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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..512dc2a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63169 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63169) diff --git a/old/63169-8.txt b/old/63169-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c5f800c..0000000 --- a/old/63169-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,775 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938), by -Eugene Amos Hollowell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938) - -Author: Eugene Amos Hollowell - -Release Date: September 10, 2020 [EBook #63169] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant -materials are placed in the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Emphasis is denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. - - - - -=CRIMSON CLOVER= - - - - - -LEAFLET No. 160 - -U.S.DEPARTMENT of AGRICULTURE - - -Issued June 1938. - - - - -=CRIMSON CLOVER= - - -By E. A. Hollowell, _senior agronomist, Division of Forage Crops and -Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry_ - - - - -=Growth and Distribution= - - -Crimson clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) is the most important winter -annual legume of the central section of the Eastern States (fig. 1). -Besides being an excellent hay plant and furnishing an abundance of -early spring pasture, it affords protection to the soil during the fall, -winter, and spring, prevents soil washing, and provides green manure for -soil improvement. This legume has the distinct advantage of being a heavy -producer of seed, which can be easily harvested and sown without the use -of expensive machinery. - -[Illustration: Figure 1.--Principal crimson clover region of the United -States.] - -Crimson clover is a native of Europe and is widely grown in France, -Hungary, and other central and southern European countries. Seed was -introduced into this country as early as 1819, but it was not until 1880 -that the plant became of agricultural importance. During the last 6 years -the annual commercial consumption of seed in the United States has ranged -from 2 to 4 million pounds. In addition, large quantities of home-grown -seed are used and handled from farm to farm. - -The common name of this clover is derived from the distinctive bright -crimson color of the blossoms. Other common names, such as German clover -and scarlet clover, are frequently heard in different localities. In -general the leaves and stems of crimson clover resemble red clover, but -are distinguished by the rounding of the tips of the leaves and a greater -covering of hair on both leaves and steins. When it is planted in the -fall the leaves develop from the crown and form a rosette, which enlarges -whenever weather conditions are favorable. In late spring flower stems -develop rapidly and terminate their growth with elongated flower heads. -Seed forms and the plant dies with the advent of hot summer weather. The -seed is yellow, slightly larger, and more rounding than red clover seed. - - - - -=Adaptation= - - -Crimson clover is adapted to cool, humid weather and is tolerant of winter -conditions where the temperature does not become severe or too variable. -In this region (fig. 1) it should be planted in late summer or early fall, -since early establishment and growth are favorable to its winter survival. -It will thrive on both sandy and clay soils and is tolerant of ordinary -soil acidity. On extremely poor soils, stands are difficult to obtain and -the growth is stunted. The use of manure and phosphate fertilizers on such -soils will improve the chances of obtaining good stands. - -Crimson clover may also be successfully grown as a summer annual in Maine, -northern Michigan, and Minnesota. The winter culture of this clover -may be extended into Kentucky, southern Missouri, and southern Indiana -provided the seed is sown in fertile soil early in August. Production may -be successfully extended southward with an increase of soil fertility and -with seeding delayed until soil-moisture conditions are favorable. - - - - -=Seedbed Preparation= - - -The most important and difficult phase of successful production of crimson -clover is getting a stand. Sufficient soil moisture to germinate the seed -and to establish the seedlings is the greatest factor in obtaining a -stand, which when established usually produces a good crop. - -Seedings are usually made in late August or early September between -the rows of cultivated crops. Under such conditions an ideal seedbed -is difficult to prepare, therefore careful preparation is necessary. -Furthermore, the crop plants in the row shade the clover seedlings and -seriously compete with them for the available moisture. Increasing the -distance between the rows and planting the row crop more thinly will -afford better opportunity for the establishment of the clover. When -planted between the rows of other crops, the seed is usually broadcast on -the surface and covered by cultivating or harrowing (fig. 2). Drilling -the seed after the soil surface has been stirred will usually give more -complete stands than broadcasting, and it may be done with a small -one-horse drill. The seed should not be planted more than one-half to -three-fourths of an inch deep, respectively, in clay and sandy soils. - -[Illustration: Figure 2.