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diff --git a/old/63169-8.txt b/old/63169-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c5f800c..0000000 --- a/old/63169-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,775 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938), by -Eugene Amos Hollowell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover (1938) - -Author: Eugene Amos Hollowell - -Release Date: September 10, 2020 [EBook #63169] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant -materials are placed in the Public Domain. - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Emphasis is denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. - - - - -=CRIMSON CLOVER= - - - - - -LEAFLET No. 160 - -U.S.DEPARTMENT of AGRICULTURE - - -Issued June 1938. - - - - -=CRIMSON CLOVER= - - -By E. A. Hollowell, _senior agronomist, Division of Forage Crops and -Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry_ - - - - -=Growth and Distribution= - - -Crimson clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) is the most important winter -annual legume of the central section of the Eastern States (fig. 1). -Besides being an excellent hay plant and furnishing an abundance of -early spring pasture, it affords protection to the soil during the fall, -winter, and spring, prevents soil washing, and provides green manure for -soil improvement. This legume has the distinct advantage of being a heavy -producer of seed, which can be easily harvested and sown without the use -of expensive machinery. - -[Illustration: Figure 1.--Principal crimson clover region of the United -States.] - -Crimson clover is a native of Europe and is widely grown in France, -Hungary, and other central and southern European countries. Seed was -introduced into this country as early as 1819, but it was not until 1880 -that the plant became of agricultural importance. During the last 6 years -the annual commercial consumption of seed in the United States has ranged -from 2 to 4 million pounds. In addition, large quantities of home-grown -seed are used and handled from farm to farm. - -The common name of this clover is derived from the distinctive bright -crimson color of the blossoms. Other common names, such as German clover -and scarlet clover, are frequently heard in different localities. In -general the leaves and stems of crimson clover resemble red clover, but -are distinguished by the rounding of the tips of the leaves and a greater -covering of hair on both leaves and steins. When it is planted in the -fall the leaves develop from the crown and form a rosette, which enlarges -whenever weather conditions are favorable. In late spring flower stems -develop rapidly and terminate their growth with elongated flower heads. -Seed forms and the plant dies with the advent of hot summer weather. The -seed is yellow, slightly larger, and more rounding than red clover seed. - - - - -=Adaptation= - - -Crimson clover is adapted to cool, humid weather and is tolerant of winter -conditions where the temperature does not become severe or too variable. -In this region (fig. 1) it should be planted in late summer or early fall, -since early establishment and growth are favorable to its winter survival. -It will thrive on both sandy and clay soils and is tolerant of ordinary -soil acidity. On extremely poor soils, stands are difficult to obtain and -the growth is stunted. The use of manure and phosphate fertilizers on such -soils will improve the chances of obtaining good stands. - -Crimson clover may also be successfully grown as a summer annual in Maine, -northern Michigan, and Minnesota. The winter culture of this clover -may be extended into Kentucky, southern Missouri, and southern Indiana -provided the seed is sown in fertile soil early in August. Production may -be successfully extended southward with an increase of soil fertility and -with seeding delayed until soil-moisture conditions are favorable. - - - - -=Seedbed Preparation= - - -The most important and difficult phase of successful production of crimson -clover is getting a stand. Sufficient soil moisture to germinate the seed -and to establish the seedlings is the greatest factor in obtaining a -stand, which when established usually produces a good crop. - -Seedings are usually made in late August or early September between -the rows of cultivated crops. Under such conditions an ideal seedbed -is difficult to prepare, therefore careful preparation is necessary. -Furthermore, the crop plants in the row shade the clover seedlings and -seriously compete with them for the available moisture. Increasing the -distance between the rows and planting the row crop more thinly will -afford better opportunity for the establishment of the clover. When -planted between the rows of other crops, the seed is usually broadcast on -the surface and covered by cultivating or harrowing (fig. 2). Drilling -the seed after the soil surface has been stirred will usually give more -complete stands than broadcasting, and it may be done with a small -one-horse drill. The seed should not be planted more than one-half to -three-fourths of an inch deep, respectively, in clay and sandy soils. - -[Illustration: Figure 2.--Seeding crimson clover in corn.] - -Crimson clover is often seeded following a grain crop, and this is a -surer method of establishing a stand than planting between the rows of -cultivated crops, providing the seedbed is well prepared. After the grain -crop is removed the soil is plowed or disked and allowed to settle. This -is followed by light harrowing or disking when necessary to kill weed -seedlings. Before the clover is seeded the soil should be firmly packed, -because a loose cloddy seedbed is the forerunner of failure. The seed may -be either drilled or broadcast, but drilling will give more uniform stands. - - - - -=Fertilizers= - - -When the crop is planted on extremely poor soils, good stands and -growth cannot be expected. Such soil conditions may be improved by the -application of manure and phosphate fertilizers or by turning under such -crops as cowpeas, soybeans, or lespedeza. In many soils of low fertility -the use of 50 to 100 pounds per acre of a nitrogen fertilizer will -encourage early seedling growth and establishment. On the fertile soils of -this region crimson clover may be successfully grown without fertilizer, -but on most soils applications of 200 pounds of phosphate fertilizer per -acre are profitable in obtaining stands and vigorous growth (fig. 3). The -use of potash is recommended when a deficiency is known to exist. - -[Illustration: Figure 3.--Effect of phosphate application on good soil: -Treated (left); untreated (right).] - - - - -=Seed Sources= - - -Of the total amount of seed normally used approximately 60 percent is -of foreign origin, coming principally from Hungary and France. Most of -the domestic crimson clover seed offered on the market is produced in -south-central Tennessee. While white-flowered strains and others differing -in maturity have been isolated, they are little used. Claims have been -made that locally grown seed is superior to seed from other sources -including that of foreign origin. Further experiments are needed to -determine whether such differences actually exist. - - - - -=Rate and Time of Seeding= - - -Under ordinary conditions 15 to 18 pounds of hulled seed will give good -stands unless there is a deficiency of soil moisture. Depending upon the -amount of foreign material 45 to 60 pounds of unhulled seed is comparable -to a 15-pound seeding rate of hulled seed. Crimson clover may be sown from -the middle of August until October 1 with the expectation of securing a -good stand. The later it is seeded the less growth can be expected and -the more readily winterkilling occurs. The early establishment of the -plants becomes more important as plantings are extended northward. Seeding -crimson clover, if possible, either immediately before or following heavy -rains will increase its chances of making a stand. The spring planting of -crimson clover in or south of the Corn Belt usually results in a short, -stunted growth followed by meager blossoming and an unprofitable yield. - - - - -=Inoculation= - - -In many parts of the crimson clover region it is not necessary to -inoculate the seed; but if clover has not been successfully grown on a -soil, inoculation of the seed is good insurance. If the plants are not -inoculated they will develop slowly, become yellow, and die. Inoculated -plants are able to obtain about two-thirds of their nitrogen from the air -through their root nodules. The plants may be artificially inoculated by -applying pure cultures of the bacteria to the seed or by scattering soil -from a field where inoculated crimson clover has been grown. Two hundred -to three hundred pounds per acre of such soil evenly distributed at -seeding time is sufficient. - - - - -=Unhulled Seed= - - -The use of unhulled seed offers the distinct advantage of increasing -the chance of obtaining thick stands. With the prevalence of dry soil -conditions, light rainfall does not cause the unhulled seed to germinate, -but hulled seed germinates readily and the seedlings may die from lack of -moisture before they can become established. - -Its bulky nature makes unhulled seed more difficult to distribute -uniformly than hulled seed. It must be broadcast and may be harrowed in. -It is also difficult to market and is not generally handled by the seed -trade. But farmers can harvest seed for their own use and save the expense -of having it hulled. - - - - -=Companion Crops= - - -Rye, vetch, Italian ryegrass, and fall-sown grain crops are often seeded -with crimson clover. Besides making a valuable addition to the clover -(fig. 4), these companion crops help bolster up a thin stand. Such crops -are seeded from one-half to one-third the normal crop rate and the crimson -clover is seeded at the normal rate. Planting is done at the same time, -but, as a greater depth is required for most of the seed of the companion -crops, two seeding operations are necessary. In Tennessee, farmers often -use a mixture of 5 pounds of red clover and 10 pounds of crimson clover -per acre with excellent results. The first growth of the mixture may be -grazed or harvested for hay or for crimson clover seed, while the second -crop is wholly red clover. - -[Illustration: Figure 4.--Crimson clover and rye, an excellent -green-manure combination.] - - - - -=Diseases and Insects= - - -The only serious disease that affects crimson clover is stem rot. The -effect of this disease is seen in the early spring and is characterized by -the plants dying in patches. The stems rot at the surface of the soil or -where they join the crown. The occurrence of continued damp cool weather -during early spring favors the development of the disease. Exclusion of -clover and other legumes from the rotation for a period of 2 to 5 years is -the best control method. - -Sandy soils in the southern part of the crimson clover belt are often -infested with nematodes. Nematode injury results in a stunting and -yellowing of the plants and is most prevalent in the southern part of the -region. While the clover-seed chalcid, the pea aphid, and other insects -sometimes become numerous in crimson clover, insects do not ordinarily -cause appreciable damage. - - - - -=Utilization= - - -Crimson clover grows rapidly in early spring and furnishes an abundance -of early grazing (fig. 5). If planted early and an abundant fall growth -is made, the clover may also be grazed during the fall and winter months. -Such a practice has been successfully followed in Tennessee, where crimson -clover has provided the winter pasturage. The grazing, however, should be -restricted to periods when the soil is relatively dry, otherwise damage -may result from trampling. Animals grazing on crimson clover seldom bloat; -however, it is advisable not to turn them into clover fields for the -first time when they are hungry. Bloat is less likely to occur when a -mixture of clover and grass or grain is grazed than when the clover alone -is grazed. As crimson clover reaches maturity the hairs of the heads and -stems become hard and tough. When grazed continuously or when fed as -hay at this stage of maturity large masses of the hairs are liable to -form into hair balls in stomachs of horses and mules. Occasionally the -hair balls are responsible for the death of animals. If small amounts of -other feeds, particularly roughages, are fed along with the clover, the -formation of these balls will be reduced. Cattle, sheep, and swine do not -seem to be affected. - -[Illustration: Figure 5.--Crimson clover provides an abundance of early -spring grazing.] - -Crimson clover makes excellent hay when cut at the early bloom stage -although the yield may be slightly reduced. For maximum yields it should -be harvested in full bloom. The hay is easily cured either in the swath -or in the windrow. Fewer leaves are lost and less bleaching occurs in -windrowed hay. Although yields as high as 2½ tons per acre are not -uncommon on fertile soil, 1½ to 2 tons is an ordinary production. - -Crimson clover is an ideal green-manure crop. For the best result it -should be plowed under 2 to 3 weeks before planting the succeeding crop. -This gives sufficient time for decomposition, which is rapid unless the -crop is mature when plowed under. Occasionally, strips are plowed in which -row crops are planted, allowing the clover between the plowed strips -to mature. Seed may be harvested by hand from the clover between the -row crop, and the remaining clover straw allowed to mat and serve as a -mulch, or the entire plant may be permitted to form a mulch. A volunteer -seeding may be secured in this way, especially in the northern part of -this region, but attempts to follow such a practice should be tried on a -small scale until experience is gained. When used in orchards, crimson -clover is often allowed to mature, after which it is disked into the soil. -Occasionally a volunteer seeding may be obtained in the fall. - - - - -=Seed Production= - - -Crimson clover is a prolific seed-producing plant and yields of 5 to -10 bushels per acre are common, depending upon the thickness of the -stand, the amount of growth that is produced, and the care exercised in -harvesting the seed. The florets are self-fertile, but bees are effective -in tripping and transferring the pollen, with a consequent increase in the -number of seed per head. The placing of colonies of honeybees adjacent -to blooming fields will effectively increase pollination. More seed is -usually produced on soils of medium fertility than on rich soils, since -fertile soils seem to stimulate the growth of stems and leaves at the -expense of flower-head development. - -Large yields and ease of harvesting crimson clover seed are the principal -reasons why crimson clover is such an ideal legume crop. Farmers may save -seed with very little expense other than their own labor. When the seed -heads are mature they readily shatter and are easily harvested either by -hand stripping or by using horse-drawn homemade strippers. One bushel of -unhulled seed contains about 2 pounds of hulled seed, and although bulky -in nature, it can be easily stored on the farm until fall. - -[Illustration: Figure 6.--Cutting a crimson clover seed crop with a mower -equipped with a bunching attachment.] - -When the seed is mature the crop is cut with a mower, which may be -equipped with a bunching or windrowing attachment (fig. 6) or it may be -harvested with a combine. During wet seasons difficulties in combining the -seed from standing plants may be experienced. Under such conditions the -plants may be cut and windrowed and then threshed by the combine from the -windrow. As crimson clover shatters easily when ripe, cutting with the -mower when the heads are damp with dew or rain is recommended. If allowed -to stand too long after it is ripe a beating rain will shatter much of -the seed. After a few days of curing, the seed is hulled with an ordinary -clover huller or a grain separator equipped with hulling attachments. The -less the clover is handled, the less seed will be lost by shattering. - -Troublesome weeds are encountered in growing crimson clover seed; field -peppergrass (_Lepidium campestre_) and wintercress (_Barbarea praecox_) -are probably the worst, as their separation from the clover seed is -difficult. Little barley (_Hordeum pusillum_) is objectionable in unhulled -seed, and the use of unhulled seed will naturally increase the prevalence -of this weed. - - -U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1938 - -For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. -- Price 5 -cents - - - * * * * * - - -=Transcriber Note= - - -Illustrations moved to avoid splitting paragraphs and closer to references -in the text. Minor typos may have been corrected. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of USDA Leaflet No. 160: Crimson Clover -(1938), by Eugene Amos Hollowell - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA LEAFLET NO. 160 (1938) *** - -***** This file should be named 63169-8.txt or 63169-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/1/6/63169/ - -Produced by Tom Cosmas from files generously made available -by USDA through The Internet Archive. 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