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diff --git a/old/62994-0.txt b/old/62994-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 2957d91..0000000 --- a/old/62994-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2303 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Craters of the Moon, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Craters of the Moon - A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: August 21, 2020 [EBook #62994] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRATERS OF THE MOON *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Handbook 139 - Craters of the Moon - - - A Guide to Craters of the Moon - National Monument - Idaho - - Produced by the - Division of Publications - National Park Service - - U.S. Department of the Interior - Washington, D.C. 1991 - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - - _Using This Handbook_ - -Craters of the Moon National Monument protects volcanic features of the -Craters of the Moon lava field. Part 1 of this handbook introduces the -park and recounts its early exploration. Part 2 explores how life has -adapted to the park’s volcanic landscape—and how people have perceived -it. Part 3 presents concise travel guide and reference materials for -touring the park and for camping. - -National Park Handbooks are published to support the National Park -Service’s management programs and to promote understanding and enjoyment -of the more than 350 National Park System sites, which represent -important examples of our country’s natural and cultural inheritance. -Each handbook is intended to be informative reading and a useful guide -before, during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles are in -print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased by mail from the -Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, -Washington, DC 20402. This is handbook number 139. - - - _Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data_ - -Craters of the Moon: A Guide to Craters of the Moon National Monument, -Idaho/produced by the Division of Publications, National Park Service. - - - p. cm.—(Official national park handbook; 139) - 1. Craters of the Moon National Monument (Idaho)—Guidebooks. - 2. Geology—Idaho—Craters of the Moon National Monument—Guidebooks. - I. United States National Park Service. Division of Publications. - II. Series: Handbook (United States. National Park Service. Division - of Publications); 139. - F752.C7C73 1991 917.96'59—dc20 89-13670CIP - ISBN 0-912627-44-1 - - - Part 1 Welcome to Craters of the Moon 4 - Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain 7 - Part 2 From Moonscape to Landscape 20 - Geology of the Craters of the Moon 23 - Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape 35 - Indians, Early Explorers, and Practicing Astronauts 47 - Part 3 Guide and Adviser 52 - Approaching Craters of the Moon 54 - Visitor Center and Programs 56 - Map 58 - Take the Driving Tour 59 - Camping and Backcountry Use 60 - Winter Recreation 61 - Regulations and Safety 62 - Nearby Attractions 63 - Armchair Explorations 64 - - - - - Part 1 - Welcome to Craters of the Moon - - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - [Illustration: _Rock or rope? Folds of lava rock look like coils of - irregular rope. Lava flows of this type are known as pahoehoe, a - Hawaiian word pronounced_ pah-hoy-hoy _and meaning ropey_.] - - - - - Rift Volcanism on the Snake River Plain - - -Light playing on cobalt blue lavas of the Blue Dragon Flows caught the -inner eye of explorer Robert Limbert: “It is the play of light at sunset -across this lava that charms the spectator. It becomes a twisted, wavy -sea. In the moonlight its glazed surface has a silvery sheen. With -changing conditions of light and air, it varies also, even while one -stands and watches. It is a place of color and silence....” - -Limbert explored the Craters of the Moon lava field in Idaho in the -1920s and wrote those words for a 1924 issue of _National Geographic -Magazine_. “For several years I had listened to stories told by fur -trappers of the strange things they had seen while ranging in this -region,” wrote Limbert, a sometime taxidermist, tanner, and furrier from -Boise, Idaho. “Some of these accounts seemed beyond belief.” To Limbert -it seemed extraordinary “That a region of such size and scenic -peculiarity, in the heart of the great Northwest, could have remained -practically unknown and unexplored....” On his third and most ambitious -trek, in 1924, Limbert and W. C. Cole were at times left speechless by -the lava landscape they explored. Limbert recounted his impressions in -magazine and newspaper articles whose publication was influential in the -area’s being protected under federal ownership. In 1924, part of the -lava field was proclaimed as Craters of the Moon National Monument, -protected under the Antiquities Act. It was created “to preserve the -unusual and weird volcanic formations.” The boundary has been adjusted -and the park enlarged since then. In 1970, a large part of the national -monument was designated by Congress as the Craters of the Moon -Wilderness. It is further protected under the National Wilderness -Preservation System. - -Until 1986, little was known about Limbert except for those facts -recounted above. That year, however, a researcher compiling a history of -the national monument located Limbert’s daughter in Boise. The daughter -still possessed hundreds of items, including early glass plate -negatives, photographs, and manuscripts of her father and that shed more -light on his life, the early days of Idaho, and Craters of the Moon. -Some of these photographs served as blueprints for the National Park -Service in the rehabilitation of fragile spatter cone formations that -have deteriorated over the years of heavy human traffic. The Limbert -collection has been fully cataloged by Boise State University curators -and has already proven to be a valuable resource to historians -interested in Limbert and this fascinating part of Idaho. Preservation -of the area owes much to Limbert’s imaginative advocacy in the true -spirit of the West in its earlier days. - -Local legends, beginning in the late 1800s, held that this area -resembled the surface of the moon, on which—it must now be remembered—no -one had then walked! Geologist Harold T. Stearns first used the name -Craters of the Moon when he suggested to the National Park Service, in -1923, that a national monument be established here. Stearns found “the -dark craters and the cold lava, nearly destitute of vegetation” similar -to “the surface of the moon as seen through a telescope.” The name -Craters of the Moon would stick after Limbert adopted it in _National -Geographic Magazine_ in 1924. Later that year the name became official -when the area was set aside by President Calvin Coolidge as a national -monument under the Antiquities Act. - -Like some other areas in the National Park System, Craters of the Moon -has lived to see the name that its early explorers affixed to it proved -somewhat erroneous by subsequent events or findings. When Stearns and -Limbert called this lava field Craters of the Moon, probably few persons -other than science fiction buffs actually thought that human beings -might one day walk on the moon and see firsthand what its surface is -like. People have now walked on the moon, however, and we know that its -surface does not, in fact, closely resemble this part of Idaho. Although -there are some volcanic features on the surface of the moon, most of its -craters were formed by the impact of meteorites colliding with the moon. - -Moonscape or not, early fur trappers avoided the lava flows along the -base of the Pioneer Mountains at the north of today’s park. In doing so, -they followed Indian trails such as one found by Limbert that “resembled -a light streak winding through the lava. When the sun was directly -overhead it could be seen to advantage, but at times was difficult to -follow. Think of the years of travel,” Limbert marveled, “necessary to -make that mark on rock!” At least one Indian trail was destined to -become part of Goodale’s Cutoff, an alternative route on the Oregon -Trail that pioneers in wagon trains used in the 1850s and 1860s. Many -adjectives early used for this scene—weird, barren, exciting, -awe-inspiring, monotonous, astonishing, curious, bleak, mysterious—still -apply. It is not difficult today to see why pioneering folk intent on -wresting a living from the land did not tackle this volcanic terrain. - -Geologists possessed the proper motivation to tackle it, however. -Curiosity aroused by this lava field has led several generations of -geologists, beginning with Israel C. Russell in 1901 and Harold T. -Stearns in the 1920s, into a deeper understanding of its volcanic -origins. With ever increasing penetration of its geological history, the -apparent otherworldliness of Craters of the Moon has retreated—but not -entirely. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) -brought the second set of astronauts who would walk on the moon to this -alien corner of the galaxy before their moonshot. Here they studied the -volcanic rock and explored an unusual, harsh, and unforgiving -environment before embarking on their own otherworldly adventure. - -Most types of volcanic features in the park can be seen quite readily by -first stopping at the visitor center and then driving the Loop Road. Far -more features can be seen if you also walk the interpretive trails at -the stops along the Loop Road. Still more await those who invest the -time required to come to feel the mysterious timelessness and raw -natural force implicit in this expansive lava field. Many travelers are -en route to Yellowstone National Park and spend only a couple of hours -visiting Craters of the Moon. This is ironic because here you are on the -geological track of Yellowstone. In fact, Craters of the Moon represents -what Yellowstone’s landscape will resemble in the future, and both areas -can supplement your insight into what happens when the Earth’s -unimaginable inner forces erupt to its surface. - - [Illustration: _Silvery leaves of the buckwheat dot a cinder garden - with such regular spacing they almost look planted. Such spacing - results from the shortage of available surface water: Each plant - controls with its roots the space surrounding it, discouraging - competing plants. Rainwater and snowmelt penetrate volcanic cinders - so readily that their moisture quickly drops beyond reach of most - plants’ root systems. For a close-up view of a buckwheat, see page - 36._] - -Although Idaho is famous for forests, rivers, and scenic mountain -wilderness, its Snake River Plain region boasts little of these -attributes. This plain arcs across southern Idaho from the Oregon border -to the Yellowstone area at the Montana-Wyoming border. It marks the -trail of the passage of the Earth’s crust over an unusual geologic heat -source that now brings the Earth’s incendiary inner workings so close to -its surface near Yellowstone. This heat source fuels Yellowstone’s -bubbling, spewing, spouting geothermal wonders. Craters of the Moon -therefore stands as a geologic prelude to Yellowstone, as its precursor -and the ancestral stuff of its fiery secrets. - -When did all this volcanism at Craters of the Moon happen? Will it -happen again? According to Mel Kuntz and other U.S. Geological Survey -geologists who have conducted