diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/63275-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/63275-0.txt | 16319 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 16319 deletions
diff --git a/old/63275-0.txt b/old/63275-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 57eb040..0000000 --- a/old/63275-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16319 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dabistán, Volume 1 (of 3), by -David Shea and Anthony Troyer and Muòhsin Fåanåi - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Dabistán, Volume 1 (of 3) - or School of manners, translated from the original Persian, - with notes and illus. - -Author: David Shea - Anthony Troyer - Muòhsin Fåanåi - -Release Date: September 23, 2020 [EBook #63275] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DABISTÁN, VOLUME 1 (OF 3) *** - - - - -Produced by Édith Nolot, Bryan Ness, Carol Brown and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -THE DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS. - - - - -MADAME VEUVE DONDEY-DUPRÉ, - -Printer to the Asiatic Societies of London, Paris, and Calcutta, - -46, rue St-Louis, Paris. - - - - -THE - -DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS, - - -TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN, - -WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, - -BY - -DAVID SHEA, - -OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY’S -COLLEGE; - -AND - -ANTHONY TROYER, - -MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, OF -CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS; - -EDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER. - - -VOLUME I. - - - - -PARIS: - -PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. - -SOLD BY - -BENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIOTHÈQUE ROYALE, - -7, RUE DU CLOITRE SAINT-BENOIT. - -AND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALD-STREET, LONDON. - -1843. - - - - -TO - -The Memory - -OF - -THE RIGHT HONORABLE - -THE EARL OF MUNSTER, - -_Etc., etc., etc._ - - - - - CONTENTS - - _Of the Preliminary Discourse_. - - - Page - - PART I. - - Introduction. - - Section I.――How the Dabistán first became - known――its author――the sources of - his information iii - - II.――Discussion on the Desátir xix - - - PART II. - - Synopsis of the dynasties, religions, sects, and - philosophic opinions treated of in the Dabistán. - - Section I.――The first religion――the dynasties of - Mahabad, Abad Azar, Shai Abad, Shai - Giliv, Shai Mahbad, and Yasan lxvi - - II.――The Peshdadian, Kayanian, Ashkanian, and - Sassanian dynasties――their religious - and political institutions lxxvii - - III.――The religion of Zardusht, or - Zoroaster lxxxiii - - IV.――The religion of the Hindus cv - - V.――Retrospect of the Persian and Indian - religions cxx - - VI.――The religion of the Tabitian (Tibetans) cxxv - - VII.――The religion of the Jews _ibid._ - - VIII.――The religion of the Christians cxxvi - - IX.――The religion of the Muselmans cxxviii - - X.――The religion of the Sadakiahs cxli - - XI.――The religion of the Roshenians cxlv - - XII.――The religion of the Ilahiahs cxlvii - - XIII.――The religion of the Philosophers cliii - - XIV.――The religion of the Súfis clxix - - XV.――Recapitulation of the Contents of - the Dabistán _ibid._ - - - PART III. - - Conclusion. - - Section I.――General appreciation of the Dabistán - and its author clxxix - - II.――Notice concerning the printed edition, - some manuscripts, and the - translations of the Dabistán clxxxviii - - - - - CONTENTS - - _Of the Dabistán (vol. I.)_ - - - Page - - Introduction of the Author 1 - - - CHAPTER I. - - Of the religion of the Parsian 4 - - Section I.――Tenets and ceremonies observed by the - Sipasian and Parsian 5 - Description of the worship rendered to - the seven planets, according to the - Sipasian faith 35 - - II.――Description of the Sipasian sect 87 - - III.――The laws of the Paiman-i-Farhang and - the Hirbed Sár 147 - Descriptions of the gradations of - Paradise 150 - Description of the infernal regions 152 - - IV.――An account of the Jamshapian sect 193 - - V.――The Samradian sect 195 - - VI.――The tenets of the Khodaiyan 201 - - VII.――The system of the Rádián _ibid._ - - VIII.――The Shidrangián creed 203 - - IX.――The Páikárian creed _ibid._ - - X.――The Milánián system 204 - - XI.――The system of the followers of Alár 206 - - XII.――The Shidanian faith 207 - - XIII.――The system of the Akhshiyán sect _ibid._ - - XIV.――The followers of Zardusht 211 - Account of the precepts given by Zardusht - to the king and all mankind 260 - The Sad-der, or “the hundred gates” of - Zardusht 310 - Enumeration of some advantages which - arise from the enigmatical forms of - the precepts of Zardusht’s followers 351 - Summary of the contents of the Mah-zend 353 - - XV.――An account of the tenets held by the - followers of Mazdak 372 - - - - -PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. - - - - -PART I. - -INTRODUCTION. - -§ I.――HOW THE DABISTAN FIRST BECAME KNOWN――ITS -AUTHOR――THE SOURCES OF HIS INFORMATION. - - -It is generally known that sir William Jones was the first who drew -the attention of Orientalists to the Dabistán. This happened five -years after the beginning of a new era in Oriental literature, the -foundation of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta by that illustrious man. -It may not appear inopportune here to revive the grateful remembrance -of one who acquired the uncontested merit of not only exciting in Asia -and Europe a new ardor for Oriental studies, but also of directing -them to their great objects――MAN and NATURE; and of endeavoring, by -word and deed, to render the attainment of languages conducive to the -required knowledge equally easy and attractive. - -Having, very early in life, gained an European reputation as a scholar -and elegant writer, sir William Jones embarked[1] for the Indian -shores with vast projects, embracing, with the extension of science, -the general improvement of mankind.[2] Four months after his arrival -in Calcutta,[3] he addressed as the first president of the Asiatic -Society, a small but select assembly, in which he found minds -responsive to his own noble sentiments. A rapid sketch of the first -labors of their incomparable leader, may not be irrelevant to our -immediate subject. - -In his second anniversary discourse,[4] he proposed a general plan for -investigating Asiatic learning, history, and institutions. In his -third discourse, he traced the line of investigation, which he -faithfully followed, as long as he lived in India, in his annual -public speeches: he determined to exhibit the prominent features of -the five principal nations of Asia――the Indians, Arabs, Tartars, -Persians, and Chinese. After having treated in the two following years -of the Arabs and Tartars, he considered in his sixth discourse[5] the -Persians, and declared that he had been induced by his earliest -investigations to believe, and by his latest to conclude, that three -primitive races of men must have migrated originally from a central -country, and that this country was _Iran_, commonly called Persia. -Examining with particular care the traces of the most ancient -languages and religions which had prevailed in this country, he -rejoiced at “a fortunate discovery, for which,” he said, “he was first -indebted to Mir Muhammed Hussain, one of the most intelligent -Muselmans in India, and which has at once dissipated the cloud, and -cast a gleam of light on the primeval history of Iran and of the human -race, of which he had long despaired, and which could hardly have -dawned from any other quarter;” this was, he declared, “the rare and -interesting tract on twelve different religions, entitled the -DABISTAN.”[6] - -Sir William Jones read the Dabistán for the first time in 1787. I -cannot refrain from subjoining here the opinion upon this work, which -he communicated in a private letter, dated June, 1787, to J. Shore, -esq. (afterwards lord Teignmouth); he says: “The greatest part of it -would be very interesting to a curious reader, but some of it cannot -be translated. It contains more recondite learning, more entertaining -history, more beautiful specimens of poetry, more ingenuity and wit, -more indecency and blasphemy, than I ever saw collected in a single -volume;[7] the two last are not of the author’s, but are introduced in -the chapters on the heretics and infidels of India.[8] On the whole, -it is the most amusing and instructive book I ever read in -Persian.”[9] - -We may suppose it was upon the recommendation of sir William Jones, -that Francis Gladwin, one of the most distinguished members of the new -Society, translated the first chapter of _The Dabistán_, or “School of -Manners,” which title has been preserved from due regard to the -meritorious Orientalist, who first published the translation of a part -of this work. The whole of it was printed in the year 1809, in -Calcutta, and translations of some parts of it were published in _The -Asiatic Researches_.[10] It is only at present, more than half a -century after the first public notice of it by sir W. Jones, that the -version of the whole work appears, under the auspices and at the -expense of the Oriental Translation Committee of Great Britain and -Ireland. - -Who was the author of the Dabistán?――Sir William Jones thought it was -composed by a Muhammedan traveller, a native of Kachmir, named -_Mohsan_, but distinguished by the assumed surname of _Fání_, “the -Perishable.” - -Gladwin[11] calls him _Shaikh Muhammed Mohsin_, and says that, besides -the Dabistán, he has left behind him a collection of poems, among -which there is a moral essay, entitled _Masdur ul asas_, “the source -of signs;” he was of the philosophic sect of Súfis, and patronised by -the imperial prince _Dara Shikoh_, whom he survived; among his -disciples in philosophy is reckoned _Muhammed Tahir_, surnamed -_Ghawri_, whose poems are much admired in Hindostan. Mohsan’s death is -placed in the year of the Hejira 1081 (A. D. 1670). - -William Erskine,[12] in search of the true author of the Dabistán, -discovered no other account of Mohsan Fání than that contained in the -_Gul-i-Râana_, “charming rose,” of _Lachmi Narayán_, who flourished in -Hyderabad about the end of the 18th or the beginning of the 19th -century. This author informs us, under the article of Mohsan Fání, -that “Mohsán, a native of Kachmir, was a learned man and a respectable -poet; a scholar of _Mulla Yakub_, Súfi of Kachmir; and that, after -completing his studies, he repaired to Delhi, to the court of the -emperor _Shah Jehan_, by whom, in consequence of his great reputation -and high acquirements, he was appointed _Sadder_, ‘chief judge,’ of -Allahabad; that there he became a disciple of Shaikh _Mohib ulla_, an -eminent doctor of that city, who wrote the treatise entitled -_Teswich_, ‘the golden Mean.’ Mohsan Fání enjoyed this honorable -office till Shah Jehân subdued Balkh; at which time _Nazer Muhammed -Khan_, the Wali, ‘prince,’ of Balkh, having effected his escape, all -his property was plundered. It happened that in his library there was -found a copy of Mohsan’s Diwán, or ‘poetical Collection,’ which -contained an ode in praise of the (fugitive) Wáli. This gave such -offence to the emperor, that the Sadder was disgraced and lost his -office, but was generously allowed a pension. He retired (as Lachmi -informs us) to his native country, where he passed the rest of his -days without any public employment, happy and respected. His house was -frequented by the most distinguished men of Kachmir, and among the -rest by the governors of the province. He had lectures at his house, -being accustomed to read to his audience the writings of certain -authors of eminence, on which he delivered moral and philosophical -comments. Several scholars of note, among whom were Taher Ghawri -(before mentioned) and _Haji Aslem Salem_, issued from his school.” He -died on the before mentioned date. “It is to be observed that Lachmi -does not mention the Dabistán as a production of Mohsan Fání, though, -had he written it, it must have been his most remarkable work.” - -Erskine goes on to recapitulate some particulars mentioned in the -Dabistán of the author’s life, and concludes that it seems very -improbable that Mohsan Fání and the author of the Dabistán were the -same person. In this conclusion, and upon the same grounds, he -coincides with the learned Vans Kennedy.[13] - -Erskine further quotes,[14] from a manuscript copy of the Dabistán -which he saw in the possession of Mulla Firuz, in Bombay, the -following marginal note annexed to the close of chapter XIV.: “In the -city of Daurse, a king of the Parsis, of the race of the imperial -Anushirván, the Shet Dawer Huryár, conversed with _Amír Zulfikar -Ali-al-Husaini_ (on whom be the grace of God!), whose poetical name -was Mobed Shah.” This Zulfikar Ali, whoever he was, the Mulla supposes -to be the author of the Dabistán. Erskine judiciously subjoins: “On so -slight an authority, I would not willingly set up an unknown author as -the compiler of that work; but it is to be remarked that many verses -of Mobed’s are quoted in the Dabistán, and there is certainly reason -to suspect that the poetical Mobed, whoever he may be, was the author -of that compilation.” - -“To this let it be added, that the author of the Dabistán; in his -account of Mobed Serosh, says[15] that one Muhammed Mohsan, a man of -learning, told him that he had heard Mobed Serosh give three hundred -and sixty proofs of the existence of God. This at least makes Muhammed -Mohsan, whoever he may be, a different person from the author of the -Dabistán.” - -I cannot omit adding the following notice annexed to the note quoted -above: “Between the printed copy and Mulla Firuz’s manuscript before -alluded to, a difference occurs in the very beginning of the work. -After the poetical address to the Deity and the praise of the prophet, -with which the Dabistán, like most other Muselman works, commences, -the manuscript reads: ‘Mohsan Fani says,’ and two moral couplets -succeed. In the printed copy, the words ‘Mohsan Fani says,’――which -should occur between the last word of the first page and the first -word of the second――are omitted. As no account of the author is given -in the beginning of the book, as is usual with Muselman writers, Mulla -Firuz conjectures that a careless or ignorant reader may have -considered the words ‘Mohsan Fáni says’ as forming the commencement of -the volume, and as containing the name of the author of the whole -book; whereas they merely indicate the author of the couplets that -follow, and would rather show that Mohsan Fani was not the writer of -the Dabistán. This conjecture, I confess, appears to me at once -extremely ingenious and very probable. A comparison of different -manuscripts might throw more light on the question.” - -Concerning the opinion last stated, I can but remark, that in a -manuscript copy of the Dabistán, which I procured from the library of -the king of Oude, and caused to be transcribed for me, the very same -words: “Mohsan Fani says,” occur (as I have observed in vol. I. p. 6, -note 3), preceding a _rabaâ_, or quatrain, which begins: - - “The world is a book full of knowledge and of justice,” etc. etc. - -These lines seem well chosen as an introduction to the text itself, -which begins by a summary of the whole work, exhibiting the titles of -the twelve chapters of which it is composed. As the two copies -mentioned (the one found in Bombay, the other in Lucknow) contain the -same words, they can hardly be taken for an accidental addition of a -copyist. I found no remark upon this point in Mr. Shea’s translation, -who had two manuscript copies to refer to. Whatever it be, it must -still remain undecided, whether Mohsan Fani was there named only as -the author of the next quatrain or of the whole book, although either -hypothesis may not appear destitute of probability; nor can it be -considered strange to admit that the name of Mohsan Fani was borne by -more than one individual. I shall be permitted to continue calling the -author of the Dabistán by the presumed name of Mohsan Fani. - -Dropping this point, we shall now search for information upon his -person, character, and knowledge in the work itself. Is he really a -native of Kachmir, as here before stated? - -Although in the course of his book he makes frequent mention of -Kachmir, he never owns himself a native of that country. In one part -of his narrative, he expressly alludes to another home. He begins the -second chapter upon the religion of the Hindus (vol. II. p. 2) by -these words: “As inconstant fortune had torn away the author from the -shores of Persia, and made him the associate of the believers in -transmigration and those who addressed their prayers to idols and -images, and worshipped demons * * * *.” Now we know that Kachmir is -considered as a very ancient seat, nay as the very cradle, of the -doctrine of transmigration, and of Hinduism in general, with all its -tenets, rites, and customs; and that from the remotest times to the -present it was inhabited by numerous adherents of this faith; how -could the author, if a native of Kachmir, accuse inconstant fortune -for having made him elsewhere an associate of these very religionists -with whom, from his birth, he must have been accustomed to live? The -passage just quoted leaves scarce a doubt that the shores of Persia, -from which he bewails having been torn, were really his native country. - - -When was he born? - -He no where adduces the date of his birth; the earliest period of his -life which he mentions, is the year of the Hejira 1028 (A. D. -1618):[16] in this year the Mobed Hushíar brought the author to Balik -Nátha, a great adept in the Yoga, or ascetic devotion, to receive the -blessing of that holy man, who pronounced these words over him: “This -boy shall acquire the knowledge of God.” It is not stated in what -place this happened. The next earliest date is five years later, 1033 -of the Hejira (A. D. 1623).[17] He says that, in his infancy, he came -with his friends and relations from Patna to the capital Akbar-abad, -and was carried in the arms of the Mobed Hushíar to Chatur Vapah, a -famous ascetic of those days. The pious man rejoiced at it, and -bestowed his blessing on the future writer of the Dabistán; he taught -him the _mantra_, “prayer,” of the sun, and appointed one of his -disciples to remain with the boy until the age of manhood. We have -here a positive statement: in the year 1623 A. D., he was “in his -infancy,” and carried “in the arms of his protector.” Giving the -widest extension to these expressions, we can hardly think him to have -been either much older or younger than seven or eight years: not much -older, for being in some way carried in the arms of the Mobed; nor -much younger, having been taught a hymn to the sun, and he might have -been a boy of three years when he received the first-mentioned -blessing from Balik Natha. We may therefore suppose him to have been -born about the year 1615 of our era, in the tenth year of the reign of -the emperor Jehangir. We collect in his work fifty-three dates -relative to himself between the year 1618 and 1653. From 1627 to 1643, -we see him mostly in Kachmir and Lahore, travelling between these two -places; in 1643, he was at the holy sepulchre, probably at Meshhad, -which appears to be the furthermost town to the West which he reached; -from 1634 to 1649, he dwelt in several towns of the Panjab and -Guzerat; the next year he proceeded to Sikakul, the remotest town in -the East which he says he has visited; there he fell sick, and -sojourned during 1653, at which epoch, if the year of his birth be -correctly inferred, he had attained his thirty-eighth year. We have no -other date of his death than that before stated: if he died in 1670, -it was in the eleventh year of the reign of Aurengzéb, or Alemgir. -Mohsan Fani would therefore have passed his infancy, youth, and -manhood mostly in India, under the reigns of the three emperors, -Jehangír, Shah Jehan, and Aurengzeb.[18] It was the state of religion, -prevailing in those days in Hindostan that he describes. - -From his earliest age he appears to have led an active life, -frequently changing his residence. Such a mode of life belongs to a -travelling merchant or philosopher, and in our author both qualities -might have been united, as is often the case in Asia. Mohsan Fani, -during his travels, collected the diversified and curious materials -for the Dabistán; he observed with his own eyes the manners and -customs of different nations and sects. He says himself at the -conclusion of his work: “After having much frequented the meetings of -the followers of the five before-said religions,” Magians, Hindus, -Jews, Nazareans, and Muselmans, “the author wished and undertook to -write this book; and whatever in this work, treating of the religions -of different countries, is stated concerning the creed of different -sects, has been taken from their books, and for the account of the -persons belonging to any particular sect, the author’s information was -imparted to him by their adherents and sincere friends, and recorded -literally, so that no trace of partiality nor aversion might be -perceived: in short, the writer of these pages performed no more than -the task of a translator.” This declaration, even to a severe critic, -may appear satisfactory. Sir William Jones called him[19] a learned -and accurate, a candid and ingenious author. A further appreciation of -Mohsan Fani’s character is reserved for subsequent pages. We can, -however, here state, that he sought the best means of information, and -gives us what he had acquired not only from personal experience, which -is always more or less confined; not only from oral instruction, which -is too often imperfectly given and received; but also from an -attentive perusal of the best works which he could procure upon the -subject of his investigation. Of the latter authorities which the -author produces, some are known in Europe, and we may judge of the -degree of accuracy and intelligence with which he has made use of -them. Of others, nothing at all, or merely the name, is known. This is -generally the case with works relative to the old Persian religion, -which is the subject of the first chapter, divided into fifteen -sections. - -The authorities which he adduces for this chapter are as follow: - - 1. The _Amighistan_ (vol. I. pp. 15. 26. 42), without the name of - its author. - - 2. The _Desátir_ (vol. I. pp. 20. 21. 44. 65), an heaven-bestowed - book. - - 3. The _Darai Sekander_ (vol. I. pp. 34. 360), composed by Dáwir - Háryar. - - 4. The _Akhteristan_, “region of the stars” (vol. I. pp. 35. 42). - - 5. The _Jashen Sadah_, “the festival of Sadah” (the 16th night of - January) (vol. I. pp. 72. 112). - - 6. The _Sárud-i-mastan_, “song of the intoxicated” (vol. I. p. 76. - vol. II. p. 136): this and the preceding work composed by Mobed - Hushíar. - - 7. The _Jam-i-Kai Khusro_, “the cup of Kai Khusro,” a commentary - upon the poems of Azar Kaivan, composed by Mobed Khod Jai (vol. - I. pp. 76. 84. 119.) - - 8. The _Sharistan-i-Danish wa Gulistan-i-binish_, “the pavilion of - knowledge and rose-garden of vision” (vol. I. p. 77. 89. 109), - composed by Farzanah Bahram. - - 9. The _Zerdusht Afshar_ (vol. I. p. 77), work of the Mobed Serosh, - who composed also: - - 10. _Nosh Daru_, “sweet medicine” (vol. I. p. 114); and - - 11. The _Sagangubin_, “dog’s honey” (vol. I. p. 114). - - 12. The _Bazm-gah-i-durvishan_, “the banquetting-room of the - durvishes” (vol. I. pp. 104. 108), without the name of the author. - - 13. The _Arzhang Mani_, “the gallery of Mani” (vol. I. p. 131). - - 14. The _Tabrah-i-Mobedi_, “the sacerdotal kettle-drum” (vol. I. p. - 123), by Mobed Paristar. - - 15. The _Dadistan Aursah_ (vol. I. p. 131). - - 16. The _Amízesh-i-farhang_ (vol. I. p. 145), containing the - institutes of the Abadiah durvishes. - - 17. The _Míhín farush_ (vol. I. p. 244). - - 18. The _Testament of Jamshid to Abtin_ (vol. I. p. 195), compiled - by Farhang Dostúr. - - 19. _Razabad_, composed by Shídab. - - 20. The _Sányál_, a book of the Sipasians (vol. II. p. 136), - containing an account of a particular sort of devotion. - - 21. The _Rama zastan_ of Zardusht (vol. I. p. 369 and vol. II. p. - 136). - - 22. _Huz al Hayat_ (vol. II. p. 137), composed by Ambaret Kant. - - 23. The _Samrad Nameh_, by Kamkar (vol. I. p. 201). - -Besides other writings of Zertusht, in great number, which the author -has seen. - -These works are most probably of a mystical nature, and belong to a -particular sect, but may contain, however, some interesting traditions -or facts of ancient history. Of the twenty-three books just -enumerated, a part of the third only is known to us, namely, that of -the Desátir. - - - [1] In April, 1783. - - [2] He landed at Calcutta in September, 1783. - - [3] In January, 1784. - - [4] Delivered in February, 1785. - - [5] In February, 1789. - - [6] The works of sir William Jones, with the life of the - author, by lord Teignmouth, in 13 vols. Vol. III. p. 110. - 1807. - - [7] I shall hereafter give some explanations upon this - subject. - - [8] There appears in the printed edition no positive ground - for the opinion above expressed; we find, however, frequent - repetitions of the same subject, such as are not likely to - belong to the same author; we know, besides, that additions - and interpolations are but too common in all Oriental - manuscripts. - - [9] The Persian text, with the translation of the first - chapter, appeared in the two first numbers of the _New - Asiatic Miscellany_. Calcutta, 1789. This English version - was rendered into German by Dalberg, 1809. - - [10] These translations are mentioned in the notes of the - present version. - - [11] New Asiatic Misc., p. 87. - - [12] Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. - II. p. 374. - - [13] Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. - II. pp. 243-244. - - [14] Ibid., pp. 375-376. - - [15] See the present Transl., vol. I. pp. 113-114. A mistake - is here to be pointed out: at p. 114, l. 11, the name of - Kaivan has been substituted for that of Mobed Serosh. - - [16] See vol. II. p. 137. - - [17] See vol. II. p. 145. - - [18] Jehangír reigned from 1605 to 1628. - Shah Jehan ―――― 1628 ―――― 1659. - Aurengzeb ―――― 1659 ―――― 1707. - - [19] The Works of sir W. Jones, vol. IV. pp. 16 and 105. - - -§ II.――DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. - -This word was considered to be the Arabic plural of the original -Persian word _dostúr_, signifying “a note-book, pillar, canon, model, -learned man;” but, according to the Persian grammar, its plural would -be _dosturán_, or _dostúrha_, and not _desátir_. From this Arabic form -of the word an inference was drawn against the originality and -antiquity of the Desátir; but this of itself is not sufficient, as -will be shown. - -Other readings of the title are _Dastánir_, in one passage,[20] and -_Wasátir_[21] in two other places of Gladwin’s Persian text, and the -last also in a passage of the printed edition.[22] The first is not -easily accounted for, and is probably erroneous; but the second is -found in the index of the printed edition,[23] under the letter و, -_vau_, and explained: “the name of the book of Mahabad;” it cannot -therefore be taken for a typographical error, and is the correct title -of the book, as I now think, although I formerly[24] preferred reading -_Desátir_. It is derivable from the Sansrcit root वाश् _wás_, “to -sound, to call,” and therefore in the form of _wasátis_ or _wasâtir_ -(the _r_ and _s_ being frequently substituted for the _visarga_) it -signifies “speech, oracle, precept, command.” It is also in connection -with the old Persian word _wakshur_, “a prophet.” Considering the -frequent substitution in kindred languages of _ba_ for _va_, and _ba_ -for _bha_, it may also be referred to the root भाष _bhasha_, “to -speak,”[25] which, with the prepositions _pari_ and _sam_, signifies -“to explain, expound, discourse.” Hence we read in the Commentary of -the _Desátir_ the ancient Persian word _basátir_[26] (not to be found -in modern Persian vocabularies), which is there interpreted by -“speculations,” in the following passage: “the speculations (basátir) -which I have written on the _desátir_.” - -I shall nevertheless keep, in the ensuing Dissertation, the title -Desátir, because it is generally adopted. Besides, in the Mahabádian -text, the _vau_, و, frequently occurs for the Persian _dál_, د, thus -we find وادن, _wáden_, for دادن, _dáden_, “to give;” and _wárem_, -وارم, for _dárem_, دارم, “I have;” but I am aware that the two -letters, so similar in their form, may be easily confounded with each -other by the copyist or printer. - -The extract from the Desátir contained in the Dabistán was thought -worthy of the greatest attention by sir William Jones, as before -mentioned; nay, appeared to him “an unexceptionable authority,” before -a part of the Desátir itself was published in Bombay, in the year -1818, that is, twenty-four years after the death of that eminent man. - -The author of the Dabistán mentions the Desátir as a work well known -among the Sipasians, that is, the adherents of the most ancient -religion of Persia. According to his statement, the emperor Akbar -conversed frequently with the fire-adorers of Guzerat; he also called -from Persia a follower of Zerdusht, named _Ardeshir_, and invited -fire-worshippers from Kirman to his court, and received their -religious books from that country; we may suppose the Desátir was -among them. So much is positive, that it is quoted in the _Sharistan -chehar chemen_, a work composed by a celebrated doctor who lived under -the reigns of the emperors Akbar and Jehangír, and died A. D. 1624. -The compiler of the Burhani Kati, a Persian Dictionary, to be compared -to the Arabic _Kamus_, or “sea of language,” quotes and explains a -great number of obsolete words and philosophic terms upon the -authority of the Desátir: this evidently proves the great esteem in -which this work was held. Let it be considered that a dictionary is -not destined for the use of a sect merely, but of the whole nation -that speaks the language, and this is the Persian, considered, even by -the Arabs, as the second language in the world and in paradise.[27] - -It is to be regretted that Mohsan Fani did not relate where and how he -himself became acquainted with the Desátir. I see no sufficient ground -for the supposition of Silvestre de Sacy[28] and an anonymous -critic,[29] that the author of the Dabistán never saw the Desátir. So -much is certain, that the account which he gives of the Mahabádian -religion coincides in every material point with that which is -contained in that part of the sacred book which was edited in Bombay -by _Mulla Firuz Bin-i-Kaus_.[30] - -This editor says in his preface (p. vi): “The Desátir is known to have -existed for many years, and has frequently been referred to by Persian -writers, though, as it was regarded as the sacred volume of a -particular sect, it seems to have been guarded with that jealous care -and that incommunicative spirit, that have particularly distinguished -the religious sects of the East. We can only fairly expect, therefore, -that the contents should be known to the followers of the sect.” Mulla -Firuz employs here evidently the term _sect_ with respect to the -dominant religion of the Muhammedan conquerors, whose violent and -powerful intolerance reduced the still faithful followers of the -ancient national religion to undergo the fate of a persecuted sect. -But we shall see that the doctrine of the Desátir is justly entitled -to a much higher pretension than to be that of an obscure sect. - -Whatever it be, Mulla Firuz possessed the only manuscript of the work -then known in Bombay. It was purchased at Isfahan by his father Kaus, -about the year 1778, from a bookseller, who sold it under the title of -a Gueber book. Brought to Bombay, it attracted the particular -attention of Mr. Duncan, then governor of Bombay, to such a degree, -that he began an English translation of the work, which was -interrupted by his return to England. The final completion of the -version was owing to the great encouragement which sir John Malcolm -gave Mulla Firuz in consequence of the high opinion which sir William -Jones had publicly expressed of the Dabistán, the author of which drew -his account of the ancient Persian dynasties and religions chiefly -from the Desátir. There is an interval of one hundred and thirty-three -years[31] between the composition of the Dabistán and the fortuitous -purchase of the manuscript copy of the Desátir, by Kaus in Isfahan; as -it would be assuming to much to suppose that the latter is the same -from which Mohsan Fani drew his information, we can but admit that the -agreement of both, in the most material points, affords a confirmation -of each respective text. - -The great Orientalist Silvestre de Sacy, on reviewing the Desátir,[32] -says: “We are in a manner frightened by the multitude and gravity of -the questions which we shall have to solve, or at least to discuss; -for every thing is here a problem: What is the age of the book? Who is -its author? Is it the work of several persons; or the divers parts of -which it is composed, are they written by one and the same author, -although attributed to different individuals, who succeeded each other -at long intervals? The language in which it was written, was it, at -any epoch, that of the inhabitants of Persia, or of any of the -countries comprised in the empire of Iran? Or is it nothing but a -factitious language, invented to support an imposture? At what epoch -were made the Persian translation accompanying the original text, and -the commentary joined to this translation? Who is the author of the -one and the other? Are not this translation and this commentary -themselves pseudonymous and apocryphal books; or may not the whole be -the work of an impostor of the latter centuries? All these questions -present themselves in a crowd to my mind; and if some of them appear -to be easily answered, others offer more than common difficulties.” - -Well may a person, even with far greater pretensions than mine can be, -hesitate to attempt the discussion of a subject which _frightened_ the -illustrious Silvestre de Sacy; but as the Desátir is one of the -principal sources from which the author of the Dabistán drew his -account of the Persian religion and its divers sects――a considerable -part of his work――I cannot dispense with presenting the subject in the -state in which the discussions hitherto published, by very respectable -critics, have left it. If I venture to offer a few remarks of my own -upon it, it is only in the hope of provoking further elucidations by -philologers who shall examine the Mahabadian text itself, and by -arguments drawn from its fundamentals decide the important -question――whether we shall have one language more or less to count -among the relics of antiquity? - -Instead of following the order in which the questions are stated -above, I will begin by that which appears to me the most important, -namely: “the language in which the Desátir is written, is it nothing -but a factitious language invented to support an imposture?” - -The forgery of a language, so bold an imposture, renders any other -fraud probable; through a false medium no truth can be expected, nor -even sought. But, in order to guard against the preconception of a -forgery having taken place, a preconception the existence of which -may, with too good a foundation, be apprehended, I shall first -examine, as a general thesis, whether the invention of a language, by -one individual or by a few individuals, is in itself probable and -credible. I shall only adduce those principles which have received the -sanction of great philologers, among whom it may be sufficient to name -baron William Humboldt, and claim the reader’s indulgence, if, in -endeavoring to be clear, I should not have sufficiently avoided trite -observations. - -Tracing languages up to their first origin, it has been found that -they are derived from sounds expressive of feelings; these are -preserved in the roots, from which, in the progressive development of -the faculty of speech, verbs, nouns, and the whole language, are -formed. In every speech, even in the most simple one, the individual -feeling has a connection with the common nature of mankind; speech is -not a work of reflection: it is an instinctive creation. The -infallible presence of the word required on every occasion is -certainly not a mere act of memory; no human memory would be capable -of furnishing it, if man did not possess in himself instinctively the -key, not only for the formation of words, but also for a continued -process of association: upon this the whole system of human language -is founded. By entering into the very substance of existing languages, -it appears evident that they are intellectual creations, which do not -at all pass from one individual to others, but can only emerge from -the coexisting self-activity of all. - - “―― ―― That one the names of things contrived, - And that from him their knowledge all derived, - ‘Tis fond to think.”[33] - -As long as the language lives in the mouth of a nation, the words are -a progressive production and reproduction of the faculty to form -words. In this manner only can we explain, without having recourse to -a supernatural cause, how millions of men can agree to use the same -words for every object, the same locution for every feeling. - -Language in general is the sensible exterior vestment of thought; it -is the product of the intelligence, and the expression of the -character of mankind; in particular it may be considered as the -exterior manifestation of the genius of nations: their language is -their genius, and their genius is their language. We see of what use -the investigation of idioms may be in tracing the affinities of -nations. History and geography must be taken as guides in the -researches upon tongues; but these researches would be futile, if -languages were the irregular product of hazard. No: profound feeling -and immediate clearness of vivid intuition act with wonderful -regularity, and follow an unerring analogy. The genesis of languages -may be assimilated to that of works of genius――I mean, of that -creative faculty which gives rules to an art. Thus is it the language -which dictates the grammar. Moreover, the utmost perfection of which -an idiom is susceptible is a line like that of beauty, which, once -attained, can never be surpassed. This was the case with some ancient -tongues. Since that time, mankind appear to have lost a faculty or a -talent, inasmuch as they are no more actuated by that urgency of keen -feeling which was the very principle of the high perfection of those -languages. - -Comparative philology, a new science, sprung up within the last thirty -years, but already grown to an unforeseen perfection, has fixed the -principles by which the affinities of languages may be known, even -among the apparently irregular disparities which various circumstances -and revolutions of the different nations have created. This would have -been impossible, if there did not exist a fundamental philosophy of -language, however concealed, and a certain consistency, even in the -seemingly most irregular modification of dialect, for instance, in -that of pronunciation. But, even the permutation of letters in -different and the most rude dialects, has its rules, and follows, -within its own compass, a spontaneous analogy, such as is -indispensable for the easy and common practice of a society more or -less numerous. Thus sounds, grammatical forms, and even graphical -signs of language have been subjected to analysis and comparison; the -significant radical letters have been distinguished from the merely -accidental letters, and a distinction has been established between -what is fundamental, and what is merely historical and accidental. - -From these considerations I conclude: - - First――That the forgery of a language is in itself highly improbable; - - Secondly――That, if it had been attempted, comparative philology is - perfectly capable of detecting it. - -Taking a large historical view of this subject, we cannot suppress the -following reflection: The formation of mighty and civilized states -being admitted, even by our strictest chronologers, to have taken -place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear -extraordinary, even after taking in account violent revolutions, that -of so multitudinous and great existences, only such scanty documents -should have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony -has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a -benevolent although discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger is -approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe -rebukes, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a predetermined -and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into -the tomb of oblivion. - -I am aware that all dialectical arguments which have been or may be -alleged against the probability of forging a language, would be of no -avail against well-proved facts, that languages have been forged, and -that works, written in them, exist. We may remember the example -adduced by Richardson[34] of a language, as he said, “sufficiently -original, copious, and regular to impose upon persons of very -extensive learning,” forged by Psalmanazar. This was the assumed name -of a an individual, whom the eminent Orientalist calls a Jew, but who, -born in 1679, in Languedoc or in Provence, of Christian parents, -received a Christian, nay theological education, as good as his first -instructors, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans could bestow. This -extraordinary person threw himself at a very early age into a career -of adventures, in the course of which, at the age of seventeen years, -he fell upon the wild project of passing for a native of the island of -Formosa, first as one who had been converted to Christianity, then, as -still a pagan, he let himself be baptized by a Scotch minister, by -whom he was recommended to an English bishop; the latter, in his pious -illusion, promoted at once the interests of the convertor, and the -fraud of the neophyte.[35] This adventurer who was bold enough, while -on the continent, to set about inventing a new character and language, -a grammar, and a division of the year into twenty months, published in -London, although not twenty years old, a translation of the catechism -into his forged language of Formosa, and a history of the island with -his own alphabetical writing, which read from right to left――a gross -fiction the temporary success of which evinces the then prevailing -ignorance in history, geography, and philology. But pious zeal and -fanaticism had changed a scientific discussion into a religious -quarrel, and for too long a time rendered vain the objections of a few -truly learned and clear-sighted men; until the impostor, either -incapable of supporting longer his pretensions or urged by his -conscience, avowed the deception, and at last became a truly learned -good and estimable man.[36] We see this example badly supports the -cause of forged languages. - -In 1805, M. Rousseau, since consul-general of France at Aleppo, found -in a private library at Baghdad a dictionary of a language which is -designated by the name of _Baláibalan_, interpreted “he who vivifies,” -and written in Arabic characters called _Neshki_; it was explained in -Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. The unknown author of the dictionary -composed it for the intelligence of mysterious and occult sciences, -written in that language. The highly learned Silvestre de Sacy had -scarce been informed of this discovery, when he sought and found in -the Royal Library, at Paris, the same dictionary, and with his usual -diligence and sagacity published a short but lucid Notice of it.[37] -What he said therein was sufficient for giving an idea of the manner -in which this language participates in the grammatical forms of -Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. Silvestre de Sacy, as well as M. -Rousseau, have left it uncertain whether the language be dead or -living; by whom and at what period it was formed, and what authors -have made use of it. The former adds, that some works written in -Baláibalan are likely to be found in the hands of the Súfis of Persia. - -This language deserves perhaps a further examination. All that is -positive in the just-adduced statement of the two great Orientalists -may be said of any other language, which is not original but composed, -as for instance the English or the Dutch, of more than one idiom. We -can but admit that, at all times an association of men for a -particular purpose, a school of art, science, and profession may have, -has, and even must have, a particular phraseology. Any modification of -ancient, or production of new, ideas, will create a modified or a new -language; any powerful influence of particular circumstances will -produce a similar effect; this is a spontaneous reproduction, and not -the intentional forgery of a language. - -Such a forgery, even if it could remain undetected, which it cannot in -our times, would but furnish a curious proof of human ingenuity, to -which no bounds can be assigned; but the true and sole object of a -language could never be attained by it; because, never would a great -number of independent men be disposed, nor could they be forced, to -adopt the vocabulary, grammar, and locutions of a single man, and -appropriate them to themselves for the perpetual expression of their -inmost mind, and for the exchange of their mutual feelings and -ideas.[38] To effect this, is a miracle ascribed to the Divinity, and -with justice; being the evident result of the Heaven-bestowed faculty -of speech, one of the perpetual miracles of the world. - -Of this a prophet must avail himself who announces to the world the -important intelligence of a heavenly revelation. The great purpose of -his sacred mission implies the widest possible proclamation of his -doctrine in a language generally intelligible, which a forged language -never can be. If, as was surmised,[39] the Desátir be set up as a -rival to the Koran, it must have been written in a national language -for a nation; the Persians owned as theirs the _Mahabadian_ religion, -the identical one which history, although not under the same name, -attributes to them in remote ages, as will result from an examination -of the doctrine itself. - -Considering the knowledge required, and the difficulties to be -overcome in forging a language in such a manner as to impose, even for -a time, upon the credulity of others, we shall conclude that nothing -less than direct proof is requisite for establishing such a forgery as -a real fact. Now, what arguments have been set forth for declaring the -language of the Desátir to be nothing else than “an artificial idiom -invented to support an imposture?” - -Silvestre de Sacy says:[40] “It is difficult indeed, not to perceive -that the multiplied relations which exist between the _Asmáni_, -‘heavenly,’ and Persian languages are the result of a systematic -operation, and not _the effect of hazard_, nor _that of time, which -proceeds with less regularity in the alterations to which language is -subjected_.” - -I must apologise for here interrupting this celebrated author, for the -purpose of referring to what nobody better than himself has -established as a peremptory condition of existence for any language, -and what he certainly never meant to deny, but may perhaps here be -supposed to forget――namely, that a language is not “the effect of -hazard,” and although “not the result of systematic combination,” yet, -as an instinctive creation, shows surprising regularity, and that an -evident rule predominates in the alterations which time produces in -languages. - -Silvestre de Sacy proceeds: “The grammar of the Mahabadian language is -evidently, for the whole etymological part, and even (which is -singularly striking) in what concerns the anomalous verbs, traced from -(_calquée sur_) the Persian grammar, and as to the radical words, if -there be many of them the origin of which is unknown, there is also a -great number of them in which the Persian root, more or less altered, -may be recognised without any effort.” - -Erskine examined, without the least communication with the French -critic, the Mahabadian language, and says:[41] “In its grammar it -approaches very nearly to the modern Persian, as well in the -inflection of the nouns and verbs, as in its syntax.” Norris[42] takes -the very same view of it. - -These highly respectable critics published their judgment upon the -Mahabadian language before the comparison of several languages with -the Sanscrit and between each other had been made by able philologers, -creators of the new science of comparative philology. According to the -latter, the proofs of the real affinity of language, that is, the -proofs that two languages belong to the same family, are to be -principally and can be properly deduced, from their grammatical -system. Thus, for instance, the forms of the Greek and Latin languages -are in several parts nearly identical with the Sanscrit, the first -bearing a greater resemblance in one respect, the latter in another; -the Greek verbs in _mi_, the Latin declension of some nouns appear, to -use the expression of the illustrious author, “traced from each other -(_calqués l’un sur l’autre_).” These two languages seem to have -divided between them the whole system of the ancient grammar, which is -most perfectly preserved in the Sanscrit. This language itself is -probably, with the two mentioned, derived from a more ancient -language; we meet in them three sisters recognised by their striking -likeness. This, although more or less weakened and even obliterated in -some features, remains upon the whole still perceptible in a long -series of their relations: I mean in all those languages which are -distinguished by the name of _Indo-germanic_, to which the Persian -belongs. - -But, in deciding upon the affinity of languages, not only the -grammatical forms are to be examined, but also the system of sounds is -to be studied, and the words must be considered in their roots and -derivations. The three critics mentioned agree that the language of -the Desátir is very similar to the Persian or Deri, not only in -grammar, but also in etymology; a great number of the verbal and -nominal roots are the same in both. This similarity would, according -to comparative philology, lead to the conclusion that either the one -is derived from the other, or that both proceed from a common parent; -but nothing hitherto here alleged can justify the supposition of -invention, forgery, or fabrication of the so-called Mahabadian -language. - -We continue to quote the strictures of Silvestre de Sacy: “There is -however a yet stronger proof of the systematic operation which -produced the factitious idiom. This proof I derive from the perfect -and constant identity which prevails between the Persian phraseology -and that of the Mahabadian idiom. The one and the other are, whenever -the translation does not degenerate into paraphrase or commentary, -which frequently happens, traced from each other (_calqués l’un sur -l’autre_) in such a manner that each phrase, in both, has always the -same number of words, and these words are always arranged in the same -order. For producing such a result, we must admit two idioms, the -grammar of which should be perfectly alike, as weil with respect to -the etymological part as to the syntax, and their respective -dictionaries offering precisely the same number of words, whether -nouns, verbs, or particles: which would suppose two nations, having -precisely the same number of ideas, whether absolute or relative, and -conceiving but the same kind and the same number of relations.” - -If what we have already stated be not unfounded, the last quoted -paragraph, which the author calls “a yet stronger proof of the -systematic operations which produced the factitious idiom” must be -acknowledged not to have the weight which he would attribute to it. If -the Mahabadian and Persian be languages related to each other, “a -perfect and constant identity of phraseology between them both,” if -even so great as it is said to be, is not only possible, but may be -fairly expected in the avowed translation of the Desátir into Persian. -Such identity is most religiously aimed at in versions of a sacred -text. Need I adduce modern examples of translations which, in point of -phraseological conformity with their original, may vie with the -Persian version of the Mahabadian text? The supposition that two -nations have the same number of ideas, absolute or relative, is far -from being absurd: it is really the fact with all nations who are upon -the same level of civilisation; but the present question is of the -writings of the same nation, which, possessing at all times a sort of -government and religion fundamentally the same, might easily count an -obsolete language of its own among the monuments of its antiquity. - -On that account, we cannot see what the former arguments of the critic -gain in strength by the addition: “that the perfect identity of -conception falls in a very great part upon abstract and metaphysical -ideas, in which such a coincidence is infinitely more difficult than -when the question is only of objects and relations perceptible to the -senses.”――A great similarity is remarked in all forms of thinking. -Little chance of being contradicted can be incurred in saying, that -the fundamental ideas of metaphysics are common to all mankind, and -inherent in human reason. The encyclopedian contents of the Dabistán, -concerning the opinions of so many nations, would furnish a new proof -of it, were this generally acknowledged fact in need of any further -support. - -Silvestre de Sacy acknowledges that the Asmáni language contains a -great number of radical words, the origin of which is not known. -Erskine says:[43] “It is certainly singular that the language in which -the Desátir is written, like that in which the Zend-Avesta is -composed, is no where else to be met with. It is not derived from the -Zend, the Pehlevi, the Sanscrit, Arabic, Turkish, Persian, or any -other known language.” * * * * * * The basis of the language, and the -great majority of words in it, belong to no known tongue. It is a -mixture of Persian and Indian words. A few Arabic words occur.” -Norris[44] also found that a great part of the language appears to -have little resemblance to any other that was ever spoken. A judgment, -so expressed, might induce an impartial mind to ascribe originality to -at least a part of the Asmáni language; which would naturally render -the other part less liable to suspicion, inasmuch as it would have -been not less difficult to execute, but less easy to conceal, a -partial than a total forgery. Nevertheless it so happens that the -dissimilarity from any other, as well as the similarity to one -particular idiom, are both equally turned against the genuineness of -the language in question: where dissimilarity exists, there is -absolute forgery――where similarity, an awkward disguise! - -Erskine continues: “The Persian system it is unnecessary to -particularise; but it is worthy of attention that, among the words of -Indian origin, not only are many Sanscrit, which might happen in a -work of a remote age, but several belong to the colloquial language of -Hindustán: this is suspicious, and seems to mark a much more recent -origin. Many words indeed occur in the Desátir that are common to the -Sanscrit and to the vulgar Indian languages (the author quotes -thirty-four of them); many others might be pointed out. But the most -remarkable class of words is that which belongs to the pure Hindi; -such I imagine are the word _shet_, ‘respectable,’ prefixed to the -names of prophets and others (twenty-four are adduced). Whatever may -be thought of the words of Persian descent, it is not probable that -those from the Hindustaní are of a very remote age; they may perhaps -be regarded as considerably posterior to the settlement of the -Muselmans in India.” - -Strongly supported by the opinion of respectable philologers, I do not -hesitate to draw a quite contrary conclusion from the facts stated by -Erskine. It should be remembered that, in the popular or vulgar -dialects are often found remains of ancient tongues, namely, roots of -words, locutions, nay rules of grammar which have become obsolete, or -disappeared in the cultivated idioms derived from the same original -language. It was not without reason that the illustrious William -Humboldt recommended to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and -Ireland,[45] to examine, on behalf of general Oriental philology, the -different provincial dialects of India. Even the gibberish of gypsies -is not to be neglected for that purpose.[46] - -Thus, if we are not greatly mistaken, the very arguments alleged to -show that the Mahabadian language is an invention or forgery, lead -rather to a contrary conclusion. Duly sensible of the great weight of -authority which opposes the result of my inquiry, I sought an -explanation of the severe judgment passed upon the Desátir, and -venture to surmise that it was occasioned by the certainly extravagant -claim to a heavenly origin and incredible antiquity which has been -attached to this work. Such pretensions, taken in too serious a light, -can but hurt a fixed, if not religious, belief. Every nation -acknowledges but one heavenly book, and rejects every other. Hence -arises a very natural, and even respectable pre-conception against all -that appears without the limits traced by religion, or mere early -habit and adopted system. Thus a severe censure is provoked. To -annihilate at once the impertinent pretension to a divine origin, all -that ingenuity can suggest is brought forward to prove the book to be -a fraudulent forgery; to strip it of the awful dignity of antiquity, -it must by any means be represented as the work of yesterday. But -error is not fraud, and may be as ancient as mankind itself; because -credulous, a man is not the forger of a document. If the Mahabadian -language is not that primitive idiom from which the Sanscrit, the -Zend, and other languages are derived, it does not follow that it is -“a mere jargon, fabricated with no great address to support a -religious or philosophical imposture;”[47] if it was not spoken in -Iran long before the establishment of the Péshdadian monarchy, it does -not follow “that it has at no time belonged to any tribe or nation on -the face of the earth.” - -However I may appear inclined in favor of the Desátir, I shall avoid -incurring the blame of unfair concealment by adding to the names of -the great critics above quoted, adverse to this work, the great one of -William von Schlegel. I must avow it; the celebrated author declares -the Desátir,[48] intimately connected with the Dabistán, to be “a -forgery still more refined (than that of the Brahman who deceived -Wilford),[49] and written in a pretended ancient language, but -fabricated at pleasure.” As he, however, presents no arguments of his -own, but only appeals in a note to the articles written by Silvestre -de Sacy and Erskine, there is no occasion here for a further -observation concerning this question. As to von Schlegel’s opinion -upon the Dabistán, I reserve some remarks upon it for another place. - -General arguments, opposed to general objections, may produce -persuasion, but are not sufficient for establishing the positive truth -concerning a subject in question. It is necessary to dive into the -Mahabadian language itself for adequate proofs of its genuineness. I -might have justly hesitated to undertake this task, but found it -already most ably achieved by baron von Hammer,[50] in whom we do not -know which we ought to admire most, his vast store of Oriental -erudition, or the indefatigable activity, with which he diffuses, in -an unceasing series of useful works, the various information derived -not only from the study of the dead letter in books, but also from -converse with the living spirit of the actual Eastern world. This -sagacious reviewer of the Desátir, examining its language, finds -proofs of its authenticity in the nature of its structure and the -syllables of its formation, which, when compared to the modern pure -Persian or Derí, have the same relation to it as the Gothic to the -English; the old Persian and the old Germanic idioms exhibit in the -progress of improvement such a wonderful concordance and analogy as -can by no means be the result of an ingenious combination, nor that of -a lucky accidental coincidence. Thus, the language of the Desátir has -syllables of declension affixed to pronouns, which coincide with those -of the Gothic and Low German, but are not recognisable in the modern -form of the Persian pronouns. This is also the case with some forms of -numerical and other words. The Mahabadian language contains also a -good number of Germanic radicals which cannot be attributed to the -well-known affinity of the German and the modern Persian, because they -are no more to be found in the latter, but solely in the Desátir. This -has besides many English, Greek, and Latin words, a series of which -baron von Hammer exhibits, and――which ought to be duly noticed――a -considerable number of Mahabadian words, belonging also to the -languages enumerated, are sought in vain in any Persian dictionary of -our days! Surely, an accidental coincidence of an invented factitious -language, with Greek, Latin, and Germanic forms would be by far a -greater and more inexplicable miracle, than the great regularity of -this ancient sacred idiom of Persia, and its conformity with the -modern Deri. It is nevertheless from the latter that the forgery is -chiefly inferred. - -Moreover, the acute philologer, analysing the Mahabadian language by -itself, points out its essential elements and component parts, that -is, syllables of derivation, formation, and inflexion. Thus he adduces -as syllables of derivation certain vowels, or consonants preceded by -certain vowels; he shows certain recurring terminations to be -syllables of formation for substantives, adjectives, and verbs; he -sets forth particular forms of verbs, and remarkable expressions. All -this he supports by numerous examples taken from the text of the -Desátir. Such a process enabled him to rectify in some places the -Persian translation of the Mahabadian text. - -I can but repeat that my only object here is to present the question -in the same state that I found it; and am far from contesting, nay, -readily admit, the possibility of arguments which may lead to a -contrary conclusion. Until such are produced, although not presuming -to decide, I may be permitted to believe that the language of the -Desátir is no forgery; I may range myself on the side of the -celebrated Orientalist mentioned, who, ten years after the date of his -review of the Desátir (ten years which, with him, are a luminous path -of ever-increasing knowledge), had not changed his opinion upon the -language of the Desátir, and assigns to it[51] a place among the -Asiatic dialects; according to him, as it is more nearly related to -the new Persian than to the Zand and the Pehlevi, it may be considered -as a new intermediate ring in the hermetic chain which connects the -Germanic idioms with the old Asiatic languages; it is perhaps the most -ancient dialect of the Deri,[52] spoken, if not in Fars, yet in the -north-eastern countries of the Persian empire, to wit, in Sogd and -Bamian. When it ceased to be spoken, like several other languages of -by-gone ages, the Mahabádian was preserved perhaps in a single book, -or fragment of a book, similar in its solitude to the Hebrew Bible, or -the Persian Zend-Avesta. - - -At what epoch was the Desátir written? - -The epoch assigned to it, according to different views, is the -sixth[53] or the seventh[54] century of our era, even the later time -of the Seljucides, who reigned from A. D. 1037 to 1193. The latter -epoch is adopted as the earliest assignable, by Silvestre de Sacy, who -alleges two reasons for his opinion: the one is his belief that the -new Persian language, in which the Desátir was translated and -commented by the fabricator of the original or Mahabadian text did not -exist earlier; the second reason refers to some parts of the contents -of the Desátir. I shall touch upon both these questions. - -It is useless to discuss what can never be ascertained, who the author -of the Desátir was. But this work would be unintelligible without the -Persian translation and commentary. Silvestre de Sacy asks: “Are not -this translation and this commentary, themselves pseudonymous and -apocryphal books, and is not the whole, perhaps, the work of an -impostor of the last century?” In answering this, I shall be guided by -the baron von Hammer, who wrote his review of the Desátir before he -had seen that of the _Journal des Savans_, but, after having perused -the latter, declared that he had nothing to change in his opinion. -Although the commentator, to whom the honor of being the inventor of -the Mahabadian language is ascribed, follows in the main the ancient -text word for word, and substitutes commonly a new for the obsolete -form of the term, yet frequent instances occur (some of which baron -von Hammer adduces) which prove that the interpreter did not clearly -understand the old text, but in place of the true meaning gave his own -arbitrary interpretation. The proper names even are not always the -same. Besides――and this is most important――the doctrines contained in -the Desátir and in the Commentary differ from each other. In the books -of the first Mahabadian kings we find the fundamental ideas of the -Oriental philosophy, such as it was before its migration from Asia to -Europe; but in the commentary we perceive the development of the -Aristotelian scholastic, such as it formed itself among the Asiatics, -when they had, by means of translations, become acquainted with the -Stagirite. We shall revert to this subject hereafter. Whatever it -be――the discrepancies between the original text and the -interpretation, as they would certainly have been avoided by the -author of both, prove that they are the works of two different -persons, probably with the interval of a few centuries between them. - -The Persian translator and commentator is said to be the fifth Sassan, -who lived in the time of the Persian king Khusro-Parviz, a -contemporary of the Roman emperor Heraclius, and died only nine years -before the destruction of the ancient Persian monarchy, or in the year -643 of our era. It must be presumed that the five Sassans, the first -of whom was a contemporary of Alexander, 323 years before Christ, were -not held to be immediate successors to each other, but only in the -same line of descent; otherwise an interval of 946 years, from -Alexander to Parviz, comprehending the reign of thirty-one Arsacides -and twenty-two Sassanian princes, would be given to no more than five -individuals, which absurdity ought not to be attributed to the -commentary of the Desátir. In general, so common is it with Asiatics -to deal with names of celebrity as if they were generic names, that it -is very frequently impossible to be positive about the true author of -a work. There appears in the present case nothing to prevent us from -placing the translator and commentator of the Desátir (whether a -Sassan or not) in the seventh century of our era. - -The translation and commentary of the Desátir are written in what the -best judges consider as very pure Persian, though ancient, without any -mixture whatever of words of Arabic or Chaldean origin, and -conformable to the grammatical system of modern Persian. But when was -the latter formed?――As the opinion upon this epoch involves that upon -the age of the composition itself, I shall be permitted to take a -rather extensive historical view of this part of the question. - -Setting aside the Mahabadian kings mentioned in the Desátir and -Dabistán, we know that Gilshah, Hoshang, Jamshid (true Persian names) -are proclaimed by all Orientalists as founders of the Persian empire -and builders of renowned cities in very remote times. This empire -comprised in its vast extent different nations, speaking three -principal languages, the Zand, Pehlevi, and Parsi. Among these nations -were the _Persæ_, “Persians,” properly and distinctively so called. We -are informed by Herodotus[55] that there were different races of -Persæ, of whom he enumerates eleven. Those who inhabited originally -_Fars_, _Farsistan_, _Persis_,[56] a country double the extent of -England, and gave their name to the whole empire, certainly spoke -their own idiom, the _Parsi_ or _Farsi_. A national language may vary -in its forms, but never can be destroyed as long as any part of the -nation exits; can we doubt that the Persians who, once the masters of -Asia, although afterwards shorn of their power, never ceased to be -independent and formidable, preserved their language to our days? - -We may consider as remains of the oldest Persian language, the proper -and other names of persons, places and things mentioned by the most -ancient historians; now, a number of such words, which occur in the -Hebrew Bible,[57] in Herodotus, and other Greek authors, are much -better explained from modern Persian than from Zand and Pehlevi. In -the Armenian language exist words common to the Persian, none common -to the Pehlevi;[58] therefore, in very remote times Persian and not -Pehlevi was the dominant idiom of the Iranian nations with whom the -Armenians were in relation. More positive information is reserved for -posterity, when the cuneiform inscriptions upon the monumental rocks -and ruins, to be found in all directions within the greatest part of -Asia, shall be deciphered by future philologers, not perhaps -possessing greater talent, but better means of information from -all-revealing time than those of our days, who have already -successfully begun the great work――Grotefend, Rask, St. Martin, -Burnouf, Lassen, etc. - -Let us now take a hasty review of a few principal epochs of the -Persian empire, with respect to language, beginning only from that -nearest the time, in which Persia was seen and described by Herodotus, -Ctesias, and Xenophon, not without reference to the then existing -national historical records. Khosru (Cyrus) the Persian King, placed -by the Occidentals in the seventh century before our era,[59] having -wrested the sceptre from the hands of the Medes, who spoke Pehlevi, -naturally produced the ascendancy of his national idiom. This did not -sink under his immediate successors, Lohrasp and Gushtasp. Although -under the reign of the latter, who received Zardusht at his court in -the sixth century B. C.,[60] the Zand might have had great currency, -yet it certainly declined after Gushtasp, as his grandson Bahman, the -son of Isfendiar, favored the cultivation of the Parsi.[61] This -language was perfected in Baktria (the original name of which country -is _Bákhter_, “East,” an old Persian word) and in the neighboring -Transoxiana; there the towns _Bamian_, the Thebes of the East, and -_Balkh_, built by Lohrasp and sanctified by Gushtasp’s famous Pyræum, -besides _Merv_ and _Bokhára_, were great seats of Persian arts and -sciences. The Parsi, thus refined, was dominant in all the royal -residences, which changed according to seasons and circumstances; it -was spoken at the court of the Second _Dara_ (Darius Codomanus), and -sounds in his own name and that of his daughters _Sitára_ (Statira), -“star,” and _Roshana_ (Roxana), “splendor,” whom the unfortunate king -resigned with his empire to Alexander.[62] This conqueror, intoxicated -with power, endeavored to exterminate the Mobeds, the guardians of the -national religion and science; he slew many, but dispersed only the -majority. From the death of Alexander (323 B. C.) to the reign of -Ardeshir Babegan (Artaxerxes), the founder of the Sassanian dynasty -(200 A. D.), a period of more than five centuries is almost a blank in -the Persian history; but when the last-mentioned king, the regenerator -of the ancient Iranian monarchy, wishing to restore its laws and -literature, convoked the Mobeds, he found forty thousand of them -before the gate of the fire-temple of Barpa.[63] Ammianus Marcellinus, -in the fourth century of our era attests, that the title of king was -in _Deri_, “court-language,” yet the Pehlevi was spoken concurrently -with it during the reigns of the first twelve Sassanian princes, until -it was proscribed by a formal edict of the thirteenth of them, _Bahram -gor_, in our fifth century. Nushirvan and Parviz, in the sixth -century, were both celebrated for the protection which they granted to -arts and sciences. We have on record a school of physic, poetry, -rhetoric, dialectics, and abstract sciences, flourishing at Gandi -sapor, a town in Khorasan: the Persian must have then been highly -cultivated. We are now in the times of Muhammed; were they not -_Persian_, those Tales, the charm of which, whether in the original or -in the translation, was such, that the Arabian legislator, to -counteract it, summoned up the power of his high-sounding -heaven-inspired eloquence, and wrote a part of the Koran against them? -If he himself had not named the Deri as the purest dialect of the -Persian, what other language could we believe he admired for its -extreme softness so much as to say, that the Almighty used it when he -wished to address the angels in a tone of mildness and beneficence, -whilst he reserved the Arabic for command?[64] Such a fact, or such a -tradition, presupposes a refined, and therefore long-spoken language. -After Muhammed’s death, his fanatic successors attempted to bury under -the ruins of the Persian empire even the memory of its ancient -religion and language――but they did not succeed: the sacred fire was -saved and preserved beyond the Oxus; it was rekindled in Baktria, that -ancient hearth of Persian splendor; there poetry and eloquence -revived, but could not raise their voices until princes of Persian -origin became lieutenants of the Mohammedan khalifs. It was under -Nasr, son of Ahmed the Samanian, in the beginning of our tenth -century, that RUDIGI rose, the first celebrated new Persian poet, but -he found, he did not create the language, more than Homer created -Greek, Dante Italian, or Spenser English. A great author, in whom the -genius of his nation is concentrated, does no more than aptly collect -into a whole the idiom which exists every where in parts, and elicit -its pre-existing resources. Thus under his pen the language can appear -to spring up with all its beauties――as Minerva, equipped in armour, -sprung forth from the head of Jupiter. - -Such being the historical indications relative to the Persian -language, we cannot participate in the doubts of Silvestre de Sacy, -nor find Erskine[65] just in disdaining even to make a comment upon -the credibility of the hypothesis “that the Persian language was -completely formed in the age of the latter Sassanians.” It would be -rather a matter of wonder that the Parsi, related to the most ancient -and most cultivated language in the world, should not have been much -sooner fitted for the harmonious lays of Ferdusi!――a matter of wonder -indeed, that the Persians, who taught the Arabs so much of their -religion――heaven and hell, should have remained behind them in the -refinement of their idiom!――that they, who could scoff at the _Tazis_ -as eaters of lizards, should not have possessed, in the seventh -century, a language to contend with that people, who themselves -possessed celebrated poets long before Muhammed![66] - -It is for ever regrettable that overpowering Muhammedism should have -spoiled the original admirable simplicity of one of the softest -languages in the world, by the intrusion of the sonorous but harsher -words of Arabic, and imposed upon us the heavy tax of learning two -languages for understanding one; but, as the translation of the -Desátir is free from words of an Arabic or Chaldean origin, should we -not fairly conclude, that it was executed before the Muhammedan -conquest of Persia? So did Norris, and so Erskine――I can but -think――would have done, if his judgment and penetration, usually so -right and acute, had not been prepossessed by the idea of an -imposture, which he had assumed as proved or self-evident, whilst this -was the very point of contestation. Thus, “the very freedom from words -of foreign growth, which the learned natives consider as a mark of -authenticity, appeared to him the proof of an artificial and -fabricated style.” - -If even there are some Arabic words to be found in the text and the -translation of the Desátir, this affords no fair inference that these -works had not been composed before the Arabs conquered Persia, because -those words might have come from Pehlevi, in which there is a mixture -of Arabic, and there are also Persian words in the Koran; most -naturally, as there subsisted from times immemorial relations between -Persia and Arabia. - -What I have said will, if I am not mistaken, sufficiently justify the -conclusion, that the Persian idiom could in the seventh century have -attained the regularity and form of the present Persian, such at -least, as it appears in the Commentary of the Desátir, not without a -very perceptible tincture of obsoleteness. - -I need scarce remark that the title _asmáni_, “heavenly,” belongs -exclusively to the superstitious admiration with which the Desátir is -viewed. Nor are its fifteen books to be taken for sacred works of so -many prophets who succeeded each other after such long intervals of -time; yet nothing prevents us, as I hope to show, from believing some -parts of them very ancient. Neither are these of the same antiquity. -Thus, prophecies which are certainly interpolations made after the -events, occur in them, not otherwise than in the Indian Puránas, the -fundamental parts of which are nevertheless now admitted to be as -ancient as the Vedas themselves. We find in the two last books of the -Desátir are mentioned: the contest between the Abbasides and the -descendants of Ali; the adoption of Muhammedism by almost the totality -of Iran; inimical sects, and the power of the Turcomans superseding -that of the Arabs; the latter parts must certainly have been composed -after the taking of Bagdád by Hulogu in 1258 of our era. The fifteenth -book of the Desátir is probably apocryphal. - -As to the doctrine of the Desátir, Erskine says:[67] “I consider that -the whole of the peculiar doctrines, ascribed to Mahabad and Hoshang, -is borrowed from the mystical doctrines of the Persian Súfis, and from -the ascetic tenets and practices of the Yogis and Sanyasis, of India -who drew many of their opinions from the Vedanta-school.” But this -involves the great historical question, concerning the origin of -Súfism and the whole Indian philosophy, which is by some (not without -foundation) believed to have been spread throughout a great part of -Asia. It is quite gratuitous, I may say, to regard them “as having had -no existence before the time of Azar Kaivan[68] and his disciples in -the reigns of Akbar and Jehanguir, and as having been devised and -reduced into form between 200 and 300 years ago in the school of -Sipasi-philosophers.” Nor can I admit as better founded the following -insinuations of the same ingenious critic: “Nor shall I inquire -whether many of the acute metaphysical remarks that abound in the -commentary and the general style of argument which it employs have not -rather proceeded from the schoolmen of the West, than directly from -the Oriental or Aristotelian philosophy.” To this may be answered: It -is highly problematic, whether the translator of the Desátir ever knew -any schoolman of the West, but it is certain that he, as an Asiatic -and a Persian, knew the Oriental philosophy, the fundamentals of which -were preserved in the first books of the Desátir, as we have already -said; but the commentator could but participate in the modification, -which the ancient doctrine had undergone in his age, after its return -from the West to the East, in translations of Greek philosophical -works into Asiatic languages. Thus, in the Desátir and its -commentary――I borrow the words of baron von Hammer:――“We see already -germinating the double seed of reason and light, from which sprung up -the double tree of rational and ideal philosophy,”[69] which spread -its ramifications over the whole world, and lives and flourishes even -in our times. - -The commentator was no ordinary man: living, as we may believe, in the -first half of the seventh century, he possessed the sciences of his -learned age; flourishing under the reign of king Khosru Parviz, who -professed the ancient Persian religion in his letter to a Roman -emperor of the East,[70] and tore to pieces Muhammed’s written -invitation to adopt Islam[71]; in this yet unshaken state of national -independence, the fifth Sassan preserved pure his creed and style from -the influence of the Arabian prophet. The translator and commentator -of the Desátir says of himself:[72] “I too have written a celebrated -book under the name of _Do giti_, ‘the two worlds’, full of admirable -wisdom, which I have derived from the most exalted intelligence, and -in the eminent book of the famous prophet, the King of Kings, Jemshid, -there is a great deal, concerning the unity which only distinguished -Asceties (_Hertasp_) can comprehend, and on the subject of this -transcendant knowledge I have also composed a great volume _Pertú -están_, ‘the mansion of light,’ which I have adorned by evidence -deduced from reason, and by texts from the _Desátir_ and _Avesta_, so -that _the soul of every man_ may derive pleasure from it. And it is -one of the books of the secrets of the great God.” - -This is a most important declaration. The commentator considered the -Desátir and the Avesta as sources of delight TO ALL MEN. And he was -right. The doctrine of the former work now under consideration is -found every where, not denied either by the ancients or moderns; it is -the property of mankind. As such, “_it does not belong to any -particular tribe or nation_:” in which point, although in quite -another sense, we agree with Erskine, but we may dissent from the -learned author, when he taxes it to be “a religious or philosophical -imposture, which needed the support of a fabricated language.” After -careful examination, I must conscientiously declare, I discover no -imposture aimed at by any artifice; there was no secret to be -concealed; nothing to be disguised; the Mahabadian religion is as open -as its temple, the vault of heaven, and as clear as the lights, -flaming in their ethereal attitudes; its book is a sort of catechism -of Asiatic religion; its prayer a litany of Oriental devotion, in -which any man may join his voice. - -Thus have I endeavored, to the best of my power, to exhibit faithfully -what has hitherto been alleged for and against the authenticity of the -book, which is one of the principal authorities of the Dabistán. If -the author of this latter work was, as the often-quoted ingenuous -author supposes, “in strict intimacy with the sects of enthusiasts by -whom the Desátir was venerated, and whose rule it was,” we may so much -the more rely upon the truth of his account concerning such a -religious association. If he professed the new religion, which the -emperor Akbar had endeavored to found, as this was a revival of the -ancient Persian religion, we may reasonably presume, that he would -have searched, and brought to light writings concerning it which were -concealed, neglected, or little known; he would have cautiously -scrutinized the authenticity of the documents, and conscientiously -respected the sacred sources of that faith, which, after a careful -examination of all others, deserved his preference; nothing justifies -the supposition, that he would forge any thing himself, or -countenance, or not be able to detect, the forgery of others. However -this be, Mohsan Fani’s character will be best known by the perusal of -his work; after a rapid synopsis of its contents, to which I will now -proceed, I shall be permitted to point out, as briefly as possible, -some of the merits and defects conspicuous in his composition. - - - [20] See note, vol. I. p. 20. - - [21] Ibid., p. 44. - - [22] Calcutta edition, p. 30, line 6. - - [23] See vol. I. p. 534. - - [24] _Ibid._, p. 65. - - [25] M. Eugène Burnouf, to whose most valuable judgment I - had the pleasure to submit the question, prefers the - derivation from _bhásh_, because this word in Zend would be - _wâsh_, as the Zend _w_ represents exactly the Sanscrit - _bh_, which aspiration did not exist in the ancient idiom of - Bactrian Asia. This sagacious philologer hinted at a - comparison with the Persian _usta_, or _awesta_, upon which - in a subsequent note. - - [26] See the Persian text of the Dasátir, p. 377. - - [27] _Tableau de l’Empire ottoman_, by M. d’Ohson, t. II. p. - 70. - - [28] _Journal des Savans_, _février_ 1821, p. 74. The - Persian passage which de Sacy quotes, and in which there is - _Destánir_ for _Dasátir_, is taken from the text published - by Gladwin, and not from the printed Calcutta edition. - - [29] See Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British - India and its Dependencies, vol. VIII., from July to Dec. - 1819, p. 357. - - [30] The _Desátir_, or sacred writings of the ancient - Persian prophets in the original tongue; with the ancient - Persian version, and commentary of the fifth Sasan; - published by Mulla Firuz Bin-i-Kaus. Bombay, 1818. Mulla - Firuz is supposed to possess the only copy of the Desátir - extant. He allowed sir John Malcolm to take a copy of it, - which, by some accident, was lost by Doctor Leyden――(See - Transact. of the Lit. Soc. of Bombay, pp. 342 and 349). - - [31] Mohsan Fani marks the time of his composing the - Dabistan (vol. II. p. 50) to be the year of the Hejira 1055 - (A. D. 1645). - - [32] See _Journal des Savans_, No. for January, 1821, p. 16. - - [33] Lucretius, book V., Transl. of Dr. Creech: - “―― ―― putare aliquem tum nomina distribuisse - Rebus, et inde homines didicisse vocabula prima - Desipere est.” - - [34] Richardson’s Dictionary, preface, lxvii. - - [35] This man, who never told his true name, was from the - age of fifteen to seventeen a private teacher――then passed - for an Irishman――went to Rome as a pilgrim with a habit - stolen from before an altar where it was lying as a votive - offering of another pilgrim――wandered about in Germany, - Brabant, Flanders――indolent, abject, shameless, covered with - vermin and sores――entered the military service of Holland, - which he left to become waiter in a coffee-house in - Aix-la-Chapelle――enlisted in the troops of the elector of - Cologne. He acted all these parts, with those - above-mentioned, before he was baptised under the name of - George, by a Scotch clergyman, and, having learned English, - passed over to England to be protected by Compton, the - lord-bishop of London. At the expense of the latter, he - studied at Oxford――became a preceptor――chaplain of a - regiment――fell back into indolence, and lived upon - alms.――(See A New and General Dictionary, London, 1798, vol. - XII; and _Vie de plusieurs Personnages célèbres des Temps - anciens et modernes, par C. A. Walckenaer, membre de - l’Institut, tome II._ 1830.) - - [36] This change took place in his thirty-second year――he - learned Hebrew and became an honest man, esteemed by Samuel - Johnson; he wrote eleven articles in a well-known work, the - Universal History, and his own Life at the age of - seventy-three years; the latter work was published after his - death, which happened in his eighty-fourth year, in 1763. - - [37] See _Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits_, vol. IX. pp. - 365-396. - - [38] I am here applying to the forger of a language what - Lucretius, in continuation of his above quoted verses (p. - xxx), urges against the belief that a single individual - could ever have been the inventor of human speech. - - [39] By Norris, _Asiatic Journal_, vol. IX., November, 1820, - p. 430. - - [40] _Journal des Savans_, February, 1821, pp. 69-70. - - [41] See Transact. of the Lit. Soc. of Bombay, vol. II.: “On - the Authenticity of the Desátir, with remarks on the Account - of the Mahabadi Religion contained in the Dabistan,” by - William Erskine, esq., p. 360. - - [42] The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British - India and its Dependencies, Novemb. 1820, p. 421 _et seq._ - - [43] The work quoted, p. 360. - - [44] The Asiatic Journal, November, 1820, p. 421 _et seq._ - - [45] An Essay on the best means of ascertaining the - affinities of Oriental languages, by baron W. Humboldt, in - the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great - Britain and Ireland, vol. II. part I. p. 213. - - [46] Colonel Harriot on the Oriental Origin of the Gypsies. - _Ibid._, 518. - - [47] Erskine, _loco cit._, p. 372. - - [48] See _Réflexions sur l’Étude des Langues asiatiques, - adressées à sir James Mackintosh_. Bonn, 1832, pp. 51-52. - - [49] See Asiatic Researches, vol. VIII. Lond. ed. 8. p. 254. - - [50] See _Heidelberger Jahrbücher der Literatar Vom Jänner - te Juni 1823_, Nᵒˢ 6. 12. 13. 18. 20. - - [51] See _Journal asiatique, tome XII. juillet 1833_, pp. - 24-26. - - [52] _Ibidem_, pp. 20-21. Deri was spoken on the other side - of the Oxus, and at the foot of the Paropamisus in Balkh, - Meru, in the Badakhshan, in Bokhara and Bamian. The Pehlevi - was used in Media proper, in the towns of Rai, Hamadan, - Ispahan, Nehawend, and Tabriz, the capital of Azar - bíján.――Beside the Deri and Pehlevi, Persian dictionaries - reckon five other dialects, altogether twelve dialects, of - ancient and modern Persian. - - [53] _Tholuck_. _Sufismus, sive Theosophia Pantheistica_, p. - 111. - - [54] Norris, Asiatic Journal, November, 1820, p. 430. - - [55] Clio, lib. I. - - [56] In the Bible it is called Paras, or Faras, and reckoned - as extensive as Great and Little Armenia, or as Hungary, - Transylvania, Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia together.――(See - _Gatterer’s Weltgeschichte II^{ter} Theil, Seite 9_.) - - [57] In the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. - - [58] See _Observations sur les Monumens historiques de - l’ancienne Perse, par Étienne Quatremère_. _Journal des - Savans_, _juin et juillet_ 1840, pp. 347-348. - - [59] The Orientals place him in the tenth century B. C. - - [60] According to Richardson (see the preface of his Dict., - p. vi), the Farsi was peculiarly cultivated by the great and - learned, above 1200 years before the Muhammedan era, _i. e._ - above 600 years B. C., which epoch is commonly assigned to - Gushtasp’s reign. - - [61] See Hammer’s _Schöne Redekünste Persiens, Seite 3 et - seq._ - - [62] Strabo, who flourished in the beginning of the - Christian era, and drew his information mostly from the - historians of Alexander, refers probably to the time of the - Macedonian conquest, when he says (xv. 2, § 8, fol. 724, - edit. Cas.): that the Medians, Persians, Arians, Baktrians, - and Sogdians spoke almost the same language. This probably - was that of the then leading nation, the Persian. - - [63] Hammer, _loc. cit._, p. 7. - - [64] Works of sir W. Jones, vol. V. p. 426, Transactions of - the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. II. p. 297. - - [65] _Loco cit._, p. 363. - - [66] See the preface to the most valuable work _Le Divan - d’Amro’lkais_, par le baron Mac Guckin de Slane, Paris, - 1837, pp. viii and ix. The learned author confirms that - celebrated Arabian poems existed before the introduction of - the Muhammedan religion, which, for a certain time, averted - the Arabs from the cultivation of poetry and history. We - shall here add (which would have been more appropriately - placed in the note upon Amro’lKais, in vol. III p. 65, and - will correct the same) that this poet (see _loc. cit._, p. - xvi _et seq._) flourished at an epoch anterior to Muhammed, - and died probably before the birth of that extraordinary man. - - [67] _Loco citato_, p. 372. - - [68] See vol. I. pp. 87 _et seq._ - - [69] _Heidelberger Jahrbücher, loc. cit. Seite_ 313. - - [70] The Dabistán (see Pers. text, Calcutta edit., p. 69, - and English transl., vol. I. p. 145) quotes verses - containing this profession, addressed by Khosru Parviz to a - Roman emperor, whose name, however, is not mentioned. During - the reign of this Persian king, two emperors ruled in the - East, namely, Mauritius, whose daughter Parviz married, - and Heraclius, by whom he was defeated towards the end of - his life. I found it probable, but had no authority to - assert (see vol. I. p. 145, note 2), that the above-stated - profession was made to Mauritius; but those verses by - themselves deserve attention, as they establish the adherence - of Parviz to the religion of Hoshang, in contradiction to - several historians, according to whom he adopted Christianity: - this assertion seems founded upon his great attachment to - the celebrated _Mary_, or _Chirín_, his Christian wife, and - daughter of a Christian emperor, the said Mauritius. - - [71] Muhammed, when informed of the ignominious reception - which the Persian king gave to his letter and ambassador, - said: “God will tear his empire, as he tore my letter, to - pieces.”――(Herbelot.) - - [72] The Desátir, p. 99. - - - - -PART II. - -SYNOPSIS OF THE DYNASTIES, RELIGIONS, SECTS, AND PHILOSOPHIC OPINIONS, -TREATED OF IN THE DABISTAN. - - -§ I.――THE FIRST RELIGION――THE DYNASTIES OF MAHABAD, ABAD AZAR, SHAI -ABAD, SHAI GILIV, SHAI MAHBUL, AND YASAN. - -Mohsan Fani exhibits the remarkable notions, dogmas, customs, and -ceremonies of twelve religions, and their various sects, without -giving more of their origin and genesis than the names of their -founders. The very first principle of all religion is referred, by -some, to a primitive Divine revelation; by others, to a natural -propensity of the human mind to superstition. However this may be, -history confirms the suggestions of psychology, that admiration was -one of the principal sources of religious feelings; how should man not -be struck with the glories of the sky? Therefore, the adoration of -stars was one of the most ancient religions. It needed no prophet: it -is “_the poetry of heaven_,” imprinted in eternal characters of fire -upon the ethereal expanse. Prometheus, enumerating the benefits which -he bestowed upon untutored barbarians, says:[73] - - “―― ―― ―― At random all their works - Till I instructed them to mark the stars, - Their rising, and, a harder science yet, - Their setting.”[74] - -According to all traditions, astronomy was one of the first sciences -cultivated by men.[75] The stars not only occasioned the institution, -but also served to announce the regular return, of religious feasts; -thus they became, as called by Plato, “the instruments of time,” men -were at once induced and taught by religion to count months and years. -Astronomy, in her feast-calendars, consecrated upon an altar the first -fruits of her labors. - -Upon the star-paved path of heaven man was conducted to the sanctuary -of the supreme Being. In general, the first feeling of “the Divine (το -θεῖον),” seizing the human mind with its own supernatural power, -elevated it at once above the material concerns of the nether world; -thus, sublime ideas of the Deity, the universe, and the immortality of -the soul preceded the invention of many arts and sciences relative to -the comforts of social life. This is confirmed by the account, -contained in the Dabistán, of the most ancient religion of the -Persians, which is founded upon transcendental ideas of the Divinity: -“Except God himself, who can comprehend his origin? Entity, unity, -identity are inseparable properties of this original essence, and are -not adventitious to Him.” So the Desátir, with which the Dabistán -generally so fully agrees, that we can scarce doubt that the author of -the latter had the former before his eyes. - -No sooner has man acquired the consciousness of mental freedom, than -he endeavors to expand beyond himself the first vague feeling of the -Divine; not satisfied to admire all exterior marvel, he desires to -understand and to name its interior moving cause: this is something -immaterial; it is a soul, such as acts in himself. Among the ancient -Iranians, the “first creation of the existence-bestowing bounty” was -the intellectual principle, called _Azad Bahman_, “the first -intelligence;” he is also the first angel; from him other spirits or -angels proceed. Every star, every heavenly sphere has its particular -intelligence and spirit or angel. In the lower region, each of the -four elements owns its particular guardian; vegetables, minerals, -animals have their protecting angels; the conservative angel of -mankind is _Farun Faro Vakshur_. It is not without reason, that this -religion was called “the religion of light.” As the supreme Being - - “Sow’d with stars the heav’n thick as the field.”[76] - -So also he peopled the vast extent with the “sons of light, the -empyreal host of angels,” who not only moved and governed the -celestial orbs, but also descended into the elemental regions to -direct, promote, and protect his creation. Not a drop of dew fell -without an angel. The Hindus and Greeks animated universal nature; the -Persians imparadized the whole creation by making it the abode of -angels. Hence demonology in all its extent. But, “_among_ the most -resplendent, powerful, and glorious of the servants who are free from -inferior bodies and matter, there is none God’s enemy or rival, or -disobedient, or cast down, or annihilated.” This important passage of -the Desátir[77] I shall have occasion to refer to hereafter. - -Human souls are eternal and infinite; they come from above, and are -spirits of the upper spheres. If distinguished for knowledge and -sanctity, while on earth, they return above, are united with the sun, -and become empyreal sovereigns; but if the proportion of their good -works bore a closer affinity to any other star, they become lords of -the place assigned to that star; their stations are in conformity with -the degrees of their virtue; perfect men attain the beatific vision of -the light of lights, and the cherubine hosts of the supreme Lord. Vice -and depravity, on the contrary, separate souls from the primitive -source of light, and chain them to the abode of the elements: they -become evil spirits. The imperfectly good migrate from one body to -another, until, by the efficacy of good words and actions, they are -finally emancipated from matter, and gain a higher rank. The -thoroughly-depraved descend from the human form to animal bodies, to -vegetable, and even to mineral substances. - -So far we see the well-known dogma of transmigration ingeniously -combined with the Sidereal religion. Here is exhibited a singular -system of heavenly dominion, maintained by every star, whether fixed -or planetary, during periods of many thousand years. A fixed star -begins the revolution, and reigns alone, the king of the cycle, during -a millenium, after which, each of the fixed and planetary stars -becomes its partner or prime-minister for a thousand years; the last -of all is the moon, for a millenium. Then the sovereignty of the first -king devolves to the star which was its first associate. This second -king goes through the same course as the first, until this becomes for -a thousand years his partner, and then his period is also past. The -same is the course of all other stars. When the moon shall have been -king, and all stars associated with it and its reign too past, then -one great period shall be accomplished. The state of the revolving -world recommences, the human beings, animals, vegetables, and -minerals, which existed during the first cycle, are restored to their -former language, acts, dispositions, species, and appearances; the -world is renovated, that is to say, forms, similar to those which -passed away, reappear. This system, copied from the Desátir,[78] -expresses nothing else but the general vague idea of long heavenly -revolutions, and periodical renovations of the same order of things in -the nether world. - -The Dabistán[79] adds a mode of computing as peculiar to the followers -of the ancient faith: they call one revolution of the regent Saturn a -day; thirty such days one month; twelve such months one year; a -million of such years one _fard_; a million fard one _vard_; a million -vard one _mard_; a million vard one _jad_; three thousand jads one -_vad_; and two thousand vád one _zád_. To these I must subjoin -_salam_, _shamar_, _aspar_, _radah_, _aradah_, _raz_, _araz_, -_biaraz_, that is, eight members of a geometric progression, the first -of which is 100,000, and the coefficient 100. But these years are -revolutions, called _farsals_, of thirty common years each. There are -besides farsals of Mars, Venus, Mercury, and the moon, a day of each -being the time of their respective revolution. - -I thought it necessary to repeat these extravagant numbers, because it -is by them that the reigns of the first ancient dynasties are -measured.[80] The first earthly ruler of the present cycle, who with -his wife survived the great period to become the first ancestor of a -new innumerable population, was _Mahabada_. This name seems of -Sanscrit derivation.[81] In his reign we find traced the first -ground-lines of all human societies; agriculture and the arts of life -are invented; villages and cities organised; four classes of society -established――priests, warriors, agriculturists, and tradesmen. The -names of these classes are in the Dabistán much like those of the four -Hindu _castes_, but the Desátir and the Shahnamah have other -denominations, belonging to an ancient Persian dialect,[82] for these -divisions, which originated in the indispensable wants of a rising -society. This institution connects itself with the principles of -social morality: men are bound to each other by the laws of justice -and mutual kindness, which is extended even to all innoxious -creatures. To Mahabad the _Desátir_ was sent, a celestial code, and -his faith was maintained through the whole series of his fourteen -successors; the number of whom reminds us of the fourteen Indian -Manus; they are said to have reigned six hundred and six trillions of -years. - -To the Mahabadians succeeded _Abad Azar_, who soon withdrew from -government, and devoted himself to solitude and piety. After him, the -hitherto fortunate state of society changed into war, confusion, and -anarchy. His son, _Jai Afram_, was called to the throne, and restored -peace and order in the world, giving his name to a new dynasty. After -this, four other princely families are named, that of _Shai Abad_, -_Shai Giliv_, _Shai Mahbul_, and _Yasan_.[83] I shall not count the -many millions of years during which they ruled; all that is said of -their reigns appears nothing but a repetition of the first; a period -of peace, order, and happiness is followed by war, disorder, and -misery, until a revolution renews the state of things. Such traditions -of a progress and regress in virtue and happiness, and of repeated -changes from one condition to another, are not destitute of general -truth. The moral is not, more than the physical world, exempt from -revolutions. These, although their date cannot be determined, have -left behind them undeniable traces, and without a reference to them, -we could not explain so much of the strangeness, incoherence, and -heterogeneity in the history of men and nature. - -Thus I have slightly sketched the principal features of the religion -which prevailed among the first Persian dynasties; these, not -mentioned in other historical books, are we know peculiar to the -Desátir and Dabistán, which appeared to sir W. Jones an -unexceptionable authority for believing the Iranian monarchy “the -oldest in the world.” Upon this, W. Erskine remarked:[84] “Shall I be -forgiven for saying, that the history of letters seems to me scarcely -to afford an instance of a more perverted judgment on historical -evidence?” Silvestre de Sacy[85] too “banishes among the most absurd -fables the dynasties of the Mahabadians, and of their successors, -which sir William Jones, and after him some other Orientalists, have -too hastily adopted, and of which they would to-day blush, since their -titles have been produced.” More recently, William von Schlegel[86] -said: “It would be useless to conceal to the public that that learned -man, endowed with talents so rare, was totally deficient in historical -criticism:” This was inferred, because he had admitted, and used in -some of his considerations, as genuine, a forgery of Wilford’s Pandit. -Besides, “he received without diffidence, and even welcomed with -enthusiasm, the traditions contained in the Dabistán, a modern Persian -book, written with _the intention to claim for Persia the pre-eminence -over India with respect to the antiquity of religious revelations_.” - -As to “the intention” mentioned, I hope to be able to justify Mohsan -Fani. With respect to the Mahabadian dynasties――the light recently -acquired upon the ancient history of Persia, reflect rather favorably -upon that part of sir William Jones’s opinion, that this country, in -its wide extent, was once the original seat of many nations now -settled in distant regions. So much, at least, may be considered as -established: 1. that the limits of history are to be removed further -back than those before fixed; 2. that in the earliest times primitive -nations, related by language to each other, had their origin in the -common elevated country of central Asia, and that the Iranians and -Indians were once united before their migration into Iran and -India.[87] This great fact presents itself, as it were, upon the -border of a vast abyss of unknown times. - -For these a measure was sought. Hence we meet with extravagant, but -perpetually recurring chronological statements. The Mahabadian ages -are neither better nor worse, as to accuracy, than the Indian yugs, -the Chaldean,[88] or other periods. In order to reduce them to their -true value, we must consider them as nothing else than expressions of -the ideas which the ancients entertained of the antiquity of the world -and human society, in which they cannot be easily refuted, and at -least are not absurd. Such ideas originated, when man, curious after -his past, had long ceased to be a listless barbarian; but the earliest -civilisation is a late product of slow-working time, the memory of -which could have been preserved only by monuments. The most ancient of -these however are but recent in our historical knowledge, the limits -of which are far from being those of antiquity. The duration of -ante-historical empires, in printless but extensive spaces of times, -escapes research and computation. As men, however, bear with -impatience vague and loose ideas, the Persians, as well as other -nations, determined the past by numbers formed from the multiplication -of some astronomical periods known in early times, as has been -observed:[89] this appears to me at once the whole truth and falsehood -of those statements. In the utter impossibility to reconcile the -discordant data of different nations, we must content ourselves to -take up the general ideas and facts in which they all agree, whilst in -the particulars they all differ. Thus, in laying down maps of -countries little known, we are satisfied with tracing the general -direction of some rivers and mountains, and abstain from topographical -details. - - - [73] Προμηθευς δεσμωτης, - ―― ―― ―― ―― ἄτης γνώμης τὸ πᾶν - Ἔπρασσον, ἔς τε δή σφιν ἀντολὰς ἐγὼ - Αστρων ἔδειξα, τάς τε δυσκρίτους δύσεις. - (v. 457-459). - - [74] Transl. by Dr. Potter. - - [75] Hyde, who did not know the Dabistán, says (p. 188): - that a year, or calendar, of Median invention was introduced - in Persia, before Jamshid, that is, according to Ferdusi’s - not irrational chronology, earlier than 3429 before our era. - - [76] Milton’s Paradise Lost, b. VII. v. 358. - - [77] The book of Shet Shai Kiliv, v. 59. p. 56. - - [78] Bombay edit. Engl. transl., pp. 19. 20. - - [79] Vol. I. p. 14. The Bombay Desátir does not mention the - revolution of Saturn, and states differently the value of - fard, mard, etc., etc. - - [80] It is known that in India, and perhaps all over Asia, - the number of ciphers not followed by a significative - number, is indifferent, and indicates nothing else but - magnitude. Thus the Hindus, to determine positively - hundreds, thousands, etc., affix the required figure at the - end: for instance, to determine 100 rupees to be given, they - write 101. - - [81] The word is perhaps a form of the Sanscrit _Mahábodhi_, - “a great deified teacher.” In the Burhani Kati we find six - significations attributed to the word _Abad_; these are: 1. - cultivated; 2. praise and prayer; 3. exclamation of praise; - 4. the name of the Kaba; 5. the name of the first Persian - prophet; 6. good and beauteous. - - [82] See vol. I. pp. 19-20. - - [83] I have (see vol. I. p. 26, note 1) derived this name - from the Sanscrit _yas_, “glory, honor.” In Burhan Katii it - is interpreted by “what is convenient.” - - [84] _Loco cit._, p. 342. - - [85] _Journ. des Savans, février 1821_, p. 69. - - [86] See _Réflexions sur l’Étude des Langues orientales_, - _loc. cit._, p. 51. - - [87] See the development of these ideas in _Erdkunde von - Carl Ritter_, _VIII^{ter} Theil_; _III^{ter} Buch_, _West-asien - Seiten_ 105-109, with reference to _E. Burnouf Comment. sur - le Yacna_, pp. 461, 563. - - [88] We may be here permitted to call to mind the eras of - the Chaldeans, who, according to Berosus, Epigenes, Diodorus - of Sicily, Abydenus counted 490,000, 720,000, 473,000, - 463,763 years. They are said to have exhibited, before - Alexander’s conquest in Asia, historical annals for 150,000 - years. - - [89] See p. lxvii. - - -§ II.