--Seeding crimson clover in corn.] - -Crimson clover is often seeded following a grain crop, and this is a -surer method of establishing a stand than planting between the rows of -cultivated crops, providing the seedbed is well prepared. After the grain -crop is removed the soil is plowed or disked and allowed to settle. This -is followed by light harrowing or disking when necessary to kill weed -seedlings. Before the clover is seeded the soil should be firmly packed, -because a loose cloddy seedbed is the forerunner of failure. The seed may -be either drilled or broadcast, but drilling will give more uniform stands. - - - - -=Fertilizers= - - -When the crop is planted on extremely poor soils, good stands and -growth cannot be expected. Such soil conditions may be improved by the -application of manure and phosphate fertilizers or by turning under such -crops as cowpeas, soybeans, or lespedeza. In many soils of low fertility -the use of 50 to 100 pounds per acre of a nitrogen fertilizer will -encourage early seedling growth and establishment. On the fertile soils of -this region crimson clover may be successfully grown without fertilizer, -but on most soils applications of 200 pounds of phosphate fertilizer per -acre are profitable in obtaining stands and vigorous growth (fig. 3). The -use of potash is recommended when a deficiency is known to exist. - -[Illustration: Figure 3.--Effect of phosphate application on good soil: -Treated (left); untreated (right).] - - - - -=Seed Sources= - - -Of the total amount of seed normally used approximately 60 percent is -of foreign origin, coming principally from Hungary and France. Most of -the domestic crimson clover seed offered on the market is produced in -south-central Tennessee. While white-flowered strains and others differing -in maturity have been isolated, they are little used. Claims have been -made that locally grown seed is superior to seed from other sources -including that of foreign origin. Further experiments are needed to -determine whether such differences actually exist. - - - - -=Rate and Time of Seeding= - - -Under ordinary conditions 15 to 18 pounds of hulled seed will give good -stands unless there is a deficiency of soil moisture. Depending upon the -amount of foreign material 45 to 60 pounds of unhulled seed is comparable -to a 15-pound seeding rate of hulled seed. Crimson clover may be sown from -the middle of August until October 1 with the expectation of securing a -good stand. The later it is seeded the less growth can be expected and -the more readily winterkilling occurs. The early establishment of the -plants becomes more important as plantings are extended northward. Seeding -crimson clover, if possible, either immediately before or following heavy -rains will increase its chances of making a stand. The spring planting of -crimson clover in or south of the Corn Belt usually results in a short, -stunted growth followed by meager blossoming and an unprofitable yield. - - - - -=Inoculation= - - -In many parts of the crimson clover region it is not necessary to -inoculate the seed; but if clover has not been successfully grown on a -soil, inoculation of the seed is good insurance. If the plants are not -inoculated they will develop slowly, become yellow, and die. Inoculated -plants are able to obtain about two-thirds of their nitrogen from the air -through their root nodules. The plants may be artificially inoculated by -applying pure cultures of the bacteria to the seed or by scattering soil -from a field where inoculated crimson clover has been grown. Two hundred -to three hundred pounds per acre of such soil evenly distributed at -seeding time is sufficient. - - - - -=Unhulled Seed= - - -The use of unhulled seed offers the distinct advantage of increasing -the chance of obtaining thick stands. With the prevalence of dry soil -conditions, light rainfall does not cause the unhulled seed to germinate, -but hulled seed germinates readily and the seedlings may die from lack of -moisture before they can become established. - -Its bulky nature makes unhulled seed more difficult to distribute -uniformly than hulled seed. It must be broadcast and may be harrowed in. -It is also difficult to market and is not generally handled by the seed -trade. But farmers can harvest seed for their own use and save the expense -of having it hulled. - - - - -=Companion Crops= - - -Rye, vetch, Italian ryegrass, and fall-sown grain crops are often seeded -with crimson clover. Besides making a valuable addition to the clover -(fig. 4), these companion crops help bolster up a thin stand. Such crops -are seeded from one-half to one-third the normal crop rate and the crimson -clover is seeded at the normal rate. Planting is done at the same time, -but, as a greater depth is required for most of the seed of the companion -crops, two seeding operations are necessary. In Tennessee, farmers often -use a mixture of 5 pounds of red clover and 10 pounds of crimson clover -per acre with excellent results. The first growth of the mixture may be -grazed or harvested for hay or for crimson clover seed, while the second -crop is wholly red clover. - -[Illustration: Figure 4.