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diff --git a/old/63276-0.txt b/old/63276-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 17d09b5..0000000 --- a/old/63276-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13777 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dabistán, Volume 2 (of 3), by -David Shea and Anthony Troyer and Muòhsin Fåanåi - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Dabistán, Volume 2 (of 3) - or School of manners, translated from the original Persian, - with notes and illus. - -Author: David Shea - Anthony Troyer - Muòhsin Fåanåi - -Release Date: September 23, 2020 [EBook #63276] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DABISTÁN, VOLUME 2 (OF 3) *** - - - - -Produced by Édith Nolot, Carol Brown, Richard Hulse, Bryan -Ness and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -THE DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS. - - - - -MADAME VEUVE DONDEY-DUPRÉ, -Printer to the Asiatic Societies of London, Paris, and Calcutta. -46, rue St-Louis, Paris. - - - - -THE - -DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS, - -TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN, - -WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, - -BY - -DAVID SHEA, - -OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY’S -COLLEGE; - -AND - -ANTHONY TROYER, - -MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, -OF CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS; - -EDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER. - - -VOLUME II. - - -PARIS: - -PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. - -SOLD BY - -BENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIOTHÈQUE ROYALE. - -7, RUE DU CLOITRE SAINT-BENOIT. - -AND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL-STREET, LONDON. - -1843. - - - - -THE DABISTÁN, - -OR - -SCHOOL OF MANNERS. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - -THE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN describes in twelve sections the -religious systems of the Hindus: - -_Section_ 1. Concerning the tenets of the _Búdah-Mímánsa_, the -followers of which are also called _Samártikan_ (_Smártís_), or -“legalists,” and are orthodox Hindus. - -_Sect._ 2. Records some of their opinions relative to the creation: -their _Purans_ (_Tarikhs_), or “histories,” treat of the same subject. - -_Sect._ 3. The religious ceremonies and acts of the _Smártís_, and -their orthodoxy. - -_Sect._ 4. Treats of the followers of the _Vedanta_, who form the -philosophers and Súfís of this sect. - -_Sect._ 5. Concerning those who profess the _Sankhya_ doctrines. - -_Sect._ 6. Treats of the _Jogís_ and their doctrines. - -_Sect._ 7. Describes the tenets of the _Saktíán_. - -_Sect._ 8. The opinions and ceremonies of the worshippers of _Vishnú_. - -_Sect._ 9. Treats of the _Chárvákián_. - -_Sect._ 10. Describes the system of the _Tárkikán_, who are profound -investigators and deep thinkers in theology. - -_Sect._ 11. On the tenets held by the followers of _Búdah_ (_Buddha_). - -_Sect._ 12. On various religious systems professed by the people of -India. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE FIRST――CONCERNING THE ORTHODOX HINDOO SYSTEM. As -inconstant fortune had torn away the author from the shores of Persia, -and made him the associate of the believers in transmigration and -those who addressed their prayers to idols and images and worshipped -demons, therefore the tenets held by this most subtle class of -reasoners come to be considered next after those of the Parsees. It is -however necessary to premise, that among the Hindus there are many -systems of religion, and innumerable creeds and ceremonies: but there -is one principal class of this people (as will be shown in the tenth -chapter), and its rank and dignity will be brought into evidence. - -Like Zardusht and the sages of antiquity, they have recourse to -metaphorical and enigmatical figures of speech, as will appear evident -in the course of this narration. Long before the present work, the -author had from books ascertained their various systems, according to -a plan which he now voluntarily abandons; as in the year of the -Hejirah 1063 (A. D. 1653), whilst sojourning at Srikakul, the capital -of Kalinga,[1] certain eminent persons who were the author’s intimate -friends, had travelled in that direction for the purpose of visiting -their holy stations; one day a conference took place, on which the -author reviewed anew what he had before heard, and with the pen of -accuracy drew the line of erasure over all that was doubtful; so that -there was found a wide difference between the first and second work on -these points. - - -SUMMARY OF THE DOCTRINES CONTAINED IN THE BUDAH MIMANSA.[2] The whole -world is not governed by the orders of a real Lord, and there is in -truth no reality in his actual existence. Whatever of good or evil, -reward or punishment, attaches to created beings, is entirely the -result of their acts, deeds, and words; mortals are altogether captive -in the trammels of their own works, and confined in the chains of -their own deeds: without previous acts they are liable to no -consequences. The sovereign, _Brahma_, the creator of all things; the -angelic _Víshnu_, their preserver; and _Mahesh_, or _Siva_, the -destroyer of existences, attained to this exalted eminence through -means of righteous acts and holy deeds; nay, Brahma, through the -efficacy of worship, the power of obedience, the might of his -religious austerities, and by his good actions, created the world; -agreeably to the express declaration of the _Véda_,[3] which according -to the belief of the Hindus is a celestial revelation, every dignity -of the celestial orders is inseparably connected with meritorious -works and holy deeds; and as the intellectual soul is of the same -nature as the angelic essence, the possessor may, by the exercise of -angelic qualities, become one of those exalted dignities, and during a -lengthened but definite period, be invested with power and glory. For -instance, the human spirit, which in knowledge and good works has -attained to a degree accounted worthy of the rank of Brahma, is, on -the termination of the period of sovereignty assigned to the present -Brahma, appointed to that predestined dignity: the same principle also -applying to the other angelic degrees. - -This tenet therefore leads to the same inference as the opinions -entertained by the distinguished Parsee sages, namely: that the -spirits of men, on attaining complete perfection, become united to the -heavenly bodies, and after many revolutions, the celestial souls are -blended with the divine intelligences. According to the Mobed: - - “The cup-bearer poured into the goblet the wine of the celestial - soul, - And filled the nine empyreal domes with the beverage of human - spirit.” - -The world has neither beginning nor ending; moreover all spirits are -enchained in the bonds of their own acts and deeds; so that the spirit -of high rank which adopts the practices of the inferior, cannot attain -to the sublime rank peculiarly assigned to exalted conduct; and the -inferior spirit, sedulously given up to the works of those eminent in -dignity, is enabled to obtain that glorious pre-eminence; so that -their meritorious works confer on them knowledge; and the purity of -their intellects, in proportion to their elevation, conducts them to -high degrees and praiseworthy deeds. The dominion obtained by an -animal body over the human soul arises from works; as in their -members, physical structure, and senses, all men are fashioned after -one model; but through the cause of becoming or unbecoming deeds, one -is a sovereign ruler, and another a destitute dependent. Thus, through -the influence of praiseworthy acts, one is honored and opulent; and -owing to a subservience to foul deeds, another lives degraded and -indigent; the high and dignified agent of opulence and honor falls not -into the depths of poverty, nor does the wretched slave to acts of -covetousness and avarice ever attain the dignity of honor and riches. -The world is the root and productive soil of works, and time is their -developer; because, when their time comes, it brings the fruit, just -as every season produces the flowers, sweet-scented plants, and fruits -suitable to the period; in like manner, the result of every act, -whether deserving of praise or censure, is made to adhere to its -agent, in whatever revolution that may be proper for it. Works are -divided into two kinds: those which are to be performed; the other, -those which are to be avoided: under the first, come those acts, the -performance of which is enjoined in the Vedas, or the celestial -revelation, such as the established worship and the requisite acts of -obedience which prevail among the Hindoos; under the second head come -those acts, the committing of which is forbidden by the text of the -celestial code; such as shedding blood, theft, immoral practices, and -other similar acts there enumerated. The supreme Lord stands not in -need of our adoration and obedience, nor is he in any want of us for -the performance of the above-mentioned duties at our hands; but the -results of our acts and deeds, in reference to rewards and -punishments, accrue and adhere to us. For instance, if the invalid -should adopt habitual moderation, he obtains that health which is the -object of his wishes, and his existence is thereby rendered happy; but -should he, from a bias to reprehensible pleasures, the concomitants of -disease, withdraw from the restraints of abstinence, his life becomes -embittered; the physician, in either case, being totally independent -of the patient’s welfare and sufferings. Moreover, the world is the -abode of disease, and human beings are the patients: if they acquit -themselves in the most perfect manner of their prescribed duties, and -strenuously avoiding what ought not to be done, they attain the state -of health, the most elevated degree of which is liberation from this -degraded body, and union with the ambrosial sweets of paradise; which -state is called _Mukti_ by this sect; and the mode of attaining the -highest degree of Mukti is not being immersed in the pleasures of this -world, plucking away the heart from the gratifications of sense, being -content with mere necessaries, abstaining from food, breaking the fast -with viands not relished by the vile appetite, and such like: just as -in sickness, for the sake of dissolving the morbid matter, it becomes -necessary to fast one day, and to swallow bitter draughts. - -Such is the substance of the tenets professed by the sect entitled -Budah-Mimansá, which coincide exactly with those of the Yezdáníáns, -except that the latter admit the being of the self-existent God, the -sole and true object of adoration; regarding the acts and deeds -performed in this world as the means of elevation and degradation in -the next; holding the angelic dignities to be imperishable; and -esteeming human perfection to consist in attaining to the society and -service of the sublime assembly in the court of heaven; whilst the -followers of the Budah Mimansa do not admit the existence of the -eternal and infinite Lord; but according to them, the term “Almighty” -signifies the human soul, acts, and deeds. They also assert, that the -blessings of paradise are transitory, and that the angelic dignities -are liable to perish. However, the orthodox opinion, which is most -prevalent at this time, is this: they admit the being of the -truly-existing God, by whom the world subsists; but account his holy -essence altogether exalted, and exempt from whatever effects created -beings. They also believe that human beings are confined by the yokes -of their own works, and enchained by their deeds, in the manner before -stated. - - - [1] The name of a country: this name is applied in the - Puranas to several places, but it usually signifies a - district on the Coromandel coast, extending from below - Cuttack to the vicinity of Madras.――D. S. - - [2] بوده ميمنس is the reading of the edition of Calcutta; - the same spelling of _Budh_, or _Budah_, is found when the - name of the legislator, properly _Buddha_, is introduced, as - in p. 175 of the same edition, and elsewhere. But _Budah_ - may also signify “past, gone,” and therefore “prior;” on - that account D. Shea rendered the above name by _Purva_ (or - “prior”) _Mimansa_. According to Colebrooke and Mr. Wilson, - मीमांसा _Mímánsá_, signifies one of the philosophical - systems of the Hindús, or rather a two-fold system, the - first part of which is the _Purva Mímánsá_, or _Mímánsá_, - simply; the second part, the _Uttara Mímansa_. “The prior - Mímánsá, founded by Jaimini, teaches the art of reasoning, - with the express view of aiding in the interpretation of the - Vedas. The _Uttara_, or “latter,” commonly called the - _Vedanta_, and commonly attributed to Vyasa, deduces from - the Vedas a refined psychology, which goes to the denial of - a material world.”――(_Colebrooke’s Essays._) - - But the above account of the Dabistán is not strictly and - fully in accordance with this definition of the first - Mímánsá, because it exhibits more of the Puranic than of the - Vedáic doctrine, not without some particular notions. It - appeared therefore best to adhere to the reading of the - original text.――A. T. - - [3] Védá, the generic term for the sacred writings, or - scriptures, of the Hindús. See a subsequent note about the - four Védas. - - -SECTION THE SECOND TREATS OF CERTAIN OPINIONS ENTERTAINED BY THIS SECT -CONCERNING THE CREATION: A SUBJECT WHICH IS ALSO DISCUSSED IN THEIR -PURANAS OR HISTORIES.――In the second part of the Bhagavat, one of -their most esteemed Puránás, it is recorded that the Almighty Creator, -in the beginning, first placed the mantle of existence on the bosom of -_Prakriti_,[4] or “nature,” and produced the fourteen _Bhuvanas_,[5] -or “worlds.” The first sphere is that of the earth, which has been -estimated by some of the ancients at five Kotes (50 millions) of -Yojans,[6] each Kote being equal to one hundred Lakhs (10 millions) -and each Jojun to one Parasang and one-third; above the terrestrial is -the aqueous sphere; above which is that of fire; beyond which is the -aërial, over the celestial; beyond which is the _Ahankar_,[7] or that -of “consciousness;” and higher than this is the _Mahat-tat_ -(_Mahat-tatwam_)[8] or “essence,” which is equal to ten of those below -it; and Prakrit having enveloped it, intelligence penetrating through -all the things before said, rises above: on earth it becomes -knowledge; by means of water, there is taste; by means of fire, form; -by means of air, the touch of cold and dry; by means of the heavens, -there is the perception of sound; and the organs of perception, are -the exterior senses; and the internal sense is the seat of -consciousness. In the same part of the Bhagavat it is stated that, by -nature, the heavens are the vehicle of sounds; and consequently, the -nature of the air gives the perception of sound and touch; in all -other bodies the air is spirit, and from it arises the energy of the -senses. To the nature of fire belongs the perception of sound, touch -and form; to the nature of water, that of sound, touch, form, and -savor; and to the nature of earth, that of sound, touch, form, savor, -and odor. - -Of the fourteen created spheres, seven rise above the waist of the -Almighty, and the remaining seven correspond with the lower part of -his body; according to which enumeration the _Bhú-lok_,[9] or the -earth and terrestrial beings form “his waist;” the _Bhúvanlok_,[10] or -the space between the earth and sun, “his navel;” the _Surlok_,[11] -“his heart;” the _Mehrlok_,[12] “his breast;” the _Jonlok_,[13] “his -neck;” the _Tapalok_,[14] “his forehead;” the _Satyolok_,[15] “his -head;” the _Atellok_,[16] “his navel and podex;” the _Batellok_,[17] -“his thigh;” the _Sotollok_,[18] “his knee;” the _Talátellok_,[19] -“the calf of the leg;” the _Mahátollok_,[20] “the heel;” the -_Rasatollok_,[21] “the upper part of the foot;” the _Pátállok_,[22] -“the sole of the foot.” - -There is another division limited to three spheres: the _Bhúlok_, “the -sole of the Almighty’s foot;” the _Bhuvarlok_, “his navel;” the -_Súrlók_, “his head;” the whole fourteen gradations in detail are thus -reduced to three, signifying a mighty personage, the same as the -Deity. - -In the same section of that volume it is also stated, that from the -Almighty sprang _Svabhávah_,[23] “the self-existing;” that is, Nature -and Time; from Nature and Time proceeded forth _Prakrit_, which -signifies _Símáí_, “universe;”[24] from Prakrit came forth -_Mahat-tat_;[25] and from this latter, which is the same as _Mádah_, -“mental exaltation,” issued the three _Ahankárs_, or modes of -consciousness, “personality, egotism,” _Satek_, _Rajas_, _Tamas_.[26] -_Satek_, “goodness,” means “the intellectual energy;” _Rajas_, or -passion, “the attraction of vile propensities,” or “sensual pursuits;” -and _Tamas_ (darkness), “the repelling of what repugns,” in Arabic, -_Ghazab_, or “wrath.” From _Rajas_ issued forth the senses; from -_Satek_, the lords of nature and the servants of the existing beings; -and from _Tamas_ came forth _Shaid_, “enchantment;” _Shuresh_, -“confusion;” _Rup_, “form;” _Darsan_, “sight;” and _Gandah_, -“smell;”[27] that is, hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell; from -which five were produced the heavens, air, fire, water, and earth. -Also from the three above-mentioned properties (_gunás_) the three -mighty angels, _Vishna_, _Brahma_, and _Mahísh_, came into the area of -the creation.[28] Moreover, for the purpose of creation, eight other -Brahmas were also impressed by the first Brahma with the characters of -existence, and these became the various gradations of the spiritual, -corporeal, the high, the low, the mineral, vegetable, and animal -kingdoms. - -In some of their treatises, God is the same as time, works, and -nature; whilst, according to others, these are regarded as the -instruments of his majesty. - -In other treatises, the Almighty is held to be light, surpassingly -great and splendid, of exceeding brilliancy and radiance, corporeal, -invested with members. - -Other descriptions represent him as pure light, abstract being, simple -existence, unconfined by place, exempt from transmigration, free of -matter, without parts, uncompounded, divested of the attributes of -accidents, and the creator of the world, and all therein contained. -According to other dissertations, God is the producer of beginning and -end, exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure space, containing the -higher and lower, the heavenly and terrestrial bodies. - -It is stated in the first part of the Bhagavat, that the -truly-existing is an abstract being, one without equal or opposite, -who in the various languages amongst the human race has denominations -suited to the belief of his worshippers, and that the mode of -attaining union with him depends on eradicating wrath, extirpating -bodily gratifications, and banishing the influence of the senses. This -holy essence is called _Naráyan_,[29] whose heads, hands, and feet -exceed all number. - -At the period when this world and all it contains were buried under -the waters, _Tot_, or “intellect” lay reclined in the sleep of unity, -on the head of _Adsesh_,[30] the supporter of the earth. From the -navel of this exalted being appeared the lotus flower, called by the -Hindoos _Kawal_;[31] out of which arose _Brahma_, from the members of -whose mighty existence all created beings hastened into the area of -visibility. - -It is recorded in other treatises of this sect, that they give the -name of _Naráyan_, or “the majesty without color,”[32] that is, -“without the qualities of accidents,” to the absolute essence and -abstract being of God, who is in pure space. They say, moreover, that -his essence, which is devoid of all forms, made a personage called -_Brahma_, who was constituted the medium of creation, so that he -brought all other existences from behind the curtain of nonentity into -the luminous area of being. In like manner that sublime essence -manifested itself in the soul of Vishnu, so that he became an -_Avatár_, and to him is confided the preservation of whatever Brahma -created. That glorious essence next called up Mahadeo, for the purpose -of destroying Brahma’s creation, whenever infinite wisdom requires the -transformation of the visible into the invisible world; from which -three agents arises the arrangement of all things in the universe.[33] -They say that _Brahma_ is an aged man with four heads; _Naráyan_, or -_Vishnu_, holds in his hand the _Chakra_, or _Disk_, “a sort of -weapon;” he always assumes the _Avatárs_, or “incarnations;” of which -ten are greatly celebrated. _Avatár_[34] means appearance or -manifestation; _Karan_[35] signifies cause; Brahma, Vishnu, and -Mahadeo are called _Trikaran_, or the three causes. - -In the Satya-Jog there was a Rakshas[36], named _Sámak Asur_, who -performed such great religious austerities, that he became enabled to -work miracles; he having taken the Anant-Ved[37] which was in Brahma’s -possession, and from which are derived the four Vedas given to -mankind, fled into the water; on this, Vishnu, on the fifth day of the -fifth month, _Chét_,[38] “March-April,”[39] in the _Kishn Bichah_, -having assumed the _Matsyávátar_, or “the form of a fish,” plunged -into the water, slew the Rakshas, and recovered the Veda: this was the -first Avatar. - -The second was the _Kurmávátar_, or “that of the tortoise.” _Anant -Ved_ signifies “the numberless Vedas;” _Matsya_, “a fish;” _Avatár_, -“descent,” or “manifestation;” _Chét_, “the fifth solar month;” _Kishn -Bicheh_, “that portion of the month which is without moonlight and -when the nights are dark.” - -On the twelfth of _Chét_, in the _Kishn Bicheh_, he assumed the -_Kurmávátár_, or “that of the tortoise.” They say that the Angels and -Deeves (Asurs), taking the serpent _Vásukir_,[40] formed with him a -cord, and fastening this to a lofty mountain called _Mandára_,[41] -made with it a churn-staff, which they moved about in the mighty -ocean, whilst Naráyan remained under the mountain to prevent it from -falling; and by this agitation they procured the water of life. In the -kingdom of _Kalinga_, they have formed the image of a tortoise, and -among the wonderful sights of that region is the following miraculous -event: if they cast the bones of a Brahman or a cow into the adjacent -reservoir, in the course of a year one half of it becomes stone, and -the other half remains unchanged. It is worthy of remark, that some -Persian astronomers represent the constellation Cancer by a tortoise, -nay call it by that name, instead of _Kharchang_, or “crab.” Ferdúsi, -the sage, thus expresses himself: - - “The lunar lord beheld the ascendancy of the tortoise.” - -And as they account Cancer the ascendant sign of the world, it is -therefore likely that the ancient Hindú philosophers represented this -constellation[42] under the figure of the _Kurma_, or “tortoise;” also -by the _Matsya_, or “fish,” is meant the constellation _Hút_, or -“Pisces.” - -The third was the _Baráh_, or “boar Avátar,” when a Rakshas, named -_Karanyáksha_, having taken away the earth and carried it under the -water, Vishnu, on the sixteenth of Chet in the _Shakl Pacheh_,[43] or -“bright half of the moon,” assumed the form of a boar, slew the demon -with his tusks and brought out the earth. - -The fourth was the _Narsinha_, or “man-lion Avátar.” There was a -Rakshas named _Kiranya Kashípú_, whose son, _Prahláda_, worshipped -Vishnu, and as his father persecuted him on that account, Vishnu, -therefore, on the fourteenth of _Baisakh_,[44] in the _Shakl Pacha_, -or “bright half of the moon,” having assumed the form of the Narsingh, -whose head and claws were those of a lion joined to a human body, slew -the demon Kiranya Kashipú. - -The fifth was the _Vá-mana_, or “dwarf Avatar.” When the Rakshas, Bali -daitya, through his religious exercises and austerities had become -lord of the three worlds, that is, of all above the earth and below it -and the heavens, so that the angels were hard pressed and deprived of -their power; Vishnu, therefore, on the twelfth of _Bhadun_[45] in the -_Shakl Pachah_, descended in the _Vámanah Avátár_, and coming into the -presence of Bali, requested as much of the earth as he could traverse -in three steps: to this Bali consented, although _Sukra_, or “the -planet Venus,” the director and guardian of the demons, exhorted him -not to grant the request, saying: “This is Vishnu, who will deceive -thee.” Bali replied: “If he come to me as a suitor, what can answer my -purpose better?” Vishnu, on this, included the whole earth in one -step, the heavens in the second, and in the third, rising up to his -navel, said to Bali, “Whither can I pass?” Bali, on this, presented -his head; on which Vishnu, who saw this, having placed his foot, sent -_Bali_[46] below the earth, where he has ever since continued to reign -with sovereign power, during many hundred thousands of years. It is to -be noted, that _Vá-mana_ means a dwarf, as he was a diminutive -Brahman. - -The sixth Avátar was _Paras u Rama_.[47] The _Chatri_, or “military -caste,” having become evil doers, in consequence of this, Vishnu, on -the seventh of _Bhadun_, in the _Shakl pachah_, or “bright half of the -moon,” assumed the Avátar of _Parasúram_, who was of the seed of the -Brahmans. In this incarnation he exterminated the Chettri class so -utterly, that he even ripped open their females and slew the fœtus. -According to the Hindus, _Parasuram_ is always living; they call him -_Chirangivah_, or “long-lived.” - -The seventh is the _Ram Avátar_:[48] when the tyranny of the Rakshas -_Rávana_, sovereign of the demons, had exceeded all bounds, Vishnu, on -the ninth of Chet in the Shaklpachah, becoming incarnate in Rama, who -was of the Chettri caste, overthrew at that time Rávána, chief of the -demons of _Lanka_, (Ceylon). Now Lanka is a fort built of golden -ingots, situated in the midst of the salt ocean. He also recovered -Sita,[49] the wife of Rama, who had had been taken away by the -Rokshas, which is a name given by the Hindoos to a frightful demon. - -The eighth was the _Krishn Avátar_. When Vishnu, in the _Dwapar-Jog_, -on the eighth of Bhádún, in the Kishn pachah, having assumed the -Avátar of _Krishna_, slew _Kansá_. Krishna was also of the Chettri or -“military caste.” - -The ninth was the _Budh avatar_. When ten years only of the -_Dwapar-Jog_ remained,[50] Vishnu, in order to destroy the demons and -evil genii, the causers of night, assumed the Avátar of _Buddha_, on -the third of _Baisakh_, in the Shakl pacheh. - -The tenth Avátar is to occur at the expiration of the _Kali-jug_, for -the purpose of destroying the Mlechas, or “enemies of the Hindoos.” -The _Kalki Avátar_ is to take place on the third of Bhádún, in the -Shakl Pachah, in the city of _Sumbul_, in the house of a Brahman named -_Jasa_. _Kalki_ is also to be of the Brahman caste. He will destroy -the corruptions of the world, and all the Mlechas, that is, -Muhammedans, Christians, Jews, and such like, are to be entirely -extirpated: after which the Satyog, or “golden age,” is to return. - -They moreover maintain, that the contingently-existing inhabitants and -beings of earth are unable to penetrate into the presence of the -necessarily-existing sovereign, and that the essence of the Creator is -too exalted for any created beings to attain to an acquaintance with -it, notwithstanding the high knowledge and piety with which they may -be adorned: it therefore seemed necessary to the Almighty God to -descend from the majesty of abstractedness and absolute existence, and -exhibit himself in the various species of angels, animals, man, and -such like, so as to enable them to attain to some knowledge of -himself. They therefore assert, that for the purpose of satisfying the -wishes of his faithful servants, and tranquillizing their minds, he -has vouchsafed to manifest himself in this abode, which manifestation -they call an Avátar and hold this to be no degradation to his essence. -This tenet has been thus interpreted by Shidosh, the son of Anosh: -According to the Súfís, the first wisdom is the knowledge of God, and -of the universal soul, his life; and in this place they have -expatiated upon the attributes of the Almighty; thus by Brahma they -mean his creative power; and by the old age of Brahma is implied his -perfection: philosophers also call the first intelligence, the -intellectual Adam, and the universal soul, the intellectual Eve. The -sage Sunai has said: - - “The father and the mother of this gratifying world, - Know, is the soul of the word,[51] and the sublime wisdom.” - -By Vishnu is meant his attribute of divine love, and also the -universal soul; and they give the name of Avátar to the spirit derived -from the soul of the first heaven; in which sense they have said: -“Avátars are rays issuing from Vishnu’s essence.” - -But these sectaries do not mean that the identical spirit of Rám, on -the dissolution of its connection with his body, becomes attached to -the body of Krishna; for they themselves assert that Parsurám (the -sixth Avátar) is immortal, and his body everlasting. - -When Rámachandra became incarnate, he encountered the other; and -Parsurám, having posted himself on the road with hostile intentions, -Rámachandra said: “Thou art a Brahman and I a Chettri: it is incumbent -on me to show thee respect:” then applying the horn of his bow to -Parsurám’s foot, he deprived him of all power. When Parsurám who is -now along with his wife in the heavens, enrolled among the stars: he -was the instructor of Rama, and brought him to the knowledge of -himself; and his counsels to Ráma have been collected by the Rishi -Valmiki in the History of Ráma, called the _Ramáyana_, and the name of -_Jog-Vashishta_, given to them, which they call _Indrazaharájóg -Vashishta_.[54] Some parts of these tales were selected by a Brahman -of Kashmir, and afterwards translated into Persian by _Mulla -Muhammed_, a Súfí. To resume: Ráma, on hearing this expression from -Parsurám, said: “My arrow, however, errs not:” he then discharged some -arrows which have become the janitors of paradise, and do not permit -Parsurám to enter therein. This parable proves that they are by no -means taken for Avátars of Naryáan; as, although Pursurám and Rám were -two Avátárs of Vishnu, yet they knew not each other. Again, it is an -established maxim among philosophers, that one soul cannot be united -in one place with two distinct bodies. Besides, it is certain that -they give the name “Avatárs of Naráyan” to the souls which emanate -from the universal soul; and that they call Naráyan the soul of the -empyreal, or the fourth heaven. As to their assertions that Naráyan is -God, found himself destitute of strength, he asked his name, and on -learning that it was Ramachandra, he was greatly astonished, and said: -“Has Rámachandra’s Avátar taken place?” and Rámachandra having replied -“Certainly,” Parsurám said: “My blow is not mortal, I have taken away -thy understanding.” On this account it happened that Rámachandra -possessed not intelligence in his essence, and was unacquainted with -his true state, wherefore they style him the _Mudgha_, or stupid -Avátar.[52] - -Vasishta, one of the Rishies,[53] or “holy sages,” and their -acknowledging his Avátars as God, and their saying that the Almighty -has deigned to appear under certain forms, all this means that a -Naráyan is the same with the universal soul, which the Súfees entitle -“the life of God.” As life is an attribute of the Almighty, and the -perfection of attributes constitutes his holy essence, consequently -the souls which emanate from the universal soul, or that of the -empyreal heaven, which is the life of God, know themselves, and -acquire the ornaments of pure faith and good works; and also, on being -liberated from body, they become identified with the universal soul, -which is Vishnu, or the life of God, agreeably to this saying: “_He -who knows his own soul, knows God_:” that is, he becomes God. - -As to their acknowledging the fish, tortoise, and boar to be -incarnations of the divinity, by this they mean, that all beings are -rays emanating from the essence of the Almighty, and that no -degradation results to him therefrom, according to this narration of -the _Mir Sáíd Sharif_, of Jarjan (Georgia). - -As a Súfí and rhetorician were one day disputing, the latter said: “I -feel pain at the idea of a God who manifests himself in a dog or hog:” -to which the Súfee replied: “I appeal from the God who displays not -himself in the dog.” On this, all present exclaimed: “One of these two -must be an infidel.” A man of enlightened piety drew near, and showing -them the exact import of these expressions, said: “According to the -belief of the rhetorician, the dignity of God is impaired by his -manifesting himself in the dog; he is therefore distressed at the idea -of a God thus deficient. But, according to the Súfee, the -non-appearance of God in that animal would be a diminution of his -dignity, he therefore appeals against a God deficient in this point: -consequently, neither of them is an infidel.” So that, in fact, the -Súfís and these sectaries entertain the same opinions. - -The author of this work once said to Shídósh: “We may affirm that by -the fish is meant the lord, or conservative angel, of water;” as, -according to their mythology, a demon having taken the Vedas under -that element, was pursued and slain by Vishnu, and the Vedas brought -back: thus their mention of a fish originated from its inseparable -connection with water. By the tortoise is meant the lord, or -conservative angel, of earth; as their mythology relates, that the -Avátar of the tortoise occurred for the purpose of the earth being -supported on its back, as is actually the case; they have also -especially mentioned the tortoise, as it is both a land and aquatic -creature, and that after water comes earth. By the boar are meant the -passions and the propagation of living creatures; and as to the -tradition of a demon having stolen away the earth and taken it under -the water, and of his being pursued by Vishnu under the form of a -boar, and slain by his tusks, its import is as follows: the demon -means dissolute manners, which destroyed the earth with the deluge of -sensuality; but on the aid of the spirit coming, the demon of -dissoluteness was overthrown by the tusks of continence: the boar is -particularly mentioned, because its attribute is sensuality; and it -was reckoned an Avátár, because continence is virtue. The _Narsinh_, -or “man-lion,” is the lord, or conservative angel of heroism; and as -this constitutes a most praiseworthy quality, they said, that the -Narsinh was a form with a lion’s head and a human body, for when they -spoke of impetuous bravery in a man, they made use of the term “lion.” -By _Vámana_, or “dwarfish stature,” they meant, the lord of reason, -strength of reflection, and an intellectual being; the dwarfish -stature implying that, notwithstanding a diminutive person, important -results may be obtained through him; as in almost a direct allusion to -this, people say: “An intelligent man of small stature is far superior -to the tall blockhead.” By Rajah _Bali_, they typify generosity and -liberality. - -Shidósh was delighted at this interpretation, and said: “They have -also recorded that Krishna had sixteen thousand wives; and when one of -his friends who thought it impossible for Krishna to visit all of -them, said to try him: ‘Bestow on me one of thy wives,’ Krishna -answered: ‘In whatever female’s apartment thou findest me not, she is -thine.’ His friend went into the different apartments, but in every -one of them he beheld the god engaged in conversation with its -mistress.” This story implies, that the love of Krishna was so rooted -in their hearts, that they cared for none besides, having his image -present to their eyes, and dwelling every moment on his beloved idea. - -The tradition of Vishnu’s always bearing the Chakra in his hand (a -kind of military weapon), alludes to the knowledge and decisive -demonstration which are unattainable without the aid of soul. - -In Mahadeo, they allude to our elementary nature by the serpent twined -round his neck; they mean anger, and the other reprehensible qualities -which result from corporeity; by his being mounted on a bull, the -animal propensities; by the tradition of his place of repose being the -site for burning the dead, is signified, the total dispersion of the -particles of bodies and the perishable nature of things. Mahadeo’s -drinking poison is also to the same purport. In this sense they also -say that Mahadeo is the destroyer of all worldly things; that is, -elemental nature imperatively requires the dissolution of combination -(connection), and that ultimately death comes in the natural course. - -They also hold that every angel has a wife (female energy), of a -similar generic constitution, and originally derived from Brahma; and -as we have before stated, the philosophers call the first intelligence -the True Sire, and the universal soul, Eve; and thus he is the head -and the wife the shoulder; the universal soul is the body of the -empyreal heaven; and in like manner the other celestial souls and -bodies have wives of the elementary nature; as they give the -appellation of wife, or energy, to whatever is the manifest source of -action. - -Moreover the established doctrine held by these sectaries is, that -each class should worship a particular angel, and the wife or female -energy of that angel; the worshipper regarding the object of his -adoration as God, and all others, as created beings; for example, many -believe Naráyan to be the supreme God; several others, look up to -Mahadéo, and many to the other male and female divinities; and thus, -pursuant to the four Védas, which according to their common belief are -a celestial revelation, they do not hold any angel who is the object -of their praise as distinct from God: by which they mean that God, who -is without equal, having manifested himself under innumerable modes of -appearance, contemplates the glorious perfection of his essence in the -mirrors of his attributes; so that, from the most minute atom to the -solar orb, his holy and divine essence is the source of all that -exists. - - “To whatever quarter I directed my sight, thou appearedst there; - How widely art thou multiplied, even when thy features are unseen!” - -The Fakir Arzú says: the above interpretation is confirmed by this -tradition of the Hindus, that _Agasti_,[55] a star, was formerly a -holy man, who once collected all the waters in the palm of his hand, -and swallowed the whole; which means that Agasti is the same as -Sohail, a star adjacent to the south pole, on the rising of which, all -the water that has fallen from heaven is dried up, agreeably to the -Arabic saying: - - “_When Suhail ascends, the torrents subside._” - -Many enigmatical and figurative expressions of a similar description -occur in their writings; for example, _Mahésh_ or _Mahadeo_, is an -angel with matted locks and three eyes, which are the sun, moon, and -fire; he has also five heads; his necklace is formed of a serpent, and -his mantle of an elephant’s hide. There are nine Brahmas, eleven -Rudras or Mahadeos, twelve suns, and ten regions, viz.: east, west, -south, north, zenith, _Nadir_, _Akni_, “between east and south;” -_Níreti_, “between south and west;” _Dayab_, “between west and north;” -and _Isan_, “between north and east.” The angels are in number -thirty-three Kotes, or three hundred and thirty millions, each Kote -consisting of one hundred Laks, or ten millions. These angels have -spiritual wives, who produce a spiritual offspring. They likewise hold -human spirits to be an effulgence proceeding from the divine essence; -if to knowledge they add good works, with a clear perception of -themselves and of God, they return to their original source; but -should they not know themselves and God, and yet perform praiseworthy -acts, they dwell in Paradise, where they remain during a period of -time proportioned to their meritorious works; on the expiration of -which period they are again sent down to this lower world, and again -to receive a recompense proportioned to their deeds. - -The actions even of the inhabitants of Paradise undergo an -investigation, and are attended with reward or punishments duly -graduated. They also hold that all those persons who are not -sufficiently worthy of entering into paradise, but who have observed -religious ordinances in order to obtain dominion and worldly -enjoyments, shall acquire their object in a future generation. They -also say, in respect to any great personage, in whose presence the -people stand girt with the cincture of obedience, that the rewards and -results are, that this person continues in a suppliant attitude -devoted to the service of God and those individuals who prostrate -themselves before him, are in fact humbling themselves in adoration of -the Almighty; in short, they hold all splendor and greatness as the -rewards of alms and good works; thus they relate that whilst the -incarnation of Rámchandra abode in the desert, he sent his brother -Lachman to bring some roots of herbs in order to break his fast; but, -notwithstanding a diligent search, he being unable to find any, -returned and represented this to Rámchand, who replied: “The earth -abounds in food and drink; but in a former generation, on this very -day, I omitted the performance of an act which would have been well -pleasing in the sight of God, namely, that of contributing to the -sustenance of indigent Brahmans.” - -They moreover believe that evil-doers, after death, become united to -the bodies of lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, swine, bears, reptiles, -plants, and minerals, in this world, and receive under these forms -their well merited punishment; but that those who have been guilty of -aggravated crimes are hurried off to the infernal regions, where they -remain suffering torture during a period of time proportioned to their -evil deeds; and when they have undergone the destined punishment, they -again return to this world. They also believe that there is in -paradise a sovereign, named Indra, and that whoever offers up a -hundred _Aswamédas_,[56] becomes Indra. When his appointed time in -paradise, in the full enjoyment of sovereign power has passed, he is -on the expiration of that period to descend to the lower world, and -there obtains a recompense proportioned to his acts. Moreover, Indra’s -spouse is named Sachí Devi, and falls to the share of the person who -attains the rank of Indra. Note: by Aswaméda is meant the sacrifice of -a horse of a certain color, and according to certain established -rites. However, by Aswaméd, their learned doctors understand -“abnegation of the mind:” for imagination is a fierce charger, the -sacrifice of which is an imperative duty on the religious ascetic; or -it may allude to the destruction of the animal passions. - -They also believe that angelic beings are subject to concupiscence, -and wrath, and the cravings of hunger and thirst; their food -consisting of perfumes and incense, sacrifices, meat and drink -offerings, with the alms and oblations made by mankind; and their -beverage, the water of life. - -They also assert that the stars were holy personages, who, on leaving -this world of gloom, through the efficacy of religious mortifications -became luminous bodies, ascending from the lower depths of this abode -of the elements to the zenith of the crystalline sphere; nay, their -birth-place, name, family, with the names of their fathers and -grandfathers, are carefully enumerated in the sacred volumes of this -sect. Thus they say that Sanicher (the slow-traveller) or Saturn, is -the son of the glorious Luminary; and Mirrikh or Mars, the son of the -Earth; the world-enlightening sun, the issue of _Kashyapa_, the son of -Maríchí, the son of Brahma; Zóhrah (or the regent of Venus) the son of -_Bhrigu_; and _Utáred_ (Mercury) the son of _Kamer_ (the regent of the -moon). Some however maintain the moon to be the son of Attri the Holy, -but, according to others he is sprung from the sea of milk. - -[57]*These opinions contain a marked allusion to the tenets held by -the distinguished Parsi sages, namely, that the intellectual soul has -a relation to that sphere with which its good actions are connected: -they consequently apply the denomination of Sun to the spirit of one -united to the sun, and his father is entitled “the father of the -Sun.”* - -The writer of this work once observed to Shídósh, the son of Anosh: -“Perhaps they mean by the sires of the stars, their presiding -intelligences, as in the technical language of philosophers, the name -of sires is also given to the intelligences, on which account Jesus -called the Almighty ‘Father.’” - -According to them the elements are five in number, the fifth being the -Akas (or ether), which word in its common acceptation means “the -heavens;” but according to the learned it implies empty space, or -space void of matter. One of their distinguished doctors, _Sumitra_, -son of the Ray of Kalinga, holds that _Akas_, which the Greek -Platonists call _space_, is simple and uncompounded. Damudar Das Kaul, -a learned Brahman of Kashmir, also holds Akas to signify _space_; and -space is understood by the Platonists among the Yonian to be an extent -void of any substance (a vacuum), which may be divided into parts, -_the totality_ of which _parts_ may be equivalent to that extent of -the general vacuum which is congruous and equal to it, in such a -manner as to comprise every particle of that extent which is the space -in every _particular_ division of the general space. There is an -extent interposed between two things, and this extent is void and free -of matter. According to their account, no better interpretation of -_Akas_ than that which is conveyed by the word space, can be -offered.[58] - -They moreover assert that the heavens have no existence, and that the -constellations and stars are fixed in the air. According to them there -are seven _samudras_, that is oceans, on this earth: the salt sea, -that of sugar-cane juice, the sea of spirituous liquors, that of -clarified butter, the sea of curds, the lacteal, and lastly, that of -sweet waters. They also say that there rises above the earth a -mountain called _Su-Meru_[59] entirely formed of the purest gold, on -which the angelic beings reside, and around which the stars revolve. -There are nine spheres, namely: those of the seven planets, with those -of _Rás_ and _Zanab_ (the head and tail of the dragon), which are also -borne along in their celestial vehicles. _Rás_ and _Zanab_ are two -demons who drank the water of life, whom Vishnu, at the suggestion of -the sun and moon, smote with a weapon called the _Chákra_, or disk, -and rent open their throats; in revenge for which, the moon is -devoured by _Rás_, and the sun by _Zanab_; but as their throats are -rent open, whatever is taken in at the mouth issues at the aperture in -the throat: by this allegory they allude to the lunar and solar -eclipses.[60] - -Brahma dwells in a city called _Rást Lok_;[61] Vishnu in a region -called _Vaikanth_; and Mahadeo on a mountain of silver named -_Káilasa_. They also maintain that the fixed stars have no actual -existence, but that the objects which shine by night are couches of -gold set with diamonds and rubies, on which the inhabitants of -paradise repose. [62]*On this Shidosh remarks: “It is agreed that -paradise means the heavens, and also that the fixed stars are in the -eighth heaven; so that, consequently, the heavens constitute the -couches of the souls.”*[63] - -They esteem the majesty of the great light as the supreme of angelic -beings, and on a careful investigation of their books, acknowledge no -existence as superior to him in dignity; as the constitution of -elemental compounds, and the existence of all beings is dependent on -and connected with his auspicious essence. They moreover regard -Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the radiance and reflexion of his light; -saying, it is his majesty alone which, by its acts and operations, is -called by these three names. They represent him as a sovereign, in the -human form, seated in a chariot which signifies the fourth heaven, to -which are attached seven horses, with angels and spiritual beings, -accompanied by royal trains and gorgeous pomp, continually passing -before his majesty. They also esteem him as the source of existence -and as universal existence. *They also believe the earth to be the -skin of a Raksh or evil genius, who was put to death, and his skin -stretched out: the mountains are his bones; the waters his blood; the -trees and vegetables his hair. By Raksh they mean a demon, which here -implies the material elements on this earth, which according to them -is supported on four legs; alluding in this to the nature and number -of the elements, each of which rests on its own centre. - -According to them Saturn limps, which typifies his long period of -revolution; and _Bhúm_, or _Maríkh_, “Mars,” is a demon, on which -account they ascribe to him a malignant influence.* _Zoharah_, or “the -regent of Venus,” is the director of the demons, and to this planetary -spirit they ascribe the sciences and religions of the barbarians, and -the creeds of foreign nations. - -The Muhammedan doctors say, that Islamism is connected with this -planet, from which source proceeds the veneration paid by them to -Friday, or the day of Venus. _Múshteri_, “Jupiter,” is accounted the -director of the angels, and the teacher of the system of Brahma, which -is conveyed in a celestial language, not used at present by any beings -of elemental formation: thus, although the Koran is a divine -revelation, the language of it is in general use among the Arabs; but -the four Véds which the Hindus account a celestial volume, is written -in Sanskrit, a language spoken in no city whatever, and found in no -book, save those of a particular sect: it is called by them “the -speech of angelic beings.” The Véda was given to them by Brahma, for -the due arrangement of human concerns. By angels or divine beings, -they mean eloquent speakers, and learned authors, who, being -illuminated by the effulgence of primitive wisdom, interpreted -whatever was revealed to them. It is to be remarked, that every one -who pleases may derive from the Védas arguments in favour of his -particular creed, to such a degree, that they can support by clear -proofs the philosophical, mystical, unitarian, and atheistical -systems, faith, and religion; Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, -fire-worship, the tenets of the Sonites, or those of the Shíâs, etc.; -in short, these volumes consist of such ingenious parables and sublime -meanings, that all who seek may have their wishes fulfilled. - -They say that the Almighty is a great body, and that all other beings -are in his belly; which resembles the opinions maintained by the -venerable Shaikh Shahbáb ud deen Maktúl, whose tomb may God sanctify! -namely, that the universe is one body, which contains all others in -existence, and is called the universal body. It has one spirit, which -comprehends all others, and is called the universal soul; and one -single object of intelligence, from which they derive all -intelligences, calling it the universal intelligence. It is stated in -the Mujmal al Hikmat, or Compendium of Philosophy, that the Almighty -is the spirit of spirit; and according to _Azar Húshangian_, “the -intellect of intellect.” _Shaikh Bó Ali_[64] (whose place of repose -may God illuminate!) thus speaks: - - “The Almighty is the soul of the universe, and the universe the - reunion of all bodies; - The different angelic hosts are the senses of this frame; - The bodies, the elements, and the three kingdoms are its members; - All these are comprehended in the divine unity; all other things - are illusion.” - -This sect gives the appellation of _Rakshas_, which means evil genii -or demons, to all those who do not profess their faith, and who -perform not good works. - -Time, in Hindawi _Kal_, is a measure of the movement of the great -sphere, according to the philosophers of Greece and Persia. The author -has also heard from the Brahmans, and in conformity to the opinions -ascribed to the most distinguished persons of their caste, it is -stated in the work entitled _Muadan Ushshaffai Iskandari_ (a selection -taken from several Hindi medical treatises), that time, according to -the Hindu philosophers, is a necessarily-subsisting immaterial -substance, durable, incorporeal, that will ever last, and admits not -of annihilation. Time has been divided into three kinds, namely, past, -present, and future; but, as in their opinion time admits neither of -alteration nor extinction, these divisions are not in reality its -attributes, although correctly used when applied to acts performed in -time. According to the succession of acts, they figuratively describe -time as past, present, and future; as in reference to the solar -revolutions and phases, they call it by the names of days, nights, -months, years, and seasons: in short, they have so many intricate -distinctions of this same nature, that the mere attempt to enumerate -them would fill several volumes. They all agree that this world is to -continue for four ages: the first, the _Rast yug_, “the -righteous,”[65] which lasted one million seven hundred and -twenty-eight thousand common years; during which, all human beings, -high and low, exalted and humble, princes and servants, adhered to the -practice of righteousness and truth, passing their glorious existence -in a manner conformable to the divine will, and devoted to the worship -of the Almighty; the duration of human life in this age extended to -one hundred thousand common years. The second, the _Treta Yug_,[66] -which lasted one million two hundred and ninety-six thousand common -years: during this period, three-fourths of the human race conformed -to the divine will, and the natural duration of life extended to ten -thousand years. The third was the _Dwapar Yug_,[67] which lasted eight -hundred and sixty-four thousand ordinary years, during which one half -the human race performed good works and their life was limited to a -thousand years. The fourth is the _Kali Yug_,[68] or “iron age,” which -is to last four hundred and thirty-two thousand years, during which -three-fourths of the human race will be immersed in sin, infatuation, -and evil works, and the term of human life reduced to a hundred and -twenty ordinary years. These four ages (4,320,000 years) they call a -_Chakra_, and seventy-one Chakras a _Manwantar_; on the expiration of -seventy-one Chakras, there elapses one day of the life of India, the -ruler of the upper world; and on the expiration of fourteen -Manwantars, reckoned according to the preceding calculation, one day -of Brahma’s life is terminated. - -They say, that the Almighty, having united himself with Brahma’s body, -created the world through his medium: Brahma thus became the Creator, -and brought mankind into existence, making them of four classes, -namely: the _Brahman_, _Chattriya_, _Vaisya_, and _Sùdra_. To the -first were assigned the custody of laws and the establishment of -religious ordinances; the second class was formed for the purposes of -government and external authority, being appointed the medium for -introducing order into human affairs; the third was composed of -husbandmen, cultivators, artisans, and tradesmen; and the fourth for -every description of service and attendance. All races not comprised -in one of these four divisions are not accounted of human origin but -of demoniacal descent: however the demons or Rakshas, through the -practice of religious austerities, attained to such dignity that -Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh (Siva) became their attendants. Thus -Rávan,[69] through the efficacy of religious mortification, became -lord of the world and its inhabitants; Brahma was reader of the Vedas -at his court; the sun filled the office of cook; the clouds were his -cup-bearers, and the wind his chamberlain. - -[70]Finally, according to the sectaries, the life of Brahma lasts a -hundred extraordinary years of three hundred and sixty days, with -nights corresponding to the days,[71] so that up to the present time, -that is, the period of composing this work, in the year of the Hejira -1055 (A. D. 1645), there have elapsed four thousand seven hundred and -forty-six years of the Kali-Yug. So many Brahmas have appeared, that -the sums of their years exceed the limits of human comprehension; they -have merely a tradition that one thousand Brahmas have successively -appeared and been annihilated; so that the present is the thousand and -first, of whose life fifty years and half a day are expired, which -commences the half-day of the fifty-first year. As soon as the age of -Brahma terminates, according to the preceding calculation, or amounts -to the destined number, he then forms twelve blazing suns, whose heat -and splendor consume alike both earth and water, so that there remains -not a vestige of this world or its productions, and mankind plunge -beneath the waters, which catastrophe is called _Pralaya_, in Hindawi: -after this event, another Brahma appears and creates the world anew, -which process of dissolution and reproduction continues to all -eternity. The _Hakim Umr Khakani_ says: - - “Those who adorn the heavens, which are a particle of time, - Come, and depart again, re-appear on the same stage―― - For, in the skirts of heaven and the robe of earth, there is - A creation which is successively born as long as God exists.” - -By the prolonged periods of duration ascribed to these celestial -personages, they allude to the antiquity of the world, which is so -immensely great that it cannot be comprised in numbers. The man of -spiritual attributes, Shídosh, the son of Anosh, says: “On the -termination of the great cycle, human creatures reappear, and the -water enveloping the terrestrial globe becomes of the same radical -constitution as the waters on high; again, through the intense heat of -the luminary, the water disappears, and twelve suns are formed: from -the ascent of vapors and the blending of exhalations, the celestial -disks are enveloped, when the tailed comets, which the Persians call -‘minor suns,’ and the Arabs _Shamseyat_, or ‘smaller solar -bodies,’[72] * consume alike the humid and the dry: such is the -necessary termination of that cycle: the world and its inhabitants -will be created anew.” * Mulla Ismail Suffi, of Isfahan, says: - - “The world which is one, the creator, and the creation, - Both these worlds are like the scum of his cup; - This revolution of time resembles a painted lantern, - Which, notwithstanding its motion, remains in the same position.” - -The assertion “that only the four classes above enumerated are of -human race,” implies that this denomination is attached to the -professors of humanity, virtue, and discrimination; superior to which -is showing mercy to the animal creation; also the knowledge of one’s -self and of the Creator; nay, the person destitute of these -characteristics has no share of the nature of man. Thus the sage -Ferdusi says: - - “Whoever deviates from the path of humanity - Is to be accounted a demon, and not of human race.” - -According to these sectaries, the worship offered to the forms of -Mahadeo and Naráyan, and to the statues of the other spiritual beings, -is highly to be commended. Strangers to their faith suppose them to -look upon the idol as God, which is by no means the case, their belief -being as follows: “The idol is merely a Kiblah, and they adore under -that particular form, the Being who has neither accident nor form.” - -Moreover, as mankind is an assemblage composed of superiors and -inferiors, they have made images of the directors of the people, and -constituted them their Kiblah: besides, as all things exhibit the -power of the Almighty, they form images according to their similitude. -They also say, that as the Avátars are radiant emanations of the -divine essence, they therefore make images on their likeness, and pay -them worship: so that, whatever is excellent in its kind, in the -mineral, vegetable, or animal world, is regarded with veneration, as -well as the uncompounded elementary substances, and the starry -spheres. Rai Manuhar Kuchwáhhah has said: - - “O Moslem! if the Kâbah be the object of thy worship, - Why dost thou reproach the adorers of idols?” - - - [4] प्रकृति _Prakriti_, or मूल प्रकृति _Mula Prakriti_, “the - root or Plastic origin of all;” termed प्रधान _Pradhána_, - “the chief one; the universal material cause;” identified by - the cosmogony of the Puránás with _Maya_, or “illusion;” and - by mythologists with _Bráhmí_, “the power or energy of - Brahmá” (_Colebrooke’s Essays_). - - _Prakriti_, in philosophy, “the passive or material cause of - the world,” as opposed to the active or spiritual; and in - mythology, a goddess united to the primeval male, and the - genitress of the world (_Wilson_).