――THE PESHDADIAN, KAYANIAN, ASHKANIAN, AND -SASSANIAN DYNASTIES――THEIR RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL -INSTITUTIONS. - -After the four dynasties mentioned follows the _Gilshanian_, monarchy, -founded by _Gilshah_, or _Kayomers_, “the king or form of earth.”[90] -We are now upon well-known ground, and hear familiar names of four -races: the _Péshdadian_, _Kayanian_, _Ashkaniun_, and _Sassanian_, to -which, altogether, the Dabistán attributes a period of 6024 years, -differing considerably from that of other Asiatic chronologers.[91] - -Sir William Jones was right when he declared,[92] that “the annals of -the _Péshdadi_ (or Assyrian) race must be obscure and fabulous; those -of the Kayání family, or the Medes and Persians, heroic and poetic:” -annals gathered from oral traditions can be but such as the great -Orientalist characterises those of the mentioned dynasties. But it was -in his younger years, before he had enlarged his views upon the -history of mankind, that he fixed the origin of the Persian monarchy -so late as 890 years before our era;[93] afterwards, in India, he -refuted his former notions, and ranged more freely in the expanded -fields of antiquity. I shall add that Ferdusi places the beginning of -Gilshah’s reign 3529 years before Christ, an epoch which receives -synchronical confirmation from our daily-increasing knowledge of the -antiquity of China, India, Assyria, Egypt, and other states. - -The fundamental religion remains the same: a celestial volume called -_Payman-i-farhang_, in perfect accord with the Mahabadian code, is -transmitted to Kayomers. So the Dabistán: but, in the Desátir, the -four books ascribed to the first four Mahabadian prophet-kings contain -the purest deism, and although the foundation of astrolatry and -demonolatry may be perceived in the cosmology of the first book, yet -these did not form a positive worship, which develops itself in the -seven planetary books of the seven subsequent Persian kings, to wit: -_Kayomers_, _Siamok_, _Hushang_, _Tahmúras_, _Jamshid_, _Feridun_, and -_Menocheher_. Under these monarchs, a particular worship was rendered -to the seven planets, as to mediators between God and men; the -description of the forms under which they have been adored, is not, to -my knowledge, found in any other book but the Dabistán. - -Superstition is certainly as ancient as human nature itself; it is -impossible to fix the epoch at which particular opinions and practices -originated, such as the eighty-four sitting-postures at prayer; the -suppression of the breath for the abstraction of thought; the mystical -and fantastical notions upon vision and revelation; and particularly -the belief that a man may attain the faculty to quit and to reassume -his body, or to consider it as a loose garment, which he may put off -at pleasure for ascending to the world of light, and on his return be -reunited with the material elements. All these matters are considered -as very ancient. - -We find in the Dabistán a curious account of Persian sects under -different names, such as _Abadians_, _Azur-Húshangians_, -_Jamshaspians_, _Samradians_, _Khodaiyans_, _Radians_, _Shidrangians_, -_Paikarians_, _Milanians_, _Alarians_, _Shidabians_, _Akshiyans_. The -founders of these sects are placed so far back as the reigns of -Jamshid and Zohak. Individuals professing the particular creed of each -of these sects were living in the time of the author of the Dabistán, -who was personally acquainted with several of them, and imparts the -information which he had himself received from their lips. He gives -with particular care an account of the before-mentioned Azar -Kaivan,[94] the chief of the later _Abadíans_ and _Azar-Hushangians_. -The doctrine of these sectaries contained peculiar notions about God’s -nature and attributes, and the world; the latter was to some an -illusion; God himself but an idea. To others, God was every thing, to -be served alone without a mediator between him and mankind; -the heavens and the stars were his companions. God was the -sun――fire――air――water――earth; he was the essence of the elements: from -every one of these divine principles the heavens, stars, and the whole -world proceeded. These were some of the fundamental principles of -their metaphysical religion. - -Their morality appears to have consisted in the acknowledgment of all -natural virtues; piety, justice, charity, sobriety; wine and strong -drinks were forbidden; above all a tenderness towards all living -creatures was recommended; and the severity against those who slew -innoxious animals was carried to such an excess, than even sons -punished their fathers with death, and fathers their sons, for the -slaughter of a sheep or an elk.[95] - -Their political constitution appears from the earliest time to have -been that of an absolute monarchy: this is the curse attached to -Asiatics. The king was to be of a noble descent, and bound to -acknowledge the _Farhang-Abad_, “code of Abad.” All dignities, -military and civil, were hereditary from father to son. The royal -court and inner apartments appear to have been regulated in much the -same manner as they are still in Asia; his cup-bearers and familiar -servants, as well as those of his sons, and other nobles, were always -females. - -The interior administration of cities and villages is sufficiently -detailed in the Dabistán. An active police was established, with -numerous spies and secret reporters, for the security of government. -We are glad to find in such early times hospitals for the relief of -the suffering, and caravansaras for the convenience of travellers. -Moreover, post-stations of horses and messengers were distributed for -the rapid communication of news, from all sides of the vast empire, to -the monarch.[96] - -Not a little care was bestowed upon the discipline and continual -exercise of numerous armies. The military chiefs were distinguished by -the magnificent decorations of their persons, horses, and arms, in -which they prided themselves. They were bound to treat their soldiers -kindly, nay, obliged to produce certificates, from their subordinates, -of having behaved well towards them. An order of battle was -prescribed, in which they were to encounter the enemy; no plunder -after victory was permitted; they never slew, nor treated with -violence, a man who had thrown down his arms and asked for quarter. - -History may well be referred to religion, which is an ancient -intellectual monument, living in the human soul from generation to -generation. I have hitherto marked two religious periods: the first, -that of the _Desátir_, through the Mahabadian dynasty; the second, -that of _Paiman-í-Farhang_, prevailing during the Pésh-dadi-race until -the middle of the Kayanian reign; I now come to the third. - - - [90] The first word is pure Persian; the other may be - derived from the Sanscrit _kaya_, “body, form,” and _mrita_, - “earth.” - - [91] See vol. I. p. 31, note 1. - - [92] His Works, vol. III. the sixth Anniversary Discourse, - p. 108. - - [93] _Ibid._, vol. XII. p. 399. - - [94] See page 63. - - [95] See vol. I. pp. 181. 184. - - [96] _Parasang_, _Farsang_, even in our days a Persian word, - is found and determined as a lineal measure of distances in - Herodotus, lib. II. V. and VI. - - -§ III.――THE RELIGION OF ZARDUSHT, OR ZOROASTER. - -All religions are said to have deviated from their primitive -simplicity and purity, as men advanced in knowledge and civilisation. -This is true but in a restricted and distinctive sense, and may be -explained, even without yielding to our habit of considering that -which is more remote and less known as holier than that which is -nearer and better examined. Thus, we may admit that the impressions -made upon men in the first stage of expanding reason are stronger and -more vivid, the less they are distracted by simultaneous and -correlative associations; one great idea is enough to fill their whole -mind, and admits of no rival, of no commixture with any thing else; -curiosity, versatility, luxuriancy of intellect are not yet known; -constancy is a necessity in a small compass of ideas. We have already -touched[97] upon the powerful effect which the early perception of the -_Divine_ produced upon man: but he soon circumscribed what was too -vast or his comprehension in a perceptible object――heaven, sun, fire, -to which he offered his adoration; he wanted a visible type or image -of the invisible Divinity; but, his means of formation being at first -very confined, he contented himself with the most simple -representation: he had a symbol, an idol in a grove or cavern, but not -yet a Pantheon. Simplicity may be a mere restriction to one object or -to few objects; purity, nothing else but homogeneity in good or bad, -true or false; we shall not confound them with rationality, which may -subsist with multiplicity and mixture. Thus, the adoration of one -deified man, one great serpent, one huge stone, is by no means more -rational than the worship of numerous generations of gods, the -ingenious personification sof multiform nature, ever acknowledged as -the genuine offspring of the happy marriage between intellect and -imagination. In the absence of arts and riches, worship is rude and -destitute of showy accessories. Afterwards, the development of the -understanding widens the field of reasoning, the fertility of which -may be attested more by the shoot of weeds than by the growth of -fruits: error prevails over truth; the increase of manifold resources -facilitates and prompts superfetation of exterior religion. Besides, -the impressions, by which the first legislator attached his followers -to his doctrine, are effaced by time; the first traditions, obscured, -confused, and altered; faith is weakened, and an opening made for -change in belief, practice, and morals. A change, merely as such, is -considered as a corruption by the adherents of the old creed. Finally, -revolutions, interior and exterior, deteriorate or destroy religion -and civilisation. - -These reflexions, with the explanation previously given as to the -various notions of which the religions in Asia were composed, will -clearly show that, in the course of ages, a reform of astrolatry, -pyrolatry, and idolatry, the branches of Sabæism and Mezdaism, became -desirable; and _Zardusht_, or _Zoroaster_, appeared. - -In the notes placed at the bottom of the pages containing Mohsan -Fani’s account of Zoroaster,[98] will be found some of the principal -results of the investigations which have been made in Europe -respecting this legislator. The name of Zoroaster was applied by some -to the founder of Magism, or Sabæism; we know also, that he has been -identified with many other prophets under different names, among whom -is _Abraham_, called “the great Zardusht,” and _Hom_, of so extensive -a celebrity, that his name is mentioned by Strabo as predecessor of -Zoroaster. No wonder that the name of the latter occurs in more or -less remote times. According to the Dabistán, he was born in Rai, a -town in the province of Jebal, or Irak Ajem, the country of the -ancient Parthians, and appeared as a reformer of religion, under the -reign of _Gushtasp_, the fifth king of the Kayanian dynasty, by the -Occidental historians generally identified with _Darius Hystaspes_. -Although variously stated, this period is less subject to -chronological difficulties than are many others; for, as Eastern and -Western historians agree in the epoch of Alexander’s death (321 B. -C.), we may from this, as from a fixed point, remount upwards to -Gushtasp; we find, according to some Orientals, five reigns in 228 -years,[99] and therefore that of the said king, beginning 549 years -before our era, whilst, according to the Occidentals, there are ten -reigns within 200 years, from Alexander’s conquest of Persia to Darius -Hystaspes, whose reign commences in 521 A. D. The discrepancy of -twenty-eight years is far from being unexampled, even in more known -periods, and may in this case be most easily and plausibly -adjusted.[100] - -According to a wide-spread tradition, to which I shall have occasion -to return, Gushtasp was instructed by Brahmans; pursuant to the -Dabistán, his brother Jamasp was the pupil of the Indian -_Jangran-ghachah_ (Sankara acharya)[101]. This sage, as soon as he -heard of Gushtasp’s listening to Zoroaster, wrote an epistle to -dissuade the king from the adoption of the new creed; an interview -took place at Balkh between the Persian and Indian sages, and the -latter abandoned his religion upon hearing a _nosk_, or chapter of the -_Zand-Avesta_.[102] This is the name of the work attributed to -Zoroaster himself, a part of which was brought to Europe, in the year -1761, by Anquetil du Perron. - -The author of the Dabistán mentions the Zand-Avesta, and declares the -_Mah-Zand_ to be a portion of the Desátir, and the Zand books in -general conformable to the Mahabadian code. The fifth Sassan, the -translator and commentator of the Desátir, in a passage -above-quoted,[103] joins this work to the Avesta, and is said in the -Dabistán to have made a translation of the code of Zardusht. - -Great was the sensation caused among the learned of Europe at the -first appearance of the works attributed to Zoroaster, published in -French by Anquetil du Perron, in 1771. In a note of this volume[104] -will be found the names of the principal authors who declared -themselves for or against the authenticity of the Zoroastrian books. -Among those who combated it, sir William Jones was most conspicuous. -Seventy years have since elapsed, and a learned controversy may now be -considered as settled, nay, entirely forgotten, in the course of a -most eventful historical period. Nevertheless, the Desátir is so -closely connected with the Zand-Avesta, that so much having been said -of the one, the other should not be lightly discarded. The value and -importance of the Dabistán rest chiefly upon the support of the two -documents mentioned; on that account I may hope to be pardoned if I -here venture to repeat whatever facts and arguments appear to me to -have some bearing upon this work. But it was sir William Jones who -then roused the whole learned public into lively attention, and, I -dare presume, that the subject may by itself at all times excite -considerable interest. - -I shall quote the very words of lord Teignmouth concerning the French -author before mentioned:[105] “Anquetil had published in three quarto -volumes an account of his travels in India, the life of Zoroaster, and -some supposed works of that philosopher. To this publication he -prefixed a Discourse, in which he treated the university of Oxford, -and some of its learned members and friends of Mr. Jones, with -ridicule and disrespect. From the perusal of his works, Mr. Jones was -little disposed to agree with Monsieur du Perron in the boasted -importance of his communication; he was disgusted with his vanity and -petulance, and particularly offended by his illiberal attack upon the -university, which he respected, and upon the persons whom he esteemed -and admired. The letter which he addressed to M. du Perron was -anonymous; it was written with great force, and expresses his -indignation and contempt with a degree of asperity which the judgment -of maturer years would have disapproved.”[106] - -The letter alluded to contains most severe remarks, not only upon the -Zand-Avesta, but also upon Oriental studies in general: these are -blows so much more sensible to Orientalists, as they come from a -friendly and most revered hand. Such was the ardor of a susceptible -mind under the impression of having to vindicate the honor of his -friends, that he forgot for a moment the wreath which he had already -won in the career of Oriental literature; he had already composed his -commentary upon Asiatic poetry, and translated from the original -Persian the Life of Nadir-shah; he had then no presentiment of the -glory which he was destined to acquire by collecting, under the Indian -heaven, the lore of antique Asia. As his French letter, written in a -very spirited and brilliant style, can never be read without causing a -great impression, I shall be permitted to borrow from the writings of -this celebrated author himself some reflexions, which I think -necessary for placing in a right point of view Oriental studies in -general, and in particular the contents of the Dabistán, inasmuch as -these are in some parts founded upon the Zand-Avesta, and in other -points of a nature similar to that so much ridiculed in that ingenious -satire. - -If it were true, that Anquetil was wrong “to affront death for -procuring us useless lights――if the writings of Zoroaster are a -collection of galimatia――if enlightened Europe had no need of his -Zand-Avesta, which he has translated to no purpose, and upon which he -uselessly spent eighteen years, a time which ought to have been -precious to him――――”[107] then any similar attempts which have been or -shall be made to procure, in Asia, and to publish ancient historical -documents, are equally ridiculous and blamable. It is certainly not -the founder of a new era in Oriental literature whom we hear in these -words. Nobody knew better than he that, in Asia, the cradle of -mankind, we must search for the most ancient documents to restore the -lost history of mankind; and if all endeavors were to prove vain and -useless, still the merit of having attempted the attainment of a most -laudable purpose would remain. It is not unimportant to fix the limits -which researches can reach, and beyond which nothing is to be gained; -men are benefitted and enriched at once by the saving of time and -trouble which preceding attempts teach; and by all the acquisitions -which better directions render possible in a new and more profitable -career. Should the bold navigators who strive to arrive at the pole -never attain their aim, still would their endeavors be worthy of -praise; the smallest fragment of a rock, the slightest shoot of a -plant, plucked off in the desert of eternal ice, in latitude -eighty-eight, would at home be regarded with lively interest, and -navigation have not a little gained in aid of other more fortunate -undertakings. - -But, who can like to read “puerile details, disgusting descriptions, -barbarous words――Zoroaster could not have written such -nonsense――either he had no common sense, or he wrote not the book -which Anquetil attributed to him.”[108] - -As much has been and may be said of the books attributed to other -Asiatic legislators, who were nevertheless revered as sacred during -many ages by numerous nations. Until we properly understand the -ignorance and habitual ideas of Asiatics, we shall always remain -ignorant of what is proverbially called _the wisdom of the East_. To -appreciate the just value of the ancient codes of laws, we ought to -represent to ourselves the primitive children of the earth, as -Prometheus describes them: - - “They saw, indeed, they heard; but what avail’d - Or sight, or sense of hearing, all things rolling, - Like the unreal imagery of dreams, - In wild confusion mix’d! The lightsome wall - Of finer masonry, the rafter’d roof - They knew not; but, like ants still buried, delved - Deep in the earth, and scoop’d their sunless caves. - Unmark’d the seasons chang’d, the biting winter, - The flow’r-perfumed spring, the ripening summer, - Fertile of fruits.”[109] - -It will then be felt how important it was to break the savage under -the yoke of seemingly puerile practices and customs. In a state which -was not unaptly called “the infancy of man,” it was by no means absurd -to ensure health by dietetical prescriptions, cleanliness by -obligatory ablutions, and decency with convenience by a regulated -dress; the _koshti_, “the girdle,” of Zoroaster was then not so -unmeaning as it now appears to us. It was necessary to educate the -moral sense by appropriate images, and to occupy conveniently, by -fables, symbols, and mythical accounts, the first active faculty of -the soul, imagination. Although those men who, as legislators, were -elevated above their barbarous age, could in many points but partake -in the general imbecility and ignorance of an infant state of society, -they have nevertheless, among seemingly childish and absurd precepts, -promulgated most luminous truths, better than which none have hitherto -been known, even at the most advanced degree of civilisation. Any -information above the common understanding of the age is justly called -“a revelation,” and every nation has received some from their -prophets, by which we have all benefited.[110] We, the youngest sons -of science, ought to keep a grateful and reverential remembrance of -our elder brothers. Let it be a subject of regret that, by the -maintenance of ancient institutions much longer than was required for -their intended purpose, the intellectual growth of many Asiatic -nations was stopped; thus they now appear made for their laws, whilst -their laws were once made for them. After these and similar -reflexions, we shall view Zoroaster’s hundred gates, and the remains -of his twenty-one nosks, as venerable monuments of an antique -civilisation, which ought never to be profaned by derision. - -Upon the Zand language, in which Zoroaster’s laws were written, I -refer to the great philologers of our days, who have examined -it――Rask,[111] Bopp, Burnouf, Lassen, and others: it is one of the -most important conquests made in archæology and philology, and this we -owe to Anquetil. When Jones[112] treated with such severity the -publication of this French author, he could not foresee that he should -one day call forth to notoriety the Dabistán, which rests in great -part upon the authority of the Desátir, and these very books to which -he refused all authenticity. Mohsan Fani, one hundred and twenty years -before Anquetil, derived his information probably from other copies of -Zoroaster’s works, and knew nothing of Western authors, yet his -statements agree with what the latter, before and after our era -related, and most particularly with what the French discoverer -published of that ancient philosopher. Can it be supposed that all -these men of different nations, whose statements have thus coincided -during the lapse of more than two thousand years, have “imposed upon -themselves, or been imposed upon by others concerning the pretended -laws of a pretended legislator?” Anquetil deserved a better name than -that of “a French adventurer, who translated the books ascribed to -Zoroaster, from the translation of a certain gypsy at Surat, and his -boldness in sending them abroad as genuine”[113] was not unsupported -by judgment. If there was some folly and foppery to deride in a young -man, who spoke of his _lilly-rosy cheeks and elegant figure_, there -was no “_imposture_” to detect, and too much acerbity shewn in -retorting thoughtless indiscretions, exaggerated into “_invectives_.” - -Sir William Jones, when he published the strictures which his -antagonist, from pride or moderation, never answered, was but in his -twenty-fourth year and under the influence of youthful ardor. Eighteen -years after, in a discourse, addressed to the Asiatic Society of -Calcutta, in 1789, he spoke with more moderation of Anquetil as -“having had the merit of undertaking a voyage to India in his earliest -youth with no other view than to recover the writings of Zoroaster.” -The illustrious president of that Society was not in the position to -appreciate Anquetil’s whole character, and died too soon to become -acquainted with the brilliant reputation which the youthful voyager -acquired in his maturer years as a learned member of the French -Academy of Letters, both in his own country and abroad.[114] - -The Dabistán informs us, that the Zand-books are of two kinds: the -one, perspicuous and without enigmatical forms of speech, is called -the _Mah-Zand_, “great Zand;” the second, abounding in enigmatic or -figurative language, is entitled _Kah-Zand_, “little Zand.” The first, -in most points speculative and practical, agrees with the Desátir; the -second is intended to prevent philosophy falling into the hands of the -ignorant, to whom an enigmatical veil is offered, whilst the sages -know the true purport of the pure doctrine. To king Gushtasp, his -brother Jamasp, his son Isfendiar, and to Bahman, the son of the -latter, were attributed the interpretations of Zoroaster’s religious -system, and many ingenious parables which, for their moral sense, may -be reckoned among the best specimens of this kind of popular -instruction. - -This true statement, contained in the Dabistan,[115] corrects the -assertion of sir William Jones,[116] that Mohsan Fani affirms “the -work of Zartusht to “have been lost.” The learned Orientalist -evidently confounds the _Mah-zand_, which is said to be a portion of -the Desátir, with the work of Zartusht. The writer of the Dabistán -enumerates[117] the twenty-one _nosks_ or books, of which the Zand was -composed; he says:[117] “At present there are fourteen complete nosks, -possessed by the Dosturs of Karman; the other seven being incomplete, -as, through the wars and dissensions which prevailed in Iran some of -the nosks have disappeared, so that, notwithstanding the greatest -researches, the nosks have come into their hands in a defective -state.” We find it expressly declared in the Dabistán, on the -authority[118] of the Dostur who wrote the volume of the _Sad dur_, -“the hundred gates,” that “the excellent faith has been received from -the prophet Zartusht.” In a particular section, intitled _Enumeration -of some advantages which arise from the enigmatical forms of the -precepts of Zartusht’s followers_, Mohsan not only adduces examples of -Zartushtian allegories, but subjoins his own interpretations of them; -yet he never _affirms_, nor even insinuates “the place of Zoroaster’s -lost works to have been supplied by a recent compilation.” Nor can we -assent to the view, which sir W. Jones takes of the modern literature -of the Mobeds, “for whom,” he says,[119] “as they continued to profess -among themselves the religion of their forefathers, it became -expedient to supply the last or mutilated works of their legislator by -new compositions, partly from their imperfect recollection, and partly -from such moral and religious knowledge as they gleaned, most probably -among the Christians with whom they had an intercourse.” - -To settle our judgment upon this subject, we ought to recollect, that -languages and precepts may be transmitted from generation to -generation by oral instruction, which indeed was once the only -possible mode during a long period of time. It was then that memory -was so much stronger, as, destitute of all artificial assistance, it -depended solely upon itself. We bought the advantage of writing by -resigning somewhat of memorial energy; this was the evil, which, -according to Plato, Thamus, the Egyptian king, predicted to Theut, the -inventor of writing. However this may be, it will appear founded upon -reason and history, that religious creeds, which had once been the -property of nations, are not easily eradicated by any force, or -forgotten under any circumstances; they become living streams of ideas -and sentiments, which run uninterruptedly through the ever-renewed -races of man, even when these separate from a parent stock. Hence we -find, in countries and among nations the most remote from each other, -so many notions and customs, the origin of which is lost in the night -of time. Shall I mention the Jews, who, throughout the whole world, -repeat to-day the same words which they learned more than thirty-three -centuries ago? With regard to the Guebres――sir W. Jones might have -safely granted a little more confidence to his friend Bahman, his -Persian reader, who always named with reverence Zartusht, whose -religion he professed, in common with many so called Guebres. For -these it was not necessary “to preserve Zoroastrian books, in sheets -of lead or copper, at the bottom of wells near Yezd:”[120] this fact, -which Bahman used to assert, shows the particular care which had once -been taken to guard these sacred documents, the veneration for which -most naturally prevented any falsification of their known contents. - -We are confirmed, by the author of the Dabistán, that Zoroaster did -not change the fundamentals of the ancient religion; only the dualism -of the principles, good and bad, not existing, as I have remarked[121] -in the Mahabadian religion, was either then first introduced, or only -further developed; besides, we see the cycle of 12,000 years fixed, -and divided into four periods of 3000 years each; we hear the promise -of a Saviour to restore the empire of God promulgated, and the -destruction of the world by fire announced: this is at the same time -the epoch of the general resurrection, which is one of the most -remarkable dogmas of the Zoroastrian religion. - -Although this be not destitute of religious observances, yet we find -scarce any painful austerity recommended. The twenty-fifth gate of -Zoroaster contains the remarkable precept: “Know that in thy faith -there is no fasting except that of avoiding sin: in which sense thou -must fast the whole year.”[122] The ancient Mahabadian religion, -although adulterated before, during, and after Zoroaster’s life, seems -to have never lost its grave character and solemnity. In the -Zand-books known to us, no trace of temples, altars, or religious -symbols exist. Herodotus knew of none; the fire-places were upon a -desert place, or upon mountains; the fire upon the ground. Upon the -Persian monuments which time has spared, upon the walls of the -thousand-pillared palace of Isfahan, and upon those of the Royal tombs -we see no idols, but priests and kings, performing the sacrifice of -fire before their _fervers_, “ideals of virtue and sanctity,” and -other actions rather of a political than religious character. The -pyræa, round and concave, represented the vault of heaven. Nevertheles -other accounts permit us to believe, that, by association with other -nations; most likely by the introduction of sculpture, architecture, -and painting; and, as the Dabistán expressly says, by the use of -symbolical language: a superstitious worship of sacred places and -symbolic images gained a great ascendancy. - -This religion prevailed during the times of the Kayanian kings from -Gushtasp to Dara the Second, during more than two centuries. After the -conquest of Persia by Alexander, a political and religious revolution -took place in this country, and extended to Greece, where, according -to the commentary of the Desátir, the creed of the _Gushaspians_ was -introduced. This is declared to be a medium between the _Illuminated_ -and the _Rationalists_, perhaps the same which the Dabistán calls the -faith of the _Beh-dinians_, “professors of the better religion.” So -much is avowed by Philo, Plinius, and others――and we have reason to -lay stress upon this avowal――that at one time the so called barbarians -were reckoned to be more wise and virtuous than the Greeks. During the -Ashkanian dynasty (from the third century B. C. to the end of the -second after our era), the people conformed to the _Kah-zand_, that -is, yielded to the superstition, which the figurative language was apt -to suggest. Ardeshir, the first Sassanian, in the beginning of the -third century A. D.; endeavored to re-establish the ancient religion; -but, after his reign of forty years, the Kah-zand took and kept the -ascendancy, until the Persian empire fell before the overwhelming -power of the Muhammedans. The Mah-zand was lost during the domination -of the intolerant invaders, Greeks, Arabs, and Turks; the Kah-zand -still remains in some of its parts, whilst many others were lost in -the successive disorders of the state. - -The fifteenth and last section of the first chapter treats of -_Mazdak_, who lived in the fifth century of our era. We are informed -of the existence of a book, called _Desnak_, which the author of the -Dabistán saw, and which contains the doctrine of this reformer. This -was nothing else than the Zoroastrian system about the two principles, -_Yezed_, “God” or “light,” and _Ahriman_, “agent of evil” or -“darkness,” with a few peculiarities which did not destroy the -fundamental principles of the original religion. But, it was the -ethical part of his doctrine which at first caused a great revolution, -and at last the destruction of the teacher and his numerous disciples, -Mazdak bade all men to be partners in riches and women, just as they -are of fire, water, and grass; private property was not to exist; each -man to enjoy or to endure, in his turn, the good and bad lots of this -world. To this strange doctrine may be perhaps applied the saying of a -great bishop (Bossuet): that “every error is but an abuse of some -truth.” To prevent an excessive inequality of fortunes in society was -the object towards which celebrated ancient legislators tended, and -for which frequently wishes were expressed, reforms projected, and -politico-philosophical romances[123] composed by well-meaning and -respectable persons. It is therefore to a natural, but dangerous -propensity of the human mind, that we ought to refer Mazdak’s bold and -for some time too successful attempt, as well as all the doctrines of -the same tendency, which before and after him were and will henceforth -be proposed. - -I have now terminated the general review of what the first chapter of -the Dabistán, and the first volume of the English translation contain, -concerning the most ancient dynasties, religions, and political -institutions of Persia. - - - [97] See page 70. - - [98] See vol. I. p. 211 _et seq._ - - [99] See sir John Malcolm’s History of Persia. Ferdusi - counts 304 years from Alexander’s death to the beginning of - Gushtasp’s reign; but he assigns to the latter 120, and 112 - to that of his successor _Bahman Arjer_, or _Ardishir diraz_ - (Artaxerxes longimanus). These two reigns might have - comprised those of several others not mentioned by Ferdusi. - - [100] The duration of the whole Kayanian dynasty is stated - by the Orientals (see vol. I. p. 31, note 1 of this work) to - be 704 years in 10 reigns; according to Occidental - historians, it is only 380 years in 18 reigns. The first - statement is evidently erroneous as to the small number of - kings, but it is not decided that it is equally so as to the - duration of the whole dynasty. The error is more likely to - be in the list of the kings than in the whole period of - their reigns. May I be permitted to refer to my discussion - upon the chronology of the _Rajatarangini_ (vol. II. p. 387)? - - [101] Sir William Jones says (Works, vol. III. p. 128): “It - was he (Zoroaster)――not as Ammianus asserts, his protector, - Gushtasp――who travelled in India, that he might receive - information from the Brahmans in theology and ethics.” This - is not to be found in the edition of Calcutta, nor in the - manuscript of the Dabistán which D. Shea and myself have - seen. - - [102] Mr. Eugène Burnouf, when he communicated to me his - opinion upon the derivation of the word _Wasátir_ (see - p. xxii), adverted incidentally to that of the term - _Zand-Avesta_, interpreted sometimes “the _Zand_ and the - _Usta_,” and said, that these words are found in perhaps a - single passage of the books of Zoroaster, to wit, _huzanth - vacha vaidhya cha_. These two words are applied to _mantras_ - (prayers), and seem to signify “which will give life,” or - “which are salutary to towns and nations,” and “which are - learned.” We recognise the Sanscrit _sujantu_ and _vidya_. - - [103] See page 66. - - [104] See vol. I. p. 223. - - [105] See Memoirs of the life, writings, and correspondence - of sir W. Jones, in his Works, vol. I. p. 190, 8vo., ed., - 1807. - - [106] See works of sir W. J. vol. X. p. 403 _et seq._ - - [107] See Works of Sir W. J., vol. X. p. 403 _et seq._ - - [108] See works of sir W. J. pp. 413. 432. 437. - - [109] De Potter’s Transl. of Æschylus, Prometheus chained. - In the Greek origin. v. 447-456. - - [110] Voltaire, whose genius sir W. Jones knew how to - appreciate, said: “Glorifions-nous de ce que les vérités les - plus importantes sont devenues des lieux communs pour les - Européens, mais ne nous en moquons pas, et sachons avoir - quelque reconnaissance pour les anciens legislateurs qui - nous les ont, les premiers, appris.” - - [111] See Transact. of the R. A. S. of Great Brit. and - Irel., vol. III. part I. p. 524 _et seq._ _Remarks on the - Zand language and the Zand-Avesta._ This able tract is - chiefly a comment upon Erskine’s Memoir _On the sacred book - and religion of the Parsis_, in the Transact. of the Lit. - Soc. of Bombay, vol. II. p. 295. - - [112] Sir W. J. says (see his Works, vol. III. p. 116) that, - according to his conviction, the dialect of the Guebrs, - which they pretend to be that of Zertusht, of which Bahman, - a Guebr and his Persian reader, gave him a variety of - written specimens, is a late invention of their priests. - What language does he mean? certainly not that of the - Zand-Avesta, of which he speaks in particular, and states - (_ibid._, p. 118) “the language of the Zand was at least a - dialect of the Sanscrit, approaching, perhaps, as nearly to - it as the Prácrit, or other popular idioms, which we know to - have been spoken in India two thousand years ago.” - - [113] Sir W. J.’s Works, vol. V. pp. 414-415. - - [114] Anquetil composed a number of Memoirs, read to the - French Institut and preserved in their printed records. He - published, in 1771, three quarto volumes upon his voyages - to, in, and from India, and the Works of Zoroaster; in 1798, - _L’Inde en rapport avec l’Europe; in 1799, La Legislation - orientale, ou le despotisme considéré dans la Turquie, la - Perse et l’Indostane_. An epistle which he placed before his - Latin translation of _Dara Shuko’s Persian Upanishad_, and - addressed to the Brahmans of India, contained, as it were, - his religious and political testament. He declares his - nourishment to have been reduced, like that of an abstemious - ascetic, living, even in winter, without fire; and sleeping - in a bed without feathers or sheets. His juvenile boast of - “personal beauty” was expiated by total neglect of his body, - left “with linen unchanged and unwashed;” his aspirations to - “a vast extent of learning” had subsided into patient and - most persevering studies. But, disdaining to accept gifts - and pensions, even from government, he preserved his - absolute liberty, and blessed his poverty, “as the salvation - of his soul and body, the rampart of morality and of - religion; a friend of all men; victorious over the - allurements of the world” he tended towards the Supreme - Being. Well may virtues so rare efface other human failings - of Anquetil du Perron. He died, in his seventy-fourth year, - in 1805.――(See _Histoire et Mémoires de l’Institut royal de - France. Classe d’Histoire et de Littérature anciennes_, tome - III. 1818.) - - [115] See Transl., vol. I. pp. 351-353. - - [116] Works, vol. III. p. 115. - - [117] Transl. vol. I. p. 275. - - [118] _Ibid._, p. 310. - - [119] _Loco cit._, p. 117. - - [120] Yezd, in central Persia, is the ancient Isatichæ of - Ptolemy. It is celebrated on account of the fire-worship of - _Yezdan_ (or Ormuzd, as light), there practised, and as the - last asylum of the adherents to Zoroaster’s religion, who - fled before the Muhammedans. From thence thefire-worshippers - sought a refuge in India, and settled in Diu, Bombay, and in - the higher valleys of the Indus and the Ganges. - - [121] See vol. I. p. 71. - - [122] See vol. I. p. 321. - - [123] For instance, the _Utopia_ of Thomas Moore, the - _Oceana_ of Harrington, the _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, etc., etc. - - -§ IV.――THE RELIGION OF THE HINDUS. - -The theatre upon which the author of the Dabistán begins history from -the remotest times, is Persia, without limitation of its extent, -probably including Chaldæa. From thence he passes to India, he says -little of any other country; nothing at all of Egypt. The delta of -this most fertile land, as an alluvial formation of the great river -Nile, was necessarily posterior to the existence of inland regions; -still its claims to antiquity are very high and not unsupported, to a -certain extent, by the best written testimonies and architectural -monuments. If I here refer in a cursory manner to its eras,[124] it is -to strengthen what was above remarked concerning the general belief of -the great age of the world. The ancient religion of Egypt, although -connected and conformable in many points with other Asiatic religions, -is never alluded to by the author of the Dabistán, probably because in -his time the Egyptians had lost even the memory of their ancient -history, which very little attracted the curiosity of their masters, -the Muhammedans, except perhaps by the medium of the Bible of the -Jews, often quoted in their Koran.[125] - -I cannot here omit briefly noticing the various opinions of several -learned men concerning the comparative antiquity of the Magi, the -Egyptian priests, and the Hindu philosophers. Aristotle[126] believed -the Magi more ancient than the Egyptians; Diodorus of Sicily[127] -believed the Hindus to have never sent nor received colonies, and -invented every art and science; Lucian, Philostratus[128], and -Eusebius[129] granted anteriority in philosophy to the Hindus over the -Egyptians. In our times the learned abbé Mignot established in three -Memoirs[130], that the Hindus owed nothing to the Egyptians, and -traced the true communications of the former with several nations of -Asia and Europe. But sir W. Jones declared in 1785[131], as not -ill-grounded, the opinion that Ethiopia and Hindostan were peopled or -colonized by the same extraordinary race, or that the Ethiopians of -Meroe were the same people as the Hindus. His opinion was reproduced -under different forms by Hennel, Wilford, Forbes, Carwithen, among the -English, and adopted by L. Langles among the French. I need not dwell -upon this opinion, as the grounds upon which it rested are now -considered as entirely destroyed. Sir W. Jones himself seems to have -abandoned it in 1789,[132] as the Dabistán appeared to him to furnish -an unexceptionable evidence, that the Iranian monarchy must have been -the oldest in the world, although, he added, it will remain dubious to -which of the three stocks, Hindu, Arabian, or Tartar, the first kings -of Iran belonged; or whether they sprang from a fourth race, distinct -from any of the others; He further states, that no country but Persia -seems likely to have sent forth colonies to all the kingdoms of Asia, -and that the three races (Indians, Arabs, Tartars) migrated from Iran -as from their common country, “the true centre of population, of -knowledge, of languages, and of arts; which, instead of travelling -westward only, as it has been fancifully supposed, or eastward, as -might with equal reason have been asserted, were expanded in all -directions to all the regions of the world, in which the Hindu race -had settled under various denominations.” - -The second chapter of the Dabistán describes, in twelve sections, the -religious systems and customs of the Hindus. It is a detailed account, -given by a Persian who, as traveller and resident in India during -about thirty years, had the best opportunities to collect right -information; he shows himself acquainted with the canonical books of -this nation; he quotes their Puránas, and other works less known.[133] - -The Hindus are, among all nations, most particularly distinguished by -a decided turn for metaphysics, which even tinctured the radicals of -their language; they have labored more than others to solve, exhaust, -comprehend, what is insolvible, inexhaustible, incomprehensible. To -give a general notion of their metaphysical theology, I do not say to -render it intelligible, would require an extensive treatise. We will -now give a few characteristic and leading features of their systems as -indicated in the Dabistán. - -Some of their theological philosophers made incredible efforts to -steer clear of anthropomorphism in their conceptions of the Divinity: -their Brahm, in the neuter gender, has no symbol, nor image, nor -temple; they generally profess the great principle of _emanation of -all existences from a common but unknown source_. God is the producer -of the beginning and end, exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure -space. Creation is held to have proceeded from pure space and time. -Other Hindu philosophers establish: 1. a primary, subtile, universal -substance, undergoing modification through its own energy. This they -call _Mula Prakritti_, “rudimental nature,” no production but the root -of all, involving, 2. _seven principles_, which are productions and -productive (that is, intellect, egotism, and five subtile elements); -from these seven proceed: 3. _sixteen productions_ (to wit, eleven -organs and five gross elements); to these just mentioned twenty-four -(namely, Nature, seven principles and sixteen productions); add, 4. -_the soul_, which is neither a production, nor productive, and you -have the _twenty-five physical and metaphysical categories_ of the -Sankhya philosophy.[134] This strikes us as a very specious methodical -arrangement of an abstruse matter, which is not thereby in any degree -rendered more intelligible. - -We seem to understand something more when, as in the Vedenta -philosophy, it is said of the truly-existing Being (God):[135] “that -he has exhibited the “world and the heavens in the field of existence, -but has nothing like an odor of being, nor taken a color of reality; -and this manifestation is called _Máya_ that is, ‘the Magic of God,’ -because the universe is his playful deceit, and he is the bestower of -imitative existence, himself the unity of reality. With this pure -substance, like an imitative actor, he passes every moment into -another form. He, manifesting his being and unity in three persons, -separate from each other, formed the universe. The connexion of the -spirits with the holy Being is like the connexion of the billows with -the ocean, or that of sparks with fire.” This is pure idealism; but -man will spontaneously break through the shadowy illusion, and grasp -at some reality; the trinity of the Hindus became _creation_, -_preservation__, and _destruction_ (or renovation), the history of -nature before their eyes. - -I shall here remark, without attempting to explain, the striking -contrast in the religion of the same nation between the most subtile -metaphysic theology and the grossest idolatry. In the latter, the -symbolical representation prevails; it is known, that in its -immoderate use they have entirely abandoned the normal proportions of -the human form, and by the multiplication of members banished all -fitness and beauty. Their plastic and graphic typification of an -all-mighty, all-bestowing, and all-resuming God, with its three, four, -five heads, so many and more arms, is repulsive; in their poetry he -frightens us with innumerable mouths, eyes, breasts, arms, and legs, -grinding between his teeth the generations of men, who precipitate -themselves into his mouth like rivers into the ocean, or flies into -fire.[136] - -The psychology of the Hindus is not less abstruse than the rest of -their metaphysics. We have already mentioned the soul among the -twenty-five categories as neither a production nor productive. The -Indian philosophers distinguish spirit and soul, that is, a rational -soul and a mere sensitive principle. The first is supposed enveloped -with a subtile, shadowy form of the most delicate material ether. Some -hold the soul to be incased in three sheaths, the intellectual, the -mental, and the organic or vital sheath.[137] According to different -views the vital spirit is _Máya_ herself, or an emanation of Máyá, in -any case the illusive manifestation of the universe. - -This ingenuous conception seems to have taken deep and complete -possession of the Hindus; it dominates in their most subtile -abstractions, and embodies itself in a thousand forms to their vivid -and luxuriant imagination. The _Saktians_, a sect wedded to sensual -materialism, represent Máyá as a _Saktí_ or energy of Siva; she is -“the mother of the universe;” “non-entity finds no access to this -creator, the garment of perishableness does not sit right upon the -body of this fascinating empress; the dust of nothingness does not -move round the circle of her dominion; the real beings and the -accidental creatures of the nether world are equally enamoured and -intoxicated with desire before her.” Above the six circles, into which -the Hindus divide the human body, is “the window of life, and the -passage of the soul, which is the top and middle of the head, and in -that place is the _flower of the back_ of one thousand leaves: this is -the residence of the glorious divinity, that is, of the -world-deceiving queen, and in this beautiful site reposes her origin. -With the splendor of one hundred thousand world-illuminating suns, she -wears, at the time of rising, manifold odoriferous herbs and various -flowers upon her head, and around her neck: her resplendent body is -penetrated with perfumes of divers precious ingredients, such as musk, -safran, sandal, and amber, and bedecked with magnificent garments; in -this manner, she is to be represented.”[138] Thus we see the poetical -imagination of the Hindus, playing, as it were, with abstruseness, -materializing what is spiritual, and spiritualizing what is material. - -Characteristic of and peculiar to the Hindus, are their conceptions -relative to the states of the embodied soul, which are chiefly three: -“_waking_, _dreaming_, and _profound sleep_.”[138] In these three -conditions the soul is imprisoned, but it may, by virtue and sanctity, -break the net of illusion, that is, acquire the consciousness of the -illusion which captivates it, and know that, even when awake, man is -dreaming: this is the triumph of his perfection. - -Such, and other notions, in their development and application, form a -system of metaphysics, in which excess and abuse of refined -speculations lose themselves in obscurity, contradiction, and -absurdity. - -Among the Indian sectaries appear the _Charvak_, who, rejecting the -popular religion, follow their own system of philosophic opinions. - -Of _Buddha_ and the _Buddhists_, we are disappointed to find so little -in the Dabistán, except the important information that Vichnu, in -order to destroy the demons and evil genii, the agents of night, -assumed the avatár of Buddha when ten years only of the Dwaparyug -remained, that is, 3112 years before Christ. In the section on the -tenets held by the followers of Buddha, these religionists are called -_Jatis_ or _Yatis_, a great number of whom are corn-traders and get -their livelihood as servants; they are divided in several classes, and -do not believe the incarnations of the deity; as to the rest, they -have tenets and customs in common with other Indian sects, only -distinguishing themselves by a great aversion to Brahmans, and an -extreme care of not hurting animal life. - -In the whole account, which the Dabistán gives of the various sects -and doctrines of the Hindus, we can but remark a frequent confusion of -Indian with Muhammedan notions and stories. Indeed, this work having -been written in India at a time when, after a sojourn of more than -seven centuries, about twenty millions of Muselmans appeared, as it -were, lost in the midst of one hundred millions of Hindus, we cannot -wonder that a mutual assimilation in opinions and customs took place -among individuals of both religions. A remarkable instance of it -presents itself in the person of _Kabir_, renowned in his time for -sanctity. After his death, both the Hindus and Muhammedans claimed his -corpse for funeral honors; monuments erected to him by each party -exist in our days, with the proverbial precept which originated from -this event: - - “Live so as to be claimed after death to be burnt by Hindus, - and to be buried by Muslims.” - -The Indian Yogis, Sanyásis, and Vairagis are perpetually confounded -with Muhammedan Durvishes, and Sufis, of whom hereafter. - -We do not fail to meet with many traces of the ancient Persian -astrolatry and pyrolatry among the Indians. Mohsan mentions the -_Surya-makhan_ (_Sauras_), “worshippers of the sun,” and periphrases, -as addressed to that luminary, a Sanscrit prayer, which seems to be -one of those called _gayátri_, the holiest verses of the Vedas, kept -as mysterious by the Brahmans, and pronounced with the deepest sense -of concentrated devotion. In our days, more than one _gayátri_ has -been made known.[139] We cannot doubt that (according to the -poet)[140]―― - - “That vast source of liquid light, the ethereal sun, which - perpetually laves heaven with ever-renewed brightness,” - -was, from the remotest times, the object of adoration in India. The -Dabistán mentions also the _Chandra-bakhtra_, “worshippers of the -moon.” Even in our days we find the veneration for the sun, the -planets, and fire, openly practised by the Hindus. The worshippers of -the latter elements called _Sagníkas_, are very numerous at -Benares;[141] they keep many _agni-hotras_, “burnt-offerings,” -continually blazing; they kindle, with two pieces of sacred wood, -called _sámi_, a fire, never extinguished during their lives, for the -performance of solemn sacrifices, their nuptial ceremonies, the -obsequies of departed ancestors, and their own funeral pile. There are -besides particular worshippers of the wind, water, earth, and the -three kingdoms of nature. The latter are called _Tripujas_, -“trinitarians.” We find also _Manushya-bhakta_, “worshippers of -mankind,” who recognise the being of God in man, and believe nothing -to be more perfect than mankind; like _Channing_, a famous American -preacher of our days. In short, the worship of personified nature, in -its utmost extent, is most evident in what we know of the Vedas, and -never ceased to be the general religion of the Hindus. - -Not without interest will be read in the Dabistán the account of -_Nanak_,[142] the founder of the Sikh religion and domination. He is -there represented as having been, in a former age, _Janaka_, sovereign -of Mithila, and father of Sitá, the wife of Rama. The revolution -effected by Nanak, in the middle of the sixteenth century, proves that -the Hindus are not quite so unchangeable in religion and customs as is -generally believed. It is however to be remarked, that the Panj-ab, -the country of the Sikhs, was always considered by the Brahmans as the -seat of heterodoxy (probably Buddhism), and blamed for irregularity of -manners. Mohsan’s account will be found to add confirmation and a few -particulars to that given of Nanak, from the best sources――the -generals sir John Malcolm, and John Briggs. - -What will appear most valuable in this work is the description of -various usages, some of which have never been described elsewhere. The -most ancient customs are brought to recollection. Thus, we find -stated, on the authority of Maha bharat, that widows could formerly -take other husbands――married women, with the consent of their -husbands, maintain intercourse with other men――several individuals, of -the same race and religion, espouse one wife among them;――in ancient -times there existed no such practice as appropriation of husband and -wife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she liked; -conjugal fidelity was only in later times made a duty. Much of what he -describes may be seen, even in our days, in India, where all the -degrees of civilisation which the Hindus ever attained, from the -lowest to the highest, occur here and there within a small compass of -country. So constant are they in good and bad! The whole of antiquity -is still living in India, and Herodotus stands confirmed in what -appeared most incredible in his narrative by the testimonies of Mohsan -Fáni, the reverend abbe Dubois,[143] Ward, and others. The Persian -author intersperses his account with anecdotes which characterise in -the most lively manner individuals, sects, and tribes. If now and then -we must avert our eyes from disgusting scenes of human degradation, -more frequently we admire man, even in his errors, for the power and -command of the mental over the physical part of his nature. The naked -Yogi, who inflicts the most cruel tortures upon himself, wants but a -better motive for being justly extolled as a hero of fortitude; death -appears to him an habitual companion, into whose arms he sinks without -fear; overpowered by malady, he buries himself alive. - -We may be astonished at the number of unbelievers among the Hindus of -whom we read, and at the licentiousness of their opinions, expressed -with a strength which we should think carried to excess.[144] We -perceive also that, in contradiction to common belief, in the midst of -the seventeenth century, when the Dabistán was composed (1645 A. D.) a -numerous class of Indians assumed the name of Muselmans, but it must -be remarked, that the Hindus neither endeavor to make, nor easily -admit, proselytes: because their religion depends much less upon -creed, in which they are latitudinarians, than upon the fixed customs -of their castes, the character of which, being derived from birth, -cannot be transferred to strangers.[145] We shall see hereafter in -what manner Hindus and Muhammedans may be confounded with each other. - -So much of India being known in our days, we have the facility of -trying the veracity and correctness of the Dabistán concerning this -country. Its account will be found, I dare say, rather incomplete in -the small compass in which so extensive a subject was inclosed, but -not inaccurate in the greatest part of its various statements. Sir W. -Jones[146] bears Mohsan Fani the testimony, “that his information -concerning the Hindus is wonderfully correct.” Let us compare the -account given by him with all that has been published about India by -the best instructed Europeans before the foundation of the Asiatic -Society of Bengal, and we shall regret that the Dabistán was brought -into notice so late. Whatever it be, the particular views of a -Persian, through a medium of education, religion, and custom, so -different from that through which we consider India, can but interest -us by their novelty, and by themselves add something to our -information about the character of Asiatics. - - - [124] According to Manetho, a high-priest of Heliopolis, the - Egyptians counted 53,525 years; they saw twice the sun set - where he now rises――they saw (as well as the Chaldeans) the - ecliptic perpendicular upon the equator before 39,710 years. - Herodotus (lib. II) attributes to them, more moderately, - 15,882 historical years. - - [125] The history of Joseph, Pharaoh, Moses in Egypt, is - often referred to by Muhammed and his followers; they state - that the Egyptian king professed a religion unlike that - mentioned by Greek authors, with whom the Bible also - disagrees. In general, monotheism is adverse to the - examination of polytheistical systems, and seldom accurate - in the representation of their tenets. - - [126] Quoted by Diogenes Laertius, _Prœm._, p. 6. - - [127] Lib. II. p. 113. edit. Wossel. - - [128] Vita Apol. c. 6. - - [129] _Chron. lib. post._, n. 400. - - [130] _Mémoires de Littérature de l’Académie royale des - Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, tome XXXI. - - [131] Works, vol. III. p. 41. - - [132] Ibid., pp. 111. 134. - - [133] Such is the Jog-Vasishta, mentioned (vol. II. pp. 28 - and 256) as a very ancient book. Sir W. Jones calls it one - of the finest compositions on the philosophy of the Vedanta - school; it contains the instructions of the great Vasishta - to his pupil Rama. Lord Teignmouth says, that several - Persian versions of this work exist, and quotes some - passages of them, which, compared with the original - Sanscrit, were found substantially accurate. - - [134] See the detailed table of it, vol. II. p. 122. - - [135] Vol. II. pp. 91-92. - - [136] See _Bhagavad-gita_, vv. 16. 23. 28. 29. Schlegel’s ed. - - [137] vol. II. p. 24. - - [138] See vol. II. pp. 150-151. - - [139] That which sir W. Jones quotes (see Works, vol. XIII. - p. 367) is, perhaps, most to be depended upon. - - [140] Lucretius, V. v. 282: - Largus item liquidi fons luminis, æthereus sol, - Irrigat assiduè cœlum candore recenti. - - [141] Sir W. J., Works, vol. III. p. 127. - - [142] Vol. II. pp. 246-288. - - [143] See _Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies des Peuples de - l’Inde; par M. l’abbé J. A. Dubois, ci-devant missionnaire - dans le Meissour_. Paris, 1825. This work was first - published in the English language, London, 1816. It had been - translated from the author’s French manuscript, which lord - William Bentinck, governor of Madras, purchased on the - account of the East India Company, in 1807. This composition - received the approbation of major Wilks, resident of - Maissour, sir James Mackintosh, and William Erskine, Esq.; - to which I am happy to add the most decisive judgment of the - honorably-known Brahman, Ram Mohun Roy, whom I often heard - say: “The European who best knew the Hindus, and gave the - most faithful account of them, was the abbé Dubois.” - - [144] See vol. II. p. 201. - - [145] The celebrated Ram Mohun Roy had abandoned all the - tenets, but remained as much as possible attached to the - customs, of his Brahminical caste. - - [146] His Works, vol. IV. p. 16. - - -§ V.――RETROSPECT OF THE PERSIAN AND INDIAN RELIGIONS. - -I have endeavored to trace the most remarkable features of Persian and -Indian religions from among those which are contained in the Dabistán. -In them we recognise resemblances, and, in more than one point, even -coincidences, which appear not merely taken from each other in the -course of time, but rather originally inwoven in the respective -institutions. This may be explained, partly by the general probability -that nations, passing through the same stages of civilisation, might -agree in several parts of religion, politics, and philosophy, and -chiefly by the fact, now generally admitted among the learned,[147] -that in very remote times, a union of all the Arian nations, among -whom the Persians and Indians are counted, existed in the common -regions of central Asia. Sir W. Jones[148] goes so far as to say: “We -cannot doubt that the book of Mahabad, or Manu, written in a celestial -dialect, means the Veda.” William von Schlegel most ingeniously -surmises,[149] “that the name of _Zand_ may be but a corruption of the -Sanscrit word _chhandas_, one of the most usual names of the Vedas.” -The fourteen Mahabadians are to him: “Nothing else but the fourteen -Manus, past and future, of the Brahmanical mythology.”[150] Thus we -should have to thank Mohsan Fani for a confirmation of the -above-stated historical fact; the _Mahabadians_ were nothing else but -_Mahabodhis_, in good Sanscrit, “great deified teachers;” he would -have placed them, as did lately Burnouf, Lassen, and Charles Ritter, -somewhere on the highlands of Iran, and he _invented_ nothing. - -From the ante-historical dynasties descending to later times, let us -consider that, according to respectable traditions,[151] there existed -friendly and hostile relations between Iran and Persia in the time of -the Iranian king _Feridun_, 1729 years before our era: he reconducted -with an army a fugitive Indian prince, and rendered India tributary. -Two other invasions took place under the Persian monarch -_Manucheher_,[152] after which the Indians recovered their liberty. -Under Kai Kobad[153] flourished Rustum, who ruled, beside other -countries, Sejistan and Kabul, conquered the Panj-áb, and carried war -into the bosom of Arya varta. This country was also attacked by -Afrasiab, a Turan prince,[154] then possessor of Persia. Ferdusi’s -Shah-namah indicates expeditions of Feramurs, a son of Rustum, to -India, under the reign of Kai Khosrú. We arrive at the epoch of -Gushtasp, who ordered the Indus to be explored, and although he had -not, as Herodotus asserts,[155] conquered the Indians, he entertained -religious relations with that nation. After Alexander’s conquest of -Persia, Sassan, the son of Dara, retired to Hind, where, devoted to -the service of God, he died.[156] After a very obscure period of -Persian history, Ardeshir, directed by a dream, brought an offspring -of Sassan from Kabulistan to Istakhar. We cannot doubt that at all -times a communication was open between Iran and India, where Bahram -Gor married an Indian princess, and whence Nushirvan received a -celebrated book and the game of chess. In our seventh century, the -Muhammedan Arabians, driven by the spirit of conquest, turned their -arms towards India, but stopped on the borders of the Indus. It was -reserved to Muhammedan Moghuls, mixed with Persians, to establish in -the midst of India an empire which, after eight hundred years, -disjoined by various disorders, fell into the hands of the English. - -This rapid sketch is perhaps sufficient to explain any mixture, -fusion, and resemblance of Persian and Indian doctrines and -institutions, if even we were not disposed to seek their fountain-head -in the sacred gloom of the remotest antiquity. Whatever it be, in any -case, it will no more be said, that the Dabistán was written “with -the intention to claim for Persia the pre-eminence over India, -concerning the antiquity of religious revelations.”[157] In fact, -Mohsan Fani never explicitly alludes to a comparative antiquity -between the Persians and Indians, and implicitly acknowledges the -anteriority of the Indian religion over the Zoroastrian, in a part of -Persia at least, by relating that Gushtasp was converted from the -former to the latter by Zardusht, by whom also the Indian sage, -_Sankhara atcharya_, was vanquished. - -After a more accurate examination, the resemblance between the said -religions will be found to exist certainly in particular principles -and tenets, but not at all in the general character or the spirit of -these religious systems. Nothing can be more dissimilar than the -austerity of Mezdaism and the luxuriancy of Hinduism in the -development of their respective dogmas, and particularly in their -worship, as was already observed.[158] We cannot however deny, that -not a little of the similarity in the account of different religions -belongs to the author of the Dabistán, who most naturally confounded -the ideas of his own with those of more ancient times, and used -expressions proper to his particular creed when speaking of that of -others. Thus he employs very often the term _angels_ for that of -divinities, and carries the mania of allegorising, so peculiar to the -later Muhammedan Súfis, into his description of the Indian mythology. -This sort of substitution, or these anachronisms of expression, are to -be remarked in the narrative of other authors, praised for general -correctness and veracity; I can here so much the more readily call to -mind similar inaccuracies in the accounts which Greek historians, and -in particular the philosophic Xenophon, gave of Persia, as I may add, -that in many points they agree with our Mohsan Fani. - - - [147] See above, p. 76. - - [148] His Works, vol. IV. p. 105. - - [149] _Loco cit._, p. 69. - - [150] _Ibid._, p. 51. Among the Persians is even found - _Behesht-i-Gang_, and _Gang-diz_, “the Paradise,” and “the - castle of Ganga” (Hyde, p. 170).――Mr. Julius Mohl says - (_Journal asiatique, mars_ 1841, p. 281): “Zohac is the - representative of a Semitical dynasty, which in Persia took - place of the _Indian_ dynasty, and overthrew the entirely - _Brahmanical_ institutions of Jamshid.” We see the opinion - that Hinduism once resided in Iran daily gaining ground. - - [151] The History of Hindostan, etc., by Alex. Dow, 1768, t. - I. p. 12 _et seq._ The same, by J. Briggs, 1829. Introd., - ch. p. xiv. _et seq._ - - [152] The Mandauces of Ctesias and of Moses of Chorene. He - reigned, according to Ferdusi, B. C., from 1229-1109; - according to our chronogers, from 730-715. - - [153] The Arphaxad of the Hebrews; the Dejoces of Herodotus; - the Arsæus of Ctesias; he is placed B. C. 1075 by the - Orientals; 696 years by the Occidentals. - - [154] All kings of Turan were called Afrasiáb. - - [155] Lib. IV. - - [156] See _The Desátir_, Engl. trans., p. 185. - - [157] See before, p. 75. - - [158] See page 102. - - -§ VI.――THE RELIGION OF THE TABITIAN (TIBETANS). - -The third chapter of the Dabistán treats of the religion of the _Kera -Tabitán_ (Tibitans). The author says that he received his information -from a learned man of this sect by means of an interpreter, who did -not always satisfy his inquiries; the little he says appears to belong -to a class of Buddhistic Hinduism, and not to be destitute of truth. - - -§ VII.――THE RELIGION OF THE JEWS. - -Then follows, in the fourth chapter, a short account of the religion -of the Yahuds or Jews. The author derived his notion from a Rabbin -converted to Muhammedism, and states nothing which was not really -professed by one of the Jewish sects, which, in his summary narration, -he does not distinguish. He gives a Persian translation of the first -five chapters, and a part of the sixth chapter of the Genesis from the -Hebrew original; a comparison of it with several other translations -known in Europe, proves its general accuracy; I thought it not -altother unimportant to point out the few variations which occur. - - -§ VIII.――THE RELIGION OF THE CHRISTIANS. - -It is not without great interest that an European Christian will -peruse the fifth chapter, in which a Persian treats of the religion of -the _Tarsas_, that is, “Christians.” Mohsan Fani declares, that he saw -several learned Christians, such as the Padre _Francis_,[159] highly -esteemed by the Portuguese in Goa and in Surat. We can scarce doubt, -that it was from that father, or some other Roman Catholic missionary, -that he received his information; as he portrays particularly the -Roman Catholic doctrine, of which, in my opinion, he exhibits a more -faithful idea than that which a great number of Protestants entertain, -and are wont to express. - -Every Christian may be satisfied with the picture of his religion, -which, although contracted in a small compass, is nevertheless -faithfully drawn by a foreign but impartial hand. Mohsan Fani, in -seventeen pages of our translation, states only a few circumstances of -the life of Jesus Christ, and a few dogmas relative to him as son of -God, and the second person of the holy Trinity. In the account of -seven sacraments, the eucharist is characterised in a manner which -will not fail to attract attention.[160] Scarce any rites or -ceremonies are mentioned; the greatest part of the statement relates -to the moral precepts of Christianity, which presents an advantageous -contrast with the many absurd and superstitious duties, with which -other religions are encumbered. Thus, we find confirmed in the -Dabistán that the Pentateuch of the Jews and the Gospel of the -Christians were both sufficiently familiar to Muhammedans who had any -pretension to learning. - - - [159] Probably a Portuguese. From him Mohsan Fani might have - received the information (see vol. II. p. 307) that an image - of St. Veronica is preserved in a town of Spain, probably - within the year 1641, before it was known in India that - Portugal had freed itself from the domination of Spain, - which event took place on the 1st December, 1640. On that - account, the father spoke of the peninsular sovereign as - still possessor of both kingdoms, and, instead of calling - him _king of Spain_, styled him _king of Portugal_, from - fond partiality for his native country. This remark was - suggested to me by the learned viscount of Santarem.――(See - vol. II. pp. 307. 308, note 1.) - - [160] See vol. II. p. 315. “The holiest of all the - sacraments, as it presents the Lord Jesus under the form of - bread, that it may become the power of the soul.” This - definition was most likely not that which Mohsan Fani heard - from father Francis, but the intelligent Persian might have - understood that a strong and lively representation of an - object is equivalent to its _real presence_, which latter - words must have been those used, as orthodox, by a Roman - Catholic priest. - - -§ IX.――THE RELIGION OF THE MUSELMANS. - -The author of the Dabistán, after having treated of the most ancient -religions, passes to the comparatively modern religious system of -Arabia. The Arabians, although frequently attacked, were never -conquered by the Assyrians, Medians, Persians, or Romans; they -maintained their political independance, but could not avoid nor -resist the religious influence of nations with whom they were, during -ages, in various relations. The ancient history of Arabia is lost, -like that of many other nations; so much is known of their oldest -religion, that it resembled that of the Persians and Hindus: it was -the Magism or Sabæism; the stars were worshipped as idols from the -remotest times; we read of antediluvian idols. At the time, which we -now consider, that is the seventh century of our era, all the then -existing religions seemed to be far remote from their original -simplicity and purity;[161] idolatry was dominant, and Monotheism -preserved and positively professed only in Judaism and Christianity, -although likewise corrupted by various kinds of superstition. -Followers of both these religions were settled in Arabia, to which -region the Jews fled from the cruel destruction of their country by -the Romans; and the Christians, on account of the persecutions and -disorders which had arisen in the Eastern church. - -We see by what facts, circumstances, and notions Muhammed was acted -upon, whilst nourishing his religious enthusiasm by solitary -contemplation in the cavern of mount Hara, to which he was wont to -retire for one month in every year. In his fortieth year, at the same -age at which Zoroaster began to teach 600 years before Christ -(according to some chronologers), Muhammed, as many years after the -Messiah, assumed the prophetic mission to reform the Arabians. He felt -the necessity of seizing some safe and essential dogmas in the chaos -of Magian, Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian notions; broke all the -figures of planets in the temple of Mecca, and declared the most -violent war against all plastic, graven, and painted idols; he left -undisturbed only the _black stone_, Saturn’s emblem before, and at the -time when the Jewish traditions claimed it for Abraham, and even -transported it to heaven. Muhammed preferred the latter to the more -ancient superstition; as to the rest, he abhorred the prevailing -idolatry of the Sabaians; and blamed the corruption of monotheism in -the Jews and Christians. He felt in himself the powerful spirit, and -undertook to re-establish the _Touhid_, “the unity and spiritualism of -God;” he preached with enthusiastic zeal the _Islam_, “devotedness und -resignation to God.” - -But, in order to found and to expand the great and necessary truths, -he knew no other means, but to attach the believers to his own person, -and to accustom them to blind obedience to his dictates; he -proclaimed: “There is no God but God, and Muhammed is his prophet;” he -gave them the Koran, the only holy book, in which his precepts were as -many commands proclaimed under the penalty of eternal damnation. In -the Muhammedan all spontaneity is stifled; all desire, all attempt to -be self-convinced is interdicted; every thing becomes exterior, the -religious and civil Code but one. - -Muhammed seemed not to know that religion cannot be the gift, as it is -not the property, of any single man; it belongs to mankind. Any -particular creed lives only by its inherent force, independently of -the founder, who retires and leaves nothing behind him but his name as -a mere distinction from that of another religion. Every individual -action is of little avail, if it does not proceed from the free and -pure impulse of the spirit, which must revive in all succeeding -generations. This is acknowledged in the Dabistán[162] by giving a -very philosophic explanation of the expression _prophetic seal_, or -“the last of prophets:” “That which is reared up by superior wisdom, -renders the prophet’s knowledge vain, and takes his color; that is to -say: if one hundred thousand prophets like himself realise in -themselves the person of superior wisdom, they are possessors of the -seal, the last prophets, because it is superior wisdom which is the -seal, and they know themselves to be _effaced_, and superior wisdom -existing.” Muhammed, although wise enough to connect himself with -other prophets, his predecessors, pretended however to close the -series, and to be the last of prophets, or “the seal of prophetism.” - -Vain project! immediately after him violent contests arose, - - “And discord, with a thousand various mouths.” - -Thirty years after his death his family was dispossessed of the -Khalifat. This passed to the Moaviyahs, who, residing in Damascus, -kept it during 90 years, and then ceded it to the Abbasides, who -established their seat at Baghdad. The impulse and development of the -Islam was overwhelming during the one hundred and twenty years after -the prophet’s death; the mighty spirit of conquest had arisen and -was――I shall not say irresistible――but certainly badly resisted by the -nations assailed. The Romans and Persians were then hard pressed -themselves; on the West by the Goths, on the East by the Huns:――whilst -the Greeks had sunk into general luxury and degeneracy; all feebly -sustained the attack of hardy and active men, whose native habit of -rapine and devastation was then exalted and sanctified by the name of -religion, and continually invigorated by rich, splendid, and easy -conquests. Thus, the khalifs, who were divided into two great lines, -the before-mentioned _Abbasides_ and the _Fatimites_, extended their -empire within 600 years after Muhammed, not only over the greatest -part of Asia, but also along the western shore of Africa, Egypt, -Spain, and Sicily; threatening the rest of Europe. - -After the first labors, came rest, during which the genius of the -Arabs turned to persevering study, deep speculation, and noble -ambition: this was the scientific age of the Arabs, which began in the -middle of our eighth century, and was most conspicuous in the old -seats of learning, Babylonia, Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India. But in -the numerous schools rose violent schisms and bloody contests between -philosophy and religion. In the mean time the khalifs, by becoming -worldly sovereigns, had lost their sacred character, and were in -contradiction with the principle of their origin. The crusades of the -Christians, by reviving their martial energy, maintained for some time -the vacillating power of the Khalifs, but their vast and divided -empire, assailed by Pagan nations, first in the West in 1211, and -forty-seven years afterwards in the East, fell in 1258 of our era. -Muhammedism however revived in the barbarous and energetic conquerors, -Turks, Seljuks, Albanese, Kurds, Africans, who were drawn into its -circle; and science was again cultivated in Tunis, Bulgaria, and -India. - -I thought necessary to draw this rapid historical sketch, because -within its outlines is contained the account of the Muhammedan sects -as given in the text of the Dabistán. - -Mohsan Fani himself lived in the age of general decline of -Muhammedism. He exhibits in the sixth chapter the religion of his own -nation: we may expect that he will be true and accurate. He divides -the chapter into two sections: the first treats of the creed of the -Sonnites; the second, of that of the Shiâhs. These are the two -principal sects of the Muhammedans, but divided into a number of -others, exceeding that of seventy-three, which Muhammed himself has -announced, and consigned, all except one, to eternal damnation. This -one was that of the _sonnah_ “the traditional law,” or _Jamaât_, “the -assembly.” The Dabistán explains this religion in a manner which, to -Muhammedans, might appear sufficiently clear, in spite of digressions -and want of order in the arrangement of the matter; but an European -reader will desire more light than is afforded in the text, and feel -himself perplexed to understand the meaning of frequent technical -terms, and to connect the various notions disseminated in an unequal -narrative――now too diffuse, now too contracted. The following are the -principal features of the long account of Muhammedism contained in the -Dabistán. - -Immediately after the promulgation of the Koran, which followed -Muhammed’s death, it became necessary to fix the meaning and to -determine the bearing of its text. There was one theme in which all -agreed: the grandeur, majesty, and beneficence of one supreme Being, -the Creator, ruler, and preserver of the world, which is the -effulgence of his power. This is expressed in the Koran in such a -strain of sublimity as may unite men of all religions in one feeling -of admiration. This excellence is an inheritance of the most ancient -Asiatic religion. God can but be always the object of boundless -adoration, but never that of human reasoning. Hence the Muhammedan -sects disagreed about the attributes of God. - -The residence assigned, although inconsistently with pure -spiritualism, to the supreme Being was the ninth heaven; an eighth -sphere formed the intermediate story between the uppermost heaven and -seven other spheres, distributed among so many prophets, in the same -manner as, in the Desátir, the seven prophet kings of the Péshdadian -dynasty were joined to the seven planets which they, each one in -particular, venerated. Numberless angels, among whom four principal -chiefs, fill the universe, and serve, in a thousand different ways, -the supreme Lord of creation. We recognisee the notions of the ancient -Persian religion in this, and in the whole system of divine -government. - -Another subject of violent and interminable dispute was God’s action -upon the nether world, principally upon mankind, or God’s universal -and eternal judgment, commonly called _predestination_. This subject -was greatly agitated by the _Matezalas_, _Kadarians_, _Jabarians_, and -others; they disputed - - “_Of providence, foreknowledge. will, and fate, - Fix’d fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute, - And found no end, in wand’ring mazes lost._” - -Although this subject appears to be connected with the Zoroastrian -doctrine of the two principles, “good and bad,” yet it has never been -agitated with so much violence in so many particular ways by any -religionists as by the Muhammedans. - -It has already been observed that, according to tradition, the ancient -Persian philosophy was carried in the reign of Alexander to Greece, -and from thence, after having been recast in the mould of Greek -genius, returned in translations to its original country. We find it -expressly stated in the Dabistán, that Plato and Aristotle were -acknowledge as the founders of two principal schools of Muhammedan -philosophers, to wit, those of the _Hukma ashrákín_, “Platonists,” and -the _Hukma masháyín_, “Aristotelian, or Peripatetics.” To these add -the Súfí’s _matsherâin_, “orthodox Sufis,” who took care not to -maintain any thing contrary to revelation, and exerted all their -sagacity to reconcile passages of the Koran with sound philosophy. -This was the particular profession of the _Matkalmin_, “scholastics.” -These cede to no other philosophers the palm of mastering subtilties -and acute distinctions. They had originally no other object but that -of defending their creed against the heterodox philosophers. But they -went further, and attacked the Peripatetics themselves with the -intention to substitute another philosophy for theirs. It may be here -sufficient to call to mind the works of three most celebrated men, -_Alfarabi_, _Ibn Sina_ (Avisenna), and _Ghazali_, whose works are -reckoned to be the best specimens of Arabian and Muhammedan -philosophy.[163] They contain three essential parts of orthodox -dogmatism: 1. _ontology_, _physiology_, and _psychology_; these -together are called “the science of possible things;” 2. _theology_, -that is, the discussion upon the existence, essence, and the -attributes of God; as well as his relations with the world and man in -particular; 3. _the science of prophetism_, or “revealed theology.” -All these subjects are touched upon in the Dabistán, but in a very -desultory manner. I shall add, that the author puts in evidence a sect -called _Akhbárín_, or “dogmatic traditionists,” who participate -greatly in the doctrine of the Matkalmin, and in his opinion are the -most approvable of all religious philosophers. - -The contest for the khalifat between the family of Ali, Muhammed’s -son-in-law, and the three first khalifs, as well as the families of -Moaviah and Abbas, a contest which began in the seventh century, and -appears not yet terminated in our days――this contest, so much more -violent as it was at once religious and political, occasioned the rise -of a great number of sects. Much is found about Ali in the Dabistán, -and even an article of the Koran,[164] published no where else -relative to this great Muselman, which his adversaries are said to -have suppressed. The adherents of Ali are called _Shiâhs_. - -The Persians, after being conquered by the Arabs, were compelled to -adopt the Muhammedan religion, but they preserved a secret adherence -to Magism, their ancient national creed, they were therefore easily -disposed to join any sect, which was more or less contrary to the -standard creed of their conquerors, and bore some slight conformity, -or had the least connection with, their former religion. They became -Shiâhs. - -Among these sectaries originated the particular office of _Imám_, -whose power partook of something of a mysterious nature: the visible -presence of an Imám was not required; he could, although concealed, be -acknowledged, direct and command his believers; his name was _Mahdi_, -“the director.” This opinion originated and was spread after the -sudden disappearance of the seventh Imám, called _Ismâil_. His -followers, the Ismâilahs, maintained that he was not dead; that he -lived concealed, and directed the faithful by messages, sent by him, -and brought by his deputies; that he would one day reappear, give the -victory to his adherents over all other sects, and unite the world in -one religion. More than one Mahdi was subsequently proclaimed in -different parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe――always expected, never -appearing――so that it became a proverbial expression among the Arabs -to denote tardiness: “_as slow as a Mahdi_.” We recognize in this an -ancient idea of Zoroaster: he too was to reappear in his sons at the -end of 12,000 years; rather late,――but mankind never tire of hope and -expectation. - -A creed, like that of the _Ismâilahs_, because founded upon something -mysterious, vague, and spiritual, was likely to branch out in most -extraordinary conceptions and practices. The Dabistán abounds with -curious details about them. Their doctrine bore the character of -duplicity: one part was manifest, the other concealed. Their manner of -making proselytes was not open; they acted in the dark. They first -induced the neophyte to doubt, then to despise his own creed, and at -last to exchange it for apparently more sublime truths, until, after -having sufficiently emboldened his reasoning faculty, they enabled him -to throw off every restraint of authority in religious matters. We see -in the Dabistán,[165] the degrees through which an Ismâilah was to -pass until he believed in no religion at all. - -A most remarkable sect of the Ismâilahs was that of the _Almutians_, -so called from _Alamut_, a hill-fort in the Persian province of -_Ghilan_. This fort was the seat of _Hassan_, a self-created Imám, and -became the capital of an empire, perhaps unique in the history of the -world.[166] An Imám, called by Europeans “the old man of the -mountain,” without armies, or treasures, commanded the country around, -and terrified a great part of Asia by a band of devoted adherents, -whom he sent about to propagate his religion, and to execute his -commands, which were frequently the murder of his enemies. The -executioners were unknown save at the fatal moment of action; mighty -khalifs and sultans met with their murderers among their most intimate -servants, or the guardians of their doors, in the midst of crowded -public places or in the solitude of their secret bed-chambers. The -_Fedayis_, so were they called, devoted themselves not only to the -sacred service of their Imám, but hired their arm also for profane -service to foreign chiefs, such as the Christian crusaders. Among -Europeans, these Ismâilahs were known under the name of _Assassins_, -which well answered their infamous profession, but is better derived -from _Hashishah_[167], a sort of hemp, from which they extracted an -intoxicating beverage for their frequent use. During one hundred and -sixty years the Ismâilahs were the terror of the weak and the mighty, -until they fell in one promiscuous slaughter, with the khalif of -Islámism, under the swords of the ferocious invaders who, issuing from -the vast steppes of Tartary, fell upon the disordered empire of the -Muhammedans. - -The Ismâilahs, and other sects connected with them, professed a great -attachment to an Imám, whose lineage was always traced up to Ali -through a series of intermediate descendants; but it belonged to the -_Ali-Ilahians_ to deify Ali himself, or to believe his having been an -incarnation of God. - -Another sect, the _Ulviahs_, also devoted to Ali, maintain that he was -united with the sun, that he is now the sun, and having also been the -sun before, he was for some days only united to an elemental body. -Both these sects reject the Koran. - -Here terminates the review of the second volume of the English -Dabistán. - - - [161] See, in what sense, pp. 83-84. - - [162] See vol. III. pp. 202-203. See also _ibid._, p. 229 - and note 2. - - [163] See upon this subject a recent very ingenious work: - _Essai sur les Écoles philosophiques chez les Arabes, et - notamment sur la doctrine d’Algazzalí, par Auguste - Schmölders, docteur en philosophie_, Paris, 1842. Dedicated - to M. Reinaud, member of the Institute of France, and - professor of Arabic. - - [164] See vol. II. p. 368. - - [165] Vol. II. pp. 404-407. - - [166] See vol. II. p. 433 _et seq._ - - [167] See _Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur - l’Égypte et sur quelques contrées voisines, par Étienne - Quatremère_, vol. II. p. 504. 1811. - - -§ X.――THE RELIGION OF THE SADIKIAHS. - -The third volume of this work begins with the seventh chapter, upon -the religion of the _Sadikiahs_. It is generally known that, during -the life of Muhammed, another prophet, called Musaylima, arose in the -country of Yamáma, and dared offer to himself in a letter to the -former as a partner of his sacred mission, but was treated as a liar. -He had however gained a great number of followers, at the head of whom -he was defeated and himself slain in a bloody battle against Khaled, a -general of the first Khalif, the very same year as Muhammed’s death. -We find in the Dabistán, what appears less generally known, that -Musaylima’s sect, far from being entirely crushed after his fall, -existed under the name of _Sadikias_ in the seventeenth century of our -era, and conformed to a second _Faruk_, or Koran, to which they -attributed a divine origin, and a greater authority than to the -first.[168] - -Another account, not frequently met with, is contained in the eighth -chapter of the Dabistán, concerning _Vahed Mahmud_, who appeared in -the beginning of our thirteenth century, and is by his adherents -placed above Muhammed and Ali. Among his tenets and opinions is to be -remarked that of an ascending refinement or perfection of elemental -matter, from the brute or mineral to that of a vegetable form; from -this to that of an animal body; and thence progressing to that of -Mahmud.[169] Further, the particular mode of transmigration of souls -by means of food into which men, after their death, are changed; such -food, _in which intelligence and action may reside_, becomes -continually the aliment and substance of new successive human beings. -We were not a little astonished to find these singular opinions -agreeing with the information, which Milton’s archangel Raphael -imparts to Adam, the father of mankind.[170] - - “O Adam, one Almighty is, from whom - All things proceed, and up to him return, - If not depraved from good, created all - Such to perfection, one first matter all, - Indued with various forms, various degrees - Of substance, and in things that live, of life; - But more refin’d, more spirituous, and pure, - As nearer to him plac’d or nearer tending, - Each in their several active spheres assign’d, - _Till body up to spirit work_, in bounds - Proportioned to each kind. So from the root - Springs lighter the green stalk, from thence the leaves - More aery, last the bright consummate flower - Spirits odorous breathes: _flow’rs and their fruit, - Man’s nourishment, by gradual scale sublim’d, - To vital spirits aspire, to animal, - To intellectual_; give both life and sense, - Fancy and understanding; whence the soul - Reason receives, and reason is her being, - Discursive, or intuitive ―― ―― ――.” - -This sort of hylozoism is more expanded in a particular system of -cosmogony of the same Vahed,[171] according to which the materials of -the world existed from the very beginning, which signifies from the -first appearance of _afrad_, “rudimental units.” We can never think -meanly of this opinion, when we find it coinciding with that of -_Leibnitz_ in our seventeenth century, contemporary of Mohsan Fani. -According to the celebrated German philosopher,[172] there exists -already an entirely organical preformation in the seeds of the bodies -which are born, and all souls had always pre-existed in some sort of -organized body, and shall after death remain united with an organic -whole; because in the order of nature souls are not likely to exist -entirely separated from any kind of body. In the eighteenth century -_Bonnet_, a great physiologist, maintained,[173] that all was -preformed from the beginning, nothing engendered; all organized bodies -were pre-existing in a very small compass in the germs, in which souls -may also pre-exist, these indestructible germs may sojourn in such or -such a body until the moment of its decomposition, then pass, without -the least alteration, into another body, from this into a third, and -so on; each of the germs incloses another imperishable germ, which -will be developed but in a future state of our planet, which is -destined to experience a new revolution. - -We see here the very same ideas, without any mutual communication, -entertained in the East and the West, in ancient and modern times. - -Vahed Mahmud combines his cosmogony with periods of 8000 years, eight -of which form a great cycle of 64,000 years, at the completion of -which the world is renovated. This sect is said to have been widely -spread in the world; in Persia the persecution of Shah Abbas forced -them to lie concealed. - - - [168] Vol. III. p. 1-11. - - [169] The Druids, among the ancient Britons, believed the - progressive ascent of the soul, beginning with the meanest - insect, and arriving through various orders of existence at - its human stage. The soul, according to its choice during - terrestrial life, progressed, even after death, in good and - happiness, or evil and misery; the virtuous could return to - earth and become prophets among mankind: in which belief the - ancient Britons agreed with the Indian Buddhists. - - [170] Paradise Lost, V. v. 470-488. - - [171] The Dabistán, vol. III. p. 17. - - [172] See his _Théodicée, édit. Amsterd. préface, pp._ - xxviii _et seq._ - - [173] See _La Palingénésie philosophique, ou Idées sur - l’État passé et sur l’État futur des Êtres vivans, par C. - Bonnet, de diverses Académies, Amsterd._ 1769, vol. I. pp. - 170. 198. 201. 204, etc., etc. - - -§ XI.――THE RELIGION OF THE ROSHENIANS. - -The ninth chapter of the Dabistán introduces to us _Mian Báyezid_, -who, born in the Panjáb, flourished in the middle of the sixteenth -century under the reign of Humayún, the Emperor of India. At first a -strict observer of Muhammedism, he abandoned afterwards the exterior -practices of this religion, and, devoting his mind to contemplation, -assumed with the character of a saint the title of a “master of -light;” his followers were called _Roshenians_, or “enlightened.” His -sayings, several of which are quoted in the Dabistán, express sound -reason, pure morality, and fervent piety. In the spirit of his nation -and time, and for self-defence, he took up arms against the Moghuls. -His history and that of his sons is carried to the middle of the -seventeenth century, the time of Mohsan Fani. - -Muhammed was the permanent type of a prophet, in whom the religious -and political character were united. The first Khalifs were all -military chiefs and religious men; the Koran furnished the rules of -foreign and internal policy, the final decision of every tribunal, the -inciting exclamation to combat and carnage, and a prayer for every -occasion. The founders of sects were frequently warriors, or, what in -Asia is generally the same, highwaymen and plunderers of caravans; -such was the just mentioned Miyan Bayezid, and many others. As -possessors of empires, they preserved the austere habits of ascetics: -they carried a sabre and a rosary, counted their beads and gave order -for battle; emaciated by fasts, covered with a woollen mantle, sitting -upon the bare ground, they disposed of empires and received the homage -of millions of men. - -The Mohammedans preserved their religion, as long as they were -militant: because all states of mental excitement are apt to support -each other. But, in solitary retirement, and in the precincts of -schools, the doctrine of Muhammed was put to the test of reason: now -began the struggle between religion and philosophy. Fearful to part at -once with early impressions and national feelings, attempts to -reconcile faith and reason were made; religious philosophers had -recourse to allegory, in order to rationalize strange and absurd -dogmas and practices; for the literal they substituted a mystical -sense; under arbitrary acceptations and interpretations, the -foundation of the doctrine itself disappeared, or was confounded with -some old dogma renewed, if not one entirely invented: in short, the -Muhammedan religion appeared to have survived itself; its presumed -period of one thousand years was believed to be completed under the -reign of Akbar. - - -§ XII.――THE RELIGION OF THE ILAHIAHS. - -Akbar was the greatest among the Moghul emperors of India. He began in -his fourteenth year a reign environed by war and rebellion. After -having vanquished all his enemies and established peace and security -around him, he turned his attention to religion. He soon found it -right to grant unlimited toleration to all religions in his empire. -Called the “shade of God,” he took the resolution to realise in -himself the otherwise vain title bestowed by slavish flattery upon all -sovereigns of Asia, and to imitate, according to his faculties, him -who bestows the blessings of his merciful providence on all creatures -without distinction. This he declared to his fanatic son Jehangir, who -did not conceal his discontent about the building of an Hindu temple -in Benares: “Are not,” said Akbar, “five-sixths of all mankind either -Hindus or unbelievers? If I were actuated by motives similar to those -which thou ownest, what would remain to me but to destroy them all?” - -The inquisitive emperor was acquainted with the religious history of -the Persian empire; he surrounded himself with men of all -religions――Muhammedans of all sects, Hindus, Jews, and Christians, as -well as with philosophers free from superstition; he liked to question -them all, and to encourage public polemical discussions in his -presence. The Sonnites and Shiâhs reviled reciprocally the chief -personages of their adherence, the three first khalifs and Ali; -Muhammed himself was not more spared than his companions and -successors. The errors of their doctrine, the vices of their -character, and the irregularities of their conduct were freely -exposed, severely blamed, and wittily ridiculed. If Muhammedism was -treated in such a manner, other religions could not claim more -indulgence. The dramatic form, which Mohsan Fani gives to the -religious controversies, is certainly curious; we can scarce suppose -his having known the dialogues of Lucian, nor is it in the least -probable that a late French author ever saw the Dabistán and took from -this book the idea of the twenty-first chapter of his celebrated work, -entitled “Problem of religious “contradictions.”[174] The object aimed -at by these three authors was the same; but their compositions differ -from each other as much as the genius and character of the Greeks, -French, and Persians, in whose language each of them respectively -wrote. In whatsoever point Mohsan Fani may yield to the Greco-Syrian, -or to the French author, he, certainly, I will venture to say, equals -them in force, boldness, and sincerity; and perhaps surpasses either -in pointed application of truth. His objections are not vague attempts -of witticism with the intention to ridicule: they are special and -serious, directed to real and patent falsehood or prejudice; he does -not fence with imaginary shadowy adversaries, but he strikes a present -and tangible foe; his style, never tainted by affectation, is plain -and blunt, such as becomes a reformer combating popular superstition. -The controversies, the scene of which is placed before the throne, or -rather tribunal, of Akbar, obtain the imperial sanction: Muhammedism -is condemned. - -Indeed, the emperor abrogated several practices of that religion to -which he had been devoted in his first years; he confined the -cultivation of science, as taken from the Arabs, to astronomy, -geography, medicine, and philosophy, and wished to prevent the waste -of life in futile and useless studies. At last, in the month of -December, A. D. 1579, twenty-six years before his death, he -substituted for the common profession of the Muhammedans the new: -“_There is no God but God, and Akbar his khalif_ (or deputy).” He -received from a great number of Amirs and distinguished persons the -voluntary agreement and consent to four conditions, namely, the -sacrifice of property, life, reputation, and religion, by entering -into the new religious pact, called _Ilahi_, “divine.” Moreover, he -introduced in lieu of the former, a new era, to begin from the death -of his father Huinayún, that is from the year of the Hejira 963, (A. -D. 1555): it was to be called _Ilahi_; the months were regulated -according to the mode of Irán, and fourteen festivals established in -concordance with those of Zoroaster’s religion. It was to this ancient -Persian creed, that he gave the preference, having been instructed in -its sacred tenets and practices by a learned fire-worshipper who had -joined him; and from books which were sent to him from Persia and -Kirmán. He received the sacred fire, and committed it to the faithful -hands of _Abu’l fazil_, his confidential minister: the holy flames of -Zardusht blazed again upon the altars of _Aria_, and, after a -separation of many centuries, Persians and Indians were reunited in a -common worship. - -As a proof of Akbar’s expansive mind, directed to all subjects which -may interest mankind, I shall mention his having sequestered a number -of children, before they could speak, from all communition with the -rest of society, in order to know whether they would form a language. -After fourteen years of seclusion, it was found that they were dumb: -“which made it evident,” says Mohsan Fani, “that language and letters -are not natural to man――that language is of a long date and the world -very ancient.”[175] - -In the third section of the tenth chapter, the author treats of the -influences of the stars upon the nether world, a very ancient -superstition, common to most nations. Every master of fame is said to -have worshipped particularly one of the stars; Akbar also received -divine commands with regard to them. We find, in a digression of this -section, curious historical details respecting the person of Jangis -khan, his adoration of the celestial bodies, epilepsy, and singular -superstition of combs. The great conqueror addressed to his sons the -most earnest admonitions to remain faithful to the religion of the -stars, to which their fortune was attached; but fifty-three years -after his death one of his successors and a great part of his nation -embraced Muhammedism. - -The fourth section of the tenth chapter contains important information -upon the administration of India. Akbar was the first of the Moghul -emperors who considered India as his native country, and directed his -best efforts to the amelioration of its condition. Exalted to the -highest rank, not only by his birth, but also by his personal -acquirements; assisted, besides, by a train of devoted and enlightened -servants, he could promise himself duration of the new religion, which -he had fondly labored to found. In vain: it disappeared with him. -Private persons, camel-drivers, and robbers, emerging from obscurity, -such as Muhammed, and others before and after that Arabian leader, -effected more than an emperor, with every possible advantage united in -and around his person! Human intellect was perhaps then satiated with -religion; its measure was full: it could not receive any more. In -fact, after Muhammed a number of sects, but no new religion, arose: in -this sense he may, with some appearance of truth, be called the last -of prophets, or the _Khátim_, “the seal of prophetism.” - -Akbar died in 1605 A. D., eight or ten years before the birth of the -author of the Dabistán. The latter passed his youth and manhood in -India, under the reigns of that emperor’s son, Jehangir, and -grand-son, Shah Jehan, and great-grandson Aurengzeb; and was in -personal connection with the latter’s brother, the religious -Darashukoh. Mohsan Fani had therefore good opportunities to be -informed of the events of their days. The religion of the _Ilahiahs_ -is properly the last of which he treats; for what relates to the -religions of the philosophers and Súfis, the subjects of the two last -chapters, are rather selections of all creeds and opinions, than -particular religions. It will be remembered that sir W. Jones supposed -these two last chapters not to have been written by the author of the -rest of the Dabistán, which I dare neither affirm nor deny.[176] - - - [174] _Les Ruines, ou Méditations sur les Révolutions des - Empires, par M. Volney, député à l’Assemblée nationale de_ - 1789, _Paris_, 1791. - - [175] Thus, our author coincides with lord Monboddo, who - showed that language is the slow product of necessity among - men linked in society. See his work _Of the Origin and - Progress of Language_, with the motto of Horace: - - “Mutum ac turpe pecus ―― ―― ―― ―― - Donec Verba quibus voces sensusque notarent - Nominaque invenere.” - - [176] See note, p. 6, n. 2. - - -§ XIII.