--Crimson clover and rye, an excellent -green-manure combination.] - - - - -=Diseases and Insects= - - -The only serious disease that affects crimson clover is stem rot. The -effect of this disease is seen in the early spring and is characterized by -the plants dying in patches. The stems rot at the surface of the soil or -where they join the crown. The occurrence of continued damp cool weather -during early spring favors the development of the disease. Exclusion of -clover and other legumes from the rotation for a period of 2 to 5 years is -the best control method. - -Sandy soils in the southern part of the crimson clover belt are often -infested with nematodes. Nematode injury results in a stunting and -yellowing of the plants and is most prevalent in the southern part of the -region. While the clover-seed chalcid, the pea aphid, and other insects -sometimes become numerous in crimson clover, insects do not ordinarily -cause appreciable damage. - - - - -=Utilization= - - -Crimson clover grows rapidly in early spring and furnishes an abundance -of early grazing (fig. 5). If planted early and an abundant fall growth -is made, the clover may also be grazed during the fall and winter months. -Such a practice has been successfully followed in Tennessee, where crimson -clover has provided the winter pasturage. The grazing, however, should be -restricted to periods when the soil is relatively dry, otherwise damage -may result from trampling. Animals grazing on crimson clover seldom bloat; -however, it is advisable not to turn them into clover fields for the -first time when they are hungry. Bloat is less likely to occur when a -mixture of clover and grass or grain is grazed than when the clover alone -is grazed. As crimson clover reaches maturity the hairs of the heads and -stems become hard and tough. When grazed continuously or when fed as -hay at this stage of maturity large masses of the hairs are liable to -form into hair balls in stomachs of horses and mules. Occasionally the -hair balls are responsible for the death of animals. If small amounts of -other feeds, particularly roughages, are fed along with the clover, the -formation of these balls will be reduced. Cattle, sheep, and swine do not -seem to be affected. - -[Illustration: Figure 5.--Crimson clover provides an abundance of early -spring grazing.] - -Crimson clover makes excellent hay when cut at the early bloom stage -although the yield may be slightly reduced. For maximum yields it should -be harvested in full bloom. The hay is easily cured either in the swath -or in the windrow. Fewer leaves are lost and less bleaching occurs in -windrowed hay. Although yields as high as 2½ tons per acre are not -uncommon on fertile soil, 1½ to 2 tons is an ordinary production. - -Crimson clover is an ideal green-manure crop. For the best result it -should be plowed under 2 to 3 weeks before planting the succeeding crop. -This gives sufficient time for decomposition, which is rapid unless the -crop is mature when plowed under. Occasionally, strips are plowed in which -row crops are planted, allowing the clover between the plowed strips -to mature. Seed may be harvested by hand from the clover between the -row crop, and the remaining clover straw allowed to mat and serve as a -mulch, or the entire plant may be permitted to form a mulch. A volunteer -seeding may be secured in this way, especially in the northern part of -this region, but attempts to follow such a practice should be tried on a -small scale until experience is gained. When used in orchards, crimson -clover is often allowed to mature, after which it is disked into the soil. -Occasionally a volunteer seeding may be obtained in the fall. - - - - -=Seed Production= - - -Crimson clover is a prolific seed-producing plant and yields of 5 to -10 bushels per acre are common, depending upon the thickness of the -stand, the amount of growth that is produced, and the care exercised in -harvesting the seed. The florets are self-fertile, but bees are effective -in tripping and transferring the pollen, with a consequent increase in the -number of seed per head. The placing of colonies of honeybees adjacent -to blooming fields will effectively increase pollination. More seed is -usually produced on soils of medium fertility than on rich soils, since -fertile soils seem to stimulate the growth of stems and leaves at the -expense of flower-head development. - -Large yields and ease of harvesting crimson clover seed are the principal -reasons why crimson clover is such an ideal legume crop. Farmers may save -seed with very little expense other than their own labor. When the seed -heads are mature they readily shatter and are easily harvested either by -hand stripping or by using horse-drawn homemade strippers. One bushel of -unhulled seed contains about 2 pounds of hulled seed, and although bulky -in nature, it can be easily stored on the farm until fall. - -[Illustration: Figure 6.