――D. S. - - [5] The quotations of our author are too general for being - referred to particular parts or passages of the Hindú books. - The above doctrine is contained in a great number of their - treatises. In the _Vedanta sara_, or “Essence of the Vedanta - doctrine” (p. 16, Calcutta edit.), we find mentioned the - fourteen भुवनानि _Bhuvanáni_, or “worlds.”――A. T. - - [6] योजन _Yojana_, or _Jojun_, “a measure of distance” equal - to four Crosas, which at 8,000 cubits or 4,000 yards to the - Crosa, or Cas, will be exactly nine miles: other computations - make the Yojana but about five miles, or even no more than - four miles and a half (_Wilson’s Dict._).――D. S. - - [7] More properly of egotism, which is the literal sense of - the term: its peculiar function is अभिमान _Abhimana_, or - “selfish conviction; a belief that in perception or - meditation _I_ am concerned; that the objects of sense - concern _me_; in short, that _I_ am” (_Colebrook’s - Essays_).――D. S. - - [8] Derived from _Mahat_, “great,” महत् also the - intellectual principle and तत्व _Tatva_, “essential - nature――the real nature of the human soul, considered as one - and the same with the divine spirit animating the universe;” - the philosophical etymology of this word best explains its - meaning, _Tat_, “that; that divine Being;” and त्वं _Twam_, - “thou:”――“that very God art thou.” _Tatva_ also means - “reality, truth, substance,” opposed to what is illusory or - fallacious (_Wilson_).――D. S. - - [9] भूर्लोक _Bhúrlóka_. - - [10] भुवर्लोक _Bhuvarlóka_. - - [11] सुरलोक _Suralóka_, “the heaven of Indra, and residence - of the celestials.” - - [12] महर्लोक _Maharlóka_, “a region;” said to be one Crore, - or a million of Yojanas above the polar star, and to be the - abode of those saints who survive the destruction of the - world. - - [13] जन लोक _Jana-lóka_, “the region where the sons of - Brahmá and other pious men reside.” - - [14] तप लोक _Tapa-lóka_, “the abode of Ascetics.” - - [15] सत्य लोक _Satya-lóka_, “the abode of Brahma and of - truth.” - - [16] Here begin the seven divisions of the infernal - regions:――अतल लोक _Atala-lóka_, “the region immediately - below the earth.” - - [17] वितल लोक _Vitala-lóka_, “the second region in descent - below the earth.” - - [18] सुतल लोक _Sutala-lóka_, “the third region in descent,” - etc. - - [19] तलातल लोक _Talátala-lóka_, “the fourth region,” etc. - - [20] महातल लोक _Mahátala-lóka_, “the fifth region in descent - below the earth,” inhabited. - - [21] रसातल लोक _Rasátala-lóka_, “the sixth region,” etc; the - residence of the Nágás, Asuras, Dáityas, and other races of - monstrous and demoniacal beings, under the various - governments of Sécha, Bali, and other chiefs. - - [22] पाताल लोक _Pátála-loka_, “the seventh infernal region,” - the abode of the _Nágas_, or “serpents.”――A. T. - - [23] स्व भाव _Svabháva_: derived from _Sva_, “own,” and - _Bháva_, “property.” - - [24] मिम _Sima_, “all,” “entire.” - - [25] (See note, p. 11). Another internal spirit, called - _Mahat_, or “the great soul,” attends the birth of all - creatures imbodied, and thence in all mortal forms is - conveyed a perception either pleasing or painful. Those two, - the vital spirit (_Jivatman_) and reasonable soul, are - closely united with the five elements, but also connected - with the supreme spirit, or divine essence, which pervades - all beings, high and low (_Menu_, b. 12., sl. 13 and - 14).――D. S. - - [26] सत्तवः, रजः, तमस् _satvas_, _rajas_, _tamas_, “truth” - or “existence;” “passion” or “foulness;” and “darkness” or - “ignorance,” are called the three great गुणाः _gunás_, or - properties of all created beings.――A. T. - - [27] Of these five words, the two first are Persian, the - other three Sanskrit: the text is probably corrupt.――A. T. - - [28] According to the _Vayu-purana_ (chapt. v.) Vichnu - proceeded from Satva, Brahma from Rajas, and Mahadéva, or - Siva, from Tamas.――A. T. - - [29] The latter part of this sentence is according to the - reading of the manuscripts.――D. S. - - In the edit. of Calcutta it is placed in the next line, and - connected with the contents of the world, as if these had - been with numberless heads, hands, and feet.――A. T. - - [30] शेष _Sésha_, “the king of the serpent-race;” “a large - thousand-headed snake;” “the couch and canopy of Vishnu;” - and “the upholder of the world, which rests on one of his - heads.”――D. S. - - [31] कुवल _kuvala_, from _ku_, “earth,” and _vala_, “to - cover.”――A. T. - - [32] This etymology is founded upon a wrong spelling of the - name _Na-rang_, or _No-rang_, “no color,” instead of - Naráyana.――A. T. - - [33] The definitions contained in the remainder of this - sentence are in the original incorporated with the text. In - the present, as in every similar instance, that arrangement - has not been disturbed.――D. S. - - [34] अवतार _avatára_, from _ava_, “down, off,” and _tri_, - “to cross;” signifying “descent,” “translation.” - - [35] करण _karana_. - - [36] An evil spirit, a demon, a vampire, a fiend, but who - appears to be of various descriptions; and is either a - powerful Titan or enemy of the gods, in a superhuman or - incarnate form, as Ravana and others; or an attendant on - Kuvera and guardian of his treasures; or a mischievous and - cruel goblin or ogre, haunting cemeteries, animating dead - bodies, and devouring human beings. The Asurs are also - demons, and of the first order; the children of Diti, by - Kasyapa, engaged in perpetual hostility with the gods. - According to Hindoo mythology, Kasyapa is the name of a - _Muni_, or “deified sage;” who is the father of the - immortals――gods and devils (_Wilson_).――D. S. - - [37] अनन्त वेद _ananta veda_, “the eternal Veda.” - - [38] चैत्र _Cháitra_. - - [39] कृष्ण पक्ष _Krishna paksha_, “the dark half of a month; - the fifteen days during which the moon is in the wane.” - - [40] वासुकि _Vasuki_, “the sovereign of the snakes;” from - _Vasu_, “a jewel,” and _Ka_, “the head” (_Wilson_).――D. S. - - [41] The mountain with which the ocean was churned by the - Surs and Asurs after the deluge, for the purpose of - recovering the sacred things lost in it during that - period.――D. S. - - [42] The most ancient division of the Zodiac consisted of - twelve signs, namely: मेष _Mesha_, the Ram; वृष _Vrisha_, - the Bull; मिथुन _Mithuna_, the Pair; कर्कट _Karkat´a_, the - Crab; सिंह _Sinha_, the Lion; कन्या _Kanya_, the Virgin; - तुला _Tula_, the Balance; वृश्जिक _Vriśchica_, the Scorpion; - धनु _Dhanu_, the Bow; मकर _Makara_, the sea-monster; कुम्भ - _Kumbha_, the Ewer; मीन _Mina_, the Fish. - - Sripeti, the author of the _Retnamálá_, has described them - in Sanscrit verse, of which the verbal translation is - annexed: - - “The Ram, Bull, Crab, Lion, and Scorpion have the - figures of those five animals respectively; the Pair - are a damsel playing on the vina, and a youth wielding - a mace; the Virgin stands on a boat, in water, holding - in one hand a lamp, in the other an ear of rice corn; - the Balance is held by a weigher, with a weight in one - hand; the bow by an archer, whose hinder parts are like - those of a horse; the Sea-monster has the face of an - antelope; the Ewer is a water-pot borne on the shoulder - of a man who empties it; the Fishes are two, with their - heads turned to each other’s tails, and all these are - supposed to be in such places as suit their separate - natures” (_Sir W. Jones_, vol. I. p. 336).――D. S. - - [43] सुक्ल पक्ष _súklapakcha_, “the light half of a month; - the fifteen days of the moon’s increase; or from new to full - moon.”――A. T. - - [44] वैशाख _Váisákha_, “the month in which the moon is full - near the southern scale” (April-May); the first month in the - Hindu calendar.――A. T. - - [45] भाद्र _bhadra_, “the month when the moon is full near - the wing of Pegasus” (August-September).――A. T. - - [46] Vámana was so small, that in his journey, when he got - to the side of a hole made by a cow’s foot, and which was - filled with water, he thought it was a river, and entreated - another Brahman to help him over it. On coming into Bali’s - presence, he petitioned only for as much land as he could - measure by three steps; and the king ordered his priest, - notwithstanding his remonstrances, to read the usual - formulas in making such a present. Vámana then placed one - foot on India’s heaven, and the other on the earth; when lo! - a third leg suddenly projected from his belly, and he asked - for a place upon which he might rest his third foot. Bali - then, by his wife’s advice, gave his head for Vámana to set - his foot upon; Vámana next asked for a Dakshina, “a small - present which accompanies a gift;” but Bali was unable to - comply, as he had now lost every thing: in this dilemma he - offered his life, which Vishnu declined taking, as he had - promised Prahláda not to destroy any of his race. He - therefore gave him his choice of ascending to heaven, taking - with him five ignorant men; or descending to Patála, the - world of the hydras, with five wise men. Bali chose the - latter, as Vishnu promised to protect him against suffering - punishment there for his crimes on earth. - (_Ward on the Hindoos_, vol. I. p. 7.)――D. S. - - [47] परशु राम or “Ráma with an axe.” He was the son of the - Muni Jamadagni, born at the commencement of the second or - Tréta-yug.――A. T. - - [48] This is the Rama-chandra, the son of Daśarat´ha, - king of Ayodhya, or the modern Oude, and born at the - close of the second age.――A. T. - - [49] Sitá, the daughter of the king of Mithila (the modern - Tirhut) was taken away by Rávána himself, who had come from - Lanka to the Indian peninsula, in order to revenge so many - Rakshasas, his relations, who had been destroyed by the - bravery of Ráma. This hero, having allied himself with - Hanuman and Sugriva, two chiefs of savage tribes, - represented as monkeys, conquered with their assistance the - island of Lanka, overthrew and slew in battle Rávaná, and - recovered his wife. The narration of these events forms one - of the most interesting parts of the Rámáyana, an ancient - and sacred poem relating the history of Ráma-chandra.――A. T. - - [50] The beginning of the Kali-yug, succeeding the - Dvapar-yug, being fixed 3102 years B. C., Buddha would have - appeared 3112 years B. C.――A. T. - - [51] The author, if even no Zoroastrian, seems to allude - here to _Honover_, “pure desire,” a general name for “the - word of Ormuzd;” it existed before all the good and evil - beings created by Ormuzd and by Ahriman; it was by - pronouncing it that the first triumphed over the latter, and - continued to extend and to protect the creation - (_Zend-Avesta_, I. 2 P. pp. 85. 138. 140. 412. II. 347. 348. - and elsewhere).――A. T. - - [52] The Sri Bhagavat mentions the birth of this celebrated - sage in the Satya Yog, in the heaven of Brahma, from whose - mind he was born; the Kalika puranah gives an account of - another birth in the Padma Kalpa, when his father’s name was - Mitra Varúna, and his mother’s Kúmbha. The Ramáyana mentions - him as priest to the kings of the solar race for many ages. - This philosopher taught in substance the doctrines of the - Vedanta school. He is said to have had ten thousand - disciples. - (_Ward, on the Hindoos_, vol. IV. p. 19.)――D. S. - - [53] Rĭshi, a kind of saint; that holy and superhuman - personage which a king or man of the military class may - become by the practice of religious austerities. Seven - classes of Rishis are enumerated: the _Dévarshi_, - _Brahmarshi_, _Maharshi_, _Paramarshi_, _Rájarshi_, - _Kándarshi_, and _Srutarshi_: the order is variously given, - but the Rájarshi is inferior to the four preceding ones, and - the two last appear to be the inspired saints of the Hindoo - mythology.――D. S. - - The simple name is especially applied to seven sages of the - Bráhmarshi order, contemporary with each of the seven Menus; - those of the present Manvantara are: _Marichi_, _Atri_, - _Angiras_, _Pulastya_, _Pulaha_, _Kratu_, and _Vasishta_. - The names of each series differ: those specified also form, - in astronomy, the asterism of the Greater Bear - (_Wilson_).――A. T. - - [54] This name, repeated in the Dabistán (see hereafter the - chapter upon the Nanak Panthians), never occurred to me - elsewhere.――A. T. - - [55] The name of a saint celebrated in Hindu mythology, more - usually entitled _Agastya_, the son of both _Mitra_ (the - sun) and _Varuna_ (the lord of waters) by _Urvasi_ (a nymph - of heaven); he is represented of short stature, and is said - by some to have been born in a water-jar: he is famed for - having swallowed the ocean, when it had given him offence; - at his command also the Vindhya range of mountains - prostrated itself, and so remains; hence his present - appellation: he is also considered as the regent of the star - Canopus――(_Wilson’s Dictionary_, _sub voce_).――A. T. - - [56] अश्वमेध _aśvamédha_, from _aśva_, “a horse,” and - _médha_, “a sacrifice.” Colebrooke, in his Essay on the - Védas (_As. Res._, VIII., ed. Calc.) states, that the horse - is “avowedly an emblem of _Viráj_, or the primeval and - universal manifested being. In the last section of the - _Taittiríya Yajurvéda_, the various parts of the horse’s - body are described as divisions of time and portions of the - universe: morning is his head; the sun, his eye; air, his - breath; the moon, his ear; etc. A similar passage in the - fourteenth book of the _Sátapat´ha bráhmańa_, describes - the same allegorical horse for the meditation of such as - cannot perform an Aśvamédha; and the assemblage of living - animals, constituting an imaginary victim at a real - Aśvamédha, equally represent the universal Being, according - to the doctrines of the Indian scripture. It is not however - certain, whether this ceremony did not also give occasion to - the institution of another, apparently not authorized by the - Védas, in which a horse was actually sacrificed.” That this - was really the case, we may infer from the frequent mention - of such sacrifices, made in the historical poems of the - Hindus and from the analogous instances of them found among - the Western nations. The Massageti and the Persíans - sacrificed horses to the sun; the Magians also to the rivers - (see _Herod._, l. I. VII.; _Xenoph._, l. VIII. See also upon - the sacrifice of a horse, _Exposé de quelques-uns des - principaux articles de la Théogonie des Brahmes_, par M. - l’abbé Dubois, ci-devant Missionnaire dans le Meissour. - Paris, 1825).――A. T. - - [57] The passage between the asterisks is not in the - manuscripts.――D. S. - - [58] This passage, relative to space, is as obscure as the - subject itself is metaphysical. The notions here expressed - are in accordance with the Vedanta doctrine, by which - _akas_, or “pure ether,” is the universal space, including - all, and the vacuum between the separate objects therein. - There is a vacuum unconnected with every thing, and in it - these particular vacuums are absorbed. This appears - conformable enough with modern philosophy, but the Hindus - applied it to the divine spirit itself: thus, they say that - there is a perfect spirit, in which individual souls and the - aggregation of all souls take refuge, and so Brahma and the - individuated spirits are one: both pure life. We may here - recollect that sir Isaac Newton, in attempting to define - space, compared it to “Something like the organ of - divinity.” According to the Vedanta-sara, there is no - difference between the all-ruling spirit and that of the - sage; as there is none between the forest and the trees and - the inclosed atmosphere; or between the lake and the parts - of the water, and the image of the sky which falls in it. We - are informed by Damascius, an author of the sixth century of - our era, who quotes Eudemos, a disciple of Aristotle - (_Wolfií Anect. Græca_, t. III. p. 259), that the united - intellectual all is called “space” by the Magians and by the - whole race of the Arians, which name may be applied to the - nations inhabiting the countries situated to the East and - West of the Indus.――A. T. - - [59] The earth according to the Hindus is circular and flat, - like the flower of the water-lily, in which the petals - project beyond each other: its circumference being four - thousand millions of miles. In the centre is mount Sumeru, - ascending six hundred thousand miles from the surface of the - earth, and descending one hundred and twenty-eight thousand - below it. It is one hundred and twenty-eight thousand miles - in circumference at its base, and two hundred and fifty-six - thousand wide at the top. On this mountain are the heavens - of Vishnu, Siva, Indra, Agni, Yama, Noirita, Varúna, Váyú, - Kúvéra, Isha, and other gods. The clouds ascend to about - one-third of the height of the mountain: at its base are the - mountains Mandara, Gundha-mádana, Vipúla, and Súpárshwa, on - each of which grows a tree eight thousand eight hundred - miles high (_Ward’s Hindoos_, vol. III. p. 3).――D. S. - - [60] According to the Máhábharat, when the _Súras_ and - _Asúras_ (the gods and _Dáityas_, or “demons”) had, by the - whirling of the ocean, obtained the _Amrita_, or “the nectar - of immortality,” a fierce dispute arose among them about the - possession of it; but Vishnu succeeded in obtaining it for - the Súras. Ráhu, a demon under the disguise of a Súra, was - about to drink it, when, informed of it by the sun and the - moon, the god just mentioned, by a blow with his chakra, - struck off the demon’s head, which, flying up to heaven, - since keeps an inextinguishable hatred against the two - luminaries who had betrayed him, and now and then swallows - the sun or the moon.――A. T. - - [61] The name of Brahma’s heaven is properly सत्य लोक _satya - loka_, “the world of truth.” - - [62] The words between the asterisks are not in the - manuscripts.――D. S. - - [63] Not in the manuscripts.――D. S. - - [64] A particular account of the Muhammedan doctors is to be - given hereafter.――A. T. - - [65] In Sanskrit कृत युगं _Krita-Yugam_ and सत्य युगं - _Satya-Yugam_, “the righteous age.”――D. S. - - [66] त्रेतायुग from त्रै _trai_, “to preserve.” - - [67] द्वापर युग _Dwapar_, from _dwa_, “two,” and _par_, - “after, subsequent.” - - [68] The beginning of the Kali Yug is placed about 3001 - years anterior to the Christian era.――D. S. - - [69] For a more detailed account of the occupations of the - several deities, male and female, see _Moore’s Hindu - Pantheon_, p. 333; and also plates, 52 and 54.――D. S. - - [70] A month of mortals is a day and a night of the - _Pitris_, or patriarchs inhabiting the moon; and the - division of a month being into equal halves, the half - beginning from the full moon is their day for actions; and - that beginning from the new moon is their night for slumber. - - A year of mortals is a day and a night of the gods, or - regents of the universe, seated round the north pole; and - again their division is this: their day is the northern, and - their night the southern, course of the sun.――D. S. - - [71] Learn now the duration of a day and a night of Brahma, - and of the several ages which shall be mentioned in order - succinctly: Sages have given the name of Krita to an age - containing four thousand years of the gods; the twilight - preceding it consists of as many hundreds, and the twilight - following it of the same number. - - In the other three ages, with their twilights preceding and - following, are thousands and hundreds diminished by one. - - The divine years, in the four ages just enumerated, being - added together, their sum, or twelve thousand, is called the - age of the gods. - - And by reckoning a thousand such divine ages, a day of - Brahma may be known: his night also has an equal duration. - - The before-mentioned age of the gods, or twelve thousand of - their years, being multiplied by seventy-one, constitutes a - Manvantara, or the reign of a Menu. - - There are numberless Manvantaras: creations also, and - destructions of worlds innumerable: the Being supremely - exalted performs all this with as much ease as if in sport; - again and again for the sake of conferring happiness - (_Haughton’s Menu_, p. 11. 12. 13).――D. S. - - [72] The manuscript omits all the words after “smaller solar - bodies,” observe the asterisks.――D. S. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE THIRD, CONCERNING THE RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES AND CEREMONIES -OF THE SAMARTAGANS (SMARTAS), OR ORTHODOX OF THE HINDUS.――According to -this class, there are two kinds of birth: the first, on quitting the -maternal womb; the second, on the day of assuming the _Munji_[73] or -_Zanar_, and repeating the established forms of prayer; as, until a -person has scrupulously performed both these rites, he is not regarded -as orthodox, nor an observer of their institutes. Under this are -contained the _Shodásán-Karmáni_,[74] “sixteen heads,” commencing with -the woman being purified from periodical illness; her attachment to -her husband; the forms of prayer necessary to be used on the occasion, -and observed until the moment of death; and the acts of charity -enjoined to be performed after the person’s decease. - -Of their laudable customs are the following: 1. the _Garbh-ádhána-karma_,[75] -or delivering the likeness of a son, that is, giving up a daughter to -her husband; 2. the _Pungsavana_,[76] or reciting at the proper season -the prayers enjoined to be said, that a virtuous offspring may be -born; 3. the _Símantonnayana_,[77] that is, in the sixth month of a -woman’s pregnancy, the recitation of the proper forms of prayer and -giving a feast to Brahmans; 4. the _Játakarma_,[78] or the rites to be -practised by the father on the birth of a son, in regard to ablution; -_Hóm_, or burnt offerings; _Jap_, or devout meditation and acts of -charity; 5. the _Náma-karana_,[79] when, on the eleventh day after the -child’s birth, they give it a name and repeat the necessary forms of -prayer; 6. on the fourth month they bring out the child, which they -call the _Nish-kramana_;[80] 7. giving the child suitable food and at -a propitious moment, which they call _Anna-prásanna_;[81] 8. at the -age of three years they shave the child’s head and bore its ears, -which rite they call _Chúd´á-karana_,[82] or the ceremony of forming -the crest at the first tonsure of a Hindu. They are strictly enjoined -to observe the above eight ceremonies; and if the child be of the -female sex, they practise the same rites, but without the stated forms -of prayer; excepting at the time of her marriage, when they are bound -to recite the forms appropriated to that ceremony. 9. In his fifth -year, they bind around the child’s waist a string which they call -_Sútram_;[83] this rite they call _Mungi_;[84] the string is to be -made of the bark of the _Darbha_;[85] 10. three days after investing -the boy with the Sutra, they should put the Zanar, or “sacrificial -thread,”[86] about his neck, which they call the _Yajnópavíta_;[87] -11. on assuming the Brahmanical thread they are, by way of charity, to -bestow a cow on the Brahmans, which act they call _Gódán_;[88] 12. is -the ablution of the body with milk, curds, clarified butter, honey, -and sugar, which they call the _Ashnan-panjah_ and _Paraish-chat_;[89] -13. when the boy reaches his fifteenth year, they make him master of a -household; this they call _Viváhah_,[90] or “matrimony;” 14. the son, -after the decease of his father, performs the requisite charities and -donations, which they call _Pind-pradán_;[91] 15. on the 7th of the -month _Mágha_,[92] when the majesty of the great luminary is in -Aquarius, they are to present the Brahmans with pulse, barley, wheat, -black rice, sesamé, gold, and suchlike; this is called _Dán-phal_;[93] -16. on the _Shiva-rátri_,[94] or “night of Siva,” the 21st of the -_Bhágan_ (Phágan, or Phálgun) they present to the Brahmans a serpent -of silver, with red rice, which they call _Phani_.[95] - -The above are the sixteen ceremonies. It is moreover necessary that a -Brahman’s son should be invested with the Munji at the age of eight, -the Chatriyas at eleven, and the Vaisyas at twelve, after which -ceremony the boy is to be sent to school. - -A Brahman must, whilst performing the offices of nature, fasten the -Munji securely on the right ear, turning his face to the north, but at -night to the south. After performing these offices, he is to take his -instrument, and going three paces farther he is to apply to his hands -water, which is to be in a vessel, and with which earth has been -blended, and this is to be continued until there remains no -disagreeable odour. He is after this to perform his ablution in a -clean place,[96] and seat himself in such a manner that his hands -should be under his knees, with his face to the north or east; next, -whilst repeating the prescribed forms of prayer, he is to put a little -water three times successively into the palm of the right hand,[97] -which he is to swallow without reciting any prayers; he is then to -cleanse the mouth with the back of the left hand, and having taken -into the palm of his hand other water, and dipped the other fingers -into it, he is to apply them to his nose, eyes, and ears; the water -must be pure, without foam or bubble. On this occasion the Brahman is -to swallow so much water that the moisture may extend to his breast; -the Chattri such a quantity as to extend to his throat; the Vaisya -sufficient to moisten the inside of his mouth; the cultivator, women, -and children who have not assumed the Munji, are to apply a little -water to the lips, then immerse the head, and having repeated the -proper forms of prayer, to sprinkle the head several times. The -Brahman is next to compress the nostrils, so that the passage of -inhalation and exhalation should be closed up, and recite the prayers -prescribed on the occasion; then he is to stand for some time, turning -his face towards the great luminary, and repeat the necessary formulæ. -Every morning, on rising up and performing duly the offices of nature, -he is to go through the necessary rites which they call _Sandhya_,[98] -the observance of which, three times every day, is equally imperative -on both Brahman and Chattriya: 1. every morning, or from the dawn of -day until the rise of the world-illuminating solar orb; 2. at midday, -from the sun’s meridian altitude to his declination; 3. at evening, or -from one hour before the setting of the world-enlightening sun until -the rising of the stars. These rites are to be accompanied by -_Ghasal_, or “ablution,” except on the Sandhya of the latter part of -the day, when, if it be impossible, the established prayers only are -to be recited. On performing this ablution, the head is to be several -times sprinkled with water in such a manner that it may fall in drops -on it; after which, having gone through the indispensable forms of -prayer, he is to make the _Homa_, that is, he is to light the holy -fire on a pure spot, and place on it thin and fine pieces of wood, and -having chosen the still more delicate splinters of it, and moistened -them with water, he drops pure rice upon them. The fire being thus -lighted, he addresses prayers to his spiritual guide or his -instructor, father, and elders, and laying his head on the ground, -solicits their benedictions; pronouncing during this adoration his own -name, so that it may be heard by them, after this manner: “I, who am -such a one, in profound adoration address my prayers to you, and -prostrate myself in your presence:” the same prostration must also be -performed to his mother. He then repairs to his master, before whom he -stands in an humble attitude and receives instruction: but after this -form, that the instructor should say of himself, “I am now at -leisure:” he is not to command him, which would be accounted great -rudeness. When the pupil waits on his master, he is to appear before -him dressed in costly clothing; but if both master and pupil should be -in indigent circumstances, the latter is to solicit alms, and thus -procure subsistence for his master and himself: he is moreover to -remain silent at table. - -The boy, when invested with the Brahminical thread, is called a -_Brahmachari_, until he enters into the marriage state; after which, -if through the necessity of his own family he derives his daily -support from another quarter, he is not to eat at one place only, but -go round to several doors, and receiving something at each, convey the -whole to its proper destination; but the person, whose father and -mother charge themselves with his annual support, and who can discover -no other Brahman beside himself in that district, is allowed to -satisfy his appetite at one place. Until the time of his marriage, the -Brahmachari eats not honey, never applies collyrium to the eyes, nor -oil nor perfumes to the body; and never eats the viands left at table, -except his master’s; he never utters a rejoinder with harshness or -severity; avoids female intercourse; and never looks at the great -luminary when rising or setting; he is a stranger to falsehood, and -never uses an expression of ill omen; nor holds any one in -detestation, or regards him as an object of reproach; above all, he -shows exceeding veneration to his preceptor. - -The ancients commanded that boys should be engaged in the study of the -Veds, or “religious sciences,” from five years of age to twelve. They -have also said: “A Brahman should study the four Védas;” but as the -acquisition of the whole is impossible, their learned men are -consequently satisfied with the knowledge of small portions of each. -The first is the _Rigvéda_, which treats concerning the knowledge of -the Divine essence and attributes; the mode of creation; the path of -righteousness; of life and death. The second, or _Yajúsh-véda_, treats -of the rules prescribed for religious ceremonies, faith, burnt -offerings, and prayers. The third is the _Sámavéda_, which treats of -the science of music, the proper mode of reading the Védas, and the -portions selected from them; from this source are also derived vocal -and instrumental harmony. The fourth is the _Atharva-véda_, which -includes the rules of archery, the prayers proper to be recited when -encountering the foe and discharging arrows against them. If a person -acquainted with this system and form of prayer discharge a single -arrow, it becomes a hundred thousand arrows, some of which contain -fire, others wind, storm, dust, and rain; others vomit forth golden -stones and huge bricks; whilst some assume the forms of tremendous -wild beasts and ferocious animals, which strike terror into the -boldest hearts. Many are the extraordinary modes and wonderful devices -unfolded in this Véda for the total destruction of one’s enemies. Such -is the Atharva Véda, and such the artifices, magic practices, -incantations, spells, and devices contained in it.[99] - -The _Brahmachárí_ is of two kinds: one as already described, whom the -Brahmans call Brahmachari, until the period of his becoming a -householder and taking a wife; the second is he who in the course of -this life never enters into the married state, pays no attention to -worldly cares, and continues the devoted servant of his instructor, on -whose death he pays the same attention to his survivors. If the -disciple should happen to die in his master’s house or that of his -successor, it is accounted far more meritorious than in any other -place; and if his decease should not occur, he is carefully to worship -the fire which is made for the purpose of the Hom, or “burnt-offering,” -and diminishing every day the quantity of his food. - -Having thus given some statements concerning the Brahmachárí, it now -becomes proper to mention the various modes of contracting marriage -among the Hindus: thus it is related in the first part of the -_Mahábhárat_, that a woman who has lost her husband may lawfully take -another; for when Parasu-Rama had exterminated the Chattris, their -wives held intercourse with the Brahmans and bare them children. It is -also permitted to a wife deprived of her husband, to attach herself to -another; thus _Yojanagandhá_[100] was first the wife of _Paraśara_, by -whom she had a son, the celebrated sage _Vyása_,[101] and she -afterwards became the wife of a king named _Santana_.[102] In the same -work it is also recorded, that a woman may, by her husband’s consent, -maintain intercourse with another; thus, on the arrival of Raja Bali, -a Brahman named _Tamma_, sent him his wife and obtained a son. In like -manner, Raja _Pándu_, who abstained from all intercourse with woman, -permitted his wife _Kuntí_[103] to keep company with others, and she, -by force of his prayers, mixing with angels, had sons. In like manner -it is permitted that the son be separated from the father, but remain -with the mother, and that, on the decease of a brother, another -brother by a different father but the same mother, may marry the widow -of the deceased: thus _Vyása_, the son of _Yojangandha_ by -_Párasaru_,[104] visited the wives of _Vichitra-Virya_, who was born -of the same mother, Yojangandha, by king Santanu, and there was born -to him _Dhritaráshtra_, Raja _Pándu_, and _Vidúra_. It is also allowed -that several individuals of the same race and religion may among them -espouse one wife: thus _Draupadí_, daughter of _Drúpada_, Rája of -_Pánchála_,[105] was married to the five Pandava princes; and -_Ahalyá_,[106] the daughter of _Gautama_, to seven persons; and the -daughter of another holy person, was married to ten husbands. The -Yezdanians ascribe the seclusion of women, and their not choosing -husbands for themselves, to litigation, corruption, and the family -perplexities. It is recorded also in the Mahábhárat, that in ancient -times there was no such practice as the appropriation of husband and -wife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she thought -proper, until once the wife of a holy personage being in the society -of another, Swétakéta, the holy man’s son, feeling indignant at such -conduct, pronounced this imprecation: “Let the woman who approaches a -stranger be regarded as a spirit of hell!” and at present the brute -creation, which possess in common with us, immaterial souls, act -according to the ancient law: many, also, of the northern nations -follow the same practice. In the same work it is also stated, that the -sage Vyása was born of the daughter of a fisherman, whom the sage -Paraśara espoused, from which it follows that the issue of such a low -connection is not to be held as a low or degraded character. Thus far -has been extracted from the Mahábhárat. - -According to the Smarttas, there are two kinds of wives: the first is -the legitimate wife, who is degraded by holding intercourse with any -man save her husband: the second are those on whom no restraints are -imposed; of whom there are numbers at the disposition of their chief -men. The princes of ancient times, to all appearance, established this -description of females for the purpose of receiving travellers and -pilgrims, an act which they regarded as productive of great blessings. - -Moreover, on account of the increase of the male population, they held -not as a criminal act the holding an intercourse with these females; -but regarded guilt to consist in being intimate with a woman who has a -husband: they moreover esteemed it a base act to defraud the licensed -class of their hire. Tradition records that, in former times, the -_Lulees_, or “dancing women,” who inhabited the temple of the Tortoise -in the city of Kalinga, at first gave their daughters to a Brahman, in -order to conciliate the favor of the Almighty and insure future -happiness; but that afterwards they gave them from selfish purposes, -and exposed them from mercenary motives; even at present, although -they have entirely given up every pious purpose, yet they do not -associate with any save those of their own religion. However, Shir -Muhammed Khan, who was appointed military governor of that province -under the first sovereign, Abdálláh Kuteb Shah, forced them to repair -to the houses of the Moslem: notwithstanding which, the Lulees of the -temple of Jagganath, to this very day hold no intercourse with the -Muhammedans. In Gaya and Soram, when they take a wife, she must be of -noble and honorable descent, and of graceful carriage; and must not -previously have been affianced to any other person; she is not to be -related, in the remotest degree, to the stock or family of her -husband, she ought to have brothers, and her lineage and family for -ten generations are to be publicly known among her contemporaries. Her -relations also make strict inquiries into the merits and demerits of -the bridegroom, particularly as to the state of his health and -stamina. Some writers assert, that a Brahman may occasionally demand -in marriage the daughter of a Chattri, merchant, or cultivator, but on -this condition, that they do not join their husband in partaking of -food or drink. - -Among the Hindus there are five modes of contracting marriage;[107] -the first, or _Viváha_, after this form: the damsel’s father looks out -for a son-in-law, to whom he presents money and goods in proportion to -his means, and gives him his daughter, which is the most legitimate -mode.[108] The second is the _Asurvívahah_, when without the consent -of the father or mother, by employing force and violence, or the -influence of money, the damsel is forcibly taken by the bridegroom -from her parents’ house to his own, and there married to him. The -third is the _Gandharviváhah_, when the bridegroom takes the damsel -away with her consent, but without the approbation of her parents, and -espouses her at his own house. The fourth is the _Rákshasa-viváha_, -when the parties on both sides are at the head of armies, and the -damsel, being taken away by force, becomes the victor’s bride. - -The fifth is the _Písácha-viváha_, when the lover, without obtaining -the sanction of the girl’s parents, takes her home by means of -talismans, incantations, and such like magical practices, and then -marries her. Písách, in Sanscrit, is the name of a demon, which takes -whatever person it fixes on, and as the above kind of marriage takes -place after the same manner, it has been called by this name. - -On espousing a damsel, the intelligent Brahman, having taken the -bride’s hand into his own, must go through the established forms -prescribed by his faith, and move seven steps in advance.[109] When he -espouses the daughter of a Chattrí, at the time of solemnizing the -marriage, an arrow is to be held at one extremity by the bridegroom, -and at the other by the bride; on contracting an alliance with a -merchant’s daughter, the bride and bridegroom are to hold a scourge or -some similar object in the same manner; on his marriage with the -virgin daughter of a cultivator, the parties mark their union by a -token of secret intimacy. When they deliver the bride to her husband, -if her father be not alive, or her paternal grandfather, or if her -brothers be not forthcoming on the occasion, then the most respectable -person of the tribe or family is to perform the necessary ceremonies; -and if the relations be not intelligent, then the damsel’s mother. - -It is to be remarked, that when a girl attains the proper age for -entering into the married state, if her parents, notwithstanding their -ability, do not provide a husband for her, they commit a great sin. If -a distinguished suitor should not present himself, they are however to -provide a husband of a good family; this they are to perform only once -in their lives, as on the husband’s death it is unlawful for the widow -to become the wife of another person: after her husband’s decease, she -is obliged to pass the rest of her life in his house. If, previous to -advancing the seven steps prescribed at the time of contracting the -marriage, there should present himself a more distinguished suitor -than the former, it is allowed to take the damsel from the former and -give her to the latter, as before advancing the seven paces, the -matrimonial contract is not binding. Should a wife prove to be -immoral, all intercourse with her must terminate; but putting her to -death or turning her out of doors, are also forbidden: she is to be -confined to a small and dark chamber, clad in a coarse dress, and to -receive food but once a day. - -The period of a woman’s illness, according to the Brahmans, extends to -sixteen days: on the four days following the first day of the -symptoms, all intercourse with her is forbidden. Women are strictly -enjoined to show the greatest respect to their husbands, parents, -brothers, and relations, and to use every possible exertion for the -preservation of their husbands’ property. When he goes on a journey, -she is not to deck her person, nor appear cheerful and smiling; she is -not to go to entertainments, to the houses of her acquaintances or -relations, nor invite them to hers. - -As long as a girl is unmarried, it is necessary to guard her with the -closest attention; but, when married, this would be highly improper, -with this restriction however, that it is by no means fitting that a -female, from her tenderest years to the period of her maturity, should -be allowed unlimited liberty: on the contrary, she is to be ever -submissive and obedient to her father, husband, and relations: but if -these should not be in existence, the actual rulers are to take care -of her state. - -When the husband is on a journey, the wife is not to remain alone in -the house, but is to repair to the dwelling of her parents, brethren, -or relations; and if, on her husband’s death, she become not a -_Sattee_, that is, burn herself with the deceased, she is then to -reside with his relations, devoting herself to rigid abstinence and -the worship of the Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a -_Sattee_, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and -husband, and that they remain a long time in paradise:[110] nay, if -the husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws -him from thence and takes him to paradise; just as the serpent-catcher -charms the serpent out of his hole. Moreover the Sattee, in a future -birth, returns not to the female sex; but should she reassume the -human nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes not a Sattee, -and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female -state. It is therefore the duty of every woman, excepting one that is -pregnant, to enter into the blazing fire along with her deceased -husband; a Brahman’s wife in particular is to devote herself in the -same fire with her husband; but others are allowed to perform the rite -in a separate place. It is however criminal to force the woman into -the fire, and equally so to prevent her who voluntarily devotes -herself.[111] - -The enlightened doctors say, that by a woman’s becoming a Sattee is -meant that, on her husband’s decease, she should consume in the fire -along with him all her desires, and thus die before the period -assigned by nature; as in metaphysical language woman signifies -“passion,” or in other words, she is to cast all her passions into the -fire; but not throw herself into it along with the deceased, which is -far from being praiseworthy. A respectable woman must not from vanity -expose herself to the gaze of a stranger, but she is to wear a dress -which will completely cover her to the sole of the foot. - -It is to be noted, that the son of a Brahman by a Chattri female is -not of the father’s caste, but a superior Chattri. It is moreover laid -down as a rule that a Brahman, on becoming a Brahmachárí, should -regularly worship the fire, which fire he is to discontinue at the -time of the marriage contract; but on that occasion he is bound to -light another fire and to recite the prescribed prayers, so that it -may be as a witness of the compact entered into between husband and -wife: also, after the celebration of the marriage, they are to repeat -the prayers prescribed at the time of lighting the fire which they are -ever after to worship daily. - -The Brahman is moreover to offer up _Hóma_, or burnt offerings, at the -rising and setting of the great luminary, and to partake of food -twice; once during the day on the expiration of two watches (midday); -the second time at night, on the expiration of one watch: he is also -to assist with food and clothing, to the utmost of his power, the -indigent, and friends who come to his house. - -The Chattri is to learn the Védas and Shasters, or the divine -revelations and sciences, but he is not to teach them to another; he -is likewise to perform Hóma, or “burnt-offerings.” His occupation -consists in governing and protecting the human race, for which reason -all monarchs were anciently of the Chattri class, the more effectually -to establish the righteous decrees of Brahma, and the institutions of -the Brahmans. - -To the Bakkál, or “merchant caste,” appertains the profession of -buying, selling, and commercial transactions, the protection of -animals, and agriculture, which is attended with profit. - -The cultivator, who is called _Dalmah_, or _Kumbí_, is enjoined to -engage in service, to practise tillage, or any employment within his -capacity by which he can gain a maintenance; there are in fact no -limits prescribed as to the nature of his occupations. - -All four classes are strictly enjoined not to injure any living being -whatever, especially not to deprive any one arbitrarily of life; to -speak the truth, to act uprightly, and as long as they live not to -defraud a fellow-creature of his wealth. - -Every Brahman is obliged once a year to celebrate the established rite -of _Yajna_, or “sacrifice:” if he be in indigent circumstances, he is -to go round to his brethren, and expend whatever he collects in the -Yajna, which is thus performed: there are three _Kundams_,[112] or -“fire-pits” to be formed, in front of which is fixed a wooden post; -then a rope made of Durva grass (in Sanskrit, _Kúsá_) is thrown around -the neck of a black he-goat, and fastened to that post; _Hóm_ is then -offered up during five days; on the first day, the sacrificer and his -wife both perform their ablutions, nine Brahmans at the same time -going through the rite of washing their heads and persons; of these -nine, one is looked upon as Brahma himself, all present obeying his -commands, and the remaining eight Brahmans waiting obsequiously on -him. In addition to these, sixteen more Brahmans are required, who are -to recite by themselves the _Mantra_, or “forms of prayer,” at the -moment of the _Hóm_, or “burnt-offering.” In order to light the fire, -they bring small pieces of a wood which in Sanscrit they call -_Arana_,[113] in Hindi, _Ak_ (asclepias gigantea); and also for the -same purpose another kind, in Sanskrit, _Khandíra_,[114] in Telinga, -_Chandaru_; for the Homa, a wood in Sanskrit called _Pámárak_, in -Telinga, _Utarini_, in Dakhani _Akhárah_, of which they make -tooth-picks; also a wood, in Sanskrit _Udámvarah_[115] (ficus -racemosa), in Telinga, _Miri_, in Dakhani, _Kular_, in Parsi _Anjir -dasti_, or “wild fig;” and another wood, in Sanskrit _samí_,[116] and -in Telinga, _Khammi_; also a grass, named in Sanskrit _Dúrvá_,[117] in -Telinga, _Kargi_, in Dakhani, _Haryálí_; also another sort, called -_Darbas_: altogether nine are required. The eight Brahmans first -mentioned having repeated the proper incantation, lay hold of the goat -in such a manner that they make it lie down on a bed formed of the -leaves and branches of the tree _Khartarhari_, or _Karshartari_, in -Sanskrit, _Kaliśakha_,[118] in Telinga, _Balsúkúma_, and in Dakhani -_Karankabánta_. In the next place, the sixteen Brahmans, having -recited the formula, or appropriate Mantra, stop up all the animal’s -orifices, so that he can neither exhale nor inhale, and keep him in -that position until he dies. Then one of the sixteen Brahmans, cutting -off the head at one blow, flays the carcase and cuts it up into small -pieces, throwing away all the bones to some distance, and then mixes -up clarified butter with the flesh. The eight Brahmans next lay it -piece by piece on the fire, whilst the other sixteen are employed in -throwing on the above mentioned kinds of wood, and pouring clarified -butter on them. The eight Brahmans eat of the meat thus roasted; the -person who offers the sacrifice also partakes of it; after which he -gives among all the officiating Brahmans one hundred and one cows with -their calves, along with a _dakshinah_, or “presents of money.” Hóma -must also be performed on the second day, and gifts presented to the -Brahmans; on the three following days, they recite the appropriate -Mantras, and light up the fire in the manner before described, but lay -no meat upon it; in short, during the whole five days, they entertain -all Brahmans who present themselves, offering up perfumes and giving -presents to each of them. On the expiration of the five days, they -completely fill and stop up two of the fire-receptacles, leaving the -third, which they do not close up until they have removed the fire it -contains to their dwelling: as the fire on this occasion had been made -outside the city, they erect there a house which they burn down on the -completion of the ceremony. When they have taken the fire to their -dwelling, they deposit it in a peculiar receptacle excavated for the -purpose; they offer up the _Hóma_ daily, never suffering this fire to -go out: they also make a covering for it, which they remove at the -time of offering up the Hóma. - -The manner of offering the _Hóma_ is as follows: the sacrificer having -performed his ablution and made the _tilek_, or “inaugural mark,” on -the forehead with ashes from the fire receptacle, then celebrates the -Hóma; the rites must be performed by a Brahman, as it is of no avail -when performed by any other. If the officiating Brahman be a -_Vaishnavah_, “worshipper of Vishnu,” he performs the _Yajna_, or -“sacrifice,” in the same manner, excepting that, instead of a goat, he -employs the figure of a goat formed of flour, over which he goes -through the established ceremonies. When one goat is sacrificed, it is -called _Agnishtóma_, or “sacrifice to Agni;”[119] where two are -offered, _Yúnyíkam_;[120] the sacrifice of three is called -_Wajpéya_;[121] the sacrifice of four is called _Jyotishtóma_;[122] -and the sacrifice of five is named _Panjáham_.