――THE RELIGION OF THE PHILOSOPHERS. - -In the eleventh chapter, entitled “Of the religion of the Wise,” we -find it repeated that Philosophers were divided into two great -classes: “the Eastern and the Western.” The first are the -_Hushangians_, teachers of the Greeks until the time of Plato and -Aristotle; it is believed that their philosophy, modified and refined, -returned from Greece to Asia, and was received by the Muhammedan -scholars to be adapted to their own creed. Then took place a singular -mixture and confusion of Siderism, Judaism, Christianity, Muhammedism, -and all sorts of philosophic opinions. The cosmology of the -Hushangians was preserved. Seven special prophets, Ismâil, Jesus, -Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses, and Abraham, inhabit the seven -heavens,[177] to begin from that of the Moon, which is the lowest, and -rising upwards. If, in general, ten spheres are assumed,[178] they are -made the dwellings of so many intelligences. These ideas, so ancient, -as we have seen, were not disowned by eminent men in much later times. -The great Kepler, and after him Reaumur, believed that intelligences -or souls directed the movements of celestial bodies. Philosophers, -struck with the marvellous order of nature, were adverse to admitting -any mechanism――the very name of which frightened them; they therefore -called all occult powers souls or spirits. The same idea is adopted in -morality: whatever is praiseworthy is _angelic_, whatever blamable, -_satanic_. _From goodness arises an angel; from badness, a Satan_: so -said the prophet. Such simple and truth-like ideas were either -originally disguised under the vest of fiction; or existing traditions -of various origin were afterwards more or less ingeniously interpreted -as allegories. Thus, the ordinary names, expressions, tenets, -traditions, and practices of the Arabian prophet received symbolic, -allegoric, mystic interpretations. The _Kabah_ (the square temple of -Mecca), the holy centre of a living, circumambulating world, becomes -an emblem of the sun; its famous _black stone_, hollowed by the kisses -of the pious, represents Venus, the bright star on the borders of -heaven; _paradise_, its milk, honey, wine, _Tuba_ (tree of beatitude), -_Hur_ and _Kasur_ (nymphs and palaces) allude to intellectual -delights; _hell_, its _Zakum_ (tree of nature), and torments, are -explained as unavoidable consequences of depravity. Such -interpretations of the Muhammedans seem often to be like their bridge -_Sirat_, which connects heaven and hell, _sharp as a razor and thin as -a hair_. _Transmigration_, or rather reproduction, is admitted, -although not easily reconciled with the resurrection of the same body. -_The blasts of the trumpet_, and the whole scene of the resurrection -lose their materialism in a sort of rational allegory. _The other -world_ is the destruction and renovation of nature at the completion -and renewal of great periods of time, one of which comprised 360,000 -solar years. _Resurrection_ is “the wakening from the sleep of -heedlessness;” whenever an intellect attained that degree of -perfection, it has returned to its origin; it is restored to life; -this indubitably happens when nothing material exists: for, “where -there is no body, there is no death.” - -After having treated in this way the great dogmas of religion, the -Muhammedan philosophers found it not more difficult to rationalise -every circumstance respecting their prophet, he who obeyed the voice -of an invisible speaker. Did Muhammed really _split the moon_? Not in -the least――splitting is penetrating from the exterior into the -interior; the fissure of the moon typifies nothing else but the -renunciation of the external for the internal, which is “the superior -wisdom;” who possessed it more than the prophet (the peace of God be -with him!) he, the master of the _lunar sphere_? This, with the -Orientals, is the seat of human intelligence and perfection.[179] One -of their greatest scholars, or as they say “the learned of the world,” -known to us under the name of Avisenna, undertook to give a reasonable -account of Muhammed’s _ascent to heaven_, and framed a wonderful -romance of mystic spiritualism. He terminates by explaining how the -prophet, after his return from such a journey, could find his -bed-clothes still warm: “He had travelled with his mind, and when he -had completed his mental task, returned back to himself, and in less -than an eye’s twinkling recovered his former state; whoever knows, -understands why he went; and whoever knows not, looks in vain for an -explanation.” - -We may, not without interest, observe the natural process of the human -mind in reviewing and reforming conceptions, the original form of -which is not seldom entirely obliterated. The author of the Dabistán -does more than satiate the most inquisitive reader with allegoric, now -and then very fanciful, interpretations, which he continues, not -without repetitions of the same subjects, through the subsequent -chapter, upon which I am about to touch. Mohsan Fani, here as -elsewhere, fails not to adduce several philosophers of more ancient as -well as of his own times. Among the latter is _Hakim Kamran_, whose -free and sound opinions, about the origin of societies and the -prophets regulating them, will be read with some interest; as will -also the account of the books which Kamran read and explained, whence -the state of literature of those times may be inferred. - - - [177] See (vol. I. p. 293, note 1) the seven heavens under - particular names, as given in the Viraf-namah, and the - explanation of them. The seven prophets above-named are - somewhat differently distributed by other authorities. See - the notes to Avisenna’s explanation of Muhammed’s ascent to - heaven (vol. III. pp. 186. 189). I shall subjoin the - distribution of the seven prophet-kings, according to the - Desátir, and that of seven Jewish and Christian prophets, - according to the notes just referred to: - - PLANETS: ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO - THE DESATIR. MUHAMMEDAN AUTHORITIES. - - Saturn, Inhabited by Gilshaw. Inhabited by Abraham. - Jupiter, ―― Siamok. ―― Moses. - Mars, ―― Hushang. ―― Aaron. - The Sun, ―― Tahmuras. ―― Idris. - Venus, ―― Jemshid. ―― Joseph. - Mercury, ―― Feridun. ―― Jesus, St. John. - The Moon, ―― Minocheher. ―― Adam. - - [178] See the Cosmology of the Desátir, compared with that - of the modern Orientals, vol. III. p. 143, note. - - [179] According to the Occidental fabulists (see Ariosto’s - _Orlando Furioso_, canto XXXIV), the moon holds, in a strait - valley between two mountains, all that mortals lose here - below: fame, tears and sighs of lovers, lost time, futile - designs, vain desires, ancient crowns, all instruments of - deceit, treaties, and conspiracies, works of false coiners - and knaves, the good sense of every body, is there bottled; - all is there except folly, which remains below, and never - quits the earth: - - _Sol la Pazzia non v’è poca, nè assai, - Chè stà quaggiù, nè se ne parte mai._ - - -§ XIV.――THE RELIGION OF THE SUFIS. - -We arrive at the last chapter, “_Upon the Sufis_;” the most abstruse -of the twelve, but to which we are well enough prepared by the -contents of the former. - -Súfism, according to the Dabistán, belongs to all religions; its -adherents are known, under different names among the Hindus, Persians, -and Arabians; it appears to be nothing else but the rationalism of any -sort of doctrine. It could never be the religion of a whole nation; it -remained confined to the precincts of schools and societies. - -In the work before us we find it stated, that the belief of the pure -Súfis was the same as that of the Ashrakians (Platonists): we know -what the Muhammedans have made of it. According to the Imám Koshairi, -quoted by Jâmi,[180] the Muselmans, after Muhammed’s death, -distinguished the eminent men among them by no other title but that of -“the companions of God’s apostle.” These were, in the second -generation, called _Tábáyún_, “followers.” Afterwards the Islamites -were divided into divers classes; those among them who particularly -devoted themselves to the practice of religion, were named “servants -of God,” which name was, after the rise of numerous sects, claimed by -some from among all the different sectaries. It was then that the -followers of the orthodox doctrine, in order to preserve the purity of -their faith and the strength of their piety, assumed the name of -_Súfis_, which name became celebrated before the end of the second -century of the Hejira, that is, before the year 815 of our era. We may -believe one of the greatest scholars of Muhammedism, _Ghazáli_, who -ranged himself among the Súfis of his time towards the end of our -eleventh century, when he declares that in their society he found rest -in believing one God, the prophet, and the last judgment: this is the -faith of the _orthodox Súfis_. - -The assumption of any particular name carries men, who so distinguish -and separate themselves from their fellows, much further than they -themselves at first intended, particularly when the distinction and -separation are founded upon vague and indeterminate notions of -metaphysics. Under the impression, that there are secrets upon which -their salvation depends, they will stretch reason and imagination to -penetrate them. The Súfis are divided, according to their own -phraseology,[181] into three classes: “_the attracted_, _the -travellers_,” and “_the attracted travellers_;” the last of whom -combine the qualities of the two former. I will class them here, with -respect to their doctrine and manners, into five orders. - -1. The religious Súfis, in general, are occupied with something beyond -the limits of our natural consciousness; they exercise to the utmost -their inward organ or inner sense, and acquire a philosophic -imagination―― - - “The vision and the faculty divine.”[182] - -Such was the prophetic gift of Muhammed, and as long as they adhere to -his sayings, they are _the orthodox Súfis_, whom I have already -mentioned. - -2. Another order endeavor to comprehend, to fix, and to explain the -attributes of God; the holy object sanctifies their efforts; -unattainable, it exalts their souls above themselves; -incomprehensibility yields to the sacred power of self-intuition; -mysterious darkness to celestial light; their intellect, no more -terrestrial, “knows its own sun and its own stars;”[183] by continual -mental excitement they produce in themselves (according to their own -phraseology) a state of intoxication; in the full enjoyment of their -liberty, they approach the Supreme Being, and finally fancy an -intimate union with their Creator. These are the _mystic Sufis_. - -Man, to express his most fervent adoration of the Divinity, uses the -expressions by which he is wont to address the object of his most -tender affections; he has but the fire of earth to kindle in sacrifice -to heaven; and to elevate his soul to the Supreme Being, he makes -wings of the most lively sentiments which he ever experienced, and can -excite in himself. The intensity of inward feeling breaks loose in -outward demonstrations, gesture, song, and dance―― - - “Mystical dance, which yonder starry sphere - Of planets, and of fix’d, in all her wheels - Resembles nearest, mazes intricate, - Eccentric, intervolv’d, yet regular, - Then most, when most irregular they seem.”[184] - -Such in the poet’s eye is the dance of angels, but less refined must -be that of mortals, and really one sort of it strangely contrasts with -the usually grave deportment of bearded ample-robed Muselmans, from -Muhammed, who gave the example, down to the Durvishes of our days, -who, with frantic howls and vehement whirling motions, by ludicrous -and unseemly exhibition, destroy the whole gravity of inward -intention. Mohsan Fani adduces some instances of dancing, and quotes -throughout his work verses of mystical poetry upon Divine love, in -glowing expressions belonging to profane passion. It is known how -equivocal in their meaning they appear in the works of Jelal eddin -Rumi, Sâdi, Hafiz, and others.[185] - -3. It was not always vehement enthusiasm which was nourished in the -contemplation of one Supreme Being; mysticism, in Súfis of a milder -character, became _quietism: he to whom all things are one, who -draweth all things to one, and seeth all things in one, may enjoy -peace and rest of spirit_. I have quoted the words of an English -bishop, Jeremy Taylor, and might borrow similar passages from a more -ancient Christian bishop, Synesius,[186] for expressing a sort of -purely _spiritual pantheism_. But there is another, which seems not to -exclude materialism: the great cause from which the infinite series of -all material and spiritual existences originates, is enveloped, as it -were, with the vest of the universe; never known as to its essence, -but always felt in its manifestations; it is - - “All in all, and all in every part.”[187] - -In short, God is all, and all is God. This appeared not more -incomprehensible, but less complicated than any other system to the -_pantheistical Súfis_. - -4. After excessive efforts to transcend the limits of his nature, the -philosophic inquirer re-enters into himself, and coerces his futile -attempts by the precept: “Know thyself.” Having, as it were, recovered -himself, and feeling that every thing proceeds from the depth of his -mind, he sees himself in every thing; heaven and earth are his own; -“he demands from himself whatever he wishes;” for he is every thing; -he finds the God whom he sought in himself, in his own heart, and -says, “Who knows himself, knows God.” This is religious psychology, -the creed of the _egotist class of Súfis_. - -It is a fact which appears incredible, but is too well attested for -the admission of a doubt, that Súfis believed themselves to be gods, -and adhered to their belief, amid torments, until death.[188] This -psychological fact may be explained by considering that, according to -Súfism, God is nothing else but an idea of the highest perfection; -_he_, says our author, _from whose sight both worlds vanished, who in -the steps of right faith arrived at the rank of perfect purity, from -truth to truth, became God_; that is, he became one with his own idea -of perfection, which cannot be disputed to him; his divinity is an -illusion, but nothing else to him is the world; it is all and nothing, -dependent upon his own creation and annihilation. - -V. Transacting as it were directly with the Divine Being, the Súfis -throw off the shackles of the positive religion; pious rebels, they -neither fast nor make pilgrimages to the temple of Mecca, nay, they -forget their prayers; for with God there is no other but the soundless -language of the heart. From excess of religion they have no religion -at all. Thus is confirmed the trite saying that “extremes meet.” “_The -perfection of a man’s state_,” says Jami, “_and the utmost degree to -which saints may attain, is to be without an attribute, and without a -mark_.” The most fervent zeal sinks into the coldest indifference -about religion. The author of the Dabistán declares positively,[189] -that “whoever says that the Muselmans are above the Christians, does -not know the true Being.” But the whole creed of an _emancipated_ -(this is the name I give to one belonging to the fifth order of Súfis) -uniting in himself the egotist, pantheistic, and mystical Súfi will be -found in the following verses of Jelal-eddin Rúmi, before mentioned: - - [190]“O Moslims! what is to be done? I do not know myself; I - am neither Jew, nor Christian, nor Gueber, nor Moslim; I am - not from the East nor from the West; nor from land nor sea; - neither from the region of nature nor from that of heaven; - not from Hind nor China; not from Bulgaria nor Irak, nor - from the towns of Khorassan. I am neither water nor dust, - wind nor fire; not from the highest nor deepest, neither - self-existent nor created; I am not from the two worlds, no - son of Adam, not from hell nor from heaven, nor paradise. He - is the first, the last, the interior, the exterior; I know - but him, Yahu! Yahu! Menhu! I looked up, and saw both worlds - to be one; I see but one――I seek but one――I know but one. My - station is without space, my mark without impression; it is - not soul nor body; I am the soul of souls. If I had passed - one single day without thee, I would repent to have lived - one single hour. When one day the friend stretches out his - hand to me in solitude, I tread the worlds under my feet, - and open my hands. O Shams Tabrizi,[191] I am so intoxicated - here that, except intoxication, no other remedy remains to - me.” - -We know, by the preceding, what the Súfi is not; we shall now learn -what he is. - - “O Moslims! I am intoxicated by love in the world. I am a - believer――an unbeliever――a drunken monk; I am the Shaikhs - Bayazid, Shubli, Juneid, Abu Hanifa, Shafei, Hanbeli; I the - throne and tent of heaven, from the dust up to the Pleyads; - I am whatever thou seest in separation and enjoyment; I am - the distance of two bows-length[193] around the throne; I am - the Gospel, the Psalter, the Koran; I am _Usa_ and - _Lat_,[194] the cross, the _Bál_ and _Dagon_,[195] the - Kâbah, and the place of sacrifice. The world is divided into - seventy-and-two sects, but there is but one God; the - believer in him am I; I am the lie, the truth, the good, the - evil, the hard and the soft, science, solitude, virtue, - faith, the deepest pit of hell, the greatest torment of - flames, the highest paradise, Huri, Risvan,[196] am I. What - is the intent of this speech? Say it, O Shams Tabrizi! The - intended meaning is: I am the soul of the world.” - -After having sounded human nature in its depth, and viewed it in its -various forms, the Muhammedan philosophers conceived a high idea of -man in general, and call him _insan kamil_, “the perfect man.” He is -the reunion of all the worlds, divine and naturaf, universal and -partial; he the book, the pure, sublime, and venerable pages of which -are not to be touched, nor can be comprehended, but by those who have -thrown off the dark veils of ignorance. His soul is to his body what -the universal soul is to the great world, which bears the name of “the -great man.” - -Sir William Jones refers,[197] for a particular detail of Súfi -metaphysics and theology, to the Dabistán. These are given with a -particular phraseology, for which it is not easy to find corresponding -expressions in any European language; and which I have endeavored, to -the best of my power, to explain in my notes. A particular -signification is attached even to the most common terms, such as -state, station, time, duration, existence, non-existence, possibility, -presence, absence, testimony, sanctity, annihilation, etc., etc. -Besides, we find particular divisions and classifications: different -attributions and names of the Deity, the unity of which is to be -preserved in all; the division of spirits, prophetism, true and false -miracles, revelation, inspiration; four sorts of mankind, as many of -life and death; seven degrees of contemplative life, in each of which -degrees the Súfi sees a different color; four lights of God; four -sorts of manifestations, the sign of which is annihilation, called -“the science,” or “positive knowledge.” Further we meet with a -metempsychosis for the imperfect soul, and an _appearance_ for the -perfect; even with a geography of the invisible, the land of shades in -the towns of _Jabilkha_, _Jabilsa_, and _Barzah_, etc., etc.; and, in -addition, manifo I pinions of Asiatic philosophy. - -Here should be pointed out how Muhammedan or other Súfis may be -confounded with the Hindu Yogis or Sanyásis, although in reality -distinguishable from each other. The Yajur veda, and other sacred -books of the latter inculcate the precept that a man ought to acquire -perfect indifference concerning the whole exterior world, and in all -places to lay aside the notion of diversity. This is what a Yogi or -Sanyasi endeavors to attain: he quits every thing, house, wife, -children, even his _caste_; the world has no more right upon him than -he upon the world. In this he agrees with the Súfi; but the latter -generally aspires to the divine gift of inspiration, prophetism, -mystical enthusiasm, whilst the common state of a Yogi is that of -complete impassiveness or torpor. - -It is only towards the end of the Dabistán that Mohsan Fani mentions -particularly the _Sabeans_, whose religion was, from the very -beginning of the work, treated of under different names of the ancient -Persian religions, such as _Yezdanians_, Jamsaspians, etc., etc. - - - [180] See _Journal des Savans, décembre 1821_, pp. 721, 722, - _art. de Silvestre de Sacy_. - - [181] The _Sálik_, _Mejezub_, and _Mejezub Salik_. (See A - Treatise on Sufism, or Muhammedan Mysticism, by lieutenant - J. William Graham. In the Transact. of the Lit. Soc. of - Bombay, vol. I. p. 99, 1811. - - [182] Wordsworth. - - [183] “―― ―― ―― Solemque suum, sua sidera norunt.” - _Æneis_, c. VI. v. 641. - - [184] Milton’s Paradise Lost, V., v. 620-624. - - [185] The two first give their name to the mystic and moral - age; from 1203 to 1300; the third to that of the highest - splendor of Persian lyrical poetry and rhetoric, from 1300 - to 1397 of our era.――(See _Schöne Redekünste Persiens Von - Joseph Von Hammer, Wien_, 1818.) - - [186] He was born in Cyrene, in Africa, towards the end of - our fourth century, and died, about 430, bishop of - Ptolemais. - - [187] Cowley. - - [188] See vol. III. p. 291 n. 1. - - [189] See vol. III. pp. 123 n. 4; 293 n. - - [190] I follow the German translation of Baron von Hammer, - _loco cit._, p. 189. - - [191] Shams-eddin Tabrisi, whom Jelal-eddin names at the end - of nearly all his lyric poems, is said to have been the son - of Khuand Ala-eddin, chief of the Assassins (Ismâilahs). He - gained a great celebrity as a Súfi and a saint. From Tabriz, - from which town he took his surname, he came to Konia; there - Jelal-eddin chose him for his spiritual guide, and remained - attached to him all his life, which terminated A. D. 1262. - Shams-eddin survived him. The tombs of the master and - disciple, near each other in Konia, are even in our days - objects of veneration to pious Muselmans. - - [192] _Ibid._, p. 191, - - [193] The distance to which Muhammed approached God in - heaven. - - [194] Two Arabian idols, the Dusares and Allitta of - Herodotus. - - [195] Syrian deities. - - [196] The guardian of paradise. - - [197] In his Treatise on the mystical poetry of the Persians - and Hindus: vol. IV. of his Works, p. 232. - - -§ XV.――RECAPITULATION OF THE CONTENTS OF THE DABISTAN. - -Thus I have indicated the principal contents of the Dabistán. -Considering the philosophic opinions touched upon, we may remark that -truth, although in different times and places variously colored, -veiled, sometimes mutilated, often running into falsehood, is -nevertheless widely diffused, inasmuch as it reappears in the -concurring declarations of the greatest thinkers of all times. Thus, -among the notions of the Asiatics, we find implied the sense of the -ἐντελέχεια (_entelechia_) of Aristotle, this untranslatable word,[198] -which however can but signify “some continued and perennial -motion,[199] activity, moving force, perfection, principle of -things”[200]――we find _time_ and _space_, the necessary substrata of -all our notions, as taught by the Kantians――the want of substantial -reality in the objects of senses, maintained by the sceptics in -general――the prototypes and ideas of the Pythagoreans and -Platonists――the necessary connections of all things of the Stoics――the -atomic doctrine of Moschus, Leucippus, Democritus, Empedocles, -etc.――the universality of sensation and life of the Hermetites――the -preformation and pre-existence of the soul, alleged by Synesius, -Leibnitz, and others――the successive transformation, transmigration, -gradual perfection of beings; the periodical renovation of the world -professed by many Greek schools――the palingenesis of Bonnet――the _one_ -and the _all_ of Parmenides, Plotinus, Synesius, Spinoza, not to omit -the refined Egoismus of Fichte, etc., etc. I shall not proceed further -in the enumeration of opinions ascribed in the Dabistán to different -sects, and reproduced in the doctrine of celebrated ancient and modern -philosophers of Europe. Who will realize that criterion of true -philosophy indicated by the great Leibnitz, namely, that which would -at once collect and explain the fragments of truth scattered through -all, and apparently the most incongruous, systems? - -This is perhaps the prize to be gained, not by one mortal, but by a -series of generations, in a laborious task, so often interrupted and -recommenced, but never abandoned. The struggle of the human mind is -without term, but not without aim. We see two principal movers of -human intellect――PHILOSOPHY and RELIGION. The one employs reason as a -sufficient power for the solution of a solvable problem, which -comprehends knowledge, morality, and civilisation. The other distrusts -reason, and relies upon a supernatural power for the revelation of a -secret, or for the word of an enigma, which relates to a destination -beyond the bounds of this world. The philosopher, self-confident, is -liable to error for various reasons; but always capable of correction -and improvement, in the only possible way, that of self-activity, the -virtuous exertions of his faculties towards attainable perfection in -his whole condition. The religionist is exposed to deception by his -gratuitous faith in superhuman guidance, and, if mistaken, is -precluded from regress and improvement by his essential virtue, -fidelity; that is, the pious surrender of his soul to a spiritual and -mystical sovereignty. The Dabistán shows us more religionists than -philosophers; it is the school of sects, or rather that of inveterate -superstition, with which, in spite of the correctives which human -nature affords to its errors, the general character of the Asiatics -remains stamped, from time immemorial to the present day. - -Although the twelve chapters of the Dabistán bear the titles of as -many religions, the author says himself, at the end of his work, that -there are only _five_ great religions――those of the Hindus, Persians, -Jews, Nazareans, and Muselmans. He no where mentions the Egyptians nor -the Chinese, apparently because, in his times and long before, no -trace of the Egyptian religion existed, although it certainly had once -occupied a great circle of influence, and because the Chinese creed -was known to be Buddhism. - -The five religions mentioned constitute indeed so many bases, upon -which the whole creed of mankind has been, and remains founded. They -comprise, in general, _polytheism_ and _monotheism_. In all times and -places, the religion of the “Enlightened” was distinguished from that -of the “Vulgar;” the first as interior, being the product of universal -reason, was every where nearly uniform; the second, as exterior, being -composed of particular and arbitrary rites and ceremonies, varied -according to the influence of the climate, and the character, history, -and civilisation of a people. But, in the course of time, no religion -remained entirely the same, either in principle or form. Polytheism, -by mere simplification, tended to monotheism; this itself, in its -awful incomprehensibility, was modified according as it originated, or -assumed its notions, from anthropomorphism, hylozoism, spiritualism, -or pantheism. Nor did any religion remain simple and pure, as -proceeding from only one principle; all religious ideas, elemental, -sidereal, allegorical, symbolical, mystical, philosophical, and others -were mixed, as well as all sorts of worship interwoven. It is now -impossible to range in chronological order their rise and transition -into different forms. Still the one or the other of these kinds -predominated: thus _physiolatry_, or “the adoration of personified -nature,” in India; _astrolatry_, or “the worship of stars,” in Arabia -and Iran; none of the religions entirely disclaimed _monotheism_, -which was positively and exclusively professed in Judaism, -Christianity, and Muhammedanism. - -Magism and the three last-named religions were founded or modified by -holy personages, or prophets, that is, by individuals whose historical -existence in more or less remote times is positively fixed; Hinduism -alone acknowledges _Manu_ as an ideal or mythological person, whose -laws are however derived from Brahma himself. This may perhaps be -assumed as a proof of its remotest antiquity; and India, having been -less disturbed by invasions, and conquered in much later times by -foreign nations, preserved its institutes complete in their -originality. There is scarcely a tenet to be found in any other creed -which does not, at least in its germ, exist in the Hindu religion. - -It is most remarkable that, although men revered as divine messengers -of religion have existed, still the works containing the heaven-sent -doctrine are, either not at all or not incontestably, ascribed to -them; and in any case devolved upon posterity in a more or less -corrupted and mutilated state; so as to entail for ever an -inexhaustible subject of dispute, a heavy task for belief, and severe -trial of faith. If the Vedas are the best preserved, it is to no -general purpose, inasmuch as they are the least known and most -obscure. These facts the author of the Dabistán has set in full light, -and says,[201] as it were to tranquillise mankind with regard to the -multifarious inheritance of their prophets: “The varieties and -multitudes of the rules of prophets proceed only from the plurality of -names; and as in names there is no mutual opposition or contradiction, -the superiority in rank among them is only the predominance of a name. -To this I subjoin another passage, although it occurs in connection -with another subject:[202] “The time of a prophet is a universal one, -having neither priority nor posteriority――neither morning nor -evening:” that is, if I understand these words: As the same sun ever -shines upon us, so shines the same wisdom of all times, incorruptible -in its divine source. - -If we take a rapid comparative view of the principal features of the -five religions mentioned, we find _emanation of all beings, -intellectual and material, from one great source_, to be the -fundamental and characteristic dogma of Hinduism, established and -developed in the most explicit and positive manner. _The division of -supernatural beings in good and bad_ is adopted in the five religions, -but in Magism it is of a somewhat different origin: for Ahriman and -his host are not rebellious or fallen good genii; they are an original -creation. _A primitive innocence and posterior corruption_ is -generally believed; but by the Hindus as coming from riches and -abundance, by the other nations as caused by seduction of the bad -spirits. _The destruction of mankind by a deluge_ is no part of the -Persian creed; it occurs in the Indian as one of the past periodical -renovations of the world, which are to be followed by others, and is -also admitted by the Persians, whilst the Jews, Christians, and -Muhammedans believe a deluge not very ancient, as a punishment of -human depravity. _Incarnations of the Deity for the benefit of -mankind_, are believed only by Hindus and Christians; to the latter -belongs exclusively the dogma of _a propitiatory sacrifice. Human -souls, immaterial_, have pre-existence according to the Vedas and the -Zand-Avesta; in the first, as parts of the Divinity; in the latter, as -created in their _fervers_, or “pre-established ideals” at the -beginning of the world. _Transmigration_ is taught in the sacred books -of the Hindus and Persians. _The immortality of the soul, reserved to -future beatitude or damnation_, is maintained generally, less -positively, by the ancient Jews; the righteous are cheered by the -prospect of the same heaven, the wicked threatened by the same -punishments, which are held to be eternal by Christians and -Muhammedans; the Hindus and Persians place the future life in a long -series of purifications or _purgatories_, leading, howsoever late, -finally to heaven, to which, according to the first, the most perfect -only are admitted immediately after their terrestrial life, and are -not to be born again, except by their own choice. _The resurrection -with the same body, and the last judgment_, are among the most -essential tenets of the Magi, Christians, and Muhammedans; the other -world is vaguely represented among the ancient Hebrews. It is just to -attribute to the Persians exclusively one of the most beautiful -personifications that was ever imagined:[203] the soul of the deceased -meets at the bridge of eternity an apparition either of an attractive -or repulsive form; “Who art thou?” asks the uncertain spirit, and -hears the answer: “I am thy life.” - -Although the variety and multitude of human conceptions may appear -boundless, yet they may perhaps be reduced to a few fundamental -principles. In general, there is one object common to all sorts of -religion: this is to detach man from gross sensual matters, and to -accustom him to hold converse with holy supernatural beings, guides to -salvation, _omnipresent_ witnesses of all his actions, remunerators of -good, punishers of bad deeds; the belief in such beings, one or more, -is in fact the most essential support of morality, which, being fixed -in each individual, insures the peace and happiness of all. In short, -the most important object of all religion is to ennoble, refine, and -sanctify man’s inmost thoughts and feelings, as well as his exterior -actions. No wonder, that the same virtues are recommended by all -religions. - -But, if these virtues be the same as to names, there is a great -difference as to their practical application. Thus, the Hindus, -tending excessively to the extinction of sensual propensities, and a -contemplative life, destroy spontaneity, and produce apathy. The -Persians recommend more practical virtues. Both nations, however, as -well as the Jews and Muhammedans, are subject to a great number of -dietetical and ritual observances, which divert them from useful -activity, confine their practical sense, and render inert the innate -perfectibility, the most precious prerogative of mankind. Among all -the Asiatic nations, considered in this work, theocracy, that is, the -junction of the religious and civil laws, doubles the power of -despotism, and commands equally the spiritual and material, the -present and the future world. The Western Christians were in the -course of time fortunate enough to modify the _Asiatic_ morals, to -enlarge the circle of civilization, and to open to themselves a -boundless prospect of progressive knowledge, morality, and happiness. - -Finally, there is one idea common as an adjunct to the five religions -of mankind. Common are their failings, common their sufferings, common -is also their consolation――hope. Always regretting a purity, -simplicity, and independence, supposed to have been lost in the past, -because not to be found any where in the present, and never exempt -from oppression, men look to the future, and listen gladly to the -promise of universal reform and restoration to one rule, which each -religionist says, will be his own, to be effected among the Hindus by -_Kalki_, an incarnation of Brahma[204], among the other nations by the -reappearance of their respective _prophet_, _Messiah_, _Mahdi_. - - “And then shall come, - When the world’s dissolution shall be ripe, - With glory and pow’r to judge both quick and dead, - To judge th’ unfaithful dead, but to reward - His faithful, and receive them into bliss, - Whether in Heav’n or Earth, for then the Earth - Shall all be Paradise.”[205] - - - [198] Hermelaus Barbaro relates that, finding the - interpretation of that word so difficult, he one night - invoked the devil for assistance. The old scoffer did not - fail to appear, but told him a word still more unintelligible - than the Greek. Hermolaus at last brought forth the strange - term _perfectihabia_, which, I think, nobody adopted. - - [199] Cicero circumscribes the word: _Quasi quandam - continuatam motionem et perennem_ (_Tusc. Quæst._, I. 10). - Budæus translates it _efficacia_.――(On this subject see - _Thesaurus Græcæ linguæ ab Henr. Stephano constructus_, new - edit., Paris, 1838.) - - [200] Leibnitz (Op. t. II. p. II. p. 53; t. III. p. 321), - after having said, that to the material mass must be added - some superior principle, which may be called _formal_, - concludes: “This principle of things, whether we call it - _entelechia_, or ‘force,’ is of no matter, provided we - recollect that it can only be explained by the notion of - force.” - - [201] Vol. III. p. 276. - - [202] _Ibid._, p. 289. - - [203] Vol. I. p. 286. - - [204] Vol. II. p. 24, and _Vishnu-purana_, transl. of - Wilson, p. 484. - - [205] Milton’s Paradise Lost, XII. v. 458-464. - - - - -PART III. - -CONCLUSION. - - -§ GENERAL APPRECIATION OF THE DABISTAN AND ITS AUTHOR. - - -Mohsan Fáni collected in the Dabistán, as I hope to have shown by a -rapid review of its principal contents, various important information -concerning religions of different times and countries. His accounts -are generally clear, explicit, and deserving confidence; they agree in -the most material points with those of other accredited authors. Thus, -to quote one more instance, the accuracy of his topographic -information relative to the marvellous fountain in Kachmir is in the -main confirmed by that published by Bernier who had visited the -country. Our author enlivens his text by interesting quotations from -the works of famous poets and philosophers, and by frequent references -to books which deserve to be known. I beg to mention the _Tabsaret al -âvam_, “Rendering quick-sighted the Vulgar,” which he regrets not to -have before his eyes. His whole work is interspersed with anecdotes -and sayings, characteristic of individuals and sects which existed in -his times. To what he relates from personal observation or other -sources, he frequently adds reflections of his own, which evince a -sagacious and enlightened mind. Thus, he exhibits in himself an -interesting example of Asiatic erudition and philosophy. - -The Dabistán adds, if I am not mistaken, not only a few ideas to our -historical knowledge, but also some features to the picture which we -hitherto possessed of the Asiatics. May I be permitted to quote a -remarkable instance relative to the latter? We are wont to speak of -the inherent apathy and stationary condition of the Muhammedans, as an -effect of their legislation. Although this general idea of their -character and state be not unfounded, yet it is carried to such an -exaggerated degree, that we think them incapable of progress. We may -therefore be astonished to find in the work before us[206] a maxim -such as this: “He who does not proceed, retrogrades,” and beside a -declaration attributed to Muhammed himself: “He whose days are alike -is deceived.” Our author, it is true, interprets it in the particular -point of view of an orthodox Súfi, who thinks that there is a degree -of mental perfection, beyond which it is impossible to rise: this was, -he says, the state of Muhammed, the prophet, always the same, from -which no ascent nor descent was possible, the perfection of unity with -God, higher than whom nothing can be: _the blackness beyond which no -color can go_. With the exception of these fits of mysticism, now and -then occurring, it is just to say that Mohsan Fani most commonly leans -to the side of progressive reform. - -For the just appreciation of his work, I think it necessary to point -out another opinion, which, very generally entertained, requires to be -considerably modified: I mean that which attributes to the Muhammedans -an unrestrained intolerance in religious matters. On that account, I -beg to refer directly to the book, which to them always was the sacred -source of all rules and precepts of conduct――the Koran. In this -astonishing farrago of truth and falsehood, we find here and there a -great extent of toleration. In fact, Muhammedism was eclectic in all -the religious ideas of its time, Magian, Jewish, and Christian. -Muhammed avowed himself to be “a man like every body;”[207] he did not -pretend, that “the treasures of God were in his power,” nor did he say -“that he knew the secrets of God, neither that he was an angel; no; he -thought only to follow what was revealed to him,”[208] so much every -body else may say and think, He professed his good-will to Christians, -“as inclinable to entertain friendship for the true believers;[209] he -exhorted his followers not to dispute, but in the mildest manner,[210] -against those who have received the Scripture, and wished to come to a -just determination between both parties, that they all worshipped not -any but God.”[211]――“Abraham,” said he, “was neither a Jew nor a -Christian, but one resigned unto God (Moslim); excellence is in the -hand of God; he gives it unto whom he pleaseth.”[212]――Still more; the -prophet seems to give a general license to the professors of every -religion to observe certain rites about which he prohibits all -disputes;[213] nay, he declares: “If the Lord had pleased, verily, all -who are in the earth would have believed in general. Wilt thou -therefore forcibly compel men to be true believers? No soul can -believe but by the permission of God.”[214] - -Although the Arabian prophet and his followers too often gave by their -conduct a strong denial to these principles, still the existence of -them in the Koran was a sanction to all those who were disposed to -profess them in words and actions. Such sentiments of religious -toleration are in accordance with similar ones expressed in many -Christian moral treatises, but in none of the latter do I remember to -have read: “that the diversities of religions distributed among -nations, according to the exigency of each, are manifestations of the -divine light and power, and that these various forms, by which God’s -inscrutable essence may be viewed by glimpses, are means of possessing -eternal beatitude, whilst here below the acquisition of knowledge is -sufficient to insure to mankind the enjoyment of concord, friendship, -and agreeable intercourse.”[215] - -These appear to be the maxims adopted by the Súfis, and particularly -by those among them who, under Akbar, professed to be _Ilahians_. The -creed of this class exists in our days, although the name has not -survived. To these we may suppose, if to any, Mohsan Fáni belonged. If -we could agree with Erskine that “he was in strict intimacy with the -sect of enthusiasts by whom the Desátir was venerated,” we should -still be obliged to avow, that his enthusiasm had not in the least -influenced his free judgment upon religious matters. His imagination -although justly exalted by sublime notions of the Divinity, certainly -appears now and then bewildered by the mysterious action of unknown -causes; but on other occasions pointing out, in a satirical vein, so -many follies, absurdities, and extravagances prevailing among mankind, -he seems to laugh at all enthusiasm whatsoever, his own not excepted. -In general, there breathes in his words a spirit of independence, -which would command attention even among us in the accustomed circle -of long-established liberty. His boldness in religious controversy -startled even sir W. Jones so much that, in characterising it by the -harsh term of _blasphemy_, the English judge appears for a moment -ready to plead for the abettors of popular superstition, who stood -confounded before the tribunal of the philosophic Akbar. - -I shall however not conceal, that Mohsan Fani sometimes paid tribute -to the prevailing ignorance and inveterate prejudices of his time, and -above all, to the sovereign power of early impressions; nor that, -although in many respects he offers in himself an honorable exception -to the general character of his countrymen, he now and then confounds -himself with them. Thus, he was far from being above all popular -superstition. The Asiatic, from the dawn of his reason, is nourished -with the marvellous, trained to credulity, and prepared for mysticism, -the bane of practical life; in short, he imbibes from his infancy a -superstition from which he never frees himself, always prone to -interpret every unusual phenomenon as a miracle. No sort of study -enables him to correct his first impressions, or to enlighten his -ignorance; natural history and experimental philosophy are not -cultivated in Asia. If not an agriculturist, mechanic, tradesman, or -soldier, he devotes himself to the intricacies of metaphysics, and -very commonly to a contemplative life; he becomes an ascetic. Thus he -knows no social life embellished by the refinement of mutual sympathy, -nor the noble vocations of a citizen who lives――with more than one -life in himself, in others, and in the whole community. Such being the -general state of Asia, let us not wonder that Mohsan Fani believed -some strange stories of miracles, and viewed with astonishment tricks -of jugglers, which he relates with serious credulity, strangely -contrasting with his usual good sense, sagacity, and judgment. Thus, -he presents to us a man standing on his head with his heels in the air -during a whole night; others restraining their breath many hours, and -remaining immoveable during two or three days; he speaks of the -miraculous effects of austerity, such as being in different places at -the same time; resuscitating the dead; understanding the language of -animals, vegetables, and minerals; walking on the surface of water, -and through fire and air; commanding the elements; leaving and -reassuming the body; and the like. But let us not forget that such -stories were told elsewhere, and in Europe, even so late as the time -in which the Dabistán was written. - -Further, although generally moral and judicious in his sentences, -grave and austere in his views, fervent and exalted in devout -contemplation, our author now and then happens to use the language of -ribaldry and indecency, which deserves serious reprobation. We shall -however remark that taste, or the sense of propriety in words and -expressions among Asiatics differs, as much as their general -civilisation, from ours. From religious austerity they banished the -elegant arts, as objects of sensuality; but, as they could not stifle -this essential part of human nature, they only prevented its useful -refinement; they clipt the delicate flower, but left the brute part of -it: hence the grossness of their jokes, expressions, and images. “To -sacrifice to the graces” is, among them, not understood at all, or -thought an abomination. But they cannot be said to _violate_ laws -which they do not know; the offence which they give from want of taste -and decency, is purely unintentional, and cannot with them have that -evil effect which, among us, it would be likely to produce. - -As to the general style of the Dabistán――it is only in the original -text itself, that it can be justly appreciated. It will perhaps -sufficiently appear from our translation that it distinguishes itself -favorably among other Oriental works with which it may be compared. -The diction is generally free from their usual bombast; it is commonly -clear, and when obscure to an European reader, it is so on account of -the strangeness and abstruseness of the matter treated. As to form――if -judged according to the rules of Western criticism, the work of Mohsan -Fani may be found deficient in the distribution and arrangement of -matter; there are useless repetitions, incoherences, disorder, abrupt -digressions, and excess, sonetimes of prolixity, at others of -concision. Although we have reason to praise him for generally naming -the source from which he drew his information, still we can but -regret, now and then, his not sufficiently authenticating nor -explaining the particulars which he relates. Thus we could wish him to -have been more explicit concerning the Desátir. Upon the whole, we -cannot accuse him of not having performed what, in his time and -circumstances, was hardly possible, and what hitherto no Asiatic -author has achieved. We ought to keep in mind how much, with respect -to the perfection of literary publications, we owe solely to the art -of printing, the practice of which, by its own nature, necessitates -and facilitates a manifold revision and correction of the text, which -otherwise could hardly take place. This alone sufficiently accounts -for the frequent defects even of the best manuscript works. - -Striking an equitable balance between faults and excellencies, and -with particular regard to the abundance of curious, useful, and -important information, I shall not hesitate to express my sincere -persuasion, that the Dabistán was worthy of the eulogy bestowed by the -great Orientalist who first brought it into public notice. - - - [206] Vol. III. p. 287. - - [207] The Koran, ch. XVIII. v. 100. - - [208] _Ibid._, ch. VI. v. 49. - - [209] _Ibid._, ch. V. vv. 86. 88. - - [210] _Ibid._, ch. XXIX. v. 45. - - [211] _Ibid._, ch. III. v. 57. - - [212] _Ibid._, vv. 61. 66. 67. - - [213] _Ibid._, ch. XX. v. 66. - - [214] _Ibid._, ch. X. vv. 99. 100. - - [215] See Epilogue. - - - - -§ II.――NOTICE CONCERNING THE PRINTED EDITION, SOME MANUSCRIPTS, AND -THE TRANSLATIONS OF THE DABISTAN. - -It is well known, that the only printed edition of the Dabistán which -exists is due to the press of Calcutta. At the end of the work will be -found the Epilogue of the editor, _Moulavi Nazer Ushruf_, a learned -Muhammedan gentleman of the district of Juanpur, who was for many -years employed in judicial offices in the district of Burdwan, and in -the court of Sudder Diwani Adawlet, in Calcutta. These particulars -were communicated to me by the favor of the honorable gentleman whose -name the said editor mentions in his Epilogue with encomium, the -sincerity of which can certainly not be questioned: it was William -Butterworth Bayley, at present director and chairman of the Honorable -East India Company. It was he, a distinguished Persian scholar, who -directed and superintended the edition of the Dabistán. Upon the -strength of his authority I am enabled to add, that the printed copy -was the result of a careful collation of several manuscript copies of -this work. One was obtained from Delhi (as mentioned in the epilogue), -and another from Bombay; two or three were in the possession of -natives in Calcutta. Although these, as it is more or less the case -with all manuscripts, procurable in India, were defective, yet we may -believe the assurance given by the editor, that “the doubts and faults -have been as much as possible discarded, and the edition carried to a -manifest accuracy.” This is confirmed by the fact, that only a few -discrepancies from the printed edition were found in two other -manuscripts, which were in England at the disposition of the late -David Shea for the translation of the first part of the Dabistán. Nor -did I find frequent deviations from the printed text in the copy which -was transcribed for me in Calcutta from a manuscript, procured from -the library of the king of Oude. Mutilated in many places, and -imperfect as is this latter, it afforded me nevertheless a few -acceptable readings. I was obliged to content myself with the -assistance of this only manuscript for the translation, as several -circumstances, among which was the lamented death of the earl of -Munster, prevented me from obtaining the use of other manuscript -copies. All circumtances considered, I do not hesitate to say, that -the printed edition of the Dabistán is more correct than any of the -manuscript copies which can be found; we have only to regret that its -typography, owing to the then imperfect state of the Oriental press in -Calcutta, is so irregular, as to be scarce entitled to any preference -over the common sort of Persian manuscripts. - -The English translation of the Dabistán was begun some time before the -year 1835, by David Shea, one of the professors of Oriental languages -at Hayleybury. He was in his early years distinguished in the -university of Dublin for his classical attainments, and remained -devoted to literature in all the various circumstances of his life. It -was not for, nor in, India――the great object and school of English -students――but in Malta, from peculiar inducement, that, by uncommon -application, he acquired the Arabic and Persian languages. After his -return to England, having been attached to the Hayleybury college――I -should not fail to add to his eulogy by saying, that he had before won -the kind interest and recommendation of sir Graves Haughton――and -having become a member of the committee of the Oriental Translation -Fund, he earned the applause of Orientalists in England, and on the -continent of Europe, by his faithful and spirited translation of -Mirkhond’s history of the early kings of Persia. Undertaking the -translation of the Dabistán, he was undoubtedly preparing to himself a -new success, the full realisation of which he was not permitted to -enjoy; the last date in his manuscript copy, in which he was wont to -mark the progress of his labor, was April 22, 1835. From this day he -appears to have withdrawn his hand from the Dabistán, and too soon -after――I shall be permitted to use the very words of the author whom -he was translating:[216] - - “He sought the stores of holy liberty, - A resting place on high, and soar’d from hence - Beyond the bounds of heaven, earth, and time.” - -It was in the beginning of the year 1837 that I was honored by the -earl of Munster, the vice president of the Royal Asiatic Society of -Great Britain and Ireland, with the proposal of completing and editing -the English Dabistán. Having already several years before been -occupied with the same work whilst pursuing my Indian studies, I was -so much the more prompted to accept the proffered honor. Engaged -however as I then was in publishing my French translation of the first -six books of the _Rajatarangini_ from the Sanscrit, I could not begin -the new work before 1841. This delay was the cause of my being -deprived of the desired honor and satisfaction of presenting my -translation to the earl of Munster, who while in the full enjoyment of -life, welcomed with a benevolent interest every contribution, however -small, to the general diffusion of Oriental history and literature; he -had accepted in Paris my Dedication a short time before his death; it -remains to me to consecrate, with a profound feeling of regret and -veneration for departed worth, the English Dabistán to his memory. - -I took charge of the manuscript copy of David Shea’s version, which -had been carried to page 201 of the printed Calcutta edition.[217] In -this there were only a few omissions to be supplied, and no other -rectifications to be made but those which a second review would have -suggested to my learned predecessor himself; his notes, and those -which I thought necessary to add, are marked each with the initials of -our respective names. - -If I found little to change, I had much to imitate in David Shea’s -translation――his faithfulness and clearness. By faithfulness I -understand not only expressing truly the sense, but also keeping -unaltered the words, figures, images, and phrases of the original, as -it is in them that the author’s national and individual peculiarity is -manifested. This sort of faithfulness may roughen or hamper the -phrase, destroy the elegance of style, and even offend good taste, but -by it alone we shall not only know, as I have just observed, the -genius of the foreign writer, but also satisfy the exigencies of -philology, which is one of the main purposes of translations not -undertaken as mere exercises of improvable eloquence. - -An author will not employ more or other words than those he thinks -necessary for being understood by readers of his own nation, religion, -school; he writes, for instance, as a Muhammedan for Muhammedans, a -Súfi for Súfis. But a translator must do his best for uniting -faithfulness with clearness, the indispensable condition of any speech -or writing; he must add what is required for illustrating the original -text, and thus submit to a charge, now and then heavier than he can -bear. - -Under the necessity of expounding the translation by notes, I was not -actuated by the ambition of being new, but only by that of being as -useful as my means permitted, that is, by endeavoring to spare the -reader time and trouble to look for dates and biographical notices of -the persons, the situation of the places, and the explanation of the -technical terms which occur in the text. Orientalists know the -difficulty of rendering in a European language the phraseology of the -Asiatic theology and philosophy. The Dabistán presents, besides the -Sanscrit, a confusion of Arabic and Persian technical expressions; -some of them have a very comprehensive signification, and for the sake -of clearness must be rendered by different terms in different places; -other expressions have at times a particular sense, and are at other -times to be taken in the common acceptation; the same terms must be -translated by different words, and different terms by the same; -finally, the matter treated of is frequently so abstruse in its nature -that professed philosophers have not yet been able to agree upon some -of the most important questions. I can therefore but apprehend that I -may not have thoroughly understood, and must confess that I have not -translated, to my own satisfaction, more than one passage relative to -Indian doctrines, and to the Muhammedan scholastic philosophy. - -The Sanscrit names and terms of Indian mythology, theology, and -philosophy are much corrupted by the Persian spelling; I have -endeavored to restore them to their original forms. I thought it right -to adduce in most cases the Sanscrit, Arabic, or Persian word at the -same time in Roman as well as Devanagari, or Arabic characters, with -its interpretation. I followed the rule proposed by sir William Jones -for writing oriental words in Roman characters, as often as I took -these words from a Sanscrit, Persian, or Arabic text; but from works -written in a European language, I was generally obliged to copy the -spelling of Oriental names: on which account, in my notes, a -regretable inequality of orthography could not be avoided. - -The Dabistán not only touches upon most difficult points of science -and erudition, but also comprises in its allusions and references -nearly the whole history of Asia. In observing this, I am necessarily -at the same time pointing to the many deficiencies which will be found -in my attempts to comment and illustrate so comprehensive and -diversified a text. The best advantage which a man obtains at the -termination of an arduous work, is to have enabled himself to make it -better, if he could begin again; but he can but humbly submit to the -decrees of an all-ruling power, which bestows upon each mortal only a -certain measure of faculties and of time. - -Desirous to fulfil my task to the best of my abilities, I did not -neglect to consult every translation of any part of the Dabistán which -had been published. I have already mentioned, in this preface,[218] -that Gladwin edited the Persian text of a part of the first chapter -with an English version which was worthy of his reputation as an -excellent Orientalist. Every thing that came from the pen of the late -doctor Leyden deserved attention. I had before my eyes his translation -of chapter IX., on the religion of the Roshenian.[219] I did not -neglect the abridged interpretation of the religious controversies -held before Akbar, given in form of a dialogue by the learned and -ingenious Vans Kennedy.[220] I perused with due regard the -explanations which the illustrious Silvestre de Sacy furnished of some -passages of the Dabistán[221] since this work became known to him in -1821, as well as the remarks cursorily made upon it by some -Orientalists. - -I did not fail also to profit by the advantages which my residence in -Paris, and my connections with distinguished cultivators of Oriental -literature, could afford me on behalf of my translation. It is my duty -to acknowledge the services which I received from the kindness of M. -Garcin de Tassy, professor of Hindostanee, whose intimate acquaintance -with Arabic and Persian literature in general, and with Muhammedan -theology in particular, is attested by several esteemed works which he -has published. The many Arabic passages, disseminated in the Dabistán, -have mostly been revised, interpreted, and referred to the Koran, by -him. M. Eugène Burnouf, professor of Sanscrit, is never in vain -consulted concerning that part of ancient philology in which he has -acquired a most particular and eminent distinction. I also constantly -experienced the most friendly readiness to tender me information, when -required, in M. Julius Mohl and baron Mac Guckin de Slane, as well as -in M. Reinaud, professor of Arabic, attached to the Royal Library, a -most distinguished conservator and most complaisant communicator of -the valuable manuscripts under his special charge. I beg these -honorable gentlemen to receive my sincerest acknowledgments. - - - [216] See vol. I. p. 131. - - [217] In the English transl. to vol. II. p. 85. - - [218] P. vi. - - [219] See _As. Res._, vol. XI. pp. 406-420; Calcutta quarto - edit.; and vol. III. pp. 26-42 of this work. - - [220] See Transact. of the Bombay Lit. Soc., vol. II. pp. - 242-270, and vol. III. of this work, p. 50 _et seq._ - - [221] See _Journal des Savans, février 1821_, Review of the - Desátir; and December, 1821, and January, 1822, Review of - Thulok’s work upon Súfism. - - - - -THE DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS. - - - - -THE DABISTÁN, - -OR, - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS. - - - [222]In the name of the bountiful and merciful God. - - Verse.[223] - - “O Thou, whose name is the beginning of the book of the children - of the school, - Thy remembrance is to the adult amongst the Sages the torch of - their nightly retirement; - Without thy name the tongue fails the palate of the barbarians, - Although they know the language of Arabia;[224] - _Having_ the heart in the body _full_ of thy remembrance, the - novice, as well as the adept, in contemplation - _Becomes_ a supreme king of beatitude, and the throne of the kingdom - of gladness. - Whatever road I took, it joined the street _which leads_ to Thee; - The desire _to know_ thy being is also the life of the meditators; - He who found that there is nothing but Thee, has found the _final_ - knowledge; - The móbed is the teacher of thy truth, and the world a school.” - -Blessing without limit to the mighty Being, the Lord of existence, the -rider upon the sun of the celestial sphere _which is_ the eye-witness -_of his glory_; _to Him_ whose servant is Saturn, Baharam (Mars) the -messenger, Jupiter the star, _the herald of good fortune_, Venus the -slave; _to Him who is_ the ornament of the throne of the empire of the -faith, and the crown of divinity of the kingdom of truth.” - - Masnavi.[225] - - “The being to whom the holy God said: - If not thee, I would not have created the worlds;[226] - That primitive wisdom and that soul of the world; - That man of spirit, and that spirit of man. - Blessing be also to the Khalifs of the faithful, and to the - Lords of the Imáns of the faith.”[227] - - Rabaâi (quatrain). - - “The world is a book full of knowledge and of justice, - The binder of which book is destiny, and the binding the - beginning and the end; - The suture of it is the law, and the leaves are the religious - persuasions; - The whole nation is formed of its disciples, and the apostle is - the teacher.” - -In this book, called “The Dabistan,” is contained something of the -knowledge and faith of past nations, of the speeches and actions of -modern people, as it has been reported by those who know what is -manifest, and see what is concealed; as well as by those who are -attached to exterior forms, and by those who discern the inward -meaning, without omission, and diminution, without hatred, envy and -scorn, and without taking a part for the one, or against the other -side of the question. - -This work is composed of several chapters. - - CHAPT. I. treats of the religion of the _Pársián_. - CHAPT. II. of the religion of the _Hindus_. - CHAPT. III. of the religion of the _Tabitían_. - CHAPT. IV. of the religion of the _Yahud_ (Jews). - CHAPT. V. of the religion of the _Tarasás_ (Christians). - CHAPT. VI. of the religion of the _Muselmáns_. - CHAPT. VII. of the religion of the _Sádakíah_. - CHAPT. VIII. of the religion of the _Váhadiáh_ (Unitarians). - CHAPT. IX. of the religion of the _Rósheníán_. - CHAPT. X. of the religion of the _Ilahíah_. - CHAPT. XI. of the religion of the Wise (Philosophers). - CHAPT. XII. of the religion of the _Súfiah_. - - - [222] The words in italic are not in the Persian text. - - [223] The five distichs are in the metre called هزج, - “hazaj,” composed of the following feet: مفعول مفاعيل فاعيل - فعولن. See _M. Garcin de Tassy, author of the “Mémoire sur - le système métrique des Arabes, adapté à la langue - Hindoustani.”_ 1832. - - [224] This distich contains the same idea as the following - of Nizámi: - هر که نه گويا بتوخاموش به - هر چه نه ياد تو فراموش به - - “It is better not to speak than to speak of another but - thee; it is better to leave in oblivion what does not remind - of thee.” _Quoted in the “Rudimens de la langue - Hindoustani,” by the author just mentioned (p. 16 and 25)._ - - [225] The two distichs are in a metre, which is a variety of - the _hazaj_, before mentioned, and is composed as follows: - مفعول مفاعلن فعولن. - - [226] This verse expresses the same idea as the following - hemistich of the Arabic poem, called Borda, and composed by - Sharf-eddin-al Búsíri: - - لولاه لما تخرج الدنيا من العدم - - “Without him the world would never have come forth from - nothingness.” This is one of the celebrated traditions - respecting Muhammed, contained in the following words: - - لولاک ما حلقت الافلاک - - “If it had not been for thee (Muhammed), the worlds would - never have been created.” This encomiastic expression has - been reproduced in several other poems, Arabic, Persian, and - Hindostani. _See upon this subject, “Les aventures de - Kamrup,” p. 146-147, and “Les OEuvres de Wali,” p. 51-52, - traduites de l’Hindoustani, par M. Garcin de Tassy._ - - [227] The manuscript of Oude has here: محسن فانی گوبه, - “Mohsen Fáni says:” which would leave no doubt upon the name - of the author of this book, if these words were not a mere - addition of the copyist. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -OF THE RELIGION OF THE PARSIÁN. - - -This chapter is divided into fifteen sections. - - SECT. I. of the religious tenets and ceremonies of the _Sipásíán_. - SECT. II. of the distinguished men amongst the _Sipásíán_. - SECT. III. of the ordinances contained in the book revealed to _Abád_. - SECT. IV. of the _Jemsháspián_. - SECT. V. of the _Samrádíán_. - SECT. VI. of the religion of the _Khodáníán_. - SECT. VII. of the tenets of the _Rádîan_. - SECT. VIII. of the religion of the _Shídrangíán_. - SECT. IX. of the belief of the _Pykeríán_. - SECT. X. of the tenets of the _Miláníán_. - SECT. XI. of the doctrines of the _Aláríán_. - SECT. XII. of the religious opinions of the _Shídábíán_. - SECT. XIII. of the religion of the _Akhshíán_. - SECT. XIV. of the belief of the _Zerdushtián_. - SECT. XV. of the doctrine of the _Mazdakíán_. - - - - -SECTION I. - -[228]Here commences the history of the tenets and ceremonies observed -by the _Sipásíán_ and _Pársíán_. - -Among the _Parsíán_, called also the _Iraníán_, is a sect styled the -_Yazadíán_ or _Yazdáníán_, _Abádíán_, _Sipásíán_, _Hushián_, -_Anushkán_, _Azarhóshangíán_, and _Azaríán_. They believe it -impossible for man, by the force of intellect, or the energy of -spirit, to comprehend the exalted essence of the Almighty and Holy -Lord. Entity, unity, identity, or all his divine attributes of -knowledge and life, constitute the fountain of his holy essence. He -is, in the most comprehensive sense, the paramount, omnipotent Lord -over all things, whether considered collectively, or in the changes -incident to their component parts. All his works and operations are in -conformity to his exalted will: if he wills, he acts; if he wills not, -he acts not; but works worthy of adoration are as inseparable from his -honored essence, as his other glorious attributes of perfection.――Urfí -of Shíráz thus expresses himself: - - “Thy essence is able to call into being all that is impossible, - Except to create one like thyself.” - -The first creation of his existence-bestowing bounty was the precious -jewel of the intellectual principle, called _Azad Bahman_; the solar -ray which constitutes the excellence of his august existence is from -the essence of the light of lights. From the effulgence of _Bahman_, -or the “First Intelligence,” proceeded another, along with the spirit -and body of the Pure Ether or Crystalline Sphere. In like manner from -this second _Serúsh_[229] or “angel” there emanated three similar -rays; so that every star in the universe, whether in motion or at -rest, that is, every planet and fixed star, and also every one of the -heavens, has its peculiar intellect and spirit. - -They also believe that the heavens exceed the compass of numbers, and -that the spheres are as many in number as the stars: also that every -star has its own firmament, but that the movements of their spheres -are in accordance with those of the zodiacal firmament. - -In like manner, each of the four elements has its separate guardian, -from the _Nuristan_ (region of light), or the world of Intellects: -which angel is styled _Parvardigar_ or _Parvardigar-i-Gunah_; _Dara_ -or _Dara-i-Gunah_; and in Arabic, “_Rab-un-naw”_ or “Lord of the -species;” in the same manner, all their relations, or every species, -has its peculiar regent from the _Nuristan_ or ‘region of -light.’――They regard the subsisting spirit of man, or the reasonable -human soul, as eternal and infinite. Sáid says thus: - - “No sign of man or world appeared on the tablet of existence - When the soul breathed forth pursuant to thy will in the school of - love.” - -It is related in some of the esteemed records of this sect, that by -_eternal souls_ are meant, the spirits of the spheres: and that human -souls are a creation, but eternal: also, that some human temperaments -are so constituted, that souls from the upper world are conferred on -them: whilst others are adapted for having attached to them souls -abstracted from matter; that such appropriation is regulated by -influence of the spheres, and is concealed from the sight of the most -profound thinkers. They also say, when this immortal spirit attains to -eminence in praise-worthy knowledge and belief, that is, pure faith -and good works, that on leaving this lower body, it succeeds in -uniting itself to the sublime uncompounded spirits: but should it not -attain to this high, emancipation-bestowing degree, it is united to -that sphere, in relation to which its acts were upright. If the -habitual language were praise-worthy and the works performed -meritorious, but it should not have attained to the rank of union with -a sphere, it being then divested of corporeal elements, remains in the -lower world with the similitude of a bodily form, and in consequence -of its praise-worthy qualities, it enjoys in appearance the view of -the nymphs, palaces, and bright rose-bowers of paradise, and becomes a -_Zamíní-Serush_, or ‘Terrestrial Angel.’ But if its words have been -reprehensible,[230] and also accompanied with evil deeds, on deserting -this material body, it obtains not another similarly constituted and -is unable to reach the _Shídastan_ or ‘the region of Light.’ Being -thus separated from the primitive source, it remains in the abode of -Elements, in the Hell of concupiscence and passion and the flames of -remorse: ultimately it becomes the prey of malady, but does not obtain -a higher mansion: the soul of such a description finally becomes an -_Ahriman_, or ‘Evil Demon.’ If in a spirit destitute of praiseworthy -conversation, the good actions preponderate,[231] but in consequence -of the attachment of the heart to matter, or through ignorance, such a -spirit attains not to the dignity of liberation, it removes from one -body to another, until by the efficacy of good words and deeds, it is -finally emancipated from body and gains a high rank. Sarábí thus says: - - “The truly free, as soon as possible, disengages himself from body: - If he cannot extricate himself from skin, let him resign his - doublet.” - -But if the spirit be prone to error, it descends successively from the -human frame to the animal body: such are the doctrines of their -distinguished men. Some however of this sect, in whose language all is -metaphorical and figurative, assert, that sometimes the spirit, -through excessive wickedness, becomes by insensible degrees connected -with plants and vegetables; and frequently, by progressive gradations, -becomes joined to mineral or metallic substances. According to this -class of believers, there is an uncompounded soul in each of the three -kingdoms of nature: and they acknowledge that every thing possesses a -ray of existence emanating from _Shíd Shídan_, or ‘Effulgence of -Light.’ One of the eminent men, agreeably to this view, has said: - - “The soul is the marrow of certainty, the body its envelope: - In the robes of spirit contemplate the form of a friend (the - Creator). - Whatever object bears the impress of existence, - Regard it as the reflexion of light, or his very self.” - -They also hold that the world bears the same affinity to the Creator, -as the solar light doth to the body of the sun; that it has existed -from all eternity and will continue to all infinity. They maintain -that, whatever exists in this world, or that of formation and -evanescence, depends on the influence of the stars; also that -astronomers and astrologers have found out some few effects of the -influence of the seven planets, but are ignorant of the natures and -influences of the slow-moving or fixed stars. The possessors of -_Fardát_ and _Fartáb_, or those who are directed by inspiration and -revelation, have laid down that every star, whether fixed or -planetary, is regent during certain periods of several thousand years: -one thousand years being assigned to each star, without the -association of any other: on the termination of which, in the -subsequent millennia, both the fixed and planetary stars are -successively associated with it――that is, in commencing the series -with a fixed star, we call the fixed star which is Lord of the Cycle, -the First King; on the termination of the millennium appropriated to -him, another fixed star becomes partner with the First King, which -partner we style First Minister: but the supremacy and dominion of the -period belong exclusively to the First King: on the termination of the -second millennium,――the period of office assigned to the First -Minister expires, and another star is associated with the First King; -and so on, until the fixed stars are all gone through: on which Saturn -becomes associated with the First King, and continues so during a -thousand years, and so with the other planets, until the period of -association with the moon arrives: then terminates the supremacy of -the fixed star, named the First King, and his authority expires. After -the First King, the star associated with him in the second millennium, -and which was called the First Minister, now attains the supremacy and -becomes Lord of the Cycle, during which cycle of sovereignty we style -him the Second King, with a thousand years appropriated to his special -rule as before stated. In the following millennium another fixed star -becomes his associate, as above mentioned, and goes through a similar -course. When the period of the moon’s association arrives, the moon -remains joined with the Second King during a millennium, on the -completion of which, that fixed star, the term of whose sovereignty -has passed away, and who commenced the cycle, under the style of First -King, is associated with the Lord of the Cycle, styled the Second -King; after which, the empire of the Second King’s star also -terminates and becomes transferred to another: thus all the fixed -stars in succession become kings, until they are all gone through, on -which the principality and supremacy come to _Shat Kaivan_, or ‘the -Lord Saturn,’ with whom in like manner the fixed stars and planets are -associated for their respective millennia,――when the dominion comes to -the _Shat Máh_, or ‘Lunar Lord,’ his period is ended as before stated, -the cycle completed, and one great circle or revolution has been -described.――On the expiration of this great period, the sovereignty -reverts to the First King; the state of the revolving world -recommences; this world of formation and evanescence is renovated; the -human beings, animals, vegetable and mineral productions which existed -during the first cycle, are restored to their former language, acts, -dispositions, species and appearance, with the same designations and -distinctions; the successive regenerations continually proceeding on -in the same manner. The prince of physicians, _Abu Alí_ (whose spirit -may God sanctify!) expresses himself to this purport: - - “_Every_ form and image, which seems at present effaced, - Is securely stored up in the treasury of time―― - When the same position of the heavens again recurs, - The Almighty reproduces each from behind the mysterious veil.” - -It is here necessary to remark, that their meaning is not, that the -identical spirits of _Abad_, _Kaiomors_, _Siáymak_ and _Húshang_ shall -be imparted to the identical material bodies long since abandoned, or -that the scattered members of the body shall be reassembled and -reunited: such sentiments, according to them, are absurd and -extravagant: their real belief is this, that forms similar to those -which have passed away, and bodies resembling the primitive ones, -their counterpart in figure, property and shape, shall appear, -speaking and acting exactly in the same manner. How could the exalted -spirits of the perfect, which are united with angels, return back? -They also maintain that men do not arise from their own species, -without father or mother: but they affirm that, as a man and woman -were left at the commencement of the past cycle, so there shall two -remain in the present cycle, for the continuance of the human race. -For although the heavens are the sires of the three natural kingdoms -or productive principles, and the elements their mother, yet this much -only has been imparted to us, that man is born of man, and is not -produced after any other fashion. - -The followers of the ancient faith call one revolution of the regent -Saturn, a day; thirty such days, one month; twelve such months, one -year; a million of such years, one _fard_;[232] a million _fard_, one -_vard_; a million _vard_, one _mard_; a million _mard_, one _jád_; -three thousand _jád_, one _vád_; and two thousand _vád_, one -_zád_.[232]――According to this mode of computation, the happiness and -splendor of the Máhábádian dynasty lasted one hundred zád of years. -They believe it impossible to ascertain the commencement of human -existence; and that it is not to be comprehended by human science: -because there is no epoch of identical persons, so that it is -absolutely impossible to form any definite ideas on the subject, which -resembles an arithmetical infinite series. Such a belief also agrees -with the philosophy and opinions of the Grecian sages. - -From the authority of esteemed works, they account _Máhábád_ the first -of the present cycle; as in reality he and his wife were the survivors -of the great period, and the bounteous Lord had bestowed on them so -immense a progeny, that from their numbers, the very clefts of the -mountains were filled. The author of the _Amíghistan_ relates, that -they were acquainted only to a trifling degree with the viands, drinks -and clothing which through the bounty of God are now met with: -besides, in that cycle there existed no organization of cities, -systems of policy, conditions of supremacy, rules of authority and -power, principles of _Nushád_ or law, nor instruction in science and -philosophy, until through the aid of celestial grace, joined to the -manifold favors and bounties of God, the uncontrolled authority of -_Máhábád_ pervaded alike the cultivated region and the wild waste; the -wide expanse of land and sea. Through divine illumination, in -conjunction with his spiritual nature, the assistance of his guiding -angel and the eyes of discernment; and also what he had seen and heard -in the past cycle, he meditated on the creation of the world: he then -clearly perceived that the nine superior divisions, and the four lower -elements, the subjects of existence, are blended and associated with -distinct essences and accidents, so as to combine together opposing -movements with contrary dispositions and natures: and that the -aggregate of this whole indispensably requires a supreme bestower of -connection, a blender and creator: also that whatever this bestower of -relation wills, and this all perfect in wisdom does, cannot be -destitute of utility and wisdom: Máhábád therefore dispatched persons -to all quarters and regions of the world, to select from land and -water all productions and medicinal plants held in esteem for their -various properties; these he planted in a proper site, so that by the -aid of the terrene and aqueous particles, the influence of atmospheric -temperature, in conjunction with the sidereal energies, their powers -of vegetation, nutritious qualities, and properties might be -ascertained. At the time of promulgating this excellent purpose, the -sovereign of the starry host entered in glory the mansion of Aries; -and the rapidly-sketching painter of destiny drew forth the faces of -the brides of the gardens (blossoms and flowers): then, through the -efficacy of command, experiment, and examination, Máhábád extracted -from the various flowers, fruits, leaves and fibres, the different -alimentary substances, medicinal compounds, viands and beverages. He -next commanded all sorts of ores to be fetched from the mines and -liquified in the furnace, so that the different metals concealed in -them became visible. Out of iron, which combines hardness and -sharpness, he formed warlike weapons for the brave; jewels, gold, -silver, rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and chrysolithes, in which he -observed smoothness and capability of polish, he assigned as -decorations for kings, military chieftains, and matrons. He also -ordered persons to descend into the deep waters and bring forth the -shells, pearls, corals, etc. People were commanded to shear the fleece -of sheep and other animals: by him also were invented the arts of -spinning, weaving, cutting up, sewing and clothing. He next organized -cities, villages, and streets; erected palaces and colonnades; -introduced trade and commerce; and divided mankind into four classes. -The first was composed of _Hírbeds_, _Mobeds_,[233] ascetics, and -learned men, selected for maintaining the faith and enforcing the -sentence of the laws: these are also called _Birman_ and -_Birmun_;[234] that is, they resemble the _Barínían_ or supreme -beings, the exalted angels: they also style them _Húristár_.[235] The -second class consists of kings and intrepid warriors, who devote -themselves to the cares of government and authority, to the promotion -of equity and the curbing of oppression; those they call _Chatramán_, -_Chatraman_, and _Chatrí_:[236] this word _Chatrí_ means a standard or -distinction; as people of high rank have a _Chatra_,[237] or umbrella, -to protect them with its shade, which they call _Sayah dar_ and _Sayah -ban_; the people repose under the shade of the individuals of this -class, who are also called _Núristár_.[238] The third class is -composed of husbandmen, cultivators, artisans, skilful men, and -mechanics; these are called _Bás_,[239] which is synonymous with -_Bisyár_ or numerous; as this class should far exceed in number all -the others. _Bás_ also means cultivation and improvement, results -which altogether depend on this order――they are also styled -_Suristár_.[240] The fourth class are destined for every kind of -employment and service; they are called _Súdín_, _Súdí_, and -_Súd_:[241] from them profit, indulgence, and ease accrue to society: -they are also called _Rúzistar_.[242] He instituted these four -classes,[243] the four elements of society, and the sources of -organization were completed; independence and want appeared; there -were produced the gradations of ruler and subject; of lord and -servant; discipline and authority; justice and knowledge; kindness and -severity; protection of the _Zindbar_ or kind treatment of innoxious -creatures; destruction of the _Tundbar_ or noxious animals; the -knowledge of God and the ceremonies of his worship. - -God also sent _Abád_ a code called the _Dasátir_,[244] in which are -formed all languages and sciences. This work consisted of several -volumes, containing a certain number for each dialect. In it was also -the language called _Asmání_, or the Celestial, not a trace of which -has remained in any of the languages spoken by the inhabitants of this -lower world. _Abád_ also assigned a language to every nation, and -settled each in a suitable place: and thus were produced the Parsi, -Hindi, Greek and such like. - -According to this sect, authentic revelation is only obtained by the -world of ecstacy or similitude, called _Mánistán_; but from the time -of _Máhábád_, all the prophets who were sent were in accordance with -his faith; not one of them being opposed to his law. After _Máhábád_, -appeared thirteen apostles who, with him, were styled the fourteen -_Máhábáds_: they were called by the common name of _Abád_, and acted -on every occasion in conformity to their ancestor and his Celestial -Code: and whatever revelation was made to them tended to corroborate -the faith of _Máhábád_.[245] After them, their sons in due succession -obtained sovereign power, after their fathers, and devoted themselves -to justice. The followers of this sect also believe that all the -prophets and kings were selected from the heads of the most -distinguished families. - -Next to this dynasty, known as the Mahabadian, comes _Abád Azád_, who -withdrew from temporal power and walked in the path of devotion and -seclusion. It is recorded, that in their time, the realm was highly -cultivated; treasures were abundant; lofty palaces, ornamented with -paintings and exciting admiration; colonnades attracting the heart; -the Mobeds celebrated, profoundly learned, worshippers of God, -undefiled, equally eminent in good words and deeds; soldiers, -well-appointed and disciplined, with corresponding trains of -attendants and officers; mountain-resembling elephants; chargers like -fragments of _Alburz_,[246] rapid in their course; swift-paced animals -for riding; numerous camels and dromedaries; well-trained cavalry and -infantry, and leaders who had experience in the world; precious -stuffs; vases of gold and silver; thrones and crowns of great price; -heart-delighting tapestries and gardens with other such objects, the -like of which exists not at present, and were not recorded as being in -existence in the treasures or reigns of the _Gilsháíán_ monarchs. - -However, on the mere abandonment of the crown by _Abád Azád_, every -thing went to ruin; so much blood was shed that the mills were turned -by streams of gore; all that had been accomplished by the inventions -and discoveries of this fortunate race was forgotten; men became like -savage and ferocious beasts, and as in former times resumed their -abodes in the mountain-clefts and gloomy caverns; those superior in -strength overpowered and oppressed the weaker. At last some of the -sages eminent for praise-worthy language and deeds, and who possessed -the volume of Máhábád, assembled and went into the presence of _Jai -Afrám_, the son of Abád, who, next his sire was the most undefiled and -intelligent of men, and became one of the great Apostles: he passed -his time in a mountain cave, far removed from intercourse with the -world, and was styled _Jai_ on account of his purity, as in the -_Abádí_ or _Azárí_ language, a holy person is called _Jai_:[247] the -assembled sages with one voice implored his justice, saying: “We know -of no remedy for preserving the world from ruin, excepting the -intercourse of thy noble nature with mankind.” They afterwards recited -to him the counsels, testamentary precepts, traditions and memorials -of the _Abádíán_ princes on the great merit of this undertaking. He -did not however assent, until a divine command had reached him, when -through the influence of revelation and the presence of the -decree-bearing angel, _Gabriel_, he arose and assumed the high -dignity, The realm once more flourished, and the institutes of _Abád_ -resumed their former vigor. The last of the fortunate monarchs of the -_Jaí_ dynasty was _Jaí Alád_, who also retired from mankind; when the -dominion had remained in this family during one _aspár_ of years. It -is written in books of high authority that _Jaí Afrám_ was called the -son of _Abád Azád_, because next to his noble ancestor no individual -possessed such great perfections: but in reality many generations -intervened between them: besides, _Jaí Afrám_ was descended from the -sons of _Abád Azád_, so that there is a wide interval between _Sháí -Gilív_ and _Jaí Abád_: in like manner between _Sháí Mahbúl_ and -_Yásán_, and between _Yásán_ and _Gilsháhí_ there must have elapsed -multiplied and numerous generations. - -Those who would understand the doctrines of this faith must know, the -process of numeration among this profoundly-thinking sect is as -follows; by tens, hundreds and thousands: one _salám_ equal to one -hundred thousand; one hundred salám, one _shamár_; one hundred -_shámar_, one _aspár_; one hundred _aspár_, one _rádah_; one hundred -_rádah_, one _arádah_; a hundred _arádah_, one _ráz_; a hundred _ráz_, -one _aráz_; and a hundred _aráz_, one _bíáraz_. - -Now that their system of computation has been explained, I shall -proceed with their history. They say that when his attendants found -not the auspicious monarch _Jaí Alád_, neither amongst his courtiers, -nor in the royal apartments, or _harem_, nor in the house of praise, -or place of prayer, the affairs of the human race fell once more into -disorder: at length the sages and holy men went and represented the -state of affairs to the praise-worthy apostle _Sháí Gilív_, son of -_Jáí Alád_, who was then engaged in the worship of the Almighty. This -prince, from his great devotion and unceasing adoration rendered to -God, was called _Sháí_ and _Sháyí_, that is a god and a -God-worshipper: his sons were therefore styled _Sháyián_. When the -sages had stated the case, the first _Sháyíán_ prince, _Sháí Gilív_, -having reflected on the cruelty practised towards the animal creation, -arose, through the influence of a celestial revelation and Divine -light, and sat in his illustrious father’s throne. After this happy -dynasty came _Sháí Mahbúl_, when the _Sháíyán_ empire had lasted one -_shamár_ of years. - -After these came the _Yásánián_, so called from _Yásán_, the son of -_Sháí Mahbúl_: this prince was exceeding wise, intelligent, holy and -celebrated; the apostle of the age: and being in every respect worthy -of supreme power, was therefore called _Yásán_, or the meritorious and -justly exalted.[248] His mighty sire having withdrawn from mankind, -retired into seclusion, and there giving himself entirely up to the -worship of God, the affairs of the human race again relapsed into -disorder. Tradition informs us, that when these auspicious prophets -and their successors beheld evil to prevail amongst mankind, they -invariably withdrew from among them――as they could not endure to -behold or hear wickedness; and sin had no admission to their breasts. -When the chain of worldly repose had been rent asunder, Yasán, in -obedience to a Divine revelation, seated himself on the throne of -sovereignty, and overthrew evil. Of this happy dynasty the last was -_Yásán Ajám_, when this admirable family had graced the throne during -ninety and nine _salám_ of years. The author of the _Amíghistán_ says: -“The years which I have mentioned are _farsáls_ of Saturn: one -revolution of the regent Saturn, which is allowed to be thirty years, -they call one day; thirty such days, one month; and twelve such -months, one year.” This is the rule observed by the _Yezdánián_, who -write down the various years of the seven planets after this manner: -such is the amount of the saturnian _farsál_. This same system of -computation is applied to the _farsáls_ of Mars, Venus, Mercury and -the moon, a day of each being the time of their respective -revolutions: they at the same time retain the use of the ordinary -lunar and solar months. - -It is also to be observed that, according to them, the year is of two -kinds; one the _farsál_, which is after this manner: when the planet -has traversed the twelve mansions of the zodiac, they call it one day; -thirty such days, one month; and twelve such months, one year; as we -have before explained under Saturn. Similar years constitute the -_farsáls_ of the other planets, which they thus enumerate; the -_farsáls_ of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, and the -moon: the months of the _farsál_ they call _farmáh_; the days of the -farmáh, _farróz_. The second kind of years is, when Saturn in the -period of thirty years traverses the twelve mansions, which they call -a saturnian _karsál_; the _karmáh_ is his remaining two years and a -half in each mansion,――Jupiter describes his period in twelve common -years; this time they call the _hormuzí karsál_; and the _hormuzí -karmáh_ is his remaining one year in each mansion: and so with regard -to the others. However, when we speak of years or months in the -accounts given of the _Gilsháíyán_ princes, solar and lunar years and -months are always meant; day implies the acknowledged day; and by -month is meant the residence of the Great Light in one of the zodiacal -mansions; and by year, his passing through the zodiac; a lunar month -is its complete revolution, and traversing all the signs, which year -and month are also called _Tímúr_.[249] - -When Yásán Asám had abandoned this elementary body and passed away -from this abode of wickedness, the state of mankind fell into utter -ruin, as his son _Gilsháh_, who was enlightened in spirit, intelligent -in nature, adorned by good deeds, feeling no wish for sovereign power, -had given himself so entirely up to the service of God, that no one -knew the retreat of this holy personage.――Men therefore, shutting up -the eyes of social intercourse, extended the arm of oppression against -each other; at once the lofty battlements and noble edifices were -levelled to the ground; the deep fosses filled up; mankind being left -destitute of a head, the bonds of society were broken; slaughter was -carried to such excess, that numerous rivers flowed with currents of -blood, streaming from the bodies of the slain: in a short time not a -trace was left of the countless treasures and the boundless stores, -the amount of which defied the computations of imagination. Matters -even came to such an extremity, that men threw off the institutes of -humanity, and were no longer capable of distinguishing the relative -values of precious stones, wares and commodities: they left not a -vestige remaining of palaces and cities; but like ferocious and savage -beasts, took up their dwelling in the mountain caverns.――Besides this, -they fought against each other, so that the multitudes of the human -race were reduced to a scanty remnant. - -On this, _Gilsháh_[250] of exalted nature, in obedience to a -revelation from heaven, and to the command of the ruler of the -universe, became the sovereign of mankind: he restored the institutes -of justice, and reassembled the members of his family, who, during his -seclusion, had totally dispersed: on this account he was styled -_Abú-l-Bashr_, or “the Father of the human race,” because with the -exception of his family, the great majority of the others having -fallen in their mutual contests, the survivors had adopted the -pursuits and habitudes of demons and of wild beasts: _Kaiomors_, or -_Gilsháh_, with his sons, then proceeded to give battle to the vile -race, and disabled their hands from inflicting cruelty on the harmless -animals: all that we find in Histories of Kaiomors, and his sons -fighting against demons, refers to this circumstance, and the systems -of faith which sanction the slaughter of animals were all invented by -this demon-like race. In short, the only true Ruler of the world -transmitted a celestial volume to Kaiomors, and also selected for the -prophetic office among his illustrious descendants, _Siyámak_, -_Húsháng_, _Tahmúras_, _Jemshíd_, _Farídún_, _Minucheher_, _Kai -Khúsró_, _Zaratúsht_, _Azár Sásán_ the first, and _Azár Sásán_ the -fifth, enjoining them to walk in conformity with the doctrines of -Máhábád and Kaiomors; so that the celestial volumes which he bestowed -on those happy princes, all their writings and records were in perfect -accord with the code of _Máhábád_: with the exception of _Zaratúsht_, -not one of this race uttered a single word against the book of Abad: -and even Zaratúsht’s words were, by the glosses of the _Yezdániáns_, -made to conform to the _Máhábádian_ code――they therefore style -Zaratúsht, “_Wakhshur-i-Simbari_,” or the parable-speaking prophet. - -The Gilsháían monarchs constitute four races; namely, the -_Peshdádían_, _Kaiánián_, _Ashkánián_, and _Sásáníán_: the last of -these kings is _Yezdejird_, the son of _Sheriar_: the empire of these -auspicious sovereigns lasted six thousand and twenty-four years and -five months.[251] During their existence, the world was arrayed in -beauty: _Kaiomors_,[252] _Siyamak_,[253] _Húshang_,[254] named the -_Péshdádián_, _Tahmúras_,[255] surnamed the Enslaver of Demons, and -_Jemshid_,[256] through celestial revelations, Divine assistance, the -instruction of Almighty God, unerring prudence, and just views, having -followed in all things what we have recorded concerning Máhábád and -his illustrious children, introduced the rules of Divine worship, the -knowledge of God, virtuous deeds, purity of conduct, modes of diet, -clothing, the rites of marriage, the observance of continence, with -all kinds of science, letters, books, professions, solemn festivals, -banquets, wind and stringed musical instruments, cities, gardens, -palaces, ornaments, arms, gradations of office, the distinctions of -the two sexes with respect to exposure and privacy, the diffusion of -equity, justice, and all that was praiseworthy. - -After these, the Gilsháiyán ruled, through divine inspiration and the -communication of the Almighty added to their intelligence, so that the -greater part of the splendor, pomp, and beauty we now behold in the -world is to be attributed to this happy race: many however of the -excellent institutions of this happy dynasty have fallen into disuse -and a few only remain. - -The following is the sum of the _Sipásián_ creed: from the -commencement of _Máhábád’s_ empire to the end of _Yezdejird_’s reign, -the great majority, nay all the individuals of this chosen race, with -the exception of _Zokah_,[257] were models of equity, characterized by -justice and piety, perfect in words and deeds. In this holy family, -some were prophets, all were saints, righteous and God-fearing -persons, with realms and armies maintained in the highest order. They -also acknowledge the apostles and princes prior to _Gilsháh_, from -_Máhábád_ to _Yásán Ajám_, as so eminently pious, that in no degree -whatever did wickedness enter into their conversation or actions: nor -did they at any time deviate from the _Paymán-i-Farhang_, or -“Excellent Covenant,” which is the code of Máhábád, nor omit the -performance of any duty; they also held that the stars are exceedingly -exalted, and constitute the _Kiblah_[258] of the inhabitants of this -lower world. - -In the time of _Dáwir Háryár_ (the author of Daraí Sekander), who was -of the _Kaíánian_ race and a follower of the _Yezdanian_ faith, some -one said: “The prophets and faith are higher in dignity than the sun.” -_Dawir_ replied: “Where are now the forms and bodies of that -description of men?” On which that person having stated the names of -the cities and burial places of the prophets, _Dawir_ rejoined: -“During their whole lifetime, the form of no prophet or saint ever -emitted light, even the distance of one day’s journey, and since they -have been committed to the earth, not a single ray has been shed from -their graves: and they are now so blended with the dust that not a -trace of them is left!” The person then said: “the spirits of the -prophets and saints are exceedingly resplendent.” _Dawir_ retorted: -“Behold what amount of light is diffused by the solar globe! whereas -the bodies of your saints are destitute of splendor; therefore rest -assured that his spirit is more resplendent than theirs.――Know -besides, that the sun is the heart of the heavens: if he existed not, -this world of formation and dissolution could not continue: he brings -forth the seasons and the productive energies of nature; moreover, the -prophets were not in the beginning, nor are they in existence now: but -the world endures, the seasons rejoice, and the people are gladdened: -this much however may be conceded, that the prophets and saints are -more exalted than the remainder of the human race.”――On hearing this, -that person was silenced. Lastly, it is stated in the _Akhtaristán_, -that the Sipásíán tenets were, that the stars and the heavens are the -shadows of the incorporeal effulgences; on this account they erected -the temples of the seven planets, and had talismans formed of metal or -stone, suitable to each star: all which talismans were placed in their -proper abode, under a suitable aspect: they also set apart a portion -of time for their worship and handed down the mode of serving them. -When they performed the rites to these holy statues, they burned -before them the suitable incense at the appointed season, and held -their power in high veneration. Their temples were called -_Paikaristan_, or “image-temples,” and _Shidistán_, or “the abodes of -the forms of the luminous bodies.” - - -DESCRIPTION OF THE WORSHIP RENDERED TO THE SEVEN PLANETS ACCORDING TO -THE SIPASIAN FAITH.――It is stated in the _Akhtaristán_, that the image -of the regent Saturn was cut out of black stone, in a human shape, -with an ape-like head; his body like a man’s, with a hog’s tail, and a -crown on his head; in the right hand a sieve; in the left a serpent. -His temple was also of black stone, and his officiating ministers were -negroes, Abyssinians and persons of black complexions: they wore blue -garments, and on their fingers rings of iron: they offered up storax -and such like perfumes, and generally dressed and offered up pungent -viands; they administered myrobalam, also similar gums and drugs. -Villagers and husbandmen who had left their abodes, nobles, doctors, -anchorites, mathematicians, enchanters, soothsayers and persons of -that description lived in the vicinity of this temple, where these -sciences were taught, and their maintenance allowed them: they first -paid adoration in the temple and afterwards waited on the king. All -persons ranked among the servants of the regent Saturn were presented -to the king through the medium of the chiefs and officers of this -temple, who were always selected from the greatest families in Iran. -The words _Shat_ and _Tímsar_ are appellations of honor, signifying -dignity, just as _Sri_ in Hindi, and _Hazrat_ in Arabic. - -The image of the regent _Hormuzd_ (Jupiter) was of an earthy color, in -the shape of a man, with a vulture’s[259] face: on his head a crown, -on which were the faces of a cock and a dragon; in the right hand a -turban; in the left a crystal ewer. The ministers of this temple were -of a terrene hue, dressed in yellow and white; they wore rings of -silver and signets of cornelian; the incense consisted of -laurel-berries and such like; the viands prepared by them were sweet. -Learned men, judges, imans, eminent vizirs, distinguished men, nobles, -magistrates and scribes dwelt in the street attached to this temple, -where they devoted themselves to their peculiar pursuits, but -principally giving themselves up to the science of theology. - -The temple of the regent _Bahram_[260] (Mars) and his image were of -red stone: he was represented in a human form, wearing on his head a -red crown: his right hand was of the same color and hanging down; his -left, yellow and raised up: in the right was a blood-stained sword, -and an iron verge in the left. The ministers of this temple were -dressed in red garments; his attendants were Turks with rings of -copper on their hands; the fumigations made before him consisted of -sandaracha and such like; the viands used here were bitter. Princes, -champions, soldiers, military men, and Turks dwelt in his street. -Persons of this description, through the agency of the directors of -the temple, were admitted to the king’s presence. The bestowers of -charity dwelt in the vicinity of this temple; capital punishments were -here inflicted, and the prison for criminals was also in that street. - -The image of the world-enlightening solar regent was the largest of -the idols; his dome was built of gold-plated bricks: the interior -inlaid with rubies, diamonds, cornelian and such like. The image of -the Great Light was formed of burnished gold, in the likeness of a man -with two heads, on each of which was a precious crown set with rubies; -and in each diadem were seven _sárún_ or peaks. He was seated on a -powerful steed; his face resembling that of a man, but he had a -dragon’s tail; in the right hand a rod of gold, a collar of diamonds -around his neck. The ministers of this temple were dressed in yellow -robes of gold tissue, and a girdle set with rubies, diamonds, and -other solar stones: the fumigations consisted of sandal wood and such -like: they generally served up acid viands. In his quarter were the -families of kings and emperors, chiefs, men of might, nobles, -chieftains, governors, rulers of countries, and men of science: -visitors of this description were introduced to the king by the chiefs -of the temple. - -The exterior of _Nahid’s_[261] (Venus) temple was of white marble and -the interior of crystal: the form of the idol was that of a red man, -wearing a seven-peaked crown on the head: in the right hand a flask of -oil, and in the left a comb: before him was burnt saffron and such -like; his ministers were clad in white, fine robes, and wore -pearl-studded crowns, and diamond rings on their fingers. Men were not -permitted to enter this temple at night. Matrons and their daughters -performed the necessary offices and service, except on the night of -the king’s going there, as then no females approached, but men only -had access to it. Here the ministering attendants served up rich -viands. Ladies of the highest rank, practising austerities, -worshippers of God, belonging to the place or who came from a -distance, goldsmiths, painters and musicians dwelt around this temple, -through the chiefs and directors of which they were presented to the -king: but the women and ladies of rank were introduced to the queen by -the female directresses of the temple. - -The dome and image of the regent _Tir_[262] (Mercury) was of blue -stone; his body that of a fish, with a boar’s face: one arm black, the -other white; on his head a crown: he had a tail like that of a fish; -in his right hand a pen, and in the left an inkhorn. The substances -burnt in this temple were gum mastic and the like. His ministers were -clad in blue, wearing on their fingers rings of gold. At their feasts -they served up acidulous viands. Vizirs, philosophers, astrologers, -physicians, farriers, accountants, revenue-collectors, ministers, -secretaries, merchants, architects, tailors, fine writers and such -like, were stationed there, and through the agency of the directors of -the temple, had access to the king: the knowledge requisite for such -sciences and pursuits was also communicated there. - -The temple of the regent _Mah_ (the moon) was of a green stone; his -image that of a man seated on a white ox: on his head a diadem in the -front of which were three peaks: on the hands were bracelets, and a -collar around the neck. In his right hand an amulet of rubies, and in -the left a branch of sweet basil: his ministers were clad in green and -white, and wore rings of silver. The substances burnt before this -image were gum arabic and such like drugs. His attendants served up -salted viands. Spies, ambassadors, couriers, news-reporters, voyagers, -and the generality of travellers, and such like persons resided in his -street, and were presented to the king through the directors of the -temple. Besides the peculiar ministers and attendants, there were -attached to each temple several royal commissioners and officers, -engaged in the execution of the king’s orders; and in such matters as -were connected with the image in that temple. In the _Khuristar_ or -“refectory of each temple,” the board was spread the whole day with -various kinds of viands and beverages always ready. No one was -repulsed, so that whoever chose partook of them. In like manner, in -the quarter adjacent to each temple, was an hospital, where the sick -under the idol’s protection were attended by the physician of that -hospital. Thus there were also places provided for travellers, who on -their arrival in the city repaired to the quarter appropriated to the -temple to which they belonged.