--Cutting a crimson clover seed crop with a mower -equipped with a bunching attachment.] - -When the seed is mature the crop is cut with a mower, which may be -equipped with a bunching or windrowing attachment (fig. 6) or it may be -harvested with a combine. During wet seasons difficulties in combining the -seed from standing plants may be experienced. Under such conditions the -plants may be cut and windrowed and then threshed by the combine from the -windrow. As crimson clover shatters easily when ripe, cutting with the -mower when the heads are damp with dew or rain is recommended. If allowed -to stand too long after it is ripe a beating rain will shatter much of -the seed. After a few days of curing, the seed is hulled with an ordinary -clover huller or a grain separator equipped with hulling attachments. The -less the clover is handled, the less seed will be lost by shattering. - -Troublesome weeds are encountered in growing crimson clover seed; field -peppergrass (_Lepidium campestre_) and wintercress (_Barbarea praecox_) -are probably the worst, as their separation from the clover seed is -difficult. Little barley (_Hordeum pusillum_) is objectionable in unhulled -seed, and the use of unhulled seed will naturally increase the prevalence -of this weed. - - -U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938 - -For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. -- Price 5 -cents - - - * * * * * - - -=Transcriber Note= - - -Illustrations moved to avoid splitting paragraphs and closer to references -in the text. Minor typos may have been corrected. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover -(1938), by Eugene Amos Hollowell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - -***** This file should be named 63169-8.txt or 63169-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/1/6/63169/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. 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A. Hollowell, a Project Gutenberg eBook. - </title> - <link rel="cover" href="images/cover_epub.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} - -p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1.5em;} - -hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-top: 2em;} -hr.full {width: 95%; margin-top: 2em;} - -table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} - -.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 3.5%; font-style: normal; /* prevent italics, etc. */ - font-size: small; text-align: right; color: #808080;} /* page numbers */ -.bdb {border-bottom: solid #000 1px;} -.bbox {border: solid #000 1px;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} -.center {text-align: center; margin:0; text-indent: 0;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.8em;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -h1, h2, .caption3 {font-weight: bold; text-align: center; text-indent:0;} -h1 {font-size:2.00em; margin-top: 1.5em;} -h2 {font-size:1.50em; margin-top: 1.0em;} -.caption3 {font-size:1.25em; margin-top: 0.5em;} -.pmt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.pmb4 {margin-bottom: 4em;} - -/* Images */ - -.fig_center {margin: auto; text-align: center;} - -.fig_caption {font-size: 0.8em; margin-bottom: 1em; - margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; text-align: center;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.trans_notes {background-color: #e6e6fa; color: black; padding:1.5em; - margin-bottom:5em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938), by -Eugene Amos Hollowell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938) - -Author: Eugene Amos Hollowell - -Release Date: September 10, 2020 [EBook #63169] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant -materials are placed in the Public Domain. - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - - - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 296px;"> -<img src="images/cover.png" width="296" height="489" alt="USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover, by E. A. Hollowell" /> - -<div class="bbox smaller" style="width: 15em; margin: 0 auto;">CRIMSON CLOVER<br /> -LEAFLET No. 160<br /> -U.S.DEPARTMENT of AGRICULTURE</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> - -<h2>Contents</h2> - -<div class="pmb4" style="width: 15em; margin: 2em auto;"> -<a href="#Growth_and_Distribution">Growth and Distribution</a><br /> -<a href="#Adaptation">Adaptation</a><br /> -<a href="#Seedbed_Preparation">Seedbed Preparation</a><br /> -<a href="#Fertilizers">Fertilizers</a><br /> -<a href="#Seed_Sources">Seed Sources</a><br /> -<a href="#Rate_and_Time_of_Seeding">Rate and Time of Seeding</a><br /> -<a href="#Inoculation">Inoculation</a><br /> -<a href="#Unhulled_Seed">Unhulled Seed</a><br /> -<a href="#Companion_Crops">Companion Crops</a><br /> -<a href="#Diseases_and_Insects">Diseases and Insects</a><br /> -<a href="#Utilization">Utilization</a><br /> -<a href="#Seed_Production">Seed Production</a><br /> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="tdr smaller"><b>Issued June 1938.</b></p> - - - -<h1>CRIMSON CLOVER</h1> - - -<h2>By <span class="smcap">E. A. Hollowell</span>, <i>senior agronomist, Division of Forage Crops and Diseases, -Bureau of Plant Industry</i></h2> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<h2><a name="Growth_and_Distribution" id="Growth_and_Distribution">Growth and Distribution</a></h2> - - -<p>Crimson clover (<i>Trifolium incarnatum</i>) is the most important -winter annual legume of the central section of the Eastern States -(<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>). Besides being an excellent hay plant and furnishing an -abundance of early spring pasture, it affords protection to the soil -during the fall, winter, and spring, prevents soil washing, and provides -green manure for soil improvement. This legume has the distinct -advantage of being a heavy producer of seed, which can be -easily harvested and sown without the use of expensive machinery.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 497px;"><a id="fig1"></a> -<img src="images/fig1.png" width="497" height="303" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap"> Figure 1.</span>—Principal crimson clover region of the United States.</div> -</div> - -<p>Crimson clover is a native of Europe and is widely grown in France, -Hungary, and other central and southern European countries. Seed -was introduced into this country as early as 1819, but it was not until -1880 that the plant became of agricultural importance. During the -last 6 years the annual commercial consumption of seed in the United -States has ranged from 2 to 4 million pounds. In addition, large -quantities of home-grown seed are used and handled from farm to -farm.</p> - -<p>The common name of this clover is derived from the distinctive -bright crimson color of the blossoms. Other common names, such -as German clover and scarlet clover, are frequently heard in different -localities. In general the leaves and stems of crimson clover resemble -red clover, but are distinguished by the rounding of the tips of the -leaves and a greater covering of hair on both leaves and steins. When -it is planted in the fall the leaves develop from the crown and form a -rosette, which enlarges whenever weather conditions are favorable. -In late spring flower stems develop rapidly and terminate their growth -with elongated flower heads. Seed forms and the plant dies with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> -the advent of hot summer weather. The seed is yellow, slightly larger, -and more rounding than red clover seed.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<h2><a id="Adaptation"></a>Adaptation</h2> - - -<p>Crimson clover is adapted to cool, humid weather and is tolerant -of winter conditions where the temperature does not become severe -or too variable. In this region (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) it should be planted in late -summer or early fall, since early establishment and growth are favorable -to its winter survival. It will thrive on both sandy and clay -soils and is tolerant of ordinary soil acidity. On extremely poor soils, -stands are difficult to obtain and the growth is stunted. The use of -manure and phosphate fertilizers on such soils will improve the chances -of obtaining good stands.</p> - -<p>Crimson clover may also be successfully grown as a summer annual -in Maine, northern Michigan, and Minnesota. The winter culture -of this clover may be extended into Kentucky, southern Missouri, -and southern Indiana provided the seed is sown in fertile soil early -in August. Production may be successfully extended southward -with an increase of soil fertility and with seeding delayed until soil-moisture -conditions are favorable.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Seedbed_Preparation" id="Seedbed_Preparation">Seedbed Preparation</a></h2> - - -<p>The most important and difficult phase of successful production of -crimson clover is getting a stand. Sufficient soil moisture to germinate -the seed and to establish the seedlings is the greatest factor in obtaining -a stand, which when established usually produces a good crop.</p> - -<p>Seedings are usually made in late August or early September between -the rows of cultivated crops. Under such conditions an ideal -seedbed is difficult to prepare, therefore careful preparation is necessary. -Furthermore, the crop plants in the row shade the clover seedlings -and seriously compete with them for the available moisture. -Increasing the distance between the rows and planting the row crop -more thinly will afford better opportunity for the establishment of -the clover. When planted between the rows of other crops, the seed -is usually broadcast on the surface and covered by cultivating or -harrowing (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>). Drilling the seed after the soil surface has been -stirred will usually give more complete stands than broadcasting, and -it may be done with a small one-horse drill. The seed should not be -planted more than one-half to three-fourths of an inch deep, respectively, -in clay and sandy soils.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 475px;"><a id="fig2"></a> -<img src="images/fig2.png" width="475" height="300" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 2.</span>—Seeding crimson clover in corn.</div> -</div> - -<p>Crimson clover is often seeded following a grain crop, and this is a -surer method of establishing a stand than planting between the rows -of cultivated crops, providing the seedbed is well prepared. After the -grain crop is removed the soil is plowed or disked and allowed to -settle. This is followed by light harrowing or disking when necessary -to kill weed seedlings. Before the clover is seeded the soil should be -firmly packed, because a loose cloddy seedbed is the forerunner of -failure. The seed may be either drilled or broadcast, but drilling will -give more uniform stands.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Fertilizers" id="Fertilizers">Fertilizers</a></h2> - - -<p>When the crop is planted on extremely poor soils, good stands and -growth cannot be expected. Such soil conditions may be improved -by the application of manure and phosphate fertilizers or by turning -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> -under such crops as cowpeas, soybeans, or lespedeza. In many soils -of low fertility the use of 50 to 100 pounds per acre of a nitrogen -fertilizer will encourage early seedling growth and establishment. -On the fertile soils of this region crimson clover may be successfully -grown without fertilizer, but on most soils applications of 200 pounds -of phosphate fertilizer per acre are profitable in obtaining stands and -vigorous growth (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3</a>). The use of potash is recommended when a -deficiency is known to exist.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 433px;"><a id="fig3"></a> -<img src="images/fig3.png" width="433" height="302" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 3.</span>—Effect of phosphate application on good soil: Treated (left); untreated (right).</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Seed_Sources" id="Seed_Sources">Seed Sources</a></h2> - - -<p>Of the total amount of seed normally used approximately 60 percent -is of foreign origin, coming principally from Hungary and France. -Most of the domestic crimson clover seed offered on the market is -produced in south-central Tennessee. While white-flowered strains -and others differing in maturity have been isolated, they are little -used. Claims have been made that locally grown seed is superior to -seed from other sources including that of foreign origin. Further -experiments are needed to determine whether such differences actually -exist.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Rate_and_Time_of_Seeding" id="Rate_and_Time_of_Seeding">Rate and Time of Seeding</a></h2> - - -<p>Under ordinary conditions 15 to 18 pounds of hulled seed will give -good stands unless there is a deficiency of soil moisture. Depending -upon the amount of foreign material 45 to 60 pounds of unhulled seed -is comparable to a 15-pound seeding rate of hulled seed. Crimson -clover may be sown from the middle of August until October 1 with -the expectation of securing a good stand. The later it is seeded the -less growth can be expected and the more readily winterkilling occurs. -The early establishment of the plants becomes more important as -plantings are extended northward. Seeding crimson clover, if possible, -either immediately before or following heavy rains will increase its -chances of making a stand. The spring planting of crimson clover -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> -in or south of the Corn Belt usually results in a short, stunted growth -followed by meager blossoming and an unprofitable yield.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Inoculation" id="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></h2> - - -<p>In many parts of the crimson clover region it is not necessary to -inoculate the seed; but if clover has not been successfully grown on a -soil, inoculation of the seed is good insurance. If the plants are not -inoculated they will develop slowly, become yellow, and die. Inoculated -plants are able to obtain about two-thirds of their nitrogen from -the air through their root nodules. The plants may be artificially -inoculated by applying pure cultures of the bacteria to the seed or -by scattering soil from a field where inoculated crimson clover has -been grown. Two hundred to three hundred pounds per acre of such -soil evenly distributed at seeding time is sufficient.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Unhulled_Seed" id="Unhulled_Seed">Unhulled Seed</a></h2> - - -<p>The use of unhulled seed offers the distinct advantage of increasing -the chance of obtaining thick stands. With the prevalence of dry -soil conditions, light rainfall does not cause the unhulled seed to -germinate, but hulled seed germinates readily and the seedlings may -die from lack of moisture before they can become established.</p> - -<p>Its bulky nature makes unhulled seed more difficult to distribute -uniformly than hulled seed. It must be broadcast and may be -harrowed in. It is also difficult to market and is not generally handled -by the seed trade. But farmers can harvest seed for their own use -and save the expense of having it hulled.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Companion_Crops" id="Companion_Crops">Companion Crops</a></h2> - - -<p>Rye, vetch, Italian ryegrass, and fall-sown grain crops are often -seeded with crimson clover. Besides making a valuable addition to -the clover (<a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>), these companion crops help bolster up a thin stand. -Such crops are seeded from one-half to one-third the normal crop rate -and the crimson clover is seeded at the normal rate. Planting is done -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> -at the same time, but, as a greater depth is required for most of the -seed of the companion crops, two seeding operations are necessary. -In Tennessee, farmers often use a mixture of 5 pounds of red clover -and 10 pounds of crimson clover per acre with excellent results. The -first growth of the mixture may be grazed or harvested for hay or for -crimson clover seed, while the second crop is wholly red clover.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 475px;"><a id="fig4"></a> -<img src="images/fig4.png" width="475" height="323" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 4.</span>—Crimson clover and rye, an excellent green-manure combination.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Diseases_and_Insects" id="Diseases_and_Insects">Diseases and Insects</a></h2> - - -<p>The only serious disease that affects crimson clover is stem rot. -The effect of this disease is seen in the early spring and is characterized -by the plants dying in patches. The stems rot at the surface of -the soil or where they join the crown. The occurrence of continued -damp cool weather during early spring favors the development of the -disease. Exclusion of clover and other legumes from the rotation for -a period of 2 to 5 years is the best control method.</p> - -<p>Sandy soils in the southern part of the crimson clover belt are often -infested with nematodes. Nematode injury results in a stunting and -yellowing of the plants and is most prevalent in the southern part of -the region. While the clover-seed chalcid, the pea aphid, and other -insects sometimes become numerous in crimson clover, insects do not -ordinarily cause appreciable damage.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<h2><a name="Utilization" id="Utilization">Utilization</a></h2> - - -<p>Crimson clover grows rapidly in early spring and furnishes an -abundance of early grazing (<a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>). If planted early and an abundant -fall growth is made, the clover may also be grazed during the fall and -winter months. Such a practice has been successfully followed in -Tennessee, where crimson clover has provided the winter pasturage. -The grazing, however, should be restricted to periods when the soil -is relatively dry, otherwise damage may result from trampling. Animals -grazing on crimson clover seldom bloat; however, it is advisable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> -not to turn them into clover fields for the first time when they are -hungry. Bloat is less likely to occur when a mixture of clover and -grass or grain is grazed than when the clover alone is grazed. As -crimson clover reaches maturity the hairs of the heads and stems become -hard and tough. When grazed continuously or when fed as -hay at this stage of maturity large masses of the hairs are liable to -form into hair balls in stomachs of horses and mules. Occasionally -the hair balls are responsible for the death of animals. If small -amounts of other feeds, particularly roughages, are fed along with the -clover, the formation of these balls will be reduced. Cattle, sheep, -and swine do not seem to be affected.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 474px;"><a id="fig5"></a> -<img src="images/fig5.png" width="474" height="301" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 5.</span>—Crimson clover provides an abundance of early spring grazing.</div> -</div> - -<p>Crimson clover makes excellent hay when cut at the early bloom -stage although the yield may be slightly reduced. For maximum -yields it should be harvested in full bloom. The hay is easily cured -either in the swath or in the windrow. Fewer leaves are lost and less -bleaching occurs in windrowed hay. Although yields as high as -2½ tons per acre are not uncommon on fertile soil, 1½ to 2 tons is -an ordinary production.</p> - -<p>Crimson clover is an ideal green-manure crop. For the best result -it should be plowed under 2 to 3 weeks before planting the succeeding -crop. This gives sufficient time for decomposition, which is rapid -unless the crop is mature when plowed under. Occasionally, strips -are plowed in which row crops are planted, allowing the clover between -the plowed strips to mature. Seed may be harvested by hand from -the clover between the row crop, and the remaining clover straw -allowed to mat and serve as a mulch, or the entire plant may be permitted -to form a mulch. A volunteer seeding may be secured in this -way, especially in the northern part of this region, but attempts to -follow such a practice should be tried on a small scale until experience -is gained. When used in orchards, crimson clover is often allowed to -mature, after which it is disked into the soil. Occasionally a volunteer -seeding may be obtained in the fall.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="Seed_Production" id="Seed_Production">Seed Production</a></h2> - - -<p>Crimson clover is a prolific seed-producing plant and yields of 5 to -10 bushels per acre are common, depending upon the thickness of the -stand, the amount of growth that is produced, and the care exercised -in harvesting the seed. The florets are self-fertile, but bees are effective -in tripping and transferring the pollen, with a consequent increase -in the number of seed per head. The placing of colonies of honeybees -adjacent to blooming fields will effectively increase pollination. More -seed is usually produced on soils of medium fertility than on rich soils, -since fertile soils seem to stimulate the growth of stems and leaves -at the expense of flower-head development.</p> - -<p>Large yields and ease of harvesting crimson clover seed are the -principal reasons why crimson clover is such an ideal legume crop. -Farmers may save seed with very little expense other than their own -labor. When the seed heads are mature they readily shatter and are -easily harvested either by hand stripping or by using horse-drawn homemade -strippers. One bushel of unhulled seed contains about 2 pounds -of hulled seed, and although bulky in nature, it can be easily stored on -the farm until fall.</p> - -<div class="fig_center" style="width: 478px;"><a id="fig6"></a> -<img src="images/fig6.png" width="478" height="222" alt="" /> -<div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Figure 6.</span>—Cutting a crimson clover seed crop with a mower equipped with a bunching attachment.</div> -</div> - -<p>When the seed is mature the crop is cut with a mower, which may -be equipped with a bunching or windrowing attachment (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) or it -may be harvested with a combine. During wet seasons difficulties in -combining the seed from standing plants may be experienced. Under -such conditions the plants may be cut and windrowed and then -threshed by the combine from the windrow. As crimson clover shatters -easily when ripe, cutting with the mower when the heads are -damp with dew or rain is recommended. If allowed to stand too long -after it is ripe a beating rain will shatter much of the seed. After a -few days of curing, the seed is hulled with an ordinary clover huller or -a grain separator equipped with hulling attachments. The less the -clover is handled, the less seed will be lost by shattering.</p> - -<p>Troublesome weeds are encountered in growing crimson clover seed; -field peppergrass (<i>Lepidium campestre</i>) and wintercress (<i>Barbarea -praecox</i>) are probably the worst, as their separation from the clover -seed is difficult. Little barley (<i>Hordeum pusillum</i>) is objectionable in -unhulled seed, and the use of unhulled seed will naturally increase the -prevalence of this weed.</p> - - -<p class="pmt4 bdb center">U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938</p> - -<p>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. — Price 5 cents</p> - - -<hr class="full" /> - -<div class="trans_notes"> - -<p class="caption3">Transcriber Note</p> - - -<p>Illustrations moved to avoid splitting paragraphs and closer to references -in the text. Minor typos may have been corrected.</p> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover -(1938), by Eugene Amos Hollowell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - -***** This file should be named 63169-h.htm or 63169-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/1/6/63169/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. 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