[123] When they -sacrifice a cow after this manner, it is called the _Gomédha_; the -sacrifice of a horse, _Aswamédha_; that of a man, _Narmédha_. - -The _Yajna_, or “sacrifice” is to be offered in the months of _Mágha_, -“January,” _Váisháka_, “April,” or _Márga-sirsha_,[124] “August.” -Every person performs the Yajna once; but he sacrifices a goat every -year; or, if in indigent circumstances, the figure of a goat formed of -flour; and if he be a follower of Vishnu, the goat is to be a figure -formed of the same materials, as among that sect cruelty towards the -animal creation is reckoned as impiety. In their Smriti, or “sacred -writing,” it is thus laid down: “Let that person put animals to death -who has the power of reanimating them, as the victim thus sacrificed -must be restored to life.” Moreover, their pious doctors have said -that, by the sacrifice of a sheep, is meant the removal of ignorance; -by that of a cow, the abandoning low pursuits; by that of the horse, -the curbing of the mind; as according to the Hindus, Manah, or “the -heart,” from which proceed all phantasies and internal sense, is a -fiery and unbroken steed; finally, shedding man’s blood in sacrifice, -implies the eradication of all reprehensible human qualities. It is -also to be highly commended in a Brahman not to devote himself to -lucrative pursuits, but to repair to the abode of his co-religionists, -and being satisfied and grateful for the portion of grain he receives -from them, to give up the rest of his time to devotion; nor is he to -collect so much food as to have any remaining for the next day. -Vessels of gold are esteemed more pure than those of any other metal. -Whenever a Brahman sees an idol-temple, a cow, or a holy personage, he -is to walk reverentially round each. He is not to perform the offices -of nature in running water, nor in a cow-shed, nor in ashes; before a -Brahman, or a cow, or in sight of the great luminary; when he retires -to any place for this purpose, he is not in that state of nudity to -look towards the stars; neither is he to go out naked in rain, nor -sleep with his head to the west; he is not to cast saliva, blood, nor -semen into water, nor extend his feet towards the fire for the purpose -of warming them; he is not to leap on fire, nor drink water with both -hands. It is also wrong to awake, unless in case of necessity, one who -is in a profound sleep; nor is it allowed to sit on the same couch -with a sick person. It is not right to enter upon any undertaking to -which a suspicion of evil consequences is attached. Great care must -also be taken to remove to a distance from the smoke of a dead body on -the funeral pile. No one is to return to his home, whether in a city -or village, except by the public gate. A Brahman must not receive a -gift from a mean and sordid monarch, or from an avaricious person of -degrading pursuits, as in the future investigation, punishment -certainly awaits such conduct: in short, he never accepts any thing -from the impure or base. He is not to look at his wife when sneezing, -yawning, or gaping; when she is seated in privacy at her ease; or when -applying collyrium to her eyes, or anointing her hair.[125] He ought -not to sleep naked in his bed-room, nor in an empty house without a -companion; he ought not to throw water about in play, with the palm of -his hand or with his foot, nor to blow out fire with his breath, -without using any instrument. - -It is to be known, that the astronomers among the Brahmans, in their -computation, divide the month into two parts; from the beginning to -the fifteenth day they reckon one part, and call the sixteenth day -_Púrva_, that is, one entire part; and the rest, to the end of the -month, is the other part; in like manner, they have in each month -twice twelve and six days; which they distinguish by the denomination -_dvádásí_, “the twelfth,” and _chachtí_, “the sixth, day” of the lunar -fortnight. - -Nobody ought to put his feet upon the shade of a Dív, that is, of the -image of a celestial being, of a king, a preceptor, a saint, and a -married wife of another. It is not right to look with contempt upon a -Brahman. One may beat a delinquent on account of a fault, or a pupil -by way of chastisement, but his blows must not hurt the upper parts of -the body. No man ought to dispute or wrangle with one higher in rank -than himself, nor with a widow, nor with a man without connexion, an -old woman, a beggar, nor with children. Let him feign ignorance with -respect to a mandate upon a woman, and towards a person who should be -aware of the bad conduct of his wife. He is never to take his meal -upon the same table-cloth with a man without religion, a butcher, and -one who sells his wife. The master of the house ought never, with a -loud voice, to invite another to his board, because this looks like -ostentation. - -Nine stars are to be worshipped for the increase of wealth, the -accomplishment of our wishes, and the union with the divinity; namely, -Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, the solstice, and the -descending node. Let the pious distribute to the Brahmans and to the -wise men what is prescribed of corn, raiment, and jewels that may suit -them. The king is to possess dignity, wisdom, and affability towards -young and old; he is to be just towards the complainants; at court, -condescending to all, mild and liberal, knowing the truth, -understanding the wishes of men, respectful to the pious and the -saints, and showing deference to the lords of the faith, and the -secluded from the world; he is to be humble and command his ambition; -and in whatever may occur, pleasure and pain, fortune and misfortune, -let his conduct never be mutable and inconsistent. - -Whoever runs away in battle, renders himself highly guilty, and all -the merit which he might have acquired before, falls to the share of -another who stood firm in the field of battle.[126] A king who, with -the laudable qualities before described, exerts himself in the -maintenance of his laws, the distribution of justice, and the welfare -of the cultivators, shares the recompense of all the good actions -which the inhabitants of the country have performed.[127] The exercise -of justice is imposed as a necessity upon a king; in order that, if a -son, brother, uncle, brother-in-law, preceptor, or any other friend, -commit a crime, he may immediately, according to the established code -of laws, order their chastisement, terrify, reprimand, or subject them -to retaliation. - -In the Hindu Institutes which are called _Smriti_, it is said to be -established that, after the worship of the Supreme God, they ought to -venerate the subordinate divinities, and perform the prescribed rites. -To eat flesh, and to put to death some animals, is therein not -prohibited, excepting the cow; he who kills, or even hurts, this -animal, shall never enjoy the sight of heaven; and they say that he -only who can restore to life, may put to death, an animal; this is -necessary: who destroys a living being must vivify it again; if he be -not able to do this, he ought to forbear from that act, because he -shall not escape punishment for it. According to their learned -interpreters, the killing of certain animals which is permitted in -their sacred books, signifies the eradicating and destroying of such -blameable qualities as are proper to these animals. - -In ancient times, it was the custom among the Brahmans and the wise -among them, when they had become householders and begotten a son, to -withdraw from society, and when they had established their sons, to -separate from them, and having retired into a desert, to devote -themselves to the worship of God; and when the sons had children in -their house, their father and mother did not visit each other in the -desert, but lived separate from each other, at the distance of several -farsangs. - -The religious austerity of this people is very great; thus they -practise perpetual standing upon their legs, hanging themselves up, -abstaining from conversation, keeping silence, cutting themselves -asunder, leaping down from a rock, and such like. Women used to burn -themselves alive with their dead husbands: this is according to the -_Smriti_,[128] which is ascribed to Brahma, and believed to be eternal -truth. - -Of this people, the author of this book saw in Lahor, the capital of -the sultan, a Brahman, called Sri Manu Rama, who would not accept any -nourishment from the Musulmans, nor keep society with strangers. It -was said, that an Umra of the Mahommedans had offered him three lacs -of rupees, which he refused to take. Pursuant to his religion, he -abstained from animal food. Kesayi Tívárí is one of the Brahmans of -Benáres, and well conversant with the science of his class. Having -left his house, he settled on the bank of the river Ravi, which passes -near the garden Kamran, at Lahór: given up to devotion, he seeks no -protection against rain and sun; he lives upon a little milk; and -whatever he has collcted during several months, he spends in the -entertainment of the pious Brahmans whom he invites. - - - [73] _Munji_, a sort of grass, from the fibres of which a - string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn by the - Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum munja Rox._)――(_Wilson’s - Sanskrit Dictionary._)――D. S. - - [74] Ward enumerates only ten _Sanskara_, or “ceremonies:” - _Garbhádhána_, _Púngsavana_, _Simonton-nayana_, - _Játa-karma_, _Nishkramana_, _Náma-karana_, _Anna-práshana_, - _Chúra-karana_, _Upanayana_, and _Viváha_ (vol. III. p. 71). - - [75] The above interpretation is not correct; the name of - the ceremony गर्भाधान is derived from _Garbha_, “the fœtus,” - and _adhan_, “taking;” according to Wilson’s Dictionary, a - ceremony performed prior to conception; but, according to - Ward, a ceremony to be performed four months after - conception, including a burnt sacrifice, the worship of the - Shálgráma, and all the forms of the Nándí-Múkhí-Shrádda. The - Shalgrama (from _Shal_, “to move, to shake,” and _Grama_, “a - village”) the _ætites_, or “eagle-stone,” black, hollow, and - nearly round, said to be brought from mount Gandaki, in - Nepaul――an emblem of Vishnu (see Ward, vol. I. p. - 283-4-5).――D. S. - - [76] पुंसवन. A religious and domestic festival, held on the - mother’s perceiving the first signs of a living conception: - from _pung_, “a male,” and _shu_, “to bear.” - - _Nándi-Mukha-Sráddha_, funeral obsequies performed on joyous - occasions, as initiation, marriage, etc., in which nine - balls of meat are offered to the deceased father, paternal - grandfather, and great grandfather; to the maternal - grandfather, great grandfather, and great great grandfather; - to the mother, paternal grandmother, and paternal great - grandmother: from _Nandi_, “good fortune,” and _Mukha_, - “principal.” - - [77] सीमन्तोन्नयन a purificatory and sacrificial ceremony - observed by women, on the fourth, sixth, or eighth month of - their pregnancy: from _Simanta_, “a portion of the hair,” - and _Unnayana_, “arranging;” this forming an essential part - of the ceremony――(_Wilson_). - - [78] जात कर्म from _Jata_, “born,” and _karma_, “an act - practised at the moment of birth,” in which the Shrádaha, - “the burnt sacrifice,” and other ceremonies, which occupy - about two hours, are performed, and then the umbilical cord - is cut――(_Ward_, vol. III. p. 73). - - [79] नामकरण from _Náman_, “a name,” and _Kri_, “to - make”――(_Ward’s Glossary_). - - The first part of a Brahman’s compound name should indicate - holiness; of a Chatriya’s, power; of a Vaisya’s, wealth; and - of a Sudra’s, contempt. Let the second part of the priest’s - name imply prosperity; of the soldier’s, preservation; of - the merchant’s, nourishment; of the servant’s, humble - attendance. The names should be agreeable, soft, clear, - captivating the fancy, auspicious, ending in long vowels, - resembling words of benediction――(_Haughton’s Menu_, p. 25). - - [80] निष्क्रमण from _Nir_, “forth,” and _Kram_, “to step:” - carrying the child out of the house to see the sun, and - offering up petitions for the long life and prosperity of - the child. - - [81] अन्न प्राशन from _Anna_, “food,” and _práśanna_, - “feeding” (_Ward’s Vocabulary_).――“In the sixth month, he - should be fed with rice; or that may be done which, by the - custom of the family, may be thought most propitious” - (_MS._, p. 25).――For the goddess Anna Perenna of the Romans, - the Anna-purna of the Hindus, from _Anna_, “race,” and - _purna_, “to fill” (see _As. Res._, vol. VIII. p. 69. 85). - - [82] चूडाकरण from _Chúd´a_, “a single lock of hair left on - the crown of the head at the ceremony of the first tonsure,” - and _Karana_, “the act of making.” - - [83] सूत्र _Sútra_, “a thread in general; a string, or - collection of threads,” as that worn by the three first - classes――(_Wilson_). - - [84] मुञ्ज _Munja_, “a sort of grass” from the fibres of - which a string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn - by the Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum - Munja_)――(_Wilson_). - - [85] दर्भ _Darbha_, _Cúsa_, or “sacrificial grass”――(_Wilson_). - - The girdle of a priest must be made of Munja in a triple - cord, smooth and soft; that of a warrior must be a - bow-string of Murva; that of a merchant, a triple thread of - Sana. If the Munja be not procurable, their zones must be - formed respectively of the grasses Cusa Asmantaca, valvaja, - in triple strings, with one, three, or five knots, according - to the family custom――(_MS._ p. 26). - - [86] The sacrificial thread of a Brahman must be made of - cotton, so as to be put on over his head, in three strings; - that of a Chatriya, of Sana thread only; that of a Vaisya, - of woollen thread――(_MS._ p. 27). - - [87] The यज्ञोपवीत or “sacrificial cord,” originally worn by - the three principal casts of Hindus; at present, from the - loss of the pure Chatríya and Vaisya casts in Bengal, - confined to the Brahmanical order: from _Yajna_, “a - sacrifice,” and _Upavíta_, “a thread.” - - [88] गो दान _Go-dána_, from _Go_, “a cow,” and _Dána_, “a - gift.” - - [89] Probably अशन पञ्च or पञ्च तन्त्र _asana pancha_, or - _pancha tantra_, “five things.” - - [90] विवाह. - - [91] पिण्ड प्रदान _Pinda-pradána_, from _pinda_, “a funeral - cake;” an oblation to deceased ancestors, offered at the - several _Sraddhas_, by the nearest surviving relation, and - _prádán_, “the act of giving.” - - [92] माघ _Magha_, the name of a Hindu month commencing when - the sun enters Capricornus. (January-February). - - [93] दान फल _Dána-phal_, from _Dána_, “a gift,” and _phal_, - “fruit.” - - [94] शिव रात्रि _Shiva-ratri_, from _Shiva_, “Siva, the - deity,” in his character of destroyer and reproducer; the - third person of the Hindu triad, and _ratri_, “night,” being - the night of the fourteenth day of the moon’s wane, in the - month _Magha_, or _Magha-phalguna_, a rigorous fast with - extraordinary ceremonies in honour of the _Sivalinga_, or - _Phallus_. - (_As. Res._, vol. III. p. 274.) - - [95] फणी _Phani_, from _Phana_, “the expanded hood or neck - of the _Cobra di Capello_”――(_Wilson_). - - [96] For a more detailed account, see _Ward on the Hindoos_, - vol. II. p. 29, etc.――The abstract given in the Dabistán is - inaccurate, agreeing neither with _Manu_ nor _Ward_: in - _Manu_, it is as follows (l. II. sl. 58): Let a Brahman at - all times perform the ablution with the pure part of his - hand, denominated from the Veda, or with the part sacred to - the Lord of creatures, or with that dedicated to the gods: - but never with the part named from the _Pitris_. (sl. 59) - The pure part under the root of the thumb is called - _Brahma_; that at the root of the little finger, _Cáya_; - that at the tips of the fingers, _Daiva_; and the part - between the thumb and index, _Pitrya_. (sl. 60) Let him sip - water thrice; then twice wipe his mouth; and lastly, touch - with water the six cavities (or his eyes, ears, and - nostrils), his breast, and his head. (61) He who knows the - law and seeks purity, will ever perform his ablution with - the pure part of his hand, and with water neither hot nor - frothy, standing in a lonely place, and turning to the east - or north. (62) A Brahman is purified by water that reaches - his bosom; a Chatríya, by water descending to his throat; a - Vaisya, by water barely taken into his mouth; a Sutra, by - water touched with the extremity of his lips.――D. S. - - [97] This rite is called _Achamana_, performed by taking up - water in the palm of the right hand three times, and - drinking it as it runs towards the wrist; then, with the - right hand, the Brahman is to touch his lips, nose, ears, - navel, breast, forehead, and shoulders, repeating an - incantation; wash his hands again, and perform _achamana_; - repeat an incantatian; then sitting to the N. or E., before - sunrise, cleanse his teeth with the end of a green stick, - about six or seven inches long. If he clean his teeth after - sunrise, in the next birth he will be born an insect feeding - on ordure. He must now wash from his face the mark on his - forehead made the day before. Lastly, he puts a dry and - new-washed cloth round his loins and sitting down, let him - cleanse his poita by rinsing it in the water; then taking up - some earth in his hand and diluting it with water, put the - middle finger of his right hand in this earth, and make a - line botwixt his eyes up to the top of his forehead; then - draw his three first fingers across his forehead; make a - round dot with his little finger in the centre at the top of - his head; another on the upper part of his nose; and another - on his throat; etc., etc. (_Ward_, vol. II. p. 31).――D. S. - - [98] _Sandhya._ The Brahman must offer up many prayers; pour - out water to different gods; repeat certain forms of prayer - in honor of the sun, which he must worship; and repeat the - Gáyatrí; then take up water with his Kosha (small copper - cup), and pour it out to his deceased ancestors; after which - he must return home and read some part of the Veda――(_Ward_, - vol. II. p. 31-32). - - The _Gáyatrí_ here means a sacred verse from the Vedas, to - be recited only mentally: this is usually personified and - considered as a goddess, the metaphorical mother of the - three first classes, in their capacity of twice-born; - investiture with the sacred and distinguishing string, viz.: - being regarded as a new birth. There is but one Gayatri of - the Vedas; but, according to the system of the Tantricas, a - number of mystical verses are called Gáyatrís, each deity - having one in particular. From _Gaya_, “who sings;” and - _Trai_, “to preserve.”――D. S. - - [99] We read in Colebrooke’s Treatise on the Védas (_As. - Res._, vol. VIII. p. 370) what follows: “It is well known, - that the original Véda is believed by Hindus to have been - revealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradition, - until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who - thence obtained the surname of _Vyása_, or _Véda Vyaśa_, - that is, ‘compiler of the Védas.’ He distributed the Indian - scripture into four parts, which are severally entitled - _Rich_, _Yajush_, _Sáman_, and _At´harvańa_; and each - of which bears the common denomination of Véda.” - - After having discussed the question whether the fourth Véda - be more modern than the other three, the celebrated - Indianist concludes (p. 372): “That the three - first-mentioned Védas are the three principal portions of - the Véda; that the _At´harvańa_ is commonly admitted as a - fourth; and that divers mythological poems, entitled - _Itihása_ and _Puránás_, are reckoned a supplement to the - scripture, and, as such, constitute a fifth Véda.” He says - further (_ibid._, p. 378): “Each Véda consists of two parts, - denominated the _Mantras_ and the _Bráhmańas_, or ‘prayers’ - and ‘precepts.’ The complete collection of the hymns, - prayers, and invocations belonging to one Véda is entitled - its _Sanhita_. Every other portion of Indian scripture is - included under the general head of divinity (_Bráhmańa_). - This comprises precepts which inculcate religious duties; - maxims, which explain those precepts; and arguments, which - relate to theology.――The theology of the Indian scripture, - comprehending the argumentative portion entitled _Védanta_, - is contained in tracts denominated _Upanishads_.”――A. T. - - The Hindus have, besides, _Upavédas_. _Upa_ is a preposition - importing resemblance in an inferior degree; and _Véda_, - from _Vida_, “knowledge.” The four Upavedas comprise the - _Ayu_, on the science of medicine, drawn from the Rig Veda; - the _Gandharva_, on music, from the Sama-Véda; the _Dhanu_, - on military tactics, from the Yajush; and the _Silpa_, on - mechanics, from the Atharvańa. - - Hindu learning has six divisions, called _Angas_, that is, - “parts,” or “members.” The six Angas are: _Sikshya_, on - pronunciation; _Kalpa_, on ceremonies; _Vyákarana_, on - grammar; _Chanda_, on prosody and verse; _Jyotisha_, on - astronomy; and _Nirukta_, an explanation of difficult words, - etc., in the Véda. These divisions, as dependant upon the - Védas, are also called _Védangas_. The Hindus count besides - four secondary portions of science, called _Upangás_: these - are: the _Puranas_, or poetical histories; the _Náya_, on - ethics; the _Mímánsa_, on divine wisdom and on ceremonies; - and the _D’harma s astra_, or the civil and canon laws (_Ward_, - vol. IV. p. 55).――D. S. - - [100] Yojanagundhá (_Wilson’s Dict._) is a name of - Satyavati, the mother of the sage and poet Vyása. - - [101] The great epic poem, _Mahábhárat_, is ascribed to - Vyása, on the wars between the Kurus and the Gandus, when - more than seven millions of men perished. Of the birth of - Vyasa, who divided the Véda into eighteen parts, wrote - eighteen _Puranas_, the eighteen _Upapuranas_, the - _Kalkipurana_, the _Mahabhagavata_, the _Ekámrapurana_, the - _Vedanta darshana_, and founded the _Vedanta_ sect, an - account is given, by himself, in the Mahabharat.――(_Ward_, - vol. III. p. 12).――D. S. - - [102] Santanu, the fourth prince in succession from - Sambarana, the son of Riksha, whose reign began at the - commencement of the Kali Yug. - (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 21-22).――D. S. - - According to Sir W. Jones (_Works_, IV. p. 32) and to - _Wilson’s Dict._ (_sub voce_), Sántanu was the twenty-first - sovereign of the lunar race in the third age; he was the son - of _Pratípa_, and grandson of _Riksha_ (see also - _Vichnupurana_. _Wilson’s transl._, p. 457.)――A. T. - - [103] Kuntí was mother of the five Pandava princes, by as - many gods; the names of the princes were _Yud´hisht´hira_, - _Bhíma_, _Arjúna_, _Nakuĺa_, and _Sahadéva_. Pandu was - interdicted by a curse from connubial intercourse, and - obtained the above five sons through his two wives Kuntí and - Madrí (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 22).――D. S. - - [104] _Parásaru_: this philosopher is described as a very - old man, in the dress of a mendicant. He is charged with an - infamous intrigue with the daughter of a fisherman; to - conceal his amour with whom, he caused a heavy fog to fall - on the place of his retreat. Veda Vyasa, the collector of - the Vedas, was the fruit of this interview (_Ward_, vol. IV. - p. 40).――D. S. - - [105] One of the thirty-eight divisions of Central India - (_Ward_, vol. III, p. ix.)――D. S. - - [106] _Ahalyá_ (_Vichnupurana, Wilson’s transl._, p. 454) - was the daughter of _Bahwaśwa_, and the wife of Gautama.――A. - T. - - [107] In the _Institutes of Manu_ (l. III. sl. 21.) eight - forms of marriage are enumerated, viz.: the marriage form of - _Brahma_, of the _Dévas_ (gods), of the _Rishis_ (saints), - of the _Praja patis_ (creators), of the _Asúras_ (demons), - of the _Gandharvas_ (celestial musicians), of the - _Rákshasas_ (giants), and of the _Pisáchas_ (vampires). The - six first in direct order are by some held valid in the case - of a priest; the four last in that of a warrior; and the - same four, except the _Rakshasa_ marriage, in the cases of a - merchant and a man of the servile class. Some consider the - four first only as approved in the case of a priest; one, - that of _Rakshasas_, as peculiar to the soldier; and that of - _Asuras_ to a mercantile and a servile man; but in this code - three of the five last are held legal, and two illegal: the - ceremonies of _Pisáchas_ and _Asuras_ must never be - performed.――A. T. - - [108] According to Mr. Wilson, it is when the bridegroom - gives to the bride, her father, and paternal relations, as - much as he can afford. According to Ward, it is when money - is received in exchange for a bride. Where a present is made - to the father of the girl, the caste of the boy is not very - respectable. In the most respectable marriages, the father - not only gives his daughter without reward, but bears the - expenses of the wedding, and presents ornaments, goods, - cattle, and money to the bridegroom (_Ward_, vol. III. p. - 163-168). Ward mentions eight kinds of marriage: 1. - _Bráhma_, when the girl is given to a Brahman without - reward; 2. _Daíva_, when she is presented as a gift at the - close of a sacrifice; 3. _Arsha_, when two cows are received - by the girl’s father; 4. _Prájápatya_, when the girl is - given at the request of a Brahman; 5. _Asura_, as above; 6. - _Gandharva_; 7. _Rákshasha_; 8. _Piśhácha_ (_Ward, - ibidem_).――D. S. - - [109] See for the marriage customs of the Hindus: _On the - religious ceremonies of the Hindus and of the Brahmans - especially_, Essay III. by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.; _As. - Res._, vol. VII. p. 288. Calcutta edit.; and also: _Mœurs, - institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l’Inde_, par M. - l’abbé J. A. Dubois, vol. I. chap. VI. pp. 284-326. Paris. - 1825. - - [110] This passage is nearly a literal translation from the - Hetopades, p. 79: - - “Three crores and a half are the hairs on a man; - So long a time shall she live in paradise who follows - her lord. - As a snake-catcher forcibly draws up a snake from his - hole, - In the same manner she, having taken her husband, is exalted - to heaven. - The affectionate wife, who on the funeral pile has embraced - her inanimate - Husband, abandons indeed her own body: - But taking up her husband, who has committed many sins――even - a hundred times - A hundred thousand――she shall obtain the mansions of the gods.” - ――D. S. - - [111] It is known that the sacrifice of widows was abolished - in the year 1834, in all the Indian provinces under the - government and influence of the English authorities, by lord - William Bentinck, governor-general of India.――A. T. - - [112] कुण्डं a hole in the ground for receiving and - preserving consecrated fire.――(_Wilson._) - - A part of the sacrifice, called _Yajna_, but it is often - performed separately. The things offered are clarified - butter, sesamum, flowers, rice, boiled in milk and sweetened - in honey, Durva grass, vilwa leaves, and the tender - branches, half a span long, of the _ashwatta_ (ficus - religiosa), the _dumvara_ (ficus racemosa), the _palasha_ - (butea frondosea), the _akunda_ (asclepias gigantea), the - _sharni_ (mimosa albida), and the _kladira_ (mimosa catechu) - (see _Ward_, vol. II. p. 58).――D. S. - - [113] अरणि _arani_, the plant of which especial use is made - for kindling fire, is the _Premna spinosa_ (_Wilson’s - Dict._). - - [114] Perhaps खदिर _khadira_, (mimosa catechu). - - [115] उडम्वर _udamvara_, “glomerous fig-tree” (ficus - glomerosa, Rox.). - - [116] शमी _samí_ (acacia suma, Rox.). - - [117] दूर्वा bent grass, commonly dub (Panicum dactylon) - (_Wilson’s Dict._). - - [118] Probably a tree with black blossoms, perhaps काल - स्कन्ध _kála-shandha_, a sort of ebony; or the _tamála_, - bearing dark blossoms. - - [119] अग्निष्टोम According to Wilson’s Dict., a sacrifice, - or rather a series of offerings, to fire, for five days, to - be celebrated in the spring, from _Agni_, “the deity - presiding over fire,” and _Stoma_, “an offering.” - - [120] Perhaps युग्मकं _yugmakam_, “couple.”――A. T. - - [121] वाजपेय from _waj_, “the acetous fermentation of meal - and water,” and _pèya_, to be drunk (by the gods). - - [122] ज्योष्टिोम from _jyotish_, “light,” and _stóma_, “an - offering;” a particular sacrifice, at which sixteen priests - are required. - - [123] पञ्जहोम From _panja_, “five,” and _hóma_, “a burnt - offering.” - - [124] The months are so called from certain Nakshatras, or - the twenty-seven stellar mansions, two and one quarter of - which make up each sign of the zodiac. The sun passes - through those signs in twelve months, and the moon through - each sign in two days and a quarter. _Mágha_ is so called - from the tenth Nakshatra Mágha, represented by a house; - _Vaiśaka_, from Viśakha, the sixteenth, represented by a - festoon; and _Márgaśirsha_, from the fifth Mriga-siras, or - the antelope’s head.――D. S. - - [125] Here terminates the translation of the late D. Shee, - p. 201, l. 9, of the Calcutta edition. - - [126] According to the _Institutes of Manu_ (chap. VII. sl. - 94-95): “The soldier who, fearing and turning his back, - happens to be slain by his foes in an engagement, shall take - upon himself all the sin of his commander, whatever it be: - and the commander shall take to himself the fruit of all the - good conduct which the soldier who turns his back and is - killed, had previously stored up for a future life.” - (_Transl. of Sir W. Jones._) - - [127] _Manu_ (_ibid._, ch. VIII. sl. 304-305) determines the - recompense or punishment of good or bad kings as follows: “A - sixth part of the reward for virtuous deeds, performed by - the whole people, belongs to the king who protects them; - but, if he protect them not, a sixth part of their iniquity - lights on him.” The legislator redoubles the amount of - punishment to a bad king in a subsequent _sloka_ (308): - “That king who gives no protection, yet takes a sixth part - of the grain as his revenue, wise men have considered as a - prince who draws to him the foulness of his people.” - - [128] It is to be regretted that the author has not - indicated the precise place of the Smriti, which enjoins the - sacrifice of the widows. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE FOURTH, OF THE FOLLOWERS OF THE VEDANTA (THE -VEDANTIANS).――This sect belongs to the most learned and wise of this -people. We shall give the substance of their creed. They say: The -explanation regarding the only really existing Being (God) resembles a -science from which a faint likeness of his grandeur may be perceived; -this being and his qualities are pure of all imperfections and -contradictions; he oversees all beings; he discovers all that is -hidden; his existence comprehends all things; decay and deficiency -have no access to the boundless area of his existence; he is the lord -of life, the greatest of spirits endowed with pure qualities, and this -holy Being, this sublime object, they call _Brahma uttama_,[129] “the -most excellent Brahma,” that is, the supreme soul and the most exalted -spirit; and the evidence of this meaning, that is, of his existence, -is the created world; because a creation without a creator will not -come forth from the veil of non-entity into the field of evidence, and -the maker of this work is he, the Lord. This explanation is to be -supported in the field of certainty by the wise arguments of sagacious -people, and by the testimonies of the text of the Véda, that is, of -the heavenly book. The truly existing Being (God) has exhibited this -world and the heavens in the field of existence, but he has nothing -like an odor of being, nor has he taken a color of reality; and this -manifestation they call _Máyá_[130], that is, “the magic of God;” -because the universe is “his playful deceit,” and he is the bestower -of the imitative existence, himself the unity of reality. With his -pure substance, like an imitative actor, he passes every moment into -another form, and having again left this, appears in another dress. It -is he alone who, coming forth in the forms of Brahma, Vishnu, and -Mahadeva, exhibits the true unity in a trinity of persons, and who, -manifesting his being and unity in three persons, separate from each -other, formed this universe. The connexion of the spirits with the -holy Being (God), is like the connexion of the billows with the ocean, -or that of sparks with fire; on that account, they call the soul and -the spirits _jívátmá_.[131] The soul is uncompounded and distinct from -the body and from the material senses; but by the power of selfishness -it fell into a captivity from which the soul strives to be -liberated.[132] The soul has three conditions or states: the first is -the state of being awake, which they call _jágaravast´ha_,[133] and -in this state the soul enjoys quietly the pleasures of nature and -bodily delights, such as eating and drinking, and the like; and it -suffers from the privation of these just-mentioned enjoyments; that -is, it suffers from hunger and thirst, and similar pains; the second -state is that of sleep, called _svapna avast´ha_,[134] and in this -state the soul is happy in the possession of what it wishes and -desires, such as collecting in dreams gold and silver, and similar -things; it is distressed by the want of them; the third state is known -by the name of _Su svapna avast´ha_,[135] that is, “the state of -good sleep,” and in this state there is neither gladness nor sadness -from possession or privation of what is desired, but freedom from -pleasure and pain. It is to be known that they hold sleep to bestow a -prophetic sight of events, and the vision is called _rúyá_ in Arabic: -in this third state however, which they call sleep by excellence, no -events are seen, but it is being plunged in a profound sleep, and this -people do not take it simply for sleep, but they distinguish it as a -sort of lethargy, which they call _su svapna_. They believe the souls -to be imprisoned in these three states, and wandering about in a -circle. The soul in these conditions, although united with a body, -yet, by a number of meritorious deeds, and a virtuous conduct, attains -to the station of knowing itself and God: it then breaks the net of -illusion,[136] and it is the characteristic of saints whom they call -_Jnání_;[137] that, whatever they see in the state of being awake, -they reckon to be a vain illusion, as if presenting itself to men in a -dream. The saint thinks even a man awake to be deceived by a dream; -like one who, from inadvertency, takes a rope for a snake; but it is a -rope, not a snake: he knows the world to be a delusion, which, from -want of knowledge, is thought to be the universe, although, in truth, -it has no reality. This state is called by them _Tarbá avast´há_.[138] - -When the saint becomes free from the ties and impediments of the -world, and from the chains of its accidents, then he enters into the -region of freedom, which they call _mukt_.[139] This mukt, according -to them, is divided into five parts: the first is, when the sanctified -man, having attained the dignity of freedom, in the city of the -subordinate divinities (angels), becomes one of them; as in this city -are the residences of the deities, such as the city of Brahma, of -Vishnu, of Mahadéva, and this part is called “the mukt of the pious.” -The second part is, when the devotee, a neighbour and companion of the -gods, is surrounded by an abundance of favor, and the society of the -celestial beings; and this division of the mukt they call _Svámi -prémá_.[140] The third part is, when the pious assumes the form of the -inferior divinities without union with their persons, that is, -whichever of the gods he chooses, it is his shape which he -appropriates to himself, and this part they name _Sára préma_.[141] -The fourth part of the mukt is, when the pious becomes united with one -of the gods, like water with water, that is, when he coalesces with -whichever of the gods he chooses, and this is entitled _svayukti_.[142] -The fifth part is, when the soul of the pious, called _jívátma_, -becomes one with the great spirit whom they call _paramátmá_,[143] and -recognise as the only real being, in such a manner that there remains -no room for a second to rise between, and this they distinguish by the -name of _Jnánam uttamam_.[144] - -This is the substance of the creed of the Védantian: whoever possesses -this science is called _Inání_ by the Hindus, and all the principal -men among them are conversant with the doctrine of this sect. The -sublime discourses and wise histories delivered by Vasishta for the -instruction of Rama chandra, are entitled _Vasíshta yog_; and the -speeches which fell from the tongue of Krishna, when he was bestowing -advice upon Arjuna, who was one of the Pandus, go under the name of -_kathá_. Sankara Acharya, who ranks highest among the later learned -men of India, has written much about this doctrine. The dogmas of this -class are as follow: the world and its inhabitants are appearances -without reality, and God is but one necessary and self-existing being, -whom they call _Parama atma_; they say, this appearance and diversity -of form, this order and aspect of heavens, are like the vapor -resembling the sea upon the surface of sandy plains, and like the -vision of a dream; good and bad, pleasure and pain, adoration and -worship of God, are but objects of imagination, and these various -images are illusions;――the deepest pits of hell, the vaults of heaven, -the return to earth after death, transmigration, and the retribution -of actions, all that is but imagination, and variety of imagination. - -QUERY Should one say, a principle of life acts in us; there is no -doubt of it; consequently the one is learned, the other ignorant; the -one is happy, the other distressed. How can that be mere imagination, -and appearance? - -THE ANSWER they give to it is――If not in a dream, thou wouldst not see -thyself a king issuing mandates, a servant, submissive, imprisoned, -free, a slave, a master, sick, healthy, distressed, merry, melancholy, -and so on. How often in a dream didst thou not feel pleasure and -happiness, or wast overwhelmed by fear, and terror, and anguish? there -is no doubt but all this is mere illusion and empty appearance, -although the dreamer holds it all to be real truth. - -Rayi-Rup, who is reckoned among the learned Rajahs, asked the author -of this book: “After having dreamt to have received any wound -whatsoever upon my body, if, as soon as I rise from sleep, I do not -find the least mark of it, I know that it was an illusion; but if in a -dream I converse with a woman, at my waking, I may perhaps not be able -to deny the visible effect of it: why should this happen in the second -case?” - -To this question the following answer was given: “What thou thinkest -the state of being awake, this, in the opinion of the enlightened, is -also dreaming; and as it often happens that, thinking in a dream to be -awake, I perceive whatever appears as if I were really awake, whilst I -see it in a dream: in like manner, the usual state of being awake is -held by the wise to be nothing else but a dream. Hast thou not heard -what Kámyáb Samrádí has said in the Samrád námeh? A man had seven -noble sons, each of whom felt the ambition to command in the six parts -of the world. With such a desire, they addressed their devotion to -God. One day they laid their head upon the pillow of repose, and each -had a bright dream. It appeared to each, that he had left his body, -and was born again in a king’s house; after the death of the father, -each placed the crown upon his head, and bore dominion from east to -west; in the seven regions there was no king equal to him, and the -reign of each lasted one hundred thousand years; at the time of his -passing to the other world, he delivered the empire to his son, and, -leaving the body, took his flight to heaven. When they awoke, the -dinner which they had been preparing was not yet ready. Afterwards, -each of them related what happened to him; each of them pretended to -have possessed the seven regions during one hundred thousand years, -and each named such and such a town as the capital of his empire. -Although awake, they resolved then to go each to his kingdom, and to -see that capital, whether true or not. They went first to the town -which was the residence of the eldest brother; there they found his -son king, and the father knew his palace; in this manner they visited -the kingdoms of the other brothers, and saw their sons. Afterwards, -the seven returned to their native-place, and said to each other: -‘Each of us was in his dream king of the seven regions, and had no -other above himself; being awakened, we heard the same from the men of -those towns which we have visited for ascertaining that we had -possessed such rank and power in the world.’ Thus it is certain that -we are even now in a dream, and that the world is nothing else but an -illusive vision.” - -This sect interpret the whole religion of the Hindus according to -their own belief, and they state that, pursuant to the Védas, to -confound during the worship all the subordinate divinities with the -one whose existence is necessary, means nothing else but that, in -truth, they all emanate from this one; further that it is but he who -manifests himself in the form of any deity, and that no _Serosh_ has -an existence of his own, but that in Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahadéva, who -appeared above, are evidenced the three attributes of God, namely, in -Brahma, the creator; in Vishnu, the preserver; and in Mahadéo, the -destroyer. Moreover they say, that these three attributes are the mind -or intellect, which they call _manas_, and it is the action of the -interior sense which they distinguish particularly by the name of -_manas_.[145] Besides they entertain this belief about the interior -sense, that, if the mind wishes, it forms the image of a town; it -becomes then _Brahma_, who has as much as created it; as long as the -mind wishes, it preserves its work, on which account it becomes -_Vishnu_, who is its guardian; further, if it wishes, it throws it -off, in which sense the mind becomes _Mahadeo_. Their belief is also, -that religious austerity consists in the conviction of the pious, that -the world is an appearance without reality, and that, what exists, is -in truth God; and that, except him, every thing is but an illusion -which comes from him, but in truth has no reality. In their opinion, -whoever is desirous of this faith, and does not possess the required -knowledge, may by self-application, or by the lessons of a master, or -by the instruction of a book, become a proficient in it. The -conviction that the world does not exist, may also be acquired by -pious exercise; and the perfect therein know, that by means of -religious austerity one may acquire what he wishes to learn, and as -long as he tends towards it, he has not yet known himself, as he is -himself a choice part of the divine being. The pious man, who by dint -of austerity renders himself perfect, they call a _Yogí_,[146] that -is, one who by self-mortification attains his aim. The pious, who by -mental application, by the instruction of a master, by the study of -books, or by any effort not appertaining to religious exercises, -raises himself to any perfection, him they name _Rája-yogí_, that is, -one who attains sovereignty. - -Among the Hindus are recommended as pious exercises, _Mantra_,[147] -_Homa_,[148] and _Dandavat_.[149] _Mantra_ signifies prayer; _Homa_ is -throwing clarified butter and like things into the fire, and reciting -prayers, in order to render propitious a certain divinity; _Dandavat_ -is, when one prostrates himself like a stick before the object of -adoration, and touches the ground with the forehead. A person asked -Bhartari,[150] who was one of those adepts whom they call _Jnánis_: -“Dost thou recite mantras?” He replied: “I do.” That person asked -again: “What mantra?” He answered: “My breath, going out and in, is my -mantra.” That man continued to ask: “Dost thou perform Hóm?” The -answer was: “I do.” To the question, “And how?” the reply followed: -“By what I eat.” That person further inquired: “Dost thou practise the -Dańdavat?” After affirmation, being asked “At what time?” he said, -“When I sleep, stretched out to rest.” And this speech reminds me of -this sentence: - - “_The sleep of the wise is preferable to the adoration of - the ignorant._” - -The Hindus call _Déva árcháká_[151] the worshipper of an idol, that -is, one who is devoted to a divinity: which this people interpret to -be performing whatever rite a man himself chooses; because the deity -is the intellectual soul; to render it obsequious, is to perform the -act which it commands, that is, whenever it wills, to see with the -eyes, to hear with the ears, to smell with the nose, and so on, in -order to please one’s self. According to their account of the revealed -unity of God, all is _HE_. To say so is liable to censure; but it is -permitted to assert: “all is _I_.” Should one not attain to this -height of philosophy, he may choose the former thesis. The author of -the _Gulchén raz_, “the rose-garden of mystery,” says: - - “Egotism belongs to God alone, - For he is the mystery; think him also the hidden source of illusion.” - -This people are masters of themselves in their speeches and actions; -they know their origin and their end; and, occupied with themselves, -they are imprisoned in the gaol of the world. Sankara Atcharya, who is -distinguished among the Brahmans and the Sanyasis, professed this -doctrine, and to whatever side he turned his face, contentment -followed him. One day the adversaries and deniers of this creed -resolved to drive an elephant against him; if he do not fly but remain -firm, he is a saint; if otherwise, a bad man. When they had impelled -the animal against him, Sankara fled; then they said to him: “Why -didst thou fly before an illusion?” He replied: “There is no elephant, -nor I; and there was no flight: you saw it in a dream.” All the great -men among the Hindus are of this creed, and they agree that, in truth, -there is no faith but this, without regard to Avátars and Rakshasas: -all the enlightened Pandits have ranged themselves upon this side. - -A _Jnaníndra_ is called one of the Brahmans of Kachmir;[152] this -class is, in the language of Kachmir, entitled _Guruvagurinah_, and -said to be the fathers of the Jnanían. One whose name was Chívarína, -knew well how to keep in his breath; one day he informed the -inhabitants of Náu chaher, which is upon the road of Kashmír, that on -the morrow he intended to leave his human frame. The next day, the -people assembled; Shívarina conversed with them until he arrived at -the place where wood had been piled up, on the top of which he sat -down with his legs crossed under him (which in the Persian language is -called _bahín neshisten_, and the description of which I gave in the -chapter about the imprisonment of breath practised by the Yezdaníán); -he left then the human body, and when the people saw that the bird of -life had taken his flight from the cage of the body, they set the wood -on fire. - -Another Jnani practised the subduing of the breath in his youth, and, -mastering his soul by means of religious austerity, he attained to -that point that, although possessed of little natural capacity, he -undertook to read all the books of the Hindus, and understood all -their sciences better than the other Pandits, as they all agreed. He -now holds the first rank among the learned of his town, and acquired -such an independent manner of thinking, that he feels neither pain -from the loss, nor pleasure from the increase, of wealth, and holds -alike friend, enemy, stranger, and relation; he is not depressed by -the insult, nor elated by the praise of whomsoever; wherever he hears -the name of a Durvísh, he calls on him, and, if he conceives a good -opinion of him, he then frequents him and cultivates his friendship, -and never lets him be afflicted and sorrowful; he converses about -God’s unity, and cares about nothing else nor busies himself about any -other concern, and he visits no other persons but Durvishes. Sodarshan -is the name of his sister’s son, who is also connected with him as his -pupil; he left wife, son, and the house of this friend, and lives on -the little which his disciples bring to him. When the Jnaní wishes to -go out, the disciple puts his coat on him: because, inattentive to -every thing exterior and to what may be grateful about him, he is -never occupied with any thing else but with books. - -It is known that the Hindus, that is, the legalists attached to the -Smriti (holy scripture), light up a fire, and with it sacrifice a -sheep, not without reciting spells and prayers; which they call -performing _Hóm_. The Jnánindra says: “Our fire is piety, and in it I -burn the wood of duality; instead of a sheep, I sacrifice egotism: -this is my _Hóm_.” Thus he interprets the whole religion of the -Hindus, and a great number of men became his disciples. He has a -nephew, called _Gangu_, ten years old, and younger than Sádarshan. One -day, Gangu was crying from anger; the author of this book said to him: -“Yesterday thou saidst: ‘The world and what it contains are but -illusion;’ now, why dost thou cry?” He replied: “If the world is -nothing, then my crying has no reality; I am not in contradiction with -myself.” So saying, he continued to cry. - - “_The socíety of good men renders good._” - -Jaganath, eight years old, is the son of a Jnáníndra; he brought a -puppy into a house where an idol was worshipped, put him there in the -idol’s place, and drew the mark of cast on his head. The boy was -asked: “What art thou doing?” He answered: “The stone has no life; why -should you not rather worship the puppy than this idol? Besides, each -person worships what he finds agreeable. Because this worship is a -play, I play with this dog.” And none of the people of the house -raised a hand on account of the boy’s liberty, but uttered blessings -upon him. - -In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the author of these pages -visited in Kachmir a Jnáníndra, and was delighted with his society. He -called him his _atma_, that is, his “intellectual soul.” The Jnáníndra -was asked: “Who is thy disciple?” He answered: “It is he who, having -arrived to the self-existent God, knows and sees himself to be nothing -else but God.” - -At the time when the writer of this book was walking with a Hindu -pious man on the border of the lake of Kashmir, a Sanyási who had -pretensions to independence, joined us. There, a meal was brought to -us, and the Sanyási eat with that pious man. After this, he began to -boast: “Hitherto I have not eat any flesh: it is but now that I have -tasted some.” The Jnání offered a cup of wine to him, who drank it for -the sake of discarding care. He then reassumed the theme of -self-praise. The pious philosopher had some bread of the bazar, which -according to the Hindu faith is still more prohibited than wine, -brought upon the table-cloth. The Sanyási broke a bit of the bread, -eat it, and again praised himself without measure: “Now,” said he, “am -I free of all bonds.” The wise smiled, and said: “Nothing remains but -to eat cow-flesh.” The Sanyási, as soon as he heard this, left the -company. - -Of the distinguished disciples of the Jnáníndrás, whom the author of -this work saw, are: _Shankar bhat_, _Kanésh bhat_, _Sudarshan Kal_, -_Adab bhat_, _Máhatápindra_, and _Avat_, known under the name of -_Kopál Kúl_. A goldsmith asked Shankar bhat, one of the disciples just -mentioned: “Why do the Jnáníndras, with all their pretensions to -independence, still worship idols?” Shankar said: “Why dost thou work -in gold?” The goldsmith replied: “This is my profession for gaining my -livelihood.” The answer to this was: “And worship too is a trade and a -means to procure food.” - -Mulla Shídáyi, a Hindu, who has a name amongst the poets, and -possessed a very impressive eloquence, went one day with the author of -this book to the house of a Jnáníndra, and conversed with him; he saw -his disciples, and having observed the manners of the people of the -house, he was struck with astonishment, and said: “My whole life -passed in devotedness to pious persons; but my eyes never beheld such -independence, and my ears never heard any thing comparable to the -speeches of those emancipated men.” - -Hara Ráma púrí was a Sanyási, and one of the Jnánís possessing the -perfection of independence. When he came to Kashmír, being vexed by -the length of his hair, which was like ropes, he cut it off, on the -bank of a river near a house called Bhat jatáyi. Sri Kant Bhat, a -Pandit and Hindu judge, saw it and said: “Whenever thou cuttest off -thy hair, thou shouldst do it in a _tirth_, that is, in ‘a house of -worship.’” Hara answered: “There is a place in the most holy of -mansions, where the heart gets delighted, and on the spot where the -dead are burnt, all obscure points are terminated.” In the year 1051 -of the Hejira (1641 A. D.) he went to Kichtovar,[153] and settled in a -plain called _chawgan_, where they played at ball, practised -equitation, and burnt the dead. Maha Singh, the son of Baháder Singh, -Rája of Kishtovár, became his disciple, and by devotion he rendered -himself free of the bonds of exterior things; now he likes the society -of the pious; he is young and conversant with poetry. In the year 1052 -of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) a war broke out in Kishtovar, between the -Rája and the rebels of this country. When they made resound the drum -of battle, a general carnage began on both sides of the combatants; -Hara Rámapúrí, having got upon the top of an elevated ground, was -occupied with the sight of it, and at the uproar of the warriors and -the sound of pipes, and clarions, and kettle-drums, he began to dance, -and in the midst of his transport his foot stumbled; he fell headlong -from the mountain, and in rolling down received from a great stone a -head-wound, of which he died. Mirza Rafíah says: - - “When the darkness of my heart became enlightened by the knowledge - of wisdom, - Whatever speeches were proffered as her arguments, - They bore upon some errors of my desires; - Thus the whole road was rendered winding from my stumblings.” - -Sathrah and Jadú were two fakírs. Sathrah drew in Nagarikot[154] the -mark of the cast on his forehead, and threw the zunar on his neck; he -ate however roasted cow-flesh, with bread of the bazar, and indulged -himself in pleasure-walks. Some Hindus arrested him by force, and -brought him before the judge. The judge said to him: “If thou art a -Hindu, it becomes thee not to eat cow-flesh and bread of the bazar; -and, if thou art a Muselman, wherefore the mark of the cast and the -zunar?” The answer was: “The mark of the cast is of safran and -sandal-wood; the zunar is a woven thread; the cow-flesh comes from -grass and barley; bread from corn, and the oven from earth and water: -if thou considerest things according to truth, thou wilt find that all -is composed of four elements, which are neither Muselmans nor Hindus; -as to the rest, let thy commands be conformable to law.” The judge set -him at liberty. Jadú was one of his disciples, and went to Balkh, the -dome of Islam. He appeared in the mosque with the mark of the Hindu -cast, and with the zúnar, and, arrested, was brought before the judge, -who saluted him as a Muselman. Jadú replied: “If thou givest me a wife -and settlest me in a house, I will be a Muselman.” The judge gave him -a beautiful widow for a wife, and Jadú, having become a Muselman, went -into her house. After the lapse of a few days, he said to the woman: -“Give me the daughter whom thou hast had with thy late husband, in -order that I may sell her, and spend the price that I receive for her -for my subsistence. When we shall have another child, I will dispose -of it in the same manner, by selling; for this is my profession, and -except this I know no trade.” The woman dismissed him. Jadú, being at -liberty, went to Kabul;[155] he put a feather on his head, as -messengers used to do, fastened a bell round his waist, and, with a -loose belt on his shoulder and a striped coat, he appeared in the -bazar. The messengers arrested him, and said: “Why hast thou taken our -dress?” Jadú answered: “The crown and feather are upon the head of the -nightingale and of other birds, and the bell hangs upon the neck of -the sheep and of the cow; reckon me too one of them.” The messengers -began to handle him roughly; Jadú asked: “What is your desire?” They -said: “Thou art now to exercise with us the nimble pace of a courier.” -Jadú did not refuse: he ran with them, and gained so much over them -that at the morning dawn not one of the couriers remained near him. -During seven days and nights he neither ate nor drank any thing, -practising running. Jadú acquired the habit of religious austerity; in -the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.), having convoked his friends -in Jelálabad,[156] between Peshaver[157] and Kabul, he took leave from -them and resigned his life. - -Pertábmal Chadah (Chadah is a tribe of Kshatriyas) is a Jnání, that is -a pious man; his native country is Síál kut; he attained to perfection -in the exercise of virtue; he is not confined to any faith or -religion; but knows that every religion is a road leading towards God; -he sees in every face a friend revealed. One day he joined, on account -of an affair, Davárah, a man who was one of the chiefs appointed by -the government of Hargovínd, a successor of Nanak;[158] he became his -disciple, and declared himself as his adherent. Davárah washed his -feet, and the water thereof was drank by all the present followers of -the faith, which they did to every body whom they had gained over to -their religion. At last, a dispute arose between Pertábmal and -Davárah; the latter said to the other: “But yesterday I washed thy -feet (that is, made thee my disciple), and to-day thou makest war upon -me?” Pertábmal answered: “Oh weak-minded man! the Jats always wash my -feet as thou hast done: my own hand never touches my feet.” [The Jats -are a low class of the Hindus.] - -It is an established custom among the followers of Nának to present, -when they pursue a desire, a few direms to the chief of their master, -or to their master, and solicit his favor. Pertábmal offered some -dírems to Kábelí, who was a religious chief appointed by Harigovind, -and then in Kabul; he said with his hands joined: “I wish to convoke -for prayer, according to their custom, all the followers of Nának; let -that be granted.” Kabeli, before giving his agreement, asked: “Thou -wishest perhaps to see Haragovind?” Pertábmal said: “I wish something -more precious.” Kabeli asked: “What is this?” The answer was: “I wish -the arrival of all the buffoons, dancers, and musicians from Péshawar -to Kabul, that we may see their actions, arts, and tricks.” - -In the house of Pertábmal was an idol which the Hindus worship. A -mouse having made a hole in his furniture, he put the whole idol, -instead of a lump of earth, into the mouse-hole, in order to shut the -passage. The Hindus said: “What art thou about?” He answered: “The -deity who cannot obstruct the road of a mouse, and settle any thing -with a mouse, how will he protect me, and preserve me from the tyranny -of the Muselmans?” In like manner Pertábmal had in his house a -Sivalingam, which is a post of stone which the Hindus venerate: having -carried this lingam out of his house, like a post, he tied a dog to -it. - -A Muselman said to him: “Two persons only of all unbelievers, namely, -Nushirvan and Hatam, will go to heaven.” Pertábmal replied: “According -to your faith, two persons only of the unbelievers will go to heaven; -but our belief is that not one of the Muselmans will go to heaven.” - -Azadah (this was his adopted title) is a Brahman. One day he ate at -table with some Muselmans and drank wine. They said to him: “Thou art -a Hindu, and thou takest thy meal in common with Muselmans? Your -people never eat but with persons of their religion.” Azádah replied: -“I did not suppose that you were Muselmans; hereafter I will at eating -and drinking keep myself separate from you.” Another day he found -himself again drinking wine in company with them, and did not turn his -head from the meal; during the repast they said to Azádah: “Yesterday -we made ourselves known to thee as Muselmans.” He answered: “I knew -that you were joking with me. God forbid that you should be -Muselmans.” - -Binaváli is the son of Híráman, a Káyastha.