extensive field research at Craters of the -Moon, the volcanic activity forming the Craters of the Moon lava field -probably started _only_ 15,000 years ago. The last eruption in the -volcanic cycle ended 2,000 years ago, about the time that Julius Caesar -ruled the Roman Empire. - -Craters of the Moon is a dormant, but not extinct, volcanic area. Its -sleeping volcanoes could become active again in the near future. The -largest earthquake of the last quarter century in the contiguous United -States shook Idaho’s tallest mountain, Borah Peak, just north of here in -1983. When it did, some geologists wondered if it might initiate -volcanic activity at Craters of the Moon. It did not. According to -Kuntz, however, this is no reason not to expect another volcanic -eruption here _soon_—probably “within the next 1,000 years.” Part Two of -this handbook explores the still young and rapidly evolving -understanding of the fascinating geologic story of Craters of the Moon. - -Today’s Craters of the Moon National Monument encompasses 83 square -miles of the much larger Craters of the Moon lava field. Reaching -southeastward from the Pioneer Mountains, the park boundary encloses a -series of fissure vents, volcanic cones, and lava flows known as the -Great Rift volcanic zone. This volcanic rift zone is a line of weakness -in the Earth’s crust that can be traced for some 60 miles across the -Snake River Plain. Recent volcanism marks much of its length. You can -explore the Great Rift and some of its volcanic features via the park’s -7-mile Loop Drive, as described in Part Three of this handbook. In the -park’s northern part you will find spatter cones, cinder cones, lava -flows, lava caves, and an unexpected variety of wildflowers, shrubs, -trees, and wild animals. The much larger southern part of the park, -designated by Congress in 1970 as the Craters of the Moon Wilderness -Area, is a vast and largely untraveled region of stark volcanic features -flanking the Great Rift. It offers a challenge to serious hikers and -explorers—latter day Robert Limberts—who are prepared for rugged -wilderness travel. - -Despite its seeming barrenness, Craters of the Moon is indeed home to a -surprising diversity of plant and animal life. As Limbert noted in 1924: -“In the West the term ‘Lava Beds of Idaho’ has always signified a region -to be shunned by even the most venturesome travelers—a land supposedly -barren of vegetation, destitute of water, devoid of animal life, and -lacking in scenic interest. - -“In reality the region has slight resemblance to its imagined aspect. -Its vegetation is mostly hidden in pockets, but when found consists of -pines, cedars, junipers, and sagebrush: its water is hidden deep in -tanks or holes at the bottom of large ‘blow-outs’ and is found only by -following old Indian or mountain sheep trails or by watching the flight -of birds as they drop into these places to quench their thirst. The -animal life consists principally of migrant birds, rock rabbits, -woodchucks, black and grizzly bears: its scenery is impressive in its -grandeur.” - -Years of patient record-keeping by scientists have fit numbers to -Limbert’s perceptive observations. The number of species identified -includes more than 300 plants, 2,000 insects, 8 reptiles, 140 birds, 30 -mammals—and one amphibian, the western toad. We now call Limbert’s “rock -rabbit” the pika. The grizzly is long gone here. With few exceptions, -the park’s denizens live mostly under conditions of great environmental -stress. - -Near constant winds, breeze-to-gale in strength, sweep across the park -to rob moisture from all living things. Scant soils, low levels of -precipitation, the inability of cinder cones to hold rainwater near the -surface, and the heat of the summer sun—intensified by heat-absorbing -black lavas—only aggravate such moisture theft. Cinder surfaces register -summer soil temperatures of over 150°F and show a lack of plant cover. -Plants cover generally less than 5 percent of the total surface of the -cinder cones. A recent study found that when the area is looked at on a -parkwide basis, most of the land is very sparsely vegetated (less than -15 percent vegetative cover). On a scale of sand trap to putting green, -this would approach the sand trap end of the scale. - - [Illustration: _Winter snow transforms these landscapes, smoothing - out both contours and the jagged edges of lavas. Less lunar in - appearance now, the park nonetheless maintains an otherworldly - aura._] - - [Illustration: _The park was named in 1924, 45 years before humans - walked on the Moon. Although we now know more about the Moon’s - actual surface, the park’s name still rings true. Only a few trees - immediately suggest that the large photo was taken on Earth. In the - inset photo, astronaut Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin walks on the Moon near - the lunar module._] - -Into this difficult environment wildlife researcher Brad Griffith -ventured to count, mark, and scrutinize the mule deer of Craters of the -Moon in May 1980. Griffith, of the University of Idaho, conducted a -three-year study of the park’s mule deer population because the National -Park Service was concerned that this protected and productive herd might -multiply so much that it would eventually damage its habitat. Among -other things, he would find that the herd has developed a drought -evasion strategy that makes it behave unlike any mule deer population -known anywhere else. - -“By late summer,” Griffith explains, “plants have matured and dried so -that they no longer provide adequate moisture to sustain the deer in -this landscape that offers them no free water. Following about 12 days -of warm nights and hot days in late July, the deer migrate from 5 to 10 -miles north to the Pioneer Mountains. There they find free-flowing -creeks and the cool, moist shade of aspen and Douglas-fir groves and -wait out summer’s worst heat and dryness. Early fall rains trigger the -deer’s return to the park’s wilderness from this oasis in late September -to feed on the nutritious bitterbrush until November snowfalls usher -them back to their winter range.” - -The pristine and high-quality forage of the Craters of the Moon -Wilderness Area, historically nearly untouched by domestic livestock -grazing, has inspired this migratory strategy for evading drought. In -effect, the mule deer make use of a dual summer range, a behavioral -modification unknown elsewhere for their species. - -“Their late summer and fall adaptations simply complete the mule deer’s -yearlong strategy for coping with the limits that this volcanic -landscape imposes on them,” Griffith explains. - -Taking a walk in the park on a mid-summer afternoon gives you a good -opportunity to experience the influence of wind, heat, and lack of -moisture. The park’s winds are particularly striking. The lava that has -flowed out of the Great Rift has built up and raised the land surface in -the park to a higher elevation than its surroundings so that it -intercepts the prevailing southwesterly winds. Afternoon winds usually -die down in the evening. As part of the dynamics of temperature and -moisture that determine mule deer behavior, this daily wind cycle helps -explain why they are more active at night than are mule deer elsewhere. -These deer do not move around as much as mule deer in less ecologically -trying areas. They have adapted behaviors to conserve energy and -moisture in this environmentally stressful landscape. - -Early mornings may find park rangers climbing up a cinder cone to count -the deer, continuing the collection of data that Brad Griffith set in -motion with his three-year study. The rangers still conduct spring and -late summer censuses: over a recent three-year period the deer -populations averaged about 420 animals. Another several years of -collecting will give the National Park Service a body of data on the -mule deer that is available nowhere else. - -The uniqueness of this data about the park’s mule deer population would -surely please the booster aspect of Robert Limbert’s personality. -Likewise, the research challenges involved in obtaining it would appeal -to his explorer self. History has justified Limbert on both counts. -Publicity arising from his explorations led to creation of the national -monument. Furthermore, that publicity put forth a rather heady claim -that history has also unequivocally borne out: “Although almost totally -unknown at present,” Limbert prophesied in 1924, “this section is -destined some day to attract tourists from all America....” - -Every year tens of thousands of travelers fulfill Robert Limbert’s -prophecy of more than a half-century ago. - - - - - Part 2 - From Moonscape to Landscape - - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - [Illustration: _What last happened here about 2,000 years ago looked - much like this photograph of a volcanic eruption in Hawaii. - Bubbling, pooling, and flowing lava blanketed the landscape as - molten materials poured or gushed out of the Earth. Most volcanic - phenomena preserved at Craters of the Moon have been seen in action - in Hawaii._] - - - - - Geology of the Craters of the Moon - - -A 400-mile-long arc known as the Snake River Plain cuts a swath from 30 -to 125 miles wide across southern Idaho. Idaho’s official state highway -map, which depicts mountains with shades of green, shows this arc as -white because there is comparatively little variation here compared to -most of the state. Upon this plain, immense amounts of lava from within -the Earth have been deposited by volcanic activity dating back more than -14 million years. However, some of these lavas, notably those at Craters -of the Moon National Monument, emerged from the Earth as recently as -2,000 years ago. Craters of the Moon contains some of the best examples -of basaltic volcanism in the world. To understand what happened here, -you must understand the Snake River Plain. - -Basaltic and Rhyolitic Lavas. The lavas deposited on the Snake River -Plain were mainly of two types classified as basaltic and rhyolitic. -Magma, the molten rock material beneath the surface of the Earth, issues -from a volcano as lava. The composition of this fluid rock material -varies. Basaltic lavas are composed of magma originating at the boundary -of the Earth’s mantle and its crustal layer. Rhyolitic lavas originate -from crustal material. To explain its past, geologists now divide the -Snake River Plain into eastern and western units. The following geologic -story relates to the eastern Snake River Plain, on which Craters of the -Moon lies. - -On the eastern Snake River Plain, basaltic and rhyolitic lavas formed in -two different stages of volcanic activity. Younger basaltic lavas mostly -lie atop older rhyolitic lavas. This portion of the plain runs from -north of Twin Falls eastward to the Yellowstone area on the -Wyoming-Montana border. Drilling to depths of almost 2 miles near the -plain’s midline, geologists found ½ mile of basaltic lava flows lying -atop more than 1½ miles of rhyolitic lava flows. How much deeper the -rhyolitic lavas may extend is not known. No one has drilled deeper here. - - [Illustration: _Crossing Idaho in an arc, the Snake River Plain - marks the path of the Earth’s crustal plate as it migrates over a - heat source unusually close to the surface. It is believed that the - heat source fueling Yellowstone’s thermal features today is - essentially the same one that produced volcanic episodes at Craters - of the Moon ending about 2,000 years ago._] - -This combination—a thinner layer of younger basaltic lavas lying atop an -older and thicker layer of rhyolitic lavas—is typical of volcanic -activity associated with an unusual heat phenomenon inside the Earth -that some geologists have described as a mantle plume. The mantle plume -theory was developed in the early 1970s as an explanation for the -creation of the Hawaiian Islands. According to the theory, uneven -heating within the Earth’s core allows some material in the overlying -mantle to become slightly hotter than surrounding material. As its -temperature increases, its density decreases. Thus it becomes relatively -buoyant and rises through the cooler materials—like a tennis ball -released underwater—toward the Earth’s crust. When this molten material -reaches the crust it eventually melts and pushes itself through the -crust and it erupts onto the Earth’s surface as molten lava. - -The Earth’s crust is made up of numerous plates that float upon an -underlying mantle layer. Therefore, over time, the presence of an -unusual heat source created by a mantle plume will be expressed at the -Earth’s surface—floating in a constant direction above it—as a line of -volcanic eruptions. The Snake River Plain records the progress of the -North American crustal plate—350 miles in 15 million years—over a heat -source now located below Yellowstone. The Hawaiian chain of islands -marks a similar line. Because the mechanisms that cause this geologic -action are not well understood, many geologists refer to this simply as -a heat source rather than a mantle plume. - -Two Stages of Volcanism. As described above, volcanic eruptions -associated with this heat source occur in two stages, rhyolitic and -basaltic. As the upwelling magma from the mantle collects in a chamber -as it enters the Earth’s lower crust, its heat begins to melt the -surrounding crustal rock. Since this rock contains a large amount of -silica, it forms a thick and pasty rhyolitic magma. Rhyolitic magma is -lighter than the overlying crustal rocks, therefore, it begins to rise -and form a second magma chamber very close to the Earth’s surface. As -more and more of this gas-charged rhyolitic magma collects in this upper -crustal chamber, the gas pressure builds to a point at which the magma -explodes through the Earth’s crust. - -Explosive Rhyolitic Volcanism. Rhyolitic explosions tend to be -devastating. When the gas-charged molten material reaches the surface of -the Earth, the gas expands rapidly, perhaps as much as 25 to 75 times by -volume. The reaction is similar to the bubbles that form in a bottle of -soda pop that has been shaken. You can shake the container and the -pressure-bottled liquid will retain its volume as long as the cap is -tightly sealed. Release the pressure by removing the bottle cap, -however, and the soft drink will spray all over the room and occupy a -volume of space far larger than the bottle from which it issued. This -initial vast spray is then followed by a foaming action as the less -gas-charged liquid now bubbles out of the bottle. - -Collectively, the numerous rhyolitic explosions that occurred on the -Snake River Plain ejected hundreds of cubic miles of material into the -atmosphere and onto the Earth’s surface. In contrast, the eruption of -Mount Saint Helens in 1980, which killed 65 people and devastated 150 -square miles of forest, produced less than 1 cubic mile of ejected -material. So much material was ejected in the massive rhyolitic -explosions in the Snake River Plain that the Earth’s surface collapsed -to form huge depressions known as calderas. (Like _caldron_, whose root -meaning it shares, this name implies both bowl-shaped and warmed.) Most -evidence of these gigantic explosive volcanoes in the Snake River Plain -has been covered by subsequent flows of basaltic lava. However, traces -of rhyolitic eruptions are found along the margins of the plain and in -the Yellowstone area. - -Quiet Outpourings of Basaltic Lava. As this area of the Earth’s crust -passed over and then beyond the sub-surface heat source, the explosive -volcanism of the rhyolitic stage ceased. The heat contained in the -Earth’s upper mantle and crust, however, remained and continued to -produce upwelling magma. This was basaltic magma that, because it -contained less silica than rhyolite, was very fluid. - -The basalt, like the rhyolite, collected in isolated magma chambers -within the crust until pressures built up to force it to the surface -through various cracks and fissures. These weak spots in the Earth’s -crust were the results of earlier geologic activity, expansion of the -magma chamber, or the formation of a rift zone. - - [Illustration: _Microscopic cross section of basaltic rock._] - - [Illustration: _Microscopic cross section of rhyolitic rock. Cross - sections show vastly different textures. Rhyolitic magma contains - more silica; it is very thick and does not allow trapped gas to - escape easily. Its volcanic eruptions blast large craters in the - Earth’s crust. Basaltic magma is more fluid and allows gas to escape - readily. It erupts more gently. Here in the eastern Snake River - Plain, basaltic lava flows almost completely cover earlier rhyolitic - deposits._] - -(_continued on page 28_) - - - Identifying the Lava Flows - - At Craters of the Moon the black rocks are lava flows. The surface - lava rocks, basaltic in composition, formed from magma originating - deep in the Earth. They are named for their appearances: Pahoehoe - (pronounced “pah-hoy-hoy” and meaning “ropey”), Aa (pronounced “ah-ah” - and meaning “rough”), or Blocky. Geologists have seen how these flows - behave in modern volcanic episodes in Hawaii and elsewhere. - - [Illustration: _Pahoehoe lava_] - - Pahoehoe More than half the park is covered by pahoehoe lava flows. - Rivers of molten rock, they harden quickly to a relatively smooth - surface, billowly, hummocky, or flat. Other pahoehoe formations - resemble coiled, heavy rope or ice jams. - - [Illustration: _Aa lava_] - - Aa Aa flows are far more rugged than pahoehoe flows. Most occur when a - pahoehoe flow cools, thickens, and then turns into aa. Often - impassable to those traveling afoot, aa flows quickly chew up hiking - boots. Blocky lava is a variety of aa lava whose relatively large - silica content makes it thick and often dense, glassy, and smooth. - - [Illustration: _Blocky lava_] - - Bombs Lava pieces blown out of craters may solidify in flight. They - are classed by shape: spindle, ribbon, and breadcrust. Bombs range - from ½ inch to more than 3 feet long. - - Tree Molds When molten lava advances on a living forest, resulting - tree molds may record impressions of charred surfaces of trees in the - lava. - - [Illustration: _Blue Dragon Flows lava_] - - [Illustration: _Breadcrust bomb_] - - [Illustration: _Spindle bomb_] - - [Illustration: _Wood-like lava_] - - [Illustration: _Tree mold_] - - [Illustration: _Lava river_] - - [Illustration: _Mt. St. Helens erupts in 1980. Because the lava - contained a large amount of silica, its explosive eruption contrasts - sharply with recent basaltic flows in volcanic activity in Hawaii._] - - [Illustration: Basaltic flows in Hawaii.] - -Upon reaching the surface, the gases contained within the lava easily -escaped and produced rather mild eruptions. Instead of exploding into -the air like earlier rhyolitic activity, the more fluid basaltic lava -flooded out onto the surrounding landscape. These flows were fairly -extensive and often covered many square miles. After millions of years, -most of the older rhyolitic deposits have been covered by these basaltic -lava flows. - -The Great Rift and Craters of the Moon. Craters of the Moon National -Monument lies along a volcanic rift zone. Rift zones occur where the -Earth’s crust is being pulled in opposite directions. Geologists believe -that the interactions of the Earth’s crustal plates in the vicinity of -the Snake River Plain have stretched, thinned, and weakened the Earth’s -crust so that cracks have formed both on and below the surface here. -Magma under pressure can follow these cracks and fissures to the -surface. While there are many volcanic rift zones throughout the Snake -River Plain, the most extensive is the Great Rift that runs through -Craters of the Moon. The Great Rift is approximately 60 miles long and -it ranges in width from 1½ to 5 miles. It is marked by short cracks—less -than 1 mile in length—and the alignment of more than 25 volcanic cinder -cones. It is the site of origin for more than 60 different lava flows -that make up the Craters of the Moon Lava Field. - -Eight Major Eruptive Periods. Most of the lavas exposed at Craters of -the Moon formed between 2,000 and 15,000 years ago in basaltic eruptions -that comprise the second stage of volcanism associated with the mantle -plume theory. These eight eruptive periods each lasted about 1,000 years -or less and were separated by periods of relative calm that lasted for a -few hundred to more than 2,000 years. These sequences of eruptions and -calm periods are caused by the alternating build up and release of -magmatic pressure inside the Earth. Once an eruption releases this -pressure, time is required for it to build up again. - -Eruptions have been dated by two methods: paleomagnetic and radiocarbon -dating. Paleomagnetic dating compares the alignment of magnetic minerals -within the rock of flows with past orientations of the Earth’s magnetic -fields. Radiocarbon dating makes use of radioactive carbon-14 in -charcoal created from vegetation that is overrun by lava flows. Dates -obtained by both methods are considered to be accurate to within about -100 years. - -A Typical Eruption at Craters of the Moon. Research at the monument and -observations of similar eruptions in Hawaii and Iceland suggest the -following scenario for a typical eruption at Craters of the Moon. -Various forces combine to cause a section of the Great Rift to pull -apart. When the forces that tend to pull the Earth’s crust apart are -combined with the forces created as magma accumulates, the crust becomes -weakened and cracks form. As the magma rises buoyantly within these -cracks, the pressure exerted on it is reduced and the gases within the -magma begin to expand. As gas continues to expand, the magma becomes -frothy. - -At first the lava is very fluid and charged with gas. Eruptions begin as -a long line of fountains that reach heights of 1,000 feet or less and -are up to a mile in length. This “curtain of fire eruption” mainly -produces cinders and frothy, fluid lava. After hours or days, the -expansion of gases decreases and eruptions become less violent. Segments -of the fissure seal off and eruptions become smaller and more localized. -Cinders thrown up in the air now build piles around individual vents and -form cinder cones. - -With further reductions in the gas content of the magma, the volcanic -activity again changes. Huge outpourings of lava are pumped out of the -various fissures or the vents of cinder cones and form lava flows. Lava -flows may form over periods of months or possibly a few years. Long-term -eruptions of lava flows from a single vent become the source of most of -the material produced during a sustained eruption. As gas pressure falls -and magma is depleted, flows subside. Finally, all activity stops. - -When Will the Next Eruption Occur? Craters of the Moon is not an extinct -volcanic area. It is merely in a dormant stage of its eruptive sequence. -By dating the lava flow, geologists have shown that the volcanic -activity along the Great Rift has been persistent over the last 15,000 -years, occurring approximately every 2,000 years. Because the last -eruptions took place about 2,000 years ago, geologists believe that -eruptions are due here again—probably within the next 1,000 years. - - [Illustration: _From the air the Great Rift looks like an - irregularly dashed line punctuated by tell-tale cones and craters._] - - [Illustration: _Chainlike, the Hawaiian group of islands traces the - migration of Earth’s crustal plate over an unusual undersea heat - source. The Hawaiian chain of islands and the Snake River Plain map - similar happenings._] - -(_continued on page 34_) - - - Indian Tunnel - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - Indian Tunnel looks like a cave, but it is a lava tube. When a - pahoehoe lava flow is exposed to the air, its surface begins to cool - and harden. A crust or skin develops. As the flow moves away from its - source, the crust thickens and forms an insulating barrier between - cool air and molten material in the flow’s interior. A rigid roof now - exists over the stream of lava whose molten core moves forward at a - steady pace. As the flow of lava from the source vent is depleted, the - level of lava within the molten core gradually begins to drop. The - flowing interior then pulls away from the hardening roof above and - slowly drains away and out. The roof and last remnants of the lava - river inside it cool and harden, leaving a tube. - - [Illustration: _Lava tube_] - - [Illustration: _Great horned owl_] - - Many lava tubes make up the Indian Tunnel Lava Tube System. These - tubes formed during the same eruption within a single lava flow whose - source was a fissure or crack in the Big Craters/Spatter Cones area. A - tremendous amount of lava was pumped out here, forming the Blue Dragon - Flows. (Hundreds of tiny crystals on its surface produce the color - blue when light strikes them.) Lava forced through the roof of the - tube system formed huge ponds whose surfaces cooled and began to - harden. Later these ponds collapsed as lava drained back into the lava - tubes. Big Sink is the largest of these collapses. Blue Dragon Flows - cover an area of more than 100 square miles. Hidden beneath are miles - of lava tubes, but collapsed roof sections called skylights provide - entry to only a small part of the system. Only time, with the collapse - of more roofs, will reveal the total extent of the system. - - [Illustration: _Icicles (ice stalactites)_] - - [Illustration: _Lava stalactites_] - - Stalactites Dripped from hot ceilings, lava forms stalactites that - hang from above. Mineral deposits Sulfate compounds formed on many - lava tube ceilings from volcanic gases or by evaporation of matter - leached from rocks above. Ice In spring, ice stalactites form on cave - ceilings and walls. Ice stalagmites form on the cave floor. Summer - heat destroys these features. Wildlife Lava tube beetles, bushy-tailed - woodrats (packrats), and bats live in some dark caves. Violet-green - swallows, great horned owls, and ravens may use wall cracks and - shelves of well-lit caves for nesting sites. - - - Cinder Cones and Spatter Cones - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - [Illustration: _Cinder cone_] - - [Illustration: _Spatter cone_] - - Cinder Cones When volcanic eruptions of fairly moderate strength throw - cinders into the air, cinder cones may be built up. These cone-shaped - hills are usually truncated, looking as though their tops were sliced - off. Usually, a bowl- or funnel-shaped crater will form inside the - cone. Cinders, which cooled rapidly while falling through the air, are - highly porous with gas vesicles, like bubbles. Cinder cones hundreds - of feet high may be built in a few days. Big Cinder Butte is a cinder - cone. At 700 feet high it is the tallest cone in the park. The shape - develops because the largest fragments, and in fact most of the - fragments, fall closest to the vent. The angle of slope is usually - about 30 degrees. Some cinder cones, such as North Crater, the - Watchman, and Sheep Trail Butte, were built by more than one eruptive - episode. Younger lava was added to them as a vent was rejuvenated. If - strong winds prevailed during a cinder cone’s formation, the cone may - be elongated—in the direction the wind was blowing—rather than - circular. Grassy, Paisley, Sunset, and Inferno Cones are elongated to - the east because the dominant winds in this area come from the west. - The northernmost section of the Great Rift contains the most cinder - cones for three reasons: 1. There were more eruptions at that end of - the rift. 2. The lavas erupted there were thicker, resulting in more - explosive eruptions. (They are more viscous because they contain more - silica.) 3. Large amounts of groundwater may have been present at the - northern boundary of the lavas and when it came in contact with magma - it generated huge amounts of steam. All of these conditions lead to - more extensive and more explosive eruptions that tend to create cinder - cones rather than lava flows. - - Spatter Cones When most of its gas content has dissipated, lava - becomes less frothy and more tacky. Then it is tossed out of the vent - as globs or clots of lava paste called spatter. The clots partially - weld together to build up spatter cones. Spatter cones are typically - much smaller than cinder cones, but they may have steeper sides. The - Spatter Cones area of the park (Stop 5 on the map of the Loop Drive) - contains one of the most perfect spatter-cone chains in the world. - These cones are all less than 50 feet high and less than 100 feet in - diameter. - - [Illustration: _Lichens often pioneer new life on Earth. Two plants - in one, lichens are composed of an alga and a fungus growing - together to their mutual benefit, usually on rock. Hardy and - slow-growing, lichens help break down rock to soil-building mineral - matter._ - - _Eventually their vegetable matter decays, helping to form the first - soils that other plants can then use. Tough in the extreme, some - lichens can be heated to high temperatures and still be capable of - resuming normal growth when returned to viable conditions._] - - - - - Life Adapts to a Volcanic Landscape - - -Two thousand years after volcanic eruptions subsided, plants and animals -still struggle to gain toeholds on this unforgiving lava field. Much of -the world’s vegetation could not survive here at all. Environmental -stresses created by scant soil and minimal moisture are compounded by -highly porous cinders that are incapable of holding water near the -ground surface where plants and other organisms can make ready use of -it. Scarce at best—total average precipitation is between 15 to 20 -inches per year—rainwater and snowmelt quickly slip down out of reach of -the plants growing on cinder cones. Summer’s hot, dry winds rob moisture -from all living things exposed to them. Whisking across leaves and -needles the winds carry away moisture precious to plant tissues. On the -side of a cinder cone, summer day temperatures at ground level can be -more than 150°F. - -The secret to survival here is adaptation. Most life forms cope by -strategies of either resisting or evading the extremes of this semi-arid -climate. To resist being robbed of moisture by winds and heat, a plant -may feature very small leaves that minimize moisture loss. To evade -heat, wind, and aridity, another plant may grow inside a crevice that -provides life-giving shade and collects precious moisture and soil -particles. Another plant may spend about 95 percent of the year dormant. -It may rush through the germination, sprouting, leafing out, blooming, -and fruiting stages and return to the dormancy of its seed stage in just -two weeks. The dwarf buckwheat has adapted to life on porous cinders by -evolving a root system that may spread out for up to 3 feet to support -its aboveground part, which is a mere 4 inches high. This buckwheat only -looks like a dwarf because you can not see its roots. - - (_continued on page 40_) - - - Plants Adapt to a Volcanic Landscape - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - Water is the limiting factor in plant growth and reproduction both on - the lava fields of Craters of the Moon and on the surrounding - sagebrush steppe. Plants have developed a combination of adaptations - to cope with drought conditions. There are three major strategies: - - 1. Drought tolerance Physiological adaptations leading to drought - tolerance are typical of desert plant species. The tissues of some - plants can withstand extreme dehydration without suffering permanent - cell damage. Some plants can extract water from very dry soils. - Sagebrush and antelope bitterbrush exemplify drought tolerance. - - [Illustration: _Dwarf monkeyflower_] - - [Illustration: _Buckwheat_] - - 2. Drought avoidance Certain structural modifications can enable - plants to retain or conserve water. Common adaptations of this type - include small leaves, hairiness, and succulence. The small leaves of - the antelope bitterbrush expose less area to evaporative influences - such as heat and wind. Hairs on the scorpionweed reduce surface - evaporation by inhibiting air flow and reflecting sunlight. Succulent - plants such as pricklypear cactus have tissues that can store water - for use during drought periods. Other plants, such as wire lettuce, - avoid drought by having very little leaf surface compared to their - overall volume. - - 3. Drought escape Some plants, such as mosses and ferns, escape - drought by growing near persistent water supplies such as natural - potholes and seeps from ice caves. Many other drought escapers, such - as dwarf monkeyflower, simply carry out their full life cycle during - the moist time of the year. The rest of the year they survive in seed - form. - - [Illustration: _Pricklypear cactus_] - - [Illustration: _Ferns_] - - - Plant Microhabitats - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - Lava flows Most plants cannot grow on lava flows until enough soil has - accumulated to support them. The park’s older volcanic landscapes, - where soils are best developed, are clothed with sagebrush-grassland - vegetation. On younger lava flows, bits of soil first accumulate in - cracks, joints, and crevices. It is in these microhabitats that - vascular plants may gain footholds. Narrow cracks and joints may - contain desert parsley and lava phlox. Shallow crevices will hold - scabland penstemon, fernleaf fleabane, and gland cinquefoil. Deep - crevices can support the syringa, various ferns, bush rockspirea, - tansybush, and even limber pine. Not until full soil cover is achieved - can the antelope bitterbrush, rubber rabbitbrush, and sagebrush find - suitable niches. On lava flows soils first form from eroded lava and - the slow decomposition of lichens and other plants able to colonize - bare rock. These soils can be supplemented by wind-blown soil - particles until vascular plants gain footholds. As plants begin to - grow and then die, their gradual decomposition adds further soil - matter. These soil beginnings accumulate in cracks and crevices, which - also provide critical shade and wind protection. Deep crevices provide - lower temperatures favoring plant survival. - - [Illustration: _Rubber rabbitbrush_] - - [Illustration: _Syringa_] - - Cinder gardens Compared to the lava flows, cinder cones are much more - quickly invaded by plants. Here, too, however, volcanic origins - influence plant growth. Compared to the relatively level lava flows, - steeply sloping cinder cones introduce a new factor that controls the - development of plant communities: topography. Here you find marked - differences in the plant communities between the north- and - south-facing slopes. South-facing slopes are exposed to prolonged, - intense sunlight, resulting in high evaporation of water. Because of - the prevailing winds, snow accumulates on northeast sides of cones, - giving them far more annual water than southwest-facing sides receive. - The pioneering herbs that first colonize cinder cones will persist on - southwest-facing slopes long after succeeding plant communities have - come to dominate north-facing slopes. It is on these north-facing - slopes that limber pine first develops in the cinder garden. - South-facing slopes may never support the limber pine but may be - dominated by shrubs. Unweathered cinder particles range in size from 3 - to 4 inches in diameter down to very small particles. They average - about ¼ inch in diameter. - - [Illustration: _Cinquefoil_] - - [Illustration: _Wire lettuce_] - -Ecological conditions at Craters of the Moon are generally so harsh that -slight changes can make the difference for the survival of a plant or -other organism. Life thrives in many rock crevices that are surrounded -by barren exposed lava rock of the same physical composition. These -microhabitats provide the critical shade and increased soil and moisture -content required for plant survival. Over the years, particles of soil -will naturally collect in rock crevices, which also have the effect of -funneling precipitation into their depths. Their shade further protects -these pockets of soil and water from wind erosion, excessive heat, and -evaporation and leaching by direct sunlight. - - [Illustration: _Limber pines are the tree pioneers of the lava - terrain. Their seedlings often find suitable conditions for - germination in rock crevices long before surrounding landscapes - support tree growth. Most common of all the park’s trees, limber - pine is named for its flexible branches. Many park animals depend on - this tree in some fashion for their livelihoods._] - - [Illustration: _Limber pine cones stay green and resinous through - their first year of development and then turn brown and woody as - their seeds mature in the second year. Cones grow to about 4 inches - long._] - -At Craters of the Moon, crevices are of such importance to plants that -botanists differentiate between narrow, shallow, and deep crevices when -studying this phenomenon. Narrow crevices will support dwarf goldenweed -or hairy goldaster. Shallow crevices support scabland penstemon, -fernleaf fleabane, and gland cinquefoil. Deep crevices give rise to -syringa, ferns, bush rockspirea, tansybush, Lewis mockorange, and even -the limber pine tree. Complete soil cover and then vegetative cover can -develop on these lava flows only after crevices have first become filled -with soil. - -Plants exploit other means of protection to survive in this harsh -environment. Shaded and wind-sheltered, the northern side of a cinder -cone can support grass, shrubs, and limber pine trees while the cone’s -southern face supports only scattered herbs. Most cinder cones in the -park show distinct differences of plant cover between their northern and -southern exposures. Northern exposures are cooler and more moist than -southern exposures, which receive far more direct sunlight. In addition, -here at Craters of the Moon, the prevailing southwesterly winds compound -the ability of the dry heat to rob porous cinder cone surfaces and their -living organisms of precious moisture. - -The build-up of successive lava flows has so raised the landscape that -it now intercepts wind currents that operate higher above surrounding -plains. Limber pine trees find footholds on the shaded and sheltered -northern exposures of cinder cones. Bitterbrush and rabbitbrush shrubs -that can barely survive on the lower skirts of a cinder cone’s southern -side may grow two-thirds of the way up its protected northern face. For -many species of plants the limits of habitability on this volcanic -landscape are narrowly defined. Very small variations in their -situations can determine success or failure. - -Travelers often ask park rangers whether or not some of the park’s -plants were planted by people. The plants in question are dwarf -buckwheats and grow in cinder gardens. It is their incredibly even -spacing that creates an orderliness that is easy to mistake for human -design. The regular spacing comes about because of the competition for -moisture, however. The root systems of these plants exploit the -available water from an area of ground surface much larger than the -spread of their foliage. In this way, mature plants can fend off -competition by using the moisture that would be required for a -potentially encroaching plant to become established. The effect is an -even spacing that makes it appear, indeed, as though someone had set out -the plants on measured centers. - -Craters of the Moon abounds with these surprising plant microhabitats -that delight explorers on foot. The bleak lava flows separate these -emerging pockets of new life, isolating them like islands or oases -within their barren volcanic surroundings. - -Scientists have studied Carey Kipuka, an island of plantlife in the most -southern part of the park, to find out what changes have occurred in the -biologic community. _Kipuka_ is a Hawaiian name given to an area of -older land that is surrounded by younger lava flows. Recent lava flows -did not overrun Carey Kipuka, so its plant cover is unaltered. Shortage -of water protected it from livestock grazing that might have changed its -character. Its vegetation is a benchmark for comparing plant cover -changes on similar sites throughout southern Idaho. - -For the National Park Service and other managers of wildlands, -kipukas—representing isolated and pristine plant habitat unchanged by -human influence—provide the best answer that we have to the important -question, “What is natural?” Armed with a satisfactory answer to that -question, it is possible to manage the land ecologically. Park managers -can seek to restore natural systems and to allow them to be as -self-regulating as possible. It is ironic that Craters of the Moon, a -volcanic landscape subjected to profound change, should also protect -this informative glimpse of what remains unchanged. - - [Illustration: _From the park’s mazes of jumbled rock, ground - squirrels fashion homes with many entrances and exits. Opportunistic - feeders on vegetable matter, these engaging rodents fall prey to - hawks and owls from above and small predatory mammals on the ground. - They therefore serve as an important transfer point between plant - and animal layers of the park’s food energy scheme._] - - [Illustration: _In the 1920s, members of the Limbert Expedition, - described on pages 50 and 51, followed the flight of doves to locate - water as they explored what later became the park._] - -(_continued on page 46_) - - - Wildflowers - - Wildflowers carpet Craters of the Moon’s seemingly barren lava fields - from early May to late September. The most spectacular shows of - wildflowers come with periods of precipitation. In late spring, - moisture from snowmelt—supplemented now and then by rainfall—sees the - blossoming of most of the delicate annual plants. - - Many of the park’s flowering plants, having no mechanisms for - conserving moisture, simply complete their life cycles before the - middle of summer. This is particularly true of those that grow on the - porous cinder gardens into which moisture quickly descends beyond - reach of most plants’ root systems. - - As summer continues and supplies of moisture slowly dwindle, only the - most drought-resistant of flowering plants continue to grow and to - bloom. With the onset of autumn rains, only the tiny yellow blossoms - of the sagebrush and rabbitbrush remain. - - [Illustration: _Blazing star_] - - [Illustration: _Monkeyflower_] - - [Illustration: _Desert parsley_] - - [Illustration: _Wild onion_] - - [Illustration: _Bitterroot_] - - [Illustration: _Paintbrush_] - - [Illustration: _Scabland penstemon_] - - [Illustration: _Arrow-leaved balsamroot_] - - [Illustration: _Scorpionweed_] - - - Mule Deer - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - Brad Griffith could be called the mule deer man. In 1980, this - wildlife researcher began a three-year study of the mule deer herd - that summers in the park. The immediate concern was that the deer, - protected inside the park, might be overpopulating their range and - endangering their habitat. Griffith set out to find out just how the - deer use the area, what their population level is, and how certain - factors—production, mortality, and distribution—affect their - population dynamics. The mule deer use the park April through November - only, because winter brings snows too deep for the deer to find food - here. The most striking finding of Griffith’s research is that the - mule deer at Craters of the Moon—unlike mule deer studied - elsewhere—have a dual summer range. Put simply, the mule deer have had - to undergo behavior modification to live here. The deer move back into - the southern park in mid-April, living in the protected wilderness - area there. While in the wilderness area, the park’s deer routinely - live up to nearly 10 miles from open water, getting their water from - food, dew, fog, and temporary puddles. This area has higher quality - forage for these deer than any other part of their annual range. The - trade-off is that the wilderness area has almost no open water. When - the moisture content of their forage decreases in summer, usually in - July, the deer move up to the northern part of the park where there is - open water. Their habits in the northern part of the park are unusual, - too, Griffith says, because there the deer live in much closer - quarters than other herds are known to tolerate on summer ranges. They - live in this wildlife equivalent of an apartment complex until the - fall rains come. Then they move back down to the wilderness area. The - deer make this unusual summer migration, Griffith suggests, to avail - themselves of the high quality forage in the southern park. “The park - serves as an island of high quality habitat for mule deer,” he wrote - in his report. It is now known the deer will leave the wilderness area - for the northern park after 12 days with daytime highs above 80°F and - nighttime lows above 50°F in summer. “We can’t really predict this,” - Park Ranger Neil King says, “but the deer know when this is.” What is - happening is that the percentage of water in their forage plants falls - below what is necessary to sustain the deer with increasingly hot - weather. As you would expect, does nursing two fawns leave a couple - days earlier than does with only one fawn. The rate at which their - fawns survive to the fall of the year is astonishing. “This is an - incredibly productive herd,” Griffith says, “right up there with the - highest fawn survival rate of any western mule deer herd.” Park - rangers continue Griffith’s studies by taking deer census counts. - - [Illustration: {Map showing fall, summer, and spring migrations}] - - [Illustration: _The Northern Shoshone regularly passed through the - Craters of the Moon area on their annual summer migration from the - Snake River to the Camas Prairie, west of the park. They took this - journey to get out of the hot desert and into the cooler mountains. - There they could gather root crops and hunt marmots, jackrabbits, - porcupines, and ground squirrels. As they passed through today’s - park, they left behind arrowheads, choppers, and scrapers and built - stone circles that may have been used for ceremonial purposes. These - artifacts and structures are evidence the Indians were temporary - visitors to this vast volcanic landscape._] - - - - - Indians, Early Explorers And Practicing Astronauts - - -Not surprisingly, archeologists have concluded that Indians did not make -their homes on this immense lava field. Astronauts would one day trek -about Craters of the Moon in hopes that experiencing its harshly alien -environment would make walking on the moon less disorienting for them. -No wonder people have not chosen to live on these hot, black, sometimes -sharp lava flows on which you must line the flight of doves to locate -drinking water. - -Indians did traverse this area on annual summer migrations, however, as -shown by the developed trails and many sites where artifacts of Northern -Shoshone culture have been found. Most of these archeological sites are -not easily discerned by the untrained eye, but the stone windbreaks at -Indian Tunnel are easily examined. Rings of rocks that may have been -used for temporary shelter, hunting blinds, or religious purposes, -numerous stone tools, and the hammerstones and chippings of arrowhead -making are found scattered throughout the lava flows. Some of the -harder, dense volcanic materials found here were made into crude cutting -and scraping tools and projectile points. Such evidence suggests only -short forays into the lavas for hunting or collecting by small groups. - -The Northern Shoshone were a hunting and gathering culture directly -dependent on what the land offered. They turned what they could of this -volcanic environment to their benefit. Before settlement by Europeans, -the vicinity of the park boasted several game species that are rare or -absent from Craters of the Moon today. These included elk, wolf, bison, -grizzly and black bear, and the cougar. Bighorn sheep, whose males sport -characteristic headgear of large, curled horns, have been absent from -the park since about 1920. - -Military explorer U.S. Army Capt. B.L.E. Bonneville left impressions of -the Craters of the Moon lava field in his travel diaries in the early -1800s. In _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_, which were based on -the diaries, 19th-century author Washington Irving pictures a place -“where nothing meets the eye but a desolate and awful waste, where no -grass grows nor water runs, and where nothing is to be seen but lava.” -Irving is perhaps most famous for _The Legend of Sleepy Hollow_, but his -_Adventures_ is considered a significant period work about the West and -provided this early, if brief, glimpse of a then unnamed Craters of the -Moon. - -Pioneers working westward in the 19th century sought either gold or -affordable farm or ranch lands so they, like the Northern Shoshone, -bypassed these lava wastes. Later, nearby settlers would venture into -this area in search of additional grazing lands. Finding none, they left -Craters of the Moon substantially alone. - -Early pioneers who left traces in the vicinity of the park did so by -following what eventually came to be known as Goodale’s Cutoff. The -route was based on Indian trails that skirted the lava fields in the -northern section of the park. It came into use in the early 1850s as an -alternate to the regular route of the Oregon Trail. Shoshone Indian -hostilities along the Snake River part of the trail—one such incident is -memorialized in Idaho’s Massacre Rocks State Park—led the emigrants to -search for a safer route. They were headed for Oregon, particularly the -Walla Walla area around Whitman Mission, family groups in search of -agricultural lands for settlement. Emigrants traveling it in 1854 -noticed names carved in rocks and trees along its route. It was named in -1862 by travelers apparently grateful to their guide, Tim Goodale, whose -presence, they felt, had prevented Indian attacks. Illinois-born Goodale -was cut in the mold of the typical early trapper and trader of the Far -West. He was known to the famous fur trade brothers Solomon and William -Sublette. His name turned up at such fur trade locales as Pueblo, Taos, -Fort Bridger, and Fort Laramie over a period of at least 20 years. - -After the discovery of gold in Idaho’s Salmon River country, a party of -emigrants persuaded Goodale to guide them over the route they would name -for him. Goodale was an experienced guide: in 1861, he had served in -that capacity for a military survey west of Denver. The large band of -emigrants set out in July and was joined by more wagons at Craters of -the Moon. Eventually their numbers included 795 men and 300 women and -children. Indian attacks occurred frequently along the Oregon Trail at -that time, but the size of this group evidently discouraged such -incursions. The trip was not without incident, but Goodale’s reputation -remained sufficiently intact for his clients to affix his name to the -route. Subsequent modifications and the addition of a ferry crossing on -the Snake River made Goodale’s Cutoff into a popular route for western -emigration. Traces of it are still visible in the vicinity of the park -today. - -Curiosity about this uninhabitable area eventually led to more detailed -knowledge of Craters of the Moon and knowledge led to its preservation. -Geologists Israel C. Russell and Harold T. Stearns of the U.S. -Geological Survey explored here in 1901 and 1923, respectively. -Taxidermist-turned-lecturer Robert Limbert explored the area in the -early 1920s. Limbert made three trips. On the first two, he more or less -retraced the steps of these geologists. On his third and most ambitious -trek, Limbert and W. L. Cole traversed what is now the park and the -Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area south to north, starting from the -nearby community of Minidoka. Their route took them by Two Point Butte, -Echo Crater, Big Craters, North Crater Flow and out to the Old -Arco-Carey Road, then known as the Yellowstone Park and Lincoln Highway. -These explorations and their attendant publicity in _National Geographic -Magazine_ were instrumental in the proclamation of Craters of the Moon -as a national monument by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924. - -Since Limbert’s day, astronauts have walked both here and on the moon. -Despite our now detailed knowledge of the differences between these two -places, the name—and much of the park’s awe-inspiring appeal—remains the -same. It is as though by learning more about both these niches in our -universe we somehow have learned more about ourselves as well. - - [Illustration: _In the mid-1800s the Oregon Trail served as a major - route to the West for pioneers. But when hostilities developed along - the trail with the Shoshone-Bannock Indians, many of the emigrants - began using an alternate route known as Goodale’s Cutoff. This trail - went further north and passed through the present-day park - boundary._] - -(_continued on page 52_) - - - Early Explorers and the Limbert Expedition - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - The first known explorations of these lava fields were conducted by - two Arco, Idaho, cattlemen in 1879. Arthur Ferris and J.W. Powell were - looking for water for their livestock. The first scientific - explorations were carried out by Israel C. Russell, surveying the area - for the U.S. Geological Survey in 1901 and 1903. Beginning in 1910, - Samuel A. Paisely, later to become the park’s first custodian, also - explored these lava fields. In 1921, the U.S.G.S. sent two geologists - here, Harold T. Stearns and O.E. Meinzer, with a geologist from the - Carnegie Institute. Based on this field work, Stearns recommended that - a national monument be created here. Also during the early 20s, the - explorations of Idaho entrepreneur Robert W. Limbert caught the - public’s fancy. A report of the explorations of “Two-gun” Bob Limbert - was published in the March 1924 _National Geographic Magazine_. - Limbert was a Boise, Idaho, taxidermist, tanner, and furrier. He was - also an amateur wrestler and quick-draw artist who later performed on - the national lecture circuit. Reportedly, Limbert once challenged Al - Capone to a pistol duel at 10 paces. Evidently Capone declined. - Limbert made three treks into the lava fields between 1921 and 1924. - He first explored the more easily accessible northern portion of the - lava fields. Limbert’s third expedition crossed the area from south to - north, however, starting from Minidoka. - - - The Limbert Trek - - [Illustration: _On his third expedition, Limbert, Cole, and a dog - traversed the lava flows from south to north. The photos that - appeared in_ The National Geographic Magazine _in 1924 were taken on - various expeditions._] - - With Limbert were W.L. Cole and an Airedale terrier. Taking the dog - along was a mistake, Limbert wrote, “for after three days’ travel his - feet were worn raw and bleeding.” Limbert said it was pitiful to watch - the dog as it hobbled after them. The landscape was so unusual that - Limbert and Cole had difficulty estimating distances. Things would be - half again as far away as they had reckoned. In some areas their - compass needles went wild with magnetic distortions caused by high - concentrations of iron in the lava rock. Bizarre features they - found—such as multi-colored, blow-out craters—moved Limbert to write: - “I noticed that at places like these we had almost nothing to say.” - Limbert and Cole discovered ice caves with ice stalactites. They found - water by tracking the flights of mourning doves. They found pockets of - cold water (trapped above ground by ice deposits below the surface) - covered with yellowjackets fatally numbed by the cold. They drank the - water anyway. In desert country, said Limbert, one can’t be too picky. - Between Limbert’s lively article in the _National Geographic - Magazine_, and the reports of geologist Stearns, President Calvin - Coolidge was induced to designate part of the lava fields as Craters - of the Moon National Monument on May 2, 1924. - - [Illustration: {untitled}] - - [Illustration: {untitled}] - - - - - Part 3 - Guide and Adviser - - - [Illustration: ] - - - - - Approaching Craters of the Moon - - -_Craters of the Moon National Monument is located in south-central -Idaho’s Snake River Plain, midway between Boise, Idaho, and Grand Teton -and Yellowstone National Parks. The park includes 53,545 acres, and the -elevation at the visitor center is 5,900 feet above sea level. U.S. -20-26-93 gives access to the park. Nominal entrance fees are charged. -Golden Eagle, Golden Age, and Golden Access passports are honored and -may be obtained at the entrance station._ - - - Seasons and Weather. - -Park facilities are open and naturalist programs are conducted from -mid-June through Labor Day. From November to April, the Loop Drive (see -map) is closed by snow and park facilities are limited. In spring and -fall, the opening and closing of facilities and the Loop Drive are -determined by weather conditions, which vary greatly from year to year. -In spring the weather is unpredictable. Strong winds may occur and snow -and/or freezing rain are not uncommon. Temperatures range from highs in -the 50s to lows in the 20s°F. Summer features warm to hot days and cool -nights. Expect afternoon winds. There may be very sporadic afternoon -thunderstorms, and temperatures may range from the 40s to the 90s. Fall -offers generally fair weather with low precipitation and infrequent -winds. Early snowstorms are possible, and snow is certain by late fall. -Fall temperatures range from highs in the 60s to lows in the 30s. Winter -brings the possibility of severe storms with drifting snow. Highway -access is often best described as snow-packed. On bright sunny days -temperatures may reach into the 40s, but the range is generally from -highs in the 30s to lows around minus 10. - - [Illustration: _Today’s park encompasses a small portion of the - Great Rift and the greater portion of the Craters of the Moon Lava - Field near Arco, Idaho. Blue arrows on this map show the route of - the Limbert Expeditions in the 1920s. The detail map appears on page - 58._] - - - Limbert’s route - From Minidoka. - Two Point Butte - Vermillion Chasm - Sheep Trail Butte - Echo Crater - Bridge of Tears - Big Cinder Butte - Big Craters - North Crater Flow - Old Arco Carey Road - Martin P.O. - See detail map - Visitor Center - - - Handicapped Access. - -The park visitor center, restrooms, and amphitheater are accessible to -the disabled. - - - Travel Planning. - -U.S. 20-26-93 provides access to Craters of the Moon. No public -transportation serves the park. Scheduled airlines serve Idaho Falls, -Twin Falls, and Hailey, Idaho. Rental cars are generally available at -these airports, but advance reservations are advised. It is about a -three-hour drive from the park to Grand Teton National Park, and about a -four-hour drive to Yellowstone National Park. The official Idaho State -Highway Map is available from the Idaho Transportation Department, P.O. -Box 7129, Boise, ID 83707, telephone (208) 334-8000. Idaho’s travel -office provides information about cultural activities, scenic tours, -outfitters and guides, chambers of commerce, hotels, and motels -throughout the state. Write or call Idaho’s Travel Promotion Division, -700 West State Street, Boise, ID 83720-2700, telephone (208) 334-2470. - - - Stay on Roads. - -Please stay on roadways and parking pullouts that are provided. If a -vehicle goes off the roadway onto cinders, the cinders are compacted and -the tracks may remain visible for 10 to 20 years or more. - -Information about the Park. Address specific inquiries about the park to -the Superintendent, Craters of the Moon National Monument, P.O. Box 29, -Arco, ID 83213, or telephone (208) 527-3257. - - [Illustration: _Make the visitor center your first stop in the park. - Ask at the information desk for schedules of ranger-led walks, - talks, and other programs and for advice about camping._] - - [Illustration: {uncaptioned}] - - - - - Visitor Center and Programs - - -The park visitor center is located near the only entrance to the park. -Here you will find displays and information to help you plan your visit. -Slides, postcards, maps, and other publications about the park are -displayed for sale. Park Service rangers at the information counter can -answer your questions and help you plan your stay in the park. - -The displays alert you to wildflowers and wild animals you might expect -to see here. Other exhibits describe the park’s geologic history. A film -explains how lava flowed from fissures in the Earth to create the cinder -cones, lava flows, and other volcanic features you will see at Craters -of the Moon. The film includes actual footage of eruptions of the same -type that occurred here some 2,000 years ago. Check at the visitor -center for the schedules of conducted walks and campfire programs. You -also can get information here about two self-guiding nature trails and -the park’s Loop Drive (see page 59). - - - Activities and Evening Programs. - -In summer, ranger-guided walks and other programs give visitors an -intimate look at various aspects of the park. Program schedules vary; we -suggest that you contact the park for current information prior to -arrival. Several sites have been designed to make it easy to see the -park on your own. The visitor center is a good place to stop and plan -your visit. Evening programs may find you wanting a sweater or light -jacket to ward off the chill, despite the hot summer days. These -programs explore such topics as the park’s wildlife and its survival, -the powers of nature, and this landscape’s volcanic origins. Some -programs are illustrated with slides or movies and take place in the -amphitheater. - - - Self-guiding Trails. - -Explore three representative areas of the park on self-guiding nature -trails. Devils Orchard Trail helps you understand the complex -environmental concerns facing Craters of the Moon. A pamphlet available -at the trailhead discusses the major impacts visitors, neighbors, and -managers have on the fragile lava landscape. Numbered explanations -correspond to markers along the trail. You can walk this trail in about -20 minutes. North Crater Flow Trail takes you through a lava flow that -includes rafted blocks (crater wall fragments) and other interesting -features characteristic of basaltic lava flows, which are explained by -wayside exhibits. This trail goes through one of the most recent lava -flows in the park. The shiny lava flows made early explorers think the -volcanic eruptions had happened only a few years before. Please stay on -trails in this very fragile area. The park was established to provide -protection for its unusual landscape features. These require continuing -protection and you can help provide it. Caves Trail allows you the -opportunity to explore a lava tube. These caves formed when the surface -of lava flow cooled and hardened while the interior remained molten and -continued to drain. After the lava drained away, a hollow tube remained. -A pamphlet at the trailhead provides a map of the cave area and tells -you what to expect as you explore these lava tubes on your own. Wayside -exhibits point out the most interesting lava formations along the trail. -To see only Indian Tunnel, the largest of the lava tubes, will require -nearly one hour. - - [Illustration: _Visitors read a wayside exhibit beneath imposing - monoliths. Flows of lava rafted such fragments of broken crater - walls into otherwise inexplicable positions._] - - - - - Map - - -[Illustration: Craters of the Moon National Monument] - - - Wilderness area - Grassy Cone - 1925 m - _6315 ft_ - Sunset Cone - 1954 m - _6415 ft_ - Backcountry area - Trail - Point of interest - ① - Visitor Center - To Arco - To Carey - Campground - ② - North Crater Flow Trail - North Crater Trail - Silent Cone - 1838 m - _6357 ft._ - North Crater - 1908 m - _8244 ft_ - ③ - Devils Orchard Nature Trail - Paisley Cone - 1881 m - _6107 ft_ - ④ - Inferno Cone - 1884 m - _6181 ft_ - ⑤ - Snow Cone - Spatter Cones - North Crater Trail - ⑥ - GREAT RIFT ZONE - BIG SINK - Broken Top - 1846 m - _5058 ft_ - Buffalo Cave - Half Cone - 1845 m - _5055 ft_ - Big Cinder Butte - 1988 m - _5516 ft_ - TREE MOLDS - ⑦ - Dewdrop Cave - Surprise Cave - Beauty Cave - Boy Scout Cave - Indian Tunnel - PIONEER MOUNTAINS - GREEN DRAGON FLOWS - SERRATE FLOW - BLUE DRAGON FLOWS - BROKEN TOP FLOW - LAVA CASCADES - BIG CRATERS - - - - - Take The Driving Tour - - -You can see most of the features for which Craters of the Moon is famous -by a combined auto and foot tour along the Loop Drive. With several -short walks included, you can make the drive in about two hours. -Numbered stops are keyed to the map in the park folder. - -1. Visitor Center. The 7-mile Loop Drive begins at the visitor center. -Most of the drive is one-way. Spur roads and trailheads enable you to -explore this lava field even further. - -2. North Crater Flow. A short foot trail crosses the North Crater Flow -to a group of crater wall fragments transported by lava flows. This is -one of the youngest flows here. The triple twist tree and its 1,350 -growth rings have in the past helped date the recency of the last flows -here. Along this trail you can see fine examples of pahoehoe lava and aa -lava flows (see page 26). Just beyond the North Crater Flow Trail is the -North Crater Trail. This short, steep, self-guiding nature trail leads -you to the vent overlooking the crater of a cinder cone. - -3. Devils Orchard. Devils Orchard is a group of lava fragments that -stand like islands in a sea of cinders. This marks the resting place for -blocks of material from the walls of North Crater that broke free and -were rafted here on lava flows. The short spur road leads to a -self-guiding trail through these weird features. You can easily walk the -trail in about 20 minutes. An early morning or evening visit may allow -you to observe park wildlife. In springtime, the wildflower displays in -the cinder gardens are glorious. In June and early July, dwarf blooming -monkeyflowers give the ground a magenta cast. - -4. Inferno Cone Viewpoint. From the viewpoint atop Inferno Cone, a -landscape of volcanic cinder cones spreads before you to the distant -mountain ranges beyond. Notice that the cooler, moister northern slopes -of the cones bear noticeably more vegetation than the drier southern -slopes, which receive the brunt of sunshine. If you take the short, -steep walk to the summit of Inferno Cone, you can easily recognize the -chain of cinder cones that defines the Great Rift. Perhaps nowhere else -in the park is it so easy to visualize how the volcanic activity broke -out along this great fissure in the Earth. Towering in the distance -above the lava plain is Big Cinder Butte, one of the world’s largest, -purely basaltic, cinder cones. - -5. Big Craters and Spatter Cones Area. Spatter cones formed along the -Great Rift fissure where clots of pasty lava stuck together when they -fell. The materials and forces of these eruptions originated at depths -of approximately 40 miles within the Earth. A short, steep walk to the -top of Big Craters offers a view of a series of volcanic vents. - -6. Trails to Tree Molds and the Wilderness Area. A spur road just beyond -Inferno Cone takes you to trails to the Tree Molds Area and the Craters -of the Moon Wilderness. Tree molds formed where molten lava flows -encased trees and then hardened (see page 27). The cylindrical molds -that remained after the wood burned and rotted away range from a few -inches to more than 1 foot in diameter. - -7. Cave Area. At this final stop on the Loop Drive, a ½-mile walk takes -you to the lava tubes. Here you can see Dewdrop, Boy Scout, Beauty, and -Surprise Caves and the Indian Tunnel. (For how these lava tubes formed, -see page 30.) Carry a flashlight in all caves except Indian Tunnel. - - - - - Camping and Backcountry Use - - -The campground has about 50 sites. These are available on a first-come, -first-served basis. Reservations are not accepted. A daily fee for -camping is charged. Water and restrooms are provided in the campground, -but there are no showers, dump station, or hookups. Wood fires are -prohibited in the park, but grills at each campsite may be used for -charcoal fires. The campground accommodates both RVs and tents. During -the summer, park rangers present evening programs at the campground -amphitheater. - - - Backcountry Use. - -Some of the park’s most intriguing landscapes lie beyond the road’s end -in the 68-square-mile Craters of the Moon Wilderness Area. Only two -trails penetrate the wilderness, and these for only short distances. -After the three-mile trail to Echo Crater runs out, you are on your own. -For further exploration, you can simply follow the Great Rift and its -chain of cinder cones. These landmarks help you find your way. - -To explore farther afield, you should have a good topographic map and -basic map skills. You can purchase such a map at the visitor center. All -hikers who plan to stay overnight in the wilderness are required to -register with a park ranger. Backcountry use permits are available free -at the visitor center. - -Each hiker should carry at least one gallon of water for each day out; -even more may be necessary during the hot summer. There is no drinking -water available in the wilderness. The best times for wilderness travel -are May-June and September-October. Daytime temperatures are usually -mild then, while nights are cool, but you must be prepared for inclement -and very cold weather in these transitional months. Summer daytime -temperatures climb into the 90s, and reflected heat off the lavas may be -even higher. Long distance hiking is not very pleasant then, and the -weight of necessary drinking water is burdensome. - - - Safety. - -Sturdy boots and long pants are necessary gear for the jagged aa lava -flows. Bring clothing for both hot and cool weather; both can occur the -same day in this desert climate. (See drinking water warning above.) - - - Regulations. - -Campfires are prohibited in the backcountry. Carry a self-contained -backpack stove and fuel. Mechanized vehicles, including bicycles, are -prohibited in the wilderness area. Pets are also prohibited in the -wilderness. Pack out everything that you pack in—and any trash you find -that others left behind. A good admonition is: “Take only pictures, and -try not to leave so much as a footprint.” - - - - - Winter Recreation - - -The visitor center is open every day except winter holidays. Winter -hours are 8 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Wilderness permits, topographic maps, and -information are available here. To find out about current snow -conditions, call (208) 527-3257. - -Skiing. Crosscountry skiing provides an enjoyable experience of the -park’s landscape transformed by snow. When heavy snows accumulate, -usually in late November, the 7-mile Loop Drive is closed and it becomes -a natural ski trail. Most of the Loop Drive follows fairly level -terrain. The best months for skiing are January to March in most -winters. Usually there is about 18 inches of snowpack by January and 3 -feet by March. Temperatures range from 45°F to well below zero. Be -prepared for inclement weather and high winds at all times. Blizzards -may be encountered. - -Hazards. Skiing off the Loop Drive is allowed but not recommended. Most -of the park is covered by sharp, jagged lava, and snow cover may mask -cracks and caverns underneath. - -Camping. Winter camping is permitted in the main campground. The -campground is not plowed; be prepared to camp in the snow. Wood fires -are not permitted anywhere in the park. - -Wilderness use. The wilderness is ideal for overnight ski trips. You -should be well equipped and experienced at winter camping, however. A -free wilderness use permit, available at the visitor center, is required -for all overnight use outside the park campground. - - _Both backpackers and crosscountry skiers find solitude in their - respective seasons in the park. Others may prefer ranger-led - explorations of the park’s many unusual features._ - - [Illustration: Backpackers] - - [Illustration: Crosscountry skiers] - - [Illustration: Ranger-led explorations] - - - - - Regulations and Safety - - -Many management concerns, regulations, and safety tips are given under -specific subjects in this handbook. Here are some other things to -consider. - -Precautions must be taken when you explore the park because of the -rugged terrain, heat, and lack of naturally available drinking water. -You will need sturdy boots, a hat, and ample, leakproof water -containers. Make sure containers are watertight before you leave home. -Exploring caves requires flashlights. - -Camp only in the park campground. All other overnight use, even in -winter, requires a wilderness use permit. A day-use permit is required -to visit the area of the park that lies north of Highway 20-26-93. - - - Pets. - -Pets are allowed only in the campground and on the Loop Drive, but they -must be kept on a leash at all times. Pets are prohibited in all public -buildings, on trails, or in off-road areas. - - - Vehicles. - -All motor vehicles and bicycles must stay on paved roads only. They are -not allowed on trails. - - - Firearms. - -Firearm restrictions are enforced: No hunting is allowed in the park. - - - Collecting. - -The collection, removal, or disturbance of any natural features within -the park is strictly prohibited. - - [Illustration: _For contemporary explorers the driving tour and its - associated trails make the safest trek routes. Exercise great - caution—and close oversight of young children—at all times on your - park expeditions._] - - [Illustration: {trail}] - - - - - Nearby Attractions - - -Yellowstone National Park is world famous for its geysers and mudpots, -canyons and waterfalls, and wildlife and wilderness. For information -write or call, Superintendent, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, -(307) 344-7381. - - [Illustration: _Minerva Terrace, Yellowstone_] - - -Grand Teton National Park features the spectacularly scenic Teton Range -and lovely lakes at its base. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway -joins Grand Teton with Yellowstone. For information write or call, -Superintendent, Grand Teton National Park, P.O. Drawer 170, Moose, WY -83012, (307) 733-2880. - - [Illustration: _Grand Teton in winter_] - - -Nez Perce National Historical Park includes 24 widely scattered sites in -north-central Idaho that present the history of this ancestral homeland -of the Nez Perce tribe. For information write or call, Superintendent, -Nez Perce National Historical Park, P.O. Box 93, Spalding, ID 83551, -(208) 843-2261. - - [Illustration: _A Nez Perce today_] - - -Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument, authorized in 1988, preserves -Pliocene fossil sites along Idaho’s Snake River. The National Park -Service is planning for future needs. Facilities have not been -developed. For information write or call, Superintendent, Hagerman -Fossil Beds National Monument, P.O. Box 570, Hagerman, ID 83332, (208) -837-4793. - - -City of Rocks National Reserve is a fascinating landscape of monoliths, -spires, and domes used historically by Northern Shoshone Indians and -emigrants on the California Trail. It has become a mecca for -recreational rock climbers. Primitive facilities. For information write, -Manager, City of Rocks National Reserve, P.O. Box 169, Almo, ID 83312. - - - - - Armchair Explorations - - -The nonprofit Craters of the Moon Natural History Association sells -books, maps, and other publications at the visitor center or by mail. -For a free list write to the park address on page 55. The following -selected books may also be of interest. - -Belknap, William J. “Man on the Moon in Idaho,” _National Geographic -Magazine_, Volume 119 (October, 1960). - -Bonnichsen, Bill and Roy M. Breckenridge et al. _Cenozoic Geology of -Idaho_, Idaho Geologic Survey, University of Idaho, 1982. - -Bullard, Fred M. _Volcanoes of the Earth_, University of Texas Press, -1976. - -Chronic, Halka. _Pages of Stone: The Geologic Story of Our Western Parks -and Monuments_, The Mountaineers, 1984. - -Clark, David R. _Craters of the Moon—Idaho’s Unearthly Landscape_, -Craters of the Moon Natural History Association, 1990. - -Henderson, Paul A. _Around the Loop: Craters of the Moon_, Craters of -the Moon Natural History Association, 1986. - -Limbert, Robert W. “Among Craters of the Moon,” _National Geographic -Magazine_, Volume 45 (March, 1924). - -McKee, Bates. _Cascadia_, McGraw-Hill, 1972. - -Moser, Don. _The Snake River Country_, Time-Life Books, 1974. - -National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). _Volcanism of the -Eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho: A Comparative Planetary Geology -Guidebook_, Washington, D.C., 1977. - -Schwartz, Susan. _Nature in the Northwest_, Prentice-Hall, 1983. - - -Other National Park Handbooks in this series. You might enjoy other -official National Park Handbooks about areas in Idaho, Wyoming, and -Montana. These handbooks include: Grand Teton National Park; Nez Perce -National Historical Park; Devils Tower National Monument; and Fort -Laramie National Historic Site. - -These informative handbooks are available at the parks or by mail from: -Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, -Washington, DC 20402. For a list of handbooks write to: National Park -Service, Office of Information, P.O. Box 37127, Washington, DC -20013-7127. - - -★GPO: 1990—262-098/20002 - - - - - National Park Service - U.S. Department of the Interior - - -As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the -Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public -lands and natural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our -land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving -the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and -historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through -outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral -resources and works to assure that their development is in the best -interest of all our people. The Department also promotes the goals of -the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and -citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen -participation in their care. The Department also has major -responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for -people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. - -The National Park Service expresses its appreciation to all those -persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook -possible. Special thanks are due the Craters of the Moon Natural History -Association for financial support. Unless credited below, photographs -and illustrations come from the files of Craters of the Moon National -Monument and the National Park Service. - - - Gary Braasch 28 top - Bureau of Land Management 29 top - Vern Crawford 30-31 - Jeff Gnass 4-5, 6, 27 tree mold - Charley Gurche 10-11, 32-33, 36 monkeyflower - Russell Lamb 63 Nez Perce - Roger McGehee 30 owl - NASA 16 inset - National Geographic Society 50-51, 63 Grand Teton (David Alan Harvey) - U.S. Geological Survey 25 both - Glenn Van Nimwegen 34, 36-37 - Williams and Heintz Map Corporation 58 - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding - images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Craters of the Moon, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRATERS OF THE MOON *** - -***** This file should be named 62994-0.txt or 62994-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/2/9/9/62994/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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