering wise use of
-our land and water resources, protecting our fish and
-wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural
-values of our national parks and historical places,
-and providing for the enjoyment of life through
-outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our
-energy and mineral resources and works to assure
-that their development is in the best interest of all
-our people. The Department also promotes the goals
-of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging
-stewardship and citizen responsibility for the
-public lands and promoting citizen participation in
-their care. The Department also has major responsibility
-for American Indian reservation communities
-and for people who live in island territories under
-U.S. administration.</p>
-<p>The National Park Service expresses its appreciation
-to all those persons who made the preparation and
-production of this handbook possible. Special thanks
-are due the Craters of the Moon Natural History
-Association for financial support. Unless credited
-below, photographs and illustrations come from the
-files of Craters of the Moon National Monument and
-the National Park Service.</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>Gary Braasch <a class="pgref" href="#Page_28">28</a> top</dt>
-<dt>Bureau of Land Management <a class="pgref" href="#Page_29">29</a> top</dt>
-<dt>Vern Crawford <a class="pgref" href="#Page_30">30</a>-31</dt>
-<dt>Jeff Gnass <a class="pgref" href="#Page_4">4</a>-5, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_27">27</a> tree mold</dt>
-<dt>Charley Gurche <a class="pgref" href="#Page_10">10</a>-11, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_32">32</a>-33, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_36">36</a> monkeyflower</dt>
-<dt>Russell Lamb <a class="pgref" href="#Page_63">63</a> Nez Perce</dt>
-<dt>Roger McGehee <a class="pgref" href="#Page_30">30</a> owl</dt>
-<dt>NASA <a class="pgref" href="#Page_16">16</a> inset</dt>
-<dt>National Geographic Society <a class="pgref" href="#Page_50">50</a>-51, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_63">63</a> Grand Teton (David Alan Harvey)</dt>
-<dt>U.S. Geological Survey <a class="pgref" href="#Page_25">25</a> both</dt>
-<dt>Glenn Van Nimwegen <a class="pgref" href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_36">36</a>-37</dt>
-<dt>Williams and Heintz Map Corporation <a class="pgref" href="#Page_58">58</a></dt></dl>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding images, removing redundant references like &rdquo;preceding page&rdquo;.</li>
-<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
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