[159] The Káyasthas are a -tribe of the fourth cast which Brahma has created; among the -illustrious poets his name was Walí;[160] from his childhood he liked -very much the society of durvishes; and in his tender age he was with -the religious chief, named Ularváh, a great durvish, whose continual -exclamation was: “God, thou art present, thou art one, God, I attest -this.” In the year of the Hejirah 1045 (A. D. 1634) he associated with -the durvishes of India, and enjoyed the fruit of it; he came to -Kashmir in the service of Mulla Shah Budakhshí, and acquired the -desired knowledge. The Sufí is by no necessity bound to a creed; no -faith nor religion fetters his choice; he befriends the idol and the -temple of the idol, and is no stranger to the mosque; by the power of -ecstacy, not by any external knowledge, he utters loud sublime -speeches. In the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) the doors of -friendship opened between him and the author of this work; from the -refulgencies of his mind are the following lines: - - “We are not ourselves that what we are; we are that what thou art; - Thou art without a mark; we are thy mark. - These marks are the marks of thy being; - They are the manifestations and the splendor of thy qualities, - Thou art pure of our care, and of our imagination; - O thou, who art manifest in this our garment; - Manifestations of thee are all things. - Thou art independent of the relation of ‘thou and we,’ and thyself - art ‘thou and we.’ - - Thy being comes forth in thy qualities, - Thy nature is the spring of thy being, O Lord! - We are all nothing; whatever is, is thou! - O thou! who art free of notion, imagination, and duality, - We are all billows in the ocean of thy being; - We are a small compass of the manifestations of thy nature.” - -Azadah and Binaválí appear in the dress of Hindus, and profess the -belief of the Jnánís, to which they are reckoned to belong. - -Mehir chand is a native of the Panjab, and belongs to the class of the -goldsmiths of Guzerat; he comes from the school of the disciples of -Akamnath, whose opinions he adopted. Akamnath is a Yógí, “a saint,” -and possessed of inspiration; according to the belief of his -followers, two thousand years of his life have elapsed. - - “Like the azure heavens, a sage never dies; - The intellectual principle is free from storms, and from all that - is perishable.” - -One day Akamnath came before the great emperor Jehangír, who is in -heaven; the celebrated monarch asked him: “What is thy name?” The sage -answered _Sarvat anga_, that is, “All the beings are my members.” In -the assembly, before the sovereign, a book was read; the king, having -taken the book from the reader, gave it into the hand of Akamnath, -saying: “This is thy saying, read it;” Akamnath returned the book to -the reader, bidding him to read on; but when this man began, the king -addressed Akamnath: “To thee have I said, read.” His answer was: “I -have at the beginning declared, that all things in the world are my -members; I am therefore reading by the tongue of that man.” Vásúl -Khaznúyi says: - - “So free is my spirit that the creation is my body, - And that fire, and air, and earth, are my dwelling. - This celestial sphere, with all its globes, - Revolves only because it is my wish.” - -Soon after a sparrow passed, flying from the water. Akamnath declared -before the king: “If with this body, which is near thy majesty, I -should attempt to go upon the water, I could but sink, but under the -form of a bird I passed.” The great Mouláná Jamí says: - - “The world, with all spirits and bodies, - Is a certain person whose name is ‘_World_.’” - -They say, that Akamnath went to the Kâbah (of Mecca) and saw the -house; he asked somebody: “Where is the master of the house?” That -person remained astonished. They opened the door of the house of God; -Akamnath repeated the question without receiving an answer from them; -he then called out: “There is no master of the house in this edifice: -this place is unsafe.” Finally, he inquired from the people, why the -images which had been in this house, have been thrown out; one -answered: “Because an idol is the work of the hand of a man; and -because the forms of men, who are created, ought not to be -worshipped.” Akamnath observed: “This house, too, is the work of men, -and any form therein is that of a man, and the work of men who are -created; should it be worshipped?” Having heard this speech, they -imprisoned him; but the next morning they found no prisoner: Akamnath -was gone. At last, those who returned from the pilgrimage saw him in -Hindostan. - - “Perhaps shall we find him there in an idol-temple, - That friend whom we missed in a monastery.” - - - [129] क्षानं उत्तमं The supreme Brahme, in the most - extensive acceptation, is with the Hindus a neuter noun - (Brahme or Brahma); and the same term (Nom. Brahmá), is one - of the three gods who constitute one person. - - [130] माया. - - [131] जीवात्मा The vital principle or spirit. - - [132] The text says: “on that account to be liberated from - it,” they use the word نفس _nafs_ probably نا فساد _na - fesad_, “no corruption:” this of course applies to the - Persian, but not to the Sanskrit term. - - [133] जागरावस्था. - - [134] स्वप्नावास्था state of dreaming applied especially to - life, or ignorance of worldly illusion. - - [135] सुस्वप्नावस्था The fantastical conceptions of the - Hindus about the states or conditions of the embodied soul - are of course not always expressed in the same manner. “They - are chiefly three: waking, dreaming, and profound sleep; to - which may be added for a fourth, that of death; and for a - fifth, that of trance, swoon, or stupor, which is - intermediate between profound sleep and death (as it were - half-dead), as dreaming is between waking and profound - sleep. In that middle state of dreaming, there is a fanciful - course of events, an illusory creation, which however - testifies the existence of a conscious soul. In profound - sleep, the soul has retired to the supreme one by the route - of the arteries of the pericardium” (_Colebrooke on the - Philosophy of the Hindus, Transact. of the R. A. S. of Great - Brit. and Irel._, vol. II. part I. p. 25). - - [136] The author uses here and elsewhere the Arabic word - غفلت _ghafalat_, which, besides the significations - enumerated in the dictionary, of “neglect, indolence, - imprudence, forgetfulness, inadvertency,” etc., seems to - have also that of ignorance, illusion; all these are - comprehended in the Sanskrit word _maya_, to render which - was, I can scarce doubt, the intention of the author. - - [137] ज्ञानी _jnani_. - - [138] तबोवस्था “the moving state,” from _tarba_, “to move.” - This denomination does not commonly occur in the writings of - the Vedantists about this subject. - - [139] मुक्ति “final beatitude.” - - [140] स्वामिप्रेमा. - - [141] सारप्रेमा. - - [142] स्वायुक्ति. - - [143] परमात्मा. - - [144] ज्ञानम उत्तमं - - [145] नमः. - - [146] योगी a devotee, an ascetic in general. - - [147] मन्त्रः - - [148] होमः - - [149] दण्डवत् - - [150] Perhaps _Bhartrihari_. - - [151] देवार्चक. - - [152] _Kachmir_, a province of North Hindostan, situated - principally between the 34h and 35th degree of north - latitude.――(_Hamilton’s E. India Gazeteer._) - - [153] _Kishtovar_, a town in the province of Lahore, named - also _Triloknath_, situated close to the southern range of - the Kashmere hills, and 94 miles E. S. E. from the city of - Kashmere. Lat. 34° 7´ N., long. 75° 20´ E.――(_Hamilton’s E. - India Gazetteer_). - - [154] _Nagarikot_, or Cote Caungra (Cata-Khankhara), a - strong fortress in the province of Lahore, 122 miles E. N. - E. from the city of Lahore. Lat. 32° 20´ N., long. 73° 42´ - E. - - [155] _Kabul_, the capital of the province of Kabul, in - Afghanistan. Lat. 34° 31´ N., long. 68° 34´ E.――(_Hamilton’s - E. India Gazetteer_). - - [156] _Jelalabad_, a town in the province of Kabul, 73 miles - E. S. E. from the city of Kabul. Lat. 34° 6´ N., long. 69° - 46´ E.――(_Hamilton’s E. India Gazetteer_). - - [157] _Peshaver_, “the advanced post,” an Afghan town in the - province of Kabul. Lat. 33° 22´ N., long. 76° 37´ - E.――(_Ibid._) - - [158] See, about Nanak, the subsequent pages. - - [159] कायस्थ, this is commonly the writer caste, proceeding - from a Kshattriya father and a Súdra mother.――(_Wilson_). - - [160] Shah Wáli Ullah, or Shems Wáli Ullah is the author of - Hindustan poems, the original text of which was published in - 1834, and a French translation of a part of them in 1836, by - M. Garcin de Tassy. According to this learned Indianist (see - preface to the text, pp. x. xi) Wáli was born in Surat; he - wrote about the middle of the 18th century, and was known in - India, Iran, and Turan. Is he the same with the above - mentioned Wáli? So much only can be said, till better - informed, that the ono was a contemporary of the other. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE FIFTH: CONCERNING THOSE WHO PROFESS THE SÁNK’HYÁ[161] -DOCTRINES.――They say that there are two things in the existence, or -that the existence is divided into two parts: the one is truth, which -they interpret by _purusha_;[162] the other is illusion, named by them -_Prakrit_.[163] _Prakrit_ is the cause of the world, and purusha, -being from want of knowledge and confusion of the intellect mixed with -Prakrit, is in the world encircled, and penetrated by this -incongruity. Five imperfections are held to adhere to the purusha, -which they call _pancha kalusháni_,[164] “the five failings, or sins.” -These are: 1. _avidya_;[165] 2. _ishmatá_;[166] 3. _rága_;[167] 4. -_dvésha_;[168] 5. _avivèchaná_.[169] _Avidya_ signifies with them that -they believe the body and the senses to be the soul; _avidya_ knows of -no beginning nor origin; _ishmata_ means personality, individuality, -and selfishness; _rága_ is the propensity to what is agreeable; -_dvésha_, “hatred,” consists in adhering to one’s own opinion, and -condemning that of others as vicious; _avivèchaná_ relates to acting -or not acting with passion. The five failings just enumerated keep -_Purusha_, “the embodied soul,” in distress: but when the mind becomes -pure, these five pains are banished. After the purification of the -heart, all the qualities which are bad and wicked acquire purity, and -the qualities, called by them _vrittaya_,[170] are of four different -kinds: the first, _mitrata_;[171] the second, _karuna_;[172] the -third, _mada_;[173] the fourth _upèkshá_.[174] _Mitrata_ is friendship -for the well doers, and benevolence for the men of probity; _karuna_ -means to be anxious for the good of the friendly-minded, and to -relieve the oppressed; _mada_ consists in enjoying the quiet happiness -of all the creatures of God; _upèksha_ signifies, not to use harsh -words against those who do ill. These are called _chatur vrittayá_, or -“four qualities,” which keep the heart under subjection, and prevent -it from seeing any thing else; and it is from the existence of these -four manners that the five pains before mentioned are annihilated, as -well as every thing that attracts them, and the fortunate man who is -liberated from these five sicknesses, attains the _satya loka_. And -thus is interpreted the appearance of the forms of Prakrit and Purusha -in the heart; the professor of this condition knows how to separate -them from each other, and becomes wise: by this knowledge Prakrit -disappears, after which, having found Purusha, or the true knowledge -of himself, which is understood of the soul, man becomes satisfied and -happy. According to the opinion of this sect, the five elements are -deduced from Prakrit. - -This is the substance of the belief of the _Sánkhyán_.[175] In Little -Guzerat, a district of the Panjab, the author of this work saw -Atmáchand, and Máhádéo, who said to belong to the Sánk’hyán. According -to their opinion, Prakrit is nature, and God is the manifestation of -nature, and all the terrestrial and heavenly bodies exist by him, and -they said: “What affords verdure to the heads of thorns, is it not -nature?” - - - [161] A system of philosophy, in which precision of - reckoning is observed in the enumeration of its principles, - is denominated _Sánk’hyá_; a term which has been understood - to signify _numeral_, agreeably to the usual acceptation of - _Sánk’hyá_, “number:” and hence its analogy to the - Pythagorean philosophy has been presumed. But the name may - be taken to imply that its doctrine is founded in the - exercise of judgment; for the word from which it is derived - signifies “reasoning,” or “deliberation;” and that - interpretation of its import is countenanced by a passage of - the _Bhárata_, where it is said of this sect of - philosophers: “They exercise judgment (_Sánk’hyá_), and - discuss nature and other twenty-four principles, and - therefore are called _Sánk’hyá_” (_Colebrooke on the - Philosophy of the Hindus_)――(_Transact. of the R. A. Soc. of - Great Br. and Irel._, vol. I. P. I. p. 20). - - [162] _Parusha_, pursuant to the Institutes of Manu (l. I. - sl. 11), is taken for the “divine male,” or Brahma himself; - it signifies in general the embodied soul. - - [163] प्रकृत्ति _Prakritti_ is a word of the highest import - with the Hindu philosophers. In its precise sense, it means - “that which is primary,” “that which precedes what is made;” - from _pra_, “before,” and _kri_, “to make.” The Prakritti of - the Sánk’hyás is a primary, subtile, universal - substance, undergoing modification through its own energy, - and for a special motive, by which it is manifest as an - individual and formal substance, varied according to the - predominance of qualities which are equipoised and inert in - the parent, and unequal and active in the progeny (see - _Sánk’hyá Kárika_, translated by Colebrooke, - commented by Profess. Wilson, pp. 80-83). The author of The - Dabistán in the above passage attributes to _Prakritti_ the - meaning belonging to _máyá_, “illusion.” The _Sánk’hyás_ do - not commonly confound the signification of these two words, - for they maintain the reality of existing things: but the - _Vedantis_ and the _Pauranikas_ (or followers of the - Puranas) regard creation as a delusion, or as a sport of the - creator, that is, as the _máyá_. Prakritti is translated by - Colebrooke “nature,” sometimes “matter.” Professor Lassen - renders this word by “procreatrix.” - - [164] प्ञ्चकलुषानि. - - [165] The Persian text has اوديا, _audíjà_. - - [166] اسمتا _ismatá_, perhaps इष्मता “desire,” from इष “to - desire.” - - [167] राग mental affection in general. - - [168] The original has دويش _davish_. - - [169] The edit. of Calc. reads ابہویشہ _abhvèsha_. I am - induced to substitute for it _avivèchana_ अविवे चना and must - remark that the original text appears here, in its - denominations and definitions, rather more incorrect than in - other places. According to the well known doctrine of the - Sánk’hyá, the obstructions of the intellect here meant to be - indicated are “error, conceit, passion, hatred, and fear;” - which are severally denominated obscurity, illusion, extreme - illusion, gloom, and utter darkness (_Transact. R. A. S._, - vol. I. p. 33). - - [170] वृत्तयः - - [171] मित्रत “friendship.” - - [172] करुण “tenderness, pity.” - - [173] मद “joy, pleasure.” - - [174] उपेक्षा “endurance, patience.” - - [175] This account of the Sánkhyá philosophy will appear - very incomplete as to the whole, and incorrect in the few - particulars given. I shall enumerate the principal - categories of this philosophy, which are, with little - variation, adopted by all the schools of Hindu philosophy, - and perpetually alluded to. - - _Mula-prakritti_ 1 - “NATURE,” the root of all, no production. - - PRINCIPLES PRODUCTIONS: - _Which are productions and_ _Productions of Ahankára are_: - _productive:_ - Produced by nature is: T {The 5 organs of perception: - _Buddhi_, or _Mahat_, h { The ear, - “intellect.” e { ―― skin, - Produced by Buddhi: { ―― eye, - _Ahankára_, “egotism.” 1 { ―― tongue, - 1 { ―― nose. - {The 5 organs of action: - o { The voice, - r { ―― hand, - g { ―― foot, - a { ―― organs of excretion, - n { ―― ―――― ―― generation. - s: {The mind. - - The five subtile elements, producing The 5 gross elements: - Sound ―― ―― Ether, - Touch ―― ―― Air, - Form ―― ―― Light, or Fire, - Flavor ―― ―― Water, - Odor ―― ―― Earth. - ―――――――――――― ―――――――――――――― ―――――――――――――― - 7 PRINCIPLES + 16 PRODUCTIONS = 23 CATEGORIES. - _Purusha_, “the soul,” neither - a production nor productive 1 - TOTAL 25 _Tatwas_, - That is, physical and metaphysical categories of the - Sánk’hyá philosophy. - - (See the work quoted, the _Sánk’hyá Kárika_, translated by - Colebrooke, and commented by Professor Wilson, pp. 16-17, - and elsewhere.) - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE SIXTH: ON THE JOGÍS AND THEIR DOCTRINES.――This sect -believe that _Isvára_, or the necessary being exists, one, the -principle of intellect, without an equal, without decrease nor -increase. In the language of the Hindus _Is a_[176] signifies “lord,” -and without Iśa all is but _jíva_,[177] that is “casualties;” in their -language _jiva_ means “life;” they hold Is a to be the maker of the -whole world, and the creator of all the elements; his holy being is -free from care, sickness, and want, and placed out of the circle of -work and agency; that is, that this holy being neither wants nor urges -any religious rites, such as ablution and the like; his knowledge -soars above and comprehends all being; he is the Lord, and none -besides him invested with supreme power; death and pain never approach -his existence, which has no limits. _Jíva_, “life,” they call what is -in the fetters of cares, in the bonds of infirmities, under the -pressure of pain, and in the prison of works and doings, and subjected -to the control of others, without command over itself. This life is in -truth not material nor corporeal; it is by ignorance only that it is -thought to be one with the body; and the body is supposed by them to -be revolving in the circle of material forms: by the necessity of -times and seasons, life abandons the works of the body, and passes -into another frame: and in this manner it migrates. Without the -_abhásayóga_,[178] the soul cannot be freed of the bonds of the -material world, and from the prison of what is corporeal, and -_yóga_,[179] in the language of the learned Hindus, signifies “union,” -or “acquisition;” and _abhyása_,[180] “the dominion of the eternal -sphere,” that is, possessing the enjoyment of a desired object; and -the purport of the _yóga_ is, that the heart be constantly kept in the -remembrance of God, and that no foreign object be permitted to enter -into that Jerusalem, that is, the house of God. The professor of this -union with the desired object reckons eight parts, which are: 1. -_yama_;[181] 2. _niyáma_;[182] 3. _ásana_;[183] 4. _pránáyáma_;[184] -5. _pratyáhára_;[185] 6. _dháraná_;[186] 7. _dhyána_;[187] 8. -_samadháraná_.[188] Yama is composed of five parts: the first is -_Ahinsá_,[189] that is, doing injury to nothing, and to kill no other -but the great wild beasts; 2. _Satyam_,[190] or “truth;” 3. -_Astéyam_,[191] that is, not stealing nor robbing; 4. _Brahma -tchárí_,[192] or to keep away from women, and all intercourse with -them, and to sleep upon the bare ground; 5. _Apragraha_,[193] which -is, not to ask any thing from any body, and never to take but what is -brought unasked. _Niyáma_, the second of the eight parts, is divided -also into five kinds: the first, _tápasa_,[194] that is, “devout -austerity;” 2. _japa_,[195] or “devotion by means of beads, stripes of -cloth, ejaculations, mental or loud repetition of the names and -attributes of God;” 3. _Sama_,[196] which is, “tranquillity and -satisfaction;” 4. _Suchi_,[197] or “purity, sanctity, perfection;” 5. -_Iśa-pútcha_,[198] “worshipping and praising God.” _Asana_, the third -of the eight parts of the yoga, means “sitting in some particular -posture,” various kinds of which are used among them. _Pránáyama_, the -fourth part, consists in “drawing in and letting out the breath, -according to an established mode and fixed rule.” _Pratyá hára_, the -fifth part, signifies “withdrawing the heart from all the desires and -attractions of the five senses; and keeping away from all sorts of -lust, the sight of beauty, the odor of the rose and of sandal, and -from all material and exterior enjoyments.” _Dhárana_,[199] the sixth -part, implies that, “in the heart of the cone-bearing tree, which is -the centre of the bosom, and which the people of India have compared -to the flower of a pond (_lotus_), the heart holds a fixed habitation; -that is, they guard it in that place.” - -_Dhyána_, the seventh part, is the remembrance of God the Almighty. -_Samadhárana_, the eighth part, signifies that the heart, attached to -the work of God, forgets the work of the world, in such a manner that -in his presence, turned towards him, it remains absorbed in him, and -feels itself lightened of all exterior sense and satisfied. The wise, -who carries these eight parts to a high degree of perfection, hears -and sees from afar; his pure knowledge elevates him; and he becomes -strong in the science of Yog, which is the science of the union with -the desired object; the all-bounteous God regards him with pity, and -discards all pains, all sicknesses, all wants, and all deficiencies -from his existence. According to this sect, it is by attaining to -these eight conditions, that _Mukt_, which signifies “emancipation,” -is acquired. - -This is the substance of the doctrine of the Yogís; now, I will relate -something of the opinions and actions of these sectaries, who have -been noticed in this time as professing the doctrine of the _Yog_. The -Yogís are a class well known in India, and _yóga_, in the Sanskrit -language, means “union;” they believe that they unite with God, whom -they call _Alíka_,[200] and according to their creed he is the -divinity by excellence; moreover his being is to be venerated under -the name of _Gorakhnáth_;[201] in like manner, _Mach’henáernáth_[202] -and _Chórengínáth_[203] are great personages or saints. - -They believe Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva to be subordinate -divinities, but they are, as followers and disciples, addicted to -Gorakhnath; thus, some devote themselves to the one or the other of -the deities. - -This sect is divided into twelve classes, which are as follow:[204] -_Satyanath_, _Ayípanthi_, _Kaśyapa_, _Vairag_, _Nátírí_, _Ardhanarí_, -_Náyari_, _Amara nath_, _Kam-híbdás_, _Jóli handi_, _Tarnaknath_, -_Jágar prarág_: these are called panthi nék, “good sects,” and -_panthi_ signifies “a tribe, a sect.”[205] According to their opinion, -the chiefs of all religions, sects, and creeds proceed as disciples -from the prophet and saint Gorakhnath, and what they found, they have -found it from him. Their belief is that Muhammed (to whom be peace) -was also a pupil and disciple of Gorakhnath, but, from fear of the -Muselmans, they dare not declare it; they say, that Bábá Rin Háji, -that is, Gorakhnath, was the foster-father of the prophet, who, having -received the august mission, took the mode of Yog from the sublime -road of true faith; and a great many of them agree with the Muselmans -in fasting and in prayers, and perform several acts according to the -religion of that people. The sect of Yogís know no prohibited food; -they eat pork as the Hindus and the Naźárains, and cow-flesh, like the -Muselmans, and so on; they also kill and eat men, according to the -custom of the Akmían, as will be related hereafter; and they drink -wine like the Guébers. There are some of this sect, who, having mixed -their excretions and filtered them through a piece of cloth, drink -them and say, that such an act renders a man capable of great affairs, -and they pretend to know strange things. They call the performer of -this act _Atílía_ and also _Akhórí_. Although they have all originated -from Gorakhnath, and adhere to him in the generality of their faith, -yet some follow the road of those who attached themselves to the -twelve divisions of the Yoga. - -Among them, the restraining of the breath is held in great esteem, -such as it was practised among the Parsian by Azar Hushang, and by the -kings of that people. It is stated in the Bastán namah, that Afrasíab, -the son of Pashang, was strong in restraining his breath, and it was -on account of this qualification that, when he had escaped from the -sling of Aâbid, he kept himself concealed in the water. This history -is known.[206] Among the Hindus and the Parsian Yezdanián, nothing is -esteemed higher than this. I have said something of this custom in the -article upon the Parsian Sipasían: in this place I shall state more of -it. - -This science of the breath is an imaginary one. The Yogis, the -Sanyásies, the Hindus, and the Tapasís, say that, when one has the -intention of mastering his breath, he most strictly abstains from -intercourse with women, from eating salt and any thing bitter and -sour, as well as from toil; then, tending towards this purpose, he -will know that from the place of sitting to the summit of the head -there are seven divisions of the body, which the Azarián call _haft -khán amèkhi_, “the seven places of union,” and the Yogís, _sapta -chakra_,[207] “seven circles.” The first is the region about the -pubis, similar to a flower with four leaves; the Hindus call it -_muládhára_.[208] In the middle of this originates a member, which the -Hindus call _manthar_,[209] and the Arabians ذكر _zicker_, and this is -the second region. The third is the navel, from the centre of which -proceeds a fire-colored vein, entitled by the Hindus _nábhi -chakra_.[210] The fourth region is that of the heart, called by the -Hindus _manipuram_,[211] and that is like a flower with twelve leaves. -The fifth is the windpipe, in the language of the Hindus -_kant´a_.[212] The sixth comprehends the interval between the two -eyebrows, in Sanskrit _bhruva_.[213] The seventh region is that of the -head, which is called by the Hindus _brahmanda_.[214] It is to be -known that in these regions there are many veins, among which three, -as the principal, are to be distinguished: the one is on the right -side, “the solar vein;” the other in the middle, “the earthen;” the -third on the left side, “the lunar;” these veins are named in the -language of the Hindus _áditya_, _pankila_, and _somana_;[215] in the -Persian language, _mahna_, _míná_, and _máná_.[216] One of the three -veins is the greatest, that, namely, which running from the middle of -the back to the right of the back bone, divides beyond it into two -branches, the one of which attains to the right, the other to the left -of the nostrils; the breath and the wind comes from them, and the air -which proceeds from these veins extends, during a man’s being awake, -to twelve, during sleep to thirty-two, and during coition to -sixty-four fingers: this air and breath they hold to be the foundation -of life, and a great importance is attached to this subject by the -learned Sipásian and Hindus. They believe the wind to be of ten kinds; -but what according to them is essential to know, is the superior and -inferior winds, which by the Hindus are called _Prána_ and -_Apána_;[217] by the Persians, _Alayi_ and _Pásáyi_. These two winds -attract each other mutually, and in pronouncing “_han_,” the breath -goes out, in pronouncing “_sa_,” it goes within; and this takes place -during prayers, without the aid and the motion of the tongue; when -they fix upon a name, it becomes _hansa_, and they say also _hamsa_: -the Hindus call it _ajapa_,[218] that is, it is pronounced without the -aid of the tongue; and in Persian it has the name of _damáníbád_, or -“sound of the wind.” Thus there is, above the channel of the region of -the pubis, a most subtile vein; from the summit of the shank a flower, -bright and similar to gold in redness, expands itself from eight -roots, and after having from this origin raised its head, and taken -the high direction to the top of the head, it is there closed: this -the Hindus call _Kundelí_,[219] “a snake;” and the Persians _Ruhen -mar_, and _Ráushibár_: and the path of the vein of the head is a -middle one. When the Kundeli awakes to draw breath from a high -feeling, it rises to the summit of the head; in like manner as a -thread passes through the eye of a needle, it goes through the said -opening to the top of the head. If thou knowest this mode well, thou -understandest the modes of sitting; of these we mentioned one in the -section upon the Sipasián; in this place we shall give a further -account of this subject. The most approved mode of sitting is that -which in the Hindu language is called _Maha ásana_,[220] and _Sáda -ásana_,[221] that is “sitting as the High, the mature of age, and the -accomplished,” which in Persian is termed _sánishín_. The mode of this -is as follows: the heel of the left foot is placed at the orifice of -the anus, and the heel of the other foot raised up straight to the -pubis, and to the bust; the eyes, without twinkling, are directed to -the middle of the eyebrows, then the part about the pubis is put in -motion; the inferior wind is drawn with the superior towards the upper -parts, and raised by degrees until it reaches the head. We have -explained the mode of drawing up the breath in the section upon the -Sipasían. At the time of drawing it up, the beginning is made on the -side of the left, for emission through the right, of the nostrils; -when drawn up on the right it is also passing through the right, and -the inferior wind emitted: this performance is called _Pránáyama_,[222] -by the Hindus, and _Aferasdam_, that is, “raising of the breath,” by -the Persians. The devotee, on drawing up the breath at the left side, -forms the image of the moon; that is, he places the disk of the moon -to the left, and to the right that of the sun. Some of the Sipásian -place the image of one of the seven planets at every stage of their -devotion. This mode is held in great esteem among the Hindus at all -prayers and religious exercises; they say, the adept in it has the -power of flying; he never falls sick, is exempt from death, and from -hunger and thirst; it is stated in the Ramzsitán of the Persian, that -by means of this power Kái Khusro is still alive. The Sipásían and the -historians relate, that whoever carries this process to perfection, -rises above death; as long as he remains in the body, he can put it -off and be again reunited to it; he never suffers from sickness, and -is fit for all business. They say that Kaí Khusró, when he had -acquired perfection in this devotion, felt his heart estranged from -existence in this world; he chose retirement from men, and having -separated from this body, he associated with the incorporeal beings, -and found eternal life. The Hindus hold that, whenever a man has -perfected himself in this act, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva have no -command over him, but he rules over them. According to a great number -of the Hindus, it is this perfection which is personified in the three -deities, namely, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva; and it is the belief of -many, that whoever becomes master of this process of devotion, -coalesces with God himself. Much has been said and written upon this -subject by the Hindus and by the Persians. The Sipásíans have a book -entitled _Sányal_, which contains a great deal on this subject, and -there exists no better book about it. Other writings are those of -Zardúsht, as well as the _Sarud i-mastan_, and the like, in great -numbers, which I have seen. Among the Hindus similar works abound, -such as that composed by _Atmá Ráma_, a Yogí, who is known under the -name of _Bahet Barváng_, and the book of Gorakh Singh, which has been -composed by Gorakhnath, and that of _Ambaret Kant_. The author of the -Dabistán says: “I saw Ambaret Kant, who has also translated his work -into Persian, under the title _Huz ul Hayat_. Therein are the sayings -of Gorakhnath, supposed to proceed from the prophet Khizar, and -Machinder Yónas; but these speeches, pursuant to Ambarat Kant, are not -original; they are in fact those of Gorakhnath; as, according to the -Yogís, Brahma came and went some hundred thousand times, but -Gorakhnath remained.” Relatively to the Yoga, this book gives no -further explanation. - -Balik Nátha, they say, a penitent, was of royal extraction, and -attained great perfection in the Yoga; he restrained his breath during -one week, and after having passed one hundred and twenty years of his -life, he had not lost his strength. I have heard from the Mobéd -Hushíar, the author of several books, that in the year 1028 of the -Hejira (1618 A. D.), he brought me to him, and requested him to bless -me; Balik nath pronounced then upon me: “This boy shall acquire the -knowledge of God.” - -Serud nath, descending from Humayún, was of a noble origin. Having in -his youth attained to the mastership of that sect, he could restrain -his breath for two days. In the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), -the author of this work saw him in Lahore. - -Sanjá náth, of the sect of Ayí, was a man accomplished in restraining -the breath; the people numbered him among the saints, and said, that -seven hundred years of his life had elapsed without his hair having -yet become white: he was, in the last mentioned year, seen in Lahore. - -Súraj nath made great proficiency in mastering the breath; for several -years, he has chosen his retirement in Pesháver, and is occupied with -his own concern. The people think his age scarce less than that just -before stated. The writer of this work visited him in the year 1055 of -the Hejira (1645 A. D.), and saw several of the Yogies, an account of -whom cannot find place in this book. - -It is an established custom among the Yogís that, when malady -overpowers them, they bury themselves alive. They are wont also, with -open eyes, to force their looks towards the middle of their eyebrows, -until so looking they perceive the figure of a man; if this should -appear without hands, feet, or any member, for each case they have -determined that the boundaries of their existence would be within so -many years, months, or days. When they see the figure without a head, -they know that there certainly remains very little of their life; on -that account, having seen the prognostic, they bury themselves. -However the Jnánís of India hold this figure to be an illusion, and an -appearance without a trace of reality. - -As the Sanyásis are also pious men, I will join an account of them to -that of the Yogís. The Sanyásis make choice of abnegation and -solitude; they renounce all bodily enjoyments; some, in order that -they may not be invested with another body, and migrate from body to -body; a great number, in order to go to heaven; and a multitude, in -order to acquire dominion, that is, to become kings, or very rich men. -When a man becomes a Sanyási, he must give up all desire to return -again into the world. They are distinguished by names, and divided -into ten classes, namely: _Ban_, _Áran_, _Tírthah_, _Áshram_, _Kar_, -_Parbatah_, _Sákar_, _Bhárthy_, _Perí_, and _Sarsatí_. They are -frequently holy men, and abstain from eating flesh, and renounce all -intercourse with women. This class follow the dictates of Datáteri, -whom they also venerate as a deity, and say that he is an incarnation -of Naráyan, and in the retaining of breath attained to such a degree -that he is exempted from death. When he came into the presence of -Gorakhnath, who is the chief of the Yogís, and according to the -opinion of the Sanyásis, an incarnation of Mahádéo, Datáterí, for the -sake of trial, smote Gorakhnath on the head, who took the appearance -of iron. Datáteri told him: “Thou hast not done well; there is no -striking iron.” When Gorakhnath himself bade him to combat, Datáteri -glided off from the body, in the same manner as water glides off, and -reunited safely again. In this sense Śabur Mashedi says: - - _“The whole body became water, withhold thy hand from killing me, - As often as thou strikest a blow, my body reunites.”_ - -Afterwards, Gorakhnath disappeared in the water; Datáteri, having -found and recognised him in the shape of a frog, brought him forth. -When Datáteri concealed himself in the water, Gorakhnath, in spite of -all his searching, could not succeed in discovering him, because he -was mixed with the water, and water cannot be distinguished from -water. Mirzá Baki Alí says: - - “When a drop is united with the sea, it becomes sea, - In substance, the bubble and billow are water: solve this riddle.” - -Another says: - - “From apprehension I became water: it is useless to strike water: - I am astonished that he assailed my fortune.” - -There are two classes of Sanyásis: the one, the _Dandaheri_,[223] do -not wear long hair, and are attached to the precepts and regulations -of the _smriti_, or of the law: the second are the _Avadhútas_;[224] -they are like the other class; they wear the zunar, and drink water -mixed with ashes; but, contrary to the Dandahar, they let their hair -grow so that it becomes like ropes, and this they call _juta_;[225] -they do not bathe every day, and rub their head and body with ashes, -which they call _bhabút_;[226] at the time of death, the two classes, -having tied the body in a bag full of salt, throw it into the water, -where, by its weight and that attached to it, it remains a few days -sunk in the bottom, until they bury it in the earth. - -The head of the second class is Sankara acharya; Saha dèva, the rája -of Kachmir, who in the year 750 of the Hejira (1349 A. D.) pulled off -the garment of the world, chose him for his teacher. Sankara acharya -was a learned Brahman, of a very independent mind; the Hindus say that -when the learned did not understand the Vedanta-śastra, Mahádéva, -having incarnated himself, appeared in the shape of Sankara acharya, -for the purpose of interpreting the Vedanta doctrine, upon which -subject many books have been written. _Sastra_[227] signifies, in the -Sankrit language, “science,” and _Véda_, the “heavenly book,” as has -been said; _anta_,[228] is “end, the accomplishment;” that is, “the -accomplishment of the intended object;” and the intent of the Veda is -the knowledge of God and of one’s self. On that account this science, -which consists in the knowledge of the union of God, as it is to be -derived from the text of the Veda, has been entitled _Veda-anta_, “the -accomplishment of the Veda.” Sankara acharya was a _Jnáni_, “a saint, -a divine,” professing the unity of God; his speeches and actions -became the code of the Jnánis. - -One of these, called _Chatúr Vapah_, belongs to the class of the -_Dandahars_; he descends from the Brahmans of Guzerat, whom they call -_Nága-Brahmans_; his father, of the order of jewellers, enjoyed great -consideration and opulence. Chatúr Vapah, having acquired great -perfection in the worship of God, abandoned wife, father, mother, and -children; and chose the condition of a Sanyási; he devoted himself to -the practice of restraining the breath, and at last attained great -reputation, but never relaxed in his religious austerity; he ate no -more than three handsful; they say that sometimes he tasted nothing -but salt, and contented himself with three pinches of it; the nature -of his manners is so well known among the Sanyásis, that it is not -required to say more of it in this book. They say besides that, on -account of his perseverance in the beforesaid practice, and on hearing -the voice of God, a sound similar to that of a harp issued from his -veins. A Durvish, native of Persia, gave the following information: -“In the year 1045 of the Hejira (1635 A. D.), one night Chatur Vapah -came to me, and said: ‘Rise, that we may take a walk together;’ I went -with him and arrived at a deep water. Chatur Vapah, having put his -feet upon the surface of the water, walked upon it so as not to raise -a sprinkling; he then called me; going along the border of the pond, I -joined him, who until my arrival awaited me upon an elevated block of -stone which was near the pond. When I had seated myself near him, he -pointed to the block, and said: ‘Dost thou guess whose work this is?’ -Having considered the bulk of the stone, which was not less than ten -cubits in length, I was struck with astonishment, and said: ‘This may -be the work of a deity.’ Chatur Vapah replied: ‘One of my friends -dwelt here, and endeavored to shape this block into his habitation, -and having brought the huge stone upon his shoulder from the high -mountain, began to work it. The people, astonished at the bulk of the -stone, sat down at night in a lurking-place, so that they saw the -Sanyásí with the great stone on his shoulder. On that account they -represented to him: What is the reason of undergoing such labour? -Command, and we will bring the stone down from the mountain, and shape -it right, provided the block be not too large. The Sanyási got angry, -and left the village.’ Chatúr Vapah afterwards added: ‘Rise, and let -us go to see him:’ we went there. Sitting cross-legged, he was -occupied with himself. Chatúr Vapah said to him: ‘This Durvish is my -friend; call the musician.’ He replied: ‘Raise thou the light up.’ At -these words, Chatur Vapah directed his looks to the field, and an -immense torch burst forth, lighted from the mysterious region, and -threw its scattered refulgence wide about, and the sound of many -musical instruments came upon the ear. At day-break we took leave of -him, and returned by the road which we came to our resting place.” -Khája Hafiz says right: - - “When the chief of the wine-cellar became my preceptor, what - disparity is there in it? - There is no place which is not the place of God. - In the cell of the hermit, in the circle of the Sufís, - There is no principal place of the worshipper but - The extremity of the arch of thy two eyebrows.” - -The Hakim Kamrán of Shíraz says: “We were in Benares with Chatúr -Vapah. One of the principal Muselmans who visited him asked him: ‘What -dost thou say of the truth of our prophet?’ He answered: ‘You say that -he is a legate of God, and a leader of the way to the people to which -the King of truth has sent him; but it is not becoming for those who -are companions of the Monarch of the world to take orders from him.’” -The inhabitant of heaven, Nuraddin Jehangír (may the light of God -illume his grave!) believed and placed a suitable confidence in him. -Abdár rahim of the Khánkhan prostrated himself before him. In the year -1033 of the Hejira (1623 A. D.), the author of this work, then in his -infancy, came with his friends and relations from Patna to the -capital, Akbár abad, and was brought in the arms of the Mobéd Hushíar, -the odor of whose excellent qualities is diffused about, to Chatur -Vapah. The pious man rejoiced at it, and bestowed his blessing on me, -the writer of this work; he taught me the mantra of _Súrya_, that is, -of the sun; he then enjoined Ganéśa-man, one of his disciples who were -present on this day, that he should remain with me until the age of -manhood, when I should be able to manage my affairs myself. Ganéśa-man -remained attached to me: he was a pupil of Chatur Vapah, and practised -the restraining of the breath assiduously. The Mobéd Hushíar says, he -once saw him when, sitting cross-legged, he restrained his breath so -that his belly, filled with wind, extended beyond his knees. The -Gosáin Chatur Vapah travelled to the everlasting kingdom in the year -1047 of the Hejira (1637 A. D.). - -The author of this book saw, in the year 1053 of the Hejira (1643 A. -D.), Kalían Bharatí in Karitpúr in the Kohistan of the Panjab, which -was the country of the rája Tarachandra. Kalían was a religious man, -and kept his breath for two watches, or six hours. The Bháratís are a -class of Sanyásis. From Ferzánah Khushí, who is a pious man of the -Yezdanían, was received the information, that Kalíán Bhárati used to -drink, first, oil of lamps, and then milk, both which he emitted again -in such a manner that the color of each was preserved, and no mixture -had taken place. Kalin Bhárati always praised Persia; the author of -this work told him: “You have no connection in India; you should go -there.” He answered: “I went to Iran, but when I saw the king of the -country, Shah Abas Ibne Sultan,[229] who ought to be a servant of God, -I found him to be full of years, and although highly intelligent, yet -merciless, a shedder of blood, covetous, a word-breaker, a friend to -jesting, and admirer of buffoonery. In his country it was promulgated -that wherever a boy or girl gifted with beauty could be found, they -should be brought before the king. The Sufís of the tribe Kazelbásh -brought boys and girls to the king, that he might indulge himself in -any shameful act of his liking. I asked myself whether, if such a -behaviour were conformable to their religion, I could remain in this -town? When I inquired about it from their learned men, they denied it. -I further asked, whether the king approves of such deeds? They said: -‘These are deeds, customary with men of our faith.’ I then again said -to myself: the king is the substitute of God; if he himself goes -astray, is not firm in his faith, and does not disavow any part of -this religion, then it is not advisable to remain in this town.” Kalin -Bharati also said: “I cannot bear seeing a man who is not firm in his -faith; one who professes no religion at all is, at least, his own -guide; the professor of any faith who does what he says, and is fixed -in it, deserves not to be blamed.” - -The writer of this book found, in the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. -D.), Aisha Girda, in Kashmir. Ferzanah Khushí says, that he kept his -breath during three watches, or nine hours, and he found Maden Kir -equal to him. This was a man skilled in all sorts of magic and sleight -of hand: whenever well disposed, he scattered bread and salt about, -brought milk forth from bones, cut bones in two with a hair, and -passed birds’ eggs through the narrow neck of a bottle, and exhibited -such like tricks. - -Other Sanyásis remain twelve years standing upon one leg, and this -class is called _Thávésar_.[230] Those who keep continual silence are -called _Máunínas_.[231] Many other, like these, are mentioned in Hindu -books, which the author of this work perused, but has no room for -describing them all in these pages; some of this class are men of -consideration and opulence, and are escorted by files of elephants; -they have carriages, fine apparel, courtiers, servants, on foot and -horseback. - - - [176] ईश. - - [177] जीव - - [178] अभ्यासयोग the practice of frequent and repeated - contemplation of any deity, or abstract spirit, repeated - recollection, etc. - - [179] योगः among a great number of significations has that - of “religious exercise.” - - [180] अभ्यास means, properly, “constant, eternal - repetition.” - - [181] यम religious restraint, or obligation. - - [182] नियम or नियाम any religious observance voluntarily - practised. - - [183] आसन sitting in some particular posture, as is the - custom of the devotees; eighty-four kinds are enumerated. - - [184] प्राणायामः breathing in a peculiar way through the - nostrils, during the mental recitation of the names or - attributes of some deity. - - [185] प्रत्याहारः abstraction; insensibility; restraining - the organs so as to be indifferent to disagreeable or - agreeable excitement. - - [186] धारणं fortitude; keeping the mind collected, the - breath suspended, and all natural wants restrained; steady - immoveable abstraction. - - [187] ध्यानं meditation; reflection; mental representation - of the personal attributes of the divinity to whom worship - is addressed. - - [188] समधारण see _dhárana_; _sama_ is an intensitive. - - [189] अहिंसा harmlessness, one of the cardinal virtues of - most Hindu sects. - - [190] सत्यं. - - [191] अस्तेयं. - - [192] ब्रह्मचारी a religious student, an ascetic of a certain - class. - - [193] अप्रग्रह. - - [194] तापस. - - [195] जाप muttering prayers. - - [196] शाम. - - [197] शुाचि. - - [198] ईशपूजा. - - [199] See the signification of _dhárana_, as taken from - Wilson’s Dict., and given in note 6, p. 125. - - [200] अलोक Heaven. - - [201] गोरखनाथ a name adopted by a class of Yógis――(_Wils. - Dict._, sub voce, _nátha_.) - - [202] Perhaps मचर्चिक नाथ _macharchika nátha_, “lord of - excellence,” or “happiness.” - - [203] Probably चूडाङ्कनाथ _chúdánka nátha_, “lord of the - ornament of the crest.” - - [204] Professor Wilson (see his Sketch of the Religious - Sects of the Hindus, in the XVIth vol. of the _As. Res._, p. - 1-136) has enumerated the religious divisions of the Hindus - as they have been described by the author of the _Sankara - Vijaya_, probably in the 8th century of our era, to which - enumeration he added that of the present divisions of this - people, comprised in three great classes: the _Vaichnavas_, - the _Sâivas_, and the _Saktas_. Very few names of these - sects are to be found in The Dabistán, although both works - agree in general in the account of the opinions, rites, and - customs of the different sectaries; the outlines of their - systems appear to have remained the same during at least the - last thousand years, whatever alterations the details may - have undergone. - - [205] _Panthi_ is derived from the Sanskrit पन्थिन् - _panthin_, “who goes the road.” This term occurs only in the - word परिपन्थिन् _pari-panthi_, “an adversary.” - - [206] According to the Shah-nameh, Afrasiab, after many - battles, succombed to the fortune of Kaí-Khusro. The king of - Turan fled to the mountains of Berdah, where he concealed - himself in a cavern. It so happened that Hum, a descendant - of Feridun, lived as a hermit in the same desert: there he - heard by night a voice of complaint, which he soon - recognised to be that of Afrasiab. The hermit had not - extinguished the vindictive passion in his breast; he seized - and bound the fugitive king, and conducted him to be - delivered into the hands of Káí Khusró. On the bank of a - large river, Hum, visited by a feeling of pity, loosened the - fetters of his prisoner, who profited by these few moments - of liberty to escape, and dived into the water, where he - remained concealed, as is said above, so that he could not - be discovered. Káí Khusró, having in the mean time arrived - to receive himself the great captive, Hum advised the king - to subject Gorshivez (Afrâsiab’s brother) who was also a - prisoner in his hands, to severe tortures, in order that the - lamentations of the sufferer might draw Afrasiab out of the - water. This stratagem succeeded, and Afrasiab was killed by - the sword of Káí Khusró. - - [207] सप्त चक्राः In the best treatises of the Hindu - philosophers, we find only six chakras, or “circles,” - enumerated; these are as follow: 1. _Muládhára_, “the parts - about the pubis;” 2. the _Swádishthánam_, or “umbilical - region;” 3. the _Manipúram_, “pit of the stomach,” or - “epigastrium;” 4. _Anáhatam_, “the root of the nose;” 5. - _Visuddham_, “the hollow between the frontal sinuses;” 6. - _Ajnyákhyam_, “the fontenelle, or union of the coronal and - sagittal sutures.” To these circles, or divisions, are - attributed various faculties and relations with divinities - and physical elements. - - [208] मूलाधार. - - [209] मन्थर “a churning stick.” - - [210] नाभिचक्र. - - [211] मणिपुर. - - [212] कण्ट. - - [213] भ्रुव. - - [214] ब्रह्माण्ड signifies “Brahma’s egg,” to which the - earth is compared, and probably, as above, the head. - - [215] आदित्य, पङ्किल, सोमन. - - [216] These words have, in the Persian dictionary, a - signification different from that which is above attributed - to them, and seem to be technical terms belonging to the - doctrine of a sect. - - [217] प्राण _prána_ is breath, expiration, and inspiration; - अपान _apána_ is flatulence, _crepitus_. Besides these two - winds, the Hindus name three other winds, namely: _Jamána_, - eructation, supposed to be essential to digestion; _Udána_, - passing from the throat into the head; it is the pulsation - of the arteries in the head, the neck, and temples; _Vyána_, - expanding through the whole body; it is the pulsation of the - rest of the superficial arteries and occasional puffiness of - external parts, indicating air in the skin (see _Vedanta - Sara_, edit. Calc., p. 9; and _Sánkhyá Kárita_, work quoted, - p. 105). - - [218] अजप is a particular mantra, or mystical formula, - employed by the Tantrikas, the essence of which is the - letters _H_ and _S_, whence it is termed the _Hansa-mantra_. - - [219] कुण्डली. - - [220] मह आसन. - - [221] साद आसन - - [222] See, on it, vol. I. p. 80. - - [223] दणिडी a mendicant carrying a staff. - - [224] अवधूत. - - [225] जूट. - - [226] भस्म _bhasma_, “ashes,” भस्मीभूत _bhasmíbuta_, - “becoming ashes.” - - [227] शास्त्र _sástra_, from शास _sása_, “to govern,” an - order, command, institutes of religion, science, etc. - - [228] अन्त. - - [229] The king of Persia above mentioned was probably Abbas, - the son of Shah Muhammed Mirza. He began to reign in 1585, - and died in 1628, in his 70th year. He was called “the - Great,” although his character and life were stained by - vices but too common to Oriental princes. To him succeeded - his grandson Shah Súfí, in 1627, and died in 1641; then the - son of the latter, Abbas II, not yet ten years old, was - proclaimed king; at the date above mentioned, viz. 1643, he - was about twelve years old, and could therefore not be the - king characterised by Kalin Bharati, who could very easily, - but fifteen years before the epoch above mentioned, have - seen Abbas “the Great,” then, as he says, “full of years.” - - [230] Probably स्थातारस् _sthátáras_. - - [231] मौनिनस्. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE SEVENTH DESCRIBES THE TENETS OF THE SÁKTÍAN.――The belief -of this sect is as follows: Síva, that is Mahádeva, who in their -opinion with little exception is the highest of the deities, and the -greatest of the spirits, has a spouse whom they call _Máyá -saktí_;[232] this spouse shows first one color, and then another, that -is, something else than what really exists: for instance, water like -wine. This spiritual and material principle has three natures and -three qualities, namely: _rajas_,[233] that is, “dominion and desire;” -_sattva_,[234] which is “rectitude and wisdom, and the power to -control the senses, not to be subject to them;” and _tamas_,[235] or -“violence, passion, besides eating, gluttony, and sleeping.” With the -Hindus, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva are personified as proceeding -from these three conditions,[236] or as the powers of the three -qualities mentioned. This Máyá is the maker of the productions of this -world and of its inhabitants, and the creator of the spirits and of -the bodies; the universe and its contents are born from her: from -respect of the said productions and of the mentioned effects, she is -entitled _Jagat-ambá_,[237] or “mother of the universe;” non-entity -finds no access to this creator; the garment of perishableness does -not sit right upon the body of this fascinating empress; the dust of -nothingness does not move round the circle of her dominion; the real -beings of heaven, and the accidental creations of the nether world, -are equally enamoured and intoxicated of desire before her; bound by -these ties of deceit in this revolving world, whoever rebels feels the -desire of _mukt_, that is, of emancipation, independence, and -happiness; nevertheless, from carelessness, he pays obedience and -worship to this world-deceiving queen, and never abandons the path of -adoration of this bewitching lady. This goddess, that is the spiritual -principle, exists in all living beings in six circles, which they call -_shat chakras_,[238] as the fibres in the stalk of a water-lily, in -which there are six divisions: 1. the _Muládhára_, or “the -sitting-place;” 2. the _Manipúram_, that is, “the navel;” 3. the -_Swadhishtanam_,[239] “the firm place, and which commands the upper -region of the navel;” 4. _Hrid_,[240] or “the heart;” 5. _Sáda_,[241] -that is, “the purified mansion and the place of purification,” and -this proceeds from the upmost part of the breast; 6. _Agni -tchakra_,[242] or “the circle of the fire,” and this is that of the -eye-brows. These are the six circles, and above them is _Indra_, that -is the window of life, and the passage of the soul, which is the top -and middle of the head; and in that place is the flower of the back of -one thousand leaves: this is the residence of the glorious divinity, -that is, of the world-deceiving queen, and in this beautiful site -reposes her origin. With the splendour of one hundred thousand -world-illuminating suns, she wears, at the time of rising, manifold -odoriferous herbs and various flowers upon her head and around her -neck: her resplendent body is penetrated with perfumes of various -precious ingredients, such as musk, safran, sandal and amber, and -bedecked with magnificent garments: in this manner, as was just -described, she is to be represented. The worship of her form and -appearance, the adoration and submission, ought to be internal and -true; and the exterior veneration, to be paid before her image; -moreover, all that has been divided into five sections and explained -in the Yoga śastra, is to be performed with assiduity. The interior -worship consists in representing her image, and in keeping her -remembrance every where; the possessor of such an imaginative faculty -and devotedness is called _bhakta_,[243] that is, “a possessor of -gladness and of the mansion of perfect delight, and of _mukt_, or -‘liberation’ to be enjoyed in this mansion of a permanent happy -existence.” The mode of this worship is contained in the _Agama_,[244] -and the whole sect conform themselves to it. With them, the power of -Mahadeva’s wife, who is Bhávání, surpasses that of the husband. The -zealous of this sect worship the _Síva-linga_, although other Hindus -also venerate it. _Linga_[245] is called the virile organ, and they -say on behalf of this worship that, as men and all living beings -derive their existence from it, adoration is duly bestowed on it. As -the linga of Mahadeva, so do they venerate the _bhaga_,[246] that is, -the female organ. A man very familiar with them gave the information -that, according to their belief, the high altar, or principal place in -a mosque of the Muselmans, is an emblem of the _bhaga_. Another man -among them said that, as the just-named place emblems the bhaga, the -minar, or turret of the mosque represents the linga: on which account -both are found together. In many places and among a great number of -the Hindus, this worship exists: a great many follow the Agama, in -which wine drinking is approved, and if, instead of a common cup, a -man’s skull (which they call _kapála_[247]) be used, the beverage is -much more agreeable. They hold the killing of all animals, even of -man, to be permitted, and call it _bala_.[248] At night they go to the -places which they call _śmaśána_,[249] and where the dead bodies are -burnt; there they intoxicate themselves, eat the flesh of the corpses -burnt, and copulate before the eyes of others with women, which they -name _śakti púja_:[250] and if the devoted woman be that of another, -the good work is so much the more valuable, and it is certain that -they offer their wives to each other; the disciples bring their wives -and daughters to their preceptor; they unite with their mothers, -sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, which is against the custom of -the Hindus, who do not take daughters of their near relations. The -author of this work saw one of the learned men of this sect, who read -to him a book of modern composition upon their customs, and therein -was stated that it is permitted to mix with every woman except one’s -daughter. This man began to abuse the work, saying that the text was -contrary to the old customs of this class, and that no such thing is -to be found in the ancient books, and declared it at last to be a -mistake of the copyist. They say that the woman exists for the sake of -being desired; she may be a mother or a daughter. In their opinion, -there is no enjoyment higher that that of love; the Hindus call it -_kámada_;[251] and say that, when a woman and a man are in close -conversation, whoever disturbs them is worthy of God’s malediction, -because they both therein share a state of happiness. The Agama favors -both sexes equally, and makes no distinction between women; they may -belong to whomsoever: men and women compose equally humankind, and -whatever they bring forth makes part of it. This sect hold women in -great esteem, and call them _śaktis_ (powers); and to ill treat a -_śakti_, that is, a woman, is held a crime. The high and low value the -Lulís (public girls) very high, and call them _deva kanya_,[252] -“daughters of the gods.” - -Among them, it is a meritorious act to sacrifice a man, which they -call _naramédha_;[253] then the _gómédha_,[254] or sacrifice of a cow; -further, the _asvaméda_,[255] and finally, any other animal. When they -perform a sacrificial ceremony, which they call Kála-dek -(_kaladéya_)[256], they unite the blood of as many animals as possible -in a large vase, and place therein the man whom they bring over to -their creed, and they drink with him from that blood. Whenever the -worship of a god, or of the wife of a god is performed, the ceremony -is called _ishtam_,[257] and the master of the ceremony _ishta_. The -creed of this sect is, that any god or wife of a god may be worshipped -in two ways: the one is called _bhadram_,[258] which consists in -abstaining from shedding blood, and in being pure; the other, termed -_vakam_,[259] which admits spilling blood, commerce with women, and -neglect of purity; but they think this second preferable, and say that -each deity, male or female, has a form under which he or she is to be -represented; but that the worship of a female divinity affords a -greater recompense. When they have an intimate connection with their -own or another’s wife, they behold in her the image of the goddess, -and think to personate the god, her husband, and at this time they -sing a prescribed song, which to entune at the very moment of the -closest junction, they believe to be most recommendable. There is a -deity whose praise they sing with unwashed hands;[260] and another -whom they worship with the mark of their cast drawn with dirt on their -forehead. Some of these goddesses are by them called “queens,” and -others “servants;” and the worshipper of a woman is also termed -“servant.” - -The author of this work saw a man who, singing the customary song, sat -upon a corpse which he kept unburied until it came to a state of -dissolution, and then ate the flesh of it; this act they hold -extremely meritorious. They say that the desires of this and of the -other world attain their accomplishment by means of the worship of a -god or of a goddess. The followers of this sect send their barren -wives, in order that they may become pregnant, to the performers of -such acts, and these men use the women before the eyes of their -husbands: whoever does not send his wife to his master, renders in -their opinion the purity of his faith very doubtful. - -The Gossain Tara lochana, a Brahman, was of this sect, and devoted to -the worship of Káli, a female deity. Having gone to Kachmir in the -year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), he practised pious austerity; at -last, as is usual, he chose a concubine, for which, they say, five -things are requisite: fish, wine, the wife of another man, flesh (if -human flesh so much the better) and a mantra, that is, a song. The -Hindus used to distinguish fish from flesh. Finally, having -accomplished the act of a Gosain, Tara lochana became the friend of -Ahsen Ulla, named Zafer Khán ibne Khájá, Abul hasen Taramzi, who was -the governor of Kachmir: this took place by the interest of the -confidential servants of the lord’s house, who were well disposed to -be directed by a perfect Gósain. The said lord wished Taralochana to -procure him victory over the Tibetans; the Gosain promised it to him, -provided he should conform himself to his directions: Zafer Khan -consented to it, and a convention was concluded between them. Tara -lochana said: “Appoint a great number of Lúlían who are never to -separate from me, because in our religion the intercourse with these -is preferable to that with other women, on which account they are -entitled _Déva-Kanyá_, ‘the daughters of the gods;’ my meal must never -be destitute of wine and other intoxicating liquors; to begin, let a -sheep be killed for me, and the necessaries and materials of repast be -prepared.” Zafer Khan did all the Gosain demanded; when he made his -expedition to Tibet, he obtained a remarkable victory, and returned -triumphant. At last, a disagreement took place between the Gosain and -Zafer Khan; the former quitted the latter, who soon after, on account -of a dispute between the Sonní and the Shiâh of Kachmir, lost his -consideration, and being obliged to retire, went to Kabul; there -Muhammed Tafer, one of his relations, gave him some fatal stabs with a -poniard, in consequence of which he lay sick for some time. Soon after -he lost his office and property, and remained long in Lahore without a -situation. The author of this book saw in the year 1055 of the Hejira -(1645 A. D.) in Gujerat, a district of the Panjab, Tara lochana, who -told him “It was on account of his difference with me that so great a -misfortune befel Zafer Khan.” Urfi of Shiraz says: - - “The bounty of the Eternal does not reject the unbeliever, - Provided he acquire perfection in the adoration of his idol.” - -Shédosh, the son of Anosh declared: that, according to the explainers -of the law, there must be observed in any pursuit a due relation and -correspondence to the intended purpose: further, in the pursuit of a -virtuous spirit, sanctity and purity are required; but in the pursuit -of a base spirit, nothing of purity enters, and may be dispensed with. -This subject has been treated in the second section of the work -thereupon. - -The writer of this book saw in the same year, and in the place -beforesaid of Guzerat, a man called Mahadéo, who at night was always -sitting upon a dead body. I also saw Sadánand, of the same sect, who -said to one of his disciples: “I wish to perform a rite, called the -worship of the hair.” The disciple brought his own daughter, and -Sadánanda gazed at her hair, kissed her face, and in that way enjoyed -her before the eyes of her father. I saw besides a person who brought -his wife to him, saying: “I have no son in my house.” It is the belief -of this class that, if in such a manner any one has intercourse with a -barren woman, she obtains whatever she desires; on that account, some -of the women, at the moment of intimate junction, demand from the -perfect man the gift of _mukt_, that is, union with God Almighty, and -emancipation from this body. It was for that reason, that Sadánanda -used the woman before the eyes of her husband. One day, Sadánanda sat -in a burying place, naked, with one of his friends, and drank wine, -when one of the orthodox Brahmans passed that way, and saw these men. -The disciples said: “This Brahman will tell the people what he saw, -and expose us to ridicule.” Sadánanda replied: “It does not matter.” -When the Brahman came home, he died. - -When in the year 1059 of the Hejira (1649 A. D.) the author of this -work happened to be in the district of Kalinga, he saw in every -village of this country the image of a god, or of a spirit called by -some particular name, and each of these spirits is supposed to be the -author of some sickness or misfortune, for the removing of which they -offer their prayers to him. One of these spirits is _Anamberam_; and -when a person gets a pimple, he brings an animal, commonly a domestic -bird, to the chapel, and sacrifices it. In the work _Khálasa al -hayat_, “the essence of life,” composed by Mulla Ahmed Tatvi, is -stated, that upon the sepulchre of _Asefnívas_,[261] a sage of Greece, -they used to sacrifice a bird, and they say that, in the book which -treats of the ceremonies of pilgrimage to the before-named deities, -three kinds of sacrifices are enumerated: agreeable perfumes, sweet -cakes, and beverages; besides Mulla Ahmed Tatvi mentions in his work -just before quoted, that _Herámes_ (that is Idris)[262] has -established fumigations and wine of grapes for the use of sacrifices. - -Among the great idols of the country or Kaling is _Gang-Durgá_.[263] -They say, Ramachandra déo, one of their great Rájas, descendant of the -celebrated family of Kaśyapa, ruled in Orissa. This Rája, having -called a goldsmith, gave him the mass of gold which he demanded for -making an image of Durga. The goldsmith, having carried the gold home, -intended to form the goddess of copper and to purloin the gold, -thinking that, as to break into pieces an idol is not permitted among -the Hindus, he could keep the gold without fear of discovery. With -this project he went to sleep. When he awoke, he saw that one half of -the gold remained on the spot, and that the other half was formed into -the image of Durgá; having carried this with the remaining gold to -Ramachandra déo, and told the story, the Rája gave him the residue of -gold, and carried the idol, in his house and in his travels, -constantly with him. They say that, after the death of Kaśyapa the -Great, Makandéo assembled under his sceptre the nations of this -country, and that Vichnunath déo Sukra conquered the town Sri -Kakul,[264] from the Rája Nanda. Ramchandra déo moved his army towards -Sri Kakul, and took the fort; Vichnu-náth, being informed of it, -marched against him; Ramchandra déo, unable to resist his force, fled; -Ganga Durga was by her guardians thrown away in a village, from whence -she fell into the hands of a Brahman, who flung her into the barn of a -villager. This man, having taken her up, carried her to his house. The -goddess appeared to him in a dream, and said: “Offer me in sacrifice -thy eldest son, and I will make thee Rája.” After a certain time, the -villager told this secret to Vishnu-náth déo, who, having taken the -idol from him, gave him a horse ornamented with gold, and a -magnificent dress, and carried the goddess to Naránya púr, his -residence. As she demanded from him also the sacrifice of a man, -Vichnu-náth déo killed every year one of the thieves and like sorts of -men before her altar. After the death of Vichnu náth déo, his sons did -the same. When Vikramajet déo, who descended from Vichna nath déo, was -killed, and the country disturbed by insurrections, then Dasvent-ráu, -who was one of the grand-children of Vichnu-náth déo, having taken up -Durga, fled from fear of the army, commanded by Jalil ul Khader Tulají -Khan Bég, to Márkúl. Bhúpati, the Rája of Márkul, being also afraid of -the attack of the famous general, sent him the goddess Durga, on -Monday, the ninth day of the month Rabish ul avel, of the year 1062 of -the Hejira (September, 1651, A. D.). The idol was of gold, in the form -of a female, with limbs very well proportioned, four arms, in two of -her right hands carrying a three-pointed pike, which the Hindus call -_Trisúla_,[265] and with which the goddess was striking _Mahisha -Asura_, a demon under the form of a buffalo; he was beneath her right -foot; in another hand she had a white ball, and in the fourth, the -chakra, or discus, which is a circular weapon peculiar to the Hindus; -under her left foot was a lion, and beneath him a throne. When they -weighed the image, they found it equal to four panchiri, measure of -the Dekhan. Even now, they sacrifice in every village of the Kohistan -of Nanda-púr, and country adjacent, a man of good family. - -Another idol, called _Mávelí_,[266] is in the town of Bister.[267] The -belief of the people there is that, when an hostile army comes to -attack them, the divinity, under the form of a woman selling -vegetables, goes into the camp of the enemy, and whoever eats what she -offers, dies; and during the night she appears like one of the public -girls, and whoever finds her charming, and calls her, meets with -death. They relate many strange and wonderful things about her. When -in the year of the Hejira 1069, A. D. 1658-9, the famous general -Tavaljí Khan Beg besieged and took the fort Kot Bahar, which is -stronger than the fort of Bister, there died so many men and beasts of -various maladies and the particular effects of climate, that their -number exceeds all computation; and this the inhabitants of the fort -of Bister attributed to the power of the goddess. - -There is another class of followers of Síva, that is, of Sáktían, -whose creed is quite different from that just before stated: they -never have intercourse with the wife of another; they drink no wine. -The adorers of Síva are obliged to drink wine in the _Síva-ratra_,[268] -which is a sacred night: because it is written in their books that -they ought then to fill a cup with wine and to drink it; as, according -to the rule of this sect, it is not a matter of choice to drink wine; -many who cannot get it, having procured a draught of syrup, mix a -little of a fermented liquor with it to render it like wine, and take -it for such, calling it _pána_.[269] - -Sri Kanta, a Kachmirian, is conversant with many sciences of the -Hindus; he knows the sástras, that is, the sástras of the Pandits, -namely, the _Smríti sastra_,[270] or “the written law;” the -_Kavi-sástra_,[271] “poetics;” the _Tarka-sástra_,[272] “logic and -dialectics;” the _Váidyá vidyá_,[273] “the medical science;” the -_Jyótisha_,[274] “astronomy;” and the _Pátanjala_,[275] that is, the -restraining of the breath; he knows besides very well the Vedanta, or -metaphysics, etc. In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the -author of this book saw him in Kachmir; he is one of the saints of the -Hindus. Sri Kant was invested by the inhabitant of heaven, Núr-ed-din -Mahommed Jehangír Pádshah, with the dignity of a judge of the Hindus, -in order that they may be tranquillised, and in every concern have -nothing to demand from the Muselmans: as it has been established in -the code of Akbar, that the tribes of mankind, high and low, with the -existing diversity of creeds and difference of customs, which are all -under the trust of a beneficent lord, ought to dwell in the shade of -protection of a just king, and persevere in the performance of their -worship and the exigencies of their devotion, so that, by the -authority derived from the chiefs, the sons of the age may not stretch -the hand of oppression over the condition of the people. - -The belief of the Hindus is as follows: all the _tírths_,[276] that -is, “places of pilgrimage,” which are in the world are in imitation of -the fixed model _Haratírth_, which is in Kachmir; for, after having -visited the holy place of Kachmir, there is no desire to see that of -any other country; and they call it the great place of pilgrimage, -likewise _prayága_,[277] which is celebrated at Máhábád; there are -Shah abad ed-din púr, and Gangavara, Lárasún, and Kisâlíhazra. There -are many miraculous things in Kachmir; one of them is _Sandebár_, and -they relate: In ancient times, a holy Brahman dwelt in a cavern of the -mountain, where he devoted himself to the worship of the Almighty God. -Once every year, he went to the Ganges to bathe. After having passed -several years in that way, Gangá said to the Brahman: “Thou measurest -always such a length of road, on which thou dost set aside the worship -of God: my convention with thee is this: that, when the sun reaches -the constellation of the Bull, I will three times a-day come to thy -resting-place.” From this time, when the great luminary throws his -effulgence towards the constellation of the Bull, the water of the -river springs up boiling from the basin of the fountain, which is near -the place of his devotion. _Sundeberari_, in the cavern of the -mountain, became celebrated: it is a square basin, and has on its -eastern wall an open cavity, from which, as well as from several other -vents and holes in the sides of the basin, the water springs up. -However steadfastly one may look, the bottom cannot be discovered. And -in the middle of the eastern side, there are seven holes, which the -people of Kachmir call _Saptarshi_,[278] “the seven Rishis;” on the -northern side is an issue, which they call _dama bhaváni_;[279] when -the world-illuminating sun begins to enter the constellation of the -Bull, the water appears there in the following manner: it springs up -first from the large cavity, then from the _Saptarshi_: so the Hindus -call seven rakshasas, and give their name to the constellation of the -Great Bear. Further, the water comes up from the _dama bhaváni_, that -is “the mansion of _Bhaváni_, the wife of Mahadéo.” When the cavity is -filled, then the water, passing over the borders, runs out; the -Sanyásis and other Hindus, who had come from distant places, throw -themselves into it, and the people who find no room, carry water from -it. Afterwards, the ebullition declines in such a manner, that there -remains not the least trace of the water. In this month the water -boils up three times a-day, namely, in the morning, at mid-day, and in -the afternoon, at the hour of prayer. After the lapse of this month, -no more water is seen, until the sun enters again into the sign of the -Bull. - - “Certainly, every thing announces God, - And offers the proof that there is but He.”[280] - -The historians of the times know Sandeberarí among the wonders -described by the ancient learned men of Kachmir. The ignorant among -the Muselmans of Kachmir say, that Sandeberari is the well of _Abu -Ali_, and believe it to be the work of _shaikh Arráis_; the truth is, -that _Hajet ul hak_ never came to Kachmir: as it is evident from the -concurring testimony of history. - - -HISTORY OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS SHAIKH ABU ALÍ HUSSAIN, THE SON OF ABDULLAH -SINA (GOD BLESS HIS GRAVE!)[281]――The father of Abu Alí was a native -of the environs of Balkh, and his mother was Sitára. Abu Alí was born -in the year 333 of the Hejira (944 A. D.)[282] When he had attained -his eighteenth year, he was conversant with all the liberal sciences. -They relate, that Amír Nuh, the son of Manzur Sámáni,[283] in a grave -malady, when the doctors knew no remedy, was restored to health by the -salutary power of the songs of Abu Ali. When the Sámánían were in -distress, he directed himself towards Khórasan, the king of which -country, Alí, the son of Mámun Massar, received Abu Ali with perfect -favour. When Abu Ali was accused before the Sultan Mahmud Sabak -tegín,[284] of being opposed to the religion and creed of the ancient -wise men, and when the Sultan showed a disposition to apprehend him, -the Shaikh was alarmed and fled to Abyúverd; the satellites of the -Sultan followed him with pictures and descriptions of his person, -which were well drawn, and sent by the Sultan to all parts of the -kingdom, in order that the magistrates and head men of office, by -means of this picture might bring the fugitive before the Sultan. The -Shaikh, informed of it, fled towards Jorjan (Georgia). By means of the -remedies of the Shaikh, many sick were cured. Shamsen ul mâlí Kábús, -the son of Vashamger,[285] had a nephew on his sister’s side on a -sick-bed, all the remedies applied by the physicians proved useless; -by order of Kabus, they brought the Shaikh to the pillow of the sick; -but, in spite of all his cares and observations, the learned physician -could not discover the cause of his illness. The Shaikh said to -himself: “This young man may be in love, and from exceeding pudicity -keep his secret unclosed.” On that account he ordered the names of all -the places and towns to be written, and one after another to be read -before the patient, whilst the Shaikh held his finger upon the pulse -of the young man. When they pronounced the name of the abode of the -beloved, the motion of the pulse of the enamoured was perceptible; the -Shaikh ordered also the names of all the private houses to be read; at -that of the object of his desires, the pulse of the desirous became -disturbed; moreover they began to read the names of the inhabitants of -the houses; when they arrived at that of his idol, the pulse of the -adorer again beat higher. Mazheri of Kashmir says: - - “The pulse of the loving beats higher, agitated only at the - name of the beloved.” - -Thus, the perfect science of Abu Alí found the true remedy: he said to -one of the head men near Shams ul mâlí: “This young man is in love -with such a girl, in such a house, and there is no remedy but the -gratification of his desire.” After trial, the truth of these words -was found.[286] - -When the Umras and the ministers of state withdrew from the obedience -of Kábus, whom they imprisoned, the Shaikh retired into the country. -Some time after, he betook himself to Ráí.[287] Majed-dóulah Abu Táleb -Rustam, the son of Fakher ed dóulah Dalímí, the Hakim (governor) of -Rái,[288] showed him great regard and honor; the Shaikh restored Majed -ud-dóulah from the malady of melancholy to good health. - -When Shams ed-dóulah made war upon Helál,[289] son of Bader, son of -Hasnávíah, who came from the capital of the right faith (Mecca), he -defeated the army of Bâghdad. The Shaikh went from Rái to Kazvín,[290] -and from thence to Hamdan.[291] Shams ed-dóulah was cured of a colic -by the remedies of the Shaikh, whom he then raised to the dignity of a -Vizír. The chiefs of the army conspired against the life of Abu Ali; -he fled, and remained concealed during forty days. Meanwhile, the -malady of Shams ed-doulahreturned; the Shaikh, having come forth from -his place of concealment, delivered the Sultan from his illness, and -was again raised to the Vizirat. After the death of Shams ed-doulah, -the throne was filled by Bahá ed-dóulah, the son of Táj ed -dóulah.[292] The Umrahs requested Abu Alí to accept the Vizírat, but -he refused his consent. About this time, Aláded-dóulah, the son of -Jâfer Kakyuah,[293] sent from Iśfahan an invitation to the venerable -Shaikh to join him; but the Shaikh declined to come, and concealed -himself in the house of Abu Táleb, a dealer in perfumes. Without the -example of any other work before his eyes, he composed his work, -entitled _Shafá_, “remedy,” treating the whole of physics and -metaphysics.[294] - -Tájed doulah, having assumed the name of Alaved-dóulah, kept the -Shaikh, by this assumption, employed in a continual succession of -affairs. When Alawed dóulah conquered the country of Tájed ud dóulah, -he brought the Shaikh to Iśfahán.[295] Towards the end of his life, a -disease of the bowels seized the Shaikh, and gained strength, on -account of his active life in the service of Alawed dóulah, and of the -expeditions of his enemies. The patient was carried in a covered -chair. When Aladed-dóulah came to Hamdán, the Shaikh felt that nature -had exhausted her strength, and could not resist the force of the -malady; on that account, having desisted from applying any remedy, he -took a bath, and having distributed his property in alms to the poor, -the indigent, and the necessitous, he turned his mind to God and the -elect of the divinity; at last, on a Friday, in the month of Ramzán, -of the year 427 of the Hejira (1035 A. D.), he passed from this -deceitful world to the residence of happiness.[296] A great man said: - - “From the globe of black clay to the summit of Venus, - I traversed all the difficulties of the world; - Every tie which was fastened around me, on account of deceit and - illusion, - Was loosened――except that of death.” - -The extraordinary and astonishing actions performed by Abu Alí have -been described in the book about the application of remedies in -several histories[297], few of which are reproduced in these pages; -and so much only with the intention to prove shortly to the candid -reader, that Shaikh Abu Alí never came to Kachmir, about which -intelligent and ingenious men in all countries agree. - - “There is no house which may not be the house of God.” - - - [232] माया शक्ति. - - [233] रजस् “foulness,” according to the interpretation of - Colebrooke and Wilson. - - [234] सत्त्वं “goodness.” - - [235] तमस् “darkness.” - - [236] According to the Vayu-Purana (ch. V.), Brahma proceeds - from _rajas_; Vichnu from _sattvam_; and Siva or Mahadeva - from _tamas_. According to the Sánkhyá Kárika (sl. xiii): - “Goodness (sattvam) is considered to be alleviating and - enlightening; foulness (rajas), urgent and versatile; - darkness (tamas), heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they - co-operate for a purpose (by union of contraries).” - - [237] जगद् अम्बा. - - [238] षट् चक्राः See the six circles or regions of the human - body enumerated (p. 131, notes); here the denominations of - the three last divisions are different from the former. - - [239] स्वाधिष्ठानं. - - [240] हृद्. - - [241] साद. - - [242] अग्नि चक्र. - - [243] भक्त. - - [244] आगम a work on sacred science in general, and in - particular a Tantra, or any work, inculcating the mystical - worship of Siva and Sakti. - - [245] िलङ्ग The Phallus, or Síva, under that emblem; it - signifies also nature, or _Prakritti_, according to the - Sánk hya philosophy, which considers this as the active - power in creation. - - [246] भग. - - [247] कपाल. - - [248] बलं “rigor, severity, blood, strength, power.” - - [249] श्मशानं “a cemetery.” - - [250] शक्ति पूज. - - [251] कामद, “giving what is wished; granting one’s desire.” - - [252] देव कनयाः - - [253] नर मेद. - - [254] गो मेप. - - [255] अश्व मेद. - - [256] काल देयं. - - [257] इष्टं, “an act of sacrifice, an oblation,” etc.; from - इष _isha_, “to wish;” substituted for यज्ञ _yadjna_, “to - sacrifice.” - - [258] भद्रं “pure, pious, virtuous.” - - [259] वकं “to be crooked, depraved, wicked.” - - [260] This reminds us of the _Selli_, dwelling about Dodona, - where Jupiter was adored, and, by whose spirit moved, they - prophesied (ἀνιπτόποδες) “_with unwashed feet_.”――(_Hom._, - _Iliad_, XVI. v. 235.) - - [261] اسفنيوس. I am at a loss to find the true name of the - Greek sage. In our days a class of Hindus, pursuant to an - ante-brahminical worship, venerate spirits, called _Vetals_, - to whom in sickness they make vows, to be paid on recovery. - The votive offering is generally a cock, the same that the - Greeks used to give to Æsculapius, when they thought their - cure owing to his sanatory powers――(See the Journal of the - A. R. S. of Great Britain and Ireland, No. IX. p. 194.) - - [262] The prophet Enoch. - - [263] Perhaps ख दुर्गा _Kha Durga_, “the heavenly Durga.” - - [264] The names of the country of Kalinga and of the town - Sri Kakul occur at p. 3 of this volume. The town now called - Cicacole, in the northern Circars, once the capital of an - extensive district, is situated in lat. 18° 21´ N., long. - 83° 57´ E. - - [265] ित्शूूूलं a trident, a three-pointed pike, or spear, - especially the weapon of Síva. - - [266] It is, perhaps, _Mahèsvarí_. - - [267] The name which I find nearest approaching to that - above is _Bidzergur_, a town in the province of Allahabad, - lat. 24° 37´ N., long. 83° 10´ E., with a fort on a high and - steep mountain in the midst of an unhealthy country. - - [268] िवरात्रिश is a celebrated festival in honor of Síva, - on the fourteenth of the moon’s wane, or dark fortnight in - Mágha (January, February). - - [269] पानं drinking in general. - - [270] स्मृतिशास्त्रं. - - [271] कविशास्त्रं. - - [272] तर्कशास्त्रं. - - [273] वैद्यविद्या. - - [274] ज्योतिषं mathematical, astronomical, and astrological - science. - - [275] पातञ्जलं The Yoga-system of philosophy, from - Patanjeli, the sage by whom it was first taught. - - [276] तीर्थ. - - [277] प्रयाग signifies “sacrifice, oblation;” in compositon - it is applied to many places of reputed sanctity, situated - at the confluence of two rivers, as _Déva-prayága_, - _Rudra-práyaga_, _Karna práyaga_, and _Nanda-prayága_, in - the Himála mountains, which with Prayága, or Allahabad, - constitute the five principal places so termed――(_Wilson’s - Dict._, _sub voce_). - - [278] सप्तर्षि. - - [279] दम भवानी _dama_ signifies, in the Védas, “the hall of - sacrifice.” - - [280] This verse is taken from the Arabic work entitled “The - Birds and the Flowers,” composed by Azz-ed-din Almoka dési, - published with a translation and notes by M. Garcin de - Tassy.――(See p. 8 of the text, and p. 131 of the notes). - - [281] The merely cursory mention made of Abu Ali in the - foregoing lines, is sufficient for inducing the author to - interpose between the Sactis and the Vaishnavas, the account - of a man who neither belonged to the Hindus, nor professed - their religion. - - The name of this celebrated personage is _Abu Alí Husain Ben - Abdallah, Ben Sina, Al Shaikh Al ráis_; he is commonly - called _Ibn Sina_; the Jews name him _Arabisans Aben Sina_; - and the Christians _Avisenna_. - - Herbelot gives an account nearly similar to that of the - Dabistán, of the astonishing learning of Abu Alí and of his - flight before the persecutions of the Sultan Mahmud, and the - cure which the famous doctor performed upon the nephew of - the king of Georgia. - - [282] According to Abulfeda and other authors, he was born - in the town of Bokhara, in 370 of the Hejira (980 A. D.). - - [283] Mansur I, son of Abdelmalek, was the sixth king of the - Samánís: this dynasty derived their name from Sámán, whose - father is unknown. Sámán, a robber, had a son, Assad, who - quitted the infamous profession of his father, and educated - his sons in a manner which enabled them to rise to the - highest dignities under the Khalif Al-Mamon and his - successors. Ismâil, a grandson of Assad, founded the - princely dynasty in Mavaralnahar (Transoxana), to which - other provinces were annexed. Nine Samanian kings ruled from - the year of the Hejira 261 to 388 (A. D. 874-998). - - [284] The first of the dynasty of the Ghasnavis. According - to the author of Nighiaristan, quoted by Herbelot, Avisenna, - when at the court of Mamon, king of Khorasan, was called by - Mahmúd to his own capital; the refusal of the Shaikh to obey - drew upon him Mahmud’s persecutions. - - [285] Kabus, a prince of the Dilámi dynasty, ruled in the - provinces of Giorgian, Ghitan, Mazinderan, and Tabaristan, - upon the western and southern shores of the Caspian sea. - - [286] The sagacity of Avisenna can but remind us of that - with which Eristratus, a disciple of Chrysippus and grandson - of Aristotle, discovered the secret cause of the mortal - malady of Antiochus, son of the Syrian king Seleucus: the - young prince was in love with his stepmother, Stratonice. - But Kabus, for preserving the life of his nephew, was - subject to no personal sacrifice; Seleucus saved his son by - the cession of his own wife. - - [287] Ráí is a town in Irak Ajemí, or Persian Irak. - - [288] Majed-doulah, the eighth prince of the Búyí dynasty, - reigned in Isfahan and ín Persian Irak, during his minority - under the tutelage of his mother, Seidát; at his majority he - confided the vizirate to Avisenna, on which account an open - war broke out between him and his mother. Seidát defeated - and took in a battle, before the town of Rái, her son, and - reassumed the government, but afterwards resigned it to him, - satisfied to guide him by her counsels, much to his - advantage, until her death; after which the weak prince - delivered himself into the hands of his conqueror Mahmud - Sabak tegin. - - [289] Shams-ed-doulah (according to Herbelot, Samsameddulah), - son of Adhadededdulat, was the tenth prince of the Búyi - dynasty. - - [290] Kazvin, a town in Persian Irak. - - [291] Hamdan, a town in Persian Irak, to the west of Kazvin, - about 450 miles N. W. of Isfahan. - - [292] Herbelot states Baha-ed-Doulah to be son of - Adhad-doulat, and brother of Samsameddulat. - - [293] Herbelot says, that Abu Alí entitled his great work - _Canun fil thebi_, “Rule of Medicine;” this book has been - abridged and commented by Said Ben Hebatallah, by Razi Ben - al Khatib, and by another author, who has composed the - _Mugiaz fil theb_. - - [294] We read in Abulfeda’s history (vol. III. p. 64): “In - the year of the Hejira 414, A. D. 1023, Ala-ed-daula Abu - Jafar, commonly called son of Kakuyah, took Hamdam from one - of the Búyís, say Sama-ed-doulah Abúl Hasan, son of - Shams-ed-Doulah.” - - [295] The biography of Avisenna involves a variety of events - which cannot be here sufficiently developed for removing the - obscurity attending the short account of our author. The - name of Tájet-ud-doulah is not found in Abulfeda’s and - Herbelot’s notice of the Shaikh Avisenna. - - [296] Adopting as true the year of his birth, as stated in - the Dabistán (see p. 169), Abu Ali, according to the above - date of his death, would have died in his ninety-first year. - According to Abulfeda (see vol. III. p. 92), he died in his - fifty-eighth year; Herbelot says, he died in the year of the - Hejira 428, A. D. 1036, in the fifty-sixth year of his life. - - [297] Herbelot says that Avisenna wrote his biography - himself; the French author mentions a life of the celebrated - Muhammedan doctor, composed by doctor Giorgiani. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE EIGHTH: OF THE VICHNUIAN (VA ISHNAVAS) WORSHIPPERS OF -VICHNU.――Vichnu, who, according to the belief of the followers of the -Smriti, is a subordinate divinity, is held by the Vichnuian to be the -preserver of all things. The Vedantían maintain him to possess the -qualities of virtue and of order, and to be the lord of the five -senses; not subject however to the said senses, nor to their influence -in any way. According to the Vichnuían, he is the first cause and -author of the universe; they believe him endowed with a body, like -mankind; he has a wife. Brahma, a deity, is the creator of things; and -Mahádéo, another divinity, the annihilator of beings; both are -creators of Vichnu, and distinct from his holy being, because the path -of union is closed between the creature and the creator; they say, -that every body has a soul, but that the soul is not distinct from, -but a part of, the body; the body has two forms, the male and female, -and the creator and author of their being is the holy nature of -Vichnu; the body is composed of five elements; men, conformably with -their actions and works, are invested either with animal or human -forms; the soul is always confined in the gaol of ignorance and in the -fetters of avidity. Further, the spirits are divided according to -three qualities, which are: 1. _sattvam_; 2. _rájas_; and 3. _tamas_: -the explanation of these three qualities has been before given. The -_Satya_ (virtuous) tends towards _mukt_, that is, “emancipation;” for -by the power of this laudable quality, he makes the _bakhti_, that is, -“the worship of Vichnu,” his pursuit; and this _bakhti_ raises him to -the highest state, that is, to that of “emancipation;” according to -the interpretation of this sect, _mukt_ consists in this: that, after -having left the _sthúla sarira_,[298] or “elementary body,” and the -_linga sarira_,[299] that is, “the visional body,” which has fallen -into a vision of appearances, and after having been transformed into -the primitive shape, which is either male or female, one enters the -_Váikunt_,[300] that is, “the heaven of beatitude of the Gods,” and -the mansion of real life. _Rájas_, that is, the possessor of this -quality, is liable to recompense or punishment; to the consequence of -virtue or crime, according to an impartial appreciation of both. Now -he holds the price of virtue, another time that of crime; and -conformably to his merits or demerits, he migrates invested with a -body, and for reward is associated with the blessed, or for punishment -suffers witth the damned. Whoever does not, from the circle of the -world, reach the shore of those who are united with salvation, he -shall certainly never attain to the state of the desired emancipation. -_Tamas_, that is, the possessor of this quality, is an adversary to -_mukt_, and an enemy to liberation; his present and future condition -is this: that, having left the _sthúla saríra_, that is, “his -elemental body,” and the _linga purusha_,[301] or “his visional body,” -and having returned to his primitive form, either male or female, he -will be tormented in the world of darkness, which they call -_andhatamasa_;[302] from this place of manifold torments he never -returns. This is the substance of the creed of the worshippers of -Vichnu, called Madhu Acháris.[303] - -The belief of another sect of the Vichnavas, called _Rámánandis_,[304] -is in substance as follows: the quality of _Satwa_ tends towards the -attainment of the high state of _mukt_, or “emancipation;” the way of -acquiring it is, to lay aside all praises of another divinity; to -abstain from the rites of any other sect; and to shun any other -worship except that of the holy being of Vichnu, to whom alone all -thoughts, all prayers, are to be directed, and whose remembrance is -always to be kept. In the same manner as it is not permitted to a -husband to desire the wife of another, in the same way they hold it -wrong to think of any other deity but of Vichnu. The difference -between the beforesaid and this sect is, that the former associates to -the worship of Vichnu that of other angels, of the creatures, -servants, and companions of this God, which they maintain as -meritorious, and perform with magnificence; whilst the latter sect -considers the other deities as deformed and hideous. - -The characteristical mark of the Rámánandis is a triangle drawn upon -their forehead;[305] they never eat their meal before persons of -another sect. The _Madhu Achárís_[306] wear two short strokes of red -clay near each other upon the forehead; they do not associate with -persons of another creed, but they eat before Brahmans who are not of -their own peruasion. - -A third sect is that of the _Harbayántís_.[307] They drink with -Brahmans of another persuasion from the same cup, and wear a circle as -a mark on their foreheads. - -A fourth sect is that of the _Rádhá-Vallabhis_;[308] these are bound -by nothing; they observe no fast on the eleventh day of the month; -they deliver their wives to the disposition of their preceptors and -masters, and hold this praiseworthy. - -In Hindostan it is known that whoever abstains from eating meat and -hurting living animals, is esteemed a Vaishnava, without regard to the -doctrine beforesaid. Some of them take the name of Rama, who is also a -manifestation of Vichnu; others choose the title of Kishen (Krichna), -another incarnation of Vichnu. The reputation of continence and purity -prevails in favor of those who are called after Rama; whilst those who -take their title from Krishna are ill-famed for sensuality and -libidinousness. It happened one day that a worshipper of Rama met with -an adorer of Krishna; the former repeated perpetually “Ram, Ram;” the -latter was occupied with the praise of Krichna, to whom the worshipper -of Rama said: “Why dost thou repeat without end the name of a man who -was devoted to sensuality, the name of Krichna?” He answered: “Because -this name is better than that of a man who knew not even how to be -certain of the honor of one woman.” This was said in allusion to -Râma’s having banished his wife, named Sitâ, at the end of the -fire-ordeal which she underwent to prove her purity.[309] Some of the -pious of this sect eat no sort of turnips or carrots which in eating, -by taste or color, may remind of flesh. The writer of this work heard -from Hansa rádja, a Brahman, that it is written in ancient books of -this class, that Brahmans used to fly in the air and to walk upon the -water, when, on account of having polluted their lips by eating flesh, -they lost this power. As the Vairágis, too, profess to be Váishnavas, -I will treat of them in the following article. - - * * * * * - -OF THE VAIRÁGIS.――_Virág_ is in the dictionary interpreted -“aspiring.”[310] This sect renounces the world; their liturgy is in -verse, and comprehends the worship of Vichnu and his incarnations, as -Rama, Krichna, and the like, and these verses they call _Vichnu -padam_. They make pilgrimages to the holy places dedicated to Vichnu, -and wear around their necks rosaries of _tutasí_,[311] which they call -_malá-tulasí_. Tulasí is an Indian shrub. Whoever among the Hindus, -Muselmans, or others, wishes, is received into their religion; none -are rejected, but, on the contrary, all are invited. It is said that -some Muselmans also worship Vichnu, because in “_Bismilla_,” they -confound _Bisem_ with _Bishen_ (or Vichnu), and most of them agree -about the purity and infinity of Vichnu’s being; in truth, they think -he is incorporeal; the spirits proceed like rays from the light of his -being, and all bodies from the shadow of his existence; but they say -that when he wills he shows himself, as it happened, with four arms, -and they agree about his having manifested himself in ten -incarnations. They abstain from eating flesh. They are divided into -four classes: _Rámánujas_, _Nimánujas_, _Madhuacháris_, and _Radha -Vallabhis_, as before said:[312] these four classes they call _chár -sampardá_ (_sampradáya_).[313] - -Kabir,[314] a weaver by birth, celebrated among those Hindus who -professed their belief in the unity of God, was a Váiragi. They say -that, at the time when he was in search of a spiritual guide, he -visited the best of the Muselmans and Hindus, but did not find what he -sought. At last, somebody gave him direction to an old man of bright -genius, the Brahman Rámánanda. This sage never saw the face of a -Muselman, nor of any other religionist. Kabir, knowing that Rámánand -would not converse with a weaver, dug a hole upon the accustomed road -of the Brahman, and placed himself therein. Towards the night Rámánand -used to go to bathe on the border of a river, and at the time when, to -wash his body and purify his soul with the water of sanctity, he bent -his steps towards a house of prayer, he arrived on the border of the -hole made by Kabir, who, coming forth, clasped the feet of Rámánanda. -As the Brahman harboured in his mind no other thought but that of God -the highest, under the name of Rámá, he called out: “Rám!” When Kabir -heard “Rám” from the tongue of Rámánand, he withdrew his hands from -the Brahman’s feet, and ceased not to repeat the word “Rám, Rám!” so -that no other object but that was hovering before his eyes, as before -those of Rámánanda; and he discoursed about the unity of God in -sublime speeches, such as are heard only from the most learned men. -Kabir, having acquired reputation, people said to Rámánand: “There is -a weaver in this town who wishes to be your disciple; it is to be -regretted that you cannot be connected with a weaver, who is a man of -a low caste.” Rámánand answered: “Call him to me,” which was done. -When Kabir’s eye fell upon that of Rámánanda, the former exclaimed: -“Rám, Rám!” the latter repeated “Rám, Rám!” and clasped Kabir fast in -his arms, to the great astonishment and wonder of the people around, -who asked the reason of such a favor. Rámánand replied: “Now Kabir is -a Brahman, because he knows Brahma, that is, the supreme Being.” - -It is said, that a class of learned Brahmans, sitting on the border of -the river Ganga, praised its water, because it washes away all sins. -Whilst so speaking, one of the Brahmans wanted water; Kabir, who had -heard their speeches, jumped up from his place, and having filled a -wooden cup which he carried with water, brought it to the Brahman. -Kabir, a weaver by birth, being of a low caste, from the hands of whom -Brahmans can neither eat nor drink, the water was not accepted, upon -which Kabir observed: “You have just now declared, that the water of -the Ganga purifies the body and the soul from the pollution of sins, -and from the foulness of evil actions, and makes them all disappear; -but if this water does not render pure this wooden vase, it certainly -does not deserve your praises.” - -Among the Hindus it is an establised custom to bring flowers to God at -the time of worship. One day Kabir saw a gardener’s wife who collected -flowers for the image of a deity; he said to her: “In the leaves of -the flower lives the soul of vegetation, and the idol to whom thou -offerest flowers is without feeling, dead, without consciousness, in -the sleep of inertness, and has no life; the condition of the -vegetable is superior to that of the mineral. If the idol possessed a -soul, he would chastise the cutter, who, when dividing the matter of -which the image is formed, placed his foot upon the idol’s breast: go, -and venerate a wise, intelligent, and perfect man, who is a -manifestation of Vichnu.” - -Kabir showed always great regard for the Fakírs. One day, a number of -Durvishes came to him; he received them with respect in his house; as -he possessed nothing to show his generosity and munificence to them, -he went from door to door to procure something, but having found -nothing, he said to his wife: “Hast thou no friend from whom thou -mayst borrow something?” She answered: “There is a grocer in this -street who threw an eye of bad desire upon me; would I from this -sinner demand something, I should obtain it.” Kabir said: “Go -immediately to him, grant him what he desires, and bring something for -the durvishes.” The woman went to the lewd grocer, and requested the -loan of what she required; he replied: “If thou comest this night to -me, thy request is granted;” the woman consented, and swore the oath -which he imposed upon her to come; after which the grocer gave her -rice, oil, and whatever these men might like. When the Fakírs, well -satisfied, went to rest, a heavy rain began to fall, and the woman -wished to break her engagement; but Kabir, in order to keep her true -to her word, having taken her upon his shoulder, carried her in the -dark and rainy night, through the deep mud, to the shop of the bad -grocer, and placed himself there in a corner. When the woman had -entered into the interior part of the house, and the man found her -feet unsullied, he said to her: “How didst thou arrive without thy -feet being dirty?” The woman concealed the fact. The grocer conjured -her by the holy name of God to reveal the truth; the woman, unable to -refuse, said what had taken place. The grocer, on hearing this, -shrieked and was senseless. When he had recovered his senses, he ran -out and threw himself at Kabir’s feet. Afterwards, having distributed -among the poor whatever he had in his shop, he became a Virágí. Shaikh -Mahmud said: - - “When lust seizes the heart of man, God now and then renders - vain his intent.” - -It is said that when Kabir left his elemental body, the Muselmans -assembled in order to give him a burial, because they supposed him to -have been of the right faith; and the Hindus too crowded in order to -burn his body, because they thought him to have professed their -religion. At last a Fakír stept in the midst of them, and said: “Kabir -was a holy man, independent of both religions; but having during his -life satisfied you, he will also, after death, meet with your -approbation.” Having then opened the door, they did not find Kabir’s -body, and both parties remained astonished and bewildered. - - “O friend, live so that, after thy death, - Thy friends may bite their finger (from joyous astonishment).” - -In Jagernath, at the place where they burn the dead, is the form and -simulacre of a tomb which they call Kabir’s.[315] - - “Live so with good and bad that, after thy death, - The Muselman may wish to bury, and the Hindu to burn thee (according - to their rites).” - -Another of the celebrated Virágis was _Dáyú_. One day, when Brahmans -and Bánians (that is, traders) were assembled in a temple of Vichnu, -they drove Dáyú out of it, as not worthy of being among their -congregation. Dáyú, having gone out, sat down at the back of the -temple, which soon after turned about towards the side where Dáyú was. - -_Perah Káivan_, a Yezdánian, is one of the accomplished saints, and -shows himself in the dress of every sect. When in that of a Vairági, -he was in Guzerat for the sake of a pleasure-walk, he saw some of the -Váirágis who came from a place of pilgrimage, and had a mark impressed -upon their hand and arm: because, whoever makes a pilgrimage to the -holy place of Krichna, gets the form of the God’s weapon (the diskus) -imprinted upon his body by means of a hot iron. Kaivan Perah said to -the Vairágis: “Why this wound?” they answered: “This is the mark of -Vichnu; whoever has it is by the God recognised as being his.” Kaivan -Perah observed: “When the soul is separated from the body, they burn -the corpse; no mark of it remains; whilst the soul is not perishable, -and has no mark: how will then Vichnu recognise it?”――When he came to -Ahmed-abad, which is the capital of Guzerat, he saw a crier who, from -the top of a mosque, chanted his prayer; when he had come down, Káivan -Perah asked him: “Hast thou received an answer?” the crier said: “From -whom?” Kaivan replied: “From him to whom thou hast been calling.” -Lubhaní says: - - “They call loud to God seeking him, - This people think him, perhaps, to be far off.” - -When he came to the harbour of Surat, which is one of the principal -ports of Hindostán, he met with a Háji (a pilgrim from Mecca) who had -come by sea to the harbour; Kaiván Perah asked him: “Whence dost thou -come?” He answered: “From the house of God.” Kaiván said further: -“Hast thou seen God?” The reply was “No.” “He was perhaps not at -home,” rejoined Kaiván, and the Háji remained astonished. - -The Vairágis are not devoted to a particular worship; they say, the -name of Vishnu suffices for the acquisition of _mukt_, or “the union -with God.” This sect was formed during the Káli yúg, and call -themselves also Váichnavas: they renounce the world, and say: “Our way -is opposite to that of the Vêdas and of the Koran: that is, we have -nothing to do either with Muselmans or Hindus.” A great number of -Muselmans adopted their creed, such as Mirza Salah, and Mirza Háider, -two noble Muselmans who became Vaíragis. Of this sect was _Naráin -Dásí_, who sided with _Rámánandis_, which is one of the _Sampradayas_, -that is the first of the four classes before mentioned. The author of -this book saw him in the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) in -Lahore. He was one of those who are freed from the affections of the -world; he honored whomever he saw, and said: “Every body belongs to -the divinity; that is, every body is the house of God.” - - “Without thee there is nothing that is in the world: - From thyself demand whatever thou wishest: for it is thyself.” - -Píránah Kohely was of the sect of Vairagis, and Kohelí is a tribe of -Kshatriyas; he withdrew from all the affections and troubles of the -world. Having left the Guzerat of Panjab, which is his native place -and the seat of his ancestors, he went to Vizírábád, a city built by -Hakím Ilam eddín, named _Buzín khan_, and chose to settle not far from -the above mentioned Guzerat. He had no faith in pious austerity. He -said, the saints are men who, in a former existence, have brought -affliction upon other men, and on that account do penance in this -world; every pious act joined to some austerity is a requital of their -deeds; those who are fasting have, in a former state, let hunger and -thirst afflict the low and feeble; those who watch at night have, in -his opinion, prevented the servants from sleeping; the Sanyásis, -called Thádéser, who remain years standing upon one leg, he thinks to -be a class of spirits who have not permitted the servants to sit down; -and those who suspend themselves, and others who perform their -devotion in an inverted or strained posture, are a class who used to -suspend their inferiors; and those who visit celebrated places and -sacred mansions of pilgrimage, are a set who, for trifling reasons, -have without pity sent about couriers to different places, without -paying them their hire; the _játis_,[316] that is, those who abstain -from intercourse with women, and from sensual indulgence, are an order -of spirits, who have not provided for their sons and daughters the -subsistence and furniture requisite for the marriage state, and -prohibited to them this enjoyment, for which reason they now are -subjected to retaliating penance. - -This sect do no harm to any living being; which is common to all -Vairágis, as well as to neglect devotion; but, in opposition to the -creed of the Vairágis, they do not admit the _Avatars_, and say that -God is exempt from transmigration and union; and, according to those -who profess the belief in the unity and solitariness of the supreme -being, he is not susceptible of (what we call) intimate friendship. -Being asked about the history of Krichna, Píránah said: “He was a -Rája, devoted to licentiousness, and oppressing mankind.” The writer -of these pages saw Píranah in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. -D.), in Vizirábád, and in the same year and in the same place he saw -Ananta, who was of the same creed as Píránah, but particularly -addicted to the belief of the singleness of God. - -Ananta did not advise abstinence to the sick. One of his friends being -attacked by a diarrhœa, Ananta gave him substantial and sweet food, -until he left this elemental body. One of his disciples wanted to have -a vein opened; Ananda, having been informed of it, expressed himself -strongly against this operation and prevented it. Thus, the author of -these pages saw, in the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D. 1640) in -Guzerat of the Panjab, another of this sect, called _Mían Lál_, who -was venerated by a great number of his sectaries; he abstained from -eating any sort of animal food, and showed politeness to every body; -like Píránah, he never cleansed his patched garment from vermin, and -used to say: “These insects have an assignment for their daily -subsistence written upon my body.” Váirágis are also called -_Mundís_;[317] because they shave four parts of their bodies, and one -shaved is called _Mundí_.[317] There arose a dissension between this -sect and the Sanyásis; in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) a -battle was fought at Hardwar,[318] which is a holy place of the -Hindus, between the Mundís and the Sanyásis, in which the latter were -victorious and killed a great number of the Mundís: these men threw -away their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks, -and hung on their perforated ears the rings of the Jógís, in order to -be taken for these sectaries. - - - [298] स्थूलशरीर. - - [299] लिङ्गशरीर called also शुच्मशरीर _sukshma sarîra_ or - “subtile body.” - - It is essential to know the exact meaning which the Hindus - attach to the three words, _linga_, _linga śarîra_, and - _sthula śarîra_. - - I must premise that, according to them, the soul is incased - as in a sheath, or rather in a succession of sheaths. The - first, or inner case, is _the intellectual one_: it is - composed of the pure, or simple, elements, uncombined, the - archetypes of elementary matter (तन्मात्र _tanma tra_), and - consists of the intellect (_buddhi_), joined with the five - senses. The next is the _mental sheath_, in which mind is - joined with the preceding. A third sheath comprises the - organs of action and the vital faculties, and is termed the - _organic_ or _vital case_. - - These three sheaths (कोषाः _kóshas_) constitute the subtile - frame, _s ukshma śarîra_, or _linga-śarîra_, “the rudimental - body which attends the soul in its transmigration.” - - _Linga_ is “the naked rudiment;” the word expresses - “designating, apprising,” synonimous with “characteristic,” - rendered also by “mergent,” and by “subtile.” The linga and - linga-śarîra are ordinarily, though perhaps not properly, - confounded, the linga consisting of thirteen component - parts, namely (see the table of categories, p. 122): of - intellect, egotism, and the eleven organs; whilst the - linga-s arîra adds to these a bodily frame, made up of the - five rudimental elements. In this form however they always - coexist; and it is not necessary to consider them as - distinct. - - The “gross body,” _sthúla śarîra_, is composed of the coarse - elements formed by the combination of the simple elements in - a particular proportion, which the Hindus determine with an - acuteness, their own (see _Vedanta sara_, edit. of Calc., p. - 11), but which is not necessary here to adduce. This - exterior case, composed of elements so combined, is the - “nutrimentitious sheath,” and being the scene of coarse - fruition, is therefore termed “the gross body.” This is - however animated from birth to death, in any step of its - transmigration, by the interior rudiment confined to the - first-mentioned inner case, which is called कारणशरीर - _kárańa-śarîra_, “the causal frame”――(See Colebrooke on the - Phil. of the Hindus in the Transact. of the R. A. Soc., Vol. - II. Part I. pp 35, 36, etc., and _Sankhya Karika_, p. 129). - - [300] वैकुणटं is the Paradise, or world of Vichnu; its site - is variously described, either as in the northern ocean, or - on the eastern peak of Meru. - - [301] Here the same as linga sáríra. Parusha means generally - “a subtile body;” it is unconfined, too subtile for - restraint, hence termed अतिवाहिक _ativáhika_, “surpassing - the wind in swiftness,” incapable of enjoyment until it be - invested with a grosser body, affected, nevertheless, by - sensations. - - [302] अन्धतमसं “great darkness.” - - Without entering here into the details of metaphysical - refinements which the Hindus exhibit in their various - systems of philosophy, we may content ourselves to state - that, in general, they adopt two kinds of bodies or persons, - a subtile, and a substantial or grosser one. The first - transmigrates through successive bodies, which it assumes as - a mimic shifts his disguises to represent various - characters. In the Bhagavad gita, it is intimated, that soul - retains the senses and mind in the intervals of migration: - “At the time that spirit obtains a body, and when it - abandons one, it migrates, taking with it those senses, as - the wind wafts along with it the perfumes of the flowers.” - The grosser body, propagated by generation, is perishable. - According to Manu (XII. 16): “After death, another body, - composed of the five rudimental elements, is immediately - produced, for wicked men, that they may suffer the tortures - of the infernal regions.” This concords with what is said - above. - - [303] They are also called _Brahma Sampradáyis_. The founder - of this sect was Madhwácharya, a Brahman, born in the - Saka-year 1121 (A. D. 1199), in Tuluva, on the western coast - of the Indian peninsula; he died in his seventy-ninth year. - He was early initiated into the order of Anchorets, and - devoted to Vichnu; he composed thirty-seven works, built - eight temples, and founded as many _maths_, or “monasteries” - of his particular sect, which is one of the four great - sects. The superiors, or “Gurus” of it are Brahmans and - Sanyásis; their lay-votaries are members of every class of - society except the lowest; they profess perpetual celibacy. - These sectaries reside now chiefly in the peninsula, and are - altogether unknown in Gangetic Hindostan. To what is above - said of their doctrine, I shall add, that they distinguish - the principle of life from the supreme Being, or they deny - the absolute unity of the Deity, and the possibility of - absorption into the universal spirit, and the loss of - independent existence after death.――(See an explicit account - of this sect, by Professor Wilson, _As. Res._, vol. XVI. p. - 100-108.) - - [304] Rámánanda, the founder of this sect, lived about the - end of the 13th century, according to some accounts; - Professor Wilson is disposed to place him not farther back - than the end of the 14th, or beginning of the 15th century. - His residence was at Benares, in a _math_, or “monastery.” - The especial object of the worship of the Rámánandis is - Vichnu, in his incarnation of _Rámachandra_, on which - account they are called _Rámawats_. The mendicant members of - this sect, numerous even in our days, are usually known as - Váîragis or Viraktas, and consider all form of adoration - superfluous beyond the incessant invocation of Krichna and - Rama. The school of Rámánand admits disciples of every - caste; it abrogates, in fact, the distinction of caste - amongst the religious orders: this seems the proper import - of the term _Avad’huta_, which Rámánanda affixed to his - followers. It does not appear that any work exists - attributed to Rámánand himself; those of his followers are - written in the provincial dialects. The ascetic and - mendicant followers of Ramánand are by far the most numerous - class of sectaries in Gangetic India; some of them acquired - a great celebrity; among these are reckoned _Kabir_, of whom - hereafter, and _Jayadiva_, the author of the beautiful poem - _Gîta govinda_, well known by the translations made of it - into English, by Sir W. Jones; into Latin, by Professor - Lassen (who places however Jayadéva in the year 1150); and - into German, in the metre of the original, by Mr. - Ruckert.――(See, on the Rámánandis, the work quoted, pp. - 36-52). - - [305] According to Professor Wilson (work quoted, pp. 32 and - 43), the marks of the Rámánandis are two perpendicular white - lines, drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement - of each eyebrow, and a transverse streak connecting them - across the root of the nose; in the centre is a - perpendicular streak of varied colours, besides other marks - on the breast and each upper arm. - - [306] The marks of the Madhwácharis, according to the same - authority (p. 103), are the impress of the symbols of Vichnu - upon their shoulders and breasts, stamped with a hot iron, - and the frontal mark, which consists of two perpendicular - lines, made with _Gopi chandana_, or the sacred clay from - Dwaraka, the city of Krichna, and joined at the root of the - nose; a straight black line is drawn down the centre with - the charcoal from the incense offered to Náráyana, - terminating in a round mark with turmeric. - - [307] This name, perhaps very corrupted, is not to be found - among those enumerated in Professor Wilson’s Treatise on the - Religious Sects of the Hindus. - - [308] See the work quoted, p. 125-129. The members of this - sect consider a teacher named Hari Vans as their founder. - This person settled at Vrindavan, and established a math, or - “convent,” there, which exists to our days, and in 1822 - comprised between forty and fifty resident ascetics. He also - erected a temple there that still exists, and indicates by - an inscription over the door that it was dedicated to Sri - Rádhá Vallabha by Hari Vans, Samvat 1641, or A. D. 1585. - Rádha, the favourite mistress of Krishna, is the object of - adoration to these sectaries, who worship Krishna as - _Rádhá-Vallabah_, “the lord or lover of Rádhá,” whose - adoration Mr. Wilson thinks an undoubted innovation in the - Hindu creed. He says (_ibid._, p. 125): “The only Rádhá that - is named in the Mahábharat is a very different personage, - being the wife of Duryodhana’s charioteer, and the nurse of - Karna. Even the Bhagavat makes no particular mention of her - amongst the Gopis of Vrindhavan, and we must look to the - Brahma Váivarta Purána (Krishna Janana Khanda) as the chief - authority of a classical character, on which the pretensions - of Rádhá are founded.” We know the difference of opinion - which exists among the Indianists about the antiquity to be - attributed to the Puranas, and which has not yet found a - positive decision. It is probably from the last mentioned - Púráná that Jayadéva (see note, p. 180) took the theme of - his admirable poem, in which the love of Krichna and Rádhá - is described in the most glowing colours. - - [309] Rama, obliged to cede the throne to his brother - Bharatta, having on that account been banished by his - father, lived with his wife Sitá, and his younger brother - Lakshmana upon the mountain Chitra Kotá, in Bundelkand, - whence he descended towards the south into the woods of - Dandakam. Every where he protected the Rishis, destroying - their enemies, the Rakshasas. The head of these was Rávaná, - king of Lanka (Ceylon), who, in order to take revenge of - Rama, carried away by a successful stratagem, Ráma’s beloved - consort, Sîtá. The unfortunate husband, to release his wife, - concluded an alliance with Hanuman and Sugriva, chiefs of - the savage inhabitants, called monkies, of southern India, - and by their aid passed over to the island, took its - capital, Lanka, and killed the tyrant, Rávańa, in a - battle. Sitá was released, but, for proving her purity - preserved, she underwent the ordeal of fire: it proved - satisfactory; her innocence was manifest to the multitude, - but, it appears, not quite so to the mind of her husband, - who separated from her. - - [310] This is not correct: विराग _virága_ is interpreted - “the absence of desire or passion; the disregard of all - sensual enjoyments, either in this or the next world.” - - [311] तुलसी _Tulasí_, a small shrub held in veneration by - the Hindus, “holy basíl” (_ocymum sanctum_――_W._). - - [312] This is not quite exact: for the author has not yet - mentioned the _Ramanujas_, nor the _Nîmanujas_, of whom he - says nothing hereafter. - - Rámánuja Acharya was born at Perumbar, in the south of - India, about the end of the 11th century; his fame as a - teacher was established about the first half of the 12th - century; he was a great supporter and propagator, nay, the - chief author, of the later Váishnava faith; he founded 700 - maths, or “convents,” of which four only remain; but other - establishments of this sect are still numerous in the - Dekhan. - - The worship of the followers of Rámánuja is addressed to - Vichnu and to Lakchmî, his wife, and to their respective - incarnations, either singly or conjointly; wherefore they - are also named Srí Váichnavas, consisting of several - subdivisions. The chief religious tenet of the Rámánujas is - the assertion that Vichnu is Brahma; that he was before all - worlds, and was the cause and the creator of all. They - maintain three predicates of the universe comprehending the - deity: it consists of _chit_, “spirit;” _achit_, “matter;” - and _Iśwára_, “God.” - - These sectaries are not allowed to eat in cotton garments, - but, having bathed, must put on woollen or silk, and their - meal, whilst they are eating, must not attract the eyes of a - stranger, or it becomes instantly spoiled, and should be - buried in the ground. The marks of the Rámánujas are the - same as those of the Rámánandis, before described (see note, - p. 181), excepting that the central perpendicular streak on - the forehead is red, made with red sanders or roli, a - preparation of turmeric and lime. Besides other marks on - their bodies, not enumerated here, they wear a necklace of - the wood of tulasi, and carry a rosary of the seeds of the - same plant, or of the lotus――(See, for a further account of - this sect, the work quoted, pp. 27-36). - - [313] सम्प्रदाय a sect, a schism, a particular doctrine, and - exclusive worship of one divinity. - - [314] The most celebrated of the twelve distinguished - disciples of Rámánandra (see note, p. 180) was _Kabir_. I - omit the miraculous circumstances of his birth. He was taken - up near Benares, a foundling, by the wife of a weaver, named - _Nimá_, and brought up by her and her husband _Nuri_. Such - is the uncertainty prevailing about Kabir’s time, that he is - placed by different authors within the space of not less - than three centuries, that is, from 1149 to 1449. According - to Professor Wilson, he flourished probably about the - beginning of the 15th century. The philosophic and religious - notions of the Kabir Panthir are in substance the same as - those of the Pauranic sects, especially of the Váichnava - division. They admit but one God, the creator of the world, - and, in opposition to the Vedanta notions of the absence of - every quality and form in him, they assert that he has a - body formed of the five elements of matter, and that he is - endowed with the three _gunas_, or qualities of being, of - course of ineffable power and perfection. - - The works attributed to Kabir himself, or to his disciples, - are written in the usual form of Hindi verse; twenty of them - are enumerated in Professor Wilson’s account of this sect - (pp. 58 and 59), and appear very voluminous. - - This sect is very widely diffused in India, and split into a - variety of subdivisions. At a great meeting near Benáres, no - fewer than 35,000 Kabir-Panthis of the monastic and - mendicant class are said to have been collected. A place - called “the Kabir Cháura,” at Benares, is an establishment - pre-eminent in dignity, and constantly visited by wandering - members of this sect, as well as by those of other kindred - heresies: its _Mahant_, or Superior, receives and feeds - these visitors whilst they stay; the establishment itself is - supported by the occasional donations of its lay-friends and - followers――(See the work quoted, pp. 53-75). - - [315] According to Professor Wilson’s account (pp. 56-57), - in the midst of the dispute respecting the disposal of his - corpse, Kabir himself appeared amongst them, and having - desired them to look under the cloth supposed to cover his - mortal remains, immediately vanished; on obeying his - instructions, they found nothing under the cloth but a heap - of flowers; one half of them the Hindus burnt in Benáres, - and deposited the ashes in a spot now called _Kabir Chaura_, - whilst the Muselmans erected a tomb over the other portion - at _Magar_, near Gorakhpur, where Kabir died. - - [316] In Sanskrit यति _yati_, called also _Séwra s_; they - are a body of pious mendicants, who live in celibacy, and in - general employ their time in the cultivation of medicine, - astrology, and divinity――(See _On the Jainas of Guzerat and - Marwar_, by Lieut.-Col. W. Miles. Transact. R. A. Soc., vol. - III. p. 335). - - [317] मुण्ड shaved, bald. - - [318] Hardwar, or _Hara-dwara_, “the gate of Hara,” is a - place in the province of Delhi, situated on the west side of - the Ganges, where this river issues from the northern hills. - Lat. N. 29º 57´; long. E. 78º 2´. The event above stated - took place in the 12th year of the reign of the emperor Shah - Jehan, who mounted the throne in the year 1628, and resigned - it to his son Aurengzeb in 1658. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE NINTH: ON THE CREED OF THE CHA RVAK.[319]――This sect call -_rupa skandha_[320] whatever is perceived and understood by means of -the senses. What is ascertained by the perception of the senses is -named _vidyá[321] skandha_. Personality, consciousness, egotism, have -the denomination of _jnaná skandha_.[322] The knowledge of animal -nature is termed _jnapti skandha_.[323] Whatever enters the interior -part, that is, the mind, is entitled _sanskára skandha_.[324] They -say, out of these five skandhas just mentioned, there is no other -living principle, neither in man nor brutes;[325] the world and its -inhabitants have no creator, and there is no maker: this is clear: -because whatever has not entered into the field of manifestation, and -has not broken into daylight, cannot have the color of reality, and to -be high or low, proceeds from the nature of the universe; whatever is -written in the Vedas is not made public, and besides may be a lie -which rests upon no foundation; and a lie certainly proceeds from the -Vedas, inasmuch as they perform _hóm_, which is a ceremony in which -they throw rice and like matters into the fire, and recite prescribed -prayers, saying that this goes to the gods: now, whatever we throw -into the fire, after cremation, becomes ashes――how do these go to the -gods? It is also written in the Vedas, that they are to make an -offering of cooked meal to a dead man――who is to enjoy it? For -instance, when a person is gone from village to village, from one town -to another, and in his absence a meal destined for him is presented to -another person, the stomach of the former will not be filled. In the -same manner, when any thing is offered to a dead person, who, -according to the assumption of the followers of the Vedas, has been -translated to another world, what honor and profit will accrue from it -to him? - -Thus is it also among the revelations of the Vedas, that the depraved -and criminal will be punished, and the virtuous and holy associated to -quietness and satiated with prosperity: the one and the other is a -lie: because the vicious man is freed and alleviated from the hardship -of fasting, of bathing in cold water, of subjection to pious -practices, and other inconveniences; whilst the virtuous, according to -the Vedas, is bound to all these troubles; further, the wise ought to -take his share of all the pleasures and cultivate his happiness, -because, once reunited with earth, he will no more return. - - “There is no return for thee; once gone, thou art gone.” - -However, nobody is to hurt living beings, as by it he is liable to -cause some harm to himself. It is agreed by the wise that no injury is -to be done to another; by the observance of which men may be set at -ease, their numbers increased, and cultivation be promoted. This is -the substance of the belief of the Charvák. - -We will explain it more clearly; their creed is as follows: As the -creator is not manifest, and the comprehension of mankind cannot -attain to any certain knowledge about him, why should we submit to the -bondage of an object doubtful, imaginary, if even wished for, yet not -found; and why should we, in temples and monasteries, rub our -foreheads on the ground, and present offerings to deities whose -reality, as all agree, will not stand trial? And why, for the promise -of heaven and of future beatitude should we, like blockheads, abstain -from the abundance of desirable things, from conveniences and -blandishments? A wise man will not give ready money for an adjourned -good, and deliver up place and power upon the lying accounts of books, -which eloquent men call Vedas, or heavenly books; it is upon their -authority that they extinguish all desires in themselves, and press -the necks of men, like those of animals, in halters. We ought not to -be deceived; we ought not to believe what is not evident. The frame of -the body is composed of four elements, which by the necessity of -nature are united harmoniously together; as long as the constitution -is firm and health flourishing, it is proper to enjoy whatever is -desirable by its nature, provided no harm to living creatures arises -from it; when the frame falls asunder, the state to which the element -returns can only be the element; after the disjunction of the bodily -structure, there is no ascent to a higher mansion, no beatitude or -quietness, no descent, or fire, or hell. These sectaries, when they -hear the Vedas recited, say jokingly: “These are sick persons in a -painful fit, or hired journeymen in an uproar.” When they behold the -zunar (sacred thread) upon the neck of a Brahman, they say: “A cow -will not be without a rope.” When they find a pious person watching by -night, they say: “He aspires to the dignity of an owl.” When they -encounter a hermit upon a mountain, they remark: “He strives to outdo -a bear.” When a person practises the restraining of breath, they -observe: “He wishes to imitate a snake.” Of a person in a bath, they -say: “He chooses the dwelling of a fish or a frog.” Moreover, when the -Hindus relate that Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéo, their three great -divinities, are the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of the -world, they reply: “They represent nothing else than the sexual -organs.”[326] Upon Vichnu’s having four arms, they gloss: “At the time -of sexual intercourse, each man and woman has as many.” To the praise -of Mahadéo, from whose head the river Ganges flowed, they subjoin the -interpretation, that “this means the virile organ in its natural -functions.”[327] They meet the statement of Brahma’s being the creator -of things, with the reply: “That this is an emblem of the birth of -children:” and they proffer many other speeches of a similar import. - - - [319] चार्वाकः a philosopher, a sceptic in many matters of - Hindu faith, and considered by the orthodox as an atheist or - materialist. - - [320] रूप स्कन्धः _Skandha_ signifies “a book, a section,” - also “the five objects of sense.” - - [321] विद्या स्कन्धः - - [322] ज्ञान स्कन्धः - - [323] ज्ञप्ति स्कन्धः - - [324] संस्कार स्कन्धः - - I shall subjoin from Colebrooke’s treatise _On the - Philosophy of the Hindus_ (Transact. R. A. S., vol. I. part - I. p. 561) the more correct denominations and definitions of - the five skandhas: - - 1. _Rúpa-skandha_, comprehending organs of sense and their - objects, considered in relation to the person, or the - sensitive and intelligent faculty which is occupied with - them. - - 2. _Vijnnyána-skandha_ consists in intelligence (_chitta_), - which is the same with self (_átman_) and (_vijnyána_) - knowledge. It is consciousness of sensation, or continuous - course and flow of cognition and sentiment. There is not any - other agent, nor being, which acts and enjoys; nor is there - an eternal soul; but merely succession of thought, attended - with individual consciousness abiding within the body. - - 3. _Védaná-skandha_ comprises pleasure, pain, or the absence - of either, and other sentiments excited in the mind by - pleasing or displeasing objects. - - 4. _Sanjnya-skandha_ intends the knowledge or belief arising - from names or words: as ox, horse, etc.; or from indications - or signs, as a house denoted by a flag, and a man by his - staff. - - 5. _Sanskára-skandha_ includes passions; as desire, hatred, - fear, joy, sorrow, etc.; together with illusion, virtue, - vice, and every other modification of the fancy or - imagination. All sentiments are momentary. - - [325] Charvaka and his followers recognise perception as the - only source of knowledge. They know of no more than four - elements, namely, earth, water, fire, and wind, or air; and - maintain that from a particular aggregation of them in - bodily organs there results sensibility and thought, as the - inebriating property is produced by the fermenting of - several ingredients; they deny the soul to be other than - body. - - [326] Veretrum cum duobus testiculis. - - [327] Veretrum, urinam vel semen emittens. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE TENTH: ON THE SYSTEM OF THOSE WHO PROFESS THE DOCTRINE OF -TARK.[328]――_Tark śastra_ is the science of dialectics; it is divided -into sixteen parts, as follow: THE FIRST, _Pramána_;[329] this is the -application of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1. -_Paríkshá_;[330] that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of -discriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. _Anumána_;[331] -that is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its -existence; thus shall I call a mountain _igni-vomous_, on account of -the smoke which proceeds from it; 3. _Apamána_;[332] that is -“resemblance;” thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk -(or gayal);[333] although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard -that it is like a cow; 4. _Sabda_;[334] that is, “sound:” by these -they mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such “as the Hindus -have the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.” These are the four parts -which constitute the _Pramána_. - -THE SECOND of the sixteen divisions of the Tark sastra is -_Pramiti_,[335] that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and -concomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1. -_Atmá_,[336] that is “spirit;” and means something which is distinct -from what is material and sentient; something everlasting, eternal, -very subtile in all bodies; 2. _Sarírá_,[337] that is “body;” and this -they define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3. -_Indriya_,[338] “the exterior senses;” and these they call the organs -of perception; 4. _Artha_,[339] and this they declare to be “the -earthly existences;” 5. _Buddhi_,[340] which they term “knowledge;” 6. -_Manas_,[341] “or the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the -heart,” and that is enough; 7. _Pravritti_,[342] and this consists in -justice or injustice; 8. _Dósha_,[343] that is “sinful error,” and -this is subdivided into three parts, viz.: _Rága_, and this is -“sensual lust;” _Dvèsha_, that is, “hate, enmity;” _Muha_,[344] and -this is “gross ignorance;” 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivisions is -_Prétyabháva_,[345] which is “the reproduction either of the tree from -the seed, or of the animal from the sperma;” 10. _Phal_,[346] or “the -good consequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,” -which means “retribution;” 11. _Dukh_,[347] or “pain;” and 12. -_Apavarga_,[348] that is, “delight,” or the satisfaction of truth, -from which they derive emancipation, or _mukt_, in the language of -their learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far -from himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1. -_Saríra_,[349] or “the body;” 2. _Shadindriya_,[350] that is, “the six -senses,” five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to -the Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other; -they say, the _mind_ is the lord of the exterior senses; 3. -_Shad-darsa_,[351] that is, “the six particular objects of the six -senses;” so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling -with the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and -perceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen -is another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever -is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind, -corresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is -found by these six senses, or the six objects, are called -_Shad-darsas_; these six, with the six former senses, and the saríra, -or “body,” make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or “powers of -comprehension;” further, _sukhá_,[352] or “sensual delight;” and -finally, _dukh_, or “pain,” and you have the twenty-one affections -before mentioned. - -THE THIRD of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the _sanśaya_:[353] -this consists in pondering whether a certain object be such a thing or -another, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not -certain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man. - -THE FOURTH PART is the _Prayójana_,[354] that is, “motive,” which they -explain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good -or bad. - -THE FIFTH PART is the _Drishtánta_;[355] that is, “comparison by way -of illustration;” so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that -is: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both -indicate it by the smoke which they emit. - -THE SIXTH PART is the _Siddhanta_;[356] and this is knowing something -with certainty. - -THE SEVENTH PART is _Avayava_,[357] “dividing a subject into minute -parts;” for instance, when they say: “he mountain contains fire on -account of smoke,” so is, in this question, the first part termed -_pratijnya_, or “proposition,” _the mountain contains fire_; the -second part, called _hètu_, or “cause, reason;” in this thesis is: _on -account of the smoke which it emits_. - -THE EIGHTH PART is _Tarka_,[358] that is, “arguing:” so when they say: -“the mountain contains no fire,” it may be replied: “consequently it -also emits no smoke.” - -THE NINTH PART is _Nirnéya_;[359] which is to find the truth -immediately. - -THE TENTH is _Váda_,[360] or “discussion;” that is, to raise questions -about God and the saints. - -THE ELEVENTH is _Jalpa_:[361] that is, “wrangling;” when one, in the -establishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary. - -THE TWELTH PART is _Vitandá_;[362] which means that one pays no -attention to his own position, but combats that of other persons. - -THE THIRTEENTH PART is _hètwàbhása_;[363] or “fallacious argument;” so -when one says: “sound is eternal;” because what may be seen by the eye -is like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is -sound the perception of the ear. - -THE FOURTEENTH PART is _Ch’hala_,[364] “deceit;” this is when one -substitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word _náu -kambil_[365] means “a new cover,” or “nine covers,” it may give -occasion to equivocation. - -THE FIFTEENTH PART is _Játi_[366] “futile argument;” and this may be -applied to a lying purpose: so when one says that “sound is eternal,” -because it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a -divinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting. - -THE SIXTEENTH PART is _Nigraha_,[367] or “subjugation;” that is, when -one wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another. - -These are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.[368] The followers of this -doctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must -be a Creator; the _mukt_ or “emancipation,” in their opinion means -striving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp -and the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless -separate from each other. This was related to me by the Imám Arastú, -who was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it -from an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without -explanation, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which -it now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims -are the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was -taught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the -science of logic which was diffused among them was, with other -sciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of -king Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest, -and sent to Rúmi. - - - [328] तर्कः: “discussion, reasoning, argument, reduction to - absurdity.” - - [329] प्रमाणं. - - [330] परीक्षा. - - [331] अनुमान. - - [332] उपमानं. - - [333] Bos gavæus vel frontalis. - - [334] शब्द. - - [335] प्रमितिः true knowledge, or knowledge derived from the - senses, inference, analogy, or information. - - [336] आत्मा. - - [337] शरीरं. - - [338] इन्दियं. - - [339] अर्थाः objects of sense. - - [340] बुद्धिः apprehension, conception, intelligence. It is - twofold: notion and remembrance. - - [341] मनस्. - - [342] प्रवृत्तिः activity, occupation. It is determination, - the result of passion, and the cause of virtue, and is vice, - or merit and demerit, according as the act is one enjoined - or forbidden. It is oral, mental, or corporeal; not - comprehending unconscious vital functions. It is the reason - of all worldly proceedings. - - [343] दोष. - - [344] मुह. - - [345] प्रेत्य भावः is the condition of the soul after death; - which is transmigration: for the soul being immortal, passes - from a former body, which perishes, to a new one, which - receives it. This is reproduction (_punar ut patli_). - - [346] फलं. - - [347] दुःखं. - - [348] अप वर्गः final beatitude, the delivery of the soul - from the body, and exemption from further transmigration. - - [349] शरीरं. - - [350] षद् इन्द्रियाणिः - - [351] षदे् दर्शाः - - [352] सुखं. - - [353] संशयः - - [354] प्रयोजनं is that by which a person is actuated or - moved to action; it is the desire of attaining pleasure or - of shunning pain; or the wish of exemption from both: for - such is the purpose or impulse of every one in a natural - state of mind. - - [355] दृष्टान्तः - - [356] सिद्धान्तः demonstrated truth is of four sorts; viz.: - universally acknowledged; partially so; hypothetically; - argumentatively (or _è concessa_). - - [357] अवयवः A regular argument, or complete syllogism - (_nyáya_), consists of five members, or component parts: 1. - the proposition, प्रति ज्ञा _pratijnyá_; 2. the reason हेतु - _hetu_ (as above said); 3. the instance (_udáharańa_); 4. - the application (_upanaya_); 5. the conclusion, - (_nigamana_). Ex.: 1st, the hill is fiery; 2nd, for it - smokes; 3d, what smokes is fiery; 4th, accordingly, the hill - is smoking; 5th, therefore it is fiery. - - [358] तर्कः not to be confounded with doubt, to which there - are two sides; but to this but one; that is, reduction to - absurdity. - - [359] निर्नेयः ascertainment or determination of truth; the - result of evidence and of reasoning. - - [360] बादः discussion defined as the speech of one desirous - to know the truth. - - In Gotama’s arrangement, THE TENTH is called _Kat´ha_, - disputation, or conference of interlocutors, maintaining - adverse positions. - - [361] जल्पः debate of disputants contending for victory. - - [362] वि तण्ड cavil, or controversy, wherein the disputant - seeks to confute his opponent, without offering to support a - position of his own. - - [363] हेत्वाभास semblance of a reason; it is the _non causa - pro causa_ of the logicians. - - [364] छलं perversion and misconstruction; it is of three - sorts: 1. verbal misconstruing of what is ambiguous; 2. - perverting, into a literal sense, what is said in a - metaphorical one; 3. generalising what is particular. - - [365] نوكنبل. In the Persian text an example of it is given, - which I have not thought necessary to translate. - - [366] जातिः a futile answer, or self-confuting reply. No - less than twenty-four are enumerated. - - [367] निग्रह It is the termination of a controversy. Of - this, likewise, no fewer than twenty-two distinctions are - specified. - - [368] These are in substance the very same as the sixteen - categories of _Gótama_, exhibited in Colebrooke’s treatise - _On the Philosophy of the Hindus_, _Transact. R. A. Soc._, - vol. I. pp. 95-118. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF -BUDDHA.――These sectaries are also called _Jatis_.[369] They have no -belief in incarnations or Avatárs of the Deity, but they admit the -transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several -other dogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more -detestable than the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune -befals any one of them, they say: “Hast thou perchance done some good -to a Brahman,” or drunk some water of the _bone devourer_: so they -call the Ganges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead, -throw their bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act. The -Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; on which -account they do not like to pass through water, for fear that an -animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food, never put -their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, they filter it first -through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that no living animal may -remain in it, and then steep this piece of cloth awhile in water, in -order that, if a living being stick thereto, it may be separated, and -take its place in the liquid. A great number of the Baníans or traders -are of this sect; for the most part they sell corn, and some get a -livelihood as servants. The durvishes of this class are called -_Srivaras_ and _Jatís_.[370] They pluck the hair of their head and -beard by means of tweezers.[371] When they travel, they carry a besom -of the bark of a soft tree with them, and out of regard for the life -of animals, they sweep the road with it before they put down their -feet, that no living insect may be destroyed. When they speak, they -hold a handkerchief before their mouth, not to swallow a fly or other -insect. - -They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy and -sanctity; these they call _Jatis_, who never behold the face of a -woman. Those of this sect who are married, called _Grihast’ha_,[372] -show great regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of -respect, they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a -Jati in their house, they do whatever he orders, according to their -power. They are divided into two classes: the _Lunugí_ and _Pujáris_. -The first are those who adore God as one, and think him free from all -imperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and who -worship no idol. The _Pujáris_ venerate the image of a deity, and have -temples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at the -time of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take only as -much food as may not cause a privation to the people of the house: -thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. They drink no -cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever any body has warm -water for bathing, they take a little of it, and having thus collected -sufficient water, they let it cool and then drink it. - -Similar to the durvi hes of both classes is a third sect, called -_Mahá-átma_; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do -not pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money, -cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a -wife. Farzánah Khushí says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a -Śrivara, and requested him to give me a full account, which may be -deemed true beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related as -follows: “The men of my faith may live retired from the world, or -devoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are many -of them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge.” One of -the Maha-átmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich man devoted -herself to his service; one day she complained to him of the -unkindness of her husband; the Śrivara gave no answer; wherefore the -woman said: “Another time I will not wait on thee, because thou takest -no interest in me.” The Śrivara rejoined: “If even thy visit were -agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee.” He then took up a -bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to the woman, -saying: “Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it -upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee.” The woman -returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon a stone, -intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband entered into the -room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon the stone. When -night fell in, they shut the door of the house. The stone at every -moment jumped from its place, knocked against the board of the door, -and fell back: the woman and her husband were astonished. The man -asked his wife the reason of it, and she, from fear, told him what had -taken place. The man rose and opened the door of the house; the stone -was set in motion, and rolled on until it reached the house of the -Mahá-átma. Many other similar stories are told of the Srívaras. Khushi -said that he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power of -incantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declared that -this man was really a Jati, but not a Mahá-átma. - -The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number of Srivaras -and their followers. From them he knew _Meher chand_, a _Lúnú_, in the -year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotárah, which is under the -dominion of Jodpur Márawár, he found also Síva rama, a Pujári, in -Mírta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one named _Jagna_, a -Banian, in Ráwel Pandi: he was adorned with all the good qualities of -Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, he bought it of -him and set it free. This sect do whatever they can for the liberation -of living beings. Many of them are rájas in several places and -countries. When one brings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and -is disposed to kill it, they come from their shops and buy the animal -at a high price; thus it has been seen that, having assembled from all -hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a person to take care of -them. It is said, that in Guzerat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one -day, a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having picked -vermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed; the -Durvish said: “If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;” the -Banian offered a _pie_;[373] the other wanted more and more, until the -bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which the Banian -paid for the liberation of the offensive insect. Hafiz Shirázi says: - - “Avoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest, - For in my book of laws there is no crime but this.” - - - [369] More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section - appears to apply more properly to the _Jainas_, that is, to - one of the great divisions of the followers of Buddha. The - Jainas are subdivided into a great number of tribes and - religious sects, a long series of which is enumerated in the - work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363). - - [370] In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the _Jatis_, or - _Yatis_, also called _Sévras_ among the Jainas of Guzerat - and Marwar. According to the same authority (Transact. R. A. - S., vol. III. p. 344), these are distinguished from the - _Sravakas_, as the laity of the Jainas are called in that - country. According to Major de la Maine (work quoted, vol. - I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of - the earlier Jains or Arhats. “Sravakas,” says Doctor - Buchanan Hamilton (_ibid._, p. 531), “is the name given to - the Jains in the districts of Bahar and Patna.” The three - authors just quoted agree in stating that the priests of the - Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistan reads سريوره, - _Srivarah_, which may be correct श्री वर “the elect of - happiness.” - - [371] _Lunchîta-kéśa_, “hair-pluckers,” is one of the - nicknames given to the _Swétámbaras_, “clad in white,” a - sect of the Jainas――(_Colebrooke_, work quoted, p. 551). - - [372] “A householder.” - - [373] The natives reckon 64 pies to the rupee. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE TWELFTH: ON VARIOUS RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS PROFESSED BY THE -PEOPLE OF INDIA.――It is to be recollected that, as has been stated, -there are Samradíán, Khodaníán, Radián, Shíderangíán, Pâikeríán, -Mílánían, Aláríán, Shídábíán, Akhshían, and Mazdakían, who are -dispersed in Iran and Turan, and all appear in the dress of Muselmans, -although in secret they follow each the path of their own chosen -faith; in the same manner various sects are also established in India, -but they do not appear in the dress of Muselmans. It is to be known, -that the fundamental rule in the creed of the Hindus is the _Smriti_, -that is, the “law,” and that all Rakshasas, that is, “devotees,” -follow this way; the Véda, to them the heavenly book, prescribes the -acts, and is a text, from which every sect may derive proofs of its -particular belief, and all may agree in some points. - -I have already given an account of their religion, but I must here -remind the reader of some points. They say Naránaya, that is, “the -deity,” in the origin was alone; a flower, namely, the lotus, having a -thousand leaves, rose from his navel, from which Brahma came forth, -Brahma _chatur mukha_,[374] or “four faced;” one of these faces was -cut off by Máhadéo; Brahma is also _ashta báhu_,[375] that is “eight -armed;” in his navel was also a flower of five hundred leaves, from -which Vichnu proceeded; Vichnu _chatur báhu_, or “four armed;” he -carries in one hand a spear; in the other, the _chakra_, “the discus,” -a weapon peculiar to the Hindus; in the third hand, the _gadá_, or -“club;” and, in the fourth, the lotus flower. In the navel of Vichnu -was a lotus of one hundred leaves, from which sprang Mahadéo, who is -_ashtamukha_, or “eight faced” and “eight armed;” he rides upon a -bull, his neck is surrounded by a snake, the hide of an elephant -envelops him, and his body is rubbed with ashes; _chandra_, “the -moon,” _surya_, “the sun,” and _agni_, or “fire,” are his three eyes. -The sect of _Sáivas_ adore Mahadéo, and his wife is worshipped by the -_Akmían_ and _Ashnían_, as before shown. - -Another sect is that of the Sanyásis, who are praised in the Smriti; -they distinguish themselves by long and entangled hair, which is -called _jata_.[376] The Saiva-Sanyásis are also called _Avadutas_; -their numbers increased during the Kaliyug; they are very pious, -intrepid, and charitable. At one time, a war broke out between them -and the Sófís: the former were victorious. - -Another sect is that of the _Jangaman_; these also cut the hair off -their heads, they rub dust upon their bodies, and praise Mahadéo, to -whom they attribute a real existence. They are divided into several -classes. They say, among the celestial spirits are nine Brahmas, who -are the _anśus_,[377] that is, “the rays” of Brahma. There are one -thousand Vichnus, rays of Vichnu, who is also called _Naráyana_; there -are eleven _Rudras_, rays of Rudra, which is a name of Mahádeo; they -reckon twelve suns,[378] rays of the great luminary; sixteen -_kalas_,[379] that is, parts or rays of the moon; and they divide the -effulgence of that body into sixteen parts, and enumerate eight and -twenty of its mansions, or _nakshatras_,[380] and seven planets, -besides the head and tail of the dragon. Ganesa is to them a god with -the head of an elephant. They distinguish eight quarters of the world, -besides the zenith and nadir, and call them _asht dísa_,[381] in the -following order: _purva_, “east;” _paśchima_, “west;” _dakchina_, -“south;” and _uttara_, “north;” between south and east, _agni_; -between south and west, _náirrita_; between north and west, _váyu_, -between north and east, _íśána_. Among the deities are _Bhaírava_[382] -and _Hanuman_, and among female spirits _asht Durgás_, or “eight -Durgás,” in the following order: _Kálaká_, _Chandra Kálanjarí_, -_Káumarí_, _Váichnaví_, _Bábhraví_, _Chamundá_,[383] _Bhavání_, and -_Parvati_.[384] _Maha Lakchmî Sarasvatí_ is the wife of Brahma. -_Rakshasas_ are termed the pious men of the Satya yug; _Kaśyapa_ is -the father of the sun; _Vaśishta_, the preceptor of Ram-avatár; -_Viśvamitra_, a Kshatría, who by dint of pious austerity became a -Brahman; _Valmiki_ is the author of the poem Ramayána, which contains -the history of Ráma; _Angirasah Ihr Vyása_ composed the historical -poem Mahabharata; Bhazadvája Jamadagni existed in the Dwapara yug; -_Gotama_, _Kapah_, (_Kapila_?) _Parására_, _Narada_, in the Kali yug; -_Chonah_, _Apravanah_, _Aurdah_, _Jamed Kapeh_, these are for ever -living;[385] _Saptarchaya_, that is, seven Richis, or “saints,” are: -_Kaśyapa_, _Uttara_, _Bhardvája_, _Viśvamitra_, _Gotama_, _Jamadagni_, -and _Vaśis’hta_.[386] - -It is to be known that there is a class among the Hindus who give -themselves the term of Muselman-sofis, and really agree in several -tenets and opinions with the Sufís. Thus, in the first place, they -devote themselves to celibacy. As they have heard that there are ten -classes of Sanyásís, and twelve of Yogís, they also pretend to be -divided into fourteen classes; when they meet together, the questions -which they ask are: Who are the four sages, and which are the fourteen -noble families? and they impose upon their disciples many years of -service, before they reveal to them the four sages and the fourteen -families; they say: The sage of sages is the illustrious Muhammed (may -the peace of God be upon him!); after him, devoted to godliness, Ali -(may the blessing of God be upon him!); from him the khalifat devolved -upon Imam Hossain; then Khaja Hossen, of Basora, also was his disciple -and a khalif: these four personages are the four sages. They say -besides, from Khaja Hossen, of Basora, sprang two branches: the first -was that of the khalif Hossen Basorí Habíb Ajemí, from whom nine -families proceeded, named as follows: the _Jíbíán_, _Táikeríán_, -_Kerkhíán_, _Sikatíán_, _Jenídíán_, _Gazrúníán_, _Túsíán_, -_Ferdusíán_, and _Soherwardíán_. From the second khalifat of Hossen -Basori, which was that of the Shaikh Abdul Wahid Zaid, came forth five -families with the following titles: the _Zebírían_, _Aiáśían_, -_Adhamían_, _Habírían_, and _Cheshtíán_: and these are the fourteen -noble families. It is said, that there exists a congregation of pious -sectaries, who do not adhere to the prophet Muhammed, although they -acknowledge him to be a blessed gatherer of the harvest of virtuous -perfection: they relate, that one day the prophet was taking a -pleasure-walk under the guidance of Jabríl, and came to a place where -a great tumult was heard. Jabril said: “This is the threshold of -pleasure: enter into the house.” The prophet consented to go in, and -there he saw sitting forty persons as naked as they came from their -mother, and a band busy serving; but whatever service the prophet -requested them to command him to do, they did not comply, until the -moment to grind _bang_[387] arrived. When they had ground it, they had -no cloth through which they could strain and purify it; then the -prophet, having taken his turban from his head, purified through it -the juice of the bang, the color of which remained on the turban; -whence the garment of the Biní Hashem is green. When the prophet -rendered them this service, they were glad, and said among themselves: -“Let us give to this messenger of God, who is always running to the -door of the ignorant, a little of the bang, that he may obtain the -secrets of the Almighty power:” so they gave the remains of the juice -to the prophet. When he had drunk it, he became possessed of the -secrets of the angel of destiny, and whatever men heard from him, came -through the means of this bounty. - -There is a great number of this sect in Hindostan, and among the most -celebrated of them are, in the first line, the _Madárían_, who, like -the Sanyásís _Avadhuts_, wear the hair entangled; and the ashes which -they and the Sanyásis rub upon their bodies are called _bhasma_;[388] -besides, they carry iron chains on their heads and necks, and have -black flags and black turbans; they know neither prayers nor fasts; -they are always sitting at a fire; they drink a great deal of bang; -and the most perfect among them go about without any dress, in severe -cold, in Kabul, and Kachmir, and such places. These also consume much -bang, and to the praise of one of their sect they say: “Such a one -takes two or three _seers_[389] of bang.” When they sit together, they -relate, that in the night, when the prophet ascended through the seven -stages of heaven, he received the command of God to wander through the -heavens. When he arrived at the door of paradise, he found the -entrance as narrow as the eye of a needle; the porter made him a sign -to enter; the prophet said: “With this body, how shall I enter through -this passage?” Jabríl replied: “Say: _dam madar_,” (“the breath of -Madar,” a particular ejaculation of this sect). The prophet said so, -upon which the narrow door opened, and he entered heaven. - -They say, when Badih eddin Madar[390] came to Hindostan, he became a -Yogi, whom the Hindus held in great esteem, and who had a great number -of followers. Madar took a house; he sent a little boy, whose name was -Jamen, with the order to fetch some dry cowdung with which he wanted -to kindle a fire. It so happened that Jamen fell in with an assembly -of Yogis, who, supposing him a Muselman, killed, cut into pieces, and -devoured the boy. Some time after, not receiving any thing to light up -his fire, Madár went in search of Jamen, and found the assembly of -Yogis, to whom he said: “What have you done with my good little boy?” -They answered: “We have not seen him.” Madár called him loud by his -name, and the members of Jamen, from within the bodies of the -assembled Yogis, answered “_Dam madar_.” Madár then said to the Yogis: -“Shall I bring forth Jamen from you all, or from one only of you?” -They replied: “From one body only.” By the power of Madár, the limbs -of the boy having united, in a manner that no body perceived any thing -of it, in the belly of the principal Yogi, Jamen fell out from the -nose of the same, so that neither the nostril of the Yogi’s nose was -enlarged, nor the boy’s limbs diminished:[391] whereupon the Yogis -chose to run away. Madár settled at this place, which till now is -known by the name of _Makanpúr_.[392] The Madarían come, as many as -possible, from all parts of the world, once a year, on a fixed day, to -Makanpur, and say that the blind and lame find their cure in that -place. - -They relate also, that _Chistápá_, the wife of Baharam Gul, in order -to put to the test the Muhammedan and Indian durvishes and saints, -came once among them who were assembled, and said: “Whoever will -loosen the bracelet of beads (called _Sámran_) upon my arm, without -betraying the least symptom of lust, he is a perfect saint.” All the -pretenders to perfect sanctity, Muselmans and Hindus, presented -themselves, but at the sight of Chistapa, they all were maddened with -love, such was the beauty of her face: at last the turn came to Jamen, -who approached her, and loosened the bracelet in a manner which, at -the same time, evinced his manly strength, and his complete command -over himself.[393] On that account, Jamen was proclaimed victorious -over all the Muselmans and Hindus. And they have a great number of -other similar stories. - -Another sect, the _Jelalían_, are disciples of _Said Jelal_, of -Bokhára;[394] his sepulchre is in the village _Auch_, in the district -of _Sind_; these sectaries profess to be Shíáhs, whilst the Medárían -are _Sunís_, on which account they revile each other. The former know -of neither prayers nor fasts, nor any other practices of piety with -which the Sufís are occupied; they take a great deal of bang, and used -to eat snakes and scorpions. When the adepts among them see a snake, -they put it whole into their mouth and swallow it, saying: “This is a -fish of the holy Alí;” in eating a scorpion they remark: “This is a -prawn of Alí:” and the worms which are found in the water, they call -the little crabs of Alí. Like the Medárian, the Jelalían go naked, and -even in the severely cold season, wear no garment; they sit before the -fire like the Medárian, but do not wear matted hair; frequently they -shave four parts of their body, and lead a wandering life in the -world. Some of them bring every thing that they gain to their master, -and when they go for instruction to a preceptor, they deliver to him -whatever they possess in ready money and other property; after which -he presents them with a turban, and his list of saints; they wear that -on their heads, and hang this on their necks. They believe that, when -Jzráíl comes to take their soul, the turban, descending, covers their -eyes so that they may not behold the face of the angel of death, which -is exceedingly terrific. Their master looks every day for a new -connexion with a woman; whenever he knows of a fine girl among his -disciples, he orders trumpets to be blown, goes on horseback, and -betaking himself to their house, uses his own discretion with the -girl, whom he now and then takes to his own house, but never marries. -The author of this book asked one of the Jelális: “Hámed Mahommed, -your master, does he take the daughter of one of his disciples without -marrying her?” He answered: “The Safavian kings too take wives, -daughters, and sons of their disciples, who are highly pleased with -it, why should not Hámed Mahommed, who is truly the Khalif -(substitute) of Alí, do the same?” This act is a sign of sovereignty, -and a prerogative of the family of the prophet. In this country are -many of his disciples, and he is a very great friend to hunting. - -There is another sect who call themselves without tie and food; it is -a laudable conduct with them to take nothing from any body beyond the -required food and drink; and for their indispensable clothing, from -the shreds which they find in the streets to stick together a coat, -which they call _kherka_; and when they ask something from any body, -they first revile him and call him bad names, wherefore they often -receive bad treatment from the people. They say, God is a spirit, and -Muhammed his body; his four friends are his two arms and two feet; -_dam mádar_, that is, Mádar, is the breath and the spirit of God. They -drink many sorts of spirituous and intoxicating liquors. They believe -the unity of the divine being, and some of them are also pious men. -Their master was _Gada Naráyana_. The three just mentioned sects never -shed the blood of animated beings. - -Another sect, called _Kakan_, is in Kachmir; celibacy is their law, -and their belief the unity of the divine being. They use much bang; a -number of them is devoted to piety; their name of “Kakan” is derived -from that of their master, who was Ibrahim Kakak. He lived, they say, -in the time of the Pádshah Jehangír, who inhabits heaven, and drew to -him whomever he chose; his very sight was such an attraction, that he -on whom it fixed was irresistibly thrown at his feet; thus he attached -to himself a great number of disciples, Hindus and Muselmans, none of -whom he induced to change his religion; that is to say, to the Hindu -he did not expound the Koran, nor propose circumcision; and to the -Muselman he did not make an obligation of the Zunar, and of the mark -of caste upon the forehead; neither the praise of Muselmans nor the -blame of Hindus came ever upon his tongue; he never pronounced either -the name of the prophet or that of an Avatar, which are the great -objects of veneration to the Muselmans and to the Hindus; but he -uttered _Ruma_, or _Alla_, or _Khoda_. He did not sleep at night, nor -did his disciples, who sat back to back until morning before him. At a -place of Kachmir, he said to his followers: “A great number of men -laid down; let us do the same.” The followers answered: “Let it be as -you say:” he then first laid himself down to sleep, and the friends -did the same. One day he heard the voice of a crier from the top of a -minaret, and said: “This is the voice of God;” at this moment one of -his companions broke wind; he subjoined: “This too is God; this too -the divine tongue.” A student present said to him: “Do not blaspheme.” -He replied: “The one and the other is an undulation of the air, and -the air is subject to God.” The student reassumed: “But the bad smell, -with the noise, what is it?” The answer was: “This proceeds from the -association of ‘_thou and I_.’” The student said farther: “Drink no -bang, because the bang-drinkers shall not pass over the bridge of -judgment (_sarat´h_).” Kakak replied: “Great is the number of -bang-drinkers; let us, on this side of the bridge, build a town and -call it _Bang pur_, and not think of passing the bridge.” Goya Kásem -composed a ludicrous account of these drunken sectaries. When the king -_Kásem Anwar_ (distributor of splendors) was near the habitation of -excellence, he recited the following verses: - - “He (God) distributes the light; I distribute bang, - He is the distributor of splendors; I, the distributor of secrets.” - -A great number of men in India think as these sectaries. The Sanyásis -assembled once in one of the sacred places of pilgrimage revered by -the Hindus; by accident, an army of naked Jelális and Madáris came -there at the same time, and having brought a cow, wanted to kill it; -the Sanyásis bought the cow from them; they came a second time, with -another cow, which the Sanyásis again, not without entreaties, -purchased. These men, barefoot and bareheaded, having become insolent -by their numbers, brought a third cow and killed it; the Sanyásis, -indignant at this, attacked them, and a battle ensued, in which the -Sanyásis at last obtained the victory, and killed seven hundred of the -naked Jelális and Madáris; they educated the boys of these fanatics, -whom they made prisoners on this occasion, in their own religion. The -Sanyásis were frequently seen engaged in war. - -Another class of the Hindus are the _Yógis_, who pretend to a high -antiquity; an account of them has already been given. - -Other sects, such as the _Sankhyan_, and the _Patanjálís_,[395] are -devoted to piety, and practise the _yóga_, and other pious -austerities; also the _Charvakíán_, who believe the four classes of -their sect to be very ancient: we have already treated of them, as -well as of the _Játis_ and _Vairágis_; the _Nanak Panthíán_ will be -introduced hereafter. - -The _Narayaníán_ are a sect of the Hindus, which holds its creed from -_Gosáin Haridas_. He was of the tribe of _Játs_, from the village -_Kaníra_, in the district of _Saválik_; he was a servant of _Nabidás -Sanyálá_; which last name is that of a tribe of the numerous Rájaputs. -Haridas, when hunting, shot an arrow at a deer which was with young, -and brought down a fawn, which had also been pierced by the arrow. At -the sight of this event, Haridas broke his bow and arrows, tore his -garment into pieces, weeping and bewailing, and during twelve years -had no intercourse with the society of men. Afterwards, he assembled -many disciples about him. He died in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645 -A. D.). This sect know nothing of idols, nor of temples, nor of the -Kâbah, nor of any sort of worship; they do nothing towards obtaining -the knowledge of, or union with, God; they confine themselves to the -veneration of _Naráyan_, or “the supreme Being,” from which they -derive the name of _Naráyanían_. They do not occupy themselves with -the affairs of the world; abnegation and solitude is their law. Some -have an earthen cup to drink water in; some dispense even with this; -they hurt no living being; they never pull up any grass or green -herbs; they burn nothing; cook no meal; and when hungry, they go into -the houses of the Hindus, and accept some food, but no flesh of any -sort of animal. When one of them is about to die, he is asked: “Shall -we burn thy body, or throw it into the water, or bury it in the -earth?” Whichever he desires is done. - -Another sect is that of the _Dádu Panthians_. Dádu was one of the -cotton carders in the village Naráina, in the district of Marwar. In -the time of the Padshah Akbár (who inhabits heaven!) Dádu devoted -himself to the state of a Durvesh, and assembled many disciples about -him. He prohibited his followers to worship idols, to eat the flesh of -any animal, or to hurt any living being; but he did not order them to -abandon woman and wife, or to withdraw from all business of the world; -but he left it free to any one to give up, or to cultivate, the -connection and intercourse with men. When one of them dies, they place -his corpse upon the back of a quadruped, and send it into the desert, -saying: “It is now better that rapacious and other animals may be -satiated with it.” - -The _Píára panthíán_ hold their creed from _Bábá Píára_; at the time -of begging, they stand before the shops and houses, without looking at -any body or saying any thing; they demand nothing with the tongue; -they accept what is given, and go away when nothing is offered. The -Mobed says: - - “The demand without the tongue is made by the eyes; - How can that which is heard be equivalent to what is seen?” - -They take no notice of the Muselmans, although they so call -themselves. - -The sect of the Vishnavas follow the doctrine of Gosáin Jáni. We hold -the information from Jogendas, that they called their master _Jehan_, -and his followers, composed of Hindus and Muselmans, adopted the creed -of Vishnavi. This is as follows: they hurt no living being; they avoid -fellowship with men of another creed among the Hindus and Muselmans; -they pray five times a-day, with their face towards the east; they -have the names of God, of the divinities, of the prophet upon their -lips, such as _Allah_, _Míkáíl_, _Jzráíl_, _Jibrail_, _Muhammed_, -_Jl_, and others; they bury their dead; they confer benefits upon -others to the extent of their power; a number of their Durvishes -pretend to be afflicted with maladies and beg alms, and whatever they -so collect they distribute to the blind and lame, and to people of -that description. - -Further to be noticed is the sect of the _Surya-mak-han_,[396] that -is, of “the worshippers of the sun.” These derive their origin from an -ancient nation of Hindus, and are divided into two classes. The one of -them says: The great luminary is one of the divinities of the first -rank; he has _átmá_ and _buddhi_, that is, “soul and intellect;” the -light of the stars and the splendor of the universe proceeds from him; -he is the _asht bhuvana loka_,[397] that is, “the origin of the eight -worlds,” and of all earthly beings; the _sarva prabhá deva_,[398] “the -God of all radiance,” the chief and ruler of all divinities, the deity -of heavens, the king of the stars; the _Mahajyóti_,[399] or “the great -light,” worthy of praise; and of _namaskara_,[400] that is “respectful -salutation,” and of adoration; and of _hóm_, or “sacrificial -perfumes.” When the sun rises with his pure body, they stand opposite -to him, and after adoration recite a Sanskrit prayer, the paraphrase -of which is as follows:[401] “Whatever beautiful light and high -splendor thou possessest overflows the eyes from the excessive bounty -of thy manifestation; thou art that light which is not surpassed by -any other in the display of splendors; thine is the first prayer, for -thou art the substitute of God, and we place our hope in thy bounty; -to thee we address the prayers of our wants, that we may experience -and loudly proclaim thy mercy. When this light is thy face, whatever -we can say of the splendor, the beauty, and perfection of the supreme -intellectual soul and of the pure wisdom, is but that one light which -we recognise above in thy bountiful being, which thou temperest and -displayest; this light derives its glory from thee, and supplication -is due to this light. Give us thy assistance in the abnegation of -worldly pleasures; render us equal to thyself in the purity of light, -and by thy knowledge grant us union with thee; the wish of all -virtuous hearts is, that they may, far removed from all sensual -delights, be made happy in the communion with those who are like thee: -we abandon all worldly delights, that we may become similar to thee in -splendor, and arrive to thee, and remain with thee.” - -The other class of the _Suryamakhan_ say: Whatever exists in the -_Swargaloka_[402] and in the _Bhúloka_,[403] that is, in the upper and -lower world, draws its origin from the sovereign great luminary; by -his glorious appearance we fill our _lojáni_,[404] or “eyes,” with -_kalyanum_,[405] or “auspicious light;” and we hear the -_Sanákáras_,[406] that is, “the incorporeal beings;” by him we acquire -_buddhi_, that is “intellect,” the professor of which attaches his -heart to nothing exterior: on that account they call the sun _natha_, -“a sovereign, or divine being,” and pay worship to him. Both classes -abstain from hurting living beings, and are on that account called -_jiva dayá_,[407] “compassionate of life;” they do good to others as -much as they can, wherefore they are termed _punyavantas_,[408] -“virtuous;” they keep far away from falsehood and iniquity, for which -they are entitled _dharmamayás_,[409] “righteous.” The _gríhastha_, or -“householder,” contents himself with one _strí_,[410] or “wife.” They -divide the sun into several parts, which they call _dyuvá -murtayas_,[411] “figures of the sun;” but the first class reckons -among the _Pandits_, or “learned,” an order of men who have a system -about _ákása_,[412] “ether,” _girayas_,[413] “mountains,” _tárá -phal_,[414] “starry firmament;” about the rising of heavenly bodies -and the prognostics which are connected with them; they possess -perfectly the canons of the _Véda anga_, “sacred science,” in which -the medical is comprised; and they set a great value upon _buddhí_, -“intellect;” and _áharanam_,[415] that is, “the application of the -thinking faculty;” and they say, that this is the mediator between -what is _sankhyanam_,[416] “rational,” or probable, and -_sadhanam_,[417] “substantiated,” which last is the form of things -perceived; and the right appreciation of probabilities is attained by -dint of _buddhi_ and _aharanam_, that is, by high intelligence; this -is fixing the thought of contemplation; or arriving at the science of -what is perceived and what is probable or rational; this comprehends -properly two sciences which are possessed by the _jitèndriya -loka_,[418] that is, “by those sages who have subdued the senses.” - -There is a class of durvishes who practise _tapasya_,[419] or “devout -austerity,” and who, by great and difficult penances, banish every -illusion from them, so that in their sleep they may not have -unbecoming dreams, which they say are produced by the influence of the -imagination; and they guard their eyes from the wounds and impressions -which also proceed from the imagination. They climb up to the tops of -walls, without fear of falling down, and go to such places as are not -easily accessible, which they say is a triumph over illusion; they -pretend to have the power to cause rain to fall or to cease; to -attract whomever they like, and to render him obedient to their will; -to give information of whatever is concealed, and to reveal the -secrets of the heart; to possess the knowledge of the good and the bad -hidden in the minds; as well as that of the relations and history of -the world; and upon the mirror of their hearts are reflected the -lights of secrets, the _djoti mandalam_,[420] “the splendor of the -universe.” When a misfortune happens, all the pious men assemble and -hold council about the removal of it; they investigate the strange and -astonishing events; they keep day and night their eyes shut, and, -pondering, exercise their sagacity: these are called _Dhyani_.[421] -Those who are not occupied with exterior things are called -_tyagî_,[422] and others who shun all intercourse with women and have -no wife, take the title of _Yatis_; and there is a class who, with the -same abnegation as the former, never mix with the people of the world, -and never ask more from them than a small quantity of food: these are -called _Vaíragîs_,[423] or _Udasîs_.[424] Others live in deserts and -upon mountains, satisfied with fruits; the savage animals do them no -harm; they are named _Vanyasîs_.[425] When, among them, a child is -born or a marriage takes place in the house of a family-man, they do -not offer him their congratulation; and when a misfortune occurs, such -as the death of a friend, they do not grieve or take mourning. A -desire for generation, and a relish for meat and drink, inasmuch as -may be requisite, is permitted, but beyond this prohibited; and -whoever desires more is excluded from their society. This order of men -among them is called _Grihasta_; another division of them is formed by -the _Avach’háta_,[426] “emaciated by abstinence,” who are the adepts -of this sect; if I were to relate every thing of them, several volumes -would not be sufficient to contain my account. - -In the Nababship of Kalinga exists a sect called _Sûrwar_ (Sûryar), -and another entitled _Gundwar_. They pay no tribute to any body; they -worship the sun; from simplicity, they prefer brass and copper to -gold, on account of bad smell. When one of them dies, they seize a -stranger and kill him. They say that, as the Rái (prince) of Gund sits -upon the ground, the lower people sit upon chairs, he being the lord -of the earth and the others are not so. - -The _Chandra bakta_,[427] or “worshippers of the moon,” call this -planet one of the principal divinities, worthy of adoration and of -worship; the regulation of the nether world is committed to his care; -by the increase and decrease of the light of this heavenly body, the -hours of night and day may be known; after the sun it is the greatest, -and borrows its light from this great luminary, the access to which -may also be obtained by the moon’s mediation.[428] These sectaries -form an image of the moon, and worship it as an object of their -devotion: they never hurt a sentient being. - -Another sect venerates other stars. There is one who pays homage to -_Agni_, or fire, and says that fire is the pure essence of God, who is -the sun himself: these are called _Agni Pramána_;[429] “the professors -of fire.” They believe also the other stars proceed from its radiance, -and that the earthly fire is an emanation of its rays; they venerate -every sort of fire, through the mediation of which they think access -to the sun may be obtained. - -Another sect, the _Pavana bhakta_,[430] or “worshippers of the wind,” -believe that the substance of God is air, and this also the -intellectual soul. - -The _Jala bhakta_,[431] or “worshippers of water,” hold water to be -the representative of the being of God, on which account they pay -veneration to the rivers and flowing streams. - -The _Prithivi bhakta_[432] are “worshippers of the earth,” which they -believe to be the substance of God worthy of their adoration. - -Another sect, called _Tripújas_,[433] worship the three kingdoms of -nature, in which every place and whatever presents itself to their -view, becomes an object of their veneration. - -The _Manushya bhakta_,[434] or “worshippers of mankind,” recognise the -being of God in man; they know no being more perfect than mankind, and -think that it contains nothing of a bad nature. - -A particular sect is to be found in Kashíal, a place in the -mountainous province of Kachmir. They worship idols; the son takes the -property acquired by his father to himself; but leaves whatever he -gains to his sons, so that it may be the firewood belonging to his -father that may burn his body. When one of them dies, a barber from -without the house goes before the dead, and then brings the message -that such a one wants something for a meal, upon which they go to work -to prepare it; and this society is kept up for some days; then, they -burn the dead; after cremation, they erect over his ashes an image of -stone, one half of which is male, and the other female; and when no -son of his remains, they marry his wife with a column of the house, -and whoever comes upon a visit of condolence, has intercourse with the -woman until a son be produced, and to him the inheritance is bestowed. -This sect have no regard for the life of animals. - -Another sect exists in the mountains of Kachmir, with the name of -_Durds_. Among them it is customary for brothers to have but one wife; -occasionally they sell house, land, wife, and children; whoever buys -the house owns all these; they also pawn their wife. Some of them, -even when they become Muselmans, still adhere to this custom. They -also do not spare animals. - -Further to be noticed in Hindostan is the tribe of _Dhaids_, one of -the lowest classes of men; they eat every thing but men; they worship -the sun. The author of this book met one day in Sikakul, in the -district of Kalinga, one of these men, whose name was Nága, and asked -him: “Who are the best men among all the tribes?” The man answered: -“The _Dhaids_,” and subjoined: “When they leave the body, they unite -with God; when a Brahman dies, he becomes a cow; when a Muselman -expires, he is transformed into a plant.” I enquired further: “If the -Dhaids be so highly favoured by God, why should they eat every thing -which they find, the flesh of cows, horses, mice, and the like?” The -man replied: “It is because God loves this tribe that he gave them -this command: ‘Eat whatever you like.’” - -The _Choharas_ are now to be mentioned, known in Hindostan as cleaners -of privies and sweepers of the ground; and in the exercise of this -profession they visit the houses. They say, their master was Shah -Jhuna; he, in one hand a besom of gold, and in the other a basket of -silver, cleans now in the fourth heaven the house of God, and sweeps -the apartments of the Highest. This tribe too eat every thing as the -Dhaids. - -The Nânac-Panthians,[435] who are known as composing the nation of the -Sikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols. _Nânac_ belonged to -the tribe of Bédíans, who are Kshatriyas. His reputation rose in the -time of Zehir-ed-din Baber Padshah[436] (who inhabits heaven). -Before the victory of this king over the Afghans, Nânac was a -grain-factor[437] of Daulet khan Lodi,[438] who ranked among the -distinguished Umras of Ibrahim Khan, the sovereign of Hindostan. - -A durvish came to Nânac, and subdued his mind in such a manner that -he, Nânac, having entered the granary, gave away the property of -Daulet-Khan, and his own, whatever he found there and in his house, -and abandoned his wife and children. Daulet Khan was struck with -astonishment at hearing this, but, recognising in Nânac the mark of a -durvish, he withheld his hand from hurting him.[439] In a short time -Nanac made a great progress in piety; at first he took little -nourishment; afterwards he allowed himself but to taste a little -cow-milk; next a little oil; then nothing but water, and at last he -took nothing but air: such men the Hindus call _pavana haris_.[440] - -Nanac had a great number of disciples. He professed the unity of God, -which is called the law of Muhammed, and believed the metempsychosis, -or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. Having -prohibited his disciples to drink wine and to eat pork, he himself -abstained from eating flesh, and ordered not to hurt any living being. -After him, this precept was neglected by his followers; but _Arjun -mal_, one of the substitutes of his faith, as soon as he found that it -was wrong, renewed the prohibition to eat flesh, and said: “This has -not been approved by Nânac.” Afterwards, Hargovind, son of Arjunmal, -eat flesh, and went to hunt, and his followers imitated his example. - -Nanac praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the Avatars -and the divinities of the Hindus; but he knew that these objects of -veneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real -descent _from heaven_, and their union _with mankind_. It is said that -he wore the rosary of the Muselmans in his hand, and the Zunar, or the -religious thread of the Hindus, around his neck.[441] Some of his -distinguished disciples report of him more than can here find room. - -One of these reports is, that Nanac, being dissatisfied with the -Afghans, called the Moghuls into the country, so that in the year 932 -of the Hejira (A. D. 1525) Zehir ed-din Baber padshah (who is in -heaven) gained the victory over Ibrahim, the king of the Afghans.[442] -They say also that Nanac, during one of his journeys,[443] finding -himself one night in a fort, was absorbed in a vision of God. Children -played around him, and some put their hands upon his body, without any -motion being perceived in him; they sewed his eye-lids, his nostrils, -and his flesh together, and tied his hands fast. When Nanac recovered -his senses, he found himself in this state, and went to a neighbouring -house, at the threshold of which he called out: “Ho! is there any body -in the house who may free my eye-lids sewed together and my hands?” A -handsome woman, having conducted him into the house, untied his hands -and tore the threads by which his eye-lids were sewed together with -her teeth asunder, on which account the color of the mark of the -woman’s caste remained upon Nanac’s forehead. After his having left -the house, the neighbours saw the mark, and supposed his having had an -intimate connexion with the woman; wherefore she was abused by the -people and repudiated by her husband. - -This woman came one day to Nanac, and said: “I have, upon the way of -God, rendered thee a service, and now they revile me for it.” Nanac -answered: “To-morrow will the gate of the fort be shut, but shall not -be opened unless thou appliest thy hand to it.” The next day, in spite -of all efforts to open the gate, they could not succeed, and remained -in great consternation. Men and beasts, far from water, could not go -out to fetch it. The inhabitants addressed themselves to all men who -had a reputation for sanctity, but their prayers were in vain. At last -they had recourse to Nanac, and said: “O durvish, what is there to be -done?” He answered: “The gate shall not be opened except by the hand -of a woman who never lost her virtue with a stranger.” The inhabitants -brought all the women who had a reputation for chastity to the gate of -the fort, but it remained shut: on that account they sat down -hopeless. At the time of evening prayer came at last the friend of -Baba Nanac to the gate. The people laughed at her; her husband and her -relations were ashamed and abused her. The woman, without listening to -the speeches of the people, struck the gate with her hand and it -opened. All men were astonished and ashamed: they fell at the feet of -the woman. - -The _báni_,[444] that is to say the poems, of Nânac, are, as it were, -perfumed with devotion and wisdom, still more can this be said of his -speeches about the grandeur and sanctity of God. All is in the -language of the _Jats_ of the Panjab, and _Jat_ in the dialect of the -Penjab, means a villager or a rustic. - -Nânac’s disciples are not conversant with the Sanscrit language. The -precepts and regulations which Nânac established among them will be -explained hereafter. - -Nânac said in his poems that there are several heavens and earths; and -that prophets, and saints, and those that are supposed to have -descended from above (avatárs), and persons distinguished by piety, -obtain perfection by zeal in the service of God; that whoever devotes -himself to the veneration of God, whatever road he may choose, will -come to God, and that the means to this is, to avoid hurting any -living being. - - “Be true and thou shalt be free; - Truth belongs to thee, and thy success to the Creator.”[445] - -Nánac left children in the Penj-ab,[446] they are called _Kartaris_; -but according to the opinion of some, he had no offspring. They say -that, after Nánac’s decease, his place was by his order occupied by -the Guru _Angad_, of the Srín tribe of Kshatriyas; next succeeded the -Guru _Amaradas_, of the tribe of the Bholáyí-Kshatriyas; after him -came the Guru _Ráma-das_, who was of the Sódahí-Kshatriyas, and also -called the Srí-guru. Ráma-das, dying, left his dignity to his son -_Arjunmal_. During the life of this Guru, the Sikhs, that is to say, -his followers grew great in number and in faith. They said, Bábá Nânac -is a god, and the world his creation; but Nánac in his poems reckons -himself a servant of God, and he calls God _Naránjen_ (Naráyana), -_Parabrahma_, and _Permaisher_ (Paramésvara), who is without a body, -and has nothing corporeal, nor deigns to be united with a bodily -frame. The Sikhs say that Nánac, in the same manner, had been without -a real body, but visible by the power of his individuality,[447] and -they believe that, when Nânac expired,[448] his spirit became -incarnate in the person of _Angad_,[449] who attended him as his -confidential servant. Angad, at his death, transmitted his soul into -the body of _Amara das_;[450] and thus Guru, in the same manner, -conveyed his spirit into the body of _Ráma-das_;[451] whose soul -transmigrated into the person of _Arjunmal_;[452] in short, they -believe that, with a mere change of name, Nânac the First became Nânac -the Second, and so on, to the Fifth, in the person of Arjunmal. They -say, that whoever does not recognise in Arjunmal the true Bábá Nânac, -is an unbeliever; they have a number of tales about the founder of -their sect, and assert that Bábá Nânac, in a former world, was the -radja Janak.[453] - -When Sakha-daiv (Saha déva),[454] the son of Baiás (Vyasa), a -rakhaisher (rakshasa), came to Janak, in order to learn from him the -path of God, he found the rája, who had thrown one of his feet into -the fire; men on foot and on horseback formed a file; Nawabs and -Vizirs were busy about the affairs of the state; elephants and horses -presented themselves to the view. Saha dév thought in his mind that -such occupations and worldly concerns were unbecoming so pious a man. -The rája, who was skilled in penetrating the hearts of others, found -it out, and employing the power of magic, he caused fire to fall upon -the houses, so that at last all the horses and fine palaces were -burnt. The rája seemed neither to hear, nor to see, nor to care any -thing about what happened, until the fire reached the house where he -and Saha dév were. Janak did not throw one look upon it. The fire fell -upon the wooden cup, which they call there _kermandel_,[455] and which -Saha dév used for drinking water. He now, senseless, jumped from his -place, and took hold of his kermandel. The rája smiled, and said to -him: “All my people, and all this, my property, were burnt; my heart -was not bound to them; wherefore I let them be consumed, and feel no -pain about them; but thou, on account of thy kermandel, jumpedst -senseless from thy place. It is now clear whose heart is bound to the -things of this world.” Saha dèv was ashamed of his having been -disturbed. This tale was heard from the followers of Nânac. - -The history of Janak and of Saha dév is contained in the _Jog -bashest_,[456] which is one of the principal books of the Hindus, in -the following manner: Bisvámiter (Viśvamitra)[457] in presence of the -Rakshasas addressed this speech to Ráma chander: “O Rama chander, -venerate thy father and mother; thou who issuedst from them so -beautiful, thou hast accomplished thy task; by the goodness of thy -nature and by the purity of thy character, thou hast polished the -mirror of thy heart, and given it such a brightness, that the -perfection o God is manifest in it; the success which a zealous -disciple obtains, after many difficulties and pious exercises under -the direction and instruction of a Rakshasa, during a long period of -time, that success became thy share without trouble; thine became the -science to be acquired; and thine is, even in this life, the -emancipation in the form of Saha dèv, the son of Vyása. He, thy -father, on account of the excellence of his pure form and of his -divine nature, having come forth wise from the womb of his mother, -without any assistance manifested his perfection, and on account of -the clearness of his intellect, whatever on the way of his journey, -was accessible to wisdom and excellence, was open to his looks, and no -veil nor curtain remained before him; nevertheless, even with such -advantages, he was inquisitive with Rakshasas and wise men in matters -of theology, so that these personages, or pious penitents, gave him -directions and lessons, and offered him their advice with alacrity. -Thus am I ready to give thee some instruction, and communicate some -precepts of wisdom to thee.” Therefore Rámachander inquired of -Visvámiter: “As Saha dèv brought the full measure of wisdom from the -body of his mother, and as his nature was endowed with such -perfection, my prayer is, that you may favor me with an explicit -account of him, and explain to me by what means he procured to himself -the advice of the wise, and in what manner the Rakshasas imparted -instruction to him.” Visvámiter replied: “O Rama chander, thy -condition is as fortunate as that of Saha dèv; such was his dignity -and excellence, that men, by listening to his tale, feel themselves -emancipated, and are no more subject to be born again. O Ramachander, -he too was impressed with the idea that in no condition this world is -permanent, but that all that is seen changes every moment, and passes -from one state to another. One guest arrives and comes into the world, -another dies and goes out of the world; the one is agitated with -distress, the other is quiet; the one exulting, the other overcome -with grief; in short, whoever and whatever exists in this world is -liable to change; there is not the least hope of firmness and -steadiness, and nothing is worthy to bind our hearts. But that which -is firm and steady, deserves that we attach our hearts to it, and that -we perpetually are mindful of, and fix our thoughts and meditate upon -it. Nothing however is firm and steady but the pure being of _Brahma_, -that is to say, the supreme and true entity of God. Moreover, whoever -directs his mind solely towards the divinity, will attain the -knowledge of it, and render himself perfectly free from the desires of -the heart, and from the pleasures of the body, which tend to swell and -to fetter the soul. And like the bird _Pápîhá_,[458] which is fond of -the water which falls from the cloud _Náisán_,[459] and does not taste -of any other liquid from river or well, but thirsting only for drops -from the cloud Náisan, is taken up with the search for them; thus Saha -dév, having made himself independent and free from all desires and -allurements, was always immersed in the contemplation of Brahma, and -having dissolved his own being in the reality of God, he knew Brahma, -and attained the state of absolute repose and quietness. When he thus -became a master of excellence, and as perfect as other rakshasas, then -he felt the desire of his heart accomplished, and with a mind more -splendid than the moon of a fortnight, he passed through the troubles -of life, according to the words of the prophet: ‘With a heavenly mind -upon the carpet of eternity.’” - -One day, during a pleasure excursion in this world, he happened to -reach the mountain Sumair,[460] that is _Alburz_, which in Arabia, is -called _Káf_.[461] Upon the top of this mountain, he saw his father -Vyása, who in a cavern was occupied with the contemplation of Brahma. -Having saluted his father according to the custom of the Hindus, he -asked him: “My worthy father, you who possess the knowledge of the -supreme being, inform me in what manner this knowledge of the unity of -God is diffused in the multitude, in what way the creatures of this -world obtain their forms, to what period their existence is extended, -what is the cause of their duration, and how their existence happens -to be renewed several times, in order that I may possess proper -notions of the state of this world, and that I may unravel this -mystery to myself.” - -Vyása, according to the desire of his son, explained the original -state of the creation in clear words; but as the mind of the sage was -involved in his own thoughts, and occupied with the contemplation of -Brahma, he gave only a short account of the creation and of the -development of this world to Saha dév, who did not derive an entire -satisfaction from it. Vyása knew his thoughts, and said: “O son, my -mind being immersed in the study and in the contemplation of God, I -cannot, for want of time, impart to thee at present distinctly the -account which thou desirest; but I will put thee in the way by which -thou mayst arrive at the satisfaction of thy heart, and I will send -thee to a man who will gratify thee. Know then, that in the country of -Tirhut[462] is a town called Míthila, and there resides Janaka, the -Rája, who is an excellent man, and possesses incomparable knowledge. -Go to him, and engage him to satisfy thy heart. He will give thee an -explicit account of the creation of the world from beginning to end.” -Saha dév, according to the direction of his father, having left him, -went into Tirhut, to the town of Mithila. He saw a city populous, and -delightfully built; the soldiers content with the Rája, and the rayots -(country people) happy and satisfied. Nobody complained at that time -of his lot: in the evening every one laid down in his corner, and at -day-break attended the court of Rája Janaka. The guards at the door -observed Saha dév, _tapasí_, that is, a pious adorer of God, the son -of Vyása, who stood at the gate and asked entrance. The rája Janaka, -before he received the report of it, knew from inward knowledge and -from the light of his mind, the purpose of Saha-dév’s mind; but in -order to try his character, and to put his sincerity and his -individuality to the test, he took no notice of the appearance of the -stranger. Saha-dév, who had come near him, remained there one day and -one night. On the next day, Janaka set about his business; the great -and the vulgar appeared before him. This day too, and the following -eight days and eight nights the rája did not address any question to -Saha dév, who remained in his place without saying a word to any body. -The eighth day, the rája Janak, when he saw that Saha-dév stood the -test by shewing the mark of excellence and betraying no unsteadiness, -he ordered that the stranger should be introduced into the interior of -the palace and into the private apartments. Beforehand, he enjoined -the maids of the bed-chamber and all the people of the palace that, on -Saha-dév’s arrival, they should place before him all sorts of -exquisite viands and agreeable perfumes, and whatever might allure the -mind, and that they should endeavour to fascinate and to madden him. -When Saha dév, by order of the rája Janaka, had entered the private -apartments, handsome women brought before him from all sides delicious -meats, and garments, and every thing that was attracting, and showed -him great respect; after humble prostrations, they placed him in an -elegant apartment. During other seven days and nights the rája did not -appear before him. The people of the inner apartments, according to -the rája’s orders, did what they could in a thousand different ways to -please him: they approached him, clasped their hands with his, rubbed -his hands and feet; they served and tempted him by four principal -means, namely: first, by the splendour of handsome maids; secondly, by -offering him whatever may charm the senses; thirdly, by tokens of -respect, and fourthly, by rubbing his hands and feet. Their intent -was, if there remained any human feeling in him, to rouse it up. Saha -dév, like a mountain that is not moved by any wind, stood firm; he -took notice of nothing, and threw not even a look upon the beautiful -moon-faced damsels about him. The rája Janaka, when informed that not -the least trace of human feeling, lust, or desire had remained in the -young man, and that he had freed himself from the fetters of error and -sensuality, ran without hesitation from the place where he was, and -touched the feet of Saha dév, saying: “Be thou happy, O rakshasa! who -art united with the supreme spirit, and in whom has remained no trace -of the qualities of water, earth, and of human nature, thou, who hast -acquired whatever may be desirable to thy regeneration: for thou -possessest the knowledge of God. Now, tell me, with what intention -didst thou come to me, and what dost thou expect from our meeting?” -Saha dév replied to the rája: “My intention in coming here was to -obtain from thee a true account of the creation; in what manner this -world came forth from the unity of the divine being, and how from him, -the One, proceeded the duality and multiplicity of forms. Explain this -to me, and impress it distinctly upon my mind. Although I received -from my father some true notion of the creation of this world, and -although, from the interior light and from the purity of heart which I -have acquired by my devotion, the truth of the great question presents -itself to my mind, yet I desire instruction from thee, and hope to -receive it from thy tongue.” The rája Janak revealed to Saha dév, -according to his wish, the history of the creation of the world. After -that Saha dév said again to the rája: “O king! it is certain that -between steady, wise, and learned men there is no contradiction; so -does the account of the origin of the world, which I have heard from -my father Vyása, and which I have well impressed upon my mind, agree -with that which thy tongue has communicated to me. The substance of it -is, that the creation of the world and the existence of its -inhabitants took place by the will and by the disposition of Brahma, -and according to the purpose of the supreme being, and that, when it -is the desire of Brahma, the world is created, and when the supreme -being finds it right to withdraw hímself from the circle of beings, -the world returns to nothing, and its inhabitants are again enveloped -with the veil of nothingness and voidness, and nothing remains but -God. In like manner is the existence of all bodies connected with the -will of the divine spirit, so that every being in dependence upon this -will, and in conformity with the principles of its own nature, each -time comes into, and goes out of, the world, or is born and dies. It -is when the worldly desires, connections, and concerns are -annihilated, that a man no more returns to nor leaves this world; -birth and death upon this earth no more concern him, because the ties -formed by his desires are broken.” Saha dév continued: “O rája, what -thou hast said, is impressed upon my mind; but tell me, if there -remains any thing, however minute it may be, of the account of this -world; this too I wish to hear.” The rája Janaka said: “The account of -the world is such as thou hast heard. That holy being, without a name, -without a mark, without an equal, is pure and free from lust and -desire, and his providence brings forth this world. He, the one -perfect being, in what a multitude of beings does he not manifest -himself! And if he removes from this creation the support of his will -and of his providence, nothing remains but himself, the only being. O -Saha dév, thou who hast purified thy heart from the attachments of -this body, and liberated it from all desires and seductive -propensities, thou hast convinced thyself of the trut that, whatever -appears before our eyes, is nothing, and has neither reality nor -substance; what was to be performed, thou hast accomplished it; what -was to be known, thou hast acquired it, and thou hast proved thyself -true; on that account thou art, even in thy life-time, possessed of -_mukt_ (emancipation); that is to say: as a person, when the soul has -left his body, is freed from the want of aliment, so hast thou, -although still in the state of life and health, been liberated from -all bodily wants.[463] Happy be thy life! blessed be thy age, O Saha -dév!” - -Viśvamitra continued: “O Ramachander, thou hast acquired the same -knowledge as Saha dév; in the same manner as he abandoned all desires, -subdued all the appetites of his five senses, and possessed perfect -freedom, in the same manner thou must not permit any sort of desire to -enter in thy heart.[464] There is no other means of _mukt_ but this: -to this thou must tend.”[465] - -After that he addressed the rakshasas and all those who were present, -in the following speech: “O rakshasas! and you who seek the road of -God, know that, as Ramachander, by the purity of his nature and by the -goodness of his disposition, raised himself to the highest dignity, -not less ought to be the excellence of all the wise who are destined -to the acquisition of _mukt_; thirsting for the knowledge of the -highest, they ought to listen to the speeches of all those who devote -themselves to God; nay, the truth and the faith, which Ramachander -possessed, ought to be common, and productive of the same consolation -and tranquillity to all those who, not in vain, aspire to wisdom and -sanctity. I have imparted to Ramachander what I knew to be the best; -now is the time of _Bashest_ (Vas ishta), who attained such a -perfection of a rakshasa, that nothing that is, was, and will be, is -concealed to him, and he has no equal in the world.” So far goes the -text of _Jog bahest_.[466] - -The Guru Nánac, according to the belief of his followers, was in -former times the rája called Janak, and united the dignity of a king -with that of a saint. He called mankind to God. The author of this -work heard from distinguished Sikhs that, when Bába Nánac appeared in -the Sat-jog, a great number of Sikhs assembled around him. He sent a -cow into the kitchen. When prepared, it was brought into the assembly; -some ate of it, others were afraid to do so. The Guru prayed to God -that the cow might rise again, and all those who had been afraid, -beholding this miracle, approached him praying: “Now we shall eat -whatever you order.” Nánac answered: “Not now be it so: mine and your -engagement prevails in the Trèta-Jog.” Afterwards, at the revolution -of the Trèta-jog, the Guru appeared. The disciples assembled; then a -slaughtered horse was brought into the assembly in the manner before -said. Some ate of it; others abstained from it. The Guru prayed, and -the horse was brought to life. Those who had been afraid prayed as -before. He replied again: “Your word and mine are engaged for the -Dwápar-jog.” In this age they brought a slaughtered elephant into the -assembly of his followers. The same happened as I said before, and he -appointed them for the Kali-jog. In this age, they say, a man was -brought into the assembly; whoever ate, became free; who abstained -from it, remained subject to durance, and some of the Sikhs call Nánac -the slave of God. - -It is also related that, when Nânac died, in the Sat-jog, two roads -opened before his soul: the one led to heaven, the other to hell. -Nânac chose the latter, and having descended below, he brought all the -inhabitants out of hell. The Lord God said to him: “These sinners -cannot enter heaven; you must return into the world and liberate -them.” On that account Nânac came to this world, and his followers are -the former inhabitants of hell; the Guru comes and goes, until that -multitude shall have found their salvation. - -Except the zealots among the Sikhs, no man else believes Bábá Nânac a -god. As to the rest, Nânac’s followers condemn idolatry, and believe -that all their Gurus are Nânacs, as was said before. They do not -recite the mantras of the Hindus, they do not venerate their temples, -nor do they esteem their Avatárs. The Sanscrit language, which -according to the Hindus is the language of the gods, is not held in -such great estimation by the Sikhs. Whatever it be, the number of -these sectaries increased every where, so that, in the time of the -Guru Arjunmal it became very considerable, and at last there was no -place in any country where Sikhs were not to be found. They make no -difference between Brahmans and Kshatriyas, for Nânac was a Kshatriya, -and none of their Gurus was a Brahman, as stated above. Thus they -subjected the Kshatriyas to the tribe of Jats,[467] who are an -inferior caste of Baisas (Viśas). The deputies of the Gurus are -besides frequently Jats. They honour equally Brahmans and Kshatriyas. -The Guru is chosen at the discretion of his followers. It should be -known that, in the time of the Afghan sultans, the Umras were called -successors or deputies of Ali; finally, for the sake of brevity, the -name of deputy (masnad) alone was used by the Hindus. The Sikhs call -_masnad_, and also _Rámadas_, the Guru whom they esteem as a king of -the true faith. - -Before the fifth period no tribute was exacted from the Sikhs, but -presents were given by them according to their own discretion, to -their Gurus. Arjunmal sent in his time a person to the Sikhs of each -town in order to collect a tribute; in that manner, the Sikhs -accustomed themselves to the government of a masnad, or deputy. Their -principal deputies, of whom there was a great number, elected on their -part deputies, so that such substitutes were to be found in every -place. The Sikhs created their Gurus, and established that an -_audasi_,[468] or one that has abandoned the world, is not to be -esteemed higher than any other man. On that account, some of their -Gurus are inclined to agriculture, others to commerce, and to various -trades and occupations. Each of them brings every year something, -according to his means, to his Guru; the deputy receives a present -without exacting it; others collect what is destined every year to the -deputy, and deliver it to the chief man of the Guru, who disposes of -it for his own maintenance and for other contingencies; no body incurs -blame on account of presents (or contributions): being raised from all -quarters, they are forwarded to the Guru. - -In the month of February, when the sun is in the sign of the Bull, the -subordinate Gurus come to their chief with those of their followers -who choose to accompany them. At the time of taking leave, each -receives a turban as a present from the deputy. - -Having recorded truly something of the Sikhs in general, I will now -give an account of the chiefs of this tribe whom I have known myself. -In the sixth period lived Sri Guru Har-govind, the son of the Guru -Arjun mal. The Padshah Nur-ed-din Jehangir,[469] now an inhabitant of -heaven, called to his court Arjun-mal, on account of his having -offered prayers for the king’s son Khusro, who had rebelled against -his father. Khusro having been taken, the king ordered the -imprisonment of Arjun-mal, and wanted to extort a large sum of money -from him. The Guru was helpless; they kept him a prisoner in the sandy -country of Lahore, until he died of the heat of the sun and of ill -treatment. This happened in the year 1015 of the Hejira (A. D. -1606).[470] In like manner the king banished from Hindostan the Shaikh -Nezam Thánasír, because he had been connected with, and had prayed -for, his son Khusro. - -After Arjunmal followed his brother Baratha,[471] whom his followers -called “the benevolent Guru.” Now, in the year 1055 of the Hejira (A. -D. 1645), the Guru _Harjayi_ occupies his place. They both professed -the adoration of one God. The disciples of the Guru Har-govind, son of -Arjunmal, called these Gurus Mainá [472](نمينا) which among them is an -oprobrious name. After the decease of Arjunmal, his son, Har-govind, -also made pretensions to the khalifat (deputyship), and obtained the -place of his father.[473] Hargovind was always attached to the stirrup -of the victorious Jehangir. He became involved in many difficulties; -one of them was, that he appropriated to himself the pay due to the -soldiers in advance; he carried also the sword against his father; he -kept besides many servants, and was addicted to hunting. Jehangir, on -account of the money due to the army, and of the mulet imposed upon -Arjunmal (as was said before), sent Har-govind to the fort of -Gwalior,[474] where he remained imprisoned twelve years. He was not -permitted to eat a good meal. During that time the deputies and other -Sikhs used to come and bow before the walls of the fort. At last, -moved by pity, the king granted him liberty. After Jehangir’s death, -Har-govind entered the service of his majesty Amír-ul Múnenîn -Abu-ul-muzafer shaháb ed-din Muhammed saheb Keran sani shah Jehan, the -victorious king. When the Guru returned to Batnesh, which is a -district of the Penjab, he attached himself to Yar Khan, the eunuch, -who held the office of a Foujdar[475] in the Nawabí of the Penjab, and -whom he assisted in the administration. Har-govind returned to -Rámadaspúr, where the Gurus Rámadas and Arjun-mal had built great -edifices and dug tanks. There he sustained an attack of the army which -Shah jehan, the shadow of God, sent against him, and the Guru’s -property was then plundered. From thence he fled to Kartarpúr; there -too war reached him, and on this occasion Mír Badherah, and Páindah -Khan, the son of Fattah Khan Ganáida, found their death. Before and -after this, he encountered great dangers of war, but with the aid of -God he escaped unhurt, although he lost his property. It is related by -one, Sadah by name, that in this war a man aimed a blow at the Guru, -who parried it, and struck him with his blade, saying: “Not in that -manner, but so the sword is used;” and with one blow he made an end of -his foe. One of the companions of the Guru asked the author of this -work: “What was the purport of the words by which the Guru accompanied -his blow?” I said: “It was to give instruction, as it belongs to a -Guru to teach also how to strike a blow with a sword; for a Guru is -called a teacher: he did not strike out of anger, which would have -been blameable.” At last he retired from the war of Kartarpúr to -Bhagwárah, and because there, in the vicinity of Lahore, he met with -difficulties, he betook himself from thence in haste to Gerait púr, -which lies in the mountainous district of the Penjab, and was then -dependent upon the rája Tárachand, who had never paid homage to the -pádsháh Shah Jehan. The inhabitants of this country adore idols. Upon -the summit of a fortified mountain, they raised an image of the Déva, -named _Nâina_ (Naráyana). Rájas and other eminent persons made -pilgrimages to this place. At the time when the Guru came there, one -of the Sikhs, called Bhairo, who accompanied him, entered the temple -and struck off the nose of the idol. The rájas, having been informed -of it, came to the Guru to complain of the act, and named the man who -did it. The Guru called Bhairo before him. The Sikh denied the deed. -The servants of the rájas declared: “We know the man.” He replied: “O -rájas, ask you the god: if he tells you my name, kill me.” The rájas -said: “You blockhead! how shall the god speak?” Bhairo laughed and -answered: “Now it is clear who is the blockhead: if the god cannot -defend his head, nor point out the man who struck him, what benefit do -you expect from him, and why do you venerate his strength?” The rájas -remained silent and confounded. From this time, the disciples of the -Guru increased considerably, and in this mountainous country, as far -as the frontiers of Thibet and Khota, the name of Muselman was not -heard. - -The author of this work heard what follows from the tongue of Guru -Har-govind: “A mighty rája exists in the north or this mountainous -country. One day he sent me an ambassador who asked information, -saying: ‘I have heard that there is a town named Delhi; what is the -name of its rája, and whose son is he?’ I was astonished to hear that -he did not know even the name of Amír ul Múmenín saheb Karan sáni -(Jehangír).” The Guru had eight hundred horses in his stable, three -hundred troopers on horseback, and sixty men with fire-arms were -always in his service. Among these some carried on commerce, and other -trades and occupations. Whoever was a fugitive from his home took -refuge with him. - -The Guru believed but one God. A person desired from him some account -of the creation and the constitution of this world. The Guru said: -“The universe is an appearance without reality, and an unsubstantial -manifestation of God, the highest being; and all bodies, as well as -gods, are an idle illusion. I will tell thee, said he, a story of old -times: There was a king who went to hunt the _hátah jori_, which in -the Turkish language is called _kamer ghah_, and in Persian _barah -shikar_, ‘a fawn of the chace.’ A deer came into the circle of the -hunting party. The king said: ‘On whose side the deer will come forth, -let him not return before me until he has taken it with his hand.’ By -fate, the animal came out on the side of the king. Khusro run after it -until he was far from the army, and reached a place where, on account -of thick wood, he could not find a path. The king was glad to think -the deer would now return towards him; but when he came near it, there -was a small opening through which the game escaped. The king sharply -pushed on his horse, which, contracting itself, passed through the -thicket; but the pádsháh was taken by two branches, and his arms and -feet fastened so as if it had been purposely brought about. He -remained two days in such a state, until two persons, a man and a -woman, who were gathering wood, arrived near him. The woman said to -her husband: ‘Look! the king has hanged a thief.’ The man replied: -‘This is not a place for hanging; we must examine it nearer.’ When -they had approached, they saw and recognised the king, and said to -each other: ‘If we release him, it will be of use to us.’ The woman -observed: ‘He is the king; once made free, what advantage will he -grant us for it? If he promises to marry our daughter, we will release -him.’ They said so to the king, who promied what they desired. After -that, they liberated him, brought him to their house, and gave him -their daughter. He remained there some time, and then joined his army. -When he wanted to enter his palace, the door-keeper struck him with -his stick; the king was seized with a trembling and awoke. He saw the -high throne and the servants before him waiting for his orders. By -this dream he was aroused from the emptiness of his illusion; he knew -that the world is but an appearance without reality; and that, -whatever we experience, being awake, is likewise nothing more than a -dream. He found that the diversity of forms and of distinct bodies is -but an image of existence, and that in truth there is but one real -being, one praiseworthy, and raised above all others by superlative -excellence.” - -One of the Brahmans was called Déva, and counted himself among the -wise. He visited the Guru, and seated himself one day upon the bed of -Bába Jév, who was the son of a Guru. The people said: “Do not sit -there.” He asked: “Why not?” They answered: “This is the place of the -Guru.” He said: “Is perhaps the figure of a Guru not that of a man, or -have I not a rational soul manifest in me? or can I not enjoy what -another eats or drinks?” This speech came to the ears of the Guru -Hargovind. He called that man before him, and said: “O Déva! it is not -the whole world but one being?” He replied: “It is.” The Guru pointed -to an ass, and asked: “Do you know what this is?” Déva replied: “You -are one with God, therefore you are also this.” The Guru laughed, and -was not at all angry. Déva wished to marry his own sister; the people -said: “This is forbidden.” He answered: “If it were forbidden, the -junction of the sexual parts would be impossible. Thus, because it is -not God’s will that we should rise up in the air, he withheld from us -the faculty of flying.” - -The Sikhs venerated the Guru Har-govind as a god, and believed that he -has passed through six incarnations. Perah Kaivan, a Yazdanian, was -moved by the reputatation of the Guru, and came to visit him. - -The Guru recognised him, and showed him great respect. Upon that -account Perah Kaivan left him. A week had scarcely passed after he was -gone, when Har-govind died, on a Sunday, the third day of the -Moherram, in the year 1055 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1645). When they had -placed his corpse upon the pyre, and when the fire rose up in high -flames, a ràjapút called Rájarama, who had been his servant, -precipitated himself into the fire, and walked several paces in the -midst of the flames, until he reached the feet of the corpse, and -having laid his face upon the soles of the Guru’s feet, he did not -move until he expired. After him, the son of a Jat, who was in the -service of Har-govind’s son-in-law, leaped into the fire. Many other -Sikhs wished to follow his example, but the Guru Har rayi forbade it. -Dáulet Khan Kaksal says: - - “Of a hundred sayings of my master, I remember one: - The world never becomes a desert, nor the wine-house a prayer-house. - What can my soul give more than my heart can bear? - Whatever the soul gives, and whatever the heart bears, the one and - the other is god-given.” - -The Guru Har-govind, in a letter to the author of this work, gave -himself the title of Nânac, which was his right distinction. I saw him -in the year 1053 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1643) in Kirtpúr. The Guru -Har-ráyi was the grandson of the said Guru;[476] his father was Garuta -(or Guru daitya), who is known under the name of Bábá Jév. The Guru -Har-govind wished first to transmit his place to his son Garuta, or -Bábá Jév; but the Guru Nághura, one of the Sikhs, brought his daughter -to Bábá Jév. The Bábá wished to send her to his private apartments. -His wife, the mother of Har-ráyi, complained of it to Har-govind, her -father-in-law, who, having heard her, said to Bábá Jév: “Having given -to Nághura the name of my son, I own him as such, and his daughter -cannot go to you, my son.” Nághura refused to take back his daughter; -nor would Bábá Jév give her up. The Guru Har-govind then said: “May -neither happiness nor success ever attend this husband and his wife!” -Upon that, the same day, Bábá Jév threw away his nuptial dress, and -sent the daughter of the Guru Nághura untouched back to her house. In -consequence of this event, Har-govind showed a more particular esteem -for his grandson Har-ráyi,[477] the son of Bábá Jév; he gave him the -name of his father, Bábá Jév, and appointed him his successor. -Invested with this dignity, Har-rayi remained one year in Kirtpúr. -When in the year of the Hejirah 1055 (A. D. 1645) Najábet Khan, the -son of Sharogh Mirza, by order of the pádsháh Shah-jehan, invaded with -an army the land of the rája Tarachand, and made the rája a prisoner, -the Guru Har-ráyi betook himself to Thapal, which town is situated in -the district of the rája Keramperkás, not far from Sirhind. - -The Sikhs call Har-ráyi the seventh Guru. He was a great friend of the -author of this work. I will therefore give an account of some among -the principal chiefs whom I knew, as well as of some customs of this -people. The Sikhs distinguish also the deputies of their Gurus by the -name of Rámdais, that is to say, “servants of God, or of an idol.” -_Jahandas_ was one of the pretenders to the dignity of a Guru; he was -a man high and proud in his speeches, not agreeable to any, -indifferent to good and bad that might happen to him. One day he got a -wound on his foot. Har-govind told him: “Do not envelop _too much_, -and raise your foot.” According to this injunction, he suspended and -uncovered his foot during three months. When the Guru was informed of -it, he said to him: “Cover your foot; what I told you was intended for -the healing of your wound: do not rest on your foot for some days.” -One day the Guru said to him: “Tell the Sikhs to bring wood into the -kitchen, that they may gain some remuneration.” Jahandas did not -appear the next day, as if he had not during one day and a half awoke -from sleep. The people, suspecting some derangement of his brain, -thought he had absented himself. When they, with the Guru, looked -after him, they found him with a bundle of wood on his shoulder. The -Guru said: “I have not ordered you to bear that.” He replied: “You -gave your orders to the Sikhs; a Sikh am I, and know not to be any -thing higher than they are.” Another day the Guru went into a garden, -and said to Jahandas: “Remain at the door.” By accident, the Guru -returned home by another door; Jahandas remained three days on his -feet, until Hargovind, who was informed of it, called him away. - -Har-govind had a disciple called _Badhata_, who sent a person to bring -corn from a field where it was lying cut. This man gave every thing -away, and then said to Badhata who had sent him: “You distributed -every thing, as a father, to the poor; I did the same in imitation of -your example, and dispense you from the remuneration which I should -have gained by bringing the corn to you.” Badhata was at first a -thief, and his disciples exercised later the profession of thieving; -they showed themselves very obedient to the orders of their master, -and believed that stealing for him deserved praise and recompense. -Har-govind, according to the Sikhs, declared that on the day of the -last judgment, his disciples will not have to account for their -actions. - -_Sadah_, a disciple of the Guru, went by his orders to bring horses -from Balkh to Irak. He had a son who had fallen sick. They said to -him: “You are now in the town of Balkh, and but one day’s journey from -home: go to see your son.” He answered: “If he should die, there is -wood enough in the house to burn him: I went about the Guru’s -business, and will not return.” The son died, but he did not return. -At last he bought three capital horses of Irak; but Khalíl Bég, a -tyrant, took hold of them, which fell hard upon him. In the same year, -he lost his only son and heir, and saw himself deprived of strength -and honor. Sadah was a man neither gladdened by good nor afflicted by -bad fortune. The author of this work was once his companion on a -journey from Kabul to the Penjab. The belt of my coat broke; Sadah -gave me immediately his zunnar to serve me as a belt. I said to him: -“Why do you this?” He answered: “To tie the zunnar purports an -engagement to serve another; as often as I render some service to -friends, may I resign my zunnar for it.” - - “This thread serves to tie every thing: - In a cloister it is a rosary; in a temple of idols a zunnar.” - -A Sikh asked the Guru Har-govind: “In the absence of my Guru, what -other shall I find?” He replied: “Whichever of the Sikhs comes to your -house under the name of a Guru, him you may take for yours.” It is the -custom among the Sikhs that, whatever demand they have, they can state -it in the assembly of the Sikhs to the Guru, to whom they offer -whatever present they have, or a coin, and in so doing they join their -hands together, and proffer prayers to him, that he may be favorable -to them. The Guru states then his demand in the _Sangat_ -(_Sangátí_),[478] that is to say, in the assembly of the Sikhs. This -custom exists also among the _Sipásian_, or _Izedanian_. The belief of -this people is, that an assembly is certainly capable of achieving -every thing, inasmuch as the minds act with their united strength. - -Among the Sikhs there is nothing of the religious rites of the Hindús; -they know of no check in eating or drinking. When _Pertábmal_, a -_Jnání_, “wise,” Hindu, saw that his son wished to adopt the faith of -the Muselmans, he asked him: “Why dost thou wish to become a Muselman? -If thou likest to eat every thing, become a Guru of the Sikhs, and eat -whatever thou desirest.” - -The Sikhs believe that all the disciples of a Guru go to heaven. -Whoever takes the name of Guru is received in the house of a Sikh. It -is related, that a thief introduced himself once under the title of -Guru, in the house of a Sikh, and was treated as such. In the morning -the Sikh went out to prepare something better for his guest. The thief -saw many jewels worn by the wife of the Sikh, and having killed her -immediately, and taken the precious things, he fled. Upon his way he -met with the master of the house, who by force brought him back. The -Sikh, when they returned to the house, found his wife dead. The thief, -seeing every thing discovered, confessed the truth. The Sikh replied: -“You have done well.” He then shut the door of the house, and said to -his neighbours: “My wife is sick: she ate nothing of the meal which -she had prepared.” Urging the thief to be gone, he did not take the -jewels from him, but made him a present of them. He finally burnt his -wife. - -They also relate what follows: a kalender was in the house of a Sikh. -One day the kalender said to the wife of the Sikh: “For the sake of a -Guru, satisfy my desire.” The woman replied: “I am the property of -another; have patience.” The kalender, out of fear, did not return to -the house of the Sikh, who asked: “Why does the durvish not visit me -any more?” The woman told him what had happened. The Sikh said: “Why -did you refuse to yield to his desire?” The woman went out, and having -brought the kalender back, permitted every thing to him. When, in the -month of February, the Sikhs assembled at the house of the Guru (who -lived before the time of Har-govind), he threw an angry look at the -kalender, and said: “Him have I struck.” The kalender was stigmatised. - -The following anecdote is moreover reported. A Guru saw a speaking -parrot, and praised him much. A Sikh heard this, and went immediately -to the proprietor of the parrot, who was a soldier, and asked him for -the bird. The soldier said: “If you give me your daughter, you may -have the parrot.” The Sikh consented. The soldier laughed, and added: -“Give me your wife too, and take the bird.” The Sikh did not refuse; -he conducted the soldier to his house, and delivered his wife and -daughter to him. When the soldier came home, and told his wife what -had happened, she was so angry with him that he left the parrot in the -hands of the Sikh, to whom he returned his wife and daughter. The -Sikh, joyful, lost no time to gratify the Guru. Such customs prevailed -among the Sikhs before the time of Har-govind.[479] - - - [374] चतुर्मुखः - - [375] अष्ट बाहुः - - [376] जटा the hair matted, as worn by the god Síva, and by - ascetics; the long hair occasionally matted together, and - brought over the head so as to project like a horn from the - forehead; at other times allowed to fall carelessly over the - back and shoulders. - - [377] अंशुः - - [378] The Hindus have twelve _ádityas_, that is, “forms of - the sun:” these appear to represent him as distinct in each - month of the year. - - [379] कला a digit, or 16th part of the moon’s diameter. - - [380] नक्षत्र The Pauránic and popular enumeration of those - mansions, or constellations is twenty-seven; Abhijit, the - twenty-seventh, being considered as formed of portions of - the two contiguous asterisms, and not distinct from - them.――(_Wilson’s Dict._) - - [381] अष्ट दिशाः These eight cardinal points have each their - regent, viz.: - पूर्व its regent is Indra, इन्द्रः - पश्चिम ―― Varuna, वरुणः - दक्षिण ―― Yama, यमः - उत्तर ―― Kuvéra, कुवेरः - Between S. and E. the regent is अग्नि or वड्निः - ―― S. and W. ―― नैरॄतः - ―― N. and W. ―― वायुः - ―― N. and E. ―― ईशानः - - [382] भैरव “the formidable,” a name of Síva, but more - especially an inferior manifestation or form of the deity, - eight of which are called by the common name _Bhái ravas_, - and have each a particular name, all alluding to terrific - properties of mind or body. - - [383] The edit. of Calcutta adds to Chamunda _Set mantra_. - - [384] These are personified energies of the Gods, called - Mátris, viz.: क्यलक, कालञ्जरी, कौमारी, वैष्णवी, बाभ्रवी, - चमुण्डा, भवानी, पार्वती. - - [385] I cannot hope to have restored every name of the - Persian text to its correct original form. - - [386] If the seven Richis, who are supposed to abide in the - constellation of the Great Bear, are meant, their names - differ very much from those commonly given, which are as - follows: Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulustya, Kratu, and - Vás ishta. - - [387] _Bang_ is an inebriating, maddening draught, made of - hemp-leaves, henbane, opium, or masloe.――(_Richardson’s - Dict._) - - [388] Black is the color of the Sunnites. This supports - Professor Wilson’s _Statement_, agreeing with the Dabistan - (see _As. Trans._, N. S. p. 75), that the Madárián are - Sunnites. But, considering the descent of their founder, and - the concurring account of several Asiatic authors, we may be - disposed to denominate them Shiâhs, or Jsmámiahs, although - the latter have adopted green as the distinguishing color of - their sect, which is also that of the followers of the - prophet. - - [389] One _seer_ = 2 lbs. 6 oz.; French weight, 933.005 - grammes; 40 seers make a _maund_; one maund, in English Troy - weight is 100 lbs.; French grammes, 27,320.182――(_Useful - Tables_, edited by James Princep, Esq., Part I. p. 63). - - [390] Badih-eddin, “the marvel of religion,” was the son of - Saíd Alí, and his origin is traced up to the Imám Hossaín, - son of Alí. He was born in the year of the Hejíra 442, A. D. - 1050-1. Under the reign of Ibrahim Sherkey, he came to - India, where he died in 1433 A. D., according to the dates - of his birth and death 383 years old, but 395 and even 400 - years old, according to the legend of this saint, who owed - his longevity to the power of keeping his breath. Under the - simple name of Madár, he is held in great veneration in - India, where an annual feast is celebrated in his honor, and - his tomb visited by numerous pilgrims, even in our days. He - is said to have had 1442 sons, say spiritual children or - disciples――(See for Madar, _Mémoire sur les particularités - de la Religion musulmane dans l’Inde, par M. Garcin de - Tassy_, pp. 54-62). - - [391] This tale reminds us of a similar story related in the - Mahábharat (Adhi-parva, Sambhava-parva, Adyaya 75, 76, edit. - Calc., vol. I. p. 115). _Kacha_, the son of Vrihaspati, who - was killed three times by the Asuras (the first time - swallowed by jackals; afterwards, cut to pieces and thrown - into the sea; and, finally, pulverised and swallowed by - Çukra, the preceptor of the dáityas) and each time brought - to life in a miraculous way. - - [392] This a village near Firezabad, in the province of - Agra. - - [393] Armillam membro suo aperuit erecto. - - [394] These sectaries worship the more terrible attributes - of the Deity. Said Jelál, or Jelál-eddin Bokhárí was born in - the year of the Hejira 707 (A. D. 1307); he died in 775 (A. - D. 1374), and is buried in the town of Auch, in the province - of Multan.――(See the work of M. Garcin de Tassy, quoted pp. - 69-70). - - [395] The founder of this sect was Patanjali, born in - Havriti-varcha, he taught in Bhagabhandara. His school is - theistical, called _sa Jswara Sankhya_, or “philosophy with - the Lord.” God is the supreme ruler, a spirit or a soul, - distinct from other spirits or souls, untouched by those - evils to which these are subject; indifferent to all good or - bad actions and their consequences, as well as to all - transitory conceptions; he is omniscient; teacher of the - earliest things which had a beginning that is, of all - mythological divinities; himself infinite, and illimited by - time. Patanjali insists upon austere religious practices, - exterior and interior, to which he ascribes wonderful - effects. - - [396] सूर्य मखाः - - [397] अष्ट भुवन लोकः - - [398] सर्व प्रभादेव. - - [399] महाज्योतिः - - [400] नमस्कारः - - [401] The Dabistán (p. 269, edit. of Calc.) affords a - curious specimen of a Sanskrit prayer transcribed in Persian - characters; this prayer is here restored to its original - form in Devanagari. The literal translation of it, - subjoined, shows that it is composed of a series of epithets - encomiastical of the sun; these epithets have been most - freely amplified in the paraphrase which the author of the - Dabistán has given of the original prayer: - - महज्योतिः उत्तमोदयः नृस्वादः लोकनः आहारः सुदर्शनः दृष्टिः मिथनः - महावतारः उत्तमप्रकासः पथ्वी स्मरणः महादातामुक्तसङ्गः आत्मदाता - शरीरज्योतिः स्व आत्म वुधनाथः सर्व ज्योतिः आतपः प्रकाशः औपमिकः - स्वर्ग दाता देवसहायः - - “_Thou art_ the great light――most gloriously rising――the - delight of men――resplendent――_granter of_ food――agreeable to - sight――the eye _of heaven_――the promoter of union――the great - incarnation――the most excellent manifestation――mindful of - the earth――the chief bestower of the devotion to - emancipation――the dispenser of life――the light of - bodies――the lord of intellect and of interior life――all - illuming――the radiance of the day――the effulgency――the - supreme light――only like thyself――the donor of heaven――the - companion of the gods.” - - [402] स्वर्ग लोकः heaven. - - [403] भूलोकः - - [404] लोजानि. - - [405] कल्याणं. - - [406] The Dict. gives only सनकाः and सनत्कुमाराः the four - sons of Brahma, inhabiting the Janaloka. - - [407] जीव दय. - - [408] पुण्यवन्त्. - - [409] धर्ममयास्. - - [410] स्वी. - - [411] द्युव मुर्तयस्. - - [412] आकाश. - - [413] गिरयश्. - - [414] तारा फलं also तारा पथः _ta ra patha_. - - [415] आहरणं means literally “taking, seizing;” in logical - language, “compassing, comprehending,” that is applying an - organ to the object to which it is adopted. This is the - special function of the organs or instruments of action. We - have (see note, p. 122) enumerated “intelligence, egotism, - and mind;” these are the three internal organs; and “five - organs of perception, with five organs of action,” the ten - external organs. Those of action, _compass_, and _maintain_; - those of perception, _manifest_: therefore “compassing, - maintaining, and manifesting,” are the functions of the - thirteen-fold instrument――(See the work quoted, _Sank’hya - Karika_, 32. p. 110). - - [416] सङ्ख्यानं. - - [417] साधन. - - [418] जितेन्द्रिय लोक. - - [419] तपस्या. - - [420] ज्योति मण्डलं. - - [421] ध्यानी. - - [422] त्यागी. - - [423] वैरागीः - - [424] उदासीः - - [425] वन्यासीः - - [426] अवछातः - - [427] चन्द्र भक्ताः - - [428] This passage seems to allude to the Hindu creed about - the souls’ journey from the earth to the uppermost heaven. - According to this, a hundred and one arteries issue from the - heart, one of which passes to the crown of the head. By that - passage, the soul of the wise issues and meets a solar ray, - by which it proceeds to the realm of fire, and by several - other stages to the _moon_; thence to the region of - lightning, and higher up, through Varuna’s watery region, to - the realm of Indra, so as to reach at last the abode of - Brahma.――(Transact. R. A. Soc., vol. II. pp. 31. 32.) - - [429] अग्नि प्रमाणाः - - [430] पवन भक्ताः - - [431] जल भक्ताः - - [432] पृथ्वी भक्ताः - - [433] त्रि पूजाः - - [434] मनुष्य भक्ताः - - [435] Nânac was born A. D. 1469, in a small village called - _Talwandi_, now _Raya-pur_, on the banks of the _Béyah_, the - ancient _Hyphasis_, in the district of _Bhatti_, in the - province of _Lahore_. He was the only son of _Kalu_, of the - Kshatriya caste, and the _Vedi_ tribe of the Hindus――See - vol. XI. of the _As. Res._, pp. 197-292, edit. Calc. _a - Sketch of the Sikhs_, by Brigadier-General Malcolm. The - learned author, whilst with the British army in the Penjab, - in 1805, collected materials that would throw light upon the - history, manners, and religion of the Sikhs. He succeeded in - obtaining a copy of the _Adi granth_, the sacred book of the - Sikhs, and of some historical tracts, the most essential - parts of which were explained to him in Calcutta, by an - intelligent Sikh priest of the _Nirmala_ order. Dr. Leyden - enriched this stock of materials by supplying the general - with a translation of several tracts written by Sikh authors - in the Penjabi and Duggar dialects, upon the history and - religion of their nation. We may therefore believe we - possess quite satisfactory information about the Sikhs in - General Malcolm’s _Sketch_. I shall mark the references to - this work in my notes by G. M. The Dabistán, never quoted in - the said _Sketch_, furnishes some additional, and - corroborates the principal, information derived from other - sources. - - [436] Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, the son of Umer Shaigh - Mirza, descended on the father’s side from the great Tâimur - Beg, and on the mother’s, from Gengis Khan. He was born A. - D. 1483, and succeeded, in the 12th year of his age to his - father, as king of Ferghana, a small country between - Samarkand and Kashgar. Driven by his enemies from his - paternal kingdom, he became the founder of one of the - greatest empires in the world.――(See _Memoirs of - Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, emperor of Hindustan_, written - by himself in the Jaghatai Turki, and translated partly by - the late John Leyden, Esq., M.D., partly by William Erskine, - Esq. London, 1826.) - - [437] Nânaki, the sister of Nânac, was married to a Hindu of - the name of _Jaya-Ram_, who was employed as a grain-factor - of Dâulet Khan Lodi, a relation of the reigning emperor of - Delhi. Nânac attended at the granary of Daulet Khan, which - was in charge of Jaya-ram, at Sultan-púr――(G. M. p. 200.) - - [438] Dâulet Khan Lodi, an Afghan by birth, was formerly - private secretary to Mah-Toghluck, the eighth king of Delhi - of the Tartarian dynasty, called Toghluck, which reigned - from 1321 to 1412 A. D. At that time Dâulet Khan was placed - at the head of the empire, but, at the end of one year and - three months, he was obliged to yield his power to Khizer - Khan, who founded the dynasty of Sadat, in Delhi. This - dynasty, after thirty-eight years, made room for that of the - Afghan princes of Lodi. Dâulat Khan established himself in - the Penjab. In the general disorders of the empire, this - Afghan chief, being attacked by other Afghans, connected - himself with Baber, the Tartarian invader of Hindostan, in - 1534, against Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan king of Delhi, and - after the victory of Baber, continued to rule the Penjab. - - [439] Jaya-Rama was put in prison by Dâulet Khan, on the - charge of having dissipated his property, but was justified - by Nânak’s confessions――(G. M. p. 204). - - [440] पवनाहारि “wind-eater.” - - [441] He was one day lying on the ground with his feet in - the direction of the temple of Mecca: “How darest thou, - infidel,” called out a Muhammedan priest, “turn thy feet - towards the house of God?” “How can I turn them,” answered - Nânac, “in a direction where the house of God is not?”――(G. - M. p. 274.) - - [442] The first expedition which Baber undertook towards - India was, according to Ferichta, in 1505; from Cabul, which - he had conquered the year before, he pushed to, and along, - the Indus. He attempted, later, three times to invade India, - namely, in the years 1519, 1521, and 1522; but, being - engaged in war, on one side with the Usbeck Tartars, and on - the other with the Afghans, he did not completely succeed, - till his fourth attempt in 1525, and in 1526 having - overthrown Ibrahim Lody, in a great battle near Panniput, he - destroyed the Afghan dynasty, three kings of which had - reigned 74 years in Delhi. It was probably about this time - that Nânac happened to be introduced to Baber, before whom - he maintained his doctrine with great firmness and - eloquence. The Tartarian conqueror, pleased with the Sikh - reformer, ordered an ample maintenance to be bestowed on - him, who refused it, saying, that he trusted in him who - provided for all men――(G. M. p. 206). - - [443] Nânac (G. M. p. 204) travelled throughout India, and - went also to Mecca and Medina, teaching his doctrine every - where with a due regard to that of others. He showed great - moderation, and even courtesy, in his intercourse with the - public teachers of other religions. When he visited in - Multan the Muhammedan Pîrans, or “old wise men,” he said: “I - come, like the sacred Ganga to visit the ocean.” - - [444] बाणि _báni_, speech. - - [445] “A hundred thousand Muhammeds,” said Nánac (G. M. p. - 275) “a million of Brahmas, Vichnus, and a hundred thousand - Ramas, stand at the gate of the most High. These all perish. - God alone is immortal. Yet men who unite in the praise of - God are not ashamed of living in contention with each other, - which proves that the evil spirit has subdued all. He alone - is a true Hindu whose heart is just, and he only a good - Muhammedan whose life is pure.” - - [446] Nánac (G. M.) had two sons. There is in our days still - a tribe among the Sikhs, called the Nánac-páutras, or - “descendants of Nánac,” a mild inoffensive race; if not, as - is generally the case, mendicants, they are travelling - merchants. - - [447] خوديمانى _khudimaní_ is the _ahankára_ of the Indians, - rendered in English by “consciousness, egotism, - individuality.” - - [448] Nánac died in Kirti púr Dehra, on the banks of the - Rávi, the ancient Hydraotes of the Greek geographers. Kirti - púr continues to be a place of religious pilgrimage and - worship. - - [449] Nánac (G. M. p. 208-9) bequeathed his succession to a - Kshatriya of the Tréhun tribe, called Lehana, who had been - attached to him, and whom he had initiated in the sacred - mysteries of his sect, and honored with the name of _Angad_, - perhaps _anga_, which word in Sanskrit signifies “body.” - This Angad wrote some chapters of the Adi-grant´ha. He - died in 1552, at Khandur, a village about 40 miles east of - Lahore. - - [450] Amaradas (G. M.), a Kshatriya of the tribe of Bhalé, - died A. D. 1574, at the village of Gondaval, in the province - of Lahore. - - [451] Rámadas (G. M.) was the son-in-law of Amaradas; to - Rámadas some Sikh authors ascribe the foundation of the town - Rámpur, or Rámdáspur, but falsely, as it was a very ancient - town, known formerly under the name of Chak. He however - contributed much to its increase, and dug a tank or - reservoir of water, which is celebrated to our days under - the name of _Amrita Sara_, “the lake of the water of - immortality.” Rámadás died, in 1581, at Amrita Sara, leaving - two sons, Arjunmal and Bharatamal, the former of whom - succeeded him. - - [452] Arjunmal (G. M. p. 212) is celebrated for having - compiled the Adi-granth from the writings of his - predecessors, not without his own additions and - commentaries. Thirteen authors after him contributed to the - work as it now is. The Adi-granth is, like the rest of the - books of the Sikhs, written in the Gurumukh characters, - which are a modified species of the Nagari character. - Arjunmal was put to death in 1606, by the intolerance of the - Muhammedans. - - [453] Janaka was a sovereign of Mithila, and father of Sitá, - the wife of Rámachandra. The name of Janaka became a general - name of all Mâithila kings. - - [454] In the Indian genealogies, several Sahadevas are - mentioned. As we are evidently upon fabulous ground, we may - be excused from attempting to establish that the Sahadeva of - the text is the son of Pandu, or another. - - [455] Probably कर मण्डलं _kara mandalam_, from _kara_, - “hand,” and _mandalam_, “an orb, a round cup.” - - [456] I have not yet ascertained the correct Sanskrit title - of this book of the Hindus; but _Bashest_ is Vasishta, a - celebrated Muni, who rivalled and vanquished Visvamitra. - - [457] Visvamitra, a Muni, the son of Gádhi, originally of - the military order, but who became by long and painful - austerities a Brahmarshi, in which character he appears in - the Rámáyaná, as the early preceptor and counsellor of Ráma. - - [458] The Pápîha is believed to be the _falio nisus_, also a - kind of cuckoo (_luculus radiatus_); possibly the _chátaca_ - of the Hindus, supposed to drink no water but - rain-water――(See _Megda duta_, “the Cloud-Messenger,” - translated from Sanskrit into English, by H. H. Wilson, - Esq., p. 14). The Papîha is celebrated in Indian romance for - his fidelity to his mate. Kalá, having been separated from - Kamrup (see the Adventures of Kamrup, translated from the - Hindustanee into French, by M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 96) says: - “Le Papîha erre-t-il dans la forêt sans celle à qui l’unit - l’amour?” - - [459] _Náisán_ means a Syrian month, which corresponds to - April; the drops of Náisán, or of spring-rain, are believed - to produce pearls, if they fall into shells, and venom if - they drop upon serpents. - - [460] सुमेरु _Suméru_, the sacred mountain _Méru_, on the - summit of which Brahma resides. - - [461] A fabulous mountain, anciently imagined by the - Asiatics to surround the world, and to bound the horizon on - all sides. - - [462] Tyrhoot, a district in the province of Bahar, situated - principally between the 27th and 28th degrees of north - latitude. - - [463] The author of the Dabistán adds here the following - words: “And such a person is called in _Persian_ ‘a freeman, - in the state of higher freedom;’” he forgets that the - conversation takes place between two _Indian_ sages. - - [464] The author amplifies this idea, so often repeated, - here again in four lines, which I did not think necessary to - translate. - - [465] A similar repetition, running through three lines in - nearly the same words, is omitted in this translation. - - [466] The philosophy of the Hindus has been more fully - explained in the foregoing chapters, to which several - passages of the present section relate. - - [467] The Jats inhabited in very ancient times the borders - of the Indus in the lower parts of Multan. There they were - known to the Greek and Latin writers, under the name of - Calhæi, Malli, Oxidracæ as being without a king, - “_arattas_,” and divided into seven communities, who, united - by a common danger, resisted Alexander. In the same country - they opposed, 1300 years after the Macedonian invader, the - irruption of Sultan Muhammed, the Ghaznavid, by whom they - were beaten near Multan on the Indus. Inhabitants of - mountains as well as of plains, they acted a part in the - many wars which took place on the western frontiers of - India, either as predatory hordes, or as allies, or as - mercenaries of the belligerant parties. During the ensuing - disorders of the Indian empire, they extended themselves - towards the east of India, and became masters of the - mountainous district which is limited, on the east by the - rivers Thambul and Jumna; on the west, by the kingdom of - Jâipur, which to the south extends as far as twenty coss - from Agra; and to the north borders on the province of - Delhi. It is not necessary to pursue here the history of the - Jats in all its various vicissitudes; I shall only add that, - in the year 1707, Thuraman, one of their leaders, laid the - foundation of the fortress of Bhurtpúr, 20 miles N. W. from - Agra, and that this became celebrated, to our days, as the - capital seat of the Jats. They are Hindus of the fourth - great caste of Sudras. - - [468] उदासो _udásí_, one who has no passion, nor affection - for any thing; in popular acceptation, a religious mendicant - in general, or one of a particular order. - - [469] The reign of Jehangir lasted from A. D. 1605 to 1628. - - [470] This date agrees with that given by Ferishta of the - rebellion and the imprisonment of Khusro. - - [471] According to the Sketch of the Sikhs by General - Malcolm, Arjunmal was immediately succeeded by his son - Har-govind, whilst the Dabistán mentions his brother as his - successor. There appears an hiatus, or some confusion in our - text; so much however is indicated clearly enough, that - there was a contest about the succession between the brother - and the son of Arjunmal. - - [472] The dictionary gives no satisfactory interpretation of - the word, as relating to the text. - - [473] Har-govind (G. M. p. 213) was a warlike Guru, or - priest militant, and wore two swords in his girdle. Being - asked why he did so: “The one,” said he, “is to revenge the - death of my father; the other to destroy the miracles of - Muhammed.” His character appears in the Dabistán less - advantageously with respect to the religious customs of his - sect, from the austerity of which he is said to have greatly - relaxed, and he permitted the promiscuous use of flesh of - all animals except that of the cow: his military character - however is maintained in all accounts of him. - - [474] Gwalior is situated in the province of Agra, eighty - miles travelling distance south from the city of Agra. - - [475] Foujdar, an officer of the police in Hindostan, and - chief magistrate, who takes cognizance of all criminal - matters. - - [476] Hargovind had five sons, the eldest of whom was Guru - daitya, the father of Har ráyi. - - [477] Rayi is a title a little inferior to that of Rája, - generally applied to the Hindu chief of a village or small - district. - - [478] सङ्गतिः - - [479] The author of the Dabistán does not carry the account - of the Sikhs further than to the time of Harrayi, a - peaceable Guru, who died in 1664. After a contest between - his sons, or, as some Sikh authors relate, between his son, - _Har Krichna_, and his grandson, _Ram Ray_, the former was - chosen. He died in 1664, and was succeeded by his uncle, - _Tégh Bahader_, in spite of the opposition of his nephew, - Ram Ray. Tégh Bahader was imprisoned and put to death by the - Muhammedans, in 1675. After his death, the sect appeared - crushed, but under his son, _Gura Govind_, the Sikhs rose - again, no more as a sect, but as a nation endeavouring to - establish their independence. Guru Govind is considered by - them as the founder of their national greatness; he is the - tenth, that is, their last acknowledged religious ruler; he - is the author of the _Dasama Pádsháh-ka grantha_, or “the - book of the tenth king;” he changed the name of his - followers from Sikhs to _Singhs_, “lions,” who distinguished - themselves by a blue checkered dress; he first instituted - the _Guru-mata_, or “great council,” among them, and - established the _Akalis_, or “the immortals,” who preserved - their name and consideration until our days; in short, he - sanctioned, and confirmed by institutions, the doctrine - taught by his predecessors, who endeavoured to separate the - Sikhs from the mass of the Hindus. Indeed “the admission of - proselytes, the abolition of the distinction of casts, the - eating all kinds of flesh except that of cows, the form of - religious worship, and the general devotion of all Sikhs to - arms, are ordinances altogether irreconcileable with Hindu - mythology”――(G. M. p. 268). - - Guru Govind is supposed to have died in 1708, at Naded in - the Deccan. After him, _Bandu_, a Váiragí, or ascetic, - united the Sikhs under his banners: during some time - successful and formidable, he fell at last before the power - of the Muhammedans. Without pursuing the later history of - the Sikhs, I shall content myself with stating that they - succeeded in forming in our times, under their late Rája, - Ranjet Singh, the kingdom of Lahore, of four millions of - inhabitants, dispersed over a surface of 70,000 square - miles, exclusively of the province of Kachmir, annexed to - their dominions. - - See also upon the Sikhs _The Sigar-ul-Mutakherin_, by Mir - Gholain Hussein-Khan, translated from the Persian into - English by General John Briggs, London, 1832, vol. I. p. - 109, etc. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -OF THE RELIGION OF THE KERÁ TABITIAN. - - -According to one of their treatises, they call God _Kajak_,[480] and -believe him to be one, infinite, all mighty; they maintain his -manifestation under three forms, as the Hindus; they say, if any one -finds God, he converses with him without the aid of a palate and of a -tongue: this is the condition of a prophet. They declare moreover that -the spirit is eternal, and that spirits are sent down; the soul, if it -knows itself and God, ascends to the upper world; if not, it remains -in the nether world. The author of this book heard from one of their -distinguished personages that, when the rational soul separates from -this body, it goes to the upper world; and from the heavens it rises -further; and above this there is a sea, in which is a mountain; and on -its top God, the supreme Lord, resides. If that soul has been -virtuous, the divinity manifests itself to it under a pleasing form; -so that from its aspect the soul derives superlative delight, which no -tongue can express, and remains eternally without change, happy and -blissful in its contemplation. But if the soul has been iniquitous, -God appears to it under a strange and terrific figure, than which none -can be more repulsive and hideous, so that from terror it throws -itself from the heavens down, and becomes confined in dust. Among -these sectaries was a man called _Pawn Pishna_, exceedingly pious. Of -this saint’s miracles they relate that, having jumped upon a stone, -the trace of his foot remained impressed upon it, and now they perform -pilgrimages to it. They say further that, when this perfect man -reaches the term of his life, he convokes the people about him, and -out of the crowd he chooses one, to whom in their presence he delivers -his books and his effects, and says: “I will come to thy house;” after -that, his soul leaves the body, which is buried according to their -customs. The wife of this guardian then brings forth a son, whose -tongue develops itself so as to speak in one year, or sooner; he -convokes witnesses, and in their presence he takes the things which -are counted to him by the guardian, to whom he then remits them again, -and utters not a word until the _usual_ age of speech. When he attains -the period of adultness, he takes the state of a durvish. They say -that such an elect man comes into the world for the conversion of -wicked men. These sectaries have temples of idols, which they call -_Chetharten_,[481] and in which they perform their worship. According -to their custom, when a man has two sons, he destines one of them to -become a durvish; and the king himself, having two sons, makes one of -them a durvish. They believe that there are two mansions; the first of -this, the second of the other, world; the son who becomes a durvish -takes possession of the latter, the son who associates with people of -business acquires the portion of the nether world; when the body of -the father and mother become weak and tottering from age, it is the -worldly son who tenders them his services; but when the soul of the -parents separates from the body, it devolves upon the son who is a -durvish to serve them. When a great number of such young durvishes -assembles, then the son of the king, or of any other chief becomes -their head, and they go to _Bármîánek_, which is a magnificent temple -of theirs. When they return from this pilgrimage, they become _Lámas_, -that is, _Hájís_, “pilgrims.” The Lámas abstain from eating flesh and -from women, and keep remote from all worldly affairs; they wear their -hair entangled, and eat from the skull of a man; they carry joints of -human hands filed together upon a string, instead of a rosary;[482] -and instead of horns for trumpets, they keep bones of human -forearms;[483] they say: “We are dead; and dead men have nothing to do -with the things of the living.” - - “We are gone, and we took a separate corner of a sepulchre, - That our bones might not be a burden to any body’s shoulder.” - -This class of men have not their equals in enchantments, juggling, -spells, and magic. Their king, if his mother be not of royal blood, is -by them called _Arghún_, and not considered their true king; whoever -of this sect belongs to the worldly people, does not abstain from -killing animals, eating flesh and meats forbidden by religion, and -associates with every body in eating. When the author of this book -conversed with a learned man of this sect by means of an interpreter, -whenever a question about some subtilty occurred, the translator could -not always by his interpretation satisfy him. - - “Without possessing the tongue, it is strange to make a - friend by means of the tongue.” - - - [480] (T)_kon_(M)_tchog_, “the chief of the rarity, the - rarest being, God.”――(Dict. Tibetan and English, by - Alexander Csoma de Körös, p. 66, col. 2, l. 13.) - - [481] [(M)_tchod_-(R)_ten_, “a chapel, a temple.”――(Dict. of - Csoma de Körös.) - - [482] We find in a treatise entitled “The Sage and the - Fool,” making part of the Kahgyur, one of the principal - religious works of the Tibetans, that a brahman, not - satisfied with his disciple, and desirous of causing his - ruin, gives him the following advice: “Keep thyself pure - during seven days; cut off the heads of a thousand men; take - a single finger of each, to make thyself a rosary; and thou - shalt undoubtedly, after thy death, be born again in the - substance of Brahma.”――(See Mr. Schmidt’s Tibetan Grammar.) - - [483] We read in “Turner’s Embassy to Tibet,” that, at a - religious ceremony, a priest played a sort of flute made of - the bone of a man’s leg.――(French Transl., p. 61.) - - * * * * * - - The last four notes have been obligingly furnished to me by - M. Foucaud, professor of the Tibetan language in Paris. - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - -From the book _the Dabistán_, a short account of the religion of the -Yahuds, contained in two sections. - -_Section the first_, the information received from the tongue of -Mohammed Sâíd Sarmed. - -_Section the second_, upon the translation of the page of Adam, which -is the beginning of the book of Moses (the Pentateuch). - - -SECTION THE FIRST.――The author of this book never happened to have -intercourse with learned and distinguished men among the Yahuds; and -he set no value upon what he found in the books of foreigners about -their religion: because envy is a corrosion and a fire, which attacks -the enemy. But in the year of the Hejira 1057 (A. D. 1647), when I -came to Hyder abad, I contracted friendship with _Mohammed Sâid -Sarmed_, who was originally from a family of learned Yahuds, of a -class whom they call Rabánián (Rabbins); after an investigation into -the faith of the Rabbins and the perusal of the Mosaic books, he -became a Muselman; he read the scientific works of the wise men of -Iran, such as Mulla Sader, and Mír Abu-’l Kásem, of Kazer sak, and -many others: at last, for the sake of commerce, he undertook by sea -the voyage to Hindustan. When he arrived in the town _Tata_,[484] he -fell in love with a Hindu boy, called Abhi Chand, and, abandoning all -other things, like a Sanyási, naked as he came from his mother, he sat -down before the door of his beloved. The father of the object of his -love, after having found by investigation the purity of the attachment -manifested for his son, admitted Sarmed into his house, and the young -man too met him with an equal affection, so that he could no more -separate from him, and he read the book of Moses, the psalms of David, -and other books with Sarmed. The following verses are the composition -of this young Hindu: - - “I submit to Moses’ law; I am of thy religion, and the guardian of - thy way: - I am a Rabbi of the Yahuds, a Kafir, a Muselman.” - -The learned rabbis say, according to their belief, among the sons of -Israel it was not required that women should wear a dress, and Sarmed -said that Ishâiá, the prophet, himself used to go naked in his last -days. Sarmeda was a good master of poetry. Here follow some of his -verses: - - RABAAI, QUATRAIN: - - “Sarmed, whom they intoxicated from the cup of love, - Whom they called, exalted, and depressed, - Asked for wine, worship of God, and wisdom: - (But) they intoxicated him, and made him a worshipper of idols.” - -In the praise of the prophet, we find what follows: - - QUATRAIN: - - “O thou, by whose cheek is wounded the mind of the red rose, - Internally is the whole blood of the heart, externally the red rose; - Thou camest so late after Joseph, who was in the garden expecting - thee, - That the rose (of his cheek) became first yellow (from vexation) - and at last (from pleasure) a red rose.” - - ANOTHER QUATRAIN: - - “This existence has, without the azure sphere, no reality, - This existence is confined; for, except the absolute being, nothing - has reality. - Is God ever in vain? No! God is not in vain. - This existence is real only with respect to its origin, but whatever - is derived has no reality.” - - ANOTHER QUATRAIN: - - “When God weighed in the balance of destiny with the sun, - The being endowed with every excellence, _Muhammed_, - This was so heavy that it moved not from its place; - The other was so light that it flew up to heaven.” - - A DISTICH. - - “Sarmed, who is a nightingale, has no desire of gold; - (But) his friend is the rose, and the rose has need of a handful - of gold.” - - ANOTHER DISTICH. - - “In the Kâbah and in the idol temple is his stone _the symbol of male - energy_, and his is _the symbol of female productiveness_;[485] - In one place it is the black stone _of the temple of Mecca_; in - another place an idol of the Hindus.” - -In the eulogy of Shaikh Mohammed Khan, who was the chief minister of -the illustrious Dara, Sultan Abed Ullah Kat´eb, we find the -following quatrain: - - “O thou, who art the circumference of greatness to the centre of - the throne!―― - Thou, to whose service a hundred persons are devoted, as is the - firmament _to the universe_―― - Make thou to me, who am a stranger, my evening equal to midday, - If at the side of Kateb[486] thou art as happy as at midday.” - -The Shaikh desired the society of Sarmed. The author of this book was -one day among the persons present; he said to one called Jerán, who -made the eulogy of the Shaikh: “In a short time the Shaikh will, with -whatever he may have acquired, turn towards the voyage of the other -world, and Mîr Mohammed Sâid Mîr will take complete possession of the -dignity of government;” and the same year the Shaikh undertook to set -out _for Mecca_ from Hyderabad. In the year of the Hejira 1059 (A. D. -1649), in the harbor of Fahardanish, he passed from this bodily ark to -the circle of freedom. Hafiz says: - - “The paradise of eternity is in this cell the share of the durvishes; - The Kâbah of the universe is the dominion of the durvishes; - O my heart, be there with reverence: for the sultan and the country - All are in the service of the majesty of the durvishes.” - -Sarmed gave the information that, according to the Yahuds, God, the -Almighty, is corporeal; and that his body is after the image of -mankind, and similar to it; that, during the course of time, he is -dispersed in the same manner as splendor is dissipated. Sarmed -moreover said, that it is mentioned in the Mosaic book and in the holy -writings, that the spirit of the divine body is beauty itself, and -manifests itself under a human form; that punishment and recompense of -the other world are already experienced in this state; that life lasts -one hundred and twenty years; after that, man’s whole life may be -considered as one day, which, when he dies, is followed by night; that -his body assumes partly the form of a mineral, partly that of a -vegetable, and partly that of an animal, and the like; when one -hundred and twenty years have elapsed, night comes to an end, and the -morning appears again; if an atom of his bodily dust be in the east -and another atom in the west, they unite in one place, and life is -renewed to last again one hundred years, as we have said, when night -returns. Punishment and recompense are solely for this world. They -maintain that whatever is, bears eternally the form of mankind, -composed of water and earth. - -The Yahuds agree in denying the appearance of _Aisia_ (Jesus) _as a -prophet_; they say that he was a deceiver; and they reject what the -_Aisuyan_, “Christians,” adduce from the Old Testament about the -appearance of Aísya; they maintain