[263] - -It is to be observed, that although the planets are simple bodies of a -spherical form, yet the reason why the above-mentioned images have -been thus formed, is that the planetary spirits have appeared in the -world of imagination to certain prophets, saints, and holy sages under -such forms; and under which they are also connected with certain -influences; and as they have appeared under forms different from these -to other persons, their images have also been made after that fashion. - -When the great king, his nobles, retinue and the other Yezdanian went -to the temple of Saturn, they were arrayed in robes of blue and black -hues; expressed themselves with humility, moving with a slow pace, -their hands folded on the breast. In the temple of _Hormuzd_ -(Jupiter), they were dressed in his colors, as learned men and judges. -In that of _Bahram_ (Mars) they were clad in the robes peculiar to -him, and expressed themselves in an arrogant manner――but in the temple -of the Sun, in language suitable to kings and holy persons; in that of -Venus, they appeared cheerful and smiling; in the temple of Mercury -they spoke after the manner of sages and orators; and in the moon’s, -like young children and inferior officers. - -In every private house there were besides images of the stars, a -minute description of which is given in the _Akhtaristan_. They had -also, in every temple, the spherical or true forms of the several -planets. - -There was a city called the royal abode or _saráí_, facing which were -seven temples. On each day of the week, in the dress appropriated to -each planet, the king exhibited himself from an elevated _tabsar_ or -window, fronting the temple of the planet, whilst the people, in due -order and arrangement, offered up their prayers. For example, on -Sunday or _Yakshambah_, he shewed himself clad in a yellow kabá or -tunic of gold tissue, wearing a crown of the same metal, set with -rubies and diamonds, covered with many ornaments of gold from the -tabsar, the circumference of which was embossed with similar stones: -under this window, the several ranks of the military were drawn out in -due gradation, until the last line took post in the _kashúdzár_ or -ample area, in which were posted soldiers of the lowest order. When -the king issued forth, like the sun, from the orient of the tabsar, -all the people prostrated themselves in adoration, and the monarch -devoted himself to the concerns of mankind. The _Tábsár_ is a place of -observation in a lofty pavilion, which the princes of Hindustan call a -_jahrokah_ or lattice window: on the other days, the king appeared -with similar brilliancy from the other Tábsárs. In like manner the -king, on their great festivals, went in choice garments to the temples -of the several images: and on his return seated himself in the Tábsár, -facing the image of the planet, or, having gone to the _Rózistán_ or -_Dádistán_, devoted himself to the affairs of state. This Rozistan was -a place which had no tábsár, where the king seated himself on the -throne, his ministers standing around in due gradation.――The -_Dádistán_ was the hall of justice, where, when the king was seated, -no one was prevented from having access to him: so that the king first -came to the Tábsár, then to the rózistán, and lastly to the Dádistán. -Also on whatever day a planet moved out of one celestial house to -another, and on all great festival days, the king went to the temple -appropriate to the occasion. Each of the planetary forms had also its -peculiar Tábsár, in the same manner as we have before stated -concerning the royal Tábsár; and on a happy day, or festival, they -brought the image to its Tábsár, The king went first and offered up -prayer, standing in the Tábsár of the image, the nobles placed around -according to their gradations, whilst the people were assembled in -great multitudes in the _Kashúdzár_, offering up prayers to the -planet. - -According to what is stated in the _Tímsár Dasátir_,[264] that is, in -the “Venerable Desátir,” the Almighty Creator has so formed the -celestial bodies, that from their motions there result certain effects -in this lower world, and, without doubt, all events here depend on the -movements of these elevated bodies; so that every star has relation to -some event, and every mansion possesses its peculiar nature: nay, -every degree of each sign is endued with a distinct influence: -therefore the prophets of the Lord, in conformity to his orders, and -by great experience, have ascertained the properties inherent in the -degrees of each celestial mansion, and the influences of the stars. It -is certain that whenever the agent does not agree with the passive, -the result of the affair will not be fortunate; consequently, when the -prophets and sages desired that the agency of the planet should be -manifested advantageously in the world, they carefully noted the -moment of the star’s entering the degree most suitable to the desired -event: and also to have at a distance from that point, whatever stars -were unfavorable to the issue. When all had been thus arranged, -whatever was connected with the productive cause was then completed: -they then bring together whatever is connected with causation in the -lower world: thus all the viands, perfumes, colors, forms, and all -things relating to the star, being associated, they enter on the -undertaking with firm faith and sure reliance: and whereas the spirits -possess complete influence over the events which occur in the lower -world, when therefore the celestial, terrestrial, corporeal and -spiritual causes are all united, the business is then accomplished. -But whosoever desires to be master of these powers, must be well -skilled in metaphysics; in the secrets of nature; and having his mind -well stored with the knowledge of the planetary influences, and -rendered intelligent by much experience. As the union of such -qualifications is rarely or never found, the truth of this science is -consequently hidden from men. The _Abadián_ moreover say, that the -prophets of the early faith, or the kings of _Farsistán_ and the -_Yezdánián_, held the stars to be the _Kiblah_ of prayer, and always -paid them adoration, especially when a star was in its own house or in -its ascendant, free from evil aspects; they then collected whatever -bore relation to that planet, and engaged in worship, seating -themselves in a suitable place, and suffering no one to come near -them: they practised austerities; and on the completion of their -undertaking, exhibited kindness to the animal creation. - -In the year 1061 of the Hegira (A. D. 1651) the author, then in -_Sikakul of Kalang_,[265] was attacked by a disease which no -application could alleviate. An astrologer pronounced, that “the cause -of this malady arises from the overpowering force of the regent Mars;” -on which, several distinguished Brahmins assembled on the fourth of -_Zíkâdah_ (the 9th October) the same year, and having set out the -image of Bahrám and collected the suitable perfumes, with all other -things fit for the operation, employed themselves in reading prayers -and reciting names; at last, their chief, taking up with great -reverence the image of Mars, thus entreated: “O illustrious angel and -celestial leader! moderate thy heat, and be not wrathful: but be -merciful to such a one” (pointing to me). He then plunged the image -into perfumed water; immediately on the immersion of the image, the -pain was removed. - -In front of each temple was a large fire-temple, so that there were -seven in all: namely, the _Kaiwan-ázar_, _Hormuz-ázar_, _Bahrám-ázar_, -_Hár-ázar_, _Nahíd-ázar_, _Tír-ázar_, and _Máh-ázar_, so that each -fire-temple was dedicated to one of the seven planets, and in these -they burnt the proper perfumes. They assert that, during the -flourishing empire of the early monarchs, several sacred structures, -such as those of the Kâbah and the holy temple of Mecca;[266] -Jerusalem; the burial-place of Muhammed; the asylum of prophecy, in -Medina; the place of repose of Alí,[267] the prince of the faithful in -Najf; the sepulchre of Imam Husain in Kerbela;[268] the tomb of Imam -Musa[269] in Baghdad;[270] the mausoleum of Imam Reza[271] in Sanábád -of Tús; and the sanctuary of Alí in Balkh,[272] were all in former -times idol and fire-temples. They say that Mahabad after having built -a fire temple, called _Haftsúr_ or seven ramparts, in Istakhar of -Persia,[273] erected a house to which he gave the name of _Abád_, and -which is at present called the _Kâbah_: and which the inhabitants of -that country were commanded to hold in reverence: among the images of -the _Kâbah_ was one of the moon, exceedingly beautiful, wherefore the -temple was called _Máhgáh_ (Moon’s place) which the Arabs generally -changed into Mekka. They also say that among the images and statues -left in the Kâbah by Mahabad and his renowned successors, one is the -black stone,[274] the emblem of Saturn. They also say that the prophet -of Arabia worshipped the seven planets, and he therefore left -undisturbed the black stone or Saturn’s emblem, which had remained -since the time of the Abadian dynasty; but that he broke or carried -away the other figures introduced by the Koreish, and which were not -formed according to the images of the stars. In most of the ancient -temples of Persia they had formed the symbol of Venus in the figure of -a _Mihrab_, or arch, like the altar of the mosques: consequently the -present _Mihrab_, or altar, is that identical symbol: which assertion -is also proved by the respect paid to Friday or the day of Venus. - -Ibrahim (Abraham), the friend of God, pursued the same conduct; that -is, he rejected the idols which were not of the planetary forms: and -the reverence paid by him to the black stone, according to ancient -tradition, seems to prove that point. _Isfendiar_, the son of king -_Gushtasp_[275] conformed also to this practice; nay Socrates the -Sage, in like manner, forbad the people to worship any other forms -except those of the planets, and commanded the statues of the kings to -be removed. Moreover, the holy temple of Jerusalem, or -_Kundízh-húhkt_[276] was erected by Zohak, and Faridun[277] kindled in -it the holy fire. But long before Zohak’s time, there were several -idol and fire temples in that place. In the same manner, they say, -that when Faridoon turned his attention to the overthrow of Zohak, -during his journey his brethren having hurled a rock at him, this -revered prince, who was skilled and mighty in all the extraordinary -sciences, manifested a wonderous deed: he prayed to the Almighty that -it might remain suspended in the air, so that the stone even to this -day is known as _Kúds Khalíl_. They also say that in _Medina_,[278] -the burial place of the prophet, there was formerly an image of the -moon: the temple in which it was, they called _Mahdínah_, or the “Moon -of Religion,” as religion is the moon of truth, from which the Arabs -formed _Medinah_. They in like manner relate, that in the most noble -_Najf_, where now is the shrine of Alí, the prince of the faithful, -there was formerly a fire-temple called _Farógh pírái_ (the decoration -of splendor), and also “_Nakaf_,” or _Na akaft_ (no injury), which is -at present denominated _Najf_. Also at _Karbalá_, the place where the -Imam Husain reposes, there was formerly a fire-temple called -_Mahyársur ilm_[279] and _Kar bala_ (sublime agency), at present -called _Karbela_. - -Also in Baghdad, where the Imam Musa reposes, was a fire-temple called -_Shet Piráyi_ (decoration): and in the place where rest the remains of -the great Imam _Abu Hanifah_, of Kufah, was a temple called _Húryar_ -(sun’s friend): also in Kufah, on the site of the mosque, was a -fire-temple called _Roz-Azar_ (the day of fire): and in the region of -Tús, on the site of Imam Resa’s shrine, was a fire-temple called _Azar -Khirad_ (the fire of intellect)――it was also known by many other -appellations, and owes its erection to Faridún.――Also when _Tús_, the -son of _Názar_,[280] came to visit _Azar-i-Khirad_, he laid near it -the foundation of a city which was called after his name.[281]――In -Balkh, where is now the sanctuary of the Imam, formerly stood a temple -called _Mahin Azar_ (great fire), now known under the name of -_Nóbahár_. In Ardebil,[282] the ancient _Dizh-i-Bahman_[283] (Bahman’s -fort), Kai Khosrú, on reducing the citadel, constructed there a -fire-temple called _Azari-Káus_,[284] which now serves as the burial -place of the shaikh Sufi Ud-Din, the ancestor of the Safavean -princes:[285] they also assert that there were fire-temples in several -parts of India: as in _Dwaraka_,[286] was the temple of Saturn, called -_Dizh-i-Kaivan_ (Saturn’s fort), which the Hindoos turned into -_Dwaraka_: and in Gya also was an idol temple, called _Gah-i-Kaivan_, -or “Saturn’s residence,” which was turned into Gya.[287]――In Mahtra -also was an idol temple of Saturn, the name of which was _Mahetar_, -that is the chiefs or _mahetar_ resorted thither; which word by -degrees became _Mahtra_.[288]――In like manner several places among the -Christians and other nations bore names which show them to have been -idol-temples. When the _Abadian_ come to such places, they visit them -with the accustomed reverence, as, according to them holy places are -never liable to abomination or pollution, as they still remain places -of worship and adoration: both friends and foes regarding them as a -Kiblah, and sinners, notwithstanding all their perverseness, pray in -those sacred edifices. Rai Gópí Nath[289] thus expresses himself: - - O Shaikh! behold the dignity of my idol-house; - Even when destroyed, it remains the house of God! - -There is not on record a single word repugnant to reason from the time -of Mahabad to that of Yasan Ajam; and if they have recourse to -allegory, they then express its figurative nature. From these princes -to the Gilshaiyan there are many figurative expressions, all of which -they interpret. For example, they say that the tradition of Siamak -being slain by the hand of a demon implies, that in successive -battles, through ignorance of himself and God, he unwittingly -destroyed this elementary body; thus, wherever, in the language of -this sect, mention is made of a demon, they always understand a man of -that description, as has been explained in the _Paiman-i-ferhang_, or -“Excellent Code.” They also maintain that, in some passages, the -rendering the demons obedient, and slaying them, is a figurative mode -of expressing a victory gained over the pleasures of sense, and the -extirpation of evil propensities: in like manner, whatever is related -about the appearance of angels to virtuous and holy persons, is the -revelation and vision of good spirits, whilst in a state of sleep, -transport, recovery from excess, or abstraction from the body; which -states are truly explained in this work. They say that Zohak’s two -serpents, _do-mar_, and ten fires (vices) or _deh ak_, imply -irascibility and sensuality: the devil, his carnal soul, and in some -places his disposition――the two pieces of flesh which broke out on -Zohak’s shoulders in consequence of his evil deeds, appeared to the -human race like serpents, the pain caused by which could only be -alleviated by the application of human brains. They also say that the -celebrated _Simúrgh_[290] (griffin) was a sage, who had retired from -the world and taken up his peaceful abode in the mountains: he was -therefore called by this name, and was the instructor of _Dastan_, the -son of Sám; so that Zál, through his instruction, attained the -knowledge of the occult sciences. As to the current tradition about -Kai-Káus attempting to ascend to Heaven, and his downfall, this -occurred, according to them, during his sleep, and not when he was -awake. Kai Nishín, his brother, who had retired from all intercourse -with mankind, thus interprets the adventure of Káus: “The four eagles -are the four elements; the throne, the predominating passions; the -lance, their energy and impetuosity in the desire of sensual -gratifications; the thighs of flesh, their various pursuits of anger, -passion, lust, and envy; their ascent implies that they may be subdued -by religious austerities, and by the aid of their energy be made the -means of ascending to the world on high and the supreme Heaven; their -fall, instead of reaching Heaven’s eternal mansions, intimates that -if, even for a short period, we become careless about repressing evil -propensities, and desist from the practice of mortification, the -passions will return back to their nature, or wander from the eternal -paradise, the natural abode of souls:” the hemistich, “_during one -moment I was heedless, and he was removed from me a journey of a -hundred years_,” is applicable to such a state. - -Rustam’s[291] bringing back Kai Káus to his throne from the forest -into which he had fallen, means, his bringing back intelligence into -the king’s soul, and turning him back from the desert (lit. meadow), -of natural infirmity: Kai Kaus therefore, by direction of Kai Nishin, -his younger brother, but his elder in purity of faith and good works, -remained forty days in retirement, until in the state of sleep, -through the awakening of his heart, he beheld this heavenly vision. -They also assert, whatever modern writers have declared, relative to -_Khizr_[292] and Iskander, having penetrated into the regions of -darkness, where the former discovered the fountain of life immortal, -means, that the Iskander, or the intellectual soul, through the energy -of the Khizr, or reason, discovered, whilst in the state of human -darkness, the water of life, or the knowledge of the rational -sciences, or the science which forms the proper object of -intellect――as to what they say about Iskander’s returning back -empty-handed, by that is meant, that to expect eternal duration in -this evanescent abode being altogether absurd, he consequently could -not attain that object, and therefore departed to the next world. What -they record about Khizr’s drinking of that water, means, that the -perfection of intellect exists not through the medium of body, and -that reason has no need of body, or any thing corporeal, either as -essence or attribute. - -In some passages they interpret the tradition after this manner; by -Khizr is meant the intellectual soul, or rational faculty, and by -Iskander the animal soul, or natural instinct; the Khizr of the -intellectual soul, associated with the Iskander of the animal soul, -and the host (of perceptions) arrived at the fountain-head of -understanding, and obtained immortality, whilst the Iskander of the -animal soul returned back empty-handed.[293] It must be remarked, that -this sect explain after this manner, whatever transgresses the rules -of probability, or cannot be weighed in the balance of comprehension; -in short, all that is contrary to reason. They also say purification -is of two kinds; the _amighi_ or true, and the _ashkari_ or apparent: -the first consists in not defiling the heart with any thing; in not -attaching it to the concerns of this treacherous world, emancipating -it from all ties and prejudice, maintaining no connection with any -object whatever, and washing away all bias from the soul. The -_Ashkari_, or apparent, consists in removing to a distance whatever -appears unclean; consequently this purification is effected with water -which has undergone no change of color, smell, or taste: that is, -which is free from bad color, smell, or taste; if otherwise, -rose-water and such like are more to be commended. Ablution requires a -_kur_, or a measure of lustral water; that is, according to them, the -measure for a man, is that quantity into which he can immerge his -head; for an elephant, a quantity proportioned to his bulk; and for a -gnat, a single drop of water. They reckon it meritorious to recite the -prayers and texts of the _Shat Dasátír_, relative to the unity of the -self-existent Creator, the great dignity of intelligence and souls, -with the pains of the superior and inferior bodies; after which they -repeat the benedictions of the seven planets, particularly on their -days, and offer up the appropriate incense. The worshipper after this -recites the praises of the guardian of the month, and those of the -days of the month; for example, if it be the month of -_Farvardin_,[294] the believer repeats benedictions on that angel, and -then on each of the regents of the days of that month: particularly -the regent of that day called by the same name as the month: which day -is also regarded as a festival.[295] For instance, in the month of -_Farvardin_, he utters benedictions on the angel _Farvardin_, who is -one of the cherubim on whom that month is dependent; if it be the -first day of the month, called the day of _Hormuz_ (the angel who -superintends the first day of the month), the believers address their -benedictions to _Hormuz_; and act in a similar manner on the other -months and their respective days. According to them, the names of the -months are called after the names of their lords; and the appellations -of the days are according to the names of their respective regents: -consequently, as we have said, the believer adores the lord of the -month, and on festivals, pays adoration to the angel who is the lord -of the month and the day.[296] According to the Abadian, although in a -month, the name of the month and of the day be the same, this -coincidence makes not that day dependant on the month, but on the -regent who bears the same name with him, consequently it is necessary -to celebrate a festival. In the same manner, on the other days of -every month, salutations are paid every morning to the regent of the -day: also during the _Sudbar_, or the intercalary days, they offer up -praises to their angels. They also regard the angels of the days as -the ministers to the angels of the months, all of whom are subject to -the majesty of the Great Light――in like manner the other stars -(planets) have also angels dependent on them: they also believe that -the angels dependent on each star (planet) are beyond all number: and -finally, that the angelic host belonging to the solar majesty are -reckoned the highest order. Besides, on the period at which any of the -seven planets passes from one zodiacal mansion to another, they make -an entertainment on the first day, which they regard as a festival, -and call it _Shadbar_,[297] or “replete with joy.” Every month also, -on the completion of the lunar revolution, on ascertaining its -reappearance from astronomical calculation, they make great rejoicings -on the first day: there is in like manner a great festival when any -star has completed its revolution, which day they call _Dádram_,[298] -or “banquet decking.” Thus, although there is a festival every day of -the week in some idol-temple or other, as has been before stated, -relative to the day of _Nahid_, or Friday, in the temple of this idol: -yet on the day of the Sun, or _Yakshambah_ (the first day of the -week), there was a solemn festival at which all the people assembled. -In like manner they made a feast whenever a star returned to its -mansion or was in its zenith. - -They believe it wrong to hold any faith or religious system in -abhorrence, as according to them, we may draw near to God in every -faith: also that no faith has been abolished by divine authority――they -hold that, on this account, there have been so many prophets, in order -to shew the various ways which lead to God. Those who carefully -investigate well know, that the ways which lead to heaven are many; -nay more than come within the compass of numbers. It is well -understood, that access to a great sovereign is more easily attained -through the aid of his numerous ministers; although one of the -prince’s commanders be on bad terms with his confidential advisers, or -even should all the chiefs not co-operate with each other; yet they -can promote the interest of their inferiors: therefore it is not -proper to say that we can get to the God of all existence by one road -only. But the insurmountable barrier in the road of approaching God is -the slaughter of the Zindíbar, that is, those animals which inflict no -injury on any person, and slay not other living creatures, such as the -cow, the sheep, the camel, and the horse: there is assuredly no -salvation to the author of cruelty towards such, nor can he obtain -final deliverance by austerities or devotions of any description. -Should we even behold many miraculous works performed by the slayer of -harmless animals, we are not even then to regard him as one redeemed; -the works witnessed in him are only the reward of his devotions, and -the result of his perseverance in the practice of religious -austerities in this world: and as he commits evil, he cannot be -perfect in his devout exercises, so that nothing but suffering can -await him in another generation (when born again): such an instance of -an ascetic endued with miraculous powers is likened in the Shat -Dasatir[299] to a vase externally covered with choice perfumes, but -filled internally with impurities. They also maintain that in no -system of faith is cruelty to innoxious animals sanctioned: and all -human sanction for such acts proceeds from their attending to the -apparent import of words, without having recourse to profound or -earnest consideration――for example, by putting a horse or cow to death -is meant, the removal or banishing from one’s self animal -propensities, and not the slaughtering or devouring of innoxious -creatures. They state the later historians to have recorded without -due discrimination that Rustam, the son of Dastan (who was one of the -perfect saints), used to slay such animals: whereas tradition informs -us, that the mighty champion pursued in the chase noxious animals -only: what they write about his hunting the wild ass, implies that the -elephant-bodied hero called the lion a wild ass; or “that a lion is no -more than a wild ass when compared to my force.” In the several -passages where he is recorded to have slaughtered harmless wild asses -and oppressed innoxious creatures, and where similar actions are -ascribed to some of the Gilsháíyán princes, there is only implied the -banishment of animal propensities and passions: thus the illustrious -Shaikh Farideddin ât´ár declares, - - “In the heart of each are found a hundred swine; - You must slay the hog or hind on the Zanar.”[300] - -They hold that, from the commencement to the very end, the chiefs of -the Persian Sipásíán, far from slaughtering these harmless creatures, -regarded as an incumbent duty to avoid and shun, by every precaution, -the practice of oppression or destruction towards them: nay, they -inflicted punishment on the perpetrators of such deeds. Although they -esteem the Gilsháíyán prophets, pontiffs, and princes, exceedingly -holy personages, yet in their opinion, they come not up in perfect -wisdom and works to the preceding apostles and sovereigns, who -appeared from the Yassánián to the end of the Máhábádíán race. - -They assert that some innoxious animals suffer oppression in this -generation by way of retribution: for instance, an ox or a horse, -which in times long past had, through heedlessness, wantonness, or -without necessity, destroyed a man: as these creatures understand -nothing but how to eat and drink, consequently when they obtain a new -birth, they carry burdens, which is by no means to be regarded as an -act of oppression, but as a retribution or retaliation for their -previous misconduct. They are not put to death, as they are not -naturally destructive and sanguinary: their harmless nature proves -that they cannot be reckoned among the destroyers of animal life: so -that putting them to death is the same as destroying an ignorant -harmless man: therefore their slayer, though he may not receive in -this world the merited punishment from the actual ruler or governor, -appears in the next generation under the form of a ferocious beast, -and meets his deserts. A great man says on this subject: - - “In every evil deed committed by thee, think not that it - Is passed over in Heaven or neglected in the resolutions of time; - Thy evil deeds are a debt, ever in the presence of fortune, - Which must be repaid, in whatever age she makes the demand.” - -They also hold the eternal paradise to be the Heavens; and regard the -solar majesty as lord of the empyrean; and the other stars, fixed or -planetary, as his ministers: thus a person who, through religious -mortifications and purity of life, attains righteousness in words and -deeds, is united with the sun and becomes an empyreal sovereign: but -if the proportion of his good works bear a closer affinity to any -other star, he becomes lord of the place assigned to that star: whilst -others are joined to the firmament on high: the perfect man passes on -still farther, arriving at the æthereal sphere, or the region of pure -spirits; such men attain the beatific vision of the light of lights -and the cherubinic hosts of the Supreme Lord. Should he be a prince -during whose reign no harmless animals were slaughtered in his realms; -and who, if any were guilty of these acts, inflicted punishment on the -perpetrators of the crimes, so that no such characters departed this -world without due retribution; he is esteemed a wise, beneficent, and -virtuous king: and immediately on being separated from the elements of -body, he is united with the sun: his spirit is identified with that of -the majesty of the great light and he becomes an æthereal sovereign. -Prince Siamak, the son of Kaiomors declares: “I beheld from first to -last all the Abádíán, Jyáníán, Sháíyán, and Yassáníán monarchs: some -were cherubim in the presence of the Supreme Lord; others absorbed in -the contemplation of the Light of Lights: but I found none lower than -the sphere of the sun, the vicegerent of God.” On my asking them -concerning the means of attaining these high degrees, they said: “The -great means of acquiring this dignity consist in the protection of -harmless animals, and inflicting punishment on evil doers.” - -According to this sect, labouring under insanity, suffering distress -on account of one’s children, being assailed by diseases, the -visitations of providence, these calamities are the retribution of -actions in a former state of existence. If a person should fall down -or stumble when running, even this is regarded as the retribution of -past deeds: as are also the maladies of new-born babes. But whatever -happens to a just man, which is evidently unmerited, this is not to be -looked on as retribution, but as proceeding from the oppression of the -temporal ruler, from whom, in a future generation, the Supreme Ruler -will demand an account. - -According to their tenets, the drinking of wine or strong liquors to -excess, or partaking of things which impair the understanding, is by -no means to be tolerated: which may be proved by this reflexion, that -the perfection of man is understanding, and that intoxicating -beverages reduce human nature, whilst in that state, to a level with -the brute creation. If a person drink strong liquors to excess, he is -brought before the judge to receive due castigation; and should he, -during that state, do injury to another, he is held accountable for -it, and is punished also as a malefactor. - -Among this sect it is permitted to kill those animals which oppress -others, such as lions, fowls, and hawks, which prey on living -creatures: but whatever animals, whether noxious or innoxious, suffer -violence from the noxious, duly receive it by way of retribution: when -they slay the former, or noxious animals, that is regarded as a -retribution, because in a former existence they were oppressive and -sanguinary creatures: and in this generation the Almighty has given -them over to other more sanguinary animals, that they might shed the -blood of the sanguinary bloodshedder: so that when noxious creatures -are slain, it is by way of retribution for having shed blood: the very -act of shedding their blood proves them to have been formerly shedders -of blood: it is not however allowed to put them to death until they -become hurtful: for example, a young sparrow cannot, whilst in that -state, commit an injury; but, when able to fly, it injures the insects -of the earth; and, although this happens to the insects by way of -retributive justice, yet their slayers become also deserving of being -slain, as in a former generation they have been shedders of blood. For -instance, a person has unwittingly slain another, for which crime he -has been thrown into prison; on which they summons one of the other -prisoners to behead the murderer: after which the judge commands one -of his officers to put the executioner to death, as, previous to this -act, he had before shed blood unjustly. But if a man slay a noxious -animal, he is not to be put to death, because that person taking into -consideration the noxious animal’s oppression, has inflicted -retribution on it: but if a brave champion or any other be slain in -fighting with a noxious creature; this was his merited retribution; -and it is the same if an innoxious animal be slain in fighting with a -noxious creature: for example, in a past generation the ox was a man -endued with many brutal propensities, who with violence and insolence -forced people into his service and imposed heavy burdens on them, -until he deprived some of them of life: therefore in this generation, -on account of his ruling propensities, he comes in the form of an ox, -that he may receive the retribution due to his former deeds, and in -return for his having shed blood, should be himself slain by a lion or -some such creature. But mankind are not permitted to kill the harmless -animals, and these are not shedders of blood: and if such an act -should be inadvertently perpetrated by any individuals, destructive -animals are then appointed to retaliate on them, as we have explained -under the head of the ox. - -The best mode to be adopted by merciful men for putting to death -destructive creatures, such as fowls, sparrows, and the like, is the -following: let them open a vein, so that it may die from the effusion -of blood: there are many precepts of this kind recorded in the _Jashen -Sudah_ of the _Móbed Hoshyár_: but philosophers, eminent doctors, and -durveshes who abandon the world, never commit such acts: it is however -indispensably necessary that a king, in the course of government, -should inflict on the evildoer the retaliation due to his conduct. The -Móbed _Hoshyár_ relates, in the _Sarud-i-Mastán_, that in the time of -Kaíomors and Siamak, no animal of any kind was slain, as they were all -obedient to the commands of these princes. So that one of the -_Farjúd_, or miraculous powers possessed by the Yezdanian chiefs of -Iran, from Kaíomors to Jemshíd, was their appointing a certain class -of officers to watch over the animal creation, so that they should not -attack each other. For instance, a lion was not permitted to destroy -any animal, and if he killed one in the chase, he met with due -punishment; consequently no creature was slain or destroyed, and -carnage fell into such disuse among noxious animals, that they were -all reckoned among the innoxious. However, the skins of animals which -had died a natural death were taken off, and in the beginning used as -clothing by Kaíomors and his subjects: but they were latterly -satisfied with the leaves of trees. Those who embrace the tenets of -this holy race attribute this result to the miraculous powers of these -monarchs, and some profound thinkers regard it as effected by a -_talisman_; whilst many skilled in interpretation hold it to be an -enigmatical mode of expression: thus, the animal creation submitting -to government implies, the justice of the sovereigns; their vigilance -in extirpating corruption and evil, and producing good. In short, when -in the course of succession the Gilsháíyán crown came to Húshang, he -enjoined the people to eat the superabundant eggs of ducks, domestic -fowls, and such like, but not to such a degree that, through their -partaking of such food, the race of these creatures should become -extinct. When the throne of sovereignty was adorned by the presence of -Tahmúras, he said, “It is lawful for carnivorous and noxious creatures -to eat dead bodies:” that is, if a lion find a lifeless stag, or a -sparrow a dead worm, they may partake of them. In the same manner, -when Jemshid assumed the crown, he enacted: “If men of low caste eat -the flesh of animals which die a natural death, they commit no sin.” -The reason why people do not at present eat of animals which died in -the course of nature, is, that their flesh engenders disease, as the -animal died of some distemper: otherwise there is no sin attached to -the eating of it. When Jemshid departed to the mansions of eternity, -_Deh Ak_,[301] the Arab, slew and partook of all animals -indifferently, whether destructive or harmless, so that the detestable -practice became general. When Faridún had purged the earth from the -pollution of Zohák’s tyranny, he saw that some creatures, hawks, -lions, wolves, and others of the destructive kind, gave themselves up -to the chase in violation of the original covenant: he therefore -enjoined the slaughter of these classes. After this, Jraj permitted -men of low caste, that is the mass of the people, to partake of -destructive creatures, such as domestic fowls (which prey upon worms), -also sparrows and such like, in killing which no sin is incurred: but -the holy Yezdanians never polluted their mouths with flesh, or killed -savage animals for themselves, although they slew them for others of -the same class. For example, the hawk, lion, and other rapacious -animals of prey were kept in the houses of the great, for the purpose -of inflicting punishment on other destructive animals, and not that -men should partake of them: for eating flesh is not an innate quality -in men, as whenever they slay animals for food, ferocity settles in -their nature, and that aliment introduces habits of rapacity: whereas -the true meaning of putting destructive animals to death, is the -extirpation of wickedness. The Yezdanians also have certain viands, -which people at present confound with animals and flesh: for instance, -they give the name of _barah_, “lamb,” to a dish composed of the -_zingú_, or egg-mushroom; _gaur_, or “onager” is a dish made out of -cheese: with many others of the same kind. Although they kill -destructive animals in the chase, they never eat of them; and if in -their houses they kill one destructive animal for the food of another, -such as a sparrow for a hawk, it is done by a man styled _Dazhkím_, or -executioner, who is lower than a _Milar_, called in _Hindi_, _Juharah_ -or “sweeper,” and in modern language _Hallál Khúr_, or one to whom all -food is lawful. But the dynasty preceding Gilshah, from whom the -Yezdanians derive their tenets, afforded no protection whatever to -destructive animals, as they esteemed the protection of the oppressor -most reprehensible. In the time of the Gilsháíyán princes, they -nourished hawks and such like, for the purpose of retaliating on -destructive animals; for example, they let loose the hawk on the -sparrow, which is the emblem of _Ahriman_; and when the hawk grew old, -they cut off his head and killed him for his former evil deeds. The -first race never kept any destructive creatures, as they esteemed it -criminal to afford them protection; and even their destruction never -took place in the abodes of righteous and holy persons. - -Among the Sipasíyan sect were many exemplary and pious personages, the -performers of praiseworthy discipline: with them, however, voluntary -austerity implies “religious practices” or _Saluk_, and consists not -in extreme suffering, which they hold to be an evil, and a retribution -inflicted for previous wicked deeds. According to this sect, the modes -of walking in the paths of God are manifold: such as seeking God; the -society of the wise; retirement and seclusion from the world; purity -of conduct; universal kindness; benevolence; reliance on God; -patience; endurance; contentedness; resignation; and many such like -qualities――as thus recorded in the _Sarúd-i-Mustán_ of the _Móbed -Hushyar_. The _Móbed Khodá Jáí_, in the “Cup of _Kái Khusró_,” a -commentary on the text of the poem of the venerable _Azar Kaivan_, -thus relates: “He who devotes himself to walking in the path of God, -must be well-skilled in the medical sciences, so that he may rectify -whatever predominates or exceeds in the bodily humours: in the next -place, he must banish from his mind all articles of faith, systems, -opinions, ceremonials, and be at peace with all: he is to seat himself -in a small and dark cell, and gradually diminish the quantity of his -food.” The rules for the diminution of food are thus laid down in the -_Sharistan_ of the holy doctor _Ferzanah Bahram_, the son of _Farhád_: -“From his usual food, the pious recluse is every day to subtract three -direms, until he reduces it to ten direms weight: he is to sit in -perfect solitude, and give himself up to meditation.” Many of this -sect have brought themselves to one direm weight of food: their -principal devotional practice turning on these five points: namely, -fasting, silence, waking, solitude, and meditation on God. Their modes -of invoking God are manifold, but the one most generally adopted by -them is that of the _Múk Zhúp_: now in the _Azanan_ or _Pehlevi_, -_Múk_ signifies “four,” and _Zhúp_ “a blow;” this state of meditation -is also called _Char Sang_, “the four weights,” and _Char Kúb_, “the -four blows.” The next in importance is the _siyá zhúp_, “the three -weights” or “three blows.” The sitting postures among these devotees -are numerous; but the more approved and choice are limited to -eighty-four; out of these they have selected fourteen; from the -fourteen they have taken five; and out of the five two are chosen by -way of eminence: with respect to these positions, many have been -described by the _Móbud Sarúsh_ in the _Zerdúsht Afshár_: of these -two, the choice position is the following: The devotee sits on his -hams, cross-legged, passing the outside of the right foot over the -left thigh, and that of the left foot over the right thigh; he then -passes his hands behind his back, and holds in his left hand the great -toe of the right foot, and in the right hand the great toe of the left -foot, fixing his eyes intently on the point of the nose: this position -they call _Farnishin_, “the splendid seat,” but by the Hindi Jogies it -is named the _Padma ásan_,[302] or “Lotus seat.” If he then repeat the -_Zekr-i-Mukzhub_, he either lays hold of the great toes with his -hands, or if he prefer, removes his feet off the thighs, seating -himself in the ordinary position, which is quite sufficient――then, -with closed eyes, the hands placed on the thighs, the armpits open, -the back erect, the head thrown forward, and fetching up from the -navel with all his force the word _Nist_, he raises his head up: next, -in reciting the word _Hésti_, he inclines the head towards the right -breast; on reciting the word _Magar_, he holds the head erect; after -which he utters _Yezdan_, bowing the head to the left breast, the seat -of the heart. The devotee makes no pause between the words thus -recited; nay, if possible, he utters several formularies in one -breath, gradually increasing their number. The words of the formulary -(_Nist hesti magar yezdan_, “there is no existence save God”) are thus -set forth: “Nothing exists but God;” or, “There is no God, but God;” -or, “There is no adoration except for what is adorable;” or this, “He -to whom worship is due is pure and necessarily existent;” or, “He who -is without equal, form, color, or model.” It is permitted to use this -formulary publicly, but the inward meditation is most generally -adopted by priests and holy persons; as the senses become disturbed by -exclamations and clamors, and the object of retirement is to keep them -collected. In the inward meditation, the worshipper regards three -objects as present: “God, the heart, and the spirit of his Teacher;” -whilst he revolves in his heart the purport of this formulary: “There -is nothing in existence but God.” But if he proceeds to the -suppression of breath, which is called the “knowledge of _Dam_ and -_Súmrad_,” or the science of breath and imagination, he closes not the -eyes, but directs them to the tip of the nose, as we have before -explained under the first mode of sitting: this institute has also -been recorded in the _Surud-i-Mastan_, but the present does not -include all the minute details.[303] - -It is thus recorded in the _Zerdúsht Afshár_; the worshipper having -closed the right nostril, enumerates the names of God from once to -sixteen times, and whilst counting draws his breath upwards; after -which he repeats it twenty-two times, and lets the breath escape out -of the right nostril, and whilst counting propels the breath aloft; -thus passing from the six Kháns or stages to the seventh; until from -the intensity of imagination he arrives to a state in which he thinks -that his soul and breath bound like the jet of a fountain to the crown -of the head: they enumerate the seven stages, or the seven degrees, in -this order: 1st, the position of sitting; 2d, the hips; 3d, the navel; -4th, the pine-heart; 5th, the windpipe; 6th, the space between the -eyebrows; and 7th, the crown of the head. As causing the breath to -mount to the crown of the head is a power peculiar to the most eminent -persons; so, whoever can convey his breath and soul together to that -part, becomes the viceregent of God. According to another institute, -the worshipper withdraws from all senseless pursuits, sits down in -retirement, giving up his heart to his original world on high, and -without moving the tongue, repeats in his heart Yezdan! Yezdan! or -God! God! which address to the Lord may be made in any language, as -Hindi, Arabic, etc. Another rule is, the idea of the Instructor: the -worshipper imagines him to be present and is never separated from that -thought, until he attains to such a degree, that the image of his -spiritual guide is never absent from the mind’s eye, and he then turns -to contemplate his heart: or he has a mirror before his sight, and -beholds his own form, until, from long practice, it is never more -separated from the heart, to which he then directs himself: or he sits -down to contemplate his heart, and reflects on it as being in -continual movement. In all these cases he regards the practices of the -suppression of the breath as profitable for the abstraction of -thought: an object which may also be effected without having recourse -to it. - -Another rule is, what they call _ázád áwá_, or the “free voice;” in -Hindi _Ánahid_; and in Arabic _Sáut Mutluk_, or “the absolute sound.” -Some of the followers of Mohammed relate, that it is recorded in the -traditions, that a revelation came to the venerable prophet of Arabia -resembling “the tones of a bell,” which means the “Sáut Mutluk:” which -Hafiz of Shiraz expresses thus: - - “No person knows where my beloved dwells: - This much only is known, that the sound of the bell approaches.” - -The mode of hearing it is after this manner: the devotees direct the -hearing and understanding to the brain, and whether in the gloom of -night, in the house, or in the desert, hear this voice, which they -esteem as their _Zikker_, or “address to God.” Azizi[304] thus -expresses himself: - - “I recognise that playful sportiveness, - And well know that amount of blandishment: - The sound of footsteps comes to my ear at night; - It was thyself; I recognise the hallowed voice!” - -Then having opened the eyes and looking between the eyebrows, a form -appears. Some of those who walk in the path of religious poverty among -the followers of Mohammed (on whom be benedictions!) assert that the -expression _Kab Kausain_, “I was near two bows’ length,” alludes to -this vision. Finally, if they prefer it, having closed the eyes for -some time, they reflect on the form which appeared to them on looking -between the eyebrows; after which they meditate on the heart; or -without contemplating the form, they commence by looking into the -heart; and closing both eyes and ears, give themselves up entirely to -meditation on the heart, abandoning the external for the internal: -whoever can thus contemplate obtains all that he wants; but - - “The anguish of my friend strikes at the portal of the heart; - Command them, O, Sháni! to purify the dwelling of the heart.” - -Finally the searcher after the Being who is without equal or form, -without color or pattern, whom they know and comprehend in the Parsi -under the name of “_Izad_,” in Arabic by the blessed name of -“_Allah_,” and in Hindi as “_Para Brahma Náráyaran a_,”[305] -contemplates him without the intervention of Arabic, Persian, Hindi, -or any other language, keeping the heart in his presence, until he, -being rescued from the shadows of doubt, is identified with God. The -venerable _Maulaví Jami_ says on this head: - - “Thou art but an atom, He, the great whole; but if for a few days - Thou meditate with care on the whole, thou becomest one with it.” - -They hold that reunion with the first principle, which the Sufees -interpret by evanescence and permanence, means not, according to the -distinguished Ishrakian[306] or Platonists of Persia, that the beings -of accident or creation are blended with him whose existence is -necessary, or that created beings cease to exist; but that when the -sun of the first cause manifests himself, then apparently all created -beings, like the stars in the sun’s light, are absorbed in his divine -effulgence; and if the searcher after God should continue in this -state, he will comprehend how they become shrouded through the sun’s -overpowering splendor, or like the ecstatic Sufees he will regard them -as annihilated: but the number of Sufís who attain to this state is -exceedingly small, and the individuals themselves are but little known -to fame. This volume would not be sufficient to enumerate the amount -of those lights (precepts) which direct the pilgrim on his course, but -the venerable _Azur Kaiván_ has treated at large on this head in the -_Jám-i-Kai Khusró_. - -It is, however, necessary to mention that there are four states of -vision; the first, _Núníar_,[307] or that which is seen during sleep: -by sleep is meant that state when the subtile fumes arising from the -food taken into the stomach mounting up to the brain, overpower -external perceptions at the time of repose: whatever is then beheld is -called in Farsi _Tínáb_, in Arabic _Rúyá_, and in Hindi _Svapna_.[308] -The state beyond this dignity is _Susvapna_,[309] in Arabic _Ghaib_ or -“mysterious,” and in the popular language of the Hindoos -_Sukhásváda_[310] or _Samádhi_[311] (suspending the connexion between -soul and body), which is as follows: when divine grace is communicated -from the worlds on high, and the transport arising from that grace -locks up external perceptions, whatever is beheld during that state is -called _Binab_ or “revelation:” but that state into which the senses -enter, or _Hóshwázhen_, “a trance,” which is expressed in Arabic by -_Sahú_ or “recovering from ebriety,” and in Hindi by _Jagrat_,[312] -“awaking,” and _Pratyaya_ “evidence,”[313] means that state in which -divine grace being communicated, without the senses being overpowered, -it transports the person for the time being to the world of reality: -whatever he beholds in this state is called _Bínáb_ or _Mâainah_ -“reality.” The state higher than this is the power of the soul to quit -the body and to return to it, which is called in Farsi -_Nívah-i-chaminah_, in Arabic _Melkát Khalâ-baden_, and in Hindu -_prapura paroksha_.[314] - -They affirm that the bodies occupied by some souls resemble a loose -garment, which may be put off at pleasure; so that they can ascend to -the world of light, and on their return become reunited with the -material elements. The difference between _Sahú_ and _Khalâ_ is this: -_Sahú_ means, being absorbed in meditation on the communication of -divine grace, so that, without a relaxation of the senses, the person -may, for the time being, actually abide in the invisible world: -whereas _Khalâ_ means, that the individual, whenever he pleases, -separates himself from the body and returns to it when he thinks -fitting. The spiritual Maulavi thus says: - - “Shout aloud, my friends! for one person has separated himself - from the body; - Out of a hundred thousand bodies, one person has become - identified with God.” - -According to this sect there are seven worlds: the first is absolute -existence and pure being, which they call _Arang_[315] or “divinity;” -the second is the world of intelligences, which they call _Birang_ or -“the empyreal;” the third is that of souls, called _Alrang_ or the -angelic; the fourth that of the superior bodies, or _Nirang_; the -fifth, the elementary or _Rang_; the sixth the compounds of the four -elements, or _Rang-a-Rang_: but according to the Sufís all bodies, -whether superior or inferior, are named _Málk_ or region; the seventh -is _Sarang_, which is that of man or of human beings: but in some -Parsi treatises they term these seven regions the seven true -realities: however, if the author were to describe minutely the -articles and ceremonies of this sect, their details would require so -many volumes, that contenting himself with what has been stated, he -now proceeds to describe some of their most distinguished followers of -later times. - - - [228] Here begins the translation of David Shea. - - [229] _Serúsh_ or _Serósh_, is derived from the Zend, and - signifies properly _sí-roz_, that is “thirty days, a month.” - To the adorers of the stars, Serósh is the name of an angel - who presides over the 17th day of the month; according to - their religion, he is moreover the most active of the - celestial spirits; as king of the earth, he passes every day - and every night three times through his empire; his throne - is the summit of the world; all light, all intelligence, he - purifies and fertilizes the earth, blesses and protects - mankind, strikes the evil spirits; in short, he is adored - equal to the supreme being. (_See Zend Avesta, par Anquetil - du Perron_, _I._ 2. P. _pp._ 80, 156, 228, 404, 415; _II._ - 320, 330, 223, 235, 237).――A. T. - - [230] The text given by Gladwin (_see the New Asiatic - Miscellany_, _vol. I. p._ 93), and the manuscript of Oude, - have no negative before خجسته; the sense would - therefore be: “if his words had been plausible, but the - deeds bad.” The edit. of Calcutta gives the sense as - above.――A. T. - - [231] Gladwin translates this passage as follows (_ibid._, - _p._ 94): “If a deserving soul produces good words and - deeds,” which is in accordance with the text he followed, - and with that of the edit. of Calcutta; but Shea’s - translation is justified by the manuscript of Oude, which - has: بي پسنديده اقوال فرّخی افعال.――A. T. - - [232] According to Gladwin, after باره once followed in a - series by هزار the same word is to be always understood――thus - يک هزار باره فردرا is not a thousand _fard_, but one million - _fard_. This word is not in the Burhan:――I have therefore - followed Gladwin’s authority. But in the Desátir, or “Sacred - Writings of the ancient Persian Prophets in the original - tongue,” published at Bombay in 1818, the following passage - occurs in the commentary of the Vth Sasan (English transl. - p. 36): “They call a thousand times a thousand years a - _ferd_; and a thousand _ferds_, a _werd_; and a thousand - _werds_, a _merd_; and a thousand _werds_, a _jád_; and - three thousand _jáds_, a _wád_; and two thousand _wads_, a - _zád_;” etc.――D. S. - - [233] هيربد “Hirbed” (see Thomas Hyde, _Veterum Persarum et - Parthorum et Medorum Religionis Historia, Oxon ii._ 1760, p. - 369-372) was called a priest of the fire-worship; according - to oriental authors, a priest of the ancient Persians was in - general, called formerly مغ, ‘magh,’ or موغ ‘mogh,’ that is - “excellent,” hence Magus, a Magian. The Magi are mentioned - by Herodotus, and, according to Aristotle, were more ancient - than the Egyptian priests. Clitarchus and Strabo, contemporaries, - the one of Alexander, the other of Augustus, speak of the - Magi. The latter says (lib. XV.): Εν δε τη Καππαδοκία, πολύ - ἐστι το τῶν Μάγων φῦλον οἱ καὶ Πύρεθοι καλοῦνται· “In - Kappadocia is a great multitude of Magi, called also - Pyrethi.” (See Selden, De Dis Syris syntagma, Lipsiæ, 1662, - p. 317, 318). An order superior to this class of priests was - the بد, ‘mógh bed,’ or وبد, ‘mobed,’ a ‘prefect, or judge of - the Magi,’ of the learned priests, or of the worshippers of - the sun, in a general sense, a wise man, adorer of the sun. - A third order of Persian priests was called تور, ‘dastur,’ - or ‘superintendant.’ (See also _Zend-Avesta_, translated by - Anquetil du Perron, t. II, pp. 516, 517, 553, 555.)――A. T. - - [234] ब्रह्मन् “Brahman.” - - [235] Gladwin “Mahuristar.” We read in the Commentary upon - article 145 of the Desatir, English translation, p. 27: “In - Pehlevi the Huristars are called _Athurnâns_――They are the - Mobeds and Hirbuds whose duty is to guard the faith, to - confirm the knowledge and precepts of religion, and to - establish justice.”――A. T. - - [236] क्षत्त्रः, क्षत्त्रियः, क्षत्त्री, ‘kshatra, kshatriya, kshatri,’ - a man of the military class, from क्षद् to divide, or eat, - rather from क्षेत्रं, _kshétram_, ‘field,’ which they are to - protect. This last from क्षि, _kshi_, ‘to dwell.’ - - [237] छत्रं, ‘_chhatraḿ_,’ a parasol, an umbrella, from छद - ‘chhada,’ to cover.――A. T. - - [238] “The Núristárs in Pehlevi are named _Rehtishtáran_, - and are the princes and warriors who are called to grandeur - and superiority, and command, and worldly sway.” _Comment. - upon art. 145 of the Desatir_, p. 27.――A. T. - - [239] विश, वैश्य, ‘_viś_, _vaiśya_, ‘a man of the mercantile - tribe,’ from विश, ‘viś,’ to enter.――A. T. - - [240] “The Suristars in Pehlevi are denominated _Washteryû´shán_, - and are devoted to every kind of business and employment.” - _Comment. upon the Desatir_, p. 27. - - [241] शुद्र, _śudra_, a man of the fourth or servile class, - from शुच, _such_, to purify.――A. T. - - [242] “The Ruzistars are in Pehlevi styled Hotukhshan, and - are artisans and husbandmen.”――_Comm. upon the Des._ - - [243] The names _Huristar_, _Nuristar_, _Suristar_, and - _Ruzistar_, of the four classes of the people, are to be - found in the Desatir (artic. 145, English translation, p. - 27), from which work the author of the Dabistan is likely to - have taken them, as various other information. As this - division of a nation is undoubtedly suggested by the natural - state of things, it has been attributed to more than one - ancient king, and by Ferdúsi, in his Shah-namah, to Jemshid, - under four denominations belonging to the ancient Persian - language. These are as follows: 1ᵒ ان, _Amuzian_; 2ᵒ - يساريان, _Nisarian_; 3ᵒ دی, _Nasudi_; 4ᵒ خوشی, _Ahnu - khushi_, corresponding to the learned, the warriors, the - husbandmen, and the mechanics. The first of these names, - _Amuzian_, is easily recognised in the Persian ختن, - _amokhten_ (Imp. اموز _amuz_), “to teach, to learn;” the - second _nisarian_ is the same with ساری, _nisari_, the - common Persian word for a warrior; the third, _nasudi_, is a - Pehlevi noun (see Hyde, p. 437); the fourth, _Ahnúkhúshí_, - appears composed of [اهنو, _ahnu_, “provisions, meat” (to be - traced to आह्निक, _ahnika_, “daily work, food”), and of - خوشی, _khushi_, “good, content,” or from ستن _khástan_, “to - ask.” Upon the four classes of the people see also _History - of the early kings of Persia, translated from the Persian of - Mirkhond, entitled the Rauza-us-safa”_ by David Shea, p. - 108-113.――A. T. - - [244] The text of Gladwin has انير, _destânir_, the edition - of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have _Dasátir_. The - single volume published under that name at Bombay (see note - page 14), if genuine at all, can be considered but as a very - small part of the great work, said to comprehend all - languages and sciences.――A. T. - - [245] This faith is also called _Fersendáj_, and the great - Ábád himself _Ferzábád_, and _Búzúgábad_, (Dasát., Engl. - Transl., p. 27, 58, 187).――A. T. - - [246] _Burz_, with the Arabic article _Al-burz_, is a - mountain in Jebal or Irak Ajemi, not far distant from, and - to the north of, the town Yezd in the province of Fars, - where, from very remote times to our days, a great number of - fire-temples existed. Alburz belongs to a fabulous region; - this name is given to several mountains, among which the - great Caucasus is distinguished from the _tirah_, or - “little,” Alburz.――A. T. - - [247] This word reminds of जिन, _jina_, or जैन, _jaina_, - from जि, _ji_, ‘to conquer’ or ‘excel,’ a generic name of - distinguished persons, belonging to the Jaina sect of - Hindus.――A. T. - - [248] This is evidently the Sanskrit word यशस्, _yaśas_, - “fame, glory, celebrity, splendor,” and यशस्वान, _yaśasvan_, - “famous, celebrated.”――A. T. - - [249] Gladwin has مور, _nimur_; the edition of Calcutta and - the manuscript of Oude have تيمور _timur_.――A. T. - - [250] Gil-shah, “Earth-King,” also “the King formed of - clay.” According to the _Mojmil-al-Tavarikh_ (see Extracts - from this work by Julius Mohl, Esq., Journ. Asiat., February - 1841, p. 146), he was so called, because he governed the - then not inhabited earth. Gil-shah is one of the names given - to the first man or King; in the _Desátir_ (pp. 70, 131) he - is called Giomert, Gilshadeng; by others Kaiomars (see also - _Rauzat-us-Safa_ of Mirkhond, translated by D. Shea, p. - 50).――A. T. - - [251] This number differs considerably from the chronology - of other Asiatics. Here follow the periods enumerated in the - _Epitome of the ancient History of Persia, extracted and - translated from the Jehan Ara_, by Sir Wil. Ouseley (p. - 71-74). - - The Peshádian ruled (the mean of 4 different data) 2531 years. - Kaiánián ―― ( ―― 4 ―― ) 704 ―― - Ashkánián ―― ( ―― 11 ―― ) 352 ―― - Sásánian ―― ( ―― 7 ―― ) 500 ―― - ―――――――――――― - TOTAL 4087 years. - ―――――――――――― - - As Yezdejird’s reign terminated 651 or 653 years of our era, - the beginning of the Peshdádíán, according to the Dabistan, - is placed 6024-651=5373 years before J. C.――A. T. - - [252] Adopting the just computed period of 4087 years - between Yezdegird and the 1st of the Péshdadíán, Kaiomars - would have begun to reign 3436 years before Christ; - according to the Shahnamah, it was 3529 years before our - era; Sir W. Jones places him 890 years B. C. (see his Works, - vol. XII, 8vo edit. p. 399). - - [253] Síyamak the son of Gilshah or Kaiomors, was killed in - a battle against the Divs. - ACCORDING ACCORDING - TO FERDUSI: TO SIR W. JONES: - [254] Húshang began to reign 3499 years B. C.; 865 years B. C. - [255] Tehmúras ―― 3469 ―― ; 835 ―― - [256] Jemshíd ―― 3429 ―― ; 800 ―― - - Jemshíd, also called Jermshár in the _Desátir_ (pp. 88, - 89), according to Ferdusi the son of Tehmúras, according to - the _Zend-Avesta_ the son of Viverghám, brother or son of - Tahmúras. He, or rather his dynasty, ruled 700 years the - Persian empire. He is believed to have been the first who - amongst the Persians regulated the solar year, the - commencement of which he fixed at the vernal equinox, about - the 5th of April (see _Zend-Avesta_, by Anquetil du Perron, - vol. II, p. 82). He is also distinguished by the epithet - _Sad-wakhshur_, which signifies “hundred prophets;” to him - is ascribed the book _Javedan Khirad_, “eternal intelligence,” - which is said to have been translated into Greek, with other - books, by order of Alexander (see _Desátir_, English transl. - pp. 79, 153, 163).――A. T. - - [257] Zohak, the son of a sister of Jemshíd, usurped the - throne of his uncle and sovereign, according to Ferdusi, - 2729 years B. C.; according to Helvicus, 2248; according to - Jackson, 1964; but only 780 years B. C., according to Sir W. - Jones who, in general, fixes the ancient Persian reigns much - lower than other chronologers. Zohak is also called - _Pivar-asp_, or _Bivar-asp_, from the circumstance of his - always keeping ten thousand Arabian horses in his stables, - for _Bivar_, says Ferdusi, from the Pehlevi, in counting - means in the Dárí tongue, ten thousand (see Rauzat-us-safá, - Translat., p. 123; and also Mojmel-al-Tavarikh). The empire - which Zokah founded is identified by some historians with - the Assyrian monarchy of Semiramis, or with a Semitic - domination in general. It lasted, according to the Orientals, - 1000 years; according to Ctesias, Diodorus Siculus, Justin - and Syncellus 13 or 1400, according to Herodotus only 520 - years.――A. T. - - [258] Kiblah signifies that part to which people direct - their face in prayer, the temple of Mecca to the devout - Muhammedans; in a general sense, it means the object of our - views or wishes.――A. T. - - [259] The text has گس, _Kerges_, a bird, feeding on - carcasses, and living one hundred years.――A. T. - - [260] Bahram is also called _Manishram_ (Desátir, Engl. - transl. p. 79). - - [261] Nahid appears also under the name of _Ferehengíram_ - (ibid., p. 90). - - [262] Tir, also _Temirám_ (ibid., p. 102).――A. T. - - [263] It was from time immemorial to our days the practice - of the Asiatics to refer the common affairs of life to the - stars, to which they attribute a constant and powerful - influence over the nether world. Thus Húmaiun the son of - Baber, emperor of India (see the History of Ferishta, - translated by general John Briggs, vol. II, p. 71) “caused - seven halls of audience to be built, in which he received - persons according to their rank. The first, called the - palace of the Moon, was set apart for ambassadors, messengers - and travellers. In the second, called the palace of _Utarid_ - (Venus), civil officers, and persons of that description, - were received; and there were five other palaces for the - remaining five planets. In each of these buildings he gave - public audience, according to the planet of the day. The - furniture and paintings of each, as also the dresses of the - household attendants, bore some symbol emblematical of the - planet. In each of these palaces he transacted business one - day in the week.”――A. T. - - [264] Gladwin has وساتير _timar Vasátir_, the manuscript of - Oude ر دسيتير _tímár dasyátir_, the edition of Calcutta ار - دساتير, _tímsár dasatir_, which is the right reading, as the - word “_timsar_” is explained in the index of obsolete or - little known terms by these words: لمهٔ تعظيم بمعنی “a word - expressing respect.”――A. T. - - [265] Cicacole, a town in the northern districts of the - Coromandel coast, anciently named Kalinga, the ancient - capital of an extensive district of the same name, lat. 18° - 21′ N., long. 83° 57′ E.――A. T. - - [266] The Muhammedans distinguish particularly two temples, - or mosques: the first, the principal object of their - veneration, is the _Masjed al Haram_, or “the Sacred - mosque,” that is to say, the temple of Mecca, where is also - the _Kâbah_, or “the Square-edifice,” built, as they say, by - Abraham and his son Ismael. The second of the temples is the - _Masjed al Nabí_, “the mosque of the Prophet,” who preached - and is buried in it.――(_Herbelot._)――A. T. - - [267] Ali, the son of _Abu Taleb_, the cousin and son in law - of Muhammed. Ali was assassinated in the mosque of Kufa, and - buried near this town, in the province of Irak, the - Babylonian, on the right bank of the Euphrates.――A. T. - - [268] Kerbela is a district of Irak, the Babylonian, or of - Chaldæa, not far from Kufa, and west of the town called - Kaser Ben Hóbeirah. It is famous on account of the death and - sepulchre of Hóssáin, the son of Ali, who was killed there, - fighting against the troops of Yezid, son of Moavia, who - disputed the khalifat with him.――A. T. - - [269] Músa was the seventh of the twelve Imams whom the - Shiites revere. He was born in the year of the Hegira 128 - (745 A. D.), and died in 183 (799 A. D.).――A. T. - - [270] Baghdad, a town in the province Irak Arabí. - - [271] The Imam Reza was the eighth Imam of the race of Alí; - he was called Alí Ben Mússa al Kadhem, before he received - the title Reza or Redha (one in whom God is pleased) from - the Khalif Almamúm, when the latter appointed him his - successor, but survived the Imam, who died A. D. 818.――A. T. - - [272] Balkh, a town in Khorasan, situated towards the head - of the river Oxus, in lat. N. 36° 28′; long. 65° 16′. - - [273] Persepolis, in Persia proper. - - [274] For the black stone, consult Dart’s Antiquities of - Westminster, vol. II, p. 12; Matthew of Westminster, p. - 430.――D. S. - - Stones, especially when distinguished by some particular - form or colour, were in the most ancient times venerated as - the only then possible monuments, consecrated to some - respected person, or to some Divinity. Thus the ancient - Arabians venerated a square stone as sacred (see Selden de - Dis Syris, p. 291, 292). It is known that the Muhammedans - bestow a particular veneration upon a black stone, which is - attached to the gate of their mosque at Mecca (Herbelot, - Bibl. orient. sub voce). It is evident that the followers of - Muhammed, who is the prophet of a comparatively recent - religion, appropriated to themselves more than one object - and place of the most ancient veneration by merely changing - its name, and attaching to it a legend in accordance to - their own belief.――A. T. - - [275] According to Ferdusi in his Shah-namah, Gushtasp - (Darius, son of Hystaspes, 519 B. C.) was induced by - Zerdusht to adopt a reformed doctrine which prescribed the - adoration of fire, and was probably a purer sort of Sabæism, - as practised by the most enlightened magi of very ancient - times. Isfendiar, Gushtasp’s son, a zealous promoter of this - religion, erected fire-temples in all parts of his empire - (see also Rauzat-us-safa, Shea’s transl., p. 285).――A. T. - - [276] The Persian text of Gladwin reads: کنکدژ “_Gangdezh._” - - [277] Faridun, the son of Abtin, restored the power of the - Péshdádían according to Ferdusi, 1729 years B. C.; according - to Sir W. Jones and other chronologers, 750 years before our - era. Faridun, or rather his dynasty, reigned 500 years; - according to the Boundehesh and the Mujmel-ul-tavárikh - during the 500 years of Feridun, twelve generations intervened - between Faridun, and Manutcheher, his grandson.――A. T. - - [278] Medina signifies a town in general, but in particular - that of Jatreb, in Arabia, in the province of Hajiaz, to - which town Muhammed fled when obliged to abandon Mecca, on - the 16th July, 622 of our era, which is the first year of - the _Hejira_, “flight.”――A. T. - - [279] The text of Gladwin reads. تازسوز علم “_Mahtársúz - ilm._” - - [280] Názar is the eighth king of the Péshdadíán, placed by - Ferdusi 1109 years B. C.; by the modern chronologers 715-708 - B. C. He had two sons, Tús and Gustaham. - - [281] The foundation of the town Tus, in Khorasan, is also - attributed to Jemshíd. - - [282] Ardebil, a town in the province called Azerbijan, - which is a part of the ancient Media. - - [283] Bahman, son of Isfendiar. - - [284] Káus, the second king of the Kaían dynasty, whose - reign began, according to Ferdusi, 955 years B. C.; he is - supposed by western historians, to be Darius, the Mede, of - the Greeks, and placed by them 600, 634-594 years B. C.――A. - T. - - [285] The Safavean dynasty began in 1499 A. D. by Shah-Ismail, - who derives his origin from Musa, already mentioned as the - seventh imam of the Muselmans. All his ancestors were - considered as pious men and some as saints. The first of - this family who gained a great reputation was Shaik Sufi - Ud-din, from whom this dynasty takes the name of Sufaviah. - His son was Sudder Ud-din. The monarchs of that time used to - visit his cell. Timur asked him what favour he could bestow - on him. The saint answered: “Set free all the prisoners whom - thou hast brought from Turkey.” The conqueror granted this - request, and the grateful tribes declared themselves the - disciples of the man to whom they owed their liberty. Their - children preserved the sacred obligation of their ancestors, - and placed the son of the pious Eremite upon the throne of - Persia. (_Malcolm’s Hist. of Persia._)――A. T. - - [286] Dwaraka, an ancient town, built by Krichna, destroyed - by a revolution of nature; actually exists a town and - celebrated temple of that name, in the province of Guzrat, - situated at the S. W. extremity of the peninsula, lat. 22° - 21′ N.; long. 69° 15′ E. - - [287] “The true name is _Gáyá_, a town in the province of - Bahar, 55 miles south from Patna, lat. 24° 49′ N.; long. 85° - 5′ E. It is one of the holy places of the Hindus, to which - pilgrimages are performed. It was made holy by the benediction - of Vichnu, who granted its sanctity to the piety of Gáyá the - Rájarchi; or according to another legend, to Gáyá, the - Asura, who was overwhelmed here by the deities, with rocks. - This place is also considered by some Hindus either as the - birthplace or as the residence of Buddha, from which - circumstance it is usually termed Buddha-Gáyá (Hamilt. E. I. - Gazetteer. Wilson’s Dict. sub voce).――A. T. - - [288] Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, situated on - the east side of the Jumna, 30 miles N. E. by N. from the - city of Agra, lat. 27° 32′; long. 77° 37′ E. This place is - much celebrated and venerated by the Hindus, as the scene of - the birth and early adventures of Krichna (Hamilt. - Gazet.).――A. T. - - [289] This is an entirely Indian name: Gópínath, “the lord - of the cowherds’ wives,” a name of Krichna.――A. T. - - [290] According to oriental Romance, the Si-murgh, or Enka, - is endowed with reason. He acts a considerable part in the - Shah-namah, as tutor to Zál, the father of Rustam. In the - Kahermán Námah, this bird in a conversation with Kaherman, - the hero, states that it has existed during many revolutions - of ages and beings prior to the creation of Adam. It is - called Si-murgh, as being equal in magnitude to thirty - birds.――A. T. - - [291] Rustam appears to be a personification of the heroic - times of the Persians, the Medes and the Scythes. He was - born under the reign of Manucheher, after the year 1299 B. - C., and died under that of Gústasp, after the year 625 - before our era; his existence comprises therefore 604 years. - He was the lord of Sejestan, and extended his domination - over Zabulistan and Kabul; but the circle of his actions - comprehends a great part of Asia between the Indus, the - Indian and the Caspian seas. - - [292] Khizar is confounded by many with the prophet Elias, - who is supposed to dwell in the Terrestrial Paradise, in the - enjoyment of immortality. According to Eastern traditions, - Khizr was the companion, vizir or general of the ancient - monarch, named _Zu-al-Kurnain_, or “the Two-horned;” a title - which was also assumed by Alexander the Great. According to - the Tárikh Muntakhab, this prophet was Abraham’s nephew, and - served as guide to Moses and the children of Israel, in - their passage of the Red sea and the desert. The same author - tells us, that Khizr lived in the time of Kai Kobad, at - which time he discovered the fountain of life. - (Herbelot).――A. T. - - [293] Ferdusi in his Shah-namah narrates that: Secander was - in search of the water of life, accompanied by Khizr. The - prophet attained his purpose, but the king lost his way in - the dark. The troops of the latter followed a mare running - after her foal, until they found themselves in a place full - of pebbles sounding beneath their feet, and heard a voice - from heaven, saying: “Take, or leave, the stones; sorrow of - the heart “awaits you in any case.” And so it happened. At - day-break, the stones picked up were found to be precious - rubies; all were grieved: the one for not having taken more, - the others for not having taken any, of them.――A. T. - - [294] Farvardin presides over the 19th day of the month, and - over the first month of the year (Zend-Avesta, by Anquetil - du Perron, II, p. 320-337). Hyde (p. 239) says: the first - month, March, in the Jeláli-year (or the new Persian era of - Jelaluddin) which first month was July in the old year, is - called _Farvardin_, and he endeavours to derive this word - from the modern Persian. Anquetil du Perron (I, 1^{re} part. p. - 493) rejects Hyde’s etymology, and says that Farvardin - signifies in Zend “the Fervers (the souls) of the law.” Hyde - himself seems to enter into this sense, in saying (p. 240): - “Iste Angelus (Farvardin) creditur præesse Animabus quæ in - Paradiso” (this angel is believed to preside over the souls - who are in Paradise).――A. T. - - [295] The Calcutta manuscript, translated by Gladwin, - differs in this passage from the printed copy of Calcutta, - 1224 of the _Hejirah_, A. D. 1809, and also from two - excellent manuscripts: the Calcutta copy has been - followed.――D. S. - - [296] The most ancient year of the Persians (Hyde, p. 188, - 189) appears to have been vague or erratic, its commencement - varying through all the different seasons, or at least soon - gave room to the vague Persian-Median civil year, to which - was joined afterwards the fixed ecclesiastic year of - Jemshed. Both these years lasted to the time of Yezdejerd, - who made some considerable changes in the Persian calendar. - This king being killed, after an interval of time, the fixed - solar year, beginning in the middle of “pisces,” was - introduced into Persia. The names of the ancient months and - days appear to have come from the Medes, with their - denomination, to the Persians; and even those invented by - Yezdejerd were of Median origin. Here follows the order of - months called _Jelali_ (Hyde, p. 180). - - I. Farvardin March. - II. Ardíbehist April. - III. Khordád May. - IV. Tir June. - V. Mardád (_Amardad_. _Anquetil du Perron_) July. - VI. Shahrívar August. - VII. Miher September. - VIII. Abán October. - IX. Azar November. - X. Dái December. - XI. Bahman January. - XII. Isfandármend February. - - The old Persian month was not divided into weeks, but every - day had its particular name from the angel who presided over - that day. Here follows the order of their names, according - to Olugh Beigh (Hyde, p. 190): - - I. Hormuzd. - II. Bahman. - III. Ardíbehist. - IV. Shahrívar. - V. Isfandármend. - VI. Khurdád. - VII. Murdád. - VIII. Dáíbáder. - IX. Azur. - X. Abán. - XI. Khur. - XII. Máh. - XIII. Tír. - XIV. Júsh or Gúsh. - XV. Dáíbamiher. - XVI. Miher. - XVII. Surúsh. - XVIII. Resh. - XIX. Farvardin. - XX. Bahrám. - XXI. Rám. - XXII. Bád. - XXIII. Dáíbadín. - XXIV. Din. - XXV. Ird, or Ard. - XXVI. Ashtád. - XXVII. Asamán. - XXVIII. Zámíád. - XXIX. Márásfand. - XXX. Anírán. - - The names of the five additional days were as follows: - - I. Ahnud-jah. - II. Ashnud-jah. - III. Isfandamaz-jah. - IV. Akhshater-jah. - V. Vahashtusht-jah. - - Room is wanted for entering into further developments of - this extensive subject.――A. T. - - [297] The text of Gladwin has نيديار which has the same - meaning.――A. T. - - [298] The text of Gladwin has اورام _Orám_. The name is - properly Uráman, a peculiar manner of chanting or reading - Pahlavi poetry, which derives its name from a village in the - dependencies of Kushgun, where its inventor lived.――D. S. - - [299] Gladwin and Shea read Wasatir, but I cannot forbear - from thinking, the right reading is dasátir; the و and the د - being easily confounded with each other. The simile above - quoted is not to be found in the Bombay edition of the - Desátír, although the same precepts are stated therein (pp. - 12, 13, 14). Here follows the passage (English transl. - Comment. p. 45) about the Desátír itself: “There are two - books of Yezdán. The name of the first is _Dógítí_, ‘two - worlds,’ and this they call the ‘Great Book,’ or in the - language of Heaven _Ferz-Desatir_, or the ‘Great Desátir,’ - which is the great volume of Yezdán. And the other book - is called Desátir, the doctrines of which Máhábád, and - the other prophets from Màhábád down to me, have revealed. - * * * * And in the heavenly tongue this is called _Derick - Desatir_, ‘the Little Desátir,’ as being the Little Book of - God.”――A. T. - - [300] Zanar is called in India the brahminical, or in - general, a religious thread; here is meant the mark of any - unbeliever.――A. T. - - [301] Zohak. - - [302] पद्मासन - - [303] These practices are evidently the same as those used - among the Hindu devotees. The chapter upon the Hindus, which - follows, will set forth the great conformity, nay, identity - of Indian religions with the tenets and customs here - ascribed to Persian sects. In the Desátir (English transl. - Comment. pp. 66, 67) is a curious account of the postures to - be taken standing, or lying, or sitting, on the ground - before any thing that burns, and reciting the _Ferz-zemiar_, - “great prayer,” to Yezdán, or another to _Shesh-kákh_, that - is to say, to the stars and to the fire which yield - light.”――A. T. - - [304] عزيزی Azizi is supposed, by Mr. Tholuck (Sufismus, - sive Theosophia Persarum Pantheistica) to be the name of the - so long unknown author of Gulshen-raz, “the rose-bower of - mystery.” Silvestre de Sacy (see Journal des Savants, - décembre 1821, p. 719, 720), without absolutely rejecting - this supposition, explains the word Azizi by “homme - vertueux” in the verse upon which Mr. Tholuck founded his - opinion. The true author of Gulshen-raz is now known to be - Mahmud Shabisterí. See the Persian text with a German - metrical translation of this poem, published in 1838 by the - baron Hammer-Purgstall.――A. T. - - [305] पर ब्रह्म नारायणः - - [306] For Ishrakian, see pages 31 and 86 ad refutationem - Alcorani.――D. S. - - [307] In Gladwin’s Persian text, it is توتيار _Tutiar_; in - the manuscripts consulted by Shea, in the edition of - Calcutta, and in the manuscript of Oude نونيار _nuniar_. - - [308] स्वप्न. - - [309] सुस्वप्न, “good sleep.” - - [310] सुखास्वाद, _sukhásváda_, “enjoyment.” - - [311] समाधि, _samádhi_, “deep and devout meditation.” - - [312] जाग्रत्, _jagrat_, “watching, being awake.”――A. T. - - [313] प्रत्यय, _pratyaya_, “certainty.”――A. T. - - [314] प्रपुरपरोक्ष, _prapura-paròksha_, “absent from the - former body.”――A. T. - - [315] The text of Gladwin has زارک “_záreng_;” the edition - of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude ارنک _Arang_; in the - Desatir we find _Lareng_ for the name of a divinity.――A. T. - - - - -SECTION II. - -DESCRIPTION OF THE SÍPÁSIÁN SECT. - - -Among the moderns, the chief of the Abadian and _Azúrhúshangíán_ sects -was _Azar Kaiván_, whose lineage is as follows: _Azar Kaívan_, the son -of _Azar Zerdusht_, the son of _Azar Barzín_, the son of _Azar -Khurín_, the son of _Azar Ayin_, the son of _Azar Bahram_, the son of -_Azar Nosh_, the son of _Azar Mihtar_, the younger son of _Azar -Sásán_, styled the fifth _Sásán_, the elder son of _Azar Sásán_, the -fourth of that name, the younger son of _Azar Sásán_, the third of -that name, the eldest son of _Azar Sásán_, or the second _Sásán_, the -mighty son of _Azar Sásán_, or the first _Sásán_, the son of _Darab_ -the less, the son of _Darab_ the great, the son of _Bahmán_, the son -of _Isfendiar_, the son of _Gushtasp_, the son of _Lohrasp_, the son -of _Arvand_, the son of _Kai Nishin_, the son of _Kai Kobad_, the son -of _Zab_, the son of _Nauder_, the son of _Minuchehr_, the son of -_Iraj_, who was of the lineage of Feridun, the son of _Abtin_, who was -of the lineage of _Jamshid_, the son of _Tahmúras_, the son of -_Húsheng_, the son of _Siamak_, the son of _Kaiomors_, the son of -_Yásán Ajam_, of the lineage of _Yásán_, the son of _Shai Mohbul_, of -the lineage _Shai Giliv_, the son of _Jaí Alad_, of the lineage of -_Jai Afram_, the son of _Abád Azád_, of the lineage of _Mah Abád_, who -appeared with splendor in the beginning of the great cycle. The mother -of _Kaiván_ was named _Shirín_, a fortunate and illustrious dame -descended from the lineage of the just monarch Nushirvan. Through -eternal aid and almighty grace _Azar Kaiván_, from his fifth year, -devoted himself to great abstinence in food, and watching by night. -_Salím_ thus expresses himself: - - “Innate essence has no need of instruction; - How could an artist produce the image in the mirror?” - -In the progress of his admirable voluntary mortification, the quantity -of his daily food was reduced to one direm weight. On this point, the -divine sage Sunái observes: - - “If thou eat to excess, thou becomest an unwieldy elephant; - But if with moderation, thou becomest another Gabriel; - If any person should give way to excess in eating, - Rest assured that he is also vile to excess.” - -He abode in Khum during twenty-eight years, but removed in his latter -days from the land of Iran into India: he remained some time in Patna, -where, in the year of the Hegira 1027 (A. D. 1673), he took his flight -from this lower elementary abode to the sphere of the mansions on -high. Azízí observes: - - “Whoever is wise, esteems this mortal coil the obstacle to union - with God: - This life is the death of Durvishes: look on (the world of) reality - as a friend.” - -He continued eighty-five years united to the elements of body, during -which time he never desisted from the practice of austerities. On this -subject Hafiz of Shiraz observes: - - “O! my heart, if thou once become acquainted with the lustre of - austerity, - Like those who strike the smiling taper, thou canst give up thy - head―― - But thou longest after thy beloved and sparkling wine-bowl: - Abstain from such desire, for thou canst accomplish better things.” - -_Farzánah Bahrám_ relates in the _Sharistan_, that from the very -commencement of his religious career, Azar Kaiván, having resolved on -learning thoroughly the science and systems of the eminent sages of -antiquity, on this, the distinguished philosophers of Hindustan, -Greece, and Persia, having appeared to him in a vision, communicated -all kinds of knowledge. He went one day to a college, where he -answered every question that was proposed, and gave the solution of -every difficulty: he was therefore entitled _Zu-l-ulum_, or “the -Master of Sciences.” Ali Sani Amir Saiyid Ali of Hamadan observes: - - “If thou advance even one step from this abode of vain desire, - Thou mayest repose in the sanctuary of omnipotence; - And if thou perform ablution with the water of religious austerity, - Thou canst convert all the uncleanness of thy heart into purity; - This path however is only traversed by the active pilgrim, - How canst thou, the world’s idol, perform such a task?” - -It is reported that Saiyid Hasan of Shiraz, who was styled “the sage, -the embellishment of pure faith and works,” one day said thus: “On a -certain day, two followers of the Sufís came into the presence of Azar -Kaiván, and pursuing the path of opposition to the Master of Sciences, -treated him not as one possessed of perfection. Their teacher, a man -equally eminent in theoretical and practical science, who by dominion -over the external world had established the relation of spiritual -intercourse with the holy prophet, fell one night into a state of -ecstasy, and beheld in his trance the effulgent perfection of the -prophet, who said to him: ‘My son! tell thy disciples that through the -assistance of the Only Wise and the Omnipotent, who is independent of -all, Ali Kaiván is a completely perfect man, who has attained to the -different degrees of spiritual dominion, by the practice of the seven -cordial ejaculations, and varied mysterious illuminations, visions, -revelations, spiritual realities in his acts and attributes: moreover -his evanescent existence, through grace predestined from eternity, has -received the boon of divine nature; equally versed in special and -general providence; unique in the true knowledge of things from -inspection, not contented with the illumination of tradition; the most -perfect master of the seekers after truth in matters of worship, -seclusion, social intercourse, and whatever is meet and suitable to -their state in all kinds of institutes and religious austerities. He -is the true philosopher; the physician of the human race; the -discipline of religion; the institute of the devout; the interpreter -of events; the instructor of worship; the director of those who seek -God, labouring diligently in the purification of souls; co-operating -in the cleansing of hearts; the spiritual champion of the law; -fighting the good fight of faith; the principle of truth; confirmed in -the knowledge, source, and evidence of certainty; supported by divine -aid in the fundamental points and collateral inductions. Let not thy -disciples calumniate him, but esteem him a holy personage, and regard -attendance on him as pregnant with happiness: do thou also approach -his presence, and use every effort to conciliate his affection.’ The -teacher having during his ecstacy repeated this panegyric several -times, I committed the words to writing, and on the holy man’s arising -from his ecstatic trance, he summoned me and said: ‘Who in this city -is Azar Kaiván? The prophet hath praised him exceedingly, and ordered -me to go into his presence.’ I answered: ‘He has lately come hither -from the direction of Istakhar:’ on which he replied: ‘Conduct me near -him.’ I therefore accompanied him, but was ignorant of Kaiván’s -residence. When we had proceeded some time, one of Kaiván’s disciples, -by name Farhad, came near him and said: ‘The master (that is Kaiván) -invites you, and has sent me to be your guide.’ When we came into his -presence, my teacher had determined in his mind to salute him first, -but was unable to obtain the priority, as Azar Kaiván had much sooner -anticipated him in salutations in the Persian language, and afterwards -addressed him in Arabic. We were struck with astonishment. My teacher -then repeated what he had communicated to me concerning the vision, on -which Kaiván commanded him ‘not to remove the veil of this mystery.’” -The teacher, on his return, having called before him his two misguided -disciples, recounted the perfections of Kaiván, and enjoined them to -abstain from censuring the holy man. For as Sadi says: - - “Respecting the thicket, imagine it not unoccupied, - A tiger may probably be couched there.” - -Azar Kaiván mixed little with the people of the world; he shunned with -horror all public admirers; and seldom gave audience to any but his -disciples and the searchers after truth; never exposing himself to the -public gaze. According to Shaikh Baha Uddin Muhammad of Amil, - - “If thou have not guards in front and rear to keep off the crowd, - Aversion to mixing with crowds will be a sufficient safeguard to thee.” - -Farzanah Bahrám relates in the _Sharistan_, that Kaiván expressed -himself after this manner: “The connexion of my spirit with this body, -formed of the elements, resembles the relation of the body to a loose -robe; whenever I wish I can separate myself from it, and resume it at -my desire.” The same author also thus relates of him, in the text of -the _Jam-i-Kai Khusró_, wherein are recounted some of his revelations -and spiritual communications: - - “When I passed in rapid flight from material bodies, - I drew near a pure and happy spirit; - With the eye of spirit I beheld spirits: - My spirit was moving amidst kindred spirits: - In every sphere and star I beheld a spirit; - Each sphere and star possessed its peculiar spirit; - Thus in the three kingdoms of nature I beheld a common spirit, - As their spirit was mutually communicated to each other. - I attained the knowledge of all existences. - And was associated with the great Serósh Ramah. - [316]But when I reached a great elevation, - Splendor from the Almighty gave me light; - As the radiance increased this individuality departed; - [317]Even the angelic nature and the principle of evil disappeared: - God only existed, there was no sign of me - (or of my individual existence): - [318]I no longer retained intellect or recollection of spirit: - [319]I discovered all my secrets to be but shadows; - I then returned to the angelic intelligences, - And from these intelligences I came back to the spirit; - And thus at last to bodies also summoning me. - In this manner I became powerful, wise, and sublime, - Until I descended from that high degree―― - Upon the road by which I had gone up, I returned to my body - With a hundred divine favours[320] deriving splendor from that - assemblage; - The dignity of the Supreme Lord is too exalted - For intercourse with his servants to be worthy of him. - By his effulgence intellect becomes (illumined) like the earth or sun; - He is elevated too high for his servants to hold intercourse with him: - If the spirit receives illumination from him, - It becomes beside itself, and its speech is ‘I am without intellect’―― - The world is a drop which proceeds from the ocean of his existence;[321] - What is the dropping dew? it is Himself (God); - Thou art not the dropping dew, but only a drop among the drops of it. - I know not what to say, as the result of all is deficiency: - Through love he confers bounties on his servants; - As it is proper to raise up the down-fallen - His love renders the mendicant a man of power. - The world is but a ray emanating from the sun of his face: - The just Creator addressed me in kind words, - And conferred on me the splendor of an Ized; - None but He can duly praise Himself, - As He cannot become the object of speech or hearing.” - -Kaivan was master of noble demonstrations and subtile distinctions: -one of the Moslem lawyers having asked him: “Why dost thou forbid thy -followers from eating flesh, slaying animals, and injuring living -creatures?” He thus replied: “The seekers of God are named the -peculiar people of the heart; and the heart itself, the true Kâabah: -therefore, what is an abomination in the sanctuary formed of water and -clay cannot a fortiori be suitable to the true Kâabah: that is, the -eating of animals and the slaughter of living creatures. A great man -says: - - “I have heard that a sheep once thus addressed the butcher, - At the moment he prepared to cut off her head with his sword: - ‘I now behold the retribution of every bush and bramble of which I - tasted; - What then shall that person not experience who eats my fatted loin?’” - -Kaivan also said: “If you think proper, keep your tenets secret -wherever you happen to be, concealing them even from your brethren in -the faith; as they, for the confirmation of their system, will make -you publicly known.” Azizi also says: - - “As long as thou canst, communicate not thy secret to thy friend; - For that friend has another; beware therefore of thy friend’s - friend?” - -Some one asked him: “In the schism of Abad Ansari, which faith shall I -adopt, and whose arguments must I regard as true?” Azar Kaiván -replied: “Remain in the same faith that, until the present time, God -doeth as seemeth good to him; and for the time to come he will do -whatever he thinks proper.” Urfi of Shiraz says,[322] - - “Thy essence is able to call into being all that is impossible, - Except to create one like thyself!” - -He once said to a holy man: “The knowledge of evanescent objects is -not properly knowledge, but bears the same relation to reality as the -mirage of the desert to water: the searcher after which obtains -nothing but an increase of thirst.” Shah Subhan says: - - “Men favoured by fortune drink the wine of true knowledge; - They do not, like fools, quaff the dregs of infidelity; - The science acquired in colleges and by human capacity - Is like water drawn out of the well by a sieve.” - -They once observed to Kaivan: “Notwithstanding the great exertions -made by his highness the sincere and faithful Akbar, and the grand -justiciary, the caliph Omar, and the possessor of the two lights, -Osman, in the way of the faith proved by miracles, and their mighty -labors in diffusing its institutes, the Shee-ites are opposed to these -great personages?” He replied: “The mass of mankind are acted upon by -time and place, in opposition to the seekers after truth. It is also -to be observed that the people of Iran have adopted the Shee-ite -faith; and as the above-mentioned great personages destroyed the -fire-temples of that nation, and overturned their ancient religion, -therefore rebellion and envy have remained in their hearts.” - -Two learned men having a dispute concerning the superiority of the -chosen Alí, “the Elect” (whose face may God honor), over the two -Shaikhs and the _Lord of the two lights_ (Osmar), (upon all of whom be -the mercy of the Almighty) having referred the dispute to Kaivan, he -observed: - - “All four are the four perfections of the prophetic edifice; - All four are the four elements of the prophets’ souls.” - -“The distinction between the two exalted parties is difficult, as two -of them claim supremacy on the celebrity (drum) of being -fathers-in-law to the Arab founder of religion; and the other two are -fitted for dignity, by being sons-in-law to the apostle of the Arabs. -But whereas all things are objects of the Almighty’s regard, the -excellent Alí, ‘the Lion of God,’ was esteemed so pre-eminent an -object of divine favor among the Moslems, that want of faith and -ignorance induced many to worship him as the true God, until this -great personage openly disclaimed such a pretension. Also during the -pontificate and caliphat of _Sadik_, ‘the faithful witness,’ the -powerful _Abubeker_, ‘the separator,’ the grand _Omar_, and that of -_Zu-l-Narain_, ‘the Lord of the two Lights,’ error misled many to such -a degree, that they denied their authority, until these legitimate -directors asserted their claims to that dignity.”[323] - -He returned an answer of a similar description in a dispute between a -Jew, a Christian, and a Muselman, who were arguing about the -superiority of their respective prophets; some acknowledging Jesus as -God, the others as the Son of God. One day as a Christian and Muselman -were disputing with each other, the former allowing the death of -Jesus, and the latter believing him to be alive, Azar Kaivan said: “If -a person who knew not the direction of a road which formed his -destination, should in the course of his journey come to a dead body -lying down, and a living person seated, from which of the two ought he -to inquire his way?” As the disputants both replied, “from the living -person;” he then said to the Muselman: “Adopt thou the faith of Jesus, -as according to thy belief he is living.” He then added: “By life is -meant the life of the rational soul: in this Mohammed and Jesus are on -an equality; call your prophets the ‘eternal living:’ for life means -not the perpetuity of this body fashioned out of the elements, which -cannot accompany us beyond a hundred or a hundred and twenty natural -stages (years).” Azizi says: - - “If the domestic fowl should fly along with the fowls of the air, - It could not proceed in flight beyond the summit of the wall.” - -A hermit once came into _Zu-l-Ulum_’s[324] presence; he pronounced a -panegyric on the opposition to sensual passions exhibited by pious -Moslem believers: and then added: “There is no limit to the opposition -to these passions: even the unbeliever through the practice of -austerities finally becomes a Moslem.” He also added: “An exemplary -unbeliever had become able to work miracles: a Shaikh went to him one -day and asked: ‘By what route hast thou attained to this dignity?’ He -replied, ‘By opposing the suggestions of the passions.’ On which the -Shaikh answered: ‘Now turn to Islamism, as thy soul has admitted -infidelity.’ On hearing which the unbeliever became a follower of -Islamism.” Kaivan observed: “The Shaikh must have been an infidel, as -his soul was still seeking after Islamism, or the true religion.” Urfi -says: - - “Lay aside the recollection of (these words) belief and unbelief, - as they excite great disputes; - For according to our (supposed) bad doctrines, all persons think - aright.” - -A person once came to Zu-l-Ulum, and said: “I propose embracing the -profession of a durvesh, and breaking asunder the chains which bind me -to the world.” Kaivan replied, “It is well.” Some days after, he -returned to Kaivan, and said: “I am at present engaged in procuring -the patched tunic, cap, wallet, and other things necessary for my -profession.” Zu-l-Ulum observed: “The profession of a durvesh consists -in resigning every thing and abandoning all manner of preparations, -and not in accumulation of any kind.” - -A merchant through penury having assumed the dress of hypocrisy, -appeared in a Shaikh’s garb, and many persons devoutly regarded him as -a holy man. He one day came before Kaivan and said: “Often have -wretches plundered me on the road: it was however for a good purpose, -in order that by embracing the life of a durvesh I might attain the -great object of salvation.” Azar Kaivan replied: “Be not grieved, as -thou art now plundering mankind by way of retaliation.” - - “The society of Urfi pleases not the superior of our monastery; - Because the superior is a foe to the intelligent and Urfi to the - stupid.” - -At present some of Kaivan’s disciples, as far as the author’s -acquaintance extends, are about to be enumerated. - -_Farzanah Kharrád_, of the family of Mahbud, who had been the _khan -salar_ (royal table-decker or taster) to the equitable monarch -_Nushirvan_,[325] and put to death through the sorcery of a Jew and -the calumnies of a chamberlain, as recorded in the Shah Namah of the -king of poets, Ferdúsi, and in other histories: Kharrad joined himself -to Kaivan in the bazar of Shiraz, and practised religious austerities -for many years. Farzanah Khushi has often mentioned in conversation, -and has also frequently repeated in the _Bazm-gah-i-Durvéshán_, “the -Durvesh’s banquetting-room,” the following circumstance: “I one day -beheld _Kharrad_ and _Ardeshir_ (a descendant of _Ardeshir -Babegan_,[326] and one of Kaivan’s disciples), standing face to face -and mutually opposing each other: whenever Ardeshir wished to smite -Kharrád with a sword, he appeared like a stone, so that when the sword -came into contact with his body, it was instantly broken to -pieces.”――In the year 1029 of the Hejirah (1620 A. D.) he became -reunited to the pure uncompounded spirit. _Buzurgi_ says: - - “What is the soul? the seminal principle from the loins of destiny: - This world is the womb: the body its enveloping membrane: - The bitterness of dissolution, dame Fortune’s pangs of childbirth. - What is death? to be born again an angel of eternity.” - -_Farzanah Farshid wird_ was one of the Parsi village chieftains: his -pedigree ascended to _Farzanah Shedosh_, who was one of the fifth -_Sassan_’s[327] disciples. He also became attached to Azar Kaivan in -the same place as Kharrad, and devoted himself to the service of the -Almighty. Khushi relates as follows: “Farshid wird and Bahman used to -stand facing each other; every arrow which Bahman discharged against -Farshid wird, he used to cut in two with his sword: and whenever the -latter let fly an arrow, Bahman with activity and address threw -himself to one side and avoided it. But this is still more wonderful: -whenever Bahman shot off a musket, Farshid let fly one at the same -instant, and ball met ball, so that they both remained unhurt: -sometimes also when Farshid Wird shot off his musket, Bahman used to -move rapidly on one side.” In the year 1029 of the Hejirah (A. D. -1619) he hurried away from this abode of the elements to the skies. -The Khajah Hafiz speaking on this subject, says: - - “He never dies whose heart is quickened with love divine; - But remains for ever stamped on the records of our eternal world.” - -_Farzanah Khíradmand_ was descended from Sám, the son of Narimán: he -joined _Zu-l-Ulum_ and gave himself up to religious austerities. -Khushi thus relates: “I once beheld Khiradmand while standing face to -face to _Rustam_ (who was descended from _Bahram Gur_,[328] and was -one of Kaivan’s distinguished disciples), assume the form of a dragon, -and shower out fire from his mouth, to such a degree that a strong -palm was consumed by its violence.” - -In three months after Bahman’s death, Khiradmand was restored to his -original place. _Buzurgi_ says: - - The skilful and intelligent artist - Should have in this world two successive lives: - So that in one he might acquire experience, - Which he could carry into effect by another experiment. - -Of these illustrious personages they have recorded many miraculous and -mysterious deeds; such as, in the upper world, hiding the sun’s disk; -causing him to appear at night; making the stars visible in the -day-time: and in this lower world, walking on the surface of water; -making trees productive out of season; restoring verdure to dried-up -wood; causing trees to bow down their heads; also showing themselves -between heaven and earth in the form of lightning; and such like: and, -in the animated world, metamorphosing animals; rendering themselves -invisible to men; appearing under various shapes and forms: some of -which wonders have been recorded in the _Bazmgah-i-Durveshi Khushí_. -They relate that these great personages were to such a degree enabled -to divest themselves of corporeal elements, that they quitted the body -at pleasure: also that they had acquired from the court of Heaven the -knowledge of all sciences whether known or occult, and _consequently_ -had the power of exhibiting such wonderful works; having rendered, by -the efficacy of their austerities, elementary matter subject to -themselves. The author of these pages beheld these four holy -personages, Kharrad, Farshid wird, Bahman, and Khiradmand, in Patna, -on which occasion they bestowed their benedictions, and imparted to -him the glad tidings of the means of obtaining the great object, or -final salvation. Shaikh Saadi says: - - “It becomes the truly wise to pass every day in the exercise of - holy zeal, - And to offer up prayers for the prosperity of durveshes.” - -_Farzanah Bahram_, the son of Farhad, was descended from _Gudarz_, the -son of Hashwád. When Azar Kaivan had proceeded to Patna, in this -sage’s latter days, Farzanah Bahram came from Shiraz and devoted -himself to the practice of religious austerities. He was a man who had -attained the highest degree of knowledge in logic, natural philosophy, -the abstract sciences, and theology, which he had most attentively -studied as far as set forth and expounded by sound reasoning in the -Parsi, Pehlevi, and Arabic: in practical and theoretical science he -was unequalled; being profoundly skilled and a perfect philosopher in -all the objects of science and morality: among the Moslem doctors, he -had established the relations of external tuition with _Khajah -Jumál-Uddin Mahmúd_, one of the disciples of the _Mulla Jalál Dawani_. -Farzánah Bahrám is the polished author and compiler of the book -entitled _Sharístán-í-Dánish, wa Gulístán-í-Binish_, “the pavilion of -knowledge and the rose-garden of vision.” In the _Sharistan_, he thus -tells us: “Through the aid of Azar Kaivan, I reached the invisible, -the angelic, the empyrean worlds, and the seat of the Divinity, and -attained to union with him through revelations of the fourfold -kind――_impressive_, _operative_, _attributive_, and _essential_.” The -Mobed _Hoshyar_ relates: “I have heard Farzánah Bahrám relate as -follows: I was one day standing in the presence of Azar Kaivan, and -conceived in my heart the wish that he should tell me what occupied my -secret thoughts. The venerable personage unfolded the secret thoughts -of my heart, and afterwards said: ‘O, Farzanah! it is an easy matter -for me to know the secrets of the soul; but then what purpose does thy -tongue answer? in order that thy tongue may not be useless, I shall -for the future suffer thee to speak.’” He assumed the dress of a -merchant, but people imagined it was for the purpose of concealment, -and that he gave himself up to alchymy. In the year of the Hejirah -1034 (A. D. 1624), he ascended from this lower abode of darkness to -the pavilions of light. The sage Sunái says: - - “Wherever intellect and divine knowledge are found, - The death of body is the birth of soul.” - -The Mobed Hoshyar is the author of the _Sarúd-i-Mastán_, “the songs of -the intoxicated.” He was born at the port of Surat; he traced his -pedigree to the invincible champion Rustam, the son of Zál, and was a -man of exceeding bravery, heroism, and experience; perfect in -generosity, sagacity, the termination of disputes, right reason, and -sound experience. If his history were detailed at full length, it -would become necessary to write another Shah Namah concerning his -victory at Girdun, his defeat of Alí Yakah, and such like.[329] - -In short he entered the service of the great philosopher Azar Kaivan -and his eminent disciples, being associated with them in the doctrine -of self-knowledge; from the commencement of night to the rise of the -world-illuminating sun, he slept in the attitude of _Murdah Khasp_. -Now the terms _Muráah Khab_, _Murdap Khasp_, and _Sáónós_, are terms -applied by the Sipásían to the following mode of sleeping: the devotee -rests (having thrown his legs beneath him) on his knees, pressing to -the ground both heels as far as the great toe: and applying the -extremities of the knees to the earth, he keeps his seat on the same; -he is then to lie on his back, keeping the points of his fingers on -his head; after this, he is to look intently between the eye-brows, -and carry into practice the _Habs-i-dam_, or imprisonment of the -breath. The Durvesh Subahani, one of the great Sufees, used to say: -“Such was the sleep of the prophets.” They also say: “The prophets of -old used to sleep on their backs, with their faces directed towards -the Heavens:” which is the same as the position before described. -Hoshyar had attained to the power of suppressing the breath for one -watch (three hours). Shaikh Saadi says: - - “They who restrain the soul from sensual pleasures - Surpass in heroism both Rustam and Zál.” - -Hoshyar was not scrupulous about what he ate; never turning away his -face from whatever was set before him: he however most diligently -shunned the practice of cruelty to living creatures, and avoided -superfluities and excess of every description. Hafiz of Shiraz on this -head says: - - “Addict not thyself to cruel pursuits, and do whatever else thou - pleasest; - As in our law there is no sin except that of cruelty.” - -In the year of the Hejirah 1050 (A. D. 1640) he was delivered from the -bondage of body in the capital named _Akbar Abad_.[330] The Mobed says: - - “Truly the body is a narrow sepulchre which entombs every spirit, - When that tomb is entombed, thou beholdest a wall, that _really_ - is no wall; - When the tomb is entombed, the living spirit is freed from its - prison. - Alas! O Mobed, the sovereign of the body knows of no restriction.” - -The Mobed Hoshyar, who was conversant with the visible and invisible -worlds, master of the esoteric and exoteric doctrines, was the -interpreter of the _Jashn-i-Sadah_ (the festival of Sadah),[331] from -which work his superior talents are evident: he derived his descent -from the sage _Jamasp_.[332] In the year of the Hejirah 1036 (A. D. -1626) the author of this work met him in the delightful region of -Kashnim. He used to support himself on the extremities of his fingers, -so that his body came not into contact with the ground, in which -position he continued from midnight until dawn. On the subject of -penance Hafiz says: - - “O, my heart! couldst thou but acquire a knowledge of religious - austerity, - Thou wouldst be able to abandon women like smiling torches.” - -The Mobed _Sarósh_, the son of Kaiván, the son of Kamkar, who was -styled _Namdár_, or “the illustrious,” on account of the celebrity of -his knowledge. The Mobed carried his lineage on the father’s side to -the venerable prophet _Zardúsht_, and on his mother’s, to _Jamásp_ the -Sage. He was equally conversant with the theoretical and practical -sciences; and was master of the languages of Arabia, Persia, and -Hindustan; he had travelled over most of the habitable world; his -nights were passed in prayer; his conduct was always pure. On coming -into attendance on Kaiván, he was illuminated by the sun of his -knowledge, and during his attendance on Farzanah Bahrám, the son of -Farhád, he acquired the Arabic language. His age reached to sixty -years; in short he was a saint elect, who in the course of his life -never looked on a woman; his mouth was never polluted with animal food -of any description; he sought seclusion from the world, and limited -himself to a small quantity of food. - - “If thou didst but know the pleasure of abandoning pleasure, - Thou wouldst never more talk about the pleasures of sense.” - -He is the author of many admired literary works and compilations; such -as the _Nosh Dárú_, “sweet medicine;” the _Sagangubín_, “dog’s honey,” -and the _Zerdúsht Afshar_, “the companion of Zerdúsht,” and such like. -It was heard from an eminent doctor, named _Muhammed Mahsan_, who said -thus: “I heard from him (Kaiván) three hundred and sixty proofs -confirmatory of the existence of the Deity: but when I wished to -commit them to writing, it was no longer in my power.” People relate -all manner of miraculous stories about him; such as his creating what -was not previously in existence; revealing secret matters, and -concealing what was evident; the acceptance or fulfilment of his -prayers; his performing a long journey in a short space of time; his -knowledge of things hidden from the senses; and his giving a -description of the same; his appearing at the same time in places far -distant from each other; bringing the dead to life, and depriving the -living of vitality; his being enabled to hear and understand the -language of animals, vegetables, minerals, etc.; to produce food and -wine without any visible means; to walk on the surface of water, also -through fire and air; and such like. The author met him in Kashmir in -the year of the Hejirah 1036 (A. D. 1627). - -_Firrah Kárí_, the attendant on the venerable _Shídósh_ (an account of -whom shall be soon given) was a person, whose essence was adorned with -science and decorated by purity; the possessor of extraordinary -probity and sound understanding, said thus: “I once received some -injury from the peasantry of Achán, a district bordering on the public -and sacred place of Kashmír: speaking of this to _Yazdán Silái_, a -disciple attached to the Móbed Sarósh, I said ‘the people of Achán -have grievously afflicted me,’ and stated to him the criminal conduct -of this wicked set of men. He answered: ‘Do you wish that the Almighty -should overwhelm with floods the cultivated grounds of these -wretches?’ I replied ‘Certainly.’ It then began to rain so -exceedingly, the loftiest and strongest-built houses were overthrown; -from the overwhelming deluge ruin fell on their buildings and tilled -grounds; and the fields of these men themselves were nearly destroyed -by the waters at the very commencement.” The Maulavi Mânevi says: - - “As long as the heart of the righteous comes not to affliction, - God never brings calamity on any people.” - -The rains still continued, which Sarósh having observed, he was -exceedingly wroth with his disciple and reproved him; and that same -day the rain ceased. Firrah-Kári used to say, “Mobed Sarósh was -acquainted with the desires of my heart, and possessed power over -men’s minds.” He also related the following story concerning him: “At -the time of arriving in the caravanserai of Bálik, in the city of -Tarkhan, the men of that place wished to act wickedly towards us, and -practise oppression. I explained the nature of their conduct to the -Mobed, on which he retired into a corner. That same night there -appeared in the air men whose heads reached to the heavens, whilst -their feet touched the earth. The people of the city were seized with -consternation and desisted from oppressing us, and the merchants at -the same time bestowed freedom on those who had been captives for many -years.” The Mobed Húshyár relates: “Being in want of a few direms, I -went to Yazdán Sitái, the disciple of the Mobed Sarósh; on this he -stretched forth his hand, and taking up some broken pottery, formed -twenty heaps of it: having breathed on these a few times, they all -became gold Mohurs: these he put into my hands, and I disbursed them -in the course of my ordinary expenses.” He also relates: “Yazdán Sitái -constructed a house of such a kind that, when any one entered, he -beheld the sun; and when the holy man sat with his friends, he -appeared as a crocodile coming to the river-bank, which was about to -snatch away all present. He sometimes threw into the fire towels on -which the flames had no effect: he frequently repeated something, -stirring his lips, and so rendered himself invisible; he used -sometimes to appear in the air, and used to say: ‘I am actually at -rest, although I appear otherwise.’” _Shidosh_, the son of _Anosh_, -said: “We were once seated near him when he placed a taper in a basin -of water; there immediately appeared some peacocks turning towards the -water, plunging their heads into it, and displaying all their beauty, -whilst we remained in utter astonishment.” Shidosh also says: “I once -beheld him disporting in the midst of a blazing fire.” Nay, the writer -of these pages has seen him swallow fire. The Mobed Húshyár says: “He -once exhibited a sight, so as to make a house appear filled with -serpents and scorpions.” He used also to lay on the breast of a person -plunged in sleep, something of such a nature as to make him return an -answer to every question proposed to him. The Mobed Húshyár also -relates: “I once beheld the Hakim (the Sage) Kamran of Shiraz, in the -feast of joy and hospitality made for the reception of an Iraki -friend, light a match: on this, all the Lulees[333] then in the house -stripped themselves naked and began to dance, whilst we looked on at a -distance. The sage said: ‘This we have learnt from Yazdan Sitái: as I -give no invitation to Lulees, and no others can be prevailed on to -commit such indecency, I therefore tried the experiment on the party -of them assembled in this place.’” Many other things of a similar -nature are related concerning Yazdan Sitái. - -_Khoda Jói_ was a native of Herat, who had passed many years in the -service of exemplary and holy men; he relates: “I once saw in a vision -holy personages come around me and say: ‘Depart and seek a spiritual -guide free from prejudice.’ During many years’ search I was unable to -discover such a character; but having once seen in a dream, ‘that Azar -Kaiván of Istakhar was one of that description:’ I went near him in -company with _Farzanah Khushi_.” - -Khoda Jói excelled in the knowledge of Parsi and Arabic; he avoided -altogether animal food of every description; he could suppress his -breath during four watches (twelve hours), and was in the habit of -practising the Hubs-i-dam; he never slept at night, nor ate more than -fifty direms weight of food. He never gave utterance to a lie, and -whatever he stated had reference to exalted objects and pursuits: even -these were uttered only at the solicitation of his friends. He is the -author of the volume entitled _Jám-i-Kai Khusró_, “the cup of Kai -Khusró,” an admirable commentary on the poetic compositions of Azar -Kaiván, and also containing his visions. He arrived in the delightful -regions of Kashmir in the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1631), where -the author met him: in that same year this distinguished personage -hastened from this abode of evanescence to the mansions of eternity. -Hafiz of Shiraz says: - - “O joyous day, when I depart from this abode of desolation; - I then seek my soul’s repose and follow the adored object:[334] - Fluttering about like a solar mote in the _atmosphere_ of that lip, - Until I attain at last to the fountain-head of the radiant sun.” - -The Mobed Khushi is the author of the _Bazm-Gah_ (or “banqueting -house”), in which treatise when describing the stations of Azar -Kaiván’s illustrious disciples and most eminent followers, who are -twelve in number; he enumerates them in this order: _Ardashír_, -_Kharad_, _Shiroíyah_, _Khiradmand_, _Farhad_, _Suhrab_, _Azádah_, -_Bizhen_, _Isfendiar_, _Farshidwird_, _Bahman_ and _Rustam_: the daily -food of each of these individuals was much below ten direms weight: -and they carried the austerities recommended by Kaiván to the utmost -limit, so that no others of his disciples attained to the same rank as -these twelve persons. Of Farhád, Farshídwird, and Bahman, some account -has been given in the preceding part of this work. - -In the _Bazm-gah_, Khushi thus states respecting himself: “In the days -of my youth, it was my anxious desire to find _a spiritual guide_. I -therefore had recourse to the eminent doctors of Iran, Turan, Room, -and Hindustan; that is, to Moslems, Hindoos, Guebers, Christians, and -Jews. They all said to me: ‘Quit thy present faith and pass over to -us:’ but my heart felt no inclination to change of religion, to -adopting another, and abandoning opinions, as they did not afford me -sufficient light in the object of my pursuit. - - “Whilst a person beholds not the water, why pull off his slippers?” - -“Such is the language of the prejudiced; although each of these -doctors praised himself as being free from its influence: I afterwards -beheld, in a vision, a mighty river from which streams and canals -issued forth, all of which after many windings returned back into the -same great river, and were confined within its two banks. I abandoned -the great water, and in order to allay my thirst, directed my steps -towards the rivulets in search of water: but as the banks of their -channels were difficult of access through slime and mud, and carrying -a bowl,[335] I could not reach the stream, and remained in great -perplexity. At length my father came up and said: ‘Entreat God to -conduct thee to the water.’ A voice then reached my ear: ‘This man has -abandoned the river, and directed his face towards the rivulets.’ On -my directing my steps towards the river, a blessed Angel said to me: -‘The great river is Azar Kaiván; the small rivulets are the doctors.’ -I then knew that the slime and mud of the banks, the bowl, and the -rivulets refer to prejudice and envy: therefore, being accompanied by -Khoda Jói, I joined myself to Azar Kaiván, and discovered the object -of my inquiries.” Hafiz of Shiraz observes: - - “Whither can we turn our face from the high-priest’s threshold? - Happiness dwells in his abode, and salvation within that portal.” - -_Farzanah Bahram_, the son of Farhád, was called Bahram the Less: the -_Arzhang Máni_ (the gallery of Máni) is the production of his genius: -he was in attendance on Zu-al-Ulum, but attained to communion with God -and to perfection, in the service of Farzanah Bahram, the son of -Farhad. In the year of the Hejirah 1048 (A. D. 1638) the compiler of -these pages met with Bahram the Less, the son of Farhad, in the -imperial city of Lahore, in perfect health, but in the same year that -sage bade adieu to this world. He was a man who found repose in God, -and avoided all intercourse with society: he was learned in all the -theoretical and practical sciences, and eminently conversant with the -languages of Arabia, Persia, Hindustan, and Europe: by him were -translated into Persian, that is, into Parsi mixed with Arabic, the -works of the Shaikh _Ishrák Shuháb ud dín Maktúl_, which treated of -the Ishrakian tenets; his time was employed in transcribing books, -from which source he was obliged to derive his scanty support. He -never slept at night; in the year of the Hejirah 1048 (A. D. 1638) the -author beheld him with Húshyár at Lahore; during the entire night, the -writer of these pages sat in his presence, and from morn until evening -Húshyár remained before him; whilst the above-mentioned Farzanah, -seated on both knees, with his face to the east, never moved: people -have witnessed in him many things of this description. They say that -he used to remain seated two or three days after this fashion, neither -eating bread nor drinking water; he never laid his back on the ground; -his food consisted of a small quantity of cow’s milk; his lips were -never polluted with any other substance, and even this he swallowed at -intervals of two or three days. - - “Be thou as a goblet, free from the contamination of body, - Be thou earth in the footsteps of the pure. - As from this earth thou mayst come to dust, - Break through the dust, and attain the human nature.” - -The Mobed Paristár, the son of Khurshíd, who was originally of -Isfashán, assumed the elements of body in Patna; the Mobed, when a -youth, was accepted by divine favour, and through the aid of the -Almighty became one of the _Yekánah Bín_, or “seers of unity.” Having -in his early years entered into the service of Azar Kaiván, he -obtained a perfect sanctity through the society of his holy master’s -disciples. He however devoted himself chiefly to the Mobed Sarósh: he -was the author of the _Taprah-i-Mobedi_, or “the Sacerdotal -Kettledrum.” In the year of the Hejirah 1049 (A. D. 1640) he came to -Kashmir, where the author of this work was admitted into his society. -From the nightfal until sunrise, the Mobed Paristár gave himself up to -the Saráíst, which in the celestial language, or the _Desatir_, they -call _Faró_, or “downward:” this rite, according to them, consists in -elevating the feet in the air, and standing on the head; which -position is called in Hindi _Kapal Asan_[336] or “head-seat.” He of a -sudden quitted the body and entered the bowers of Paradise. A Mobed -has said: - - “If thou be a wanderer upon the path of spirituality, - Fix not on the (external) robe, the motion of thy heart, - For nothingness will be the dwelling of thy body: - Although in reality thou continuest to move.” - -The Mobed Peshkár, the son of Khurshíd, was also born in Patna, and -one year younger than Perishtar (his brother). He became unrivalled -during his age, in the Hindi chaunts and poems of that sect. He was -the _servant of the leader_ Azar Kaiván and his disciples, and whilst -in the service of the Mobed Sarósh he attained the knowledge of God, -and of himself, and he became eminently divested of prejudice and -exempted from human infirmities: being totally unfettered by the bonds -or chains of any sect whatever, and studiously shunning the polemic -domains of prejudice: in short, the eulogium of one creed and the -abhorrence of another, entered not into his system. He came to Kashmir -with his elder brother, with the purpose of departing from thence to -Kathay: he was noted for the imprisonment of the breath, concerning -which the Mobed Húshíyár said: “He once suppressed his breath and -plunged into the water, where he remained immersed during two watches -(six hours), after which interval he again raised his head above the -surface.” - - HEMISTICH: “Wherever he may be, O God, guard him in safety!” - -_Shídosh_, the son of Anosh, descended from the prophet Zardusht by -his father Anósh, who was styled _Farhosh_, “the splendor of -intellect,” was one of the sincerely devoted disciples of Azar Kaiván: -_Zarbád_ was also descended from the same divine apostle Zardúsht, and -finally became a man of opulence, although at the beginning of his -career he only possessed the pangs of destitution. They both came one -day into the presence of Azar Kaiván, and lamented the hardship of -their forlorn state; on this Azar replied: “Proceed with a small stock -to the quarter of sunrise, traverse the eastern borders, and dispose -of it with speed towards the descending sun, as your condition, -through this depressed site of difficulty will be changed into the -means of affluence.” Nearly at the period of giving these -instructions, Azar Kaiván having withdrawn from this earthly -tabernacle, hastened to the resting-place of the spheres, and these -two Jupiter-like stars, the unrivalled splendor of the world, set out -as directed. At length, through the efficacy of Kaiván’s enlightened -spirit, the state of these pilgrims continued to obtain an ascendancy, -until they became possessed of great opulence. Hafiz says thus: - - “They who by a look convert clay into the philosopher’s stone, - What great matter if they bestow a single glance on me.” - -After this, _Zarbádí_ sent to Patna an ancient servant, Farrah Kari by -name, to conduct his daughter to the musk-scented pavilion of Shídósh, -the illustrious son of Anósh. After this event, Farrah Kari and -Shídósh, proceeded from Patna on a commercial adventure, and formed -the plan of setting out from Kashmir to Kashgar: they were however -obliged to remain some time in Kashmir: but on the first moment of -moving from Patna, there arose in the breast of Shídósh an anxious -wish for attaining the knowledge of himself, the investigation of his -ancient abode, ascertaining his natural light, and exploring the march -of the invisible world: as from the very first, this bright Jupiter, -through the entreaty of Kaivan (Saturn) had directed his steps to the -region of atoms and the abode of elements of the celestial and -terrestrial parents: consequently, when Kaivan had abandoned this -bodily frame, he sat down with his disciples, - - “Choose thou companions who are better than thyself, - In order that thy understanding and faith may increase.” - -He consequently devoted himself to religious exercises, listening in -the first place to the voice called in Persian _âzád ává_ “the -independent voice,” in Arabic, _saut-i-mutluk_, or “the absolute -sound;” and in Hindi, _anáhid_. When he had duly practised this rite, -he directed his eyes, opened wide between the eyebrows, which in Hindi -they call _terátuk_, until the blessed form of Kaiván was clearly -manifested: he next contemplated that form, until it actually was -never more separated from him; he at last reached the region of -intellect, and having passed through the six worlds, arrived in the -seventh, and in this state of entrancement obtained admittance to the -Almighty presence; so that, during this abstraction from self, the -annihilation (of every thing human) and the eternity (of the -spiritual) was joined to his existence. Sâdi says: - - “O youth! enter thou this very day into the path of obedience, - For to-morrow the vigor of youth comes not from the aged man.” - -One morning at the dawn of day he said thus to the author of the -Dabistan: “Yesterday in the gloom of night, directed by the light of -spirit, I departed from this external body, and arrived at the -mysterious illumination ever replete with effulgence: the chamberlain -of truth removed from before me the curtains, so that on quitting this -mortal nature and leaving the visible world, I traversed the angelic -sphere. The supreme independently-existing light of lights became -revealed in all the impressive, operative, attributive, and essential -radiance of glory: this state of imaginary being disappeared, actual -existence was clearly witnessed.” Hafiz says: - - “The perfect beauty of my beloved is not concealed by an interposing - veil; - O Hafiz, thou art the curtain of the road: remove away.” - -Shidósh, though far removed from receiving pleasure by dainty food, -still appeared always in magnificent dresses: his audience always -diffused the fragrance of perfume; he even clad in handsome dresses -his head domestic servants, and other dependents, nay his very porter -and doorkeeper. He used to say: “My state proceeds from the splendor -of Azar Kaiván’s aid: to feel contempt for such a capital would be -highly improper; and not to make use of it would be an abomination -before my benefactor; for otherwise, I derive no pleasure from fine -raiment.” As to his abstinence in point of food, and his shunning of -female society, what has been mentioned is sufficient on these heads. -Shidosh Bihin was a youth of a finely proportioned person, and -beautiful countenance; the following was the rule observed by him: he -never attached merit to any strange creed, but endeavoured to divest -himself altogether of prejudice, and maintained very little -intercourse with the generality of mankind: when he formed an -intimacy, on the first day he testified only a small degree of warmth; -he exhibited greater attention on the second; so that he daily made -greater advances in the path of friendship; progressively increasing -his love and affection: as to what has been stated relative to his -displaying no great degree of warmth on the first interview, the same -proportion obtained when he shewed a decrease of warmth to some; that -same would be reckoned very great in any other. He always asserted, -that in the society of friends, their intercourse must not be -separated from meditation on God, as whatever is, is but a radiancy -emanating from the sun of his essence: the visible and invisible of -the world being only forms of that existence. Rafiah says: - - “If angels and demons be formed from one principle, - The husbandman, the spring, the seed, and the field must be the - same: - What has his unity to dread from the plurality of the human race? - Although you tie the knot a hundred-fold, there is only a single - cord.” - -Shidosh was seized with so severe an illness in Kashmir, that his case -surpassed the art of the physician: as Urfi says: - - “What physician can there be, if the Messiah himself be taken ill?” - -All the people about Shidosh were disconsolate, but he remained -cheerful of heart, and in proportion as the symptoms became more -aggravated, his cheerfulness increased, and he frequently recited -these couplets from Hafiz: - - “O joyous day, when I depart from this abode of desolation, - Seeking the repose of my soul, and setting out in search of my - beloved: - Dancing like a solar mote around the atmosphere of her lips, - Until I reach the fountain-head of the radiant sun.”[337] - -On the day of his departure from this temporary halting-place to the -eternal mansion of repose and the exalted seat of happiness, his -disconsolate friends and affectionate domestics were deeply afflicted; -but Shidosh retained his cheerfulness and thus addressed them with an -expression of delight: “I am not grieved at this disease of body, why -then do you grieve? nay ought you not to wish that I, having quitted -this gloomy abode of phantasy, should hasten to one beyond the -confines of space, and the mansions of intellect may become united to -the truly existent and independent (first cause).” The Maulavi Mânavi -says thus: - - “If death be a human being, say to him, ‘draw near,’ - That I may closely fold him in a fond embrace. - From him I extort by force eternal life, - Whilst he but snatches from me the Durvish’s party-colored dress.” - -He then lifted up his hands and directing his face to heaven, the -Kiblah of prayer, recited the following blessed couplets front the -_Sahifah al Auliya_, “volume of the Saints,” written by the Imam -_Muhammed Nur Baksh_. - - “Whether we are directors or guides[338] - Still do we want to be guided, on account of the infancy of our steps. - We are but solitary drops from the ocean of existence, - However much we possess of divine revelation and proof. - I am far from the great reservoir of drops, - Convey me, O God, to the boundless ocean of light!” - -On reciting these lines he closed his eyes. The Shaikh Abúlfaiz -Faiyazi says on this subject: - - “The drop became a fountain, and the fountain grew into a river, - Which river became reunited to the ocean of eternity.” - -This event occurred in the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1629): his -affectionate friends expressed their grief in the following manner: - - “Thy brilliant hues still exist in the parterre, - Thy fragrance still survives in the jessamine; - The sight of thee is put off to the day of resurrection; - It is well: but it forms the theme of many a tale.” - -The author also in his elegy on Shídósh thus expresses his grief: - - “Since Shídósh departed from my sight - That which was a receptacle of eyes became a receptacle of rivers; - Had my eyes been a channel, they would have become a river-bed: - The resting place of the bird was the paradisian sphere: - From this lowly nest he departed to the nest on high. - He was truly free and sought no stores except those of holy freedom. - He abandoned his body to corporeal matter, and his spirit joined - the spiritual region. - His soul was united to the sublime being, the creator of souls, - Soaring beyond the limits of heaven, earth, and time.” - -If the author attempted to describe the learned and pious Abádíyán who -were seen in the _Dadistan Aursah_,[339] this treatise would never be -brought to a conclusion; he now therefore proceeds to mention some -others, who though professing a faith different from the Yezdánián or -Abadíyán, yet walked according to the institutes of Kaiván’s -disciples, and attained their great object, the knowledge of God: and -although this class is too numerous to be fully described, a few of -the eminent personages are now about to be mentioned. - -_Mahummed Alí_, of Shiraz was the fellow-student of Shah Futtah Allah, -and he traced his family to Azar Kaiván: he however attained -perfection through the society of Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhád, -and had also traversed the seven climes. A thief came to his house one -night, on perceiving whom Muhammed Alí pretended to fall asleep on his -carpet, so that the robber might not suppose him to be awake, and -continue his pursuits without apprehension. The robber searched the -house carefully, but as all the effects were concealed in a secure -place, he was unable to get at them. On this Muhammed raising his -head, said to him: “I laid myself down to sleep, that thou mightst -accomplish thy desires, whereas thou art in despair: be no longer -uneasy.” He then arose and pointed out the place where all the things -were stored away: in consequence of this generous proceeding, the -robber abandoned his infamous profession, and became a virtuous -character. - -_Muhammed Said_ of Isfahan was a Saiyid descended from Husain, who -attained his great object through Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhad. -He once said to the author: “The first time I obtained the honor of -admittance to the audience of the distinguished Farzanah, he rose up -on seeing me, and showed the proper respect due to an honorable -person, directing me to be seated on the most distinguished couch. -Some time after, entered a naked Fakir, but Farzanah Bahram moved not -from his place, but pointed him to a seat in the slipper-repository. I -felt this scruple; surely the highest distinction is due to the -Durvish. Farzanah then turning his face to the wall, which was -ornamented with paintings, said: ‘O, lifeless figure, thou art seated -on high; but external form confers not distinction; but Durvishes -enjoy a rank, when their bodies are under the control of their -souls,[340] and their souls united with the supreme object of love; -even in this assembly they are seated with me in my heart.’ On hearing -this, I turned into the right road.” In the year of the Hejirah 1045 -(A. D. 1634), he abandoned this elemental frame in Lahore. - -_Ashur Beg Karamanlu_ is also one of those who obtained the gift of -spiritual intelligence through Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhad, -notwithstanding the total absence of regular studies: by the exertion -of his innate powers, he, like the other Yekanah Bin “seers of one -God,” attained communion with God. In the year of the Hejirah 1048 (A. -D. 1636) the author conversed with him in Kashmir, and inquired into -the nature of his intercourse with Bahram. He answered: “I went by way -of experiment to Farzanah, and he thus directed me: ‘Whether alone or -in a crowd, in retirement or in public, every breathing which issues -forth must proceed from the head; and on this point there must be no -inattention.’ He also said: ‘Guard the internal breath as long as thou -canst, directing thy face to the pine-formed heart, until the -invocation be performed by the heart in the stomach; also thy -invocation should be thus: ‘God! God!’ Meditate also on this -sentiment: ‘O Lord! none but thou forms the object of my desire!’ When -I had duly practised this, and found its impressive influence, then -from the bottom of my heart I sincerely sought God. After some time he -enjoined me to practise the _Tawajjah-i-Talkín_, ‘turning to -instruction:’ that is: ‘keep thy soul in the presence of God, divested -of letters and sounds, whether Arabic or Persian, never removing thy -mind from the ‘pine-formed heart.’ By conforming to these -instructions, I have come at last to such a state, that the world and -its inhabitants are but as a shadow before me; and their very -existence as the appearance of the vapor of the desert.’” - -He was truly a man who had entirely withdrawn from all external -employments and concerns; never mixing with the people of the world. -If a person deposited food before him, he took only the quantity he -thought proper, and gave away the remainder; he never polluted his -hand with money in gold, silver, or copper; and he frequently passed -two or three days altogether without food and never requested any -thing. - -_Mahmud Beg Timan_, so called from the Timan tribe of Arang in Lahore, -joined himself also to Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhad, and as the -precepts of that sage were entirely congenial to his mind, he -commenced his religious profession under him, and became one of the -Yekanah Bin, “seer of one God,” and “knowing God:” thus without the -aid of books he attained to the knowledge of the Lord, and -notwithstanding the absence of written volumes, discovered the actual -road. In the year of the Hejirah 1048 (A. D. 1637), whilst in Kashmir, -coming out of his cell one day, he saw before him a wounded dog, -moaning piteously; as the animal was unable to move, he therefore sold -the only two objects he possessed, his carpet for prayer and his -rosary, with the proceeds of which he purchased remedies for the dog. -That same year, he said to the author: “On the first day of turning my -heart to the mental invocation of God, I had scarcely performed it ten -times, when an evident influence was manifested: at the moment of the -first part, called _nafi_, of the sentence, my human existence -disappeared; at the time of the second, called _asbat_, a determined -sign of divine grace became visible: my sentence was this: ‘There is -no God, but God.’”[341] After this manner, several of this sect, by -the diligent practice of faith, attained to the knowledge of God. - -_Musa_ and _Harun_ were two Jews, to whom Farzanah Bahram, the son of -Farhad, gave these names: they were distinguished by a profound -knowledge of their own faith, and highly celebrated among the Rabbins, -who are a particular sect of Jewish teachers. On their introduction -into Bahram’s society, they were fascinated by his manners, and -through his system of faith acquired the knowledge of themselves. They -applied themselves to commerce, and neither in buying or selling did a -falsehood proceed from their lips, as is the custom of merchants. They -have thus recorded: “To whomsoever Bahram, the son of Farhad, uttered -a single word about the path of religion, he became immediately -fascinated by his manner: also whoever beheld him felt an attachment -to him; even the hardened infidel who approached him, humbled himself, -and we have often witnessed such events: for example, the _Mulla -Muhammed Sáid_ of Samarkand, who was our intimate friend, through -excess of prejudice hurried once to revile him: at that moment, Bahram -had retired from Lahore into a burying-ground: when the Mulla -approached, he found himself irresistibly impelled to run forward and -laid his face on Bahram’s feet: and on Bahram’s addressing a few words -to him, immediately embraced his faith. I afterwards questioned the -Mulla about the exact nature of this conversion from infidelity, and -he replied: ‘I no sooner beheld him than I fell at his feet; and when -he addressed a few words to me, I became enraptured with him.’ The -Mullah always styled Bahram ‘the plunderer of hearts.’” - -One day the author asked Musa, “is Kasun thy brother?” he replied, -“people say so.” I then asked, “who is your father?” he answered, “our -mother knows that.” - -_Antun Bushuyah Wávaraj_[342] was a Frank, zealous in the Christian -faith, and also possessed of great property; through divine aid, he -conceived an attachment to the society of Durvishes, and for the -purpose of acquiring knowledge held frequent conferences with them: -through his having discovered the path pointed out by the son of -Furhad, he altogether resigned his worldly concerns, assumed the -profession of a _Kalander_,[343] and denied himself the use of -clothes: Farzanah always called him “Messiah.” He used to appear -perfectly naked, and never wore clothes either summer or winter: he -abstained altogether from animals of every description: he never -solicited any thing, but if a person brought food or drink before him, -if it were not animal food, he would eat part of it. One day, although -an evil-disposed person smote him so that his limbs were wounded, yet -he never even looked at his oppressor; when his persecutor had -departed, I, the author, came up as the people were speaking of the -injury inflicted on him; on my enquiring the particulars from himself, -he replied: “I am not distressed for my own bodily suffering, but that -person’s hands and fists must have suffered so much.” The Imam _Kali -Warastah_, “the humble,” says: - - “If the thorn break in my body, how trifling the pain! - But how acutely I feel for the hapless broken thorn!” - -_Ram Bhót_, a Hindu, was a learned Brahmin of Benares; on joining the -son of Farhad, he desisted altogether from his former rites, and began -to follow the path pointed out by Bahrám. The Mobed Hoshyar says: “I -have often heard wonderful stories concerning him; a person named -Muhammed Yakub was so ill, that the physicians having given up all -hopes of his cure, his relations, in their affliction, had recourse to -an ignorant woman who reckoned herself a skilful personage: I went one -day near Ram Bhót, and found him reposing his head on his knee, on -which this reflection passed across my mind: ‘if Ram Bhót be one of -the elect, he can tell whether Muhammed Yakub is to remain or pass -away.’ He raised up his head, and looking on me with a smile, said: -‘God only knows the hidden secrets; however, Muhammed Yakub is not to -depart: in another week he will be restored to health.’ And truly the -thing came to pass as he had declared.” Through his guidance _Ram -Chand_, a Kshatri, one of the chiefs of the _Sahan Sakal_, adopted the -faith: and through the instruction of these two individuals, many of -their tribe embraced the independent faith as promulgated by the son -of Farhad. The word _Sah_[344] in Hindi is applied to “a possessor or -powerful person,” and the _Sahkal_[345] are a division of the Kshatri, -an Indian cast or tribe. In reality, if the writer attempted to -enumerate the numbers of different nations who zealously adopted the -doctrines and ritual of Bahram, this work would become exceedingly -prolix; he must therefore resist from such an undertaking. The author -of these pages has heard from Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhad, as -stated on the authority of Farzanah Bahram, the son of Farhad, that -one day the Shaikh _Bahá-ud-din Mohammed Amali_, who was a _Mujtahad_, -“a champion,” of the sectaries of Alí, came near Kaiván and obtained -an interview: having thus become acquainted with Kaiván’s perfection -and wisdom, he was exceedingly rejoiced and happy, and recited this -tetrastich: - - “In the kâbah and the firetemple the perfect saint performed his - rounds, - And found no trace of any existence (save that of God); - As the splendor of the Almighty sheds its rays in every place, - Knock thou either at the door of the kâbah or the portals of the - temple.” - -After this interview, he became the diligent follower of Kaiván, and -resorted to the disciples of the Master of all Sciences. - -_Mir Abulkasim Fandaraski_ also, through his intercourse with Kaiván’s -disciples, became an adorer of the sun, refraining from cruelty -towards all living creatures. It is well known that being once asked: -“Why dost not thou in obedience to the law go on the pilgrimage to -Mecca?” He replied: “I go not on this account, as I must there -slaughter a sheep with my own hand.” At present the author proceeds to -describe with the pen of truth a summary of the institutes of the -_Amézish_, “intercourse,” held by the Abadian Durveshes with society. -Those who adopt this rule call it the _Amèzish-i-Farhang_, or “the -intercourse of science,” and _Mèzchar_, or “Stranger’s remedy.” When a -stranger to their faith is introduced to one of their assemblies, far -from addressing harsh observations to him, they pass eulogiums on his -tenets, approve whatever he says, and do not omit to lavish on him -every mark of attention and respect: this conduct proceeds from the -fundamental article of their creed, as they are convinced that in -every mode of belief, its followers may come to God: nay, if those of -a different faith should present them a request respecting some object -about which they disagree, that is, solicit some act by which they may -approach God, they do not withhold their compliance. They do not -enjoin a person to abandon his actual profession of faith, as they -account it unnecessary to give him useless pain of mind. Moreover when -any one is engaged in concerns with them, they withhold not their aid -from his society and support, but practise towards him to the utmost -extent of their ability, whatever is most praiseworthy in this world -and the next: they are also on their guard against indulging in -sentiments of prejudice, hatred, envy, malice, giving pre-eminence to -one faith above another, or adopting one creed in preference to -another. They also esteem the learned, the Durvishes, the pure of -life, the worshippers of God in every religion, as their trusty -friends; neither styling the generality of mankind wicked, nor holding -worldly-minded persons in abhorrence: they observe, “what business has -he who desires not this world’s goods to abhor the world?” for the -sentiment of abhorrence can proceed from the envious alone. They -neither communicate their secrets to strangers, nor reveal what -another communicates to them. - -A person named _Mihráb_ was among the disciples who followed the son -of Farhad, in the year of the Hejirah 1047 (A. D. 1637); the author, -who was then in Kashmir, thus heard from Muhammad Fál Hasîrî: “I once -beheld Mihráb standing in the high road, at the moment when a -Khorasánian, seizing on an old man by force, obliged him to labor for -him without recompense, and placed a heavy burden on his head: at this -Mihráb’s heart so burned within him, that he said to the Khorasánian, -‘Withdraw thy hand from this old man, that I may bear the burden -whithersoever thou desirest.’ The Khorasánian was astonished, but -Mihráb, without paying any farther attention to this, took the poor -man’s load on his head, and went along with his unjust oppressor, and -on his return from that person’s house showed no symptoms of fatigue. -On my observing to him, ‘This oppressor has heaped affliction on a -holy priest and judge like thee!’ he replied, ‘What could a helpless -person do? the load must be conveyed to his house, and he was unable -to place it on his shoulders, as it was unbecoming for him; nor was he -able to give money (which is difficult to be procured) in payment of -his labour: he of course seized on some one to perform his work. I -applaud him for granting my request, and feel grateful to the old man -for complying with my wishes, suffering me to take his place, and -transferring his employment to myself.’” - -Hafiz of Shiraz thus expresses himself: - - “The heavens themselves cannot remove the weight confided to us; - The lot of labour fell to my hapless name.” - -_Máh Ab_, the younger brother of the above _Mihráb_, was seen by the -compiler of this work in attendance on the son of Farhad, and in the -year of the Hejirah 1048 (A. D. 1638) he thus heard from the Mulla -_Mahdi_ of Lahóre: “Bahram having one day sent him on some errand to -the bazar, he happened to pass by the house of a person in the service -of _Alim Uddin_ of Halsub, styled _Wazir Khan_; the soldier was then -chastising his slave, saying: ‘Thou hast fraudulently sold one of my -captives.’ Máháb coming near the soldier, said to him: ‘Withdraw thy -hand from this slave, and accept me in place of him who has run away.’ -Nay, this request was so importunately urged, that the soldier finally -accepted the offer and desisted from beating his slave. However, when -the soldier had discovered Máháb’s spiritual gifts, he permitted him -to return home, but Máháb would not quit him. A week after this event, -Farhad said in my presence, ‘I know not where Máháb is;’ on which, -resting his head on his knees, he directed his heaven-contemplating -attention to the subject, and the instant after, raising up his head, -said: ‘Máháb is in the service of a certain soldier, and has -voluntarily resigned his person to servitude.’ He forthwith proceeded -to the soldier’s abode and brought back Máháb.” Many similar -transactions are recorded of these sectaries. _Muhammed Shariz_, -styled _Amir ul Umra_,[346] a Shirazi by descent, thus says: - - “Through auspicious love we make perfect peace in both worlds, - Be thou an antagonist, but experience nothing but love from us.” - -It is to be observed that Halsub is a place in one of the districts of -the _Parjab_. - -A short notice of the _Amîzesh-i Farhang_, or institute of the -Abadíyah Durveshes, having been thus given, we next proceed to -describe with the pen of truth the chiefs and rulers of that religion. -But it is always to be borne in mind that the faith of the princes of -Persia, whether of the _Abadian_, _Jaian_, _Shaian_, _Yesani-an_, nay -of the _Peshdadian_, _Kaianian_, _Ashkanian_, and _Sassanian_ -dynasties was such as has been described; and although the system of -Zardusht obtained the pre-eminence, yet they have by means of glosses -reconciled his faith with that professed by _Abad_, _Kaiomars_, and -the system of _Húshang_, called the _Farhang Kesh_ or “excellent -faith;”[347] they regarded with horror whatever was contrary to the -code of Abád, which they extolled by all means in their power, as -_Parviz_ the son of _Hormuz_,[348] in his answer to the Roman emperor, -thus expresses himself: - - “We feel no shame in professing our ancient faith, - No other creed in this world can compete with that of Húshang. - The whole object of this code consists in promoting justice and love: - And contemplating the numbers of the celestial spheres.” - -They give _Máhábád_ the names of _Azar Húshang_, _A Húshang_, -_Húshang_, and _A Hosh_. It is also recorded, that the Almighty -bestowed on the princes of _Ajam_[349] prudence, sagacity, and -perfection of intellect, whereby their theories were connected with -practical results, and their words quite in harmony with their deeds, -so that their rule over this revolving world for so many thousand -years was entirely owing to the efficacy of the above-mentioned -principles and covenants. - - - [316] Edit. of Calcutta: در و چون بسی برتری يافتم In one - manuscript: وچون بسی برتری يافتم. In the manuscript of Oude: - درون چون بسی برتری يافتم. The first is best. - - [317] Edit. of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have: - سروشی بتابيد آهرمنی. Two other manuscripts: سروشی نپايدء و - آهرمنی. The latter seems to be the better reading. - - [318] Edit. of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude: فراموش; - two other manuscripts, مرا هوش――the better reading by far. - - [319] Two manuscripts have ز between ساخود and سايه; the - edit. of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have خود سايه. - - [320] The text has: - بدان ره که رفتم شدم سوی تن - بعد ايزدی فره زان انجمن - _Izedi_ means any thing given for God’s sake, or as one’s - due; here it seems to signify a divine gift. يزد, ايزد, - _ized_, also يزدان, _yezdan_, is the name of God, and may be - derived from ईश, _ísa_, “to possess power,” ईष, _ísha_, “to - give,” इष, _isha_, to wish, or according to Hyde (p. 159), - from يشتن, _ishten_, “supplicare, intercedere.” _Ized_ is - also light, purity; it is the name of good spirits, created - for the good of the world, and appointed to protect - individuals.――A. T. - - [321] In the Gulshen raz, a poem quoted in our note p. 82, - this idea is expressed in several verses, of which the - following: - جهان از عقل و نفس و چرخ و اجرام - جون يک قطره دان زاغاز و انجام - - “The world, which is composed of intellect, soul, heavens, - and bodies, - Know them to be as a drop from beginning to end.” - - Room is wanted for quoting, as a curious coincidence with - this image, four beautiful strophes of Klopstock, from his - ode “_Die Frühlingsfeyer_,” the Festivity of Spring.――A. T. - - [322] This verse has already been quoted, page 6. - - [323] Allusion is here made to the four immediate successors - of Mohammed; these were _Abubeker_, _Omár_, _Osman_, and - _Alí_. - - The first who took the title of _khalif_, that is - “lieutenant of the Prophet,” was _Abdallah_, better known by - the name of ابو بِکْر, _Abúbeker_, “Father of the Virgin,” - so called because Aíshá, his daughter, was the only one of - Mohammed’s wives who had not been before married to another - man. He was also distinguished by the title of صديق _sadik_, - or “the faithful witness,” given to him because he, the - first Muselman after Mohammed’s preaching, attested the - miracle of the Prophet’s ascension to heaven. It was he who - collected the verses of the Koran, which were written upon - separate leaves, into one volume, called _Almoshaf_, “the - book by excellence,” the original text of which was - deposited in the hands of Hafsat, daughter of Omar and widow - of Mohammed. After a reign of two years and three months, he - died in the year 13 of the Hejira, 634 A. D., not without - having named his successor. - - This was _Omar Ben al-Khetab_, known under the title of - فاروق, _fárúk´_, “the separator,” so called by Mohammed, - because he had separated the head from the body of a - Muselman who, not satisfied with the decision which the - Prophet had given in a law-suit, came to submit the case to - Omar’s revision. Under Abubeker’s khalifat, Omar acted as - chief of justice, or chancellor. As khalif he was the first - who took the title of امير ألمومنين, _Emir al-Múmením_, - “prince or commander of the faithful,” which title devolved - to all his successors. He conquered Syria, Chaldæa, - Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt, and built the town of - Bassora at the mouth of the Tigris, in order to prevent the - Persians from taking the route to India by the gulph of - Persia. After a reign of ten years he was killed by the hand - of a Persian slave, who, having complained of his master’s - cruelty to him, did not receive the expected redress. Omar, - a judge cruel but just, would not fix the right of - succession upon his son, but wishing to keep the khalifat - elective, named six persons, called اهل الشوري, _ahel - al-shurah_, “people of council,” who should choose a khalif - among themselves. - - Among these were _Osman_ and _Ali_. After a hard contest - between these two competitors, the former, supported by his - four colleagues, was proclaimed khalif at the end of the - year 23, or the beginning of 24 of the Hejira, 643 or 644 A. - D. Osman Ben Affan was called by his partisans ذو النورين, - _zo ul naráin_, “the possessor of two lights,” because he - had married Rakíah and Omm al Kachúm, both daughters of - Mohammed, whose prophecy was supposed to be the source of - light diffused over his whole posterity. Osman published the - Koran such as it was in the original text, deposited (as was - before said) in the hands of Hafsat, one of Mohammed’s - widows, and he caused all copies, differing from this one, - to be suppressed. The domination of the Mohammedans was - established and extended, to the east, in Khorassen and in - Upper Asia; to the west, over the whole northern coast of - Africa and even a part of Spain, during this khalif’s reign, - which, after eleven years, terminated by his violent death - in an insurrection which took place against him in Egypt. - - The Egyptians offered the government to Ali. As before - mentioned, he was one of the six persons named by Omar as - fit for the khalifat, which Ali claimed as his right, being - the cousin-german and son-in-law (husband of Fatima, the - eldest daughter) of Mohammed, and thus the head of the - family of the Hashemites, who were distinguished by the name - of “the house of the Prophet.” After Osman’s death, Ali was - by his party proclaimed the head of the Muselmans. His title - was اسد الله الغالب, _assad allah al-ghaleb_, “the lion of - God, the victorious.” Possessed of great learning, he - composed several celebrated works in prose and in verse, - although he had to sustain a continual struggle with the - adverse party. He was assassinated in Kufa, in the year 40 - of the Hejira, 660 A. D. After him, his sons Hassan and - Hossain (see note 3, pp. 47-48) fell victims to Moavia, a - relation of Osman, and the mortal enemy of the whole race of - Ali. The contest between these two parties was, after the - death of their chiefs, carried on by their numerous - adherents, and, connected as it is with some difference in - their religious opinions and rites, continues to our days. - Ali is acknowledged the head of the شيعة, _Shiâts_, which - word means in general “a troop, a party,” but is - particularly applied to those who believe that the _Imamat_, - or the supreme dignity over the Muselmans, belongs by right - to Alí and his descendants, who call themselves - _Aladiliats_, or “the party of the just.” Opposed to them - are the _Sonnites_, so called from the Arabic word _sonnat_, - which signifies “precept, rule,” or the orthodox faith of - Muselmans, comprehending the traditional laws relative to - whatever has not been written by the great legislator (see - Herbelot, _sub voc._).――A. T. - - [324] Zu-l-Ulum, “master of sciences,” was a title of Kaiván. - - [325] Nushirvan, called by the Arabs _Kesra_, by the - Persians _Khosru_, is reckoned by some authors the 19th (by - others the 20th) Persian king of the Sassáníán dynasty, - which, according to different opinions, was composed of 31, - 30, or 29 princes, and lasted 527, 500, or 431 years. - Nushirvan reigned from 531 to 579 after J. C. He was called - “the just:” from the outside of his palace to his room was - drawn a chain, by the motion of which he could have notice - of any complainant who wanted redress. He was victorious in - the east and west of Asia; he destroyed the prophet _Mazdak_ - (of whom see hereafter, section XV); he brought from India - to Persia the fables of _Pilpay_, called _Anvarí Sohíli_, - “the Canopian lights,” and a game similar to chess. During - his reign Mohammed was born. Nushirvan’s favorite minister, - _Buzerg-Mihr_, called also _Buzer-Jmihr_, was famous for - virtue and wisdom; about both these personages a great - number of marvellous and fabulous accounts forms the matter - of favorite poems in the East.――A. T. - - [326] Ardeshir Babegan was the first king, and founder of - the IVth dynasty of Persian kings, called the _Sasssáníáns_, - or the _Khosroes_. His father was _Sassan_, a descendant of - another _Sassan_, the son of _Bahman Isfendiar_, the 6th - king of the IId Persian dynasty, called the _Kayánian_. The - latter Sassan was reduced to a low station, having become - the shepherd of _Babek_, a wealthy man, whose daughter he - married;――he had by her a son named Ardeshir, who took the - name of his maternal grandfather (which is to be noted as an - Indian custom): hence he was called _Babegan_. He is - identified with the Artaxerxes of the Greeks, a contemporary - of the Roman emperor Commodus (A. D. 180-193). The epoch of - his reign is one of the most uncertain points of Persian - history. It may be fixed from the year 200 to 240 of the - Christian era.――A. T. - - [327] The 5th Sassan, above mentioned, is said to be the - last of fifteen Persian prophets, the first of whom was - Mahábad, and the 13th Zoroaster. The fifth Sassan lived in - the time of Khosru Parviz, who reigned, the 21st or 22nd - king of the Sassáníáns, from 591 to 628 of the Christian - era. We read in the Persian preface of the Desatir, that - five years after the death of Khosru Parviz (that is in the - year 634), the Persian empire being shaken by the conquests - of the Arabs, the fifth Sassan translated the Desatir. The - English preface of the same work states, that “he died only - nine years before the destruction of the ancient Persian - monarchy,” or nine years before 652, which would be in the - year 643 of our era. It appears from the Desatir (English - transl. p. 192), that the fifth Sassan, not less than his - father, the fourth Sassan, was attached to the king Parviz, - of whom he says (ibid. p. 202): “From the wickedness of - mankind did it arise that such an angel-tempered king was - taken from the Hirtasis (Persia).”――A. T. - - [328] Bahrám Gur (Varanes V), the son of Yezdejird _badkar_ - (the iniquitous), was educated out of Persia. After the - death of his father, the throne having been given to Kisra, - a stranger, Bahram came to dispute the crown, which he - proposed should be placed between two famished lions, and - belong to him who should seize it there. Kisra accepted the - proposal, but would not attempt the first to snatch what he - already possessed. Bahram then, after having killed the - fierce animals, took and kept the prize with universal - applause. He was the 13th (or 14th) king of the Sássáníans. - After having repulsed an invasion of the Turks, and secured - his empire, he left Persia, and travelled in disguise to - India in search of adventures; by a series of daring - actions, he gained a great reputation, and the hand of an - Indian princess, with whom, after two years of absence, he - returned to Persia. Fortunate in war against Greeks and - Arabians, he lost his life in a hunting party, after a reign - of 23 (some say 18) years, which is placed from 420 to 438 - of our era.――A. T. - - [329] This passage is very obscure――the occurrences here - mentioned must have been local.――D. S. - - [330] Akbar Abad (Akbar’s town) was Agra. - - [331] Sadah is the name of the 16th night of the Persian - month Bahman (the 11th of the year, January). This night is - solemnized by fires lighted in towns and in the fields - (Herbelot).――A. T. - - [332] Jamasp, a great priest of the religion of Zoroaster, - and supposed author of a Persian work upon the great - conjunctions of the planets, and upon the events which they - produce. This work was translated into Arabic by Lalí, in - the year 1280 of our era. According to the Shah-namah and to - some historians, Jamasp was the brother of Gustasp, the Vth - Persian king of the Péshdadían dynasty (Herbelot). In the - book Múgjizat Farsi (see Hyde, Prefatio), Jamasp is the VIth - of ten Persian prophets, who are enumerated as follows: I. - Feridun; II. Alexander; III. Anushirvan; IV. Baheramgor; V. - Rustam; VI. Jamasp; VII. Buzurgjmihr; VIII. Barbud; IX. an - anonymous sculptor of the beautiful horse Shabdiz, which had - belonged to king Parviz; X. Ferhad, a celebrated architect, - enamoured of Shírín, the wife of Parviz.――A. T. - - [333] The Lulees in Persia and in other parts of Asia are - women of the same description as the dancing girls in India, - devoted to pleasure, and exercising their art of pleasing at - all festivals, public and private.――A. T. - - [334] These verses of Hafiz, p. 56, edit. of Calcutta, are - again quoted, p. 6, of the same edit.; but instead of ازپی - جانام; which occur in the first of these pages, we find in - the last درپی جانام; which last reading was adopted.――A. T. - - [335] چمچمہ _chamchamah_, “a skull,” answers to कपाल - _kapála_, which signifies skull, and a skull-like bowl, in - which beggars receive alms.――A. T. - - [336] कपाल आसन. - - [337] These verses have been quoted before, page 119. - - [338] Mahdí, “guide,” in the original is perhaps an allusion - to the name of the twelfth and last Imam of the race of Alí. - The Persians believe that he is still living, and will - appear with the prophet Elias at the second coming of Jesus - Christ, and will be one of the two witnesses mentioned in - the Apocalypse (Herbelot).――A. T. - - [339] The printed copy reads داد ستان اورسه, and the manuscripts - داد ستان داورشه and داد ستان داورسه, the MS. of Oude has - داد ستان سُه داور. - - [340] The printed copy reads درپای جان, the MSS., with that - of Oude, have درپای ما جان. - - [341] This corresponds to the Arabic: _la ila hah illilla_; - the first part of which, _la ila hah_, “there is no God,” is - called _nafi_, “negation;” the other part, _illi la_, “but - God,” is called _asbát_, “confirmation.” To which is added: - _Mohammed resul ulla_, “Muhammed is his prophet.”――A. T. - - [342] The two MSS. read _Antun pashutah dakardaj_; the MS. - of Oude, _Anton pashuyah_. - - [343] A Kalander is a person of religious pretensions, a - sort of durvish not generally approved by the - Muhammedans――(_Herbelot_). - - [344] Perhaps सहस् _sahas_, “strength, power, light.”――A. T. - - [345] Perhaps सकुल _sakula_, “having a family.”――A. T. - - [346] _Amir_ signifies “commander, chief, prince.” This - title was once borne by sovereigns, but in the course of - time was changed for that of Sultan, it remained a title - given only to princes, their sons. _Amir ul Omra_ signifies - “the commander of commanders” (_Herbelot_).――A. T. - - [347] The Persians pretend to have (see my note, p. 32, and - Hyde, _Prefatio_) a book more ancient than the writings of - Zoroaster, called _Jávídán Khirid_, “the eternal wisdom,” - which treats of practical philosophy, and the author of - which is supposed to have been Húshang.――A. T. - - [348] Khosro Parviz was the grandson of Nushirvan, mentioned - in our note, page 105, as contemporary of the fifth Sasan, - the translator and commentator of the Desatir. Parviz, soon - after having taken possession of his father’s throne, was - driven out of Persia by a fortunate usurper, called _Bahram - Júbín_, and took refuge in the court of the Greek emperor - Mauritius, from whom he obtained not only protection, but - also the hand of his daughter named _Mary_ by some, and by - others Shírin, and a powerful army to recover the kingdom of - Persia. According to _Eben Batrik_ (see _Herbelot_), it was - after having been restored to his sovereignty, that he sued - for marriage with the daughter of Mauritius, who answered - that he could not grant his daughter, unless the Persian - monarch adopted the Christian faith. The verses in the text - seem to refer to this circumstance, but express at the same - time a strong attachment of Parviz to the ancient religion - of his country, whilst, according to the Arabian author just - quoted, this prince apostatised, in spite of his opposing - grandees, for the sake of the beautiful Shirín, for whom he - had conceived an irresistible passion. Mauritius, his - father-in-law, having been put to death, with all his - children except one son, Parviz endeavoured to replace this - remaining son upon the throne of his father. At first - successful against Phocas, he was defeated by Heraclius, the - successor of the Greek emperor; he lost all his conquests, - his reputation, his liberty, and at last his life, by a - parricide, his son and successor, Shiruyah or Sirocs.――A. T. - - [349] Ajem includes all Asia except Arabia. The Arabians, as - formerly the Greeks, call the inhabitants of all countries - except their own, Barbarians; but here, and elsewhere, the - author takes Ajem for Persia.――A. T. - - - - -SECTION III. - - -THE THIRD SECTION OF THE DABISTAN explains the laws of the -Paímán-i-Farhang (excellent covenant) and the Hirbed Sár (the pure -Highpriest). - -The _Paiman-i-Farhang_ is the code of Máhábád, of which many -translations have been made; one of them is that made by _Faridun_, -the son of _Abtin_: another; that of _Buzurg-Mihr_[350] for the use of -_Nushirvan_, the son of _Kobad_; some extracts from these have been -given in the present work. The _Yazdanian_, “godly,” who are also -called _Sahi Kesh_, “flourishing faith,” and _Sipásî_, “adorers,” -maintain that the most exalted of the prophets, the mightiest of -kings, and the sire of the human race which exists in this cycle was -_Máhábád_, whom they also call _Azar Hushang_, “the fire of wisdom.” -They also say that it is thus recorded in the code of this venerable -personage, which is the word of God; and that moreover, this mighty -prince has himself expressly announced that the Divine Essence, which -has no equal, is totally devoid and divested of all form and figure; -incapable of being the object of conception or similitude: also that -the tropes of the most eloquent orators, the illustrations of the most -enlightened and profound geniuses, are utterly unable to convey a -clear idea of the light, which has neither perceptible color nor sign: -the sublime speculations of the learned and the discriminating -understandings of the sage are too feeble to comprehend the substance -of the pure essence of that light, which is without equal, quality, -color, or model: also that all existences have proceeded from the -bounty and wisdom of the Almighty, and are consequently his creation: -that not a single atom in this world, nor even the motion of a hair on -the body of a living creature escapes his knowledge: all which -propositions are proved by evident demonstrations deduced from various -premises, and accompanied by excellent commentaries, the enumeration -of which this abridged treatise cannot admit. Also that the cognizance -of the self-existent God extends alike to the most minute particles of -matter and the entire universe. - -DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT ANGELS OF THE FIRST ORDER.――In the code of -the great apostle Máhábád it is thus stated; the work of God is above -the power of the tongue, and infinitely exceeds the calculations to -which the inhabitants of this lower elemental world have recourse: the -operations of the Eternal are from eternity to eternity: they assign -the name of _Bahman_[351] to the first Angel whom the Almighty -invested with the mantle of existence, and through the medium of whom -it was communicated to others. The planets, fixed stars, and heavens -have each their peculiar conservative Angel; also the four elements -below the lunar sphere have four conservative Angels, and in like -manner all productions connected with them: for example, in minerals -there are many precious stones, such as rubies, sapphires, and -emeralds of every kind, which are under the dominion of their good, -munificent, protecting Angel: and so on with respect to all species of -vegetable and animal productions. The name given to the conservative -angel of mankind is _Farun Faro Vakhshúr_.[352] - -DESCRIPTION OF THE SECOND ORDER OF ANGELS.――The code of Máhábád states -that the second rank is assigned to the Angels connected with bodies: -that is, every heaven and every star has a simple uncompounded spirit, -bare of matter, as it is neither a body nor material: also that all -living beings in the world have an uncompounded soul. - -DESCRIPTION OF THE THIRD ORDER OF ANGELS.――It is stated in the code of -Máhábád, that angelic beings of the third rank are the same as the -superior and inferior bodies. The superior bodies are those of the -sphere and the stars; and the inferior the four (_guhar_) elements. -The most noble of all bodies are those of the sphere. - -DESCRIPTION OF THE GRADATIONS OF PARADISE.――The code of Máhábád states -thus: “In the _Mînú_ or ‘azure heaven’ there are many gradations, we -shall first enumerate the gradations of Paradise in this lower world. -The first gradation consists of minerals, such as rubies, sapphires, -emeralds, and the like; the second of vegetation, such as plane trees, -cypress, gardens, etc.; the third of animals, such as the Arab horse, -the camel, and such like; the fourth consisting of selected -individuals amongst men, such as princes and those connected with that -class, persons in the enjoyment of health, the contented, and such -like; all which gradations they call _Mînú Sár_, ‘celestial abode,’ -and _Bîst Lád_,[353] that is, _Feróden feró_, ‘the low foundation.’” -In these states there is a retrospect; for example, there is one man -who in relation to his deeds gradually descends to the animal state; -whilst the terrene particles of virtuous men’s bodies change either to -the vegetable state or that of the choicest minerals, however without -the existence of an incorporeal soul in either of them. On ascending -from this state, the change is called _Lim Sar_, or “dwelling on -high;” the first is the lunar step; for in the soul of the exalted -moon are the forms of all those beings into which the elements enter. -A person on arriving there remains in it, becoming the regent of all -the lower world, and in proportion to his knowledge and the habits -resulting from his laudable qualities, assumes a better form. On -arriving at a higher rank than this, he finds augmented delight as far -as the solar step; for the sun is the _Pirah-i-Yazdan_, or “the -ornament of God,” that is, the viceroy of the Lord and sovereign of -the stars, whose gracious influence pervades both high and low. On -leaving this and passing through the various gradations to the -empyreal heaven, every step becomes more delightful and excellent. On -ascending beyond the great sphere, he arrives at the curtain[354] of -the great Angels and contemplates the Lord of the light of lights -surrounded by angels: no state can surpass the beatitude and glory of -this gradation, which is called the _Mînúiván Mînú_, or “heaven of -heavens.” - -DESCRIPTION OF THE INFERNAL REGIONS.――The code of Máhábád states thus: -Hell is situated under the sphere of _the moon_:[355] the first step -consisting of minerals in mis-shapen masses, or stones without worth; -of plants, thorny and vile and poisonous herbage; of living creatures, -such as ants, serpents, and scorpions; and of men labouring under -indigence, sickness, feebleness, ignorance, and disgrace: in this step -man is punished for whatever evil actions he has committed, and -escapes not without due retribution. However, the severest gradation -of the infernal regions is that of mental anguish, which is -appropriated to the irreligious philosophers, for when his elemental -body is dissolved, they do not assign him another; so that he finds -not his way to heaven, but remains in the lower elemental world, -consumed by the flames of anguish: besides, in consequence of his -detestable qualities, his tormentors pounce upon him in the shape of -serpents, scorpions, and other such plagues. This state they -denominate _Puchán-i-Púch_, or “the hell of hells.” - -The code of Máhábád also states, that whatever occurs in this -elemental world proceeds entirely from the planets; so that their -adoration, next to that of the Almighty, becomes an indispensable -duty: for these luminaries approach near the palace of the Almighty, -and the chiefs of the court of eternity. In this world, whoever draws -near the seat of grandeur, must have a friend to sound his praise, -which is a measure much to be commended. The person who undertakes a -journey cannot do without a guide, and he who goes to a city where he -has no friend, meets with difficulty: consequently, the worship -tendered to these dignities is much to be commended. The stars are -truly many in number, but amidst these multitudes, the influences of -the seven planets are the most evident: also of all the starry hosts -the sun is the sovereign lord. It is therefore necessary to form seven -images, and to raise that of the sun above the others; the temples -built by the Abadîán princes were open on all sides, so that when the -sun shone they were exceedingly bright in the interior; not like the -Hindoo idol-temples, in which they walk about with lamps, even in the -day time: the roofs of the Abadîán temples were also rather elevated. -The emperors and princes are individuals of the most select -description, on which account the king should find repose in the -fourth sphere, which is one of the solar regions. As it is evident -that the stars are set by God for the due government of the world, in -like manner it is clear that it is not every individual -indiscriminately who attains to the regal dignity, but only a royal -personage, not opposed to the _Farhang-Abád_, or the law of _Azar -Húshang_: as otherwise he would be undeserving of the supreme power. -Of the qualifications indispensably requisite in a monarch, the first -is conformity to the faith above described, and firmness in adhering -to it. In the next place, if on the side of both parents, which means -_Hasab va Nasab_, “accomplishments and genealogy,” he were of royal -descent, it would be more advantageous: the meaning of royal birth is -to be the possessor of the kingdom of justice; if every external -qualification be united with the supreme power, it is much more -agreeable, so that the king should not say, “I am more excellent than -my father, and he than his ancestors:” on the contrary, he styles his -father “highly distinguished,” and his grandfather “far superior.” -Moreover, if any one should praise him on this account, he should -order that person to be chastised. _Azizi_, “a distinguished -man,”[356] has said: “The following is what we mean by this principle; -that as one sire is superior to another, if a son should imagine -himself the greater, then each child would reckon himself superior to -his father, and there would then be no acknowledged ruler.” - -A king must also be provided with a distinguished mathematician as -prime minister, to whom the calculators and astronomers should be -subject; in every city there should be an astronomer or surveyor; and -an _Arshiya_,[357] or accountant, should act as vizir, one well versed -in the amount of rents paid by the Rayas; he must also have -commissaries; and as there are attached to every city many villages -and hamlets, the king’s private property, to which the local director -attends, that officer is called the _Vizhak_. Also with every vizir, -whether absent or present, there should be two _Ustuwars_ or -supervisors, and two _Shudahbands_, or recorders of occurrences; the -same rule is to be observed with all administrators, and the _Samán -Sálár_, or head steward, the chief reporters and inspectors should -also be each accompanied by two Ustuwars and two Shudahbands. -_Dustoor_, or prime minister, means the person to whose department the -public revenue is attached: the copies of the registers of all the -vizirs should be regularly kept at the seat of government, as well as -the papers of the Shudahbands. - -The king also requires military commanders, in order that they may -keep the soldiers in due discipline. The first dignity consists of the -chiefs of a hundred thousand cavalry; the second, of the commanders of -thousands; the third, of the commanders of hundreds; the fourth, of -the rulers over tens; and the fifth, of those accompanied by two, -three, four, or five persons. Thus in this assemblage every ten -persons have an officer and every hundred a Sipahdar, called in the -popular language of Hindustan _Bakhshi_, “pay-master,” in that of -Iran, _Lashkar Navîs_, or “army-registrar,” and in Arabic, _Ariz_, or -“notary:” a similar arrangement must be observed in the infantry. In -like manner, when the military in regular succession are in attendance -on the king, there is at court a _Bárnîgárî_, or “registrar,” to set -down those who are absent as well as those present; in the popular -language of India this officer is styled _Chauki Navîs_, or “register -keeper;” they are accompanied by a _Shudahband_, an _Ustuwar_, and -sentinels, so that they may not go to their homes nor give way to -sleep until their period of duty is terminated: there are also -different sentinels for day and night. It is also so arranged that -there should be always four persons together on each watch, two of -whom may indulge in sleep whilst the other two remain awake. In every -city where the king is present there ought to be a _Shudahband_, to -report to the king whatever occurs in the city: the same rule should -be observed in the other cities also: this functionary they call, in -India, _Wakia-Navis_, “news-writer.” There should also be a _Shahnah_, -or “intendant of police,” styled _Farhang-i-roz_, “registrar of the -day,” who is to conduct all affairs with due prudence, and not suffer -people to inflict injury on each other. He is to have two -_Shudahbands_ and an _Ustuwar_ or “confidential secretary.” In like -manner, among the troops of the great nobles there must be two -_Shudahbands_; and in all provinces a _Shahrdar_, or governor; and in -every city a _Bud-andoz_, or collector-general, a _Sipah-dar_, that is -a Bakhshi, and an intendant of police, or _Shahnah_; it is to be noted -that among the Yezdánían, a _Kázî_ and _Shuhnah_ were the same, as the -people practised no oppression towards each other. The _Shudahband_, -the _Návand_ (writer), and the _Rávand_ (courier), or those who -conveyed intelligence to the king, had many spies set over them -secretly by his majesty, and all those officers wrote him an account -of whatever occurred in the city. If the _Sipahdars_ did not give the -men their just dues, these officers called them to account: also if a -superior noble acted in a similar manner towards his inferiors, they -instituted an inquiry into his conduct: they also took note of the -spies; so that if any secret agent made himself known as such, he was -immediately dismissed. If any one kept the due of the soldier or of -the cultivator, in the name of the king, and did not account for it, -they inflicted chastisement on him. The officers were obliged to -delineate the features of every one employed in the cavalry or -infantry, and also to furnish a representation of his horse, and to -give the men their regular pay with punctuality. Previous to the -Gilsháhian dynasty, no one ever branded the king’s horses, as this was -regarded as an act of cruelty towards the animal: most of the soldiers -also were furnished with horses by the king, as the sovereigns of Ajem -had many studs. On the death of a horse, the testimony of the -collectors and inspectors was requisite. Every soldier who received -not a horse from the king, brought his own with him: they also took -one out of twenty from the Rayas. However, under the Sassanian -princes, the Rayas requested “to take from them one out of ten:” and -as this proposition was accepted, it was therefore called -_Baj-i-hamdastani_, or voluntary contribution, as having been settled -by the consent of the Rayas. - -The Omras and the great of the kingdom, near and far, had not the -power to put a guilty man to death; but when the _Shadahband_, -“recorder,” brought a case before the king, his majesty acted -according to the prescriptions of the _Ferhang-abad_, unless in the -case of executing a dangerous rebel, when, from sparing him until -receiving the king’s will, a great evil would arise to the country. - -They laid down this royal ordinance: that if the king sent even a -single person, he was to bring back the head of the commander of a -hundred thousand; nay, that person never turned aside from the -punishment. For example, when such a commander in the time of Shah -_Máhbúl_ had put an innocent man to death, the prince sent a person -who was to behead the criminal on a day on which the nobles were all -assembled: and of this there are innumerable examples. Also in the -time of Shah _Faridún_, the son of _Abtin_, the son of _Farshad_, the -son of _Shá-î Gilîv_, a general named _Máhlád_ was governor of -_Khorosan_: and he having put to death one of the village chiefs, the -Shudahbands reported to the king all the public and private details of -the fact, on receiving which the king thus wrote to Máhlád: “Thou hast -acted contrary to the Farhang Abad.” When Mahlád had perused the -king’s letter, he assembled the chief men of the province, and sending -for the village chieftain’s son, put a sword in his hand that he might -cut off his head: the son replied: “I consent to pass over my father’s -blood.” Máhlád, however, would not agree to this, and insisted so -earnestly, that the young man cut off his head, which was sent to the -court. The king greatly commended this conduct, and according to his -usual practice conferred Máhlád’s office on his son. In the same -manner, the Moghúls submitted implicitly to the commands of the Lord -strengthened by the Almighty, that is, to _Jenghiz Khan_;[358] and the -tribes of _Kazl-Básh_[359] were equally obedient to _Ismail Safavi_ -during his reign. But the kings of Ajem were averse to the infliction -of capital punishments, so that until a criminal had been declared -deserving of death, according to the Abádían code, the order for his -execution was not issued. - -The kings and chieftains of Iran never addressed harsh language to any -one; but whenever a person deserved chastisement or death, they -summoned the _Farhangdar_, or “judge,” and the _Dad-sitani_, or -“mufti;” on which, whatever the code of _Farhang-abad_ enjoined in the -case, whether beating with rods or confinement, was carried into -effect: but the beating and imprisonment were never executed by low -persons. Whatever intelligence was communicated by spies was submitted -to a careful examination, in which they took great pains; and that -unless reports made by two or more spies coincided, they carried -nothing into execution. The princes and young nobles, like all others, -began by personal attendance on the king: for example, the routine of -_Hash-o-bash_, or “presence and absence” at court, was enjoined them -in rotation, that they might better understand the state of humbler -individuals: they even attended on foot, that they might more easily -conceive the toils of the foot-soldier. - -_Bahzad_ the Yasanian, in one of his marches having proceeded a short -distance, alighted from his horse,[360] on which a distinguished -noble, named _Naubar_, thus remarked: “On a march it is not proper to -remain satisfied with so short a journey.” On this, _Bahzad_ Shah, -leaving the army in that place, said to the commander _Naubar_, “Let -us two make a short excursion.” He himself mounted on horseback, and -obliged the other to advance on foot. They thus traversed mountain and -plain, until _Naubar_ became overpowered by fatigue, on which _Bahzad_ -said: “Exert thyself, for our halting place is near;” but he having -replied, “I am no longer able to move,” the king rejoined; “O -oppressor! as thou art no longer able to proceed, dost thou not -perceive that those who are on foot experience similar distress from -performing too long a march?” - - “Thou, who feelest not for the distress of others, - Meritest not to be called by the name of man.” - -The military, in proportion to their respective ranks, had assigned to -them costly dresses, vigorous steeds with trappings and saddles inlaid -with precious stones, equipments, some of solid gold and silver, and -others plated with gold or silver, and helmets. The distinguished men -were equally remote from parsimony and profuseness. The nobles of Ajem -wore a crown worth a hundred thousand dinars of gold: the regal diadem -being appropriated to the king. All the great Amirs wore helmets and -zones of gold; they also had trappings and sandals of the same. When -the soldiers set out on an expedition, they took with them arms of -every description, a flag and a poignard;[361] they were habituated to -privations, and entered on long expeditions with scanty supplies: they -were never confined within the enclosure of tents and pavilions, but -braved alike the extremes of heat and cold. In the day of battle, as -long as the king or his lieutenant stood at his post, if any one -turned his back on the foe, no person would join him in eating or -drinking, or contract alliance with him, except those who like himself -had consigned their persons to infamy and degradation. Lunatics, -buffoons, and depraved characters found no access to the king or -chieftains. - -On the death of a person who had been raised to dignity, his post was -conferred on his son, or some one of his legitimate connections -adequate to its duties; thus no innocent person was ever deprived of -office, so that their noble families continued from the time of _Sháî -Kilîv_ to that of _Sháî Mahbul_. When king _Khusró_, the son of -_Faridún_, the son of _Abtin_, the son of _Forzad_, the son of _Shái -Kiliv_, had sent _Gurgin_[362] the son of _Lás_ to a certain post, -that dignity remained in his family more than a thousand years; and -when, in the reign of the resplendent sovereign, king _Ardeshir_, -_Madhur_ the descendant of Gurgin had become a lunatic, the king -confined him to his house, and promoted his son _Mábzád_ to the -government; and similar to this was the system of Shah _Ismail -Safavi_. But if an Amir’s son were unfit for governing, he was -dismissed from office, and had a suitable pension assigned him. Nay, -animals, such as the cow, ass, and horse, which were made to labor -when young, were maintained by their masters in a state of ease when -they grew old; the quantity of burden which each animal was to carry -was defined, and whoever exceeded that limit received due -chastisement. In like manner, when any of the infantry or cavalry grew -feeble, infirm, or old, although he might not have performed effective -service, they appointed his son to succeed him; and if the latter was -not yet of mature age, they settled on him a daily allowance from the -royal treasury. But if he had no son, they assigned him during his -life such an allowance as would keep him from distress, which -allowance was continued after his decease to his wife, daughter, or -other survivors. Whatever constitutes the duty of a parent was all -performed by the king; if, in the day of battle, a soldier’s horse -fell, they bestowed on him a better and finer one. It has already been -said that most of the cavalry horses were supplied by the king, and -the military were at no expense save that of forage. If a soldier fell -in battle, they appointed the son with great distinction to his -father’s post, and also conferred many favors on his surviving family; -they also greatly exerted themselves in teaching them the duties of -their class, and in guarding their domestic honor inviolate: as, in -reality, the king is the father, and the kingdom the common mother. In -like manner, when a soldier was wounded, he received the greatest -attentions. Similar notice was taken of workers in gold and of -merchants who had failed and become impoverished, their children being -adopted by the government: so that, within the circuit of their -dominions, there was not found a single destitute person. The Sardár -of each city took cognizance of every stranger who entered it: in the -same way, all friendless travellers were received into the royal -hospital, where physicians gave themselves up to the curing of the -sick: in these there were also Shudahbands to take care that none of -those employed should be backward in their respective offices. The -blind, the paralytic, the feeble, and destitute were admitted into the -royal hospital, where they passed their time free from anxiety. Now -the royal _Bîmárastán_, or hospital was a place in which they gave a -daily allowance to the feeble and indigent: thus there were no -religious mendicants or beggars in their dominions; whoever wished, -embraced a Durvesh’s life and practised religious austerities in a -monastery, a place adapted for every description of pious -mortifications: a slothful person, or one of ill repute, was not -permitted to become a Durvesh, lest he might do it for the purpose of -indulging in food and sleep: to such a character they enjoined the -religious exercises suitable to a Durvesh, which, if he performed with -zeal, it was all well; but, otherwise, he was obliged to follow his -inclinations in some other place. - -The king had also confidential courtiers, well skilled in the -histories of the righteous men of olden time, which they recited to -his majesty. There was also an abundance of astrologers and -physicians, so that, both in the capital and in the provinces, one of -each, agreeably to the royal order, should attend on every governor; -and their number was such in every city, that men might consult them -on the favorable and unfavorable moments for every undertaking. - -In every city was a royal hospital, in which were stationed physicians -appointed by the king; there were separate hospitals for women, where -they were attended by skilful female physicians, so that the hospitals -for men and women were quite distinct. In addition to all this, the -king stands in need of wise _Farhangs_, “judges,” well versed in the -decisions of law and the articles of faith, so that, aided by the -royal influence and power, they may restrain men from evil deeds, and -deliver the institutes of Farhang, “the true faith,” to them.[363] The -king also requires writers to be always in his presence. A great Mobed -must be acquainted with all sciences; a confidential courtier, -conversant with the narratives and histories of kings; a physician, -profound in medical science; an astrologer in his calculations of the -stars; an accountant, accurate in his accounts; and a _Farhangí_, or -lawyer, well versed in points of law: moreover, the study of that -portion of the code contained in the _Páiman-i-Farhang_, or in the -“covenant of the Farhang,” is incumbent on all, both soldiers, Rayas, -and those who practise the mechanic arts, and on other people. In like -manner, persons of one rank were not wont to intermeddle with the -pursuits of another: for example, that a soldier should engage in -commerce, or a merchant in the military profession: on the contrary, -the two employments should not be confounded, so that one should at -the same time be a military man and a servant, or in any employment; -and having become a commander, should again take up the trade. - -They also permitted in every city such a number of artificers, -conductors of amusements, merchants, and soldiers as was strictly -necessary; to the remainder, or surplus, they assigned agricultural -occupations; so that, although many people may know these arts, yet no -more than is required may be occupied with them, but apply themselves -wholly to the cultivation of the soil. If any officer made even a -trifling addition to the import on any business which brought in a -revenue to the king, so far from its being acceptable, they, on the -contrary, ordered that ill-disposed person to be severely punished. - -The king gave audience every day: but on one day of the week in -particular, he acted as _Dádsitán_, or “Mufti,” when every person who -was wronged had access to the sovereign; also, once a year, he gave a -general audience, when everyone who pleased came into his presence; on -this occasion, the king sat down at table with the Ráyás, who -represented to him, without the intervention of another, whatever they -thought proper. - -The sovereign had two places of audience; one the _Rózistán_, or -“day-station,” in which he was seated on an elevated seat; which place -they also called the _Tábsár_, or “place of splendor;” around which -the nobles and champions stood in their respective ranks; the other -was the _Shabistán_, or “night station,” which had also an elevation, -on which the king took his seat. Men of distinction stood on the -outside; those of royal dignity were at the door; and next the king -was a company standing with weapons of war in their hands. Every one, -indiscriminately, had not the privilege of laying his hand on the -royal feet; some only kissed the slipper and walked around it; others, -the sleeve of the royal mantle which fell on the throne: that person -must be in high favor at court who was permitted to kiss the king’s -feet, or the throne, or perform a circuit around it. - -As a brief account has been given of the exterior place of reception, -and of the _Rózistán_, or “day station,” we now proceed to write a few -particulars concerning the interior place of reception, or the secret -night station, or the _Harem_, which is also called the “golden -musk-perfumed pavilion.” In the code of _Azar Húshang_, or _Máhábád_, -it has been thus laid down: whatever be the number of the king’s -women, there must be one superior in dignity to all the rest: her they -style “the Great Lady;” but she possessed not such absolute power that -the right of loosing or binding, inflicting the bastinado, or putting -to death within the night station should be conferred on her: or that -she could put to death whomsoever she pleased without the king’s -consent, a power quite opposed to law. - -The _Shudahbands_ also report to the royal presence all the -transactions of the Great Princess and of the night station, just as -they transmit accounts of those persons who live out of its precincts. -If the king’s mother be alive, the supremacy is of course vested in -her, and not in the Great Princess. _Salárbárs_, or “ushers with -silver maces,” _Jádárs_, or “superintendants of police,” _Gáhnumás_ or -_Shudahbands_, astrologers and such like professions, were also met -with in the interior residence. - -Of these women and princesses not one had the smallest degree of -authority over the rest of their sex who lived outside of the -precincts, nor did they possess the power of issuing any order -whatever; nay they seldom made mention of them in the royal -_Rozistan_; neither were they called by any fixed title; nor, without -urgent necessity, did they ride out in public. - -The king also, on visiting the interior apartment, is not wont to -remain long with the women; nor do they ever entertain any wishes -which have not reference to themselves; such as the mode of speaking -when enjoining an officer to perform some service, or increasing the -dignity of the great warriors. The same system was followed by every -Amir in his own house; but in the dwelling of every Amir, whether near -or remote, there was an aged matron or _Atuni_, deputed on the king’s -part, with the office of Shudahband, to report the exact state of -affairs to the Great Princess, or to send from a distance a written -report for being brought before the king. - -To the king’s Harem, or to that of an Amir, no males had access, -except boys not come to maturity, or eunuchs; but criminals only were -qualified for the latter class, who were never after admitted to any -confidential intimacy; and no individual in their empire was allowed -from motives of gain to have recourse to that operation.[364] - -Every year, on certain occasions, on some great festivals, the wives -of the Amirs waited on the Great Princess, and the women of the city -came to the general levee; but the king never saw these women, as on -such days he did not enter the musk-perfumed pavilion, but departed to -some other place, so that his eyes might not fall on a strange female. -The motives of the ladies’ visit to the king was this: that if any -were oppressed by their husbands, it might be reported to the king, -who after proper investigation was to enjoin the punishment awarded by -the court of justice. - -The great king partook not of reason-subduing strong drinks, as he was -a guardian, and as such should not be in a state of helplessness; on -which account not one of those kings who were styled guardians ever -polluted his lips with wine or other intoxicating beverage before the -Gilshaiyan dynasty. The cup-bearers of the king’s sons and other -nobles were always females, and these were called _Bádeks_:[365] no -beardless males were admitted to the feast: even eunuchs were excluded -from the banquets of the Gilshaiyan princes, and they were waited on -by beardless youths under ten years of age; and at the time of taking -wine even they were not allowed to be present. The ancients, or those -previous to the Gilshaiyan dynasty, had appointed seasons for drinking -wine, which occurred when the physicians prescribed it for the removal -of some infirmity, on which occasions they conformed to the -above-mentioned rules. If any one, and the king in particular, labored -under a malady the cure of which could only be effected by wine, and -the invalid should be altogether reluctant to the drinking of it, in -that case, as the cure was confined to the use of wine, the patient -was obliged to comply with the prescription: for things forbidden -under other circumstances, become lawful when taken for medicinal -purposes: but with this reservation, that no injury should accrue to -any innoxious animal. - -Along the roads frequented by travellers in this realm, there were -many caravansaries, between every two of which were posted sentinels, -so that the voice of a person reached from one to the next. In every -halting-place was a _Shudahband_, a physician, and a _Tîmárî_; and the -inns were also constructed near each other. Now a _Tîmárî_ is one -appointed by the king to protect the helpless, such as persons of -tender years and the infirm. Aged women brought out from the Haram all -the requisite supplies (for these establishments), which they -transferred to aged men, by whom they were conveyed to the attendants. - -The soldiers’ wives were not without employment, such as spinning, -sewing, and in various works, the making of house-furniture, riding, -and in the management of the bow they were as able as men; they were -all formed by discipline and inured to toil. - -It is evident to all the world that, notwithstanding the extent of -their realms was so exceedingly great and spacious, yet in consequence -of these arrangements, the kings were necessarily informed of every -event which occurred: in addition to what has been stated, pursuant to -decrees influential as those of Heaven, villages were erected at every -stage and halting-place, at each of which the king’s horses were -picketted, and men appointed whom they called _Ravand_, or “couriers.” -When the _Shudahband_ day by day delivered the report of whatever had -occurred into the hand of a courier, the one near the city delivered -it into the custody of another, and so on, from the couriers of the -stage to those of the villages, until the report reached the capital. -The king observed the same system in corresponding with the Umras; at -one time appointing an individual who was with great caution to -communicate the royal despatches without entrusting them into the -hands of another; a courier of this description mounted at every stage -the king’s post-horses which were picketted at the different -halting-places until he completed his object: this description of -courier they call _Nuwand_; the Umras also despatched _Nuwands_ to the -king’s court; but the couriers belonging to royalty or the nobility -were not empowered to seize any individual’s horse, or practise -oppression, as they would in that case meet with due retaliation: -there were besides, at the different villages, persons stationed as -guards, who were liable to be called to account if a traveller -suffered oppressive treatment from any quarter. _Shadahbands_ also -were there. _Azar Húsháng_, that is, _Máhábád_, thus enjoined: “Let -there be no exactions practised towards the Rayas: let him afford what -he well can, and nothing more;” they therefore only took such an -amount as maintained both soldiers and rayas in tranquillity. - -All the king’s devoted servants entertained this belief, that the -performance of whatever was agreeable to the king was attended with -advantage in both worlds; also that the royal command was the -interpretation of the word of God, and that it was highly praiseworthy -to meet death in the path of obedience to the Great King: nay, they -accounted death, with the prospect of royal approbation, which is the -bestower of paradise, as far superior to life; but he must be a king -who acts in conformity with the _Paiman-i-Farhang_, or “excellent -code.” In short, the system of inquiry was such, that the inspectors -used to question the soldiers, whether they were satisfied or not with -their chief. - -With respect to keeping guard, it was thus settled; that out of the -four persons acting in concert with each other, two went to sleep and -the other two stood up armed; again, when the sleepers arose the -others went to rest; and on the expiration of the night, other troops -came to keep watch: the night sentinels, however, did not depart but -by order of their officer. These inspected the men three times during -the night. In that manner each person had, every week, one day’s -watch: and when they retired from keeping guard, proclamation was made -to this purport by the king’s command: “If any have cause of complaint -against their inspector or chief, let them not keep it concealed.” - -In like manner every month the inspectors, whether near or remote, -looked into the state of the military; if they found any individual, -without sufficient cause, deficient in the requisites for service, -they ordered him to be punished, unless he adduced a satisfactory -excuse and testimony; in which case they accepted his reasons: and if -they proceeded from overpowering necessity, they had regard to it. - -To whomsover they had assigned land, _Jaghir_ or _Mukásá_, they gave -daily or monthly pay with the greatest punctuality, never permitting -any deficiency to occur. - -If any were deficient in the performance of duty, for example, being -absent one watch without sufficient cause, besides inflicting the due -punishment, they deducted the pay of that watch, but not of the whole -day. When, for some good reason, he applied for a furlough, he -obtained it. - -The prime minister was obliged to institute an inquiry into any affair -of which he got the necessary information. The _Rais sufid_, -“chieftain,” must produce a Khushnúdí namah, or “a certificate,” -purporting that he had given the due to his people, and that they were -satisfied with him; also that whatever revenue had been received was -delivered over to the inspector, in the presence of the Anim and -Shudahband: the inspectors also produced, in the royal presence, -certificates stating that they had practised no oppression towards the -military: and although the spies made a report of all particulars -every week, still the king inquired besides of the soldiers, as to the -truth of this approbation. - -The Yazdaníans never attempted a thing mentioned with abhorrence in -the Farhang code, in which every fault had its fixed punishment. When -any one was convicted of a crime, the king’s near attendants never -made intercession for him: for example, pursuant to this code, and by -the king’s command, the son inflicted punishment on the father, and -the father on his son, so that even princes of the blood had not the -power of breaking this law; if they were guilty of injustice, the -kings themselves inflicted the allotted punishment: for example, _Jai -Alád_ had a son called _Húdah_, whom he himself beheaded for having -put to death the son of a villager. The king’s devoted servants raised -themselves to distinction by their excellence and exertions to obtain -praise and titles: whoever swore falsely by the royal family was -expelled from all intercourse with them. - -There were peculiar places assigned for the combat of elephants, -lions, and other wild beasts, the backs and sides of which places were -so elevated, that people might behold from every part, without the -possibility of sustaining injury from the elephants and other wild -animals: the king being all the while seated on a lofty throne. They -never created embarrassments in bazars or populous places with furious -elephants or fierce lions, but kept them in remote situations and -secure places such as before-mentioned, from whence they could easily -remove them. It is recorded that, in the time of Shírzád Shah, the -Yassánian, an elephant having broken out of the place where he was -tied up, killed some one; on which the king, in retaliation for the -deed, put the elephant to death, and also inflicted capital punishment -on the elephant-keepers and the door-keepers of the elephant-stables, -who had left the door open. The king never listened to tales of -fiction, but solely to true statements: the military and the rayas -also never averted their necks from executing the king’s commands: and -if a traveller invoked the king’s name and entered into any house, the -inmates not only washed his feet, but even drank the water in which -they performed the operation, as a sovereign remedy, and sedulously -showed all due attentions to their guest. - -On the day of battle, the soldiers were drawn up in right, centre, and -left columns, an arrangement which they never violated in any -engagement: as when once dissolved, the restoration of that combined -order would be impossible: when the troops had been arrayed in this -manner, they gave the enemy battle; and in proportion to the -necessity, the bazar, or “market” of assistance followed them: even -after victory they observed the same arrangement. - -On the day of triumph, when the enemy fled and the foe dispersed, the -entire army did not give themselves up to plunder; but the king -appointed for the service a certain detachment, accompanied by -_Shudahbands_ and _Binandahs_, or inspectors and supervisors, whilst -the rest of the army remained prepared for battle and ready to renew -the engagement; not one of them raising the dust of plunder or -departing to their homes, lest the enemy, on discovering their -dispersion in pursuit of plunder, might return and gain the victory. -When they had made themselves masters of the spoil, the king ordered -them to set apart the choicest portion for the indigent and the -erection of religious foundations: he next distributed an ample share -to the men proportioned to their exertions; after which he gave each -of his courtiers a portion; and he lastly conferred a suitable portion -on the great officers; but no part of this division entered into the -account of the allowances settled on the military class: last of all, -the king drew the pen of approbation over whatever was worthy of the -royal majesty. Some of the ancient kings and all the princes of the -remote ages, far from taking any part of the spoil to their own share, -even made good every injury which happened to the army in executing -the royal orders, as the loss of horses and such like. - -After the victory, they never oppressed the helpless, the indigent, -merchants, travellers, or the generality of the inhabitants, and the -Rayas. Those who were guilty of such acts were, after conviction, -punished. They divided among them whatever the enemy had in their -flight left on the field of battle: but whatever in the different -realms belonged to the conquered prince and his near connexions, they -submitted to the royal pleasure. They never slew or offered violence -to the person who threw down his arms and asked for quarter. - -This class of the obedient followers of the _Azar Hushang_ code were -styled _Farishtah_, “angelic;” _Surúsh_, “seraphic;” _Farishtah -manish_, “angel-hearted;” _Surúsh manish_, “seraph-hearted;” _Sipásí_, -“adorers;” _Sahí dín_, “upright in faith;” and _Zanádil_, “the -benevolent;” opposed to whom are the _Ahriman_, the _Dîvs_, and the -_Tunádil_, or “fierce demons.” - -The Divs are of two kinds; the one class subject to the king of the -angels, who, through fear of that prince, have been compelled to -desist from injuring animated beings; the second kind consists of Dîvs -in the realms of other kings, who break through the covenants of the -law, and slay animals: these in truth are no other than wolves, -tigers, scorpions, and serpents. - -They record that in the time of _Ardeshír_, the son of _Azád_, the son -of _Babegán_, the son of _Nushirván_, there was a Jaiyanian champion -by name _Farhád_, the son of _Alád_, who were both ranked among the -distinguished leaders: Alád, when in a state of intoxication, having -slain a sheep with his sword, his son Farhád, on ascertaining this, -made him pass under the sharp-edged scimitar; the people held him in -detestation, and said: “Thou shouldst have sent thy father to the -king.” He replied, “My father had committed two criminal actions; the -first, in taking so much wine as to lose his senses; the second in -destroying a sheep. Although it would have been proper to send him to -the king, I could not suffer any delay to intervene in punishing his -crimes: at present I confess myself guilty of transgressing the -Abadián code, for not submitting the details of this affair to the -king.” He then ordered himself to be put in chains, and brought in -that state before the king: but his majesty drew the pen of -forgiveness over his crime, and elevated the apex of his dignity. - -Moreover it was necessary to drink wine in a secret place, as they -inflicted due punishment on whoever was found intoxicated in the -public bazar. In truth, permission to drink wine was only given in -cases of malady, as from the time of the very ancient sovereigns of -the Mahabad dynasty, until that of _Yássán Ajam_, no person partook of -wine or strong drinks, except the invalids who were ordered by the -physicians to have recourse to them; and even they partook of them -according to the established rules: but among the ancient kings, _i. -e._ from Kaiomars’ to Yezdagird, they at first indulged secretly in -wine for the purpose of sensual enjoyment, under color of conforming -to medical ordinances. At last matters terminated in this, that wine -was openly produced at the banquets, and the champions in attendance -on the king partook of it; but it was not permitted to be drunk openly -in the bazars or streets. - -The king gave audience every day, being seated on an elevation, that -is a _Tábsár_, or elevated window: in the same manner he took his seat -in the _Roz-Gáh_, which is a place where, on his rising from the -_Tábsár_, he seated himself on a throne: on which occasion the nobles -in attendance were drawn out in their proper gradations: note, that by -giving audience is meant, turning his attention to the concerns of -mankind. Every decree issued by the king from the _rozistán_ or -_shabistán_ of the interior or exterior, was transcribed by the -Shudahband and again submitted to the royal presence, and when its -promulgation was ratified, it was laid before his majesty a second -time. - -Whenever a traveller entered a caravanserai or city, the secretaries -of the place, in the presence of witnesses and notaries, made out a -statement of his wealth and effects, which they gave him; and the same -at the time of sale; so that if he should afterwards declare that his -stock had been diminished or some part had been abstracted, they could -ascertain its value and quantity: there was also a fixed price -assigned to every commodity and article, and also a certain rate of -profit prescribed to each vendor. - -The following was their mode of hunting: the army being drawn out in -array, in right, centre, and left columns, the nobles and eminent -warriors took their several posts according to rank, and during a -period of forty or fifty days formed a circle around both mountains -and plains. If the country abounded in wood, they formed the whole of -it into well secured piles: the king then directed his steps towards -that quarter, and his train by degrees drove in the game, keeping up a -strict watch that no beast of prey should escape out of the circle: on -this the king, his sons, and relations dispatched with arrows as many -as they could; after this the king, surrounded by the most -distinguished courtiers, sat on a throne placed on an eminence, formed -of strong timbers so fastened together that no animal could get up -there: the generals, and then the whole of the soldiery charged into -the centre, so that not a trace remained of ferocious animals, that -is, of lions and such noxious creatures: they next counted the numbers -of the slain, and having piled them in one place, formed a hillock of -their carcases. If they discovered a harmless animal amongst the -slain, they ordered vengeance to be inflicted on its destroyer, and -cast his body among those of the ferocious animals. - -They record that in the reign of Yássán, the son of Sháh Mahbúl, an -elk had been slain by some tyrannically-inclined person, on beholding -which the father of the insane criminal, with the ruthless sword, -immediately dissevered his son’s head from his shoulders. Also in the -reign of Núshirvan, the fortunate descendant from the _Sháíyán_ -dynasty, at one time whilst in the pursuit of game, an arrow shot -intentionally from the bow of a noble champion named _Fartúsh_, -wounded a deer so that it fell dead: his son, _Ayín Túsh_, was -perfectly horror-struck, and in retaliation with an arrow pinned his -father’s body to that of the slaughtered deer; so that, in future, -there should be no infringement of the Farhang law. - -As soon as a lofty mound had been formed of slaughtered noxious -creatures, which either walk, fly, or graze, then by the king’s -command a Mobid ascended the eminence and said: “Such is the -recompense of all who slay harmless creatures; such the retribution -which awaits the destroyers of animals free from crimes.” He then said -to the harmless creatures: “The equitable king of kings, in order to -destroy the noxious animals which cause you so many calamities, has -come forward in his own precious person, and taken vengeance for the -misdeeds of these wicked creatures: now depart in peace; behold the -vengeance inflicted on your sanguinary foes; and commit no sin before -the protector of your species.” They then left a road open for the -innoxious animals to escape and hasten to their mountains and deserts. -This kind of hunting they called _Shikár-i-dád_ or _Dád-shikár_; i. -e.: “the hunt of equity,” or “the equity-hunt.” The royal governors -also in their respective provinces adopted a chase of the like -description. Whenever the sovereign was of such a character as not to -deviate from the Farhang code, if any person declined rendering -allegiance to the prince chosen by him for his successor, that person -was immediately destroyed by the people. - -In the reign of _Sháh Gilív_, a champion having beheld in a vision, -that the king had raised to the throne one of the princes who met not -his approbation, immediately on awaking put himself to death. Sháh -Gilív, on hearing this, said to the son of the deceased: “When a -person is awake, rebellion is to be abhorred; but not in a state of -sleep, as it is then involuntary.” - -Also in the reign of _Bahman_, the son of Isfendiar, the son of -_Ardashír_, the son of _Azad Shai_,[366] one of the generals, _Bahram_ -by name, governor of Khorasan, having made arrangements for revolt and -rebellion, the soldiers on learning his designs put him to death, and -offering up his flesh after the manner of the Moslem sacrifice, -divided it and ate of it, saying, “He is a noxious animal.” - -In the same reign, a champion, by name _Gilshásp_, saw in a trance -that he had rebelled against Bahman: on relating the dream to his -soldiers, they for answer drew forth their swords and shed his blood, -saying: “Although there is no blame to be attached to the vision, yet -he is the genius of evil for publishing it abroad.” - -_Ayín Shakíb_, a Móbed, who saw in a vision that he was uttering -imprecations against _Ardíshír_, the son of _Babagán_, the son of -_Azád_ the Jaiyánían, immediately on awaking cut out his tongue: such -was their devotedness to their kings. - -They moreover say, in the case of every prince who was adorned with -sound doctrine, good works, and noble descent; who promoted the -interests of the military and the happiness of the Ráyás, and who -never deviated from the covenant of the law; that when any one proved -refractory to his commands, that person’s life and property were -confiscated with justice. The kings made trials of their sons’ -capacities, and conferred the royal dignity on whichever was found the -most deserving; not making the one king whom they regarded with the -greatest natural affection. They also said: “Sovereign power becomes -not the monarch who transgresses this blessed law; neither should any -prince give way to the disposition to deviate in the slightest degree -from any of its covenants, lest from their esteeming one branch of the -law as of no importance, they might regard the whole as of trifling -obligation.” The adorable and almighty God so gave his aid to these -praise-worthy sovereigns that they decked the bride of dominion with -the ornaments of equity, benevolence, and impartial justice. -Merchants, travellers, and scholars moved about in perfect security; -during their reigns there existed no annoyance from the payment of -tolls, customs, and other exactions; and in the caravanserais was -neither rent nor hire. - -The kings had the covenants of the law transcribed, which they always -kept near them, and had read over to them daily by some confidential -courtier: on great festivals they were communicated to the military -and the rayas, with strong injunctions to store them up in their -recollection. The Umras also pursued the same system, and recited the -law to their dependants. In like manner, the princesses of the -_Shabistán_, “night-apartment,” observed the same rule. - -They moreover say that every prince who, through the suggestions of -his own mind or of his minister’s, adopted any measures except in -conformity to this law, bitterly repented of it.――_Jai Alad_ has said: -“Whoever in the king’s presence utters a word contrary to the -covenants of the law, or persuades him to do so; the king may rest -assured that the object of that person is to throw the kingdom into -confusion.” - -When the Yezdáníán princes and rulers gave audience, there lay before -them a book, a scourge, and a sword; the book contained the covenants -of the law; and every affair which was submitted to them being -considered according to the view taken of it in the book, they then -gave a decision. - -In the royal dynasty which preceded the Gilsháíán kings, there was no -violation whatever of this code; but under later princes some disorder -crept into its observance. They also say, that whenever they violated -the commands, decrees, maxims, rules, and decisions of this covenant, -they became associated with regret and repentance. Whenever a -sovereign sustained any injury, it arose principally from inattention -to this standard; and whenever a monarch lived in prosperity, it -proceeded from his scrupulous observance of the most minute details of -this code. The ancient sovereigns, that is, the _Abádíán_, the -_Jaiyán_, the _Shaiyán_ and the _Yassánían_, who are the most renowned -of kings, never lost sight of the Farhang Abád, that is, they did -every thing according to its dictates: this code they also called -_Hirbud Sár_, or “sacerdotal purity.” During this period no enemy -arose, and no foe obtained the supremacy; the military and the rayas -enjoyed undisturbed repose. Amongst the _Gilsháíyán_ kings, _Hushang_, -_Tahmúras_, _Faridun_, _Minuchahar_, _Kaikobád_, _Kaikhusró_, -_Lohorasp_, _Bahman_, _Ardashir Babágán_, and the others, had this -code transcribed in secret characters, which they employed as mental -amulets and spiritual charms. _Náshirván_ also, having procured a -transcript of this law, kept it by him. Although all the sovereigns -conformed to this rule, yet none observed it in so high a degree as -the ancient sovereigns of the _Abádíán_, _Jaiyán_, _Shaiyán_, and -_Yassáníán_ dynasties: as in the belief held by the _Yazdanians_, or -“theists,” their dignity so far transcends that of the Gilsháíyáns, -that we can institute no comparison between them. The Gilsháíyán -princes also exerted themselves to prevent the slaughter of harmless -animals; although the people did not pay the same respect to their -orders as to those of the ancient sovereigns, yet, as compared with -their successors, people were more exact in the performance of duty -than in later periods. - -They say that _Rustam_,[367] the son of _Zaul_, at the moment of -abandoning the robes of mortality, having heaved a deep sigh, the king -of Kabúl said to him: “O Rustam! art thou alarmed at death?” the hero -replied: “God forbid! for the death of the body is to the spirit the -bestowing of life; and the issuing forth under the sphere is the being -born from the maternal womb; when the cloud of the body is removed, -the sun of spirit shines more resplendently: but my grief proceeded -from this reflection, that when Kaús commanded Tús to put me to the -ignominious death of the gibbet,[368] I refused to submit to the -punishment. Although Kaús, in violation of the Farhang code, had -passed a sentence opposed to the decisions of Mahabád, and even the -interests of Kaús were ultimately advanced by my rebellious conduct, I -am at present afflicted on that account, lest, perhaps, any thing -opposed to the Farhang code may have proceeded from me. In like manner -Isfendiar was slain by my hand,[369] and I refused to be put in -chains; although it became him not to exact compliance, nor was it in -accordance with the Farhang code.” Dastan (Zaul) also lived in regret, -saying: “Why did I utter a word in opposition to Kai Khusran, on the -day when he chose Lohorasp as his successor, although my sentiments -were expressed by way of counsel?”[370] When Bahman, the son of -Isfendiar, made preparations for laying waste Sistan, notwithstanding -the people urged Dastan to give the invaders battle, he approved not -of it, but said: “Never more will I break through the Farhang code.” -He then came on foot into the presence of Bahman, by whose orders he -was thrown into chains: but he finally attained the king’s unbounded -esteem, and was released; whilst his son Faramarz, contrary to the -Farhang code, gave the king battle, and, being taken prisoner, -suffered the ignominious death of the gibbet:[371] his son was also -put to death on the same account. The implicit obedience of the son -_Minufarad_ to Kobad,[372] the father of Nushirvan, is also well -known; although that prince was not strictly entitled to obedience -according to the Farhang covenant, yet the devotedness of his subjects -is highly celebrated. - - - [350] Buzurg-Mihr was the celebrated minister of Nushirvan - (see note, p. 104). - - [351] Azad Bahman is called by the Sipasian (see p. 6) the - precious jewel of the intellectual principle. In the - Zand-books and in the Bun-Dehesh, he is invoked as created - by Ormuzd, and as one who is to conduct the heavens; he - presides over the eleventh month of the year and the second - day of the month; he is the king of the luminous world; the - other angels repose under his guard; he is the principle of - the intelligence of the ear, given by Ormuzd; the father of - the purity of the heart; the Ized of peace who watches over - the people; he aids in the distribution of the waters, and - in the production of herds and other riches; it is he who - receives the souls of the just at their entrance into - heaven, congratulates them on their happy arrival, and - clothes them with robes of gold.――_Zend-Avesta_, I, pp. 81, - 134, 416, 418; II, pp. 75, 100, 144, 152, 316, and - elsewhere. According to the Desátir (English transl. p. 63) - Bahman is the first of the numberless created angels.――A. T. - - [352] Vakhshúr signifies “prophet” in the old Persian - language. According to the Desátir (edit. of Bombay, English - transl., p. 79), _Sadvakhshúr_ is an epithet of Hoshang, - signifying “one hundred prophets.” by a mistake ascribed, as - well as the work _Javidan Khirid_, to Jemshid, in my note, - pp. 31 and 32.――A. T. - - [353] The manuscripts read نيالاد, the manuscript of Oude - reads: تلبہ لا; neither word is found in any dictionary. - - [354] The manuscripts read پرده, which appears the best - reading; the manuscript of Oude has, like the edit. of - Calcutta, برده. - - [355] The manuscripts, with that of Oude, read ماه, the - edition of Calcutta, باد. - - [356] It is not decided whether “Azizi” here and elsewhere - is a proper name, or the attribute of a person. - - [357] “Arshiya”――the manuscripts read “Arsmai;” the - manuscript of Oude has از سمای. - - [358] Jenghis Khan, “the king of kings,” was the name - assumed by Temuz Khin, a Moghul, when he had succeeded in - uniting under his own and sole domination the various tribes - of the Turks. He was born in the year 1162 and died in 1228 - of our era. His history is sufficiently known and belongs - not to this place.――A. T. - - [359] Kazl-básh signifies in the Turkish language “red - head,” a name given by the Turks to the Persians, since they - began to wear a cap of that colour enveloped by a turban - with twelve folds in honour of the twelve Imams. This - happened in the year 1501, under the reign of their king - Ismáil Sûfi, already mentioned, note 6, pp. 52, 53.――A. T. - - [360] Intending to put an end to the march. - - [361] درفش و سوزن signify also a bodkin and a needle. - - [362] Gurgin, in the Shahnamah, is called the son of Mélad, - and was one of the principal chieftains under the reign of - Khusro. Gurgin’s character does not figure advantageously in - the history of Pézshen and Munizshá, one of the most - interesting episodes of Ferdusi’s historical poem.――A. T. - - [363] The manuscript translation of D. Shea reads in this - place: “These officers are called _Sámór_, or the _Char Ayín - Farangi_, “the four institutes of law:” which words are not - in the printed edition of Calcutta, but are probably in the - two manuscripts which he had before his eyes.――A. T. - - [364] It cannot be denied that the Persians, in very remote - times, practised castration, and especially upon youths - distinguished by their beauty (Herod. lib. VI). They are - even accused of having been the first among whom this - infamous practice and the name of eunuchs originated (Steph. - de urbibus. Donat. in Eunuchum, act. I, scen. 2). Ammian. - Marcell. (lib. XIV) attributes it, however, to Semiramis. - (See upon this subject Brissonius, de Regio Persarum - principatu, p. 294, 295.) The passage in the text permits us - to believe that this cruel operation was a dishonouring - punishment, generally abhorred, and particularly restricted - by severe laws among the Persians.――A. T. - - [365] It may be recollected that the interior service in the - palace of an Indian king was of old always performed by - females.――A. T. - - [366] Bahman, son of Isfendiar and successor of Gustasp, is - also named Kái Ardashír, diraz-dost and identified with the - Artaxerxes μακροχειρ (longimanus) of the Greeks. He is - placed 505 years before our era. He reigned 112 years, - according to the Shah-namah.――A. T. - - [367] Rustam, who in the Shah-namah, during a period of six - centuries, appears rather a generic name, or a representative - of the Medo-Persian heroism than a particular individual, - Rustam is reckoned the fifth of the ten Persian philosophers - enumerated in our note, page 112. Hence Rustam’s - philosophical reflexions. In general, we see frequently in - the Persian historical accounts the characters of kings, - heroes, ascetics, and philosophers confusedly blended in the - same persons.――A. T. - - [368] At the time that a great army of Turanians commanded - by Sohrab overrun Persia, Rustam, the ruler of Sistan, was - summoned by Káús, his liege, to repulse the invaders. - Rustam, although willing to obey, having spent some days in - feasting, appeared later than his sovereign expected, who, - in a fit of rage, after having severely rebuked him for his - tardiness, condemned him to an ignominious death. Gív, one - of the principal chiefs, and friend of Rustam, was charged - with the execution, but, refusing to do what he felt - impossible, he was sentenced to share the fate of the great - hero, and Tus, a chief mentioned in the text, received the - order to execute the mandate upon both. A reconciliation - however took place between the king and his powerful - vassals, whose united efforts were required against the - Turanians. It was in the course of this war that Rustam slew - his son Sohrab, without knowing him, and without supposing - him at the head of the Turanian army: this is the subject of - one of the most celebrated episodes of Ferdusi’s - Shah-namah.――A. T. - - [369] Isfendiar, the son of Gushtasp, several times - mentioned in the course of this work, adopted, like his - father, and zealously propagated, Zoroaster’s religion, - which caused a new war between the Persians and Turanians. - Arjasp, the sovereign of Túr, having invaded Persia, - Isfendiar was called to the assistance of his father, who - promised the throne to him if he repulsed the invaders; but, - delivered from danger by his son’s successful exertions, - Gushtasp, unwilling to fulfil his promise, readily listened - to suggestions about the treacherous designs of Isfendiar - whom he emprisoned. Arjasp, profiting by this event, marched - to Balkh, killed Lohrasp, the father of Gushtasp, carried - off the two daughters of the latter, whom he defeated in a - battle and pent up in a fortress. Isfendiar, called out from - his prison, routed the Turanian army and released his - father. Moreover, he rescued his two sisters (one of whom - was his wife) from captivity, by taking the strong residence - of Arjasp, whom he killed with his own hand. He was not even - then to enjoy the well-deserved reward, but charged with the - most perilous expedition to bring Rustam in chains before - the throne of his discontented liege. In vain did the hero - just mentioned proffer his willingness to submit to any - terms of submission except that of being enchained; nothing - less than this was insisted upon: a combat became necessary, - in which Isfendiar reduced his great antagonist to have - recourse to the miraculous aid of Simurgh (see note, p. 55); - by this alone Rustam was enabled to kill Isfendiar in a - renewed combat.――A. T. - - [370] Káí Khusró, after a glorious reign of sixty years, - resolved to resign the crown. He assembled in a plain all - his chiefs and the people of Iran. After a magnificent - festival of seven days, he proclaimed his final determination; - divided the empire among several chiefs, and appointed - Lohrasp the successor of his sovereignty. This choice met - with some opposition on the part of the aged Zaul (see - Rauzat-us-Safa, Shea’s transl., p. 263), and although this - chief yielded to the sovereign will, yet he never paid - homage to the new king; and a pernicious misunderstanding - remained between the descendants of both parties. It may be - remarked that Káí Khusró’s abdication is quite Indian. - According to Ferdúsi, it was towards the mountains of India, - called Amajal, that Káí Khusró bent his steps, accompanied - by a number of his chiefs, the most ancient of whom he soon - dismissed, whilst others followed him further, although - warned by him of an impending storm of snow which was to - bury them all. He suddenly disappeared, and they were never - heard of. This reminds of more than one similar event in - Indian history.――A. T. - - [371] This account agrees with the Shah-namah, according to - which Bahman, in order to revenge the death of his father - (see note last but one), invaded Sistan and took Zaul with - all his treasures. It was then that Farámars, the son of - Rustam, encountered the Persians in a battle: he was - defeated, taken prisoner, and hanged. According to the - Rauzat-us-Safa (see Shea’s transl., p. 340), Bahman, on - reaching Zabulistan, heard of Rustam’s death; his son - Farámans fell, and Zaul was taken prisoner.――A. T. - - [372] Kobad, the Cabades or Cavades of the Greeks, the - eighteenth king of the Sassanians, ruled 43 years in Persia - from 488 to 531, A. D., not ingloriously within and without - his empire, from which he was however driven on account of - the support which he gave to the new and dangerous doctrine - of the prophet Mazdak, about whom see section XV of this - chapter. Kobad recovered the throne by the assistance of the - Tartar prince Hestial (see Ferdusi’s Shah-namah), or (see - Herbelot) by that of the nations, called Haïathelah, who - inhabit the countries of Kandahar, Thibet, and - Barantolah.――A. T. - - - - -THE FOURTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN contains an account of the -Jamshaspian sect. The _Yekanah-binan_, “seers of unity,” also called -the Jamshaí, who form another great body of the Parsees, are the -followers of _Jamshasp_, the son of _Jemshid_, the son of _Tahmúras_: -in their speech there is much that is enigmatical, and endless -subtilty. Jamshasp never invited any one to follow his tenets, but he -was of such exemplary life and so great a sage, that the people bore -him great affection, and wrote down his sayings, until by degrees -great numbers voluntarily adopted them as articles of faith. According -to them, the world has no external existence; they hold that whatever -exists is God, and that naught exists besides him: a holy man has said: - - “Every eye which is directed to the primitive nature, - Unless tinged with the collyrium of divine light, - Whatever it beholds in the world, except thy face, - Is but the second image of distorted vision.” - -They hold that all the intelligences, souls, angels, heavens, stars, -elements, the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms exist within his -knowledge, and are not external to it: which sentiment king Jamshid -explained to Abtin, saying: “Know, O Abtin, that the Almighty -conceived in idea the first intelligence; in like manner the first -intelligence conceived three objects, namely, the second intelligence, -the soul of the upper sphere, and the body of the same heaven: in like -manner, the second intelligence conceived three objects, and so on in -succession to the elements and their combinations: and this is exactly -as when we form an idea of a city, with its palaces, gardens, and -inhabitants, which in reality have no existence external to our -imagination; so that, consequently, the existence of this world is of -the same description.” The Abadian regard these sayings as -enigmatical, although Jamshid composed many philosophical works, which -the Yekanah Binan admit without any commentary: many of the Parsees -adopt this creed, and particularly the ascetics of that class. The -belief of these sectaries is illustrated by the following tetrastich -from Subahani: - - “The sophist, who has no knowledge of intellect, - Asserts that this world is altogether an optical illusion, - In truth, the world is an illusion; however, - Certainty is for ever displaying her effulgence there.” - -On this subject they have composed various works, the most celebrated -of which is, the “Testament of Jamshid addressed to Abtin,” compiled -by _Farhang Dostoor_. _Shídah_, _Suhráb_, _Mízan_, and _Jamshásp_, -who, under the profession of mercantile pursuits, travelled along with -_Shídósh_, the son of _Anósh_, were of the Yekanah Binan sect. - - - - -THE FIFTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN describes the Samrádián sect.――In -common language Samrád means imagination and thought; and the sects -thus named are of many descriptions; the first is that of the -followers of _Fartósh_, who lived about the commencement of the -Serpent-shouldered _Zohak_’s reign: _Fartósh_ followed mercantile -pursuits, and his faith was as follows: this elemental world is merely -idea; the remainder, the heavens, the stars, and the simple -uncompounded beings actually exist. The holders of this opinion are -called the _Fartoshíán_. - -The second are the _Farshídíyah_, so called from _Farshíd_, the son of -_Fartósh_: he asserted that the heavens and the stars are also ideal, -and that the simple uncompounded beings only have actual existence. - -The next are the _Farírajíyah_, so called from _Faríraj_, the son of -_Farshid_: his opinion was that the simple uncompounded beings, that -is, intelligences and souls, also have no existence, which is the -attribute of the necessarily self-existent God alone, and that all -besides is ideal, appearing only to exist in consequence of the -essence of that sole existence. - -The next are the _Faramandíyah_, thus named from _Faramand_, the -disciple of _Faríraj_: he says, if any person exists, that person -knows that the elements, heavens, stars, intelligences, and souls are -the Almighty; and what people call the necessarily self-existent God -has no being, although we, through imagination (idea), suppose him to -exist; which he certainly does not. According to the testimony of the -sage _Amr Khaiam_: - - “The Creator in this aged world is as a vase, - Which is internally water and externally ice; - Resign to children this trifling about infidelity and faith; - Remove from the place where God is only a letter.” - -They said to him: “How dost thou prove this idea?” he answered: - - “By means of the solar light we can see: but where is the sun?” - -Thus, according to them, the Almighty is only an idea of the -imagination: the people of this sect are now mixed up with the -Moslems, and go about in the garb of the faithful: according to them a -person named _Kámkár_, one of the ascetics of this sect, who lived in -the reign of sultan _Mahmud of Ghiznah_,[373] composed a poetical -treatise, and compiled narratives, proofs, and revelations conformable -to his tenets; assigning to his faith a superiority over all other -systems, after this manner: that, whatever devout persons have -recorded in their respective creeds concerning the existence of God, -the greatness of the empyreal sphere, the extent of the angelic world, -or concerning paradise, hell, the bridge of judgment, the resurrection -of the dead, the interrogatory and reply,[374] the appearing before -God, the rejection of tradition, eternity, and the creation of the -world, is all correct in this creed; as all becomes evident to the -idea of their professor through the existence of idea; with respect to -which they thus express themselves: “by means of idea, they behold the -ideal.” In proof of his system, he farther says: “Self cannot be -ignorant of self.” But in truth they are ignorant of their own -identity, and understand not in what “self” consists: some of them -maintain, that the being called man and endowed with voice and speech, -is an incorporeal essence joined to the body; the relations of thought -and action resulting merely from its entrance or descent into body: -notwithstanding this principle, they differ greatly among themselves -respecting the eternity and creation of their own souls. In like -manner, some have also denied the simple uncompoundedness of the -intellectual soul, and have spoken largely against that doctrine; -consequently, as they are unacquainted with their own identity, what -can they know about the heavens, stars, intelligences, and God? and it -becomes not that one should know nothing about himself, but that he -exists not. Kámkár, in his treatise, has collected many amusing -anecdotes respecting the Samrádián sect, of which the following is an -instance: a Samradian once said to his steward: “The world and its -inhabitants have no actual existence; they merely have an ideal -being.” The servant, on hearing this, took the first favorable -opportunity to conceal his master’s horse, and when he was about to -ride, brought him an ass with the horse’s saddle. When the Samrádián -asked, “Where is the horse?” the servant replied, “Thou hast been -thinking of an idea: there was no horse in being.” The master -answered, “It is true:” he then mounted the ass, and having rode for -some time, he suddenly dismounted, and taking the saddle off the ass’s -back, placed it on the servant’s, drawing the girths on tightly; and -having forced the bridle into his mouth, he mounted him and flogged -him along vigorously. The servant, in piteous accents, having -exclaimed: “What is the meaning of this conduct?” the Samrádián -replied: “There is no such thing as a whip; it is merely ideal; thou -art only thinking of some illusion:” after which the steward repented -and restored the horse. - -In another tale it is recorded that a Samrádián, having obtained in -marriage the daughter of a wealthy lawyer, she, on finding out her -husband’s creed, proposed to have some amusement at his expense. One -day the Samradian brought in a bottle of pure wine, which during his -absence she emptied of its contents and filled it up with water; when -the time for taking wine came round, she poured out water instead of -wine into a gold cup which was her own property. The Samrádián having -observed, “Thou hast given me water instead of wine,” she answered, -“It is only ideal; there was no wine in existence.” The husband then -said: “Thou hast spoken well; present me the cup, that I may go to a -neighbour’s house and bring it back full of wine.” He therefore took -out the gold cup, which he sold, and concealing the money, instead of -the gold vase brought back an earthen vessel full of wine. The wife, -on seeing this, said, “What hast thou done with the golden cup?” he -replied, “Thou art surely thinking about some ideal golden cup:” on -which the woman greatly regretted her witticism. - -As to those sectaries who assert that the world exists only in idea, -the author of this work saw several in Lahore, in the year of the -Hejirah 1048, A. D. 1637. The first was _Kám Jóí_, who composed the -following distichs on _Faríraj_: - - “Thou knowest that every thing is ideal, - If the Almighty has given thee illumination! - The mention even of ideality proceeds from idea; - The very idea itself is nothing more than ideal.” - -It is to be noted that _Samrád_ and _Samwád_ are applied to fancy or -idea. _Ismail Sufi_, of _Ardistan_[375] has poetically expressed -himself to the same purport in what is styled the mixed Persian: - - “I am about to mention something although remote from reason; - Listen carefully: but if not, mercy still awaits thee: - This world is ideal; and ideality itself is but idea: - This existence which I call ideal, that likewise is idea.” - -The second person treated of in the Samrad Namah of Kámkár was _Nék -Khoy_; the third was _Shád Késh_; and the fourth, _Máhyár_: they were -all engaged in commercial pursuits, and styled Moslem or true -believers. - - - [373] Mahmud, the son of Sebekteghin, was the first monarch - of the dynasty of Ghiznah, the foundation of which had been - laid by his father. During a reign of 33 years (from 997 to - 1030, A. D.) he made twelve expeditions to India, and - established his domination in the western part of this - country, out of which he possessed a still greater empire, - which to the north-west extended over the whole of Persia, - and was limited on the north-east by the river Oxus.――A. T. - - [374] See about it hereafter the sixth chapter, which treats - of the religion of the Musulmans. - - [375] Upon Ismail Sofi, see note p. 52, 53. Ardistan or - Ardastan is a town of the province called Icbal, or Persian - Irak, 36 leagues distant from Ispahan.――A. T. - - - - -THE SIXTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN describes the tenets of the -_Khodaiyan_.――This sect are followers of _Khodádád_, a Mobed, who -lived during the decline of Jemshid’s power and the usurpation of -Zohak. Khodádád held intelligences and souls to be simple uncompounded -beings, and the stars and heavens to be the companions of God; each of -which, in proportion to its proximity to the Almighty beyond other -created beings, is so much more elevated in dignity: notwithstanding -which we are not to account any being, whether the simple uncompounded -or material, as a mediator or promoter between us and God; neither is -there any occasion for prophets, because through the medium of -reliance, the seeking out of God is attained, and we are to serve God -alone. Among those who held these opinions in Lahore, in the year of -the Hejirah 1049 (A. D. 1639) were seen _Kamus_ and _Fartúsh_, both -merchants. - - - - -THE SEVENTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN describes the system of the -Rádíán.――The chief of this sect was _Rád Gúnah_, one of the eminently -brave, a lion-like hero, who, to beneficent acts and abstinence from -cruelty to animals, joined the dignity of knowledge; he enjoyed -distinguished honor and rank about the end of Jamshíd’s reign and the -commencement of Zohák’s usurpation: his opinion is, that God is the -same as the sun, whose bounty extends to all beings; and that the -fourth heaven, by reason of its constituting the true centre of the -seven heavens, is the seat of his glory and as his essence is pure -good, his place must also be regarded as a proof of his goodness: -besides this, his grace extends alike to all bodies, whether superior -or inferior: moreover, as the heart, which is the sovereign of the -body, is settled in the midst of the breast, such is also the rule and -custom observed by renowned princes to fix the seat of government in -the centre of their realms, so that their bounty as well as severity -may be equally extended over the whole community; and, by such a -measure, the repose of the people and the due regulations of the Rayas -may be promoted. He asserted that the spirit of the heavens, the -stars, and the three kingdoms of nature proceed from the solar spirit, -and that their bodies return to the light of his body; that is, the -virtuous return to him or some of the stars approximating to his -glory, whilst sinners remain in the elemental world. He at first -communicated these opinions secretly to his friends, but promulgated -them fearlessly during the reign of Zohák. In the year of the Hejirah -1052 (A. D. 1642), the author, whilst journeying from Panjab to Kabul, -met at the station of _Ráwal Bundí_ two persons of this creed, and -whose names were _Hormuzd_ and _Tírah Késh_, who were skilled in all -arts, abstinent, and remote from hurting any living being. - - - - -THE EIGHTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN treats of the _Shídrangíán_ -creed.――_Shídrang_, a champion of Iran, who in battle was regarded as -the acknowledged chief of the marshallers of armies, and joined -profound knowledge in science to bravery in the field, always turned -away most studiously from doing injury to the creatures of God. He -appeared about the middle of Zohák’s reign, and soothed the serpents -between the usurper’s shoulders. Shídrang unceasingly invited the -people to adopt his faith, and had many followers: he maintained that -_Khoy_ and _Manish_, “disposition and constitution” or nature, to be -God; according to his system, the state of man and other animals -resembles that of herbage, which, when scattered about or dissolved, -grows up again. A merchant, named _Píl Ázár_, who belonged to this -sect, was met by the author in Kashmir in the year of the Hejirah 1040 -(A. D. 1631). - - - - -THE NINTH SECTION explains the _Paikárián_ creed.――_Paikár_ was a -virtuous sage from Iran, who appeared about the middle of Zohák’s -reign. He thus addressed his disciples: “The Almighty is the same as -fire, from the effulgence of which stars have been formed, and the -heavens from its smoke; as fire is both hot and dry, from its heat -proceeded the air, which is hot and humid; and from the humidity of -the air came water, which is cold and humid; also from the coldness of -water proceeded the earth, which is cold and dry; and from these -conjointly came the compound productions, both perfect and imperfect.” -Two individuals of this sect, _Paikár Pazhuh_ and _Jahan Navard_, who -were unequalled in drawing out astronomical tables, painting, and -inlaying, were met by the writer in the year 1059 (A. D. 1649) in -Gujarát, in the district of Panjab. - - - - -THE TENTH SECTION OF THE DABISTAN explains the _Míláníán_ -system.――_Mílán_ was one of the brave champions of Iran and -contemporary with Paikár; he exhorted many people to adopt his faith, -which was as follows: “The air is the truly self-existent God, as it -is both hot and humid; from its heat proceeded fire, and from its -humidity, water; from the effulgence of fire came forth the stars; -from its smoke the heavens (as before mentioned); and from the -frigidity of water proceeded the earth.”[376] One of this sect was -_Rohám_, who passed under the designation of a draughtsman; he was in -truth a painter possessed of European skill; the hand of Bahzad[377] -and the finger of Mani,[378] who never remained long in one place. In -the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1630) the author beheld him in -Kashmir, in the house of _Shídosh_. - - - [376] Vitruvius (who lived shortly before J. C.) says (I. - iv. Præf.): Thales Milesius omnium rerum principium Aquam - est professus, Heraclitus Ignem, Magorum sacerdotes, Aquam - et Ignem. As to the earth proceeding from the frigidity of - water, we read in Macrobius (In Somno Scip. I. 1) what - follows: “Terra est sicca et frigida: aqua vero frigida et - humecta est; hæc duo elementa, licet sibi et per siccum - humectumque contraria sint, per frigidum tamen commune - junguntur.”――A. T. - - [377] Bahzad was a celebrated painter. - - [378] In the Desátír (English transl., pp. 188, 1889) it is - stated that Mani came into Iran during the reign of - Ardeshir, and made himself notorious by curious paintings - and a new doctrine which he exhibited: he permitted the - killing of harmless animals, and forbade all intercourse - with women. After a controversy upon these two points with - the king Shapur, he was driven out of the court, and then - lapidated and torn to pieces by the people of the town. - According to Sharistani, Mani was the son of Fáten or Fater; - according to Mohammed Ben Ishak, his father was Fettak Ben - Ebi Berdsâm. He was born about the year 240 of our era, but - his birthplace is differently stated to have been in Persia, - in Babylonia, in Nishapúr, in Khorossan. He is reputed as a - learned man, as will be shewn in a subsequent note. He - appeared at the court of king Shápur, the son of Ardeshir - Babegan, but inhabited chiefly Turkistan. As a painter, he - exhibited a set of pictures, called تنگ, _artang_; or رژنگ, - _arzhank_; or ارچنگ مانی, _archang Máni_, which he said he - had brought from heaven, where he pretended to have dwelt, - whilst in reality he was concealed in a cavern during one - year. The baron Hammer Purgstal suggests that the _artang_ - might have been a banner or ensign, upon which astronomical - or cabalistical figures were represented, and which the - Mongols and Buddhists used to call _Máni_ (see Jahrb. der - Lit., for April, May, June, 1840, p. 28). Máni was besides a - skilful musician, and inventor of a musical instrument, - called _âúd_ by the Arabs, _chelys_ by the Greeks. He was - put to death by order of king Bahram, the son of Hormuz, - about the year 278; by some authors his life and death are - placed later.――See about Máni, _Hyde_, pp. 282, 290, and - _Beausobre_, _Histoire critique de Manichée_.――A. T. - - - - -THE ELEVENTH SECTION describes the system of the followers of -_Álár_.――_Alar_ was a native of Iran, celebrated for his extensive -knowledge, who lived in reputation and dignity about the end of -Zohák’s reign, under whose command he distinguished himself in the -erection of forts and other architectural works. His belief was, that -God is the same as water, from the ebullition of which proceeded fire; -from the fire came forth the heavens and the stars (as before stated); -from the humidity of water proceeded the air, and from its frigidity, -the earth. To this sect belonged _Andarímán_, who was well skilled in -the management of the bow, archery, wielding the lance, horsemanship, -and other military accomplishments; he gave instructions in these -sciences to the sons of great men, in which occupation he passed his -life. In the year of the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1630) the author met him -in Kashmir at the house of _Shidosh_. To this sect also belonged -_Mílád_, who possessed consummate skill in writing, and was held in -great respect by men of high station: he was in truth unequalled in -the recitation of histories, the narration of stories and romantic -tales. The author enjoyed his society also in Kashmir. - - - - -THE TWELFTH SECTION treats concerning the _Shidabian_ faith.――_Shádíb_ -who lived about the end of _Zohák_’s reign, was an eminent physician -of Iran, held in great estimation by nobles and princes. He maintained -that the self-existent lord is the same with the earth, from the dry -propensity of which was produced fire; and from fire the heavens and -stars, as before mentioned; from its frigidity proceeded water; from -the humidity of which was formed the air; and when the four elements -were mixed together, the three kingdoms of nature were then -manifested. The physician _Mihrán_ was also of this sect. In the year -1018 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1638) the author joined him, and travelled -in his society from Lahore to Kashmir. Among those who held these -tenets was one named _Khákí_, who followed the profession of a -merchant and possessed great wealth: him the author met in Lahore. In -that same year and in the same place, he became acquainted with a -young man named _Shír_, who excelled in writing the Nishki and Taalik -characters, and was one of the chosen followers of _Shídáb_. - - - - -THE THIRTEENTH SECTION describes the system of the _Akhshíyán_ -sect.――The Mobed _Akhshí_ was by origin a Persian, possessed of great -knowledge, and full of kindness towards the creatures of God; he was -contemporary with _Shídáb_, and promulgated his sentiments openly, -inviting all men to embrace his faith: he maintained God to be the -essence of the elements; so that when people say, “God is not -visible,” this implies the elemental essence, which presents no form -to the sight; when they assert the ubiquity of God, they style that -the essence, as he is every where under his fourfold form; their -proposition of all things excepting God being perishable, means that -the elements admit of change, but that their essence remains for ever -in the same state. They hold the sun to be the source of fire and of -the other stars, such as the falling and shooting stars, comets with -tails, etc. One of those sectaries was a person named _Shídáb_, whom -the author met in the costume of a merchant, in Kashmir in the year of -the Hejirah 1040 (A. D. 1631), and from whom he heard what has now -been written, and which was partly recited out of the book of _Akshí_. -The same _Shídáb_, called also _Shams-ud-dîn_, or “the sun of faith,” -composed a treatise entitled _Rázábád_ in proof of his system, which -he demonstrated by texts of the Koran and the traditions. According to -these sectaries, which became known after the _Radiyán_, there is no -resurrection nor return to life but after this manner: the seminal -principle being derived from food, when the body of a living creature -is dissolved, it becomes grass and constitutes the food of some other -animal: as to future rewards and punishments, they enter not into the -faith or practice of this sect: their paradise consists in having fine -raiment, in carousing, riding, sensual enjoyments, and such like -pleasures, which alone they esteem the chief good; torment, according -to them, consists in being separated from such objects: however, the -founders and followers of this faith carefully avoid all kind of -cruelty towards living creatures. - -According to them, intercourse with daughters, sisters, mothers, -maternal aunts, and their children is allowable;[379] as there can -exist no antipathy between the source and what is derived from it: no -degree of relationship in their opinion should be a bar to the -intercourse of the sexes: nay, on the contrary, it is highly to be -commended, as the nearer the degree of consanguinity, the greater will -be the friendship between the parties.[380] They however regard -adultery as highly criminal, unless the husband should willingly -sacrifice his wife’s honor. They in fact maintain that marriage -between any two parties, however nearly related, is perfectly -allowable if the parties agree among themselves. They also regard the -ceremonial ablutions enjoined by the law as absurd and -unnecessary.[381] They also say, that men assume a particular nature -by means of laws and institutions, and on that account regard good as -evil, and evil as good. When they desire to make a sacrificial -offering, they kill some harmless animal and count it not a foul -crime. Nay, some religionists who partake of swine’s flesh, -scrupulously avoid that of cows, and _vice versâ_. Whoever shall -appeal to the intelligence, which is the gift of God, will be -convinced that our discourse is true; that is, all we have narrated -from the fifth chapter to the present. The professors of this belief -are mixed up with the Muhammedans, and travel about under that mask, -assuming the name of true believers, but having a distinct appellation -for their peculiar creed; they are scattered over Iran and Turan, -remote from and averse to the fire-worshippers. - - - [379] According to Philo and to Diogenes Laertius, the - Persians used to marry their mothers and sisters. Alexander - abolished these incestuous marriages (see _Brisson_, p. - 290). We know from Herodotus (I: 111) that Cambyses married - his sister Atossa. According to Strabo, the law permitted - the Magians union with their mothers. Plutarch, in the life - of Artaxerxes, relates that this king took to wife his two - daughters Atossa and Amestris; but his mother Parysatis - (_Pari-dokht_, “daughter of a fairy”), at the very time she - was engaging him to marry the first of his daughters, said - that he must, in doing so, place himself above the laws of - the country. Zoroaster, in the Zand books, recommends but - the marriages between the children of brothers and sisters - as actions deserving heaven. We observe that the author of - the Dabistan speaks here only of a particular sect, the - custom of which might have been attributed to the whole - nation of the Persians, but without sufficient foundation. - This is confirmed by the ancient tradition mentioned by - Agathius (l. 11), who says, that Ninus killed his own mother - Semiramis, because she had proposed to him an unnatural - connection with her. For this same reason, according to the - author just quoted, Artaxerxes is said to have discarded - from him with great indignation his mother Parysatis, - although he did not decline the marriage with his two - daughters.――(See _Hyde_, p. 421.)――A. T. - - [380] The translation of this passage of the original text - is not, and ought not to be, literal, as the author’s - expressions are here such as an European reader would hardly - think suitable to common decency.――A. T. - - [381] The same observation is also applicable to this - passage.――A. T. - - - - -THE FOURTEENTH SECTION of this chapter of the Dabistán treats of the -followers of _Zardúsht_.[382]――_Farzanah Bahram_, the son of -_Farhad_, the Yazdanian, thus relates in the _Sharistan_: The _Behdín_ -sages relate, that the Almighty, on creating the holy spirit of -Zardúsht, attached it to a tree, when he commenced the creation of -contingent beings in the highest starry heavens: this signifies the -primary intellect, which is as a tree, the leaves and fruits of which -are all contingent existences; and their assertion concerning the -spirit of Zardúsht being attached to it, means that his intellectual -soul is a ray of the primary intellect, the perfections of Zardúsht -being also an effulgence proceeding from that same tree. The Mobed -_Sarúsh_, the Yazdánián, relates: “The teachers of the _Behdín_ faith -have thus said: The father of Zardúsht had a cow which went forth -every morning to the pasture: having one day come accidentally to some -trees, the fallen leaves of which had become dried up, she partook of -them, and after that occurrence, never fed on any other provender -except the withered leaves of that grove. Zardúsht’s father partook of -the milk supplied by this cow, and the influence of it being -communicated to his wife Dughduyah, she conceived _Zardúsht_.”[383] -The object of the above narrative is to show, that by eating the green -foliage, the vegetable spirit is afflicted; for which reason the cow -fed only on dry leaves, so that no injury could result to any spirit -whatever: although, in fact, the vegetable spirit is incapable of -receiving either pleasure or pain, it also shows, that unless a cow be -milked, she feels great pain in the udder, whilst, at the time of -milking, no pain ensues from the operation; also, that the Almighty -formed his prophet’s body out of milk, which in its essence implies no -injury to any living creature. This much being premised, _Zaratusht -Bahram_, a Mobed of the religion of Zardusht,[384] says: When the -world had been thrown into confusion by the wicked, and was entirely -at the mercy of the demon, God willed to raise up a prophet of an -exalted dignity, which the family of Faridun was alone worthy of -filling. In those days lived a man, by name _Purshásp_, the son of -_Patirásp_, descended from Faridun;[385] and his wife’s name was -_Doghduyah_, a virtuous matron, who was also of the family of Faridun. -These two persons were selected by the Almighty as the shells for -enclosing the pearl of Zardusht. When five months of Doghduyah’s -pregnancy had elapsed, she one night beheld in a dream her house -enveloped in a dark cloud, which concealed the splendor of the sun and -moon; and from this cloud were raining down the noxious and rapacious -creatures of earth and air; the boldest of these animals having rent -open Doghduyah’s womb, took out the infant, which he held in his -talons, and the other wild beasts gathered around him. Doghduyah in -her alarm wished to cry out, but Zardusht prevented her, saying: “the -just God befriends me; entertain no apprehensions.” She consequently -held her peace. That instant she beheld a shining mountain which -descended from heaven and rent the black cloud asunder; on which the -noxious animals began to fly away. When the mountain approached -nearer, there came forth from it a youth shining all over, bearing in -one hand a luminous branch, and in the other the volume sent by the -just God. He next hurled that volume towards the beasts, on which they -all departed from the house, excepting three; a wolf, a lion, and a -tiger: the youth then smote these with the luminous branch, so that -they were consumed by fire; after this, taking Zardusht, he restored -him to his mother’s belly, and said to her: “Fear not! grieve not! for -God himself is thy son’s guardian: this honored child shall be the -prophet of the just God!” The youth then disappeared, and Doghduyah -awaking, rose up that gloomy night, and hastening to a neighbouring -seer who was skilled in the interpretation of dreams, related her -vision.[386] The interpreter answered: “Through this sun-resembling -child, the world shall be filled with thy fame; depart, and bring -hither the calculation of thy nativity for my inspection.” She -performed his command; and the interpreter on examining it said: -“During three days keep this secret concealed from all; return hither -on the fourth day, and receive the answer to thy demands.” She did so; -and on the fourth day came to the astrologer, who smiled on beholding -her, and having carefully considered the sidereal influences, turned -to the interpretation of the dream, saying: “The night on which thou -beheldest that vision, the unborn child had completed five months and -twenty-three days; on his issuing forth to the couch of existence, his -illustrious name shall be Zardusht; by him shall the enemies of the -faith be destroyed; but they will previously oppose him in battle, and -put in practice every hostile measure; from the evil doers thou shalt -feel much affliction, such as thou didst witness from the wild beasts -of the vision. - - At last victorious and rejoiced in heart thou shalt become, - And through this unborn child feel all a mother’s joy. - -Next thou beheldest a youth descending from the sixth heaven with the -glittering branch of a tree; that was _Farrah-i-Izad_, ‘the splendor -of God,’ the warder of evils from thy son; the written volume in his -hand is the emblem of the prophetic office, by which he is to obtain -the victory over all foes; the three wild beasts which remained behind -are the type of a powerful evil-disposed enemy, who by wiles will -endeavour to destroy Zardusht, but who shall be finally discomfited; -and there shall be a prince to promulgate the faith: through his might -shall Zardusht become sovereign of this world and the next. O -Doghduyah! paradise is the recompense of obedience to Zardusht, and -hell is the reward of those who avert the face from him. Would to -heaven that I could live in the days of his mission, to exhibit my -zeal for his eminent dignity.” Doghduyah then said to the interpreter -and astrologer: “How hast thou found out the circumstance of the exact -period of my pregnancy?” To this he replied: “Through the power of -knowledge of the stars, and the perusal of ancient records, which give -an account of his auspicious existence.” Doghduyah, on her return -home, told this event to _Purshasp_, that he might communicate it to -_Patírasp_; on which both parents joined in praising the Almighty. -Zaradusht, on issuing forth into the abode of existence, laughed aloud -at the moment of his birth,[387] so that the women of the -neighbourhood who were there assembled heard the sound of his laugh, -and even his father, _Purshasp_, - - “Said to himself, he must surely be an emanation of God, - All, with the exception of him, weep on coming into the world.” - -He then gave him the name of Zaratusht,[388] - - “Thus the dream-interpreter’s word was verified.” - -All the women became jealous at the laugh of Zaradusht, and this -wonderful occurrence was spread abroad, until it came to the hearing -of _Darán Sarún_, the king of that region, who gloried in the practice -of magic and the worship of Ahriman. He had information of the -appearance of Zaratusht, and it was known from the historians and -astronomers that he will reveal a better religion and destroy that of -Ahriman. He therefore hastened to the pillow of Zaradusht, and -commanding him to be taken out of the cradle, and putting his hand to -his sword, prepared to cut off the child’s head; but that instant his -hand was dried up, so that he left the house in pain and affliction; -on which all the magicians and worshippers of Ahriman (the only -worship which prevailed at that time) became quite alarmed. The -magicians then formed a mountain of wood, naphtha, and sulphur, and -having set it on fire, threw into the midst of it Zaradusht, whom they -had by force taken from his father, and hastened with this -intelligence to their king: but, through the aid of God, - - “The devouring flame became as water, - In the midst of which slumbered the pearl of Zardusht.” - -On learning this, Zaradusht’s mother hurried to the desert, and taking -her honored son out of the embers, bore him secretly home. After many -days, when the account of his deliverance was published abroad, the -magicians, evil spirits, and demons again bore Zardusht away, and -threw him into a narrow place, a thoroughfare for the passage of oxen, -that he should be exposed to be bruised and trampled under foot. -Through the goodness of God, a powerful cow came in front, and, -standing still, took Zardusht between her fore feet, and drove off -with her horns whatever cow came in that direction: when the whole had -passed, she also went to join them; and Doghduyah, after great search, -having discovered her honored son, took him home: when this -intelligence came to Dúransarún, he commanded them to expose Zardusht -in a far narrower defile through which horses were to pass; but, owing -to divine aid, a mare advanced before the others, and standing at the -child’s head kept a strict watch over him, and Doghduyah, after -encountering great hardship, bore her fortunate offspring home. On -learning this occurrence, Dúransarún ordered persons to repair to the -dens of the ravening wolves, and having slaughtered their cubs, then -expose Zardusht in the same place, in order that the dams out of -revenge might tear him to pieces. At night, when the troop of wolves -returned to their lairs, they beheld their cubs slaughtered and -weltering in blood, and at the same time finding an infant crying out, -they all hurried towards him; the chief wolf and the boldest of them, -having rushed on to devour Zardusht, his mouth became as sewn up: at -this miracle the wolves were altogether alarmed, and seated themselves -like so many nurses around the infant’s head; at the same time there -also came two sheep from the mountain region, which applied their -teats filled with milk to the lips of Zardusht: thus the sheep and the -wolf lay down in one place. With the morning dawn, his mother, after -anxious seeking and searching, came to that frightful place, raised up -the exalted prophet, and having poured out her gratitude to God, -proceeded with exultation to her home.[389] The magicians, on hearing -this miracle, became quite despondent; they assembled to devise some -remedy, and formed a council for the purpose of deliberating, when a -celebrated magician named _Purtarúsh_ and _Parantarúsh_[390] said to -them: “Zardusht is not to be destroyed by your plans, for God -befriends him, and the angel _Far-i-Izad_ ‘the splendor of God,’ is -ever with him. Bahman (who is the same as Jabriîl) has borne Zardusht -to the presence of the Almighty; and God having imparted to him the -knowledge of all the secrets of existence, sends him forth as a -prophet. A just sovereign will co-operate with him in promulgating his -faith, and every vestige of enchanters and Deeves shall be cut off -from the earth.” The father of Zardusht said one day to _Partarúsh_: -“Give me some account of Zardusht’s star and its rise; tell me also -why he laughed at the time of his birth”. _Partarúsh_ replied: “Thy -son Zardusht is to be a chief, as all the happy spheres afford him -aid; this offspring of auspicious career will conduct the creatures of -God in the true way; promulgate the _Zandavasta_;[391] destroy the -demon and enchanters, and finally king Gushtasp shall embrace his -faith.” This announcement gave great delight to Purshasp. - -At this time there lived an aged saint named _Barzinkaroos_, of -profound experience and clear discernment; this sage having come to -the house of Purshasp, entreated that he might be allowed to bring up -Zardusht, and acquire glory by his education. Purshasp consented to -this proposal, and entrusted the infant to the holy sage. - -When Zardusht had attained his seventh year, Purtarush, the chief of -the magicians, came along with Duransanun to the child’s abode; and -made so great a display of enchantments, terrific, and fearful sights, -that all the people fled out of the house; but Zardusht, through the -aid of God, felt no alarm and moved not, so that the magicians went -away filled with affright and disappointment. After some time Zardusht -became ill, at which news all the magicians were greatly delighted; -their chief Partarósh came, with enchantments and medicine mixed up -with _mina_,[392] to Zardusht’s pillow and said: “The swallowing of -this medicine will render thy body tranquil and deliver thee from -pain.” The illuminated mind of Zardusht saw through the machination, -and taking the medicine from him, poured it on the ground, and at the -same time telling him about the _mina_ mixed up with the portion, said: - - “Shouldst thou in a different guise conceal thy violence, - I can again recognise thee, O thou full of deceit! - Thy description is furnished to me by that God - Through whose command the world is preserved.” - -The magicians consequently again returned back mortified at the -results of their wicked plot. They say that in those times they -accounted no system superior to that of magic, and that the demon held -public intercourse with persons of that class so that they obtained it -from Iblis without the intervention of enchantment. - - “Mankind then praised the foul demon, - As they now do the God of purity.” - -Nay, Purshásp, the father of Zardusht, followed that path; one day -having invited Duránsarún, Párántárúsh, and many more magicians to a -feast, he made the suitable arrangements, and when the repast was -ended, he said to Párántárúsh, the chief of the magicians: “Through -the excellence of enchantment, whereby our hearts are gladdened and -our necks exalted, thy noble person at this period is the spiritual -guide of all magicians.” Zardusht, being indignant at this speech, -said to his father: “Abandon this erroneous way, and turn to the faith -of God: hell must finally be the abode of magicians and enchanters.” -These words greatly incensed Purtarúsh, who replied: “Of what -consequence art thou before thy father! The intelligent of the earth, -and the great men of the habitable world dare not address such -insolence to me! Art thou not afraid of me? Dost thou not know me? For -this thy insolence I shall spread amongst mankind such calumnies and -lies respecting thy creed, that thou must remain in obscurity. What is -thy power that, without courtesy, thou darest slight my dignity! - - “May thy name be more degraded than that of all other men! - May no desire of thy heart be ever accomplished!” - -Zardusht replied: “O son of earth! the lie thou utterest respecting my -creed will render thyself before God and man the butt of censure: in -retaliation I shall tell, nothing but truth concerning thee, and -overpower thee by just arguments and proofs. - - “By order of the righteous God’s messenger, - I shall turn thy empire upside down.” - -All who were present, as well as the magicians, remained in -astonishment at such a stripling’s great intellect, so that -Párántárúsh left the house and hastened home, covered with confusion -and disgrace: that night he fell sick, and his people also being -attacked by illness at the same time, were hurried along with him to -the house of retribution.[393] - -When the honored age of Zardusht had reached the fifteenth year, he -attached not his heart to this place of sojourn, neither did he set -any value on the world or its concerns: but fleeing away from wrath -and the pleasures of sense, he with pious fear labored night and day -in the service of God; wherever he found any one hungry, thirsty, -naked, or helpless, he bestowed on them food, raiment, and the needful -supplies; his piety and sincerity were consequently renowned amongst -all people, although he withdrew from the public gaze. - -When he had reached the age of thirty, he directed his face towards -Iran, in company with several men and women and some of his own -relations; in the course of this journey, they came to a large expanse -of water, on which there was not a boat to be found:[394] as it is not -meet for women to expose their persons, particularly before strangers, -he became anxious about the means of taking them over in the presence -of their fellow travellers; he therefore poured out his distress -before the God of justice, entreating from him a passage over that -wide expanse of water; after which, by the order of the Almighty, he -crossed over, with his companions and relations, in such guise that -the soles of their feet only were moistened by the water; finally, in -the end of _Isfandarmaz_,[395] on the day of _Anírán_, which is the -last day of every solar month, he reached the confines of Iran. At -that period the people of Iran held a great festival at which were -assembled both high and low, and therefore Zartusht took his course to -that quarter. At night, whilst alone in some halting place, through -his enlightened spirit he beheld, in a vision, a mighty army[396] -advancing from Bactria, or the West, which from hostile motives -blocked up his road on every side; in the same place he beheld another -army coming from _Nimroz_, or “mid day,” and when both armies came to -close quarters with the sword, the Bactrian or Western troops were put -to the rout. The examiner of the vision thus interpreted it: “When -Zardusht, having been taken into the presence of God, should discover -all the mysteries of creation, that afterwards, on his return from -heaven, to promulgate the _Dínbahí_, or ‘true faith,’ the Dîvs and -Magicians, having found out his intentions, would with all expedition -make war against him. _Mizumah_,[397] the angel who attends the -servants of God, on learning this will promote the better faith, and -in consequence the _Asta va zand_ will be read with a loud voice, and -through this the demons and magicians shall be dispersed and flee -away.” On the interpretation of the dream, he hastened to the -festival, inspired with great delight. - -When he had returned from the banqueting-place, he set out about the -middle of _Ardíbihist_,[398] on the _Dímihr_, the fifteenth day of -every solar month, and came to a deep, broad, and extensive water, -named _Dábatí_,[399] in the _Astawasta_; there recommending himself to -the Lord, he stepped into the water, which at first rose up to the -calf of his legs, then to his knees, waist, and finally to his neck; -which event was thus interpreted; “the division of the water into -these four portions signifies, that in nine thousand years the -_Dínbahí_, ‘the true faith,’ shall be four times renewed; the first -time by the agency of Zardusht, who was sent to promulgate the -_Bahdín_; the second by _Hushídar_; the third by _Hushídarmáh_; and -the fourth by _Sarsásh_; all four descendants from Zardusht.” - -When the prophet had gained the opposite shore, he washed his person -as pure as his soul, and putting on undefiled garments, engaged in -prayer.[400] That very day, Bahman, the mightiest of the angels, (whom -the Muhammedans call Jabriel) came robed in light to Zardusht, and -having asked his name, said: “What dost thou most desire in this -world?” Zardusht having answered, “I have no desire but that of -pleasing God; my heart seeks after nothing but righteousness; and my -belief is that thou wilt guide me to do what is good:” then Bahram -replied “Arise! that thou mayest appear before God; entreat from his -Majesty whatever thou desirest, from his bounty he will return thee a -profitable answer.” Zardusht then arose, and according to Bahram’s -order shut his eyes for an instant; on opening them he found himself -in the bright empyreal, where he beheld an assemblage through whose -effulgence his shadow became visible: from that assemblage to the -next, was a distance of twenty-four paces; and also another assemblage -of beings formed of light waited on by virgins of paradise. The angels -gathered around Zardusht and warmly greeted him, pointing him out to -each other, until the honored son of Espintaman[401] came before God, -to whom with joyous heart and trembling body he addressed the prayers -of supplication. It is necessary to observe here, that the -_Báhidínian_, “believers of the eternal doctrine,” unanimously -maintain that Bahman assumed the human figure, and that Zardusht -ascended to the heavens in his elemental body; but, according to the -creed of the intelligent Abádián, the matter is thus stated: “By the -coming of Bahman in the human form and his speaking like a mortal, is -meant that the true essence of man is uncompounded and simple, not a -body nor any thing material; and that, under such a quality, that is, -uncompoundedness, he manifested himself to Zardusht; and his saying -‘close thy eyes,’ is figurative, and implies the eradication of the -attachments and darkness of the elemental body; when he thus became a -simple uncompounded existence, he arrived at the heavens styled the -‘eternal empyrean;’ the first company of angels signifies the souls on -high, and the second, the existence of the celestial intelligences; -the interrogatories addressed to him by the angels imply, that when -the soul leaves the upper world, it descends into this lower abode to -encounter wanderings and calamity; but when, by the attractive -influence of Bahman and through the energy of intelligence, it returns -on high, the angels feel delight on the occasion. He next ascended to -the world of simple uncompounded beings, and came near God; the -delight experienced by Zardusht signifies, the freedom from alarm and -fear enjoyed in that pure world; and his bodily tremor is emblematic -of the effulgence of the divine Majesty.” He then asked of the God of -justice: “Which of thy servants on earth is superior to the rest?” God -thus answered: “The righteous professor of righteousness; secondly, he -who to righteousness joins generosity and liberality, walking -unceasingly in the way of righteousness and withdrawing from evil; -thirdly, he who is friendly to fire and water, to all living and -animated beings; for man, by the knowledge and practice of this -precept, delivers himself from hell and attains to union with the -eternal paradise. O, Zardusht! whichever of my servants in this -transitory sojourn of existence practises oppression and cruelty -towards my creatures, and averts his head from obedience to my -commands, repeat thou to such this warning: that unless he desist from -rebellion, he shall dwell in hell to all eternity.” Zardusht again -asked: “O most just God, impart to me the names of the -_Amshásfands_,[402] that is, of the angels the most acceptable in thy -presence; gladden me by their names and sight; cause me to hear their -discourse; and graciously enable me to discern the impious -Ahriman,[403] who turns not to good through his evil nature; give me -power to behold the good and evil of this world, and its termination; -the effect of the revolving sphere, with the successive production of -modes or the reappearance of things.” When he had thus laid before the -Almighty the secret wishes of his heart, he received this answer: “I -am the author of good; the benevolent and the beneficent; I neither do -evil, nor enjoin it to be committed. I consent not to wickedness, -neither do I bring calamity on my creatures: evil and wickedness -belong exclusively to Ahriman. It is, however, incumbent on me to keep -in hell to all eternity the troops of Ahriman in reward for their -deeds: the ignorant only assert that I am the “author of evil.”[404] -The Almighty then made Zardusht acquainted with the celestial -revolutions and the motions of the stars, and their good and evil -influences; he also showed him paradise filled with light, angelic -nymphs, palaces, and _Amshásfands_; communicating to him at the same -time the knowledge of all mysteries, and teaching him all sciences, so -that he knew every thing from the commencement of existence to the end -of time; he likewise showed him Ahriman in the gloom of hell, who, on -beholding Zardusht cried aloud: “Turn away from the faith of God, that -thou mayest obtain all thy desires in this world.”[405] - -When the Lord had thus instructed Zardusht, he beheld a mountain of -flaming fire, which at the command of God he traversed without any -injury to his person; they next poured molten brass on his guileless, -silver-like bosom, and not a single hair of his body was touched; they -next opened his stomach, and taking out all the intestines again -replaced them, on which the wound immediately closed without leaving a -vestige of the incision behind. The just God then said to Zardusht: -“Thou hast passed over the mountain of fire, and hadst thy stomach -rent open; therefore tell mankind whoever turns away from the -_Dínbahí_, ‘pure faith,’ and passes over to Ahriman, in the same -manner shall the blood of his body be poured out; he shall dwell in -the fire, and never attain to the joys of paradise. Again, the molten -brass, which on contact with thy breast became congealed like ice, -causing thee no injury, is a sign that the nation, at the suggestion -of Ahriman, will turn away from the faith; and also that when the -_Dínbahí_ shall be promulgated in the world, the high Mobed shall gird -his loins to give them battle. - - “The heart of mankind was harassed with doubt, - However thou knowest this brass was but a sign; - It is therefore meet that Azarbád, the son of Márasfand, - Should impart to each individual counsel of every kind; - This molten brass he should pour on his breast, - From which no injury shall result to him. - -“So that, on beholding this miracle, all mankind with heart and soul -will follow the right true road.” - -After this, Zardusht asked of the God of justice: “In what manner -shall thy worshippers celebrate thy praise and what is to be their -Kiblah?” The Lord answered: “Tell all mankind that every bright and -luminous object is the effulgence of my light; at the time of -worshipping me, let them turn to that side, in order that Ahriman may -flee from them; in the world there is no existence superior to light, -out of which I have created paradise, the angelic nymphs, and all that -is pleasant, whilst hell was produced out of darkness. - - “Wherever thou art, and in whichever of the two abodes, - Dost thou not perceive that either place is formed out of my light?” - -Having thus taught Zardusht the _Avesta_ and the _Zand_, he said to -him: “Recite this celebrated volume to king Gushtasp, that through it -he may obtain wisdom; tell him also to attain a perfect knowledge of -me; no one should ever call me the worker of injustice; command the -Mobeds and all mankind to separate themselves from demons and -magicians.” - - “Zardusht then enlarged on the praises of the Almighty Lord.” - -When the prophet’s desires and purpose had been thus completely -attained, he was met on his return by the Amshásfand Bahman, the -protector and chief of the sheep, who said to him: “To thee I deliver -the sheep and all herds; tell the Mobeds, sages, and all men to guard -them well; prohibit them from putting to death calf, lamb, young -sheep, or any other quadruped, as men derive great benefits from them: - - “We must never be guilty of excess in slaughter.” - -“I received these flocks from the Almighty, and now accept them from -me; account not my words as unimportant, but inculcate obedience to -them on young and old:” on which Zardusht accepted the trust. The -Mobed Sarush used to say: “The Yezdanians maintain that, when Bahman -forbade the killing of young quadrupeds, he well knew it to be equally -wrong to slay the old; first, because in their youth, although they -rendered many services, they received no wages for their labor; and -secondly, in old age they produce young animals; consequently, where -Zardusht in some passages holds it lawful to slay animals, but without -committing excess; by the precept is meant, the expulsion of animal -qualities from our existence; and by avoiding excess is meant, that we -should gradually banish all vile propensities from ourselves, such as -eating to excess, which is an animal quality, but which cannot be -discontinued at once; it therefore becomes necessary to lessen the -quantity of food gradually, as stated by us under the head of the -_Sáhí Keshán_.” - -After Bahman, the Amshásfand _Ardebihist_[406] coming forward, said to -Zardusht: “O accepted of God! bear from me this message to king -Gushtasp, and say to him: ‘To thee have I delivered whatever relates -to fire. Let there be suitable places of great splendor in every city -for the general worship; appoint stated times and _Hirbuds_, or -‘ministers’ for the purpose of adoration; because that light is an -emanation of the divine effulgence. Dost thou not perceive how every -thing stands in need of fire, which requires only wood from the human -race?’ - - “Its body apprehends not death nor the decrepitude of age, - When thou layest wood within the influence of its sphere. - -“Such is its property to indicate the truth, that if thou burn -perfumes it diffuses fragrance among the assembled people: from -unpleasant odors a correspondent effect ensues; it also banishes the -affliction of cold. As fully as God hath delivered it to me, do I now -give it in charge to thee! Whoever turns away from my counsel and -advice becomes the captive of hell, and incurs the displeasure of -God.” - -When Zardusht had departed from Bahman, the Amshásfand _Shahrivar_ -came forward and said to him: “On thy arrival from the upper to the -lower world, tell men to furbish and polish up their arms, and always -to keep them in good order and readiness; in the day of battle let -them not quit their posts, but display heroic exertion and not resign -their post to any other.” - -_Asfandármaz_ then coming forward, after many benedictions said to -Zardusht: “This is the command of the Almighty to mankind, let them -keep the earth pure, and remove blood, pollution, and dead bodies to -some uncultivated place. - - “Among princes, that sovereign is by far the best - Who exerts himself to improve the face of the earth.” - -When Zardusht had departed thence, _Khúrdád_ advanced, and with -benedictions thus addressed him: “To thy charge I assign all waters of -running streams, rivers, water-courses, rivulets, wells, and all -besides; say thou to mankind: - - “Through water is the body of every creature maintained in life; - Through it the face of every tract and region is kept in bloom. - -“Let them keep dead bodies far removed from it, and let them not -defile it with blood or any dead carcass, as the food dressed with -such water furnishes an unwholesome repast.” - -_Murdád_ next came forward and said to Zardusht: “Let not men -heedlessly destroy the vegetable productions of the earth or pluck -them from their place: - - “As these form the delight of both man and beast. - -“Also, O prophet of God! send Mobeds around the whole country, and -appoint a wise person in every city to communicate these tidings to -all men: let them understand the _Avesta_, and bind around their waist -the zone, which is a sign of the pure faith and constancy in it, and -let them endeavor to keep the four substances (elements) undefiled: - - “Out of the four elements has the body of every animal - Been composed by the supreme and just Lord: - It is therefore necessary to keep them undefiled, - Accounting them among the choice blessings of God.” - -It is to be remembered that the conference of all these angels with -Zardusht was a revelation and message from God; but there was a more -transcendent dignity in this fact, that the Almighty himself addressed -Zardusht without the intervention of angels, and imparted to him the -mysteries of all that exists.[407] - -Zardusht having thus obtained from God the accurate knowledge of all -mysteries, drew near this elemental world, whilst the magicians and -demons, with a dreadful host, blocked up his road; after which the -chief enchanter and the head of the demons and his host thus addressed -Zardusht: “Keep the _Avesta_ and _Zand_ concealed; thy incantation, -fraud, and artifice make no impression on us: if thou knowest us, thou -wilt turn away from such practices.” On hearing this, Zardusht recited -aloud one chapter of the _Avesta_ and _Zand_; when these sounds -reached the demons, they hid themselves under ground, and the -magicians trembled; a part of the enchanters died on the spot, and the -remainder implored for mercy. - -The Mobed _Surúsh_, the Yezdánian, has been heard to say: “It is -recorded in the treatise of _Míhín Farúsh_ that, according to the -doctors of the pure faith, when Zardusht had thus obtained the victory -over the demons, and was proceeding to an interview with the great -king Gushtasp, there happened to be two oppressive and infidel kings -in his road; these Zardusht invited to adopt the pure faith and turn -away from their evil practices; but they heeded not his words, he -therefore prayed to God, and there began to blow a mighty wind, which -lifted up these two kings on high and kept them suspended in the air; -the people who came around were astonished on beholding this sight; -the birds also from every quarter of the sky flocked around the two -kings, and with beaks and talons tore off their flesh until their -bones fell to the ground.[408] - -Zaratusht, the son of Bahram, says, that when Zardusht after his -victory arrived at the court of the great king Gushtasp, he called on -the name God, and then sought access to the sovereign.[409] He beheld -the first rank, composed of the grandees and champions of Iran and -other regions, standing around; and above these two ranks of sages, -philosophers, and learned men, who took precedence of each other in -proportion to their knowledge, for this great king was exceedingly -attached to men of science; he next beheld the monarch of the world -seated on a lofty throne, and his brows encircled with a costly crown: -on which Zardusht in eloquent language recited the praises of the -king. - -Farzánah Bahram, the son of Farhad, of the Yazdanian sect, relates -thus in the _Sháristán_: “The doctors of the pure faith say, that when -Zardusht entered into king Gushtasp’s assembly, he held in his hand a -blazing fire which caused him no injury; he then transferred that fire -to the king’s hands, which in like manner remained unhurt; he -afterwards gave it into the hands of others and still no trace of -burning appeared; he next lay down, and ordered molten brass to be -poured on his bosom four different times: although the molten metal -came on his breast, no bodily injury resulted from it.”[410] -Zaratusht, the son of Bahram, adds: The sovereign of Iran having thus -ascertained the dignity of the prophet of the human race, addressed -him with terms of earnest affection, and ordering a chair to be -brought, placed him in front of the royal throne, above the two ranks -of the philosophers. Zardusht, agreeably to the king’s command, having -taken this seat, manifested to all the assembly the precious diamonds -of his intellectual stores. The sages and eminent men of the exterior -circles on his right and left entered on the path of controversy, but -were finally refuted, one after another. They say that on this day -thirty of the sages seated on his right, being unable to withstand the -arguments of Zardusht, bore testimony to his knowledge and truth; and -in like manner thirty of the wise men on his left were overpowered and -convinced. When such sages, who had not their equals in the seven -climates, had been thus confuted, the illustrious prince called the -prophet of the Lord into his presence, and for further conviction -questioned him on various sciences and the traditions of old; and -having received conclusive answers on all these points he was struck -with amazement. The great king therefore assigned to the prophet of -the just Lord a dwelling adjacent to his own palace, and the -philosophers departed home with afflicted hearts. During the whole -night they read over books with each other, and concerted with each -other how they might, the following morning, conduct the argument and -controversy with Zardusht; whilst the prophet of the Lord on coming to -his house, according to his custom, desisted not until morning from -acts of worship and praise. The following day, when Zardusht and the -philosophers assembled around the king, whatever the sages advanced -which was not strictly conformable to truth, Zardusht produced a -hundred arguments, both theoretical and practical, to invalidate the -assertion; and if they demanded a proof of whatever he himself -advanced, he adduced a hundred convincing demonstrations. Gushtasp -accordingly increased the dignity of the Lord’s prophet, and inquired -his name, lineage, and native city; to which questions Zardusht -returned the meet answer, and said: “O great king, to-morrow is the -day of Hormuz, or the first of the month; command the chiefs of the -military to assemble and all the philosophers to appear, that I may -reduce all to silence, as I have done this assembly, and give answers -which will dumbfound them; after which I shall execute the commission -with which I am entrusted.” - -Gushtasp issued the requisite order, and they all returned home with -this agreement. Zardusht, from inclination and habit, continued in -supplication to the Lord; and the wise men said to each other: “This -stranger has twice degraded us wise men, taken away our reputation, -and obtained favor with the king:” they therefore conferred with each -other how they could most effectually oppose Zardusht and refute his -arguments. - - “With this understanding each retired to his own abode, - And through anxiety not one of them slept all that night.” - -On the third day, the nobles, doctors, and wise men assembled around -the king, and Zardusht also advanced into the company: although the -sages and learned men had mutually combined to confound him by -argument, they were all finally refuted. When the philosophers were no -longer able to utter a word, the superior personages gave place to -Zardusht, on which the prophet of the Lord loosed his tongue and said -to Gushtasp: “I am the envoy of the Lord the Creator of the heavens, -earth, and stars; the disinterested bestower of daily food to his -servant: he who has brought thee from non-existence into being and -made kings thy servants, has sent me to thee.” Then taking the -_Avesta_ and _Zand_ out of a case, he added: “This volume God has -given to me, and sent me forth to the human race with the commandments -named _Astawazand_, which require implicit obedience; if thou wilt -conform to the commands of God, in like manner as he has made thee -sovereign of the world, he will also make thee eternally happy in -futurity and paradise; but if thou avert the head from his command, -thou incurrest the displeasure of the just God; the foundation of thy -greatness shall be rent, and thou shalt finally become a denizen of -hell. - - “Adopt no line of conduct through the suggestion of a Div. - From this time forward listen to my commands.” - -The great king replied: “What proof dost thou adduce, and what miracle -dost thou perform? exhibit them, that I may instantly diffuse thy -faith over all the world.” Zardusht said: “One of my decisive proofs -and miraculous works is this volume, on once listening to which thou -shalt never more behold demon or magician: this volume contains the -mysteries of both worlds, and clearly expounds the revolutions of the -stars: there is no being in existence an account of which is not found -in this book.” The king then commanded: “Read me a section of this -heavenly volume.” Zardusht having read one chapter, Gushtasp not -feeling a full conviction, said to him: “Thou hast urged a bold suit; -but precipitancy in such an affair is by no means proper; I shall -devote some days to exploring the nature of the _Zand-Avesta_: but in -the mean time come thou hither as usual.” Zardusht then - - “Returned to the house assigned him by the king.” - -The enraged philosophers also came out and took counsel with each -other about slaying Zardusht. The following morning, when Zardusht -left the house to go to the king’s palace, he delivered the key of his -apartment to the king’s porter; but the philosophers so deluded this -man, that he gave up the key secretly to them; on which they opened -the door of the prophet’s apartment, and having put into bags unclean -things which they had collected, such as blood, hair, a cat’s head, a -dog’s head, dead men’s bones and the like, placed them under his -pillow, and having locked the door, gave the key back to the porter, -previously obliging him to swear to keep the matter altogether secret; -after this they went to the palace, where they beheld Zardusht seated -near the king, who was engaged in reading the _Zand-Avesta_, - - “Lost in amazement at the characters and words.” - -The philosophers said: “The _Zand-Avesta_ is altogether magic, and -this man is a wizard, who by force of spells has produced an -impression on thy heart, in order to bring evil and confusion all over -the world; but be not thou the wizard’s ally.” On hearing this, -Gushtasp ordered persons to repair to Zardusht’s house and make a -careful examination; they went and immediately brought before the king -whatever they found in the house, whether eatables, carpets, dresses, -clothes-bags, etc., all which they opened in the king’s presence; on -this, the talons, hair, and such like impurities, which had been -hidden there by the philosophers, were exposed to view. The king was -greatly enraged, and said to Zardusht: “This is thy magic practice.” -The prophet of the Lord being quite astonished, replied: “I have no -knowledge of these things; let his majesty inquire the particulars -from the porter.” The porter on being summoned, said: “Zardusht closed -his door, and not even wind had access to it.” The king became quite -indignant and said to Zardusht: “They have not brought these sacks -from heaven and hid them under the pillow.” In his rage he threw away -the _Avesta-Zand_, and sent Zardusht in chains to prison: there was -also a porter appointed to give him a fixed allowance and keep strict -watch. Zardusht remained in chains both day and night, the porter -bringing him daily a loaf of bread and a pitcher of water; and one -whole week passed in that manner. - -They relate that Gushtasp had a royal steed called the “Black -Charger,” which the great king mounted on the day of battle: - - “When, mounted on this charger’s back, he advanced to the fight, - The result of the combat terminated in victory.” - -One morning at dawn, the master of the horse beheld the Black Charger -without fore or hind feet, which he saw were drawn up into his belly; -in great haste he announced this event to the sovereign of the world. -Gushtasp in great affliction hurried to the stable, summoning thither -the veterinary surgeons, physicians, and learned men, all of whom -exerted themselves in remedies and applications without any benefit -resulting from their exertions. Through grief the king partook not of -food that day, and the military were sorely afflicted. Zardusht, who -in consequence of the general mourning had not received his allowance -before evening, became hungry; when the evening had passed, the porter -came and brought the provisions, stating at the same time what had -befallen the Black Charger; on this the prophet of the Lord said to -him: “To-morrow tell the king that I can set this affair to rights.” -The next morning the porter conveyed the prophet’s message to the -king, on which orders were given to bring Zardusht into the royal -presence. This favorable intelligence having been communicated to -Zardusht, the prophet entered into a warm bath, and after ablution, on -appearing before the king, he uttered benedictions on the sovereign of -the world. Gushtasp then assigned him a place near himself, and having -explained the state of the horse, added: - - “If thou be truly a prophet sent from the Lord, - Thou canst easily restore this horse to perfect health.” - -Zardusht replied: “If thou wilt, O king, engage to perform four -things, thou shalt again behold the charger’s fore and hind legs.” The -king said: “I accept the conditions: what is the first?” Zardusht -replied: “Let us all repair to the Black Charger’s bed.” On arriving -there he said to the king: “Make thy heart and tongue of one accord: -utter with thy tongue and repeat with thy heart, that without doubt, -suspicion, or equivocation, I am a prophet and apostle sent from God.” -The king having agreed to this, the prophet of the Lord addressed his -petitions to the God of justice, and then rubbing with his hand the -horse’s right forefoot, it straightway came out, on which the king and -the soldiery loudly applauded the holy man. - -After this, he said to the king: “Command the heroic Isfendiar to -enter into a covenant with me that he will gird up his loins to -promulgate the faith of the Lord.” The prince was not averse, and -entered into a solemn engagement; on which the apostle prayed to the -Lord until the right hind leg came out. - -He then said to the great king: “Send an _Ustawar_ and an _Amin_ along -with me to the great queen _Kitábún_, in order that she may enter into -the true faith.” The king having assented, Zardusht on coming into the -king’s golden apartment thus addressed queen Kitábún: “Mighty -princess! the Lord has expressly selected thee to share the couch of -Gushtasp and to be the mother of Isfendiar. I am the Lord’s prophet -sent by him to the king: therefore adopt the pure faith.” On this the -great queen with heart and soul attached herself in sincerity to the -prophet: after which Zardusht prayed, so that the other hind leg came -out. - -He then said to the king: “Now send for the porter; it is proper to -inquire of him who it was that conveyed this stuff of magical -preparation to my house.” The king summoned the chamberlain and -questioned him in a threatening tone, saying: “If thou wilt confess -the truth, thou savest thy life; but otherwise, thou shalt have thy -head under thy feet.” The treacherous chamberlain implored pardon, and -related all the particulars of the bribery and delusion practised by -the philosophers’ friends. Gushtasp was exceedingly indignant, and -ordered the four philosophers to be hanged. Zardusht then recited the -prayers taught him by the Almighty, so that the other forefoot came -out, and the swift charger stood on his legs. The sovereign of Iran -kissed the prophet’s head and face, and leading him to the throne, -seated him near himself; he also requested pardon for his sin and gave -back the prophet’s goods.[411] - -The doctors of the pure faith also record, that king _Lohrasp_ and -_Zerir_, brother to Gushtasp having fallen into so violent a malady, -that the physicians in despair desisted from all attendance on them, -but having been restored to health through the prayers of Zardusht, -they adopted the pure faith.[412] - -Zaratusht the son of Bahram relates: One day Zardusht, having come -into the king’s presence, he thus addressed the prophet of the Lord: -“I desire to obtain four things from God; it is therefore meet that -the prophet should request them: first, that I should behold my own -state in the next world; secondly, that in the time of conflict no -blow should make any impression on me, so that I may be able to -diffuse the true faith; thirdly, that I may know thoroughly the -mysteries of good and evil in this world; fourthly, that until the day -of judgment my spirit may remain united to my body.” Zardusht replied: -“I will entreat the Lord to grant these four wishes: - - “But it is necessary that out of these four wishes - Thou shouldst implore one only for thyself: - Choose three wishes for three different persons: - That I may entreat them from the righteous Creator; - He will not confer on any one person these four gifts, - Because that person might say: ‘I am the supreme Creator.’” - -The king having agreed to this, Zaratusht at the time of evening -prayer went to his house, repeated the praises of the Almighty, -entreating from him the accomplishment of the king’s desires, and lay -down in the act of adoration: in this state God showed him in a vision -that the king’s petition was granted. At dawn of day the king was -seated on his throne; Zardusht appeared in the royal presence and came -to his place; in a moment after, the king’s chamberlain entering in -great trepidation, said: “There are four terror-striking, -awe-inspiring horsemen at the door: - - “Never before have I beheld horsemen of such a kind.” - -The king asked of Zardusht: “Who are these persons?” but he had -scarcely done speaking before all the four horsemen dressed in green, -completely armed, of majestic port, drew near the throne; these four -cavaliers were of the number of those angels who are nearest the just -God, and are of the great Amshasfands, namely, _Bahman_,[413] -_Ardibahist_,[414] _Azarkhurdad_,[415] and _Azargushtásp_,[416] who -thus addressed the king: “We are angels and the envoys of God. The -Dispenser of justice thus declares: ‘Zardusht is my prophet, whom I -have sent to all the inhabitants of the earth; attend well to him; if -thou devote thyself to his way, thou art delivered from hell. Never -inflict pain on him; and when thou obtainest thy desires, avert not -thy head from his commands.’” - -King Gushtasp, although in magnanimity immovable as mount _Alburz_, -yet through the majesty of the angels and their awful presence, fell -senseless from his throne: on recovering himself he thus addressed the -righteous Lord: - - “I am the lowest of all thy servants, - And have girt up my loins to execute thy orders.” - -When the Amshásfands heard this answer, they departed; and the -military, on learning this wonderful occurrence, were all assembled: -the king also, trembling all over, apologized to Zardusht: - - “Thy command sits upon my soul; - My spirit is like the son of the Lord; - My body, soul, and wealth are all to thee devoted, - By order of the just and glorious Creator.” - -The prophet of the Lord replied: “May good tidings ever attend thee! I -have entreated from the Almighty the completion of thy desires, and my -prayer has been granted.” Zardusht then ordered that for the purpose -of the _Yashtan-i-darún_,[417] that is, “the recitation and breathing -out of prayer,” they should make ready in an inner apartment wine, -sweet perfumes, milk, and a pomegranate; and over these he performed -_Yasht_, or “the recitation of prayers,” in a low voice, out of the -_Avesta_ and _Zand_; after this ceremony they gave Gushtasp some of -the hallowed wine, on the mere tasting of which he became insensible -and rose not up for three days: in that interval his spirit ascended -to heaven, and there beheld the celestial nymphs, their palaces, -progeny, and attendants; the blessings of paradise; the different -gradations of rank among the virtuous, and the grade reserved for -himself. - -The prophet next presented to _Bishutan_[418] some of that hallowed -milk, on drinking of which he was delivered from the pangs of death -and obtained eternal life. Some of the Yezdánian doctors hold, that by -eternal life is implied the knowledge of one’s own essence and soul, -which never admit of decay; milk is also mentioned, as it constitutes -the food of children, and science is the food of spirit; on which -account they have likened science to consecrated milk. He next gave -_Jamasp_[419] some of the hallowed perfume, through the efficacy of -which universal science shed its lustre on his heart; so that, from -that very day of his existence, whatever was to come to pass until the -day of judgment was clearly comprehended by him in all its details. He -then gave one grain of the hallowed pomegranate to _Isfendiar_, who on -eating it instantly became brazen-bodied, and his frame grew so hard -that no blow could make an impression on it. - -When the great king awoke from his vision, he broke out into praise -and adoration; after which he called for Zardusht, to whom he related -what he had witnessed, and commanded all men to receive the pure -faith; then, being seated on his throne, he ordered the prophet of the -Lord to recite some sections of the _Zand_ in his presence. On hearing -the _Avesta_, the demons fled and concealed themselves under the -earth. The great king next commanded that in every city the Mobeds -should attend to the observance of fire, erecting domes over it, and -keeping stated festivals and times. - - -ACCOUNT OF THE PRECEPTS GIVEN BY ZARDUSHT TO THE KING AND TO ALL -MANKIND.――The prophet Zardusht, having read to the king some sections -concerning the greatness and majesty of the Almighty, said to him: “As -thou hast adopted the ways of God, the joy of paradise is to be thy -portion; but he who abandons that way is hurried off to hell by -Ahriman, who feels delighted, and on making the capture says to his -victim: ‘Because thou hast abandoned the ways of God, therefore art -thou fallen into hell.’ But the just God is liberal to his servants, -and has sent me to them, saying: ‘Communicate my covenant to all -created beings, that they may abandon their perverse ways.’ I am his -prophet, sent to thee that thou mayst guide mankind to the right road; -as the final result of persevering in the way of God is the attainment -of paradise; and the retribution of devotedness to Ahriman is hell. He -moreover commanded me: ‘Say thou to mankind, if ye adopt the pure -faith, then shall paradise be your place; but if ye receive it not, -you follow the institutes of Ahriman, and hell shall be your abode.’ -The several demonstrations of Zardusht and his wondrous works are to -you an abundant proof of the truth of his faith. Know also that at -first he sought the world; but finally regarded wife, children, and -relations as strangers to himself; he has moreover attained to such -perfect faith, that the king and the mendicant are the same in his -sight. He has enjoined me nothing more than this: neither has he given -me permission to be your intercessor or to entreat from him remission -of your sins: for protection extended to the evil doer is itself -criminal, and the chastisement of evil deeds is true religion: he -enjoined me also to entertain hope of his favor from my words and -deeds.” - - “Look to your acts and words, for they produce their sure effect, - The same seed that people sow, such the harvest they shall reap.” - -It is also expressly stated in the glorious Koran to the same -purport:[420] “On the very day when the spirit (Gabriel) and the -angels shall be ranged in their order, nobody shall speak except him -to whom the Merciful will permit it, and who will say nothing but what -is just.” In another place it is declared:[421] “Truly thou canst not -direct whomsoever thou lovest; but God will direct whomsoever he -pleases.” It is also recorded in the traditions, that the asylum of -prophecy (on whom be blessings!) said to the beautiful Fatima: “O -Fatima! fear nothing, for thou art the prophet’s daughter; perform -good works! again I say, perform good works!” He also proposed this -additional proof! “Not one of the eminent, eloquent, learned, or wise -men of the world can produce a composition which in the least -resembles the volume I have sent down; if they are able let them -declare it; but as they are unable, let them confess that this is the -voice of God: a similar statement has also been made in the divine -words of the Koran: ‘produce ye a chapter resembling it.’ Again of the -many prophets who appeared on earth, all were ignorant of future -events except Zardusht, who, in the _Zend-Avesta_, clearly expounded -whatever was to come to pass until the day of judgment, whether good -or evil.” - - “Concerning kings inspired by truth, religion, and justice, - There are minute details if thou wilt call them to mind: - The names of all he has consigned to lasting fame, - Their every act and deed, whether just or unjust alike.” - -Moreover no prophet, save Zardusht, bestowed in the presence of God -benedictions on the military class whose hearts were rightly affected -towards him. - - “To the follower of his faith he said, if to the true believers - Thou doest good, then good shall result to thee.” - -But above all he has said: “God has commanded me: ‘Say thou to mankind -they are not to abide in hell for ever; when their sins are expiated, -they are delivered out of it.’” - -It is generally reported that Zardusht was of _Azarbadgán_[422] or -_Tabruz_; but those who are not _Beh-dinians_, or “true believers,” -assert, and the writer of this work has also heard from the Mobed -_Torru_ of _Busáwári_, in Gujurat, that the birth-place and -distinguished ancestors of the prophet belong to the city of -_Rai_.[423] - -A Mobed has transcribed as follows from the _Avesta_ and _Zand_,[424] -when the Amshásfand Báhmán, pursuant to God’s command, had borne the -prophet Zardusht to heaven, he thus entreated of the Almighty: “Close -the door of death against me: let that be my miracle.” But the -righteous Lord replied: “If I close the gates of death against thee, -thou wilt not be satisfied; nay, thou wouldst entreat death from me.” -He then gave Zardusht something like honey, on tasting of which he -became insensible; like one in a profound sleep has visions, he became -acquainted with the mysteries of existence, clearly perceiving the -good and evil of whatever is in being; nay, he knew the number of -hairs on the sheep, and the sum of the leaves on a tree. When his -senses were restored, the Almighty asked him: “What hast thou seen?” -He answered: O supreme ruler! I beheld in hell, along with Ahriman, -many wealthy persons who had been ungrateful in this world; and I -found in the supreme paradise many persons, rich in gold and silver, -who had worshipped the Lord and been grateful to him. I moreover saw -in hell many who were eminent for wealth, but who were childless; and -many an indigent Durvesh, the father of many children, in the -enjoyment of paradise. I saw moreover a tree with seven branches,[425] -the shadow of which extended far and wide; one branch of gold, the -second of silver, the third of copper, the fourth of brass, the fifth -of tin (or lead), the sixth of steel, the seventh of mixed iron.” The -Lord then said to his prophet: “The tree with seven branches is the -series of events in the world, in which agitation arises from seven -sources through the revolution of the spheres; the first or golden -branch typifies the way and attraction by which thou hast come to my -presence and attained the prophet’s office; the second or silver -branch signifies that the great sovereign of the age shall receive thy -system of faith, and that the demons shall hide themselves in dismay; -the third or copper branch is the period of the Ashkanian kings. - - “He who is not a true believer - Holds in abhorrence the pure in faith. - The great stock of fortune shall at this time - Be torn piecemeal and scattered all over the world. - -“The fourth, or the branch of brass, typifies the reign of Ardashir, -the son of Sássán, who shall adorn the universe with the true faith -and reestablish the pure institutes; the people will embrace the faith -through the force of demonstration: they will pour molten copper and -brass on the breast of Arzabad, and his person shall receive no -injury. The fifth, or leaden branch is the reign of Báhrám Gor, during -which mankind will enjoy repose. - - “When mankind are in the enjoyment of happiness, - Ahriman is grieved beforehand at this prosperous state. - -“The sixth branch, or that of steel, is the reign of Nushirwan, -through whose equity the aged world shall be restored to youth; and -although _Mazdak_ of corrupt heart shall pursue his designs, yet will -he be unable to do any injury to the pure faith. The seventh branch, -or that of mixed iron, is emblematic of the time when the period of a -thousand years verges to its end,[426] and the royal dignity falls to -_Mazdakin_, and no respect remains to the pure faith; then a people -clothed in black, oppressors of the poor, without title, reputation, -or merit, friends to tumult and wickedness, fraudulent, hypocritical, -and deceitful, bitter of heart like aloes, with honied tongue, -traitors to bread and salt, ungrateful, speakers of falsehood, alike -building the most magnificent mansions and fond of ruined -caravansarais, seeking the ways of hell, having conspired together -will destroy the fire-temples, and turn to themselves the spirit of -the inhabitants of Iran. The sons and daughters of the nobles shall -fall into their hands, and the children of the virtuous and mighty -become their attendants: nay, this race shall make a covenant-breaker -king over them: - - “That person among them obtains both power and rank, - Whose career is directed to the production of misery. - -“When this millennium comes to a termination, the clouds shall mostly -appear unattended by rain; the rains not fall in their season; heats -predominate; the water of rivers be lessened; few cows or sheep be -left remaining; and men despicable in figure, small of stature, weak -in form, shall then be met with. - - “The speed of the horse and the rider shall suffer diminution, - And no productive energy remain in the bosom of the sown field.” - -“Men shall gird the sacred zone in secrecy, and drag on a dishonored -existence, forgetting altogether the _Náúroz_ and _the festival of -Farvardin_.[427] - - “The mouth of Safandármuz shall be opened wide, - And the hidden treasures cast forth and exposed to view.” - -“An evil-disposed rapacious host of Turks shall come to Iran, and -force away the crown and throne from its chieftains. O, Zardusht! -communicate these tidings to the Mobeds, that they may impart them to -the people.” Zardusht replied: “How shall the professors of the true -faith be able to perform their worship?” to which this answer was -given: “When the second millennium commences, mankind shall behold -more calamity than was witnessed in the times of Zohák and Afrasiáb; -and when that period is terminated, there will not be found any one of -the least merit among the professors of the true faith. - - “From every quarter they shall prepare to assail Iran, - With their chargers’ hoofs they shall lay it waste.” - -Zardusht said: “O righteous Ormuzd! after so much toil, abridgment of -life and long-protracted suffering shall not the professors of the -true faith find some intercessor; and how can discomfiture overtake -those clothed in black vestments?” The Almighty answered thus: “Pain -is not to last for ever; when the black ensign is displayed, a host -arrayed in red vestments and helmets shall come forth from the -formidable room; and the land of Khorasan be desolate by flood and -vapor; the earth shall tremble and the cultivated fields be laid -waste; Turk, Rúmite, and Arab encounter each other; and the borders of -Turan be made a wilderness by Turks, Persians, and Hindoos; the sacred -fire be borne to _Dushkhargar_, or ‘the mountainous region;’ and, -through invasions, Iran become one scene of desolation.” The prophet -then said: “O, Lord! however short the duration of this people may be, -they will surely destroy life; how then shall these wicked be -exterminated?” To which he received this answer: “The standard of an -army arises out of Khorasan, and then Hoshidar is separated from his -mother; when he arrives at the age of thirty, he will follow the -ancient mode of faith, and become sovereign of Hindustan and China; he -shall have a son of the Kaianian race, named Bahram and entitled -Hamawand, but whom his nation will call Shapur: on the birth of that -illustrious child, the stars shall drop down from heaven; and his -father pass away from this world in the month of _Aban_ and the day of -_Baud_.[428] When this son has attained twenty-one years of age, he -shall march in every direction with a numerous host, and proceeding -with his troops to Balkh and Bokhara, advance into Iran with the -armies of India and China. A man professing the good faith in the -mountain region will then exert himself, and bringing up an army from -Khorasan and Sistan, come to the aid of Iran: - - “From Kishtí Duwál, Roome, and Firingstan, - From demons clothed in black, like piebald wolves.” - -“Three mighty battles shall then ensue, which will render Persia the -land of mourning; after which will arise an exalted avenging prince -who shall obtain the victory. In those days a thousand women shall not -be able to find one man; and if they should perchance behold one, they -shall be filled with astonishment. When those times are come to an -end, I shall send Serósh towards Jerusalem and summon Bishutan, who -will issue forth with a company of one hundred and fifty virtuous men, -and duly perform _Yasht_, or ‘prayer,’ on which Ahriman will engage in -battle with them; but, on hearing the sound of the _Hadokht_ and the -_Ashtawazand_, the partizans of Ahriman shall flee out of Iran. A -prince, Báhrám by name, shall then ascend the throne, bring back the -sacred fire, and restore the institutions of ancient times, and the -seed of the wicked shall then be exterminated: finally, when Bishutan -beholds every thing duly arranged, he will return with royal pomp to -his own palace.” - -The Mobed _Azar Khirad_ relates in his book that the _Zand_ contains -twenty-one _Nosks_, or “parts,” every _Nosk_ having a particular name -in Zand and Parsi according to the following list:[429] _Yathá_, -_Ita_, _Ahu_, _Wíría_, _Alartúsh_, _Nadar_, which they call in Arabic -_Búfastál_, and in Parsi _Favaímasíhan_. This Nosk treats of the -stars, constellations, order of the heavens, the aspects, the good and -evil influences of the heavenly bodies, and such like topics. The -other Nosks are: the _Ashád_, _Chíd_, _Hashú_, _Wankawísh_, _Wazda_, -_Mankahú_, _Sítanú_, _Nan_, _Ankahísh_, _Marzái_, _Khashar_, _Machá_, -_Ahrá_, _Ayám_, _Darkúbíú_ and _Astarám_: all the sciences are -contained in the Zand, but some are mentioned enigmatically and by way -of allusion. At present there are fourteen complete Nosks possessed by -the Dostúrs of Karman, the other seven being incomplete, as through -the wars and dissensions which prevailed in Iran some of the Nosks -have disappeared, so that, notwithstanding the greatest researches, -the Nosks have come into their hands in a defective state. - -Zaratusht Báhrám, the son of _Pazhdú_, relates that, at the time of -the promulgation of the pure faith in Iran, there lived in India a -sage of profound learning, named _Jangrangháchah_,[430] whose pupil -_Jamasp_[431] had been during many years, a circumstance which -procured him great distinction. On being informed of Gushtasp’s -conversion, he wrote an epistle to the great king, to dissuade him -from the profession of the pure faith. By the king’s command, this -sage came to Iran to hold a disputation with Zardusht, who said to -him: “Listen to one Nosk of this Asta which I have received from God, -and attend to its interpretation.” Upon this, at the illustrious -prophet’s command, one of his disciples read a Nosk in which God said -thus to Zardusht: “On the promulgation of the pure faith, there shall -come from Hindustan a wise man, named _Jangrangháchah_, who will ask -thee questions, after such and such guise, the answers to which are -after this manner, thus answering all his questions: - - “By this same Nosk his condition was improved, - And the answer to each question was correctly given.” - -When he heard the solutions of his questions he fell from his chair, -and on recovering his senses adopted the pure faith. The prophet Sásán -the Fifth, in his select commentary on the _Dasátir_ and the -interpretation of the code of Zardusht, relates, that when Isfendiar -had promulgated the pure faith, the eminent sages of Greece dispatched -a learned man, named _Niyátús_,[432] to interrogate the prophet of the -Lord concerning the exact nature of his tenets. Gushtasp, having -assigned him an audience on a most auspicious day. this distinguished -Greek, on beholding the face of Zardusht, said: “From this face, -knowledge, sagacity, and science are manifest as the properties of a -mind so formed; and this is not the physiognomy of one who utters -falsehoods.” He then asked him concerning the moment, day, month, and -year of his birth, which being communicated by Zardusht, Niyátús -observed: “Under such a horoscope, a person of weak intellects cannot -be born.” He next questioned him concerning his food, sleep, and mode -of life, which being also explained, Niyátús added: “From this rule of -life he cannot be an impostor.” The prophet of the Lord then said to -him: “Keep in thy heart whatever thou desirest to inquire about, and -utter it not with thy tongue; as the Almighty has acquainted me with -it, and for my sake has sent me his word in this chapter relative to -these matters.” On this, one of the prophet’s disciples read to -Niyátús, out of a single chapter, all that was laid up in the noble -envoy’s breast, and whatever he was commissioned to enquire about, at -the desire of the eminent men of Greece. - -The Fifth Sásán, in like manner, relates that when the report of -Jangrangháchah’s having adopted the faith was published abroad, a -sage, by name _Byásá_,[433] came from India to Iran; and the sages of -every country being assembled, pursuant to the great king’s command, -Biyása thus addressed the prophet of the Lord in the presence of all: -“O, Zardusht! in consequence of thy answers and unfolding of mysteries -to the wise Jangrangháchah, thou art accounted a true prophet. I have -besides heard of innumerable miracles performed by thee. Know that I -also, in my own country, am reckoned as one who is unequalled both in -the theoretical and practical sciences. I now hope that thou wilt -disclose the secrets which I have kept pent up in my bosom, and have -never in any manner transferred from the page of my heart to the lip: -some people tell us that the genii impart knowledge of this kind to -the worshippers of Ahriman: however if thou canst unfold all these -secrets, I shall turn to thy faith.” The prophet of the Lord said: -“Long before thy arrival, the God of purity made all known to me.” He -then recited a _Simnad_, “chapter,” which the Lord had sent down on -those subjects; in which was specified whatever was in Byása’s heart, -with the answer attached to it; after which Byása listened to the word -of God, and having made profession of the pure faith, returned to -Hindustan. It is to be remarked that the two Simnad which contain the -answers to the eminent envoy of the Greeks and the sage Byasa do not -form a part of the Astawazand, but constitute a portion of the -Desátir,[434] or of the celestial volume, in the language of which a -chapter is styled a Simnad. - -Moreover, Zaratusht Báhrám thus relates concerning the account of -heaven and hell given by _Ardaiviráf_.[435] It is recorded that, when -the power of _Ardeshir Babagan_ was firmly established, he assembled -around him forty thousand virtuous Mobeds and Dustars, out of which -number he selected four thousand; of those thus selected he set apart -four hundred, who knew by heart the greater part of the Asta; of these -four hundred he again chose out forty learned doctors; and from these -he selected seven unblemished sages, equally free from mortal and -venial sins, whom he thus addressed: “Let whichever of you is able -divest himself of body, and bring us intelligence concerning heaven -and hell.” These righteous men made answer: “For such a purpose there -is required a man who from the age of seven upwards has not committed -sin.” After which these sages selected from amongst them one, named -_Ardai Viráf_,[436] whom they knew to be possessed of this excellence, -and, accompanied by the great king, they all repaired to _Azar -Khúrdád_, which was a fire-temple; having there prepared a golden -throne for _Ardai Viráf_, the forty thousand professors of the faith -performed _Yazash_, that is, recited prayers according to the -prescribed mode. Ardáiviráf, having drunk a cup of hallowed wine which -he received from the Dustur, lay down on his couch and did not arise -before the expiration of a week; his spirit, through the efficacy of -the divine word, having been separated from the body, those six -Dustúrs all the while standing around his pillow. On the eighth day -Ardáí, arising from sleep, ordered a scribe to be brought, who should -commit to writing all his words; and he thus spoke:[437] “When I fell -asleep, _Sirushi_, who is called also _Surúsh Ashú_, or _Ashú_ simply, -or ‘the Angel of paradise,’ came near. Having made my salám, I -explained the motives of my coming to the other world. He took my hand -and said: ‘Ascend three steps.’ I obeyed, and arrived at the _Chanyud -Pul_, or ‘the straight bridge of judgment’ (the sarát of the -Muhammedans). The accompanying Angel pointed me out the road, when I -beheld a bridge finer than a hair and sharper than a razor, and -strong, and its length was seven-and-thirty _rasans_, or cords.[438] I -beheld a spirit just parted from the body in a state of tranquillity; -on its arrival at the bridge of judgment, a fragrant gale came from -mid-day or the east, out of which issued forth a beautiful nymph-like -form, the like of which I never before beheld. The spirit asked her: -‘Who art thou of such surpassing beauty?’ She replied: ‘I am the -personification of thy good deeds.’ - -“I then saw _Mihr Ized_,[439] at whose side were standing _Rash -Rast_[440] and _Sarúsh Ized_ holding a balance in his hand, and angels -assembled around them. Now Mihr Ized is the angel whose province it is -to number and estimate people in regard to rewards and punishments. -Rash is his minister of justice and the lord of equity; and Sarúsh is -the lord of messages and the master of announcements. To these I made -my salam which they returned, and I passed over the bridge.[441] -Several spirits then appeared who addressed me affectionately; Báhmán -next appeared and said to me: ‘Come on, that I may show thee the -_Gah-i-zarin’_ (or golden place, which is the same as the celestial -throne). I proceeded with him to a beautiful throne, where I beheld -the spirit before mentioned, whose deeds were personified by a -beauteous form, with the _Ashwan_, or ‘pure spirits,’ and the -inhabitants of paradise around him, with the spirits of his relations -rejoicing as on the arrival of a long-absent traveller from his abode; -then Báhmán took his hand and brought him to a place worthy of him. -When I had proceeded a little onwards, I beheld a lofty portico, where -by order of Surúsh I addressed my prayers towards the place of God, -and my sight became darkened through the effulgence of light. Surúsh -again brought me back to the bridge of judgment, around which I beheld -a number of persons standing with folded hands. I asked: ‘Who are -those persons?’ Surúsh answered: ‘These are the weak in faith, who -remain in this state until the day of judgment: if they possessed an -additional particle of virtue, equal in weight to one of the hairs of -the eyelash, they would be relieved from this calamity.’ I then beheld -another assemblage like unto shining stars. Surush said: ‘This is the -_Satra Payah_,[442] (or the sphere of the fixed stars); in these are a -people who with all their wealth observed not the _Gítí Kharíd_[443] -(the purchase of the other world) and the _Naú Roz_ (or the festival -of the new year.)’ He next brought me to the _Máh Páyah_ (or lunar -sphere), where I beheld spirits resplendent as the moon. The angel -said: ‘this _Máh Páyah_ is also one of the spheres of paradise, in which -are those who have performed every kind of meritorious act and deed, -except observing the _Naú Roz_.’ He then conducted me to the _Khúrshíd -Páyah_ (or solar sphere) where I beheld spirits exceedingly bright, -radiant as the sun. The angel said: ‘In the solar sphere are the -persons who have observed the _Gítí Kharíd_ and the _Naú Roz_.’ At his -command, I then addressed my prayers to the _Warakt_ and -_Khurah-i-Yazdan_, or ‘light of the Almighty:’ perception and -intellect, through the effects of terror and overpowering awe, began -to flee from me; a voice, however, from which I obtained renovated -energy, came to my hearing: there was then some oil[444] given me to -drink out of a golden cup: I partook of it and found it of an -incomparable taste: they told me that it was the food of the people of -paradise. I next beheld _Ardi Behést_,[445] to whom I made my salam. -He said to me: ‘Place on the sacred fire wood free from moisture.’ -Surush then bore me off to _Kurutaman_, or ‘paradise,’[446] in the -light of which I became bewildered in astonishment: I knew none of the -precious stones of which it was composed. The angels, by the command -of the Almighty, took me round every part of it. I next came to a -place where I beheld an illustrious assemblage enveloped in _Khurah_, -that is, ‘radiance and pomp.’ _Surúsh Ashir_ said: ‘These are the -spirits of the munificent and noble-minded.’ After this I saw a great -multitude in all magnificence. Surúsh explained to me: ‘These are the -spirits of all who have observed the _Naú Roz_.’ Next them I beheld an -assemblage in the enjoyment of all magnificence and happiness. Surúsh -observed: ‘These are the spirits of just princes.’ After this I beheld -blessed spirits in boundless joy and power. Surush explained: ‘These -are the Dustúrs and Mobeds: my duty is to convey that class to this -honor.’ I next beheld a company of women rejoicing in the midst of -great pomp. Surúsh Ashú and Ardibahést observed: ‘These are the -spirits of women who were obedient to their husbands.’ I then beheld a -multitude of majestic and beautiful persons, seated along with angels. -Surúsh said: ‘this class consists of Hírbuds and Mobeds, the -attendants on fire-temples, and the observers of the _Yasht_ and -_Yazisht_ of the Amshasfands.’ After these I saw an armed assemblage -in a state of the highest joy. Surúsh informed me: ‘These are the -spirits of the champions who fought in the ways of God, maintaining -their country and the husbandmen in a state of prosperity and -tranquillity.’ I next beheld a great assemblage in the enjoyment of -all delight and gladness. Surúsh observed: ‘These are the spirits of -the slayers of the _Khurástár_ (or noxious animals).’[447] After this, -I witnessed a people given up to sporting and happiness. Surush -observed: ‘These are the spirits of the husbandmen, over whom -_Safándarmuz_ is set; he consequently presides over this class, as -they have propitiated him by their acts.’ I next beheld a great -company surrounded by all the appliances of enjoyment. Surúsh said: -‘These are the spirits of shepherds.’ After this, I beheld great -numbers in a state of repose and joy, and the elemental principles of -paradise standing before them. Surúsh observed: ‘These are the heads -of families, friends to building, who have improved the world by -gardens and water-courses, and held the elements in reverence.’ I next -came to another class, endowed with prophet-like radiance, of whom -Surúsh remarked: ‘These are the spirits of _Jádóngóis_.’ By -_Jádóngóis_ is meant one who solicits money from the wealthy to -promote the way of the Lord, and who expends it on noble foundations -and holy indigent persons. - -“What can I say concerning the black-eyed nymphs――the palaces, -offspring, and attendants――the drinks and viands?――any thing like -which I know not of in this elemental world.[448] - -“After this Surúsh and Ardibehést, taking me out of paradise, bore me -off to behold the punishments inflicted on those in hell. First of -all, I beheld a black and gloomy river of fetid water, with weeping -multitudes falling in and drowning. Surúsh said: ‘This water is -collected from the tears shed by relatives on the death of a person; -and those who are drowning are they whose relatives, after their -death, break out into mourning, weeping, and tears.’ I next proceeded -towards the bridge of judgment, where I beheld a spirit rent from the -body, and mourning for its separation: there arose a fetid gale, out -of which issued a gloomy figure, with red eye-balls, hooked nose, -hideous lips, teeth like columns, a head like the kettle of a -minaret,[449] long talons, spear-like fangs, snaky locks, and vomiting -out smoke. The alarmed spirit having asked, ‘Who art thou?’ he -answered, ‘I am the personification of thy acts and deeds.’ On saying -this, he threw his hands around the spirit’s neck, so that his -lamentations came to the bridge of judgment, which is sharper than a -razor: on this the spirit having gone a little way with great -difficulty, at last fell into the infernal regions. I then followed -him, accompanied by Súrush and Ardibehest: our road lay through snow, -ice, storms, intense cold, mephitic exhalations, and obscurity, along -a region full of pits: into these I looked, and there beheld countless -myriads of spirits suffering tortures. They all wailed bitterly, and -the darkness was so thick that one was unable to perceive the other, -or to distinguish his lamentation: three days such punishment is equal -to nine thousand years, and the same calculation applies to the other -pits, in all of which were serpents, scorpions, stinging and noxious -creatures: whatever spirit falls into them - - “Was stung by one and torn by another, - Was bit by this, and pierced by that.” - -“Surúsh having taken me below, I there beheld a spirit with a human -head and serpent-like body, surrounded by many demons who were -applying the torture to his feet, and smiting him in every direction -with hatchets, daggers, and maces, whilst noxious creatures were -biting him on all sides. Surúsh observed: ‘This was a man of vile -passions.’ I next saw a woman who held in her hand a cup filled with -blood and corrupted matter; demons kept striking her with clubs and -spears until she swallowed the nauseous draught, on which they -instantly replaced a similar bowl in her hands. Surúsh remarked: ‘This -woman, whilst laboring under periodical illness, approached the -elements, of fire and water.’ I then beheld a man wailing piteously, -whose head they were scalping with a poniard: Surúsh said: ‘This was a -shedder of innocent blood.’ I next saw a man who was forced to swallow -blood and corrupted matter, with which they were continually supplying -him. The demons in the mean time tortured him, and placed a heavy -mountain on his breast: Surúsh stated this to be ‘The spirit of a -dissolute man, who seduced the wives of other men.’ After this, I -beheld a spirit weeping through hunger and thirst; so intense was his -craving, that he drank his own blood and devoured his own flesh. -Surúsh stated: ‘This is the spirit of one who observed not the -_Báj_[450] when partaking of food,’” (Báj is a rite practised by -orthodox Parsees before meat, as has been explained under the head of -banquet) “‘and who on the day of Aban[451] partook of water, fruit, -and bread, so that the angels _Khurdád_ and _Murdád_ were displeased -with him.’ I next beheld a woman suspended by her breasts and noxious -creatures falling on her. Surúsh said: ‘this is a woman who deserted -her husband and went after another man.’ I then saw a great multitude -of spirits, furiously assailed by rapacious animals and noxious -creatures. Surúsh stated thus: ‘These are persons who adopted not the -_Kashti_[452] or sacred cincture as worn by professors of the -excellent faith.’ I next beheld a woman hung up, with her tongue -protruding from the hind part of the neck. Surúsh observed: ‘This is a -woman who obeyed not her husband, and replied to him with harsh -answers and opposition.’ I then saw a man eating with a ladle the most -noxious things, of which if he took too small a portion, demons smote -him with wooden clubs. Surúsh observed: ‘this is the spirit of one who -betrayed his trust.’ I after this beheld a man hung up, surrounded by -seventy demons, who were lashing him with serpents instead of -scourges; and meanwhile the serpents kept gnawing his flesh with their -fangs. Surúsh Ashú said: ‘This is a king who extorted money from his -subjects by torture.’ I next beheld a man with wide-opened mouth and -protruding tongue, - - “With serpents and scorpions covered all over, - The one lacerating with fangs, the others lashing with their tails. - -“Surúsh said: ‘This was a tale-bearer, who by his lies caused -dissension and strife among mankind.’ After this I saw a man, every -ligature and joint of whose body they were tearing asunder. Surúsh -said: ‘This person has slain many four-footed animals.’ I next beheld -a man exposed to body-rending torture, concerning whom Surúsh said: -‘This was a wealthy, avaricious man, who employed not his riches for -the useful purposes of either world.’ I then saw a person to whom were -offered all sorts of noxious creatures, whilst one foot was free from -all kind of suffering. Surúsh said concerning him: ‘This is the spirit -of a negligent person, who did not in the least attend to the concerns -of the world or the world to come. As he once passed along the road, -he observed a goat tied up in such a manner that it was unable to get -at its food: with that foot he tossed the forage towards the animal, -in recompense of which good act that foot is exempt from suffering.’ I -next beheld a person whose tongue was laid on a stone, and demons kept -beating it with another. Concerning him Surúsh observed: ‘This person -was an habitual slanderer and liar, through whose words people fell -into mischief.’ I then saw a woman whose breasts the demons were -grinding under a millstone. About her Surúsh observed: ‘This woman -produced abortion by means of drugs.’ I next beheld a man in whose -seven members worms had fixed themselves. Concerning him Surúsh said: -‘This person gave false witness for money, and derived his support -from that resource.’ After this I saw a man devouring the flesh of a -corpse and drinking human gore. Surúsh observed: ‘This is the spirit -of one who amassed wealth by unlawful means.’ I afterwards beheld a -great multitude with pallid faces, fetid bodies, and limbs covered -with worms. About these Surúsh Ashú observed: ‘These are hypocrites of -satanic qualities, whose hearts were not in accordance with their -words, and who led astray the professors of the excellent faith, -divesting themselves of all respect for religion and morality.’ I next -saw a man the members of whose body hell-hounds were rending asunder. -Concerning him Surúsh said: ‘This man was in the habit of slaughtering -water and land dogs.’ I next beheld a woman hurled into snow and -smitten by the guardians of fire. About her Surúsh said: ‘When this -woman combed herself, her hairs fell into the fire.’ After this I -beheld another woman tearing off with a poniard the flesh of her own -body and devouring it. Surush said: ‘This is an enchantress who used -to fascinate men.’ Next her I saw a man whom the demons forced by -blows to swallow blood, corrupted matter, and human flesh. Concerning -him Surúsh said: ‘This man was in the habit of casting dead bodies, -corrupted matter, nails, and hair into fire and water.’ I afterwards -beheld a person devouring the flesh and skin of a dead body. Surúsh -said: ‘This person defrauded the labourers of their hire.’ I next -beheld a man with a mountain on his back, whom with his load they -forced through terror into the midst of snows and ice. Surúsh -observed: ‘This was an adulterer, who took the wife from her husband.’ -I afterwards saw a number of ill-fated persons up to their necks in -ice and snow, before each of whom was a cup filled with gore, and -hair, and impurities, which, through terror of blows and clubs, they -were obliged to swallow. Surúsh observed: ‘These are persons who used -warm bathing along with the _Batardeen_ (or the enemies of the faith) -washing their bodies and heads in such unclean and polluted baths.’ I -then beheld a person groaning under the weight of a mountain. -Concerning him Surúsh said: ‘This man laid heavy taxes on the people, -established evil ordinances, and oppressed mankind.’ Next him I beheld -one digging up a mountain with his fingers and nails, whilst the -superintendent kept smiting him with a viper. Surúsh said: ‘This is a -man who by violence seized on the lands of others:’ - - “As long as this earth and place continue to exist, - So long, by way of retribution, shall this spirit be thus employed. - -I afterwards saw a man the flesh of whose shoulders and body they were -scraping off with a comb of iron. Concerning him Surúsh said: ‘This -man was an egregious violator of promises and breaker of engagements.’ -I then beheld a great multitude whose hands and feet they were smiting -with bludgeons, iron maces, and such like. Concerning these Surúsh -observed: ‘This class is composed of promise-breakers and the -violators of covenants, who maintained friendship with -_Darwands_,[453] or those hostile to the faith.’ Surúsh, Ashú, and -Ardibehest then led me from that abode of misery to _Girutuman_, ‘the -seat of supreme bliss,’ or ‘paradise on high,’ which is called ‘the -heaven of heavens.’ On beholding the light and splendor of the -righteous Lord, I became entranced, and this spirit-reviving voice -reached my ears: ‘Through thy virtuous words and actions, which have -been conformable to the excellent faith, joined to the co-operation -and energy of intellect, though hast resisted all the demons which -infest the body, and hast therefore attained to this rank.’ Surúsh -then taking me by the hand, said: ‘Communicate to mankind all thou -hast heard.’ He next took me down to paradise, where several spirits -received me and said: ‘Reveal these mysteries to our relations, that -they may beware of sin.’ I next came to the lunar mansion, where they -addressed me in the same manner. I afterwards reached the starry -mansion with the same two companions, and here also the spirits -advanced to receive me, saying: ‘Counsel our relations to make _Yasht_ -and _Yazisht_ (to pray in a low murmuring tone at meal-time) and to -cleave firmly to the festival of the _Naú Roz_, and the girding of the -cincture; had we observed these rites, we should not have remained in -this mansion, but gone on to Paradise.’ It appears to follow from what -has been stated, that the starry mansion or zodiacal sphere is below -that of the moon; the Yezdanians however say, that the starry mansion -signifies the mansion of the spirits who below the lunar sphere are -not exempted from sufferings, but are attached to the bodies of the -virtuous by means of the zodiacal signs.[454] - -“I next came to _Chínawad Pul_ (the bridge of judgment) where many -spirits thus addressed me: ‘Tell men to leave sons behind them in the -world, or otherwise they must, like us, remain here.’ - - “We behold paradise in distant perspective, - But are far removed from its enjoyment. - -“Another company of spirits said: ‘Let not men look at the wife or -mate of another; and let them hold up none to suspicion: otherwise -they must remain here like us, until our injured enemy comes hither -from the world: if he be propitiated, we may be delivered.’ - -“Surúsh and Ardibehest then brought me to the lower world and bade me -adieu.”[455] - - -When the scribe had written down all the words of Ardi Viraf, he read -them over to the great king, who thereupon duly promulgated the -excellent faith, and sent Mobeds to all the borders of Iran. - -After (the death of Ardashir) appeared the Mobed _Azarbad_,[456] the -son of _Marasfand_ (whose lineage by the father ascended to the -prophet Zardusht, and by his mother to king Gushtasp), from whom king -Shapur (the son of Ardeshir) and the military having demanded a -miracle in proof of the faith, the forty thousand wise men were again -assembled.[457] Azarbad, having performed his ablutions, lay down -before this great assemblage, whereupon they poured nine mans of -melted brass upon his bared breast, but, through the divine glory, his -person received no injury. On beholding this, all those who before had -been unbelievers, embraced the faith. From the time of Azarbád the -Dustúrs of all succeeding kings were of his lineage.[458] - -The professors of the excellent faith and the Moslem historians agree, -that in Kashmir or Kashmar,[459] a place celebrated for female beauty, -a dependency of Naishapur, there was formerly a cypress[460] planted -by Zardusht for king Gushtasp, the like of which was never seen before -or since, for beauty, height, or straightness: mention of this tree -having been made at the court of Mutawakkal[461] when he was engaged -in building the _Sarman raï_, or _Samarah_[462] palace in the -Jâafriyah,[463] the Khalif felt a great desire to behold it: and as it -was not in his power to go to Khorasan, he wrote to _Abdallah Táhir -Zavalimin_, “possessor of happiness,” to have the tree cut down, -fastened on rollers, and sent to Baghdád. When intelligence of this -came to the people of the district and the inhabitants of Khorasan, -they assembled at the foot of the tree, imploring for mercy with tears -and lamentations, and exhibiting a scene of general desolation. The -professors of the excellent faith offered the governor fifty thousand -dinars to spare the tree, but the offer was refused. When the cypress -was felled, it caused great detriment to the buildings and -water-courses of the country; the birds of different kinds which had -built their nests on it issued forth in such countless myriads as to -darken the air, screaming out in agony with various tones of distress: -the very oxen, sheep, and other animals which reposed under its -sheltering shade, commenced such piteous moans of woe that it was -impossible to listen to them. The expense of conveying the trunk to -Baghdad was five hundred thousand dinars; the very branches loaded one -thousand and three hundred camels. When the tree had reached one -station from the Jaafriyah quarter, on that same night, Mutawakkal the -Abasside was cut in pieces by his own guards,[464] so that he never -beheld the tree. Some Muhammedan writers state the circumference of -the trunk at twenty-seven _táziáynah_, each a cubit and a quarter -long, and also that fourteen hundred and fifty years had elapsed from -the time of its being planted to the year 232 of the Hejirah (846, A. -D.).[465] The Behdínians say that Zardusht brought with him from -paradise a branch which he planted at the gate of the fire temple of -Kashmir, and which grew up into this tree: but some sages maintain -that, according to the intelligent, this tradition signifies: 1. that -there is in vegetables a simple uncompounded soul; and 2. that -paradise is the world of beings of that class. Some Yezdanians say -that Zardusht prayed the superintending lord of cypress-trees, whom -they call _Azrawán_, to nourish carefully the offspring of this shoot. -They also relate, on the authority of a holy _Hakim_, “doctor,”[466] -who said: “I saw the Lord of the cypress, and he declared: ‘I have -given orders to slay Mutawakkal for the crime of cutting down this -tree.’” Muhammed Kuli Salim also says: - - “No person wishes to see his own nursling enfeebled. - Water and fire are ever at enmity with chips and leaves.” - -The Behdínians maintain that Ahriman is the production of Time; and -that the angels, heavens, and stars (always) were, and will (for ever) -be: but that the three kingdoms of nature are a creation. Also that -the period of the present creation is twelve thousand years, at the -expiration of which comes the resurrection, when God will raise up all -mankind and render this elemental world a glorious paradise, and -annihilate Ahriman, his worshippers, and hell itself. The Dustúr Shah -Zadáh says, in the volume of the _Sad Der_, or “the hundred -gates,”[467] the excellent faith has been received from the prophet -Zardusht, the son of Purshasp, the son of Khajarasp, the son of -Hujjús, the son of Asfantaman: on him the Almighty graciously bestowed -the _Avesta_ and _Zand_, and through divine knowledge he comprehended -all things from eternity to infinity. This is the hundred-gated city -constructed from the world of truth, that is, the celestial volume. - - “The mighty, through means of the Asta, Zand, and Pazand, - Have constructed on its outside a hundred gates. - Behold what a system of belief Zardusht has introduced, - In which a hundred gates give admission to his city of Faith.” - - -GATE THE FIRST is the belief and acknowledgment of Zardusht’s -prophetic character; for when the spirit on the fourth night (after -quitting the body) comes to the bridge of Chinavad, where _Mihr Ized_ -and _Rash Ized_ take account of its actions, in the _Kirfah_, or “good -deeds” exceed the sins by one hair’s point, they bear the spirit off -to paradise, but always on the condition of having professed the faith -of Zardusht. - - -GATE THE SECOND. It is necessary to be ever vigilant, and always -looking on a trifling sin as one of magnitude, to flee far from it; -because, if the virtuous deeds exceed the sinful acts by even the -point of one of the hairs of the eye-lashes, the spirit goes to -paradise; but should the contrary be the case, it descends to hell. - - -GATE THE THIRD. The pursuits of a man should be of a virtuous -tendency; because, whilst thus engaged, if he be overpowered by -robbers or foes, he shall receive fourfold in paradise; but if he be -slain in any vain pursuit, it is the retribution due to his acts, and -hell is his abode. - - -GATE THE FOURTH. A man must not despair of God’s mercy; for Zardusht -says: “I beheld one whose body, with the exception of one foot, was -entirely in hell; but that foot was outside. The Lord said: ‘This -person, who ruled over thirty-three cities, never performed good -deeds; but having one day observed a sheep tied up at a distance from -her food, he with this foot pushed the grass near her.’”[468] - - -GATE THE FIFTH. Let all men exert themselves to observe the rites of -_Yasht_,[469] and the _Naú Roz_,[470] and if they cannot themselves -perform these duties, let them purchase the agency of another. - - -GATE THE SIXTH. Let men know that the meritorious works are six in -number: 1. the observance of the _Gahambara_, or “six periods of -creation;” 2. that of the _Favardigan_, or “five supplementary days of -the year,” with that of _Yashtan_, “or praying in a low murmuring -voice at meals;” 3. propitiating the spirits of thy father, mother, -and other relations; 4. offering up supplications to the sun three -times every day; 5. offering up prayers to the moon three times every -month, that is, the beginning, middle, and last day of the moon; 6. -offering up supplications in due form every year. - - -GATE THE SEVENTH. When sneezing comes on, repeat the entire of the -forms called _Ita ahu virio_,[471] and the _Ashem Vuhu_. - - -GATE THE EIGHTH. Be obedient to the Dustúrs and give them one-tenth of -thy wealth; as that is a most meritorious work, or _Kirfah_.[472] - - -GATE THE NINTH. A person should avoid all practices not sanctioned by -the laws of nature, and must look on them as accursed: let all those -found guilty of such deeds be put to death. This description of -criminals are equally guilty with the usurper Zohak, and Alkus,[473] -and Sarúrak,[474] and Afrasiab, and Turbaraturas.[475] - - -GATE THE TENTH. It is incumbent on every man and woman to tie on the -_Kashti_.[476] By Kashti is meant a woollen cincture girded round the -waist, in which they make four knots: the first to signify the unity -of God; the second, the certainty of the faith; the third, that -Zardusht was the prophet of God; the fourth to imply, “that I will to -the utmost of my power ever do what is good.” - - -GATE THE ELEVENTH. Keep the fire burning, and let it not consume any -thing impure. - - -GATE THE TWELFTH. Let not the shroud of the deceased be new, but let -it be clean and old. - - -GATE THE THIRTEENTH. The good man gives joy to the spirits of his -father and mother, by celebrating the _Darun miezd_[477] and the -_Afernigán_,[478] or “funereal “repasts.” The Darun is a prayer -recited in praise of the Almighty and of Azar: when they breathe out -prayers in a murmuring tone over viands, they are said to be Yeshtah. -Afrinigan also means one of the twenty Nosks of the Zand. - - -GATE THE FOURTEENTH. Let them repeat the Ita Ahu three times over the -collected nail-parings, and having each time drawn a circular line -around them, let earth be poured on them with the shears, or let them -be taken to some mountain.[479] - - -GATE THE FIFTEENTH. Whatever pleasing object meets the true believer’s -sight, he repeats over it the name of God. - - -GATE THE SIXTEENTH. In the house of a pregnant woman keep the fire in -without ceasing; and when the child is born, let not the lamp be -extinguished during three days and nights. - -They say that, on the birth of the prophet Zardusht, there came fifty -demons with the design of slaying him; but they were unable to do him -any injury as there was a fire kept up in the house. - - -GATE THE SEVENTEENTH. On arising from sleep, bind the Kashti, without -doing which enter upon no pursuit whatever. - - -GATE THE EIGHTEENTH. Let the tooth-pick, after having been used, be -concealed in a wall. - - -GATE THE NINETEENTH. They give their son and daughter in marriage at -an early period; as the person who has no son cannot pass over the -bridge of _Chinavad_; let whoever is in that state adopts some one; if -he should not find it feasible, it will then be incumbent on his -relations and the Dustúr to fix on a son for him. - - -GATE THE TWENTIETH. They esteem husbandry the best of all professions, -and regard the husbandman with respect and honor. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-FIRST. It is meet to give good viands to the -professors of the pure faith. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-SECOND. At the time of eating bread it is necessary to -perform _Váj_:[480] and at the time of _Maizad_ and _Afrinigán_ to -keep the lips closed; the true believer repeats the entire of the -_Esha âad avizmidi_ three times, and then eats bread; and when he -washes his mouth, he repeats _Ashem Vuhu_ four times, and the _Ita ahu -virio_ twice. It is to be remarked, that _Wáj_ or _Váj_ is the -_Barsom_,[481] which consists of small twigs of the same length, -without knots, taken from the pomegranate, tamarisk, or _Hum_; these -they cut with a _Barsomchin_, or knife with an iron handle. Having -first washed the knife carefully, they recite the appointed prayers, -after which, having cut off the Barsom with the Barsomchin, they wash -the Barsomdan, or Barsom-holder, into which they put these small -twigs. At the time of worship, whilst reading the Zand, and during -ablution or eating, they hold in their hand a few of these twigs, -according to the number required in each of these actions. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-THIRD. The wealthy man bestows alms on the indigent -Durvesh; he also practises _Jadongoi_, which consists in this, -whatever donations the Behdínians make to the fire-temples, or to -deserving objects, are by that person caused to be expended in the -manner desired. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-FOURTH. Beware of sin, particularly the day on which -thou eatest flesh, as flesh-meat is the nutriment of Ahriman. If, -after partaking of meat thou committest sin, whatever sins the animal -has committed in this world shall be imputed to thee: for example, the -kick of the horse, and the goring of the ox with his horns. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-FIFTH. Know that in thy faith there is no fasting, -except that of avoiding sin:[483] in which sense thou must fast the -whole year, and not remain hungry from morn until night, and style -that fasting. Thou must endeavor to keep thy members free from sin, -and there will be then no occasion to keep the lips closed against -meat and drink; but it is altogether necessary to keep them closed -against uttering any evil speech. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-SIXTH. As soon as a child is born let them cause it to -taste milk. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-SEVENTH. When going to bed, repeat the forms which -commence with the Ita; that is, repeat to the end the _Itá Ahu -Viríyo_, the _Eshim Vahu_, etc., etc.; repenting of thy sins of sight -and hearing, known and unknown, committed or meditated, and imploring -forgiveness; also, when thou turnest from one side to the other, -repeat the whole of the Eshim. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-EIGHTH. When thou enterest into a covenant either with -one of the pure faith or an unbeliever (_Durwand_), break it not, but -maintain it inviolate. - - -GATE THE TWENTY-NINTH. When the believer’s son attains the age of -fifteen, the father appoints a Dustúr for his guidance, without whose -direction and counsel he does nothing; for no good work is acceptable -to God, unless the Dustúr be satisfied; he truly possesses such -dignity in the sight of God, that he can remit one-third of any -person’s sins. Note, that the title of Dustúr is given to a spiritual -director, or one skilled in the faith of Zaratusht. - - -GATE THE THIRTIETH. When any undertaking occurs, and thou knowest not -whether engaging in it be good or sinful, desist, and defer the -enterprise until thou hast consulted the Dustúr. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-FIRST. The believer undertakes nothing on his own -experience merely, without previously investigating its nature through -his Dustúr, his relation, and the experience of the intelligent. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-SECOND. Whoever studies the Avesta must learn to read -it in the exact words: he must also meditate on it continually; for -should it depart from his memory, he is guilty of sin. In ancient -times, whoever had learned the Avesta and forgotten it, was not -permitted to join the congregation, until he had again made himself -master of it: nay, they threw bread before him as they would to dogs. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-THIRD. It behoves a man to be liberal, showing favor -to the Arzan, or deserving objects, for this only is profitable. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-FOURTH. The religious pour not out water at night, -particularly towards the _Wakhtar_, or “east;” but should it be -indispensable, the believer, at the time of throwing it out, repeats -the form of words commencing with the _Ita_, as far as enjoined. -Neither does he draw water from the well at night; but when there is -an inevitable necessity for it, he recites the formula of the Ita, as -enjoined in their books. They seldom drink water at night; but if it -be unavoidably necessary to drink, they fetch water from the well: -moreover, they never pour out much water. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-FIFTH. When they eat bread, they lay by three morsels -for the dogs, and never ill use these animals. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-SIXTH. When a cock crows out of season, they kill him -not, but bring another to his aid, for the fowl having seen a _Darji_ -(demon) or some approaching calamity, gives notice of it.[484] - - -GATE THE THIRTY-SEVENTH. If in any place a person who is destitute of -fear should deposit a _Nisa_, or “carcase” under ground, expose and -bring it forth. - - -GATE THE THIRTY-EIGHTH. It is by no means meet to slay animals in -profusion, as every hair of theirs will in the other world be as a -sword to the destroyer’s body: but the slaughter of sheep is by far -the most criminal; for they are of the _Sardah_,[485] or “primary -genus.” This prohibition includes the goat, the kid, and the lamb; the -cow and the horse; also the crowing cock, which during that time is as -a drum: nay, it is equally improper to slay the cock which crows not; -but should it be indispensably necessary to kill him, it will be -proper to tie his head (that is, to perform the rite of Yashtan over -his head).[486] - - -GATE THE THIRTY-NINTH. When thou art about to wash the face, join thy -lips, and recite once the formula of the _Ashim Vuhu_ as far as is -prescribed; then wash thy face; and when thou shavest, recite the -prayer of the _Kimna_ and _Mazda_[487] as far as the appointed place. - - -GATE THE FORTIETH. Whoever performs _Barashnom_[488] must be good in -word and deed, for otherwise he is deserving of death. Whoever comes -to the age of fifteen and performs not this rite, renders whatever he -lays his hand on impure like himself. Note, that _Barashnom_ signifies -the purification of one’s self by prayer. - - -GATE THE FORTY-FIRST. On the arrival of the Farvardigán, the believer -performs the _Darún Yezd_, _Yazish_, and _Afrín_ during ten days. The -Farvardigán are five damsels which spin, weave, and sew celestial -garments: their names are _Ahnavad_, _Ashnavad_, _Isfintamad_, -_Kukhashatar_, _Vahshúshpúsh_.[489] Farvardigan[490] is the name of -the five supplementary or intercalary days of the Persian year. When -the spirit quits this world it is naked; but whoever has duly -performed the Farvardigán obtains from them royal robes and celestial -ornaments. - -According to the Yezdánián, these five damsels signify wisdom, -heroism, continence, justice, and intellect;[491] and in other -passages they call them the five senses. - - -GATE THE FORTY-SECOND. The true believer must beware of associating -with those of a different faith; let him not drink out of the same cup -with them. If an unbeliever pollute a cup made of brass, it must be -washed three times: but if it be of earth, it cannot become pure. - - -GATE THE FORTY-THIRD. Keep up the fire in thy house, and at night -light it up. - - -GATE THE FORTY-FOURTH. Shew honor to thy instructor, father, and -mother; as otherwise in this world distress shall be thy portion; and -in the next, hell. - - -GATE THE FORTY-FIFTH. A woman, in her periodical illness, must not -direct her eyes to the heaven or the stars; to running water or a -Mindáshú; that is, a pure or celestial man. She is to drink water out -of any vessel except one of earth. When she eats bread, her hand is to -be folded in the sleeve of her dress,[492] and she is to wear a veil -on her head. - - -GATE THE FORTY-SIXTH. Refrain from Hamiyál, which means calumny, -treachery, and adultery: for if the woman’s husband forgive not the -adulterer, he cannot, whatever may be his good works, behold the face -of paradise. - - -GATE THE FORTY-SEVENTH. The believer must slay the _Kharástár_, or -“noxious creatures.” Of these it is most meritorious to destroy -water-frogs, serpents, scorpions, flies, and ants. According to the -tenets professed by the true believers, that is, the _Yazdáníán_ and -_Abadián_, it is a meritorious work to destroy any creature which is -injurious to animal life or oppressive to the animal creation: but the -destruction of any creature which is not injurious to animal life, is -not only improper, but the unjust oppressor draws down retribution on -himself. The Yezdáníán maintain, that whenever in ancient records the -slaughter of a harmless animal is mentioned, the expression is used in -an enigmatical sense. - - -GATE THE FORTY-EIGHTH. It is not proper to walk barefooted. - - -GATE THE FORTY-NINTH. Repent without ceasing: for unless attention be -paid to this, thy sin accumulates every year, and becomes more -aggravated. If, which God forbid! thou commit a sin, go before the -Dustúr; and if thou find him not, to the Hírbud (or minister attending -on the sacred fire); and if thou meet him not, repair to some -professor of the pure faith; and if thou find not such a one, declare -thy repentance before the majesty of the great light. In like manner, -at the moment of departing from this world, let a man declare his -contrition, and if he be unable, let his son, relative, or those -present, perform this rite of penance at that time. - - -GATE THE FIFTIETH. When a son or daughter attains the age of fifteen, -it becomes necessary to bind the sacred cincture about the waist, as -this forms the bond of duty. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-FIRST. If a child should die, from the first day of its -decease during a space of seven years, “without the expression of -grief, recite the Darún of its angel.” On the fourth night after its -decease, it is necessary to recite with _Yasht_, the Darún, or prayer -of the angel Surúsh. Note, Yasht is the name given to one of the -twenty-one Nosks of the Zand,[493] which is recited for the souls of -the deceased: this they also repeat in the _Gahanbars: Nosk_ also -signifies a part or section. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-SECOND. When thou placest on the fire a cauldron for -dressing food, it must be of a large size, and two thirds of it -without water, so that when it boils, the water may not fall over on -the fire. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-THIRD.[494] When they remove fire from one place to -another, they lay it apart for a short time, until its place becomes -cool; having taken care not to leave it heated, they bear the fire to -its destined place. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-FOURTH.[495] The true believers wash the face every -morning with the _Ab-í-zúr_, or “water of power,” and afterwards with -pure water.[496] After this they recite the formula of the _Kimna va -Mazda_,[497] and then wash the hands; this rite they call _Pavaj_; but -if they wash not the hands in the _Ab-í-zúr_, their recitation is not -accepted. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-FIFTH. The faithful instruct their sons in the -knowledge of religion, and hold in high honor the Kirbud who teaches -them. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-SIXTH. On the return of the day of _Khurdád_ in the -month of Farvardín (the 6th of March), they collect in one place a -portion of all the fruits they can find. The true believers then -continue to offer them up and to pray over them, repeating the praises -of the Lord, in order that their condition may be improved that year; -as on this day the angels give nutriment to mankind. When any one has -thus prayed, the Amshaspand Khurdád makes intercession for him: this -prayer is synonymous with _Khusnuman_.[498] - - -GATE THE FIFTY-SEVENTH. Whenever any one sets out on a journey, he -must celebrate once the _Darún Yeshté_. In ancient times, when they -set out on an excursion of even twelve parasangs, they performed the -same ceremony.[499] - - -GATE THE FIFTY-EIGHTH. If any one have not a son, let him adopt one; -and let the adopted son regard him as a father. - - -GATE THE FIFTY-NINTH. Whoever has performed the rites of Yasht and -Naú-Roz, cannot immediately after celebrate the Darún Yeshté: he first -prays mentally to Ormuzd, and eats bread; and then performs the rites -of mental prayer and the Darun. - - -GATE THE SIXTIETH. It is improper, whilst in an erect posture, to make -water; it is therefore necessary to sit down (stoop) and force it to -some distance, repeating the Avesta mentally. The religious man is -then to advance three paces, and repeat once the formula of the _Yethá -áhú viríyo_ and the _Eshem Vahu_, as far as prescribed. On coming out, -he is to repeat the Eshem once; the formula of the Homoctanne twice; -that of the _Hokhshéthrôtemâé_ three times, and that of the _Yethá_, -etc., four times; and to repeat to the end the formula of the _Etha -aad iezmede_.[500] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-FIRST. Slay not the _Hujjah_ or weasel, for it is the -destroyer of serpents. - - -GATE THE SIXTY-SECOND. Kill not the water-dog, or otter, but if thou -perceive him far out of the water, take him back to his river.[501] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-THIRD. The believer performs during his life the rites -which ensure his salvation: the propitiation of the Ized Surúsh is a -sacred duty; it is therefore advisable that every person should -perform it duly in his own life-time.[502] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-FOURTH. When any one departs from this world, the -survivors during three days propitiate Surúsh, light a fire for the -deceased, and recite the Avesta: as the spirit of the deceased remains -there three days, it is therefore necessary to offer up three Darúns -to Surúsh Ized. On the fourth night, recite one of them to propitiate -Rash and Astad (the angels of the 18th and 26th days of every month); -another for that of the other heavenly beings; along with the fourth -Darún produce complete dresses, the best and most splendid in thy -power. These they style _Ashudád_, or heaven-bestowed.[503] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-FIFTH. Women are not enjoined to perform any of these -Niyayish, except that they should go three times into their husband’s -presence, and inquire what his wishes may be. They must never, either -by night or day, avert the face from their husband’s command: which -obedience on their part is serving God.[504] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-SIXTH. The pure faith springs from this belief, that -God has delivered us from affliction (in the world to come): and -should circumstances occur to any believer which would necessarily -lead him to apostatize from the true faith, let all exert themselves -to the utmost to aid him, so that he may remain unshaken in the true -religion. - - -GATE THE SIXTY-SEVENTH. Believers never utter a falsehood, although -through it they might attain to worldly eminence. - - -GATE THE SIXTY-EIGHTH. They make truth their profession, and remain -free from the degradation of _Goyastah_ (or _Gogestah_).[505] - - -GATE THE SIXTY-NINTH. The believers beware of any intercourse with a -courtesan or unchaste woman, also of voluntary degradation -(connivance) and adultery. For when a libertine engages in improper -correspondence with a woman, she becomes an abomination to her -husband; and if, after proof of her misconduct, the husband resume his -intimacy with such a wife, he then becomes a _Rúspi_, or utterly -contemptible. - - -GATE THE SEVENTIETH. If any one steal property to the amount of one -direm, they take from the thief two direms, cut off the lobes of his -ears, inflict on him ten blows of a stick, and dismiss him after one -hour’s imprisonment. Should he a second time commit a similar act, and -steal to the amount of a direm, they make him refund two, cut off his -ears, inflict twenty blows, and detain him in prison two hours: should -he after that steal three direms or two dangs, they cut off his right -hand; and if he steal five hundred direms, they put him to death. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-FIRST. Beware of open and secret sin: abstain from -bad sights and thoughts. Offer up thy grateful prayers to the Lord, -the most just and pure Ormuzd, the supreme and adorable God, who thus -declared to his prophet Zardusht: “Hold it not meet to do unto others -what thou wouldst not have done to thyself: do that unto the people -which, when done to thyself, proves not disagreeable to thyself.” - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-SECOND. Direct the Hirbud to sanctify for thee an -oblation or Darún once every day: if not he, then thyself. It is to be -observed that Yazish has the sense of _Yashtan_; also that _Darún_ -(the first letter with _Zemma_) means a prayer in praise of the Lord -and of fire, which being recited by the professors of the pure faith, -they breathe over the viands; whatever has been thus breathed over -they call _Yashtah_: for _Yashtan_ signifies the reciting of a prayer. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-THIRD. Let women perform the rites of oblation in the -month of Aban (the 8th month), so that they may be purified from their -illness and attain paradise. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-FOURTH. Beware of committing adultery; for when the -wife of a stranger has been four times visited by a strange man, she -becomes accursed to her husband: to put such a woman to death is more -meritorious than slaying beasts of prey. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-FIFTH. A woman during her illness is not to look at -the fire, to sit in water, behold the sun, or hold conversation with a -man. Two women, during their illness, are not to sleep in the same -bed, or look up to heaven. Women in this state are to drink out of -leaden vessels, and not to lay their (bare) hands on bread. The -drinking-vessel is to be half-filled with water, and not filled up to -the brim. They are to fold their hand in the sleeve of their mantle -and then lay hold of the vessel: they must not sit in the sun. On the -birth of a child, the infant is to undergo ablution along with the -mother. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-SIXTH. A fire is not to be lighted in a situation -exposed to the sun’s rays: also place not over the fire any thing -through the interstices of which the sun may shine. But before the -time of Mah Abád it was held praiseworthy to light a fire in face of -the great luminary for the purpose of making fumigations. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-SEVENTH. They show the Nisa or dead body to a dog, at -the moment the person gives up the soul:[506] and again when they -convey it to the burial-place. When removing the body, the bearers -fasten their hands together with a cord, so that it comes to all their -hands and keeps them close to each other; they bear the body along in -perfect silence; and if the deceased be a woman advanced in her -pregnancy, there are then four bearers instead of two. According to -the precepts of Mah Abád, if the woman be pregnant, they are to -extract the fœtus and bring it up: the same holds good respecting all -animals. Finally, when the professors of the pure faith have conveyed -the corpse to the _Dad Gah_, or “place for depositing the dead,” the -bearers wash themselves and put on fresh garments. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-EIGHTH. It is necessary to beware of (contact with) -the wooden frame on which the dead body has been carried or washed; -also of that on which any one has been hung; or one touched by a woman -during her illness. - - -GATE THE SEVENTY-NINTH. If, during a malady, the physician prescribe -the eating of any dead animal, let the patient comply without -repugnance and partake of it. - - -GATE THE EIGHTIETH. A dead body is not to be committed to water or -fire.[507] - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-FIRST. If any one force a professor of the pure faith -to partake of the flesh of a dead body, or even throw it at him, he -must perform the Barashnom and recite the _Patet Iran_. Note: that is, -he must repent, and implore pardon, and exert himself in good works, -that he may escape going to hell.[508] - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-SECOND. If any animal partake of a dead body, it -continues unclean during a whole year.[509] - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-THIRD. Nothing should be given (to the unworthy) -unless through dread of the oppressor: that is, if believers apprehend -not danger from the sinner, and do not entertain alarm at his power of -doing them injury, they are not to give him any thing. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-FOURTH. In the morning, on arising from sleep, rub thy -hands with something, then thrice wash thy face, thy arms from the -wrist to the elbow, and thy foot as far as the leg; reciting the -_Avesta_ at the same time. If the believer cannot find water, he is -then permitted to use dust. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-FIFTH. When the husbandman introduces water for the -irrigation of his own fields, he carefully observes that there be not -a dead body in the stream. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-SIXTH. A woman after parturition must during forty -days beware of using vessels of wood or earth, and is not to cross the -threshold of the house. She is then to wash her head: during all this -time her husband is not to approach her. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-SEVENTH. If a woman be delivered of a dead child -previous to four months’ gestation, as it is without a soul, it is not -to be regarded as a dead body; but should this occur after the term of -four months, it is then to be looked on as a dead body, and to be -conveyed to burial with the usual ceremonies. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-EIGHTH. When a death occurs, the people of the house -and the relatives of the deceased are to abstain from meat during -three days. - - -GATE THE EIGHTY-NINTH. It is incumbent on the professors of the true -faith to be liberal, generous, and munificent; for God hath declared: -“Paradise is the abode of the liberal.” - - -GATE THE NINETIETH. Reciting the Eshem Vehu[510] is attended with -countless merits: it is necessary to do this at the time of eating -bread, of going to sleep, at midnight, on turning from one side to the -other, and at the time of rising up in the morning. - - -GATE THE NINETY-FIRST. You must not put off the good work of to-day -until the morrow, for God declared thus to Zardusht: “Putting off the -duties of this day until the following, brings with it cause of -regret. O Zardusht! no one in the world is superior to thee in my -sight. For thy sake I have even created it;[511] and princes earnestly -desire to diffuse the true faith in thy life-time. From the age of -Kaíomars to thine, three thousand years have elapsed;[512] and from -thee to the resurrection is a period of three thousand years: thus I -have created thee in the middle, as that point is most worthy of -admiration. Moreover I have rendered obedient to thee king Gushtasp, -the wisest and most prudent sovereign of the age; whose eminence -arises from science and perfect morals, not merely from high birth and -lineage. I have also given thee a volume such as the _Avesta_, and in -like manner a perspicuous commentary on it. Expect not that, after -thou hast passed away, others will perform good works for thee. Know -that Gokhastah or Ahriman has expressly appointed two demons, named -Tardiness and Procrastination, for putting off the performance of good -works to a remote and future period.” - - -GATE THE NINETY-SECOND. Whatever is polluted by a dead body must be -purified by _Pávyáb_ water according to this rule: gold once; silver -twice; tin and copper thrice; steel four times; stone six times; -earthen and wooden vessels must be thrown away. _Pávyáb_ signifies to -wash with certain forms of prayer.[513] - - -GATE THE NINETY-THIRD. Shew vigilant attention to the fire of _Adar -Behrám_, and to his attendant (genii); light up the fire every night -and cast perfumes into it. - -Note: Var (Adar) Behrám[514] is the name of the angel, the lord of -victory, and the bestower of triumph.[515] - - -GATE THE NINETY-FOURTH. The _Gáhámbars_, which are six in number, must -be observed, because the Almighty created the world in six periods or -times, the commencement of each period having a particular name; in -order to celebrate each of which commencements, they pass five days in -festivity and rejoicing. According to the statement in the _Zand_, the -righteous Hormuzd created the whole world in the space of one year. - -_The first Gáhámbar_ is called _Mídúyzaram_, as on the day _Khúr_ (the -11th of the month) _Ardibehisht_, God commenced the creation of the -heavens, which was terminated in forty-five days. - -_The second Gáhambár_, called _Midyúshaham_, began on the day of -_Khúr_, in the old month of _Tir_, in sixty days from which God -completed the creation of the waters. - -_The third Gáhambár, Pitishahím_, commences on the day of _Ashtád_ -(the 26th) of the old _Shahrivár_, in seventy-five days from which God -terminated the creation of the earth. - -_The fourth Gáhambár_, called _Ayad sahrím_, begins on the _Ashtád_ of -the old month of _Mihr_, in thirty days from which the creation of all -plants and trees was completed. - -_The fifth Gahambar_, named _Mídyárím_, begins on the _Miher_ of the -old month _Ardí_ (November); God created from this day, in eighty -days, all the animals. - -_The sixth Gahambar, Hamshpata mihdim_,[516] beginning on the day of -_Ahnavad_, the first of the five intercalary or surreptitious days, -reckoning from which the Almighty terminated the creation of the human -race in seventy-five days. Tradition thus ascribes to Jemshid the -origin of the festival of the Gáhambár. In the _Sad-Dár_ we find it -recorded, that the demon one day came to Jemshid’s palace, and the -king, as usual, sent him to the kitchen to satisfy his hunger. The -demon having devoured all that was there, and also swallowed up -whatever they brought him beside, was still unsatisfied. On beholding -this, Jemshid cried out to the Lord, and the most righteous God sent -the angel Behrám (or Jabrael) to say thus to the king: “Slaughter the -red ox, on which pour vinegar, rue, and garlic; take it when boiled -out of the cauldron, and serve it up to the demon.” When they had done -thus, the demon having tasted one morsel of it, fled and disappeared, -from which day they instituted the festival of the _Gáhambár_. - -The Abádiyán say, with respect to the creation, that the actions of -God are not circumscribed by time. It must however be acknowledged -that Jemshid first established this festival. In the first Gáhambár, -Jemshid, by the command of the Almighty, began to depict on the -ceiling of his palace the representation of the heavens, which -undertaking was finished in forty-five days. Secondly, on the _Khúr_ -of _Tír_ he was commanded by the Lord to introduce water into his -palace, gardens, city, and cultivated grounds, which work was -completed in the course of sixty days. Thirdly, on the _Ashtád_ of -_Shahrivár_, by order of the Almighty (whose name be glorified!) he -cleared the surface of the grounds and palace, and embellished them -exceedingly; he levelled the place of exercise in front of his palace, -built houses, and laid out in due order the city and its streets; all -which was completed in seventy-five days. Fourthly, on the _Ashtád_ of -_Mihr_, he began to ascertain the properties of all vegetable -productions, and completed the embellishment of his garden, and -terminated the entire in thirty days. He next, on the day of _Mihr_ in -the month of _Dáí_, collected all species of animals in his garden and -assigned their suitable employments to each: to the ox and the ass to -carry burdens; to the horse to serve for riding, and so forth; which -arrangements were completed in seventy days. Lastly, on the day of -_Ahnavad_, he summoned mankind to appear in his presence, and assigned -them their respective occupations; the details of which were finished -in the course of seventy days. He then proclaimed: “The Lord has -created all these things through me;” and commanded five days to be -set apart for rejoicing at the beginning of each Gáhambár. As to the -tradition of the demon’s appearing and eating up whatever he found, it -is thus explained: by the demon is meant, the depraved sensual -appetite, which loves to eat, sleep, shed blood, and such like, and is -never satiated with such pursuits; but when the spiritual Jemshid -prayed to the Lord, the Jabriel of intellect came with this divine -communication: “Slay the sensual appetite (which is typified by the -ox), that is, indulge it not in the excesses it demands; next apply to -the cauldron of the body the vinegar of abstinence, the garlic of -reflection, and the rue of silence; then serve up a portion of this -food to the Satan-like propensities, that the demon may flee away.” On -doing this, he was delivered from the presence of the evil one. Such -was the enigma propounded to the people by Zardusht respecting the -Gáhambár, and such the solution of it as given by the Abádián -professors, who have interpreted in a similar manner the whole of -Zardusht’s discourses, which were couched under this enigmatical form. - - -GATE THE NINETY-FIFTH. When any one does good to another, the latter -should not forget his benefactor’s goodness. - - -GATE THE NINETY-SIXTH. The believers make _Níyáyish_ to the sun three -times every day: they also perform the same to the moon and to fire. - - -GATE THE NINETY-SEVENTH. They weep not after the deceased, as the -tears thus shed are collected and form a barrier before the bridge of -_Chinavad_, or “of judgment,” and prevent the deceased from passing: -but, on reading the _Vasta_ and _Zend_, they can pass over.[517] - - -GATE THE NINETY-EIGHTH. Whoever comes into the presence of the -Dustúrs, Mobeds, or Kirbuds, listens to what they say, and rejects it -not although painful to him. - - -GATE THE NINETY-NINTH. The professor of the true religion ought to -understand thoroughly the characters of the _Avesta_ and the _Zend_. - - -GATE THE HUNDREDTH. The Mobeds must not instruct a stranger in the -Pehlevi language; for the Lord commanded Zardusht, saying: “Teach this -science to thy children.” - - * * * * * * * - -ENUMERATION OF SOME ADVANTAGES WHICH ARISE FROM THE ENIGMATICAL FORMS -OF THE PRECEPTS OF ZARDUSHT’S FOLLOWERS.――The substance of the -venerable Zardusht’s precepts is contained in enigmas and parables, -because with the mass of society, fabulous narrations, though -revolting to reason, excite stronger impressions. In the next place, -if it were proposed to communicate to an ignorant person the idea of -the existence of the necessarily existing God, independent of cause, -he could not understand the proposition; and if we speak to him -concerning the uncompoundedness of intelligences, the immateriality of -souls, the excellence of the sphere and stars, he becomes overwhelmed -in perplexity and amazement; being utterly unable to comprehend -spiritual delights or tortures, or discover the exact truth; whilst -the precepts enforced by the figurative expressions of the law come -within the understanding of high and low, so that they are profited -thereby, and the explanation of the law is attended with a good -reputation both in this world and the next. The select few undoubtedly -comprehend the nature of certainty, religious abstraction, and -philosophy, although the vulgar, in general, hold these in abhorrence: -it therefore becomes necessary to clothe the maxims of philosophy in -the vestments of law, in order that all classes of society may derive -their appropriate advantages from that source: these observations -being premised, it is to be remarked, that some Yazdanian professors -express themselves after this manner:――The book of the _Zend_ is of -two kinds; the one perspicuous and without enigmatical forms of -speech, which they call the _Mah Zand_, or “Great Zand;” the second, -abounding in enigmatical and figurative forms of speech, is called the -_Kah Zand_, or “Little Zand.” The Mah Zand contained the precepts of -the law promulgated by the venerable Máhábád, such as the volume of -Azar Sassán, and the Mah Zand was lost during the domination of -strangers, particularly the Turks and Greeks: the Kah Zand still -remained, but much of it was also lost in other subsequent invasions. - - -SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE MAH ZEND.――It entitles the supreme -Lord, Aharmuz, and acknowledges the existence, immateriality, and -uncompoundedness of his essence; accounting _Bahmán_ the Great, the -first-created being, who is also called _Farvardín_ the Great, and -looked upon and styled pure and uncompounded; from him was derived -_Ardibehesht_ the Great, along with the sublime soul and body of the -empyrean heaven; from _Ardibehesht_ the Great proceeded _Khurdád_ the -Great; from him _Tír_ the Great; from him _Murdád_ the Great; from him -_Shahrívar_ the Great; from him _Mihr_ the Great; from him _Abán_ the -Great; from him _Azar_ the Great; and from him _Dai_ the Great; these -are the lords of the heavens, and after _Farvardin_ the Great, are -accounted as the months as well as the heavens collectively. In all -other points, speculative and practical, such as the protection of -harmless creatures and the destruction of noxious animals, it agrees -with the _Dasátir_. During the Ashkanian dynasty, the people conformed -to the _Kah Zend_, but as Ardeshir was obedient to the second Sasán, -he, in compliance with the _Dasátir_ and _Mah Zend_, studiously -avoided the destruction of harmless animals: for the _Mah Zand_ is a -portion of the _Dasátir_. After him, others adopted the _Kah Zand_. -But Nushirvan, under the guidance of the contemporary _Azar Sasán_, -although conforming to the _Dasátir_ and _Mah Zand_, was during the -whole of his life innocent of the crime of slaying harmless animals; -his successors however followed the precepts of the _Kah Zend_, until -the fifth Sasán,[518] having uttered imprecations against the people -of Iran, they became the victims of privation and wretchedness. - -The professors of the Abadíán faith say that Ahriman was produced by -Time: they also say that the angels and the heavens have existed, -exist, and will continue to exist.[519] Moreover the belief of the -_Azar Húshengíáns_ or _Yazdaníáns_ is, that although the faith of -Zardusht prevailed universally from the time of Gushtasp to that of -Yezdejird, yet that the different intervening princes glossed it over -and made it agree with the _Azar Hushengíán_ or _Mahabadíán_ system, -so as never to sanction the destruction of animal life; and as they -held the words of Zardusht to be figurative, they never put them in -practice literally when they contradicted the _Azar Hushengíán_ faith, -but invariably glossed them over. - -This statement proves that _Ardeshir Babegan_ and the other Sasáníán -princes showed great reverence to the _Azar Sasáníán_ family and paid -them implicit obedience, as being truly the ministers and worshippers -of the Lord; they besides accounted them as the legitimate sovereigns, -regarding themselves merely as their lieutenants: in short, when the -_Azar Sasáníáns_ ceased to reign, they exercised the government in -their stead. However the _Azar Sasáníáns_ followed no faith except -that of Máhábád, receiving no other without the requisite glosses, and -attaching no esteem whatever to the external import of Zardusht’s -precepts: that is, regarding his words as true, but holding their -external import as figurative. The Behdiníáns also maintain that such -was the system adopted by the kings of old, particularly by _Dárá_, -_Dáráb_, _Bahmán_, _Isfendiár_, and _Lohrásp_. - -The present seems the proper time for stating some of the enigmatical -sayings ascribed to the Magians or followers of Zardusht, as -philosophy is guarded by such expressions from falling into the hands -of the ignorant, whilst the sages thereby attain their object. - -It is well known that according to their system the world had two -creators, _Yazdan_ (the Lord), and _Ahriman_: but the Lord having -entertained this evil thought, “Perhaps an antagonist may rise up to -oppose me,” Ahriman was produced, from that thought.[520] In some -places it is mentioned that God was alone, and gloom having come over -him, he entertained an evil suspicion, on which Ahriman was produced. -They say that Ahriman, who was outside the world, on looking through a -small aperture, and beholding the Lord surrounded with glory and -majesty, bore him envy and raised up wickedness and corruption. God -then created the angels to be his host, and with them fought against -Ahriman; but being unable to destroy him, they made peace with each -other on this condition; that Ahriman should remain in the world -during a definite period; and on his departure it should become the -abode of unalloyed good.[521] Jamásp, the venerable sage, says thus: -“It is to be remarked that ‘_world_’ is a metaphorical expression for -body; and ‘_God_,’ for the aspiration of the spirit; ‘_Ahriman_,’ for -the physical temperament; ‘_the evil thought_,’ the habitual bias of -the soul to material objects; by ‘_the wickedness and corruption of -Ahriman, and his war_,’ are implied the domination of the sensual -passions over spirit; and what they said of ‘_the terrestrial world_,’ -means the same; by ‘_the creation of angels_,’ the existence of -praiseworthy qualities and perseverance in pure morals, with the -subjugation of the senses by means of religious austerities, for the -senses constitute the gratuitous foes of the heart; by ‘_peace_,’ is -signified the impossibility of expelling by one effort the evil -propensities which are the armies of Iblis; that is, excess and -extravagance are to be avoided, and the path of moderation followed; -the circumstance of ‘_Ahriman’s remaining in the world for a definite -period_,’ means the ascendancy and supremacy of the bodily passions, -particularly in early years, and before arriving at mature reflection, -and even during other periods of this mortal life, in certain -constitutions; ‘_the departure of Ahriman from the world_’ implies -voluntary death, or religious austerities, or compulsory death, which -is the natural decease; when the soul has by such means been -emancipated, it finds itself adorned with perfections and attains to -its particular sphere or bliss without alloy.” - -They have said: “Darkness besieged Light and imprisoned it; on which -event the angels having come to the assistance of Light, Darkness -demanded help from Ahriman, its source; but the angels having overcome -the prince of Darkness, gave him a respite until the appointed hour -and the predestined death.” As to Darkness having arisen from the evil -thought of Light, the venerable sage Jamasp says: “The interpretation -of this tradition is the same as that of the preceding; as thus: The -soul is a precious substance, formed from light; its darkness, the -bodily passions; its confinement and imprisonment, the dominion of the -passions over that luminous essence, which drag down the souls of the -wicked to the desolation of the lower world; the assistance of angels, -is the obtaining of grace and power through elevation of mind, -proceeding from illumination from on high, and the ascent of the -spirit to the world of intellect; delay or respite implies the -continuance of the passions until the period of natural death; and the -corrupt thought the bias of the soul to material objects.” - -Dáwar Haryár, the author of the _Dáráí Sekandur_, having once -questioned the author concerning the enigmatical meanings attached to -the words God and Ahriman, received this answer: “Light is the same as -existence, and darkness signifies non-existence; God is therefore -light or existence, and Ahriman is darkness or non-existence. When it -is said that Ahriman is opposed to God, the meaning is, that God is -existence, the opposite to which is non-existence.” - -They say that the creation and production of diseases, serpents, -scorpions, and such like is an abominable act, originating with -Ahriman, which Jamásp thus explains: “It is evident that diseases, -such as ignorance, folly, pride, negligence, noxious creatures, (such -as) anger, lust, strong passions, concupiscence, calumny, envy, -malignity, covetousness, treachery, fraud, and the like, arise not -from spirit, but from the elemental constitution.” They have also -said: “An angel is the agent of good, and Ahriman the agent of evil; -and that God is exempt from both these acts; which the celebrated sage -Jamásp thus explains:――By angel is implied spirit and the agent of -good; which, if it overcome the senses, engages man in virtuous words -and acts, which are styled ‘good.’ Ahriman, or Satan, in this place -means the desires inherent in the constitution of the senses, which, -on obtaining the victory over spirit, attract it towards the pleasures -of sense, thus making it forget its original abode; which is -denominated ‘evil:’ and as the Almighty has given his creatures free -will, neither are their good or evil deeds to be imputed to him.” This -saying: That the soul of him who has done evil, having determined on -flight through fear of divine wrath, plunges downwards, is thus -explained by the sage Jamasp: “By ‘_sinner_’ is understood one whose -essence is defective; by ‘_descent_,’ turning away from the superior -to corporeal attachments; by ‘_resolving on flight_,’ the strong -desires of passion, through the suggestion of body, until the entire -departure of divine grace.” - -Thus far extend the illustrations of the sage Jamásp. But that the -scope of Zardusht is couched under allegories agrees with the -declaration made by the great Bahman, the son of Isfendiár, the son of -king Gushtásp, who says: “Zardusht once said to me: ‘My father and -mother delivered me to nurses, who dwelt in a place far remote from -the city of my birth; with these I remained many a long year, until I -quite forgot my father, mother, and native town. Suddenly this thought -came over my mind――Who are my parents, and where the place of my -birth?――I struggled hard until I returned naked and bare the way by -which I had come; and having gained my house and beheld my father and -mother, I returned again to the place where my nurses dwelt. As the -dress worn by the people of this country was on my person, I shall -therefore remain here until this dress is worn out, and then depart, -in order that it may not be said――He was unable to perform his office -and has run away, leaving our despised garments.’” - -Bahman, the son of Isfendiár, thus says: “All that Zardusht uttered -was enigmatical: the ‘_city and native place_’ are the angelic world; -by ‘_father_,’ is meant the primary intelligence; and by ‘_mother_,’ -the universal soul; ‘_the nurses_,’ this lower world and junction with -body; ‘_forgetting the original abode_,’ attachment to the elements of -body; ‘_recalling it to memory_,’ implies the struggle towards that -direction; ‘_the arriving there_,’ means religious austerities; ‘_the -state of nakedness_,’ the divesting one’s self of bodily attachments; -‘_the returning back to the nurses_,’ means resuming the body; ‘_that -it may not be said that he was alarmed at the performance of duty, and -ran off, leaving his clothes behind; I shall not therefore depart from -hence, until these clothes be worn out_;――_the performance of duty_,’ -signifies the amassing of the capital of knowledge, true faith, and -good works; by ‘_the clothes being worn out_,’ is implied the -separation of the bodily members; that is, I will remain here as long -as the body lasts, and after its dissolution return to my native -place.” - -Prince Isfendiár, the son of king Gushtásp, also tells us: “Zardusht -once said to me: ‘A number of persons once left their native place for -the purpose of acquiring wealth, that on their return they might pass -their time in pleasure and enjoyment. On arriving at the city of their -destination, some of them amassed wealth; some devoted themselves to -wandering about the place and contemplating the beauties with which it -abounded; whilst others remained altogether inactive. When the time of -packing up came, the king of that people said――Depart from hence, that -another set may arrive, and obtain their portion, as you have -done.――On which all these people went out, some provided with stores -for the journey; some without any provision; a few on horseback; a -multitude on foot; a wide desert lay before, and a toilsome road, -through rocks and prickly thorns, devoid of cultivation, destitute of -water and shade. Those who were on horseback and furnished with -provisions passed over, and having reached their native city, gave -themselves up to joy and gladness; those who were on foot, and had -provided stores for the journey, after experiencing many ups and -downs, at last, with extreme difficulty, reached their halting place, -where they passed their time in a state of happiness proportioned to -their gains, although, on instituting a comparison between themselves -and those inhabitants and dignified persons who had acquired opulence -by commercial pursuits, they feel pangs of regret; but those who came -out of the city without any kind of conveyance or stores, and thinking -that without supplies they could reach their native place, when they -had gone some little distance, became wearied and unable to proceed -through weakness, and fatigue from walking, want of provisions, the -difficulties of the road, distress, the sun’s overpowering heat, and -the gloom of night; they were forced by necessity to turn back to the -city, where they had been; but other merchants had in the meantime -taken possession of the houses, dwellings, shops, and apartments which -they formerly occupied: they were thus reduced to a state of -destitution, and had no resource left but that of working for hire or -turning mendicants, pursuits which they adopted.’” - -Isfendiar says: “‘_The city from which they departed for the purposes -of commerce_’ is the angelic world; _that to which they came with the -design of accumulating wealth_’ is the lower world; ‘_the houses, -shops, etc._,’ signify the human body; ‘_the people of the city_’ are -the animals, vegetables, and minerals; ‘_the king_,’ the elemental -nature; ‘_what the merchants have amassed_’ are their words and deeds; -‘_what others have collected_’ is devotion without knowledge; ‘_the -inactive_’ are those whose only “pursuits were sleep, sensual -gratification, etc.; ‘_the exclamation of the king_’ is Death, who -expels them from the mansions of body; ‘_the deserts and mountains_,’ -the extremes of heat and cold; ‘_the equestrians_’ are those who unite -the speculative and practical; ‘_the pedestrians, who were furnished -with some provisions_’ are those who adore God, but neither knew -themselves nor the Lord; ‘_they who are without provisions or -conveyance_’ are those destitute of knowledge and good works, who -being unable to reach the angelic world, return in despair to the -elemental world, forfeiting the rank they once possessed.” - -The sage _Shah Nasir Khusran_ says on this head: - - “When any one travels this road for that important purpose, - He takes at least a loaf of bread under his arm: - How then canst thou, who hast no store, proceed up the mount, - From the centre of darkness to the zenith of Saturn?” - -In some other parables of Zardusht, which are here noticed, he speaks -thus: “When the travellers, in consequence of the want of stores and -fatigue of walking, return back to the king’s city, not finding their -former beautiful mansions, they settle themselves in caverns or lanes, -hiring themselves as labourers or subsisting on alms.” - -Esfendiar says: “By this is understood, that when they quit this -mortal frame, they cannot reach the world on high, owing to their want -of knowledge and good works; being thus rejected, on their return to -the elemental world, they cannot obtain human bodies, but are invested -with the forms of the brute creation.” As this parable nearly -resembles what has been heretofore mentioned, it is unnecessary to -describe it more in detail. - - “When thou departest from the inn of the body, there is no other - storehouse; - Why dost thou not therefore procure supplies for the road in this - place of sojourn?” - -Isfendiar also records: “Zardusht once said: ‘Two persons of one house -were partners, and were both possessed of great capital; they -said:――We have gained a sufficient stock of wealth in the world, and -live and dress in a manner suitable to our great riches; we now only -want some beloved object, that our existence may be more blissful: -therefore, to attain our desire, it will be necessary to undertake a -journey. They directed their course to a city, the inhabitants of -which were famed for beauty and gracefulness; on arriving there with -the caravan, one of the partners gave himself up to traversing the -gardens, and was so absorbed in admiring the beauties of the city, -that he attended to no business whatever, whilst the other partner -obtained a mistress of exquisite beauty. All of a sudden the -garden-door was closed.’” - -Isfendiar says “_Záíd_ and _Amru_[522] may serve as an example of the -two friends; ‘_the capital and stock_,’ the original world; ‘_the city -of beauteous persons_,’ this world; ‘_the desirable beloved object_,’ -good works; ‘_the rapacious animals, reptiles, and beasts_’ are anger, -lust, excessive desire, hatred, envy, concupiscence, malignity, and -avarice; ‘_the herbage and gardens_’ are sloth and pride; ‘_the -garden-door_,’ the dakhmah (or sepulchral vault); ‘_the urn_,’ the -grave, or the place of burying the dead; ‘_shutting the garden-door_’ -the moment of death.” - -His reasons for enumerating the urn, dakhmah, and grave are, that -according to the faith of Azur Húshang, or Máhábád, they sometimes put -the body of the deceased into a jar of aqua-fortis, as among them the -body is deposited indifferently either in the dakhmah or the jar: but -the sepulchre is in use among the people of Room, and the funeral pile -among those of Hindustan. - -King Gushtásp also relates the following parable of Zardusht: “A -certain man delivered his son to a preceptor, saying: ‘Within such a -time teach this boy the accomplishments necessary for a courtier.’ The -boy, however, through a fondness for pleasure, sport, and amusements, -was unwilling to give himself any trouble, and was slow in learning -any thing; he however every day secretly brought from home sweetmeats -and agreeable objects, as his tutor had a great inclination for such -enjoyments. When the preceptor’s time had passed in this manner, and -his pupil had become habituated to revelling, sensual pleasures, and -enjoyments, the tutor at last fell dangerously indisposed through -these excesses, and laid himself down on the bed of death. His pupil -well knew he had no other place left, and that he must return to his -parents, so that when his master fell sick, he became sensible of his -own state. Through dread of his father, shame of his mother, the -disgrace of ignorance, and a sense of contrition, he went not near -them, but pined in melancholy and wandered about in obscurity.” - -This parable has been thus explained by Gushtásp: “‘_The preceptor_’ -signifies the five senses; ‘_the son_,’ the immortal spirit; ‘_the -father_,’ the universal intelligence; ‘_the mother_,’ the universal -soul; ‘_the sweetmeats and mistresses_,’ worldly enjoyments; ‘_the -indispensable necessity of the immortal spirit_,’ that it should, -through the senses and the common reflection which is their -instructor, attain the objects of intellect and amass provisions for -its return, so that it may become the associate of the only true king. -If this purpose be not effected, it of course feels terror at the -death of the body. When it has become thus biassed to sensual -pleasures and devoid of all goodness, on being separated from the -body, although still possessed of sufficient energy for mounting on -high, yet through shame and confusion, it feels no desire of arriving -there and beholding its parents, soul and intellect.” - -The venerable Húryár once said to the author: “I have seen the -following narrative in the _Ramazastán_ of Zardusht: ‘The prime -minister to the sovereign of the world had so many sons, that their -number surpassed all computation; these he first sent to a place of -education, where, along with the children of Rayas (cultivators), they -might attain knowledge. If the minister’s sons became intelligent, the -Dustúr summoned them to his presence, and enrolled them among the -king’s confidential servants; but if they remained without science, -they were not regarded as the Vizir’s sons, but classed among the -Rayas; were not permitted to come into his presence; and were cut off -from all share in their father’s inheritance.” - -The author replied: “It occurs to me that, by ‘_the king of the -world_,’ is meant the supreme God without equal; by ‘_vizir_,’ the -primary intelligence; and by ‘_the sons of the vizir_,’ the souls -endowed with reason; by ‘_school_,’ the elemental world, and the -bodies formed of the elements; and by ‘_the children of the common -people_’ the corporeal senses and passions.” - -When the immortal spirits have acquired knowledge in this place of -education, their father, “Universal Intelligence,” brings them near -himself, and advances them to the rank of holding intercourse with the -Lord of Eternity: but the souls which do not acquire knowledge in this -school are not allowed access to the world of uncompounded beings, the -abode of the Universal Intelligence, and remain banished from the -presence of the Creator of the world; so that they make no advance -from the material bodies of this abode of the elements, which hold the -rank of Rayas, but are excluded from all share in the inheritance of -the primary intelligence or the acquisition of knowledge. - -Zardusht has also said: “In the upper regions there exists a mighty -ocean, from the vapors of which a great mirage appears in this lower -world: so that nothing save that illusion subsists here; exactly as -nothing besides that ocean exists in the world on high.” - -The revered ruler of Húryár, having asked the author the meaning of -this parable, received this answer: “‘_The mighty ocean_’ means the -absolute essence and pure existence of God; ‘_the mirage_’ implies -contingent existences, which in truth exist not, but appear to do so, -through the inherent property of God’s absolute existence; according -to this view, he has said: ‘From the vapors of that ocean has arisen -the mirage.’” - -It is recorded in the books composed by Zardusht’s followers, and also -in the ancient histories of Iran, that at the period of Arjásp’s -second invasion of Balkh, king Gushtasp was partaking of the -hospitality of Zál, in Sistan, and Isfendiar was a prisoner in Dazh -Gambadán; and that Lohorásp, notwithstanding the religious austerities -he performed through divine favor, laid aside the robes of mortality -in battle, after which the Turks took the city. A Turk named -_Turbaratur_, or _Turbaraturhash_, having entered Zardusht’s oratory, -the prophet received martyrdom by his sword. Zardusht, however, having -thrown at him the rosary (_Shumar Afin_, or _Yád Afráz_) which he held -in his hand, there proceeded from it such effulgent splendor, that its -fire fell on Turburatur and consumed him.[523] - - - [382] If the claims to originality and antiquity of the - language in which the Desátir is written were admitted, we - should have (pp. 146, 147, Engl. transl.) _Hertushád_ or - _Hertúrásh_, as the first and true name of the Persian - prophet who followed immediately Kái Khusro. In Zand, upon - which language we are now better informed, the true name of - this legislator of the Persians is _Zerethoshtró_, or - _Zarathustra_, which signifies “star of gold;” of this was - formed in the Pehlevi language the name of _Zaratesht_ or - _Zaratosht_, and in Farsi that of _Zardúsht_ or _Zaradusht_. - The Greeks have changed the original Zand name, either by - removing the “th” in the middle of it, and thus making it - _Zereoshtró_, _Zoroastrés_; or by omitting the final - syllable “tro,” whence it became _Zaratos_, _Zabratos_, - _Zaradas_, _Zarasdés_, _Zathraustés_; we find, moreover, - _Zoromasdrès_, _Azonaces_, and _Nazaratús_. The most ancient - mention of the name of Zoroastrès, in Greek books, is to be - found in the works of Plato, and dates therefore from the - fourth century before our era. The original word has been - translated by ἀστροδύτης, “he who sacrifices to the stars;” - by ἀστροδέατης “he who contemplates the stars;” and by - “living star.” These interpretations relate to the character - of a priest and of an astronomer, generally attributed to - Zoroaster, who is also believed to have been the inventor of - _magic_; this word was originally taken in a sense very - different from that which has been given to it in later - times, and can be referred to the name of _Magi_, or - _Mobeds_ (see note, p. 17), well known to Herodotus in the - fifth century B. C. These Magi are represented as the - teachers and priests of a most pure philosophy and religion, - the origin of which is placed by the Desátir and the - Dabistán in the most remote and ante-historical times of the - Máhábádiáns. It may therefore appear less surprising to find - in Pliny’s Natural History (I. xxx. c. 1. 2.) Zoroaster - placed, pursuant to the authority of Aristotle and Eudoxus, - 6000 years before the death of Plato, and, conformably to - Hermippus, 5000 years before the Trojan war. The last date - is repeated by Plutarch (lib. de Is. et Osir.). Diogenes - Laertius says: “Hermodoros, a Platonic philosopher, counts - 5000 years from the establishment of the Magi to the - destruction of Troy.” According to Suidas, a Zoroaster lived - 500 years before the Trojan war; if the number 500 had been - erroneously substituted for 5000, which is admissible (see - M. de Fortia d’Urban, _Mathématiciens illustres_, p. 354), - we should have the agreement of all these creditable authors - just mentioned, from the fourth century before, to the - twelfth century after, our era, in fixing the age of - Zoroaster and the establishment of the Magi, 6352 or 6194 - years B. C. - - The epocha of the Magi (putting aside that of the Máhábádiáns) - has also been taken for that of Tahmuras and Jemshid, that - is, 3460 or 3429 years B. C. According to other accounts - (collected in the Hist. Diction. of Moreri, Bayle, etc., - etc.), a Zoroaster ruled the Bactrian empire in the times of - Ninus, the Assyrian king, 2200 years B. C.; vanquished by - the latter, he desired to be consumed by the fire of heaven, - and exhorted the Assyrians to preserve his ashes as a - palladium of their empire; after he had been killed by - lightning, his last will was executed. Some historians (see - Herbelot _sub voce_) admit a Zerdúsht in the age of Feridún, - 1729 years B. C. Several other learned men concur in placing - him much later, few below the sixth century before our era. - - In the utter impossibility to decide upon so many conflicting - statements, there is perhaps no better means of reconciling - them all, than concluding that Zoroaster having, in the - course of ages, become a generic or appellative name for - sages, prophets, and kings professing and promoting a - certain religion or philosophy, this name could be applied - to several individuals who appeared at different times, and - in different countries of Asia. Hence we explain in the - various accounts a plurality of Zoroasters, and an identity - of several personages with one Zoroaster; he has indeed been - supposed to be the same with _Japhet_, _Ham_ (_Heemo_), - _Zohak_, _Nimrod_, _Buddha_, _Abraham_, _Moses_, _Ezekiel_, - _Balâam_, etc., etc. Whatever it be, the Dabistán treats in - this chapter of the Zardúsht, who appeared under the reign - of Gushtasp, king of Persia, upon whose epocha too our - chronologers are not unanimous. - - Independently of the Dasátir, written originally in a - particular language, the Persians have Zand books which they - attribute to the last Zoroaster himself. Except these works, - the age of which is a subject of dispute, they have no - written records of their great legislator prior to the ninth - or tenth century of our era, and these are the poems of - Dakiki and Ferdusi. The latter narrates, in his Shah-nameh, - the history of Zerdúsht under the reign of Gushtasp. We have - besides a Shah nameh _naser_, or a Shah-nameh in prose, - composed by some one of the Magi (_Hyde_, p. 324). The - _Zardusht-nameh_, and the _Changragatcha-nameh_ are Persian - poems, the epocha of which, according to Anquetil du Perron - (_Zend-Avesta_, t. I. pp. 6, can scarcely be fixed farther - back than the fifteenth century.――A. T. - - [383] This is also related in Mirkhond’s _Runzat-us-Safa_ - (Shea’s transl., p. 286).――A. T. - - [384] Zaratúsht-Bahram is the author of the Zaratúsht-namah - before-mentioned (see _Hyde_, p. 332). The epoch of this - work is uncertain, according to the opinion of the dostúrs - of India; yet the author of it informs us, in the 2nd - chapter, that he has translated it into Persian from the - Pehlvi under the dictation of a Mobed skilled in this - language; and in the last chapter in which he names himself - he says that he composed the Zaratusht-namah in the year 647 - of Yezdegerd, which answers to 1276 of our era (see - _Zend-Avesta_, t. I. 2. P. p. 6).――A. T. - - [385] According to Cedrenus, an author of the eleventh - century, Zoroaster descended from Belus or Nimrod: this king - is, by some authors, identified with Zohák, who married two - daughters of Djemchid, from whom also Faridun descended; on - account of this relationship, Zoroaster’s origin may without - contradiction be referred to Belus and to Faridun. In the - Desâtir, the name of his father is _Heresfetmád_. According - to the authority of the book Sad-der (see _Hyde_, p. 316), - _Patirásp_, the grandfather of Zoroaster, descended from - _Hitcherasp_, who sprung from _Tchechshúnesh_, and this from - _Espintaman_, or _Sad-yuman_; who is therefore the third - ancestor of the prophet: nevertheless this last is often - called simply _Espintaman_, or also _Sapetman_; which word, - according to Anquetil du Perron (t. I. 2. p. 9), signifies - “excellent.”――A. T. - - [386] The same dream is related in the _Zardusht-namah_ (c. - 3 and 4), as well as in the work of Henry Lord (p. 451), - quoted by Anquetil du Perron (_Zend-Avesta_, t. I. 2. P. p. - 11).――A. T. - - [387] The tradition of this appears to be widely spread, not - only in the East but also in the West, as it is mentioned - by Pliny (H. N. I. vii. c. 16), with the addition of one - wonderful particular, namely, that Zartusht’s brain - palpitated so much as to repel the hand laid upon his head, - a presage of future science. Solinus (c. 1) relates the same - fact. Zoroaster is proverbially known as the first child who - laughed on being born.――A. T. - - [388] See note, p. 211. This name has also been supposed a - mere corruption of ازر دوست, _azer dóst_, that is, “a - friend of fire” (see Hyde, who rejects it, p. 314).――A. T. - - [389] The same circumstances of the child’s dangers and - miraculous escapes are related in the _Zardusht-namah_ (c. - 7-11), and in _Changrégatha-namah_ (c. 2).――A. T. - - [390] In the _Zardusht-nameh_, the name of the magician is - Turberatorsh.――A. T. - - [391] The edition of Calcutta reads generally ژند, _zhand_; - we shall keep the more familiar name, زند, _zand_. We find - also _Avesta-zand_, and simply _Asta_ and _zand_. - - Herbelot has interpreted this name of Zoroaster’s writings - by “the book of life.” Hyde thought (p. 336) that _Zand - Avesta_ was properly _Zand va Esta_, or _Zand u Esta_, and - _Zand_, an Arabic word signifying “igniarium, focile, pixis - ignaria,” joined to the Hebrew-Chaldaic word _Eshta_, or - _Esta_, “ignis,” and explained the whole name by “igniarium” - and “ignis,” or “tinder and fire.” According to Anquetil du - Perron (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. p. 423), _zand_ signifies - “living,” and _Avesta_, “word;” therefore _Zand-Avesta_, - “the living word;” which was anciently the law of the - countries limited by the Euphrates, the Oxus, and the Indian - ocean (_ibid._, t. I. p. xiv). This law or religion is still - professed by the descendants of the Persians who, conquered - by the Muhammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they - partly inhabit Kirman, and partly the western coast of - India, to the north and south of Surat. It is besides now - decided by the investigations of the above-named author, and - by those of Kleuker, Rask, as well as by those of Messrs. - Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, Lassen, and other philologers, that - Zand was an ancient language derived from the same source as - the Sanskrit; it was spoken before the Christian era, - particularly in the countries situated to the west of the - Caspian sea, namely in Georgia, Iran proper, and Azerbijan - (the northern Media). Moreover the _Pa-zand_ denotes a - dialect derived from the Zand, or a mixed Zand, similar to - the Rabbinic language of the Jews (_Z.-Av._, t. II. pp. 67, - 68). - - It is generally known that Anquetil du Perron brought, in - the year 1762, from Surat in India, and deposited in the - Royal library of Paris, several Zand, Pehlvi, and Persian - works, which, according to his opinion, were partly the - original works written by Zoroaster himself, partly - translated, or at least derived from original works of the - Persian prophet. These writings, namely _The Vendidad_, in - Zand and Pehlvi, were brought about the year 1276, by the - Dostur Ardeshir, from Sistan to Guzerat, and there - communicated to the Parsees, who made two copies of them; - from these come all the _Vendidads_, Zand and Pehlvi, of - Guzerat. These works, parts of which only existed in - England, were then for the first time translated into an - European language, and published in French by Anquetil. - Examined as monuments of an ancient religion and literature - of the Persians, they have been differently appreciated by - learned men, and their authenticity denied by some, among - whom the most conspicuous are sir William Jones, Richardson, - and Meiners, and defended by others, by none with more zeal - than John Frederic Kleuker, who not only translated - Anquetil’s _Zand-Avesta_ into German, in three volumes, but - in an appendix of two volumes (all in quarto) commented and - discussed with great judgment, sagacity, and erudition, all - that relates to the Zand-books attributed to Zoroaster. Here - follow, as shortly as possible, the principal results of his - laborious investigations:――testimonies of the existence of - works attributed to Zoroaster are found in Greek authors who - lived before our era. It was in the sixth century B. C. that - the Persian religion and philosophy became known in Europe - by Hostanes, the Archimagus who accompanied Xerxes in his - expedition against Greece. In the fourth century B. C., - Plato, Aristotle, and Theopompus show a knowledge of - Zoroaster’s works. In the third century B. C., Hermippus - treats expressly of them, as containing not less than - 120,000 distichs. Soon after the beginning of the Christian - era, works attributed to Zoroaster are mentioned under - different names by Nicolaus of Damascus, Strabo, Pausanius, - Pliny, and Dion Chrysostomus. St. Clement of Alexandria, in - the third century, was not unacquainted with them. Later, - the Gnostics made a great use of the oriental cosmogony and - psychology as derived from Zoroaster. The testimony of - Eusebius establishes that, in the fourth century, there - existed a collection of sacred works respecting the theology - and religion of the Persians. It was mostly the liturgical - part of them that was spread about, mixed with notions - relative to the magical art. The empress Eudokia of the - fifth, and Suidas of the twelfth, century, attribute to - Zoroaster several books, four of which treat of nature, one - of precious stones, and five of astrology and prognostics. - So much and more can be gathered from Greek and Latin works - about the writings of the Persian legislator. - - The records of the Muhammedans concerning them begin only in - the ninth century, by Muhammed Abu Jafar Ebn Jerir el Tabari - (Hyde, 317-319), according to whom Zoroaster wrote his - revelations upon 12,000 cow-skins (or parchment folios). Abu - Muhammed Mustapha, in his life of Gushtasp, says: “Zoroaster - wrote the just-mentioned work in 12 tomes, each of which - formed a bullock’s load.” Both authors say that the Persian - king deposited these books, magnificently ornamented, in - Istakhar. By several other authors, from the ninth to the - seventeenth century, it is positively established that the - books of the Zand-Avesta existed in all the centuries in - which the Muhammedans had intercourse with the disciples of - Zartusht. Works composed by the latter are: the _Bun-Dehesh_, - the _Viraf-nameh_, the _Sad-der Bun-Dehesh_, the _Ulemai-Islam_, - the _Ravacts_ (that is, the correspondence between the - Dosturs of Persia and India since the fifteenth century), - the _Zaratusht nameh_, the _Changragachah namah_, and the - history of the flight of the Parsees to India. In all these - works breathes the spirit of the strongest conviction that - authentic works of Zartusht have, although not entirely, yet - partly, been preserved to later days. This conviction is - common to a numerous nation, who adhere to their sacred - books as to the inappreciable inheritance of their - forefathers. The generality of this sentiment is attested by - several respectable and intelligent European travellers in - the East, such as Henry Lord, Gabriel de Chinon, J. B. - Tavernier, D. Sanson, the chevalier Chardin, and others. - - The name of _Zand-Avesta_ belongs, among the books published - by Anquetil, exclusively to those the original of which is - truly Zand; these alone are canonical; they are five in - number, all theological, for the most part liturgical, - namely: 1. the _Izechné_, “elevation of the soul, praise, - devotion;” called also _the little Avesta_; 2. the _Vispered_, - “the chiefs of the beings there named;” 3. the _Vendidad_, - which is considered as the foundation of the law (these - three are called together the _Vendidad Sadé_, “to combat - Ahriman”) 4. the _Yeshts Sades_, or “a collection of - compositions and of fragments, more or less ancient;” 5. the - book _Siroz_, “thirty days,” containing praises addressed to - the Genius of each day: it is a sort of liturgical calendar. - These are the Zand-books existing in our days; the originals - of them are said by the learned Foucher to have been - composed under the reign of Gushtasp, whom he places before - the time assigned to Darius Hystaspes, whilst Anquetil and - other modern authors identify under these names a king of - Persia, who lived about the middle of the sixth century - before our era. We may reasonably believe that the Zand-books - were written at a time when the Zand was a living, nay the - dominant language, in those countries where these books - first appeared; that is, in Georgia, in Iran, and in - Azerbijan. Now, if it be admitted that the Zand was in these - countries quite a dead language already, under the Ashkanian - dynasty of Persia (the Arsacides), the first of whom, - _Aghush_, began to reign 310 years B. C., it will follow, - that the Zand-books were written long before that time, that - is, most likely at least, so early so the sixth century - before the Christian era. - - Besides the original Zand-books, Anquetil translated also - from the modern Persian the _Bun-Dehesh_. This is a - collection of treatises upon several points, ranged under 34 - sections――a sort of encyclopædia, theological, cosmological, - historical, and political. This work is written in Pehlvi, - and believed to be the translation of a Zand original no - more to be found in India. It is the most ancient of the - modern works of the Parsees, and was written probably about - the seventh century of our era. - - What may confirm us in the opinion that these books, still - in the hands of the Parsees, are truly derived from much - more ancient works is, that their contents agree in a great - number of principal points with the doctrine attributed to - the Magi and to Zoroaster by ancient Greek authors, of whom - the later Parsees had certainly not the least knowledge, - whilst their Zand-books contain the names of the first and - most ancient kings of the Medes and Persians, and no other - but those, of whom the Greeks knew nothing. No king and no - private person, after Gushtasp and Zoroaster, are mentioned - in the Zand-books. - - Sixty years had elapsed since the publication of the - Zand-Avesta by Anquetil, when M. Eugène Burnouf undertook a - revision and commentary of that part of the Zand-works which - the first had translated and published, under the Pehlvi - name of _Iseshné_, and which, in Zand, is entitled _Yasna_. - Among the manuscripts which Anquetil had brought from India - was a Sanskrit translation, made towards the end of the - fifteenth century by a Dostur called Neriosengh, probably - from a Pehlvi version of a Zand original. M. Eugène Burnouf, - to give a better interpretation of the Zand text, not only - availed himself of the double translation, executed by - Neriosengh and Anquetil, but also, independently of both, - applied the principles of comparative philology to the - analysis of many Zand-words, the true signification of which - he fixed, and by various judicious observations, interspersed - in his commentary, threw light upon the geography, history, - and religion of ancient Persia. He published in 1833 the - first volume of his work, under the title “Commentaire sur - le Yasna:” he had before (1829) published the lithographed - Zand text of it in one folio volume. In 1836 appeared, at - Bombay, a lithographed edition of the same Zand text.”――A. - T. - - [392] Mina, semen virile. - - [393] The quarrel between Zartusht and his father, and the - death of the head magician, as well as what preceded――these - facts are related nearly in the same manner in the _Zerd. - Nam._, ch. 12-15.――A. T. - - [394] Anquetil du Perron states that this expanse of water - was the river Araxes (t. 1. 2. P. p. 19). - - [395] The month of February, the last month of the year.――A. - T. - - [396] Anquetil du Perron, quoting the _Zerd. Nam._, c. 18, - says, an army of serpents, perhaps tribes of Nâgas, which - came from the North.――A. T. - - [397] Mediomah, cousin to Zardusht, the first who embraced - the law; he meditated on it profoundly, published and - practised it: he confers happiness on cities.――D. S. - - [398] April, the second month of the year.――A. T. - - [399] Dabati, the name given, in Parsi works, to the Caspian - sea.――D. S.] Anquetil du Peron says (t. 1. 2. P. p. 21) that - he passed the Cyrus on his way to the Caspian sea.――A. T. - - [400] Anquetil du Peron says here, quoting H. Lord, that - Zardusht retired to the mountains for consulting the Supreme - Being, and adds in a note that, according to the Vendidad, - it was upon the mount Alborz that he consulted Hormuzd (t. - 1. 2. P. p. 22). The geographical situation of this mountain - has been indicated in the note at p. 22; but by the religion - of the Parsees it is placed in the supernatural world, to - which Zoroaster was transported, as related above. The - sacred Alborz is the first of mountains; it attained its - first elevation in fifteen years, and took eight hundred - years to complete its growth; it rose up from the middle of - the earth to the region of the first light, the delightful - abode of Mithra, of whom hereafter; the sun and the moon - depart from and return to this mountain every day (see - _Zend-Av._, t. II. pp. 206, 207, 214, 357, 361, 364, and - elsewhere).――A. T. - - [401] See note, p. 215. Zardusht is called the son of - Espintaman. The edition of Calcutta reads Askiman; the - manuscript of Oude, Askatamán.――A. T. - - [402] The Amshásfands are the six first celestial spirits - after Ormuzd. Their name is derived from the Zand-words - _emeshe_, “immortal,” and _sepente_, “excellent, - perfect.”――A. T. - - [403] It is generally acknowledged that Ahriman was the - author of evil, opposed to Ormuzd, the creator and promoter - of every good; but different opinions are entertained upon - the origin of these two mighty beings. According to the most - ancient doctrine, both were the productions of a primordial - cause, which is called _Zaruam akarenê_, “the boundless - time.” The Zand-books, as well as Shahristani and the Ulemi - Islam, make Ahriman anterior to Ormuzd, that is to say, in - plain language, “the evil was before the good.” These two - were, however, not distinguished from each other before - Ahriman had become jealous of Ormuzd, for which he was - condemned by the great creator Time to dwell in the abode of - darkness for twelve thousand years. It was then only that - Ormuzd saw with horror his deformed and frightful adversary, - and to oppose the effects of his existence created, within - three thousand years, a celestial region and a celestial - people. Ahriman, long time ignorant of what was preparing - against him, had scarce perceived the light of Ormuzd, when - he ran to destroy it, but, amazed at its beauty, fled back - to hell, where he hastened to produce a host of evil beings. - In vain did Ormuzd offer reconciliation to Ahriman, and even - a partnership in the priesthood of the boundless time; the - fiend rejected all terms of peace, and war began to rage - between them (see _Zend-Av._, t. II. pp. 345, 347.) - - According to the books of the Parsees and of the Muhammedans - who give an account of their doctrine, Ahriman is bad by - nature: nor do the more ancient Zand-books say that he ever - was good; yet the explanation given about this mysterious - being can but involve contradictions in more than one - respect. He alone is able to resist Ormuzd, of whom his - existence is entirely independent; he is the king of the - beings which he has created, and which Ormuzd cannot - annihilate; nor can the latter prevent the effects of the - power by which his enemy destroys the people of the just, - and banishes the moral good from the earth. - - An account of Ahriman’s origin, somewhat different from - this, will be seen hereafter in the Dabistán.――A. T. - - [404] These sentiments agree singularly with the following - passage of Plato: Των μεν αγαδων αλλον ουδενα αιτιατεον, των - δὲ κακων αλλ’ αττα δει ζητειν τα αιτια, αλλ’ ου τον Θεον (De - Republica). “The author of good is God alone; but the author - of evil any thing else rather than God.”――A. T. - - [405] According to the Zardusht-nameh quoted by Anquetil (t. - I. 2. P. p. 24) Zardusht delivered from hell a person who - had done good and evil. This person, believe some Parsees, - was Jamshid who, towards the end of his life, wished to be - adored as a God. Others say it was Gersh-asp, a famous - warrior, who suffered in hell for having struck the sacred - fire.――A. T. - - [406] Ardibehest (see pp. 61. 62.) presides over the second - month of the year, and the 3d, 8th, 15th, and 23d day of the - month; he is pure, beneficent, endowed by Ormuzd with great - and holy eyes; he grants health, and eloquence to men, - productions to the earth, and grandeur to the world; he - drives away the Dívs and all evils (_Zend-Av._, II, pp. 69. - 153. 154. 159. 316. and elsewhere).――A. T. - - [407] Zoroaster, according to the concurring account of - several authors, retired from the world and lived in a - cavern of the mountain Alborz, or in the mountains of - Balkhan. According to the Rauzat us Sufa (Shea’s transl., p. - 286) it was in the mountains near Ardebil, a city of - Azarbijan (the ancient Media). This cavern is said to have - been consecrated by him to Mithra. Pliny states (H. N. l. - xi. c. 42), the prophet lived 20 years in deserts, upon - cheese so tempered that he should not feel the effects of - age. This was probably before he appeared at the court of - Gushtasp.――A. T. - - [408] This miracle is not recorded in Anquetil’s life of - Zoroaster.――A. T. - - [409] Not receiving immediate access to the king, the - prophet split the upper part of the apartment where Gushtasp - was, and descended through the opening (Anquet., _Vie de - Zoroastre_, p. 29). This was in the year 549 B. C. (_ibidem_), - after the 30th year of Gushtasp’s reign (_Hyde_, p. 323).――A. T. - - [410] To these miracles add that related in the _Shah nameh - naser_, quoted by Hyde (p. 324): Zoroaster planted before - the king’s palace a cypress-tree, which in a few days grew - to the height and thickness of ten _rasons_ (measure - undetermined), and upon the top of it he built a - summer-palace.――A. T. - - [411] All those particulars about Zoroaster’s imprisonment, - and about his release after the cure effected by him upon - the king’s charger are, with little variation, related in - the _Shah-nameh naser_ (see Hyde, 325, 327), and in the - _Zerdusht nâmah_ (Anq. du Peron, t. I, 2. P. p. 325-327).――A. T. - - [412] This cure of Lohrasp is touched upon by Anquetil in - his life of Zoroaster (p. 53), but not that of Zerir; Hyde - mentions neither; but the conversion of king Lohrasp and of - his relations is generally admitted.――A. T. - - [413] See p. 149. note. - - [414] See pp. 61. 62. 241. note. - - [415] See pp. 61. 62. Khordad is the sixth Amscháspand; he - presides over the third month of the year and the sixth day - of the month; he is a chief of years, months, days, and of - time in general; he grants and aids intelligence; he causes - pure water to run through the world if man lives holily; he - is taken for water itself; he gives what is sweet to eat - (_Zand-Avesta_, I. 2. P. pp. 81. 103. II. pp. 69. 97. 153. - 157. and elsewhere).――A. T. - - [416] See pp. 61. 62. The name of the angel is simply Azar. - - [417] _Yasht_, a Zand word, may be referred to the Sanskrit - इष्त्व _ishtva_, the participle of यज् _yaj_, “to venerate.” - - The _Darun_ is an office celebrated particularly for the - sake of a king, or of the Dostur of Dosturs, in honor of - celestial beings of different names and classes (_Zend-Av._, - t. II. p. 73). Darun is also a little cake in the shape of a - crown piece, which the priest offers to the Ized-Dahman, who - blesses the creatures, the just man, and having received - from the hands of the Serosh the souls of the just, conducts - them to heaven (_ibid._, t. I. 2. pp. 86. 172).――A. T. - - [418] _Bishutan_, according to some authors was the brother, - according to the _Shah-nameh_, a confidential friend, of - Isfendiar.――A. T. - - [419] _Jamasp_, the brother and minister of Gushtasp.――A. T. - - [420] Chapt. LXXVIII. v. 38. - - [421] Chapt. XXVIII. v. 56. - - [422] According to Abulfeda, quoted by Hyde (p. 315), - Zoroaster was born in ارمی or ارميه, in Armi or Armia, the - most western town of Azarbijan (the Media of the Greeks), in - the Gordian mountains, which accounts for the surname of - Median, or Persian, or Perso-Median, which different authors - have given to him. Other historians affirm that he came from - Palestina.――A. T. - - [423] Raí is the most northern town of the province Jebal, - or Irak Ajem, the country of the ancient Parthians.――A. T. - - [424] Anquetil says (_Zend-Av._, 2 P. p. xviii.): “The - Bahman Yesht Pehlvi, rather the epitome than the translation - of the true Báhmán Zand, may be called the Apocalypse of the - Parsees. It presents, in the form of a prophecy, an abridged - history of the empire and of the religion of the Persians, - from Gushtasp to the end of the world.” That part of the - Dabistán which follows, said to be transcribed from the Zand - Avesta by a Mobed, may be presumed to be taken from the true - Báhmán Yesht Zand; still these prophecies are undoubtedly - compositions of later times interpolated in the original - works.――A. T. - - [425] It is mentioned in the Situd gher (the 2nd Nosk of the - Zend-Avesta) that Zoroaster, having demanded immortality, - Ormuzd showed him a tree of four branches: the first of - gold, this indicated the reign of Gushtasp; the second of - silver, that of Ardeshir Babegan; the third of brass, that - of Nushirvan, and the troubles excited by Mazdak; the fourth - of iron mixed with other metals, the destruction of the - Persian empire. According to the Báhmán Jesht Zand, Ormuzd - refusing a second demand of immortality made by Zoroaster, - pours into his hands a few drops of water, after the - drinking of which he is during seven days and nights filled - with divine intelligence, and sees all that passes upon the - seven _kechvars_, or “districts of the earth.” He sees a - second tree, having seven branches of metal, which indicate - seven epochas and the events belonging to them; the first - branch, which is of gold, designates the reign of Gushtasp. - Zoroaster then no more desires immortality. Ormuzd announces - to him, moreover, the war which Arjasp will make upon - Gushtasp.――(_Zend-Av._, t. I. 2. P. note, pp. xviii. - xix)――A. T. - - [426] The author of the Báhmán Yasht (_ibid._, Notices, p. - xix) describes in copious details the woes which are to - afflict the world, during the influence of the iron branch:, - he speaks of the march of armies, of physical convulsions, - of the diminished productions of nature, of the conquests - made by Arabs, Greeks, Turks, Chinese, and Christians. All - this misery is to end on the arrival of king Báhrám - Varjavand, who is to re-establish the ancient Persian - empire: by the successive mission of the three sons of - Zoroaster, who are to convert the world and confirm their - divine mission by working miracles. Sosiosh is to restore - purity to the world: during this prophet’s millennium the - resurrection is to take place.――D. S. - - [427] The _Náúroz_, is the first day of the year, a great - festival, the institution of which is ascribed to the - earliest times. It lasts six days, beginning on the day of - Ormuzd of the month Farvardin (March); this is _the little - Náúroz_, and it ends on the day of _Khordad_ (an Amshasfand - who presides over the sixth day of the month), called _the - great Náúroz_. It was on this day, they relate, that Ormuzd - created the world and what it contains; that Káiomers - triumphed over Eshem, the demon of envy, wrath, and - violence, the enemy of Serósh, and the most powerful of the - Dívs; that Mashia and Mashiáná, the first man and woman, - came forth from the earth, and that several great events of - the ancient history of the Persians took place, such as - Gushtasp’s embracing Zoroaster’s faith: it is finally on - that day that the general resurrection is to follow - (_Zend-Av._, t. II. p. 574.)――A. T. - - [428] The month of _Aban_ is the month of October, and the - angel of that name, who is the Ized of the water, presides - over the tenth day of the month. - - _Baud_ is the twenty-second day of the month.――A. T. - - [429] This list is incorrect; it should begin by stating - that the Nosks are twenty-one in number, according to the - number of words in the _Yatha ahu virio_――but the ignorance - of the transcriber has converted the three first words of a - short prayer into the three first Nosks of the - _Zend-Avesta_.――D. S. - - According to several Parsee doctors, seven of these Nosks, - or rather _náskas_, treated of the first principle, of the - origin of beings, of the history of the human race, etc.; - seven treated of morals and of civil and religious duties; - and seven of medicine and astronomy. The Pehlvi books and - some Persian works mention three other Nosks, which are to - complete the _Avesta_ at the end of this world (_Zand-Av._, - t. I. 1. P. p. 479). - - Here follows a list of the Nosks according to a translation - made by Anquetil from the Persian Ravaet of Kamah Berch (see - _Mémoires de l’Acad. des Inscript. et des B.-L._, t. - xxxviii. p. 239-254.) I have abridged the explanation of - each Nosk; the contents of several of them are much alike, - and the miscellaneous matters in them all confusedly stated. - - I.――The first Nosk, called _Setud-yesht_, “Nosk of prayer or - praise,” has 33 chapters. - - II.――The second, named _Setud-gher_, “Nosk of prayer and - praise,” has 22 chapters, and treats of the purity of - actions, of collections for the poor, of the concord which - is to subsist between relations. - - III.――_Vehest Mantsre_, “heavenly word,” has 22 chapters. It - discourses on faith, on the strict observation of the law, - and on the propensities of the heart. Mention is made of the - qualities of Zardusht, and of the pure people and pure - actions which have existed before him. - - IV.――_Bagh_, “happiness, light, or garden,” in 21 chapters, - states the substance and the true meaning of the law, God’s - commands with respect to obedience, fidelity, justice, - purity of actions, the means of guarding against Satan, and - of going into the other world. - - V.――_Dóazdah Hamast_, the twelve Hamasts, that is, “means or - things produced at the same time.” This book, in 32 - chapters, speaks of the bad people of the upper and nether - world, of the nature of all beings, of the whole creation of - God, of the resurrection, of the bridge Chinavad, and of the - fate after death. - - VI.――_Nader_, “the excellent, the rare.” This book of 35 - chapters is assigned to astronomy, to the influences of the - stars upon the actions of men; it corresponds with the - Arabic work _Buftal_ (_Bufastál_); its Persian name is - _Favameshian_ (_Favaímasíhan_); that is, by means of this - science future events are known. - - VII.――_Pajem_ means perhaps “small animal, or retribution.” - This book, in 22 chapters, gives an account of quadrupeds; - of actions permitted or not; what animals may be killed or - eat, what not; what may be killed for the use of the - _Gahanbars_, that is, the six festivals in the year - instituted in commemoration of the first creation of the - world in 365 days; and about regulations relative to these - festivals, to meritorious acts and gifts. - - VIII.――_Reteshtai_, “the Nosk of warriors or of chiefs.” The - subjects of this book form 50 chapters, 13 of which only - have survived the time of Alexander; they are: the orders - of the king, the obedience of the subjects, the conduct of - the judges, the foundation of towns, and the various - things and animals created by God. - - IX.――_Beresht_, “execution of orders, or supremacy.” This - book, of 60 chapters, 12 of which only remain after - Alexander, treats of kings and judges; of the reciprocal - relations of the governors and the governed; of the - occupations prescribed to the different classes and - professions of men; of useful knowledge; of the vices of - men; and such like things. - - X.――_Kesesrob_, perhaps “agreeable word.” This book, at - first of 60 chapters, of 15 only after Alexander’s - conquest, discourses upon the soul, science, intellect, - natural and acquired; upon morality, and the consequences - of its being observed or violated. - - XI.――_Veshtasp_, _Veshap_, once of 60, but after Alexander - of 10 chapters only, contains an eulogy upon the - government of Veshtasp (Gushtasp), upon his having - adopted, observed, and propagated Zardusht’s laws. - - XII.――_Khesht_, “brick, or little lance, or agriculture.” - This book, in 22 chapters, discusses six subjects relative - to religion, policy, morals, cultivation, political - economy, and administration of justice. In the fifth part - are stated the four venerable classes of men, which are - the kings and chiefs, the warriors, the cultivators, and - the tradesmen. - - XIII.――_Sefand_, “excellent,” inculcates in 60 chapters the - observation of moral and religious duties, and the faith - in the miracles of Zardusht. - - XIV.――_Jeresht_, “he does;” this book, of 22 chapters, - treats of the birth and the destination of man. - - XV.――_Baghantast_, “the Yesht of the fortunate,” contains in - 17 chapters the praise of God, of the angels, and of the - man who approaches God and is thankful for the benefits - which he receives from above. - - XVI.――_Niaram_ means, perhaps, “I do not seek my advantage.” - This book, of 54 chapters, teaches the good employ of - one’s fortune, and the advantages of a good behaviour - towards God and men. - - XVII.――_Asparam_, may signify “the ties, the book by - excellence, the dawn, the heaven, perfect, plant, leaf.” - It treats in 64 chapters of the _Nerengs_, that is of the - powers, faculties in different acceptations; here of the - powers of good actions, and of liturgical ceremonies. - - XVIII.――_Davaserujed_, “he who offers the extreme expedient, - or who speaks of it,” of 65 chapters, shows the knowledge - of men and animals; how the latter are to be taken care - of; how travellers and captives are to be treated. - - XIX.――_Askaram_, “I discover, explain, make known, teach - publicly,” in 53 chapters, explains the obligation, the - best establishment and limitation of laws and regulations. - - XX.――_Vendidad_, “given for the repulsion of the Dîvs,” of - 22 chapters, forbids all sorts of bad, impure, and violent - actions. - - XXI.――_Hadokht_, “the powerful _Has_,” that is, “words of - phrases of the _Avesta_,” in 30 chapters, exhibits the - manner of always performing many miracles, pure works, and - admirable things. - - * * * * * - - Of all these Nosks, not one, except the _Vendidad_, has been - preserved complete, and the names of three only, namely, the - _Setud-yesht_, the _Vendidad_, and the _Hadokht_, are - mentioned in the different Zand-books still extant. This - shows that, at different times, changes in the forms of the - written liturgy have taken place, and that the names, - superscriptions, and divisions of the writings have been - arbitrarily treated by different Dostúrs, without any change - in the contents. - - The names of the Nosks given by Hyde (343, 345), partly from - the dictionary _Farhang Ichangiri_, partly from other - sources not mentioned, are not correct nor rightly explained. - - Three additional Nosks are to be brought into the world by - three posthumous sons of Zoroaster. See in a subsequent note - their miraculous origin and actions. - - The Persian text of another Notice upon the Nosks, somewhat - more complete than that published by Anquetil in Roman - letters, has been edited by Messrs. Julius Mohl and - Olshausen, of Kiel (see _Fragmens relatifs à la Religion de - Zoroastre, extraits des manuscrits persans de la - Bibliothèque du Roi_, 1829).――A. T. - - [430] शङ्कराचर्य “_Sankara acharya_,” upon whose age different - opinions are entertained. - - [431] According to another tradition Gushtasp himself had - travelled in India, and had been instructed by the Brahmans. - In the Desátir (English transl., Comment, pp. 185, 186), we - read that, when Sekander conquered Iran, Sásán, the son of - Darab, went to India, where he practised the worship of - Yezdan in a cavern, and where he died. He left a son named - Jivánasp, who is known as the second Sásán, equal to his - father, and who took his abode in Kabulistan. Ardeshir (the - son of another Sásán, of the Kayanián race, a relative of - the Saint), admonished by a dream, went to Kabulistan, and - by his entreaties prevailed upon the second Sásán to follow - him to Istakhar, where Ardeshir erected, for the habitation - of the saint, an immense monastery adorned with figures of - the stars, and having fire-temples on its different sides. - These and other traditions afford the inference that, in - early times, a religious intercourse had taken place between - India and Persia.――A. T. - - [432] In the Desátir (English translat., p. 120) the Greek - philosopher is called _Tútíanush_. We are at a loss even to - guess at the Greek to whom these names may be applied. We - may however remember that St. Clement of Alexandria places - Pythagoras about the 62nd Olympiad, or about 528 years B. - C., and says that he was a zealous follower of Zoroaster, - and had consulted the Magi. Jamblicus, in his life of - Pythagoras (cap. 4) states, that this philosopher was taken - prisoner by Cambyses and carried to Babylon, where, in his - intercourse with the Magi, he was instructed in their modes - of worship, perhaps by Zoroaster himself, if _Zabratus_ and - _Nazaratus_, mentioned as his instructors by Diogenes and - Alexander, can be identified with the Persian prophet. Now, - the long reign of Lohrasp (of 120 years) is supposed by some - chronologers to comprehend the reigns of Cambyses and of - Smerdis. Upon this uncertain chronological ground, Pythagoras - may be placed in the times of Gushtasp, to whom, as was - before said, Foucher with others assigns an epocha more - remote than that of Darius Hystaspes of the Greeks. It is - known that Alexander, by the conquest of Persia, accomplished, - to a certain degree and for a certain time, his glorious - project to connect the East with the West; an open - intercourse took place between the Asiatics and the Greeks, - whose language was widely spread in Asia. The Macedonian - conqueror is there generally believed to have been the son - of Darab (Darius), and the brother of Báhmán Isfendiar. He - received, says the Desátir (p. 123), from the hands of his - Persian spouse Pari-dokht Roshenak (Parysatis Roxana), “the - bright daughter of the fairy,” a book of Zardusht addressed - to him, and forming a part of the Desátir. Alexander ordered - the Persian books to be translated into Greek, called the - _Nurakhi_ language, in the Desatir, in which is also said - (p. 124): “Hence the sect of Internal Illumination will - arise among the _Nurakhis_, as well as that of Reason.” To - this passage the Commentary subjoins: “The sect of - Gúshtaspians of Iran and Yunán is a medium between the - Illuminated and the Rationalist. When Sekander came to Iran, - he found that the Gúshtaspians of Iran were the better and - wiser; and he found that they had such power that, when they - pleased, they left the body, which they treated as a - garment. And besides them he saw another class of men in - Irán, who, by means of reason and meditation (_nurnúd_) - discovered the real nature of things as they actually exist; - and there was no such class of men in Yunán. Having - collected all their books, he translated them into the - Yunáni and Rúmi tongues. He then gave his prime minister - (Dostur) and teacher the title of the chief Mobéd and Sage, - and made him the head of the Nirnúdis. From this time - forward the sect of Rationalists prevailed among the Yunanis - and Rúmis.” Alexander’s prime minister is supposed by the - Asiatics to have been Aristotle; we know that this philosopher - had an accurate knowledge of Zoroaster’s doctrine. Although - the history, religion, and science of the Asiatics have - certainly not been neglected by the inquisitive Greeks, - Alexander’s companions, among whom was Callisthenes, a - relation of Aristotle, yet we find in the western histories - no particular notice corroborating the account just quoted - of the Desátir. Unfortunately we may be more positive about - the destruction of ancient monumental works in Persia by the - son of Philip; it is for having burnt the Nosks that he is - said by the Persians to be burning in hell (see Anquetil, - vol. II. p. 338).――A. T. - - [433] व्यास, “_Vyasa_,” a sage of that name occurs in the - chapter upon the Hindus and elsewhere. - - In the Desátir, published at Bombay, there is “the book of - Shet the prophet _Zirtúsht_” (Engl. transl., pp. 116-145), - in which the interview between _Hertushád_, son of _Hereofetmad_ - (_Zortúsht_), the Yúnan philosopher and the Indian sages is - related. - - Here ends the principal part of the historical account which - the Dabistán gives of Zoroaster’s life. I shall add, - according to Anquetil (_Zend-Av._, t. I. 2. P. pp. 60-62), a - summary account of its principal events in chronological - order. - - Anquetil supposes Zoroaster born 589 years B. C. At the age - of 30 years he goes to Irán, through which country he only - passes. He disappears then to the eyes of the Persians - during ten years. His followers say that he was transported - before the throne of God. It was in this interval of time - that he terminated several works which he had perhaps - already begun upon mount Alborz, or in Chaldæa. The mountains - afforded him retirement. The twenty years which he is said - to have passed in the deserts were, probably, from his - twentieth to his fortieth year. - - At this age he appeared before Gushtasp, in Balkh, and at - this very time Hystaspes, father of Darius, may have reigned - in Bactria. Zoroaster performed miracles during ten years: - this is the period of his mission. After his first miracles, - his reputation having spread afar, Changragháchah came to - meet him. This Brahman treats him in his letter to Gushtasp - as a young man, and well might an old man, such as Changragháchah - was, have so called a man of forty years. It is also to this - time that Anquetil refers what is said about the - cypress-tree which Zoroaster planted before the - _Atesh-gadah_, or the fire-temple, of Kichmar in Khorassan. - Isfendiár was then very young, because about twenty-eight - years later his elder son was not yet married; and Darius, - 540 years B. C., might have been ten years old. - - At the age of sixty-five years, Zoroaster delivered in - Babylon lessons of philosophy, and counted Pythagoras among - his disciples; Cambyses, according to the Greeks, filled - then the throne of Persia. Three years afterwards, the - legislator returned from Chaldæa for establishing the - worship of the cypress, which lasted eight years. Persia had - then acknowledged Darius, the son of Hystaspes, as king. - - After these eight years, Zoroaster advised the war against - Turan. He was very old. The Shahnamah calls him _pír_, - “old.” Gushtasp, victorious over the Turaniáns, heaps every - honor upon him, and he dies, some time after, at the age of - seventy-seven years, in the interval of time which elapsed - between the expedition of Gushtasp and the invasion of the - Turaniáns. Báhmán, the eldest son of Isfendiar, was able to - carry arms, and Darius, 512 B. C., might have been - thirty-eight years old. - - As to the posterity of Zoroaster――he had been successively - married to three wives. With the first he had one son and - three daughters; with the second two sons; it is not certain - whether he had any offspring with his third wife, called - Húó, the niece of Jamasp――the Zand-books however say, that - she brought him three sons, who are to appear about the end - of the world.――A. T. - - According to Zand and Parsee writings, the birth and actions - of these sons will be equally miraculous. Zoroaster, having - visited Húó three times on her going to bathe, the germs - remained in the water. The Izeds (or genii) Nerioseng and - Anahid were charged with their custody, until the period - when three virgins bathing in the same water, should receive - these germs in succession, and bring into the world the - three sons of Zoroaster. - - The first is named _Oshederbámi_. He is to appear at the - commencement of the last millennium of the world, and to - arrest the sun’s course during ten days and nights; and as - Zoroaster converted one of the four portions of the human - race, he is to convert the second to the law, and give them - the 22nd Nosk. - - The second posthumous son is _Oshedermáh_. He is to appear - four hundred years after Oshederbámi, and to arrest the - sun’s course during ten days and nights; he is also to bring - the 23rd Nosk of the law, and to convert the third portion - of the human race. - - The third is named _Sosiosh_. He shall appear at the end of - ages, arrest the sun’s course during thirty days and nights, - bring the 24th Nosk of the law, and the whole world is to - embrace the faith of Zoroaster: after this comes on the - resurrection.――(_Zend.-Av._, t. I. 2. P. pp. 45, 46).――D. S. - - [434] In the Desátir (English transl. p. 126) he is called - _Biras_.――A. T. - - [435] Ardai Viráf or Arda Viráf or Virasp, also simply - called Viraf or Virasp, was, about the year 200 of our era, - one of the most zealous followers and defenders of Zoroaster’s - religion, which, under Alexander the Great and the other - kings of Persia, had lost its first authority (see Hyde, pp. - 278, 279). Arda Viraf is mentioned in one of the _Yeshts - Sades_, or prayers called _Dup Néreng_, which are recited - when perfumes are thrown into the fire (_Zend-Av._, t. II, - p. 53).――A. T. - - [436] In the _Shah nameh Naser_ it is stated, in the life of - Ardashir Babegan (see Hyde, p. 280) that this king, - abolishing several regulations of Alexander the Great, - granted toleration to followers of the faith professed by - Gushtasp, and wishing to re-establish Zoroaster’s religion, - demanded from its Mobeds miracles, which they performed. The - king, satisfied by these proofs, not only adopted their - tenets himself, but obliged all others to do the same. In - the life of Shapur it is said, in the book quoted, that, - when Ardashir was inaugurated in the government, he demanded - from the chiefs of the Magi miracles, after the performance - of which Ardai Viráf, during a whole week, supporting by - arguments the truth of his religion, brought also forward - all that relates to hell and heaven. Some believed; others - doubted or denied: the number of the last was 80,000.――A. T. - - [437] The Revelations of Ardái Viraf are said to have been - originally written in Zand. There exists a Viraf nameh in - Pehlvi, probably of the fourth century of our era; works of - this name are found in modern Persian in prose and in verse. - Anquetil mentions a Viraf nameh in verse, composed A. D. - 1532, by Káús, Herbed of Náusari, and another by Zardusht, - son of Báhrám (_Zend-Av._, t. I. 2. P. not. pp. ix. x. xxx. - xxxii). Translations of this work have also been made into - Sanskrit and the Hindu language of Guzerat. An English - translation of the Ardai-Viraf Nameh, by T. A. Pope, - appeared in 1816. The translator says in his preface (p. - xiii): that the Revelations of Ardai Viraf appear to be the - same work that is mentioned by Richardson as the work of - Ardeshir Babegan, which having been improved by Nushirvan - the Just, in the sixth century, was sent by him to all the - governors of provinces, as the invariable rule of their - conduct. Pope examined for his work three versions in the - modern Persian: the first in prose, by Nushirvan Kermani; - the second in verse, by Zardusht Biram (Báhrám); the third - in prose, by the same (_ibid._, p. xiv).――A. T. - - [438] رسن, _rasan_ is a linear measure, the exact value of - which could not be ascertained. According to common belief - of the Muhammedans, this bridge appears of different shapes; - to the good, a straight and pleasant road of thirty-seven - fathoms in breadth; but to the wicked it is like the edge of - a sword, on which they totter and fall into the abyss below. - According to the translation of Pope (p. 11), when Ardai - Viráf found himself close to the bridge, it appeared to him - to be a broad and good road.――A. T. - - [439] Mihr Ized is the same as Mithra. He is the most active - champion against Ahriman and the host of evil genii; he has - one thousand ears and ten thousand eyes; a club, a bow, - arrows, and a golden poniard in his hand; he traverses the - space between heaven and earth; he gives light, that is the - sun, to the earth; he directs the course of water, and - blesses mankind with progeny and the fruits of the field: - the earth receives from him its warriors and virtuous kings; - he watches over the law, and maintains the harmony of the - world. After death, he not only grants protection against - the attacks of the impure spirits, but assigns heaven to the - souls of the just. It is there that he appears in the - celestial assembly of holy Fervers surrounding the throne of - Ormuzd (see _Zend-Av._, t. II. pp. 204. 205. 222. 223. 256. - and in other places). - - Mithra is by some authors identified with Ormuzd himself, - and with the sun; but it results from Anquetil’s investigations - that, in the religion of the Persians, he is distinct from - both and subordinate to Ormuzd. - - He occupies a much higher rank in the religious system of - the Chaldæans and the Arabs, who first venerated Mithra. It - is now established beyond any doubt, by a good number of - authentic monuments, that in later times the religion and - worship of Mithra has been greatly developed in dogmas, - symbols, and a system of mysteries relating to cosmology, - astronomy, and physiology: in the first centuries of the - Christian era, this religion appears to have been spread, - not only over Asia, but also over a great part of Europe. - This subject has been very learnedly treated at great length - in modern works of too great celebrity to require mentioning - here.――A. T. - - [440] Rashné-rast, an Ized, who presides over the 18th day - of the month; he is the Ized of righteousness, which he - bestows; he sees every thing from afar, destroys the thief - and the violent, and takes care of the earth; it is he to - whom Ormuzd has given a thousand forces and ten thousand - eyes, and who weighs the actions of men upon the bridge - which separates the earth from heaven.――(_Zend-Av._, t. I. - 2. P. pp. 82. 131.; II. pp. 218. 219. 223).――A. T. - - [441] In Pope’s translation of the Viráf-nameh we find (pp. - 13-15) what follows: “When Serósh Ized laid hold of my arm, - we proceeded to the top of the bridge, one side of which - appeared in full splendor of light and the other in total - darkness, when I heard a strong and extraordinary noise - which, on looking forwards, I perceived to come from a dog, - that was chained with a collar and chain of gold, near the - light side of the bridge.――I asked the angels: ‘Why is the - dog here?’――to which Serósh Izad replied: ‘He makes this - noise to frighten Ahriman, and keeps watch here to prevent - his approach; his name is _Zering Goash_ (Cerberus?) and the - devils shake at his voice; and any soul that has, during its - residence in the lower world, hurt or ill used or destroyed - any of these animals, is prevented by Zering Goash from - proceeding any further across the bridge; and, Ardai Viraf, - when you return again to the world, as one of the first - duties, enjoin the taking care of these animals.” According - to the _Vendidad Sadé_ (_Zend-Av._, t. I. 2. P. p. 418), the - souls, strong and holy, who have done good works, shall, at - their passage over the bridge Chanivad, be protected by the - dog of the herds. On that account the Persian kings had (see - _Brissonii de Reg. Pers. princip. libri tres_, l. I. p. 157) - at their table a particular meal prepared for the dog. The - Parsees in our days have great regard for dogs. Immense - numbers of these animals are fed by those people, though not - admitted into their houses.――A. T. - - [442] Printed copy reads تير پايه, _tir páyah_. - - [443] The Gítí Kharíd is called the gift of two rupees, - which a man is obliged to give once in his life to a Mobed - or a priest, in order that he may perform, during five or - eight days, a religious ceremony for the sake of the donor, - who is purified by it. This purification is substituted for - another more expensive rite, called the Náuzódí, which a - Parsee is bound to perform when fifteen years old, and - which, on the part of the Neophyte, requires a considerable - knowledge of religious doctrine, prayers, and ceremonies. He - who during his life has not made Yesht, nor the Gítí Kharíd, - nor the present of a dress to the Pure, shall, after the - resurrection, appear naked (_Zend-Av._, t. II. pp. 34. 553. - 554).――A. T. - - [444] The Parsees mention in their books a very agreeable - oil, called _Mediozerem_, which is the beverage of the - blessed in heaven, and it is, they say, from the name of - this oil that one of the six yearly festivals sacred to the - memory of the creation is called _Gáhamber Mediozerem_ - (_Zend-Av._, t. II. p. 394. note).――A. T. - - According to the Ardai Viraf Nameh, translated by Pope, - Lond., 1816 (p. 22) Ardai received a lozenge to eat, which - buried in oblivion all that had passed in the other world, - and turned his thoughts to God alone.――D. S. - - [445] Ardibehest, see p. 241, note. - - [446] In the manuscript, Garjishman; in the Ardai Viráf - Nameh, Geroosman.――D. S. - - [447] We might almost imagine this tenet as the origin of - accounting the Grecian Hercules a God, from this ancient - testimony of veneration for the destroyers of lions, hydras, - etc.――D. S. - - [448] The Viraf-nameh, a sort of Persian “Divina Commedia,” - contains, in Pope’s translation, a description much more - detailed than here, and even prolix, of Viraf’s journey in - the other world. We there read of seven heavens, namely: the - _Hamestan_, the _Sitar-payah_, the _Mah-payah_, the - _Khordad-payah_, the _Gerúshman_, the _Azar Róshní_, and the - _Ana Gurra Roshní_. In the last (pp. 38-39), in the centre - of a building, on a throne was seated Zartusht, and by his - side were standing his three sons, named _Assad Avaster_, - _Ozvar túr_, and _Khurshid chehár_; attending on the prophet - were Jemshid and other kings, among whom was Gushtasp and - some sages, not without Changragácha, the converted Brahman. - These seven heavens have been very ingeniously referred by - M. Felix Lajard (see _Mémoire sur les deux bas-reliefs - mithriaques qui ont été découverts en Transylvanie_, pp. 49 - _et seq._) to a passage which Origenes has preserved to us, - from a treatise of Celsus against the Christians. This - philosopher, speaking of certain mysteries among the - Persians, mentions seven doors, which are of lead, tin, - brass, iron, mixed metal, silver, and gold, corresponding in - their order to the heavenly bodies, Saturn, Venus, Jupiter, - Mercury, Mars, the moon, and the sun; above the last is an - eighth door, most likely the heavenly Alborz, “the region of - the primordial light (see note, p. 232).” We learn from the - Boun-Dehesh, the Zardúsht-nameh, and other works, that the - ascension of the souls was effected through the five planets - which, in the mysterious ladder of Celsus, are placed before - the moon and the sun, who himself rests upon mount Alborz. - M. F. Lajard makes use with great sagacity of the passage of - Celsus, in support of his explanation of the mithriacal - monuments which are the subjects of his learned Memoir.――A. - T. - - [449] In which food is given to the poor.――A. T. - - [450] Báj, or Váj, signifies in general religious silence, - or an inarticulate murmuring of prayers. This is practised - before eating, and is to be followed by an inviolable - silence during the repast. See Hyde, p. 352, and Anquetil du - Peron, II. p. 598. - - [451] Aban is the Ized of water, and presides over the tenth - day of the month. Anq. du Per., I. 2. P. p. 132; II. 318. - 328.――A. T. - - [452] _Kashti_ is a girdle commonly of wool or of camel’s - hair, consisting of seventy-two threads, to go at least - twice round the body, say, about ten feet in length. The - breadth depends upon the thickness of the threads. It is - tied about the _saderé_, which is a sort of white shirt, - worn immediately upon the skin, with short sleeves, open - above and commonly not passing the hips. This girdle was - worn by the Parsees from time immemorial. They pretend that - Jemshid, being instructed by Hom, the primitive legislator, - invented the Kashti. Before the time of Zoroaster, it was - worn indifferently as a scarf, or wrapped round the head. - The monuments of Persepolis exhibit persons wearing the - Kashti. Not to wear it in the fifteenth year is a great sin; - the day on which it is taken for the first time is a - festival, and daily prayers are prescribed before putting it - on, and frequent ceremonies are connected with it (_Zend-Av._, - t. II. pp. 529). Nothing can be right or good that is done - without the Kashti: “ungirt, unblessed” (Hyde, p. 376). We - have here a striking example how a custom originally - suggested by simple convenience, to be girt, or to be ready, - _accingere se_, acquires by religious prescription an - importance far beyond its intended use and purpose.――A. T. - - [453] Darwands, the production of Ahriman: this word means: - 1. the _Darong_, or “evil spirits, who appear under the - human form;” 2. the worshippers of Ahriman; 3. the spirits - of the damned. After the resurrection, they shall be anew - precipitated into hell, to be punished there during three - days and nights; after which the great and small mountains - of the earth shall be dissolved and flow over its surface in - rivers of metal; the Durwands will be forced to pass through - this molten ocean, and being thus purified from all sin - become eternally blessed.――D. S. - - [454] In this sentence D. Shea found the manuscripts and the - printed copy to differ greatly, but the manuscript of Oude - agrees with the latter, which therefore the editor thinks - himself justified in following, although there must remain a - doubt about the author’s meaning having been perfectly - expressed.――A. T. - - [455] The account of Ardai Viraf’s vision of the other world - can but remind us of what Plato relates (Respubl., t. x) of - Hero, the son of Armenius, a Pamphilian by origin: viz., - when this man had been killed in battle, and when, on the - tenth day, the dead bodies were in a state of decomposition, - he alone was preserved and carried home to be buried, and on - the twelfth day, being placed upon the funeral pyre, he gave - signs of life, and, resuscitated, he related what he had - seen in the other world. Upon this we may reflect, that the - name of _Arda_, which occurs as a part of many Persian - names, may be referred to the Sanskrit ऊर्ध _ûrdha_, - “elevated;” Ardashir is perhaps ऊर्ध शिरः _úrdhaśiras_, - “elevated head;” ऊर्द्दर _úrddara_, signifies “a hero, a - champion; from ऊर्ज _úrja_, to be strong: which would give - nearly the sense of Plato’s αλκιμου του ανδρος, “of the - strong man,” as he characterises Hero. This observation - gains perhaps some relief, by connecting it with a passage - of St. Clement of Alexandria (Strom. I. V. sect. xiv.), in - which he interprets by Zoroaster the name of Hero, and - quotes a passage from a work in which this supposed - Zoroaster relates of himself what Plato states of Hero. The - work mentioned by St. Clement, much known in the first - centuries of our era, might have been composed by a - Neo-platonic who transposed the fable from Hero to Zoroaster. - Hero, certainly not Zoroaster, may with more probability be - assimilated to one of his zealous followers, Ardai Viraf, - who lived in the second century of our era.――A. T. - - [456] According to the concurrent testimony of Persian - records, _Azarbad_, the son of _Maresfand_, was the - thirtieth descendant from Zoroaster. Twenty-nine generations, - at four to a century, make 725 years; to this add forty for - the probable age of Azarbad at the time of his assuming the - prophetic mission: if from the sum 765 we subtract 240, that - is, the epocha of king Shapúr, under whom Azarbad lived, - there will remain 525, the time of Zoroaster before Christ. - Four generations are here assigned to a century, because, - according to Zoroaster’s law, marriage is an act of - religion, and children are the steps or ladders for - ascending to heaven: the observance of this precept must - have tended to multiply the generations in the legislator’s - family (Rauzet-us Safa, Shea’s transl., p. 280). - - The following quotation from the Shah-nameh naser (Hyde, p. - 280) may here find place, in addition to my note, p. 284: - When king Shapúr heard of the great uncertainty still - prevailing among a considerable number of men about the - truth of Zoroaster’s religion, he demanded a solution of the - great question from the principal priests, among whom - Azarbad rose and offered to satisfy him: “I will,” said he, - “further develop Ardai Viraf’s account of hell and heaven, - and sit naked from head to foot, whilst eighteen pounds of - melted brass are poured upon my body; if the least particle - of it be hurt, the prophet’s words are false; they are true, - if I receive not the least injury.” No harm ensued to him - from the trial made upon his person, and all believed.――A. T. - - [457] The reading of the manuscript and printed copy is - exceedingly defective in this passage: it has been restored - according to historical notices: Pope’s translation has (p. - 99) “forty thousand souls have seceded from our holy faith,” - instead of “the forty thousand wise men were again - assembled.”――D. S. - - [458] The Viraf nameh terminates by these words: “The - Masdian religion became more firmly established than ever, - and continued in all its purity until the Mahomedan conquest - dispersed its votaries, and forced those who persevered in - it to abandon the tombs of their ancestors, and to fly for - refuge to distant countries. A small number fled to, and - were kindly received on, the shores of western India, and - the present Parsees of Bombay and Surat are their descendants.” - That is to say, it was a short time after Yezdejerd’s death - that, persecuted by the Muhammedans, a number of Persians, - to preserve their ancient religion, fled to Kohistan, from - whence after a century they descended to Ormuz on the - Persian gulf, and after a stay there of fifteen years landed - at Diu on the Indian coast. Nineteen years later they - established themselves in the Guzerat; thence, after the - lapse of three hundred years, they dispersed to the north - and south of Surat. They had been five centuries in India - when they fought with the Indians against the Muhammedans, - and were again obliged to fly before the enemies of their - faith. They maintained themselves, however, in different - places of the province of Aurungabad. Having gradually - increased in numbers to about 150,000 families (in 1816), - they live dispersed in villages from Diu to Bombay, in which - place about 24,000 of them reside (_Zend Av._, t. I. 1. P. - p. cccxviii; and Pope’s Engl. transl. of the Viraf-nameh, p. - 118).――A. T. - - [459] Káshmar, Kishmar is the name of a town in the country - of Tirshez, in Khorasan or in Bactria (Hyde, p. 332). - - [460] Upon the cypress, see notes pp. 236, 280. According to - the Ferhang Jehangiri and the Burhani Kati, Zardusht planted - two cypress-trees; one in the town just mentioned, and the - other in the town of _Farúmad_, or _Ferúyad_, or _Ferdíd_, - which is in the country of _Tus_. The Magi believe, he - planted these trees by means of two shoots brought by him - from paradise.――A. T. - - [461] He was the tenth Khalif of the Abbassides, and began - to reign in the year of the Hejira 232, A. D. 846.――A. T. - - [462] Samarah is a town in Chaldæa, from which the Samaritan - Jews have their name, and which was for some time the seat - of the Muselman empire (Herbelot).――A. T. - - [463] Jâafriyah is a town in the Arabian Irak, so called - from its builder, _Jâfar_, the original name of the khalif - who assumed the title of _Matavakhel al Allah_, “he who - confides in God.”――A. T. - - [464] He had then reigned fourteen years and two months. - The Turks were excited to murder him by his own son - _Montassar_, in the town of Makhuriah, on the very spot - where Khosru Parviz had been put to death by his son - Shiruyah (Siroes)――(Herbelot).――A. T. - - [465] According to the above statement, the tree would have - been planted 604 years before our era, that is, about the - time of Gushtasp, king of Persia, if the years above stated - be taken for solar years; but if for lunar (that is for only - 1408 solar) years, the epoch of the plantation of the - cypress would be 562 years B. C., and 548, if the computation - be referred to the end of Mutawakhal’s life.――A. T. - - [466] Hakim Mirtas, in the text, may be a proper name.――A. T. - - [467] The Sad-der naser (in prose) is an abridgment of - practical and ceremonial theology, called Sad-der, or “one - hundred doors,” because the hundred chapters of which it is - composed are like so many doors leading to heaven. Some - Parsees think that the original was written in Pehlvi. It is - positively said in the beginning of this treatise that it - has been drawn from the law: which proves that it makes no - part of the Zend-Avesta (_Zend-Av._, t. I. 2. P. Notices, - pp. xxix. xxx). - - The Sad-der nazem (in verse) was versified by a Persian - called _Shahmard_, the son of _Malek Shah_, and terminated - in the month of Isfendermad (February) of the year 864 from - the installation of Yezdejerd, 1495 A. D., and brought from - Kirman to India by the Dustúr Pashutan Daji. This work has - been translated into Latin by the learned Hyde (_ibid._, p. - xxxiv). The Dabistan gives only a short abstract of it.――A. - T. - - [468] See p. 298, where the same tale occurs. - - [469] Yasht (see note, p. 258) signifies with the Parsees in - general prayers accompanied by efficacious benedictions, but - is here used to imply the panegyrics of several celestial - spirits, in which are enumerated their principal attributes - and their relation to Ormuzd and his productions, as - distributors of the blessings which this secondary principle - spreads over nature, and as declared enemies of Ahriman and - his ministers. According to the Parsees, each Amshasfand and - Ized had a peculiar Yasht; but of all these compositions - there only remain in the Zand eighteen which are authentic, - and a small part of the Yasht of Bahman.――D. S. - - [470] Upon the Naú Roz, see note, p. 268. - - [471] These are two short forms of prayer, like our - collects, which are frequently repeated in the Parsee - litanies. The _Ita ahu virio_, as translated by Anq. du - Peron, runs thus: “It is the desire of Ormuzd that the chief - of the law should perform pure and holy works: Bahman - bestows abundance on him who acts with holiness in this - world. O, Ormuzd! thou establishest as king whoever consoles - and nourishes the poor.” The _Ashem Vuhu_ thus: “Abundance - and paradise are reserved for him who is just and pure: he - is truly pure who is holy and performs holy works.”――D. S. - - [472] _Kirfah_ means: 1. a good work; 2. a merit which - absolves from sin. The author of the Dabistán has so - abridged this Der that it is deemed proper to give it at - length according to Hyde’s translation: “It is manifest, - from the principles of religion, that we must concede due - authority to the Dustúr and must not deviate from his - commands, as he is the ornament and splendor of the faith. - Although thy good works may be countless as the leaves of - the trees, the grains of sand, the drops of rain, or the - stars in the heavens, thou canst gain nothing by them, - unless they be acceptable in the sight of the Dustúr: if he - be not content with thee, thou shalt have no praise in this - world: therefore, my son, thou shalt pay to the Dustúr who - teaches thee the tithe of all thou possessest (wealth and - property of every kind, gold and silver). Therefore thou, - who desirest to enjoy paradise to all eternity, pay tithes - to the Dustúr; for if he be satisfied with thee, know that - paradise is thine; but if he be not content with thee, thou - canst derive no portion of benefit from thy good works; thy - soul shalt not find its way to paradise; thou shalt have no - place along with angels; thy soul can never be delivered - from the fiends of hell, which is to be thy eternal abode: - but pay the tithes, and the Dustúrs will be pleased with - thee, and thy soul shall get to paradise without delay. - Truly the Dustúrs know the religion of all men, understand - all things, and deliver all (faithful) men.”――D. S. - - [473] Hyde (p. 454) has “_Malkus_, whose enchantments - brought on the deluge.” - - [474] _Sarúregh_, according to Hyde (_ibid._), “by whom (in - the time of Sâm) the world suffered oppression and injury.” - - [475] “_Túr-Brátur_ (otherwise _Túri-Brátrush_ or _tresh_), - that villanous and obscene man, who destroyed Zardusht in - that religion which he supported by his zeal.”――(Hyde, - _ibid._). This name is perhaps a variation of _Parántárush_ - (see p. 228).――A. T. - - [476] See note, p. 297. - - [477] The terms Miezd and Darun require some farther - illustration: the following is from the Zend-Avesta, vol. - II. p. 534. The Miezd, that is, meats previously blessed and - then eaten, either during or after the service; flowers, - fruits, especially pomegranates and dates; rice, fragrant - seeds, and perfumes; milk; the small cakes called Darun; the - branches of the Hom and its juice, called Perahom; the roots - of trees, particularly the pomegranate tree. The roots are - cut, the milk, and in general all these offerings, are - prepared with ceremonies described at great length in the - _Ravaets_, or “ritual treatises.” These offerings, and the - sacred implements, which are twenty-six in number, constitute - the thirty-three objects as specified by Zoroaster in the - latter part of the first Ha of the Izechné, vol. I. P. II. - p. 87: “I invoke and laud all the mighty, the pure Dustúrs - who have thirty-three objects around and near the Havan (the - vase for holding the Perahom): they are pure, according to - the ordinance of Zaradusht, who was instructed by the - Supreme Lord himself.” The Daruns are small cakes of - unleavened bread, nearly the form and thickness of a crown - piece: there are two or four of these offered, according to - the nature of the service. The Darun on which they place a - little dressed meat is called _Darun Fusesté_, or “offered - bread.”――D. S. - - [478] The Afirgans, or Afernigáns, are the prayers and - benedictions recited during the Gahanbar or the last ten - days of the year, and on the anniversary of deceased parents - or relations: but the service on the third night after the - decease is not to be neglected, as in that case the soul of - the deceased would remain without protection until the - resurrection. On the third night, at the Oshen Gah, or - midnight, there are four services; one for each of the - angels, Rashin Rast, Ram Izad, and Surush, the fourth in - honor of the Ferouers of holy personages. In this last - service are recited nine Kardés, or portions of the - _Vispared_, and four dresses, fruits, and cheese are laid by - for the officiating priest, along with the Darun. - - The word _Vispered_ admits of two meanings: 1. “the - knowledge of “every thing,” _Vispé Khirad_;” 2. “all the - chiefs,” _Vispé Rad_. The latter meaning seems more - analogous to the Vispered, as it begins by invoking the - chiefs of all beings――such as the first of the heavens, the - first of the earth, the first of aquatic creatures, etc. - Zoroaster is supposed to have repeated to the Brahmin - Chingégratch this Vispered, which begins thus: “I invoke and - laud the first of the heavens, the first of the earth, the - first of aquatic beings, the first of terrestrial beings, - the first of brilliant and intelligent beings, the holy, - pure, and great Chingégrâtchás;” and it ends with “I invoke - and laud the bull exalted on high, who makes the herbage to - grow in abundance; this bull, the pure gift, who has given - (being) to the pure man.” The Vispered is divided into - twenty-seven _Kardés_, or “sections,” and probably formed - part of the Baghantást of the fifteenth Nosk of the Avesta. - It is recited by day, as well as the Izeshneh (Yazishnah), - and with a Barsom, or “bundle, of thirty-five branches of - trees. - - Izeshné (Yazishnah) means a prayer setting forth the - greatness of the personage thus addressed. It is composed of - seventy-two Há, which the Parsees divide into two parts: the - first part contains twenty-seven Há, addressed to Ormuzd and - his creation; the second contains prayers addressed to the - Supreme Being; it speaks of man, of his wants, of the - several genii charged to protect him, etc. The word Há, - which signifies a portion of the Izeshné, is derived from - the Zend Hâetîm, or Hâtarim, portions. From Hâtaum is also - formed “Had,” which signifies “measure, limit.” The Izeshné - probably formed part of the Setud-yesht, the first Nosk of - the Avesta, or of the Setud-gher, the second Nosk. The - Izeshné is performed at the _Gah Havan_, or “sunrise;” when, - recited by itself without other prayers, the Izeshnéh Sadah - is read with the same ceremonies as the Vendidad Sâdeh, - excepting that the _Barsom_, or “sacred bundle of twigs” - [see hereafter, p. 319], consists then of only twenty-three - branches. The Vendidad and Vispered cannot be recited - without the Izeshné, and the Barsom for these two offices - consists of thirty-five branches. - - The term _Sâde_ means “pure,” or the text without a - translation. - - The two works, the Izeshné and Vispered, joined to the - Vendidad, the twentieth Nosk of the Avesta, form the - Vendidad Sadé, which the Mobeds are obliged to recite every - day, commencing at the _Gâh Oshen_, or “midnight,” or before - day-break, so that it may be finished before sunrise. - - Purifications, ordinances, marriages, in short all the - ceremonies of the law, depend on the due celebration of this - office.――D. S. - - [479] Lest demons or wizards should take them away and use - them in their enchantments.――D. S. - - [480] Upon Váj, see note, p. 296. - - In this translation, the reading of the manuscript has been - followed as being the most simple: there seems however - something omitted. Annexed is the form of prayer recited in - Váj, which means mental recitation: it is taken from - Anquetil du Perron: - - - THE PRAYERS RECITED BY PARSEES BEFORE MEAT. - - _Etha aad avirmede._――“Ormuzd is king: now I make Izeshné to - Ormuzd the giver of pure flocks, the giver of pure waters, - of pure trees, the giver of light, of earth, and of every - kind of good.” This is to be recited once. - - _Eshem Trihu._――“Abundance and paradise are reserved for the - just and undefiled person; he who does heavenly and pure - works.” To be recited three times. - - - PRAYERS AFTER MEAT. - - _Ethu ahu Virio._――“It is the desire of Ormuzd that the - chief (of the law) should perform pure and holy works. - Bahman gives (abundance) to him who acts with holiness in - the world. O Ormuzd! thou establishest as king whoever - comforts and nourishes the poor.” To be repeated twice. - - _Eshem vuhu._――“Abundance and paradise, etc.” To be repeated - once. - - _Ehmarestchi._――“Mayest thou remain always effulgent with - light! may thy body be always in good condition! may thy - body ever increase! may thy body be ever victorious! may thy - desires, when accomplished, ever render thee happy! mayest - thou always have distinguished children! mayest thou live - for ever! for length of time! for length of years! and - mayest thou be received for ever into the celestial abodes - of the holy, all radiant with light and happiness! enjoy a - thousand healths, ten thousand healths.” - - _Kereba mezada._――This form of prayer shall be quoted - hereafter. - - _Eshem Vuhu._――“Abundance and paradise, etc.” To be repeated - once. - - The commentator on this gate has evidently confounded Váj or - Váz with the Barsum; this mistake is not to be attributed to - the author of the Dabistán.――D. S. - - [481] Strabo, observes Anquetil (_Zand-Avesta_, p. 532), - alludes to the Barsom, where he says of the Magi: τὰς δὲ - ἀπωδὰς ποιουνται πολὺν ῥαβδων μυρικίνων λεπτων δέσμην - κατέχοντες· “They make their prayers a long time, holding a - bundle of slender twigs of tamarisk in their hands” - (_Geog._, lib. XV. p. 733).――D. S. - - [482] See pp. 292-3. - - [483] Anquetil du Perron says (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. p. - 601): “Of all the religions known, that of the Parsís is - perhaps the only one in which fasting be neither meritorious - nor even permitted. The Parsí, on the contrary, believes to - honor Ormuzd by nourishing himself well: because the body, - fresh and vigorous, renders the soul stronger against the - bad genii; because the man, feeling less want, reads the - word with more attention, and feels more courage for - performing good works; consequently several celestial - spirits are especially charged with watching over the - welfare of man: Rameshné, Kharom, Khordád, and Amerdád give - abundance and pleasures to him, and it is the last of the - Izeds mentioned who produces in the fruits the taste and - flavor which lead men to apply them to that use for which - Ormuzd has created them.”――A. T. - - [484] The cock is an animal held in great esteem by the - Parsees, who are enjoined to keep one in their houses; - Bahrám (Mars) appears under this form (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. - pp. 290. 602). The cock is called a Persian bird, and, - according to Athenæus, cocks came first from Persia (see - Hyde, p. 412).――A. T. - - [485] In the fifth period of eighty days were created the - 282 Sardah, or genera of birds and animals, viz.: 110 of - birds and 172 of animals (Hyde, _Rel. Vet. Pers._, p. - 164).――D. S. - - [486] According to Hyde’s translation of the _Sad-der_ (p. - 471): _caput ejus expiare oportet_, “an expiation is to be - performed over his head.”――A. T. - - [487] _Mezda_ or _Maz-dao_, in Zand, according to Rask, - means “God;” Bohlen and Mr. Bopp believe that this word is - of the same family as the Sanskrit _mahat_, “great;” M. - Eugene Burnouf, in a learned discussion, justifies the - interpretation “_multiscius_” given of this word by - Neriosengh (see _Commentaire sur le Yacna_, pp. 70-77).――A. T. - - The form of prayer called _Kimna va Mazda_ is probably the - same as the Kereba Mazda (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. p. 6), which - is as follows: “Grant, O Ormuzd, that my good works may - efface my sins; grant joy and content to my purified soul! - give me a share in all the good works and holy words of the - seven regions of the earth! May the earth enlarge itself! - may the rivers extend their courses! may the sun ever rise - on high! may such be the portion of the pure in life, - according to the wishes which I make.”――D. S. - - [488] For _yarshanom_, which is in the manuscripts and in - the edition of Calcutta, read _Barashnom_. This is the name - of one of the four sorts of purifications prescribed to the - Parsees; that called the _Barashnom of nine nights_, is - believed the most efficacious. It is performed in a garden - or in a retired place, where a piece of ground 90 feet in - length and 16 feet in breadth is chosen for it, and, after - having been cleaned and surrounded by a narrow ditch and a - hedge, covered with sand. Therein, after the celebration of - ceremonies during one or three days, a Mobed traces a number - of furrows or trenches, called _Keishs_, and forms several - heaps of stones according to prescribed rules; he prepares a - beverage of ox’s urine and water mixed with other sacred - liquids: this the person to be purified drinks in sacred - vases, then enters into the _Keishs_, accompanied by Mobeds - and a dog; there he strips, and receives on his body wine - poured over him, and washes himself with that given him by - the Mobed. During prayers recited by the purificator and - himself, he passes over several heaps of stones, his right - hand on his head and his left upon the dog, and is then - rubbed with dust; in his progress over other heaps of - stones, he washes himself several times with water. This - done, the purified person goes out of the trenches, and - performs other ablutions with water before he dresses and - puts on the _Koshti_, or “girdle.” The individual who takes - the _Barashnom_ remains separated from other men during nine - days, and at the end of the third, sixth, and ninth night, - he washes himself with a prescribed quantity of wine and - water, and is subject to other ceremonies. This is a very - short abstract of the ceremonies practised in our days; in - the _Vendidad Sadé_, other very minute particulars and - prayers are given for the performance of purification, the - usages of which have in the course of time undergone some - changes. See a completely detailed account of these rites of - purification in Anquetil’s elaborate work, _Zend-Avesta_, t. - I. 2. P. pp. 353-367, and t. II. pp. 545-548, with a plan of - the place upon which the Barashnom is performed.――A. T. - - [489] According to Olugh Beigh (Hyde, p. 190), the name of - the five supplementary days of the Persian year of 360 days - are as follows: Ahnavád, Ashnavád, Isfendamád or Máz, - Vahshat or Vahást, and Hashúnesh or Hashtuvish (see also p. - 62. n.).――A. T. - - [490] According to Anquetil (_Zend-Avesta_, II. p. 575) the - name of the five supplementary days is _Farvardians_, that - is, “the days of the Fervers of the law:” on these days, as - the Persians believe, the souls of the blessed and those of - the damned come to visit their relations, who receive them - with the greatest magnificence in their houses, purified and - adorned for the occasion. - - In the composition of the name Farvardigán, appears to have - entered the word Gáhs, which denotes also the Epagomenes, - and five female Izeds, or angels, who have formed, and - preserve, the bodies, and are occupied in heaven to weave - garments for the just (_Zand-Avesta_, I. 2. P. p. 221).――A. T. - - [491] It may be recollected that, during the short period of - the French Republic, the year was of twelve months, each of - thirty days, with the addition of five supplementary days, - called by some _Sansculotides_; these were festivals, - consecrated, the 1st, to Virtue; the 2nd, to Genius; the - 3rd, to Labour; the 4th, to Opinion; and the 5th, to - Recompense; every fourth or leap-year, there was a 6th day, - devoted to the Revolution.――A. T. - - [492] The manuscript reads: “Let her eat bread at night, - having wrapped up the hand in her sleeve and over that a - towel.”――D. S. - - [493] _Yasht_ is not found among the names of the Nosks - enumerated in the note, pp. 272-275.――A. T. - - [494] Every city and village must have the tree called - _Aderán_, or _Aderán Sháh_, or “the chief of fires.” - _Ader_ is the Pá-zend of Ateré, which signifies fire; which - word, in Parsee writings, means the several fires which - showed themselves to mankind under different forms, and also - their presiding genii; whilst Atesh signifies the common - fire. When a kitchen fire has been used three times, the - Parsees are bound to take it to the Aderán: the other fires - must be taken thither on the expiration of seven days, on - the day of Ader and those of his co-operating genii. The - fire Aderán itself is taken once every year, or at least - every three years, to the fire _Behram_, which is the result - of one thousand and one fires, taken from fifteen different - kinds of fire. In strictness there should be an Ader Behrám - in every province, and according to some Dustúrs, in every - city. On the expiration of a certain period, they take the - ashes of the Behrám, Aderán, and other fires into the - fields, and strew them over the cultivated grounds. It - requires a ceremonial of thirty days to prepare the Behrám - fire (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. p. 531).――D. S. - - [495] The Parsees use for their purifications seven things: - plain water; _Padiav_ water; water of power, or _ab-í-zúr_ - (according to Hyde, golden water) _Yeshtí_ water; earth; - _Noreng gomez_, or ox’s urine; and _Noreng gomez yeshtá_. - They must take care to have the plain water and the earth - free from all kind of impurity.――D. S. - - [496] _Padiav_ means “what renders or is rendered (pure) - like water.” To impart this quality to water, the officiating - priest puts it in a large vase, out of which he fills a - smaller vessel; he afterwards pours out some of the water - three times from the smaller into the larger vessel, - accompanying each act with certain forms of prayer, on which - the water becomes Padiav.――D. S. - - [497] See note, p. 325. - - [498] According to Anquetil Du Perron, _Khushnuman_ - signifies one who is pleased or favorable: this name is - given to a short prayer, or collect, which contains the - principal attributes of the being to whom it is addressed: - there are two kinds of it, the greater and the less: in the - former, after every attribute they repeat: “I offer thee - Izechné,” or “I praise and magnify thee;” in the latter form - this is only repeated after the enumeration of all the - attributes.――D. S. - - [499] See note, p. 315, Hyde translates _Darún yeshtén_, by - “expiatory banquet:” but according to Anquetil (_Zend-Avesta_, - t. I. 2. P. p. 237) the Darún Yeshté is a Parsi office, - which begins thus: - - “With the Barsom raised over the Zúr, I address in prayer - the great Ormuzd, brilliant in light and glory; also the - Amshaspands; and thee, O Fire! son of Ormuzd! - I address in prayer the wood and the perfumes! - . . . . thee, O Fire, son of Ormuzd! - . . . . the pure, the chiefs who walk in dignity - in this world! - I make Khushnuman; I address my prayer to Ormuzd, to the - Amshaspands, to the pure Surúsh, to the Fire of Ormuzd, the - great, the exalted, the holy! - I pray to the holy, pure, and great Vendidad given to Zoroaster! - . . . . . . . . Gahs. - . . . . . . . . Gahanbars, or the six - periods of creation.―― - . . . . . . . . Years and laud them.” - - _Darun yeshté_ also signifies “Festival Darúns,” or banquets - preceded by the recitation of the Izeshné, the Vendidad, and - the Darun, for which the officiating priest receives a new - dress. This bears out Hyde’s translation.――D. S. - - [500] The forms Jethá ahú viríyo, Eshem Vehu, and Jetha âúd - Jezmídé have been given under GATE 22.――The Homoctenaum is a - short prayer: “To think with purity, to act with purity, to - perform and execute it, to teach others the same, such is my - undertaking. I teach the same to men: may it turn to my - good!” The Hockhshéthrôtemâé: “The king who is pure and - elevated as I am, I will give him his desires; of him I, - Ormuzd the holy and heavenly, will take peculiar care.――” - The printed copy reads for Jétha âad Jezmédé, the words - اهم بريم يزمندی ايتا اهو. But as one manuscript reads Jétha âád - Jezmédé, it has been retained. The Hemoctaum and Hokhshéthrôtemâé - are also conjectural, as the two manuscripts and printed - copy present different readings. In the latter these are - read Homesham and Hochastar.――D. S. - - [501] In the Vendidad Sadé (_Zend-Avesta_, t. I. 2. P. p. - 386) we find: “The world is engendered from water; and at - present there are in the water two primeval aquatic dogs and - thousands of their females which produce by copulation - thousands of their species. To smite these aquatic dogs - causes all good things to be parched up; from that city or - place shall depart all that is sweet to the taste: wholesome - viands, health, longevity, abundance, rain, the source of - good, the profusion of temporal blessings; also whatever - grows on the earth, such as grain and pasturage.”――D. S. - - [502] In page 564, _Zend-Avesta_, t. II. we find: “The - Parsees who are desirous of leading happy lives, and of - having children who do them honor, must employ four priests - to repeat the Izeshné during three consecutive days and - nights: this rite is called the _Zindeh Ravan_, or ‘verifier - of the soul (at the moment of death).’” - - Surúsh, or Surúsh Ized, performs a most important part in - Parsee mythology (see note, p. 7).――D. S. - - [503] According to Anquetil du Perron, the following are - some of the ceremonies practised on such occasions. On the - approaching departure of the soul from the body, they - perform the _Sag-díd_ (the dog-saw) by presenting a dog - before the dying person, and that the animal may be induced - to look at him, they throw some bits of bread or meat near - the person. Without doubt Bardesanes, in _Euseb. præp. Evan. - lib._, p. 277, alludes to this custom where he says: “All - the Medes expose the dying, whilst yet breathing, to dogs - which have been carefully trained for that purpose;” and in - like manner (_Euseb. præp. Evang._, l. I. p. 11-12), where - he says: “Among the Hyrcanians and Caspians, some exposed - persons whilst yet alive to birds of prey and dogs; others - only the deceased: but the Bactrians exposed old people - whilst yet alive to dogs.” (See hereafter the note to GATE - 77.) - - The Parsees believe that, immediately after death, the soul, - like a feeble new-born infant, flutters during the first day - around the place where the person died; on the second, - around the Keshé, or place in the Dakhmé where the body is - deposited; and on the third around the Dakhmé or Parsi - burying-place; on the fourth, near the bridge of Chinavad, - where he is interrogated by Mithra and Rashné Rast, who also - weigh his actions. During the three first days, they - celebrate the Surúsh Yasht, the Surúsh Darún, the Patet - Mokhtat (of souls), and the Surúsh Afergan. Patet signifies - a general confession of all sins a person may have committed. - Afergáns and Afrins are prayers in the form of thanksgivings - accompanied with supplications and benedictions. On the - third night, at the Gah Oshen, they celebrate four Daruns: - the first in honor of Rashné Rast; the second of Raon Ized; - the third of Surúsh, with six Darúns, three large and three - small; and the fourth in honor of the Ferouers of the - Saints: with this last they place four dresses, along with - fruits and cheese, all of which are for the officiating - priest.――D. S. - - [504] The Niyayish is an humble and submissive form of - prayer, of which there are five, addressed to five Izeds, - and containing their panegyrics: the sun, Mithra, the moon, - the female Ardouisur, and the fire Behrám. Amongst the - attributes of Ardouisur are: making females prolific, pure, - giving them happy child-births, supplying milk, etc. The - great Vorôokeshé makes every thing grow and exist in those - places where it flows, and whither it bears the element of - water, from the source Ardouisur of a thousand channels and - a thousand arms, each of which extends to a journey of forty - days as performed by a well-mounted horseman.――D. S. - - [505] According to Hyde’s version Gojestah, or Gosakhtah, - became the devil, because he lapsed from the truth and - lessened it. When he saw he had to contend against the - truth, he fell prostrate in astonishment during a thousand - years, and dared not venture to approach the world, but - remained groaning and trembling in his own place. I cannot - find this tradition in the _Zend-Avesta_, according to - which, Bomasp is the demon of falsehood. On the authority of - GATE 91, I prefer reading Gokhastah to Kusastah, or “the - broken.” Hyde (p. 180) mentions that the Indo-Persians - reckon Gegjesta Ghanáminu the immediate minister of - Ahriman.――D. S. - - [506] According to an ancient custom which is observed even - in our days, the mouth of a dying Parsí is applied to that - of a dog, who is to receive the man’s last breath. This - custom may have occasioned the belief that the Persians let - dogs devour their sick and dying. So says Herodotus (l. - III.); Strabo (l. XI.) names the Bactrians and Sogdians as - feeding for this purpose certain dogs, whom they call - “buriers of the dead;” Cicero (Tusc., l. XLV) mentions the - same of the Hyrcanians. Certainly, different customs - prevailed in different times among the numerous nations who - inhabited the vast empire of Persia: hence may be explained - the various and sometimes contradictory accounts of ancient - authors whose affirmation, denial, and silence, with respect - to a particular fact, may however, in many instances, with - equal truth but with due restriction, be applied to - particular places and epochs.――A. T. - - [507] The Parsis, from the most ancient to our times, - neither bury nor burn their dead, but expose them to be - devoured by birds and wild beasts. They fear to pollute the - earth and the fire, which they hold sacred. It is, however, - well established that they built formerly very magnificent - sepulchres for kings and eminent men, to whom probably the - privilege of such monumental graves was confined.――A. T. - - [508] The readings in the manuscript and printed copy are - both erroneous; therefore Yarshanom, Pituft Irash, and Tipat - Barash have, on the authority of Anquetil Du Perron, been - changed into Barashnom, and Patet Iran. - - [509] Among the animals, cows, sheep, and fowls are - particularly specified.――D. S. - - [510] For Eshem Vehu, see GATE 22. - - [511] The same is said of Mohammed, see note, p. 3. - - [512] If the epoch of Kaíomars be adopted according to - Ferdusi, 3529 B. C., that of Zoroaster would be = 529 years - before our era. In the Mojmel al Tavarikh (IVth chapter, - upon the chronology of the philosophers and some kings of - Rúm) it is stated that, since Zoroaster appeared, 1700 years - had elapsed to the time of the author, who wrote in the year - 1530 of the Hejira, or A. D. 1126; therefore Zoroaster would - have lived 574 years B. C. If the 1700 years be taken for - lunar years, the epoch would answer to 522 before the - Christian era.――A. T. - - [513] For _Pávyáb_, or according to Anquetil du Perron, - _Padiav_ water, see GATE 54. This word may perhaps be - derived from the Sanskrit पू _pú_, “to purify;” पवित्र - _pavitra_, “pure;” पवित्रं _pavitram_, “water, rain, - cleansing in general, a sacrificial implement.”――A. T. - - [514] For Adar Behrám, or the fire of Behram, see note on - GATE 53. Instead of Var Behrám and Vār Behrām of the - manuscript, and Varcháram of the edit. of Calcutta, Adar - Behrám has been adopted on Hyde’s authority.――D. S. - - [515] Bahrám is the most active of the Izeds, the king of - all the beings; with a celestial body, receiving his glory - and splendor from Ormuzd, he presides over the 20th day of - the month; he bestows health and victory, and combats the - Dívs. He appears under the form of a young man of fifteen - years, and under those of different animals; that of a cock - has already been mentioned (see note, p. 324); he appears - besides as a bull, a horse, a camel, a ram, a he-goat, a - lamb. He is also identified with the planet Mars, and acts a - great part in the ancient history of Persia. See _Zand-Avesta_, - t. I. 2. P. pp. 83. 86. 91; t. II. pp. 98. 287. 289. 290. - 294. 321. 356. and in other places.――A. T. - - [516] The Calcutta edition reads _Pímasídím_; the above - agrees nearly with the name given by Anquetil, which is - _Hamespethmédem_. The other names of the Gahambars, - according to the spelling of that author, are, from the - first to the fifth, as follow: _Medïozerem_, _Medïoshem_, - _Peteschem_, _Eïathrem_, and _Médïarem_. The statement - relative to these six festivals, as contained in the Afrín - of the Gahambar _Zend-Avesta_, t. II. pp. 82-87) coincides - with that of the Dabistán. Ormuzd himself holds out - remunerations to those who rightly celebrate each of these - days, and condign punishments to those who neglect the - prescribed observances.――A. T. - - [517] In the _Ardi Viraf nameh_ we read, that the river of - hell, most black and frigid, is made of the tears of those - who mourn for the dead; to the surviving friends silence and - pious mussitation in remembering the merits of the dead are - recommended.――A. T. - - [518] See note, p. 105. - - [519] Nothing existed before the first principle began the - work of creation; this principle is called in the - _Bun-Dehesh Zaruam akarené_, “the boundless time;” that is, - “sine extremitatibus anterioribus et posterioribus.” - Distinct from it is “the long time,” which is said to be - created by God, and not “self-existing” as the first. Among - the productions of this first principle, some are “self-creating,” - such as Ormuzd and Ahriman (see note, pp. 235-236); others - act only upon what exists already, such as the three - substances――the primordial light, the primordial water, and - the primordial fire. This is the doctrine expressed in Zand, - Pehlvi, and the most ancient Persian books. The above - statement about the eternal existence of the heavens seems - therefore not in accordance with it. The Abádians or the - Kaiomarsiáns acknowledged the good principle under the name - of _Yezdan_, and the bad principle under that of _Ahriman_; - but they believed that the first only was from eternity, and - not the last; or in other terms, that light only was eternal - and darkness created. The cosmogony of this sect was the - same as that related in the _Bun-Dehesh_, or as that of - Zoroaster; it is briefly as follows: The primordial bull was - the principle of all irrational creatures as well as of the - human race. According to the _Izeshné_ and the _Bun-Dehesh_, - the primitive man came forth from the side of the bull; he - was called in Zand _gaya mereta_, and in Pehlvi _gayo mard_; - a word compounded of _gaya_, “bull or life,” and of - _mĕrĕta_, “mortal,” or “man;” hence came _Gayomars_, or - _Kaïomars_, the name of a most ancient Persian king (see - note, p. 29). From the seed of Gayomard sprung a tree which - was shaped like two men, and the fruit of which comprised - ten different species of men; from these two bodies came the - twins Meshia and Meshiané, man and woman, the ancestors of - mankind. Although created for happiness, they were seduced - by Ahriman, and averted from the adoration of Ormuzd; they - wandered in the wilderness, were addicted to hunting, clad - in skins of animals, and their posterity peopled the earth. - - But Ormuzd did not forsake his creatures. In order to - emancipate them from the rule of Ahriman, he destined to - them his word, the law of Zartusht, who always existed, but - his _feruer_, that is, “the ideal of his perfection,” was to - be produced by Zardusht’s fire. - - He was to be preceded by _Hom_, the first apostle of the - law, whom Jemshid followed. This king and prophet erected - but few fire-temples; mankind venerated the elements and the - stars, not without a number of evil genii, and a gross - superstition began to prevail. For opposing this and - renewing the primitive law, Zardusht appeared.――A. T. - - [520] It appears quite conformable with true psychology to - derive the origin of the evil spirit from jealousy, as was - said in the note at p. 236, or from apprehension, doubt, - suspicion, or envy, as above.――A. T. - - [521] According to the _Boun Dehesh_ (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. - pp. 347-348), Ormuzd will during three thousand years move - alone; during three other thousand years, his operations - will be blended with those of his adversary; the subsequent - three thousand years will belong to Ahriman; and in the last - three, completing the period of twelve thousand years, the - author of evil shall disappear; and at the resurrection of - the dead and the renewal of the bodies――previous to which - event are to appear the three posthumous sons of Zoroaster - (see note, pp. 281-282)――the world shall be without evil - during all ages. - - The ultimate fate of Ahriman is stated in the _Vendidad Sadé - Izeshné_ and _Vispered_, as follows (_Zend-Avesta_, t. I. 2. - P. p. 169): “That unjust, that impure being, who is a Div - but in his thoughts; that dark king of the Darwands, who - understands nothing but evil; he shall, at the resurrection, - recite the Avesta, and not only himself practise the law of - Ormuzd, but establish it even in the habitations of the - Darwands.” Moreover it is said (_Zend-Avesta_, t. II. pp. - 415-416), that Ahriman, that lying serpent, shall at the end - of ages be purified by fire, as well as the earth be freed - from the dark abode of hell; Ormuzd and Ahriman, accompanied - by all the good and evil genii, shall sing the praises of - the author of all good.”――A. T. - - [522] Záíd and Amru are two names which grammarians use in - giving an example for any two individuals, such as may be - said A. and B.――A. T. - - [523] The author of the _Dabistán_ names no other famous - teachers or sectaries of Magism, after the death of - Zoroaster, besides Ardai Viraf, Azarbád, and Mazdak: he - treats of this last in particular in the subsequent section, - previously to which we cannot omit adverting to Mani or - Manes, whose name occurs in this book but once occasionally, - as that of a painter (see note, p. 205). He is however much - more reputed as the founder of a new doctrine, called from - him _Manichæism_, which spread its ramifications widely - through the Christian world. According to several authors, - Mani was a Christian priest, and pretended to act the part - of Paraclet, the announced successor to Jesus Christ; - according to Khondemir, he endeavored to substitute himself - for Mohammed, to whom that prophecy respecting a Paraclet - was applied by the Muselmans. However it be, Mani’s - Enghelion, or Gospel, has not been preserved, nor any other - work written by himself; the books of his followers too, - such as could be found, were burnt. His religion is stated - to have been a mixture of Magism, Brahmanism or Buddhism, - Judaism, and Christianism; Shahristani, often quoted in this - work, and Mohammed Ibn el Nedim el Werrak, author of the - Fehrist (a history of literature), agree in representing his - doctrine as a branch of Magism with some Christianism - ingrafted upon it. - - The two points attributed to Mani by the commentator of the - Desátir, namely, the permission to kill harmless animals, - and the prohibition of sexual intercourse, belong rather to - the ethical or practical, than to the theological, part of - his religion, which distinguished itself by particular - dogmas and opinions relative to the duality of principle, - good and bad, light and darkness, involving other metaphysical - questions. These, we know, were common to other religions in - all times. Before Manes, Christian sects combined the said - principles with the dogmas of their religion: so did the - followers of Basilides, Marcion, Bardesanes, Valentius, and - others. These, as well as after them the disciples of Manes, - happen to be not seldom confounded with the Gnostics, which - name was applied to different sectaries, chiefly Neo-platonics, - from the earliest to later times of Christianism. The - Manichæans rejected the Old Testament entirely, and partly - the New, which they interpreted according to their opinion. - They disputed about the nature of Jesus, and modified - Christian theology; they believed a region inhabited by God - and the pure spirits, prior to the creation; a world, - created of an eternal and self-existing matter; ten heavens - and eight earths; two empires, the one of light and the - other of darkness; the last, ruled by the great Lord, called - “matter;” demons with material souls and bodies; the soul no - part of the divinty, but united with the body to govern it; - two souls in every man; the propagation of souls; a - transmigration of souls into animals; the stars, and every - thing in nature, even the stones, animated; the rotundity of - heaven and of the earth; antipodes; and other theses too - many to be all enumerated in this place. They had besides - particular rites of worship, from which the veneration of - the sun, the moon, and other stars, was not excluded; they - were averse to matrimony, and generally austere in their - manners. See about this extensive subject the _Mémoires_ of - the learned Abbé Foucher, in the _Hist. de l’Acad. Royale - des Insc. et Belles-Lett._, t. xxix, and the work quoted, - _Hist. crit. de Manichée_, by Beausobre.――A. T. - - - - -THE FIFTEENTH SECTION GIVES AN ACCOUNT OF THE TENETS HELD BY THE -FOLLOWERS OF MAZDAK.――Mazdak was a holy and learned man, -contemporary with king Kobad; his religion was extensively -diffused, but he was at last put to death by the illustrious -Nushirvan; his tenets were as follow: from the commencement -without beginning, the world had two creators; the agent of good, -_Yazdan_, “God,” or “light;” and the agent of evil, _Ahriman_, or -“darkness.” The supreme God is the author of good, and from him -proceeds nothing but good; consequently, intelligences, souls, -heavens, and stars are his creation, in all which Ahriman has no -share whatever; the elements and their combinations are, in like -manner, the productions of the Lord; the influence of fire -imparts warmth to those stricken with cold; the breathing of the -winds gives coolness and ease to those consumed by heat; the -water satisfies those parched with thirst; the earth is the place -of ambulation. In like manner, their combinations, such as gold -and silver among minerals; the fruit-bearing trees among -vegetables; the ox, horse, sheep, and camel, of animals; the -pious and beneficent among mankind, are his creation: but the -consuming of animals by fire; the destruction of living creatures -by the sultry simoom (wind); the foundering of ships in floods; -the cutting bodies asunder by iron, or their being pricked by -thorns; rapacious and noxious animals, such as lions, tigers, -scorpions, serpents, and the like, are all the works of Ahriman; -and as he has no share in the empyreal heaven, they style it -_Behisht_; but as he possesses a joint authority in the elemental -world, opposition has consequently arisen, and no form subsisting -in it is possessed of permanent duration. For example: the -Almighty bestows life, and Ahriman puts to death; life is the -creation of God, death that of Ahriman; God produced health, -Ahriman, pain and disease; the Bestower of blessings created -paradise, Ahriman, hell; the worship of the Lord is therefore -most meet, as his kingdom is immense; and Ahriman has no power, -except in the elemental world; in the next place, the spirit of -every one devoted to God ascends on high, but that of Ahriman’s -servants abides in hell. Wisdom therefore requires the man of -intelligence to separate himself from the Ahrimans; for although -the author of evil may afflict such a person, yet on being -delivered from the body, his soul ascends to Heaven, whither -Ahriman has not the power of coming. - -In some parts of the _Desnad_,[524] Mazdak says: “Existence -arises from two principles or sources, _Shíd_ and _Tár_,” _i. -e._: ‘light’ and ‘darkness,’ which he afterwards interprets to -mean God and Ahriman. He afterwards says: “The works of light -result from choice, but those of darkness from accident; light is -endued with knowledge and sensation, darkness is ignorant; the -mixture of light and darkness is accidental, and the -disengagement of light from darkness is also accidental, and not -the result of choice; whatever is good in this world is an -advantage emanating from light, whilst evil and corruption arise -from darkness; when the parts of light are separated from -darkness, the compound becomes dissolved, which means -resurrection.” Again, he says in the same volume: “There are -three roots, or principles: water, fire, and earth; when these -are blended together, the tendency to good or evil arising from -their mixture is also accidental; whatever results from their -purest parts tends to good, and whatever is derived from their -grosser parts tends to evil.” He says in the same volume: “God is -seated on a throne in the world, the source of all things, just -as kings are on the throne of sovereignty in the lower world. In -his presence are the four energies, namely, _Bázkushá_, or ‘power -of discrimination;’ _Yáddah_, or ‘power of memory;’ _Dáná_, or -‘faculty of comprehension;’ and _Surá_, or ‘gladness;’ in like -manner as the affairs of royalty turn on four persons: “the -Supreme Pontiff, the principal Hirbud, the commander in chief of -the forces, and the master of the revels. And these four persons -conduct the affairs of the world through the agency of seven -others, inferior to them in rank, namely, chieftain, -administrator, _Banúr_,[525] _Dairván_ (head of a monastery), -agent, _Dostúr_, and slave; which seven characters comprehend -under them the twelve _Rawání_, or ‘orbits’ of spirits, namely: -the speaker, giver, taker, bearer, eater, runner, grazer, slayer, -smiter, comer, goer, and abider. Whatever man unites in himself -the four energies, the seven agents, and the twelve qualities, -becomes in this lower world like a creator or protector, and is -delivered from all kinds of embarrassment.” - -It is also stated in the same volume: “Whatever is not according -with the light and agrees with darkness, becomes wrath, -destruction, and discord. And whereas almost all contentions -among mankind have been caused by riches and women, it is -therefore necessary to emancipate the female sex and have wealth -in common: he therefore made all men partners in riches and -women; just as they are of fire, water, and grass,” In the same -volume we find: “It is a great injustice that one man’s wife -should be altogether beautiful, whilst another’s is quite the -contrary; it therefore becomes imperative, on the score of -justice and true religion, for a good man to resign his lovely -wife for a short time to his neighbour, who has one both evil and -ugly; and also take to himself for a short time his neighbour’s -deformed consort.” - -Mazdak has also said: “It is altogether reprehensible and -improper that one man should hold a distinguished rank, and -another remain poor and destitute of resources: it is therefore -incumbent on the believer to divide his wealth with his -coreligionist; and so taught the religion of Zardusht, that he -should even send his wife to visit him, that he may not be -deprived of female society. But if his coreligionist should prove -unable to acquire wealth, or show proofs of extravagance, -infatuation, or insanity, he is to be confined to the house, and -measures adopted to provide him with food, clothing, and all -things requisite: whoever assents not to these arrangements is -consequently a follower of Ahriman’s, and they get contributions -from him by compulsion.” - -_Farhád_, _Shíráb_, and _Ayin Hoshpúyár_ adopted this creed; -besides these, _Muhammed Kúlí_ the Kurd, _Ismail Bég_, the -Georgian, and _Ahmadai of Tiran_ (a village near Ispahan) -possessed this faith. From them it has been ascertained, that the -followers of Mazdak do not at present assume the dress of Gebers, -but practise their religion secretly among the Muhammedans. They -also showed the author the volume of Mazdak, called the _Desnad_, -written in old Persian, which _Ayin Shakib_, the grandfather of -_Ayin Hosh_, translated into popular Persian. _Farhod_ was a man -of great intelligence, and assumed the name of _Muhammed Said -Beg_ among the Muhammedans: Shirab went under the name of _Shir -Muhammed_, and _Ayin Hosh_ under that of _Muhammed Akil_; and as -they were eminent in their peculiar science, they possessed the -volume called the _Desnád_. Such is the detailed account of the -Parsi systems, agreeably to the promise made in the beginning of -this work, into which not a single one has been admitted which -has not either been taken from their own books, or heard from the -followers of the respective creeds, as their enemies have, from -hostile motives, falsely ascribed to them various erroneous -doctrines.[526] - - - [524] Desnad, the volume which contains the doctrines of - Mazdak.――D. S. - - [525] A word not in the dictionaries; if derivable from बाण - _bána_, “an arrow,” it may signify “an archer, head-archer;” - if from बाणी _bání_, “speech,” it may be “a speaker, an - orator.”――A. T. - - [526] This first chapter of the Dabistán, here finished, - represents the Sabæismus, or the worship of the heavenly - bodies, and the formation of society by a race of kings, - called the Máhábádiáns, who were succeeded by the Péshdádiáns, - and other known dynasties of the Persian kings. We see laid - down the principal features of Asiatic monarchies which have - been preserved from times immemorial to our days. The - Dabistán, it is true, blends the ideas of more recent epochs - with those of the highest antiquity, and introduces sects of - later times, the origin of which he traces back to the times - of Abád, Húshang, and Zohák. It is however clear, that a - very ancient religion prevailed in Asia, consisting of two - principal points: the first was the adoration of the Creator - of all good, whose unity was acknowledged very early by the - enlightened class of men; the second point was the detestation - of the author of all physical and moral evil. This religion - inculcated purity of thoughts, words, and actions, and a - tender regard for animal life; not without a great number of - liturgical rites, dietetical observances, and other - regulating customs in private and public. We may comprise - under the general name of “Magismus” the fourteen religions - mentioned in this chapter, the last but one of which, - namely, that of Zardusht, appears to have been but a new - systematic arrangement, not without a partial reform, of the - old general religion of Asia, which has also been attributed - to a more ancient Zardusht. - - The duality of principle (good and bad) seems to come home - to the common feeling of mankind; but it implies metaphysical - questions about the creation, anteriority, posteriority, - derivation and duration of light and darkness, about which - the different sects are divided by their dogmas and - opinions. That of the Zardushtiáns derived from God light - and darkness, and considered the last as a shadow inseparable - from the body. Zardusht was a dualist, inasmuch as he - adopted light and darkness, as two eternal principles - opposed to each other, and also inasmuch as he taught two - immediate authors of good and evil, who were independent of, - and absolutely contrary to, each other: but he was an - unitarian, inasmuch as he subordinated these authors to the - eternal decrees of the Supreme Being, who to him was the - only principle of the universe, with respect not only to its - original creation, but also to all its physical and moral - accidents. - - Although subdivided into sects, Zardusht’s religion appears - to have been dominant, until the forcible introduction of - Muhammedanism among the Persians, and zealously supported by - the preaching of four wise men, called Sásán, who lived from - 240 to 643 of the Christian era. - - Here follow the principal epochs of the Zardushtián religion - from the time of Gushtasp to the end of the ancient Persian - monarchy: - - THE REIGNS OF ACCORDING TO FERDUSI. - - I. GUSHTASP _from_ 652 _to_ 505 B. C. Then lived Zardusht. - - II. ALEXANDER ―― 337-323 id. The First Sásan (Desátir, - pp. 185. 186). - - III. ARDESHIR BABEGAN ―― 200-240 A. D. Arda Viraf. - - IV. SHAPUR II ―― 240-271 id. } Arzabad, the son of - } Marasfand, Sásan II. - } (Desát, p. 188.) - V. BAHRAM, the son of } Mani. - Hormuzd ―― 272-276 id. } - - VI. KOBAD ―― 488-531 id. Sásan III. Mazdak. - - VII. KHOSRU PARVIS ―― 591-628 id. } The Fourth and the - VIII. YEZDEJERD ―― 632-652 id. } Fifth Sásan. - ――A. T. - - - -END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. - - - - -ERRATA. - - - P. 31 (note) last line. Instead of “He,” read “Hushang.” This - part of the note, to begin from “Hushang,” ought to have been - placed higher up, at the beginning of the last paragraph, - before “Jemshid,” also called “Jemshar.” - - P. 57 (note) l. 5. Instead of “assumed by,” read “given to.” - - - - -PARIS: - -Printed by Madame V^{e} DONDEY-DUPRÉ, - -46, rue St-Louis, au Marais. - - - - -Transcriber Note: - -This book was written in a period when many words had not become -standardized in their spelling. Words and names have multiple spelling -variations, inconsistent hyphenation and inconsistent accent marks. -Misspelled words in English, Greek, Persian and Sanskrit were left -unchanged. Accent marks for transliterations of Persian and Sandskrit -were standardized with accents placed above vowels, and letters d, t, -and s; a high comma precedes aspirated consonants, such as h, d, t, -and s. Words in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like this_. -Superscripts are within braces, preceded by a carat, e. g. 1^{er}. - -Duplicate words were removed. Obvious printing errors, such as upside -down, backwards, or missing letters, and letters in the wrong order, -were corrected. Spaces were added or removed between words, as -appropriate. Quotation marks and parentheses were adjusted to standard -usage. Missing stops were added to abbreviations and ends of -sentences. Missing commas were added between items in lists. Commas -were changed to stops at ends of sentences. - -Footnotes were numbered sequentially and were moved to the end of the -section in which they occurred. Anchors for Footnotes 69, 85, 192, 364, -479, 482, 489 are missing in the original; for 69, 85, 364, 489, -anchors were added where they likely belonged. Location for anchors -192 and 482 could not be determined. There are two anchors to -Footnotes 117, 138, and 232. - -Noted, not changed: - - The word “ibid” occasionally is not in italics. - III^{ter} Buch, should be des III^{ten} Buches, footnote 87. - For consistency, paragraph number V., should be 5., on page clxiv. - The word “sir” is occasionally lower case as a title. - Dots were used instead of ditto marks in footnote 499. - Page cite in footnote 105 should be 134, not 190, as printed. - In the errata at the end of the book, P. 31 (note) refers to footnote 256, - and P. 57 (note) refers to footnote 292. - -Other changes: - - Removed extraneous comma between “latter formed,” page lii. - Changed semicolon to full stop after “East India Company,” page clxxxix. - Changed colon to semicolon after the word “completed,” page 20. - Changed colon to semicolon in series of phrases in the quotation on page 150. - Changed stop to colon, third paragraph, page 196. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dabistán, Volume 1 (of 3), by -David Shea and Anthony Troyer and Muòhsin Fåanåi - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DABISTÁN, VOLUME 1 (OF 3) *** - -***** This file should be named 63275-0.txt or 63275-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/2/7/63275/ - -Produced by Édith Nolot, Bryan Ness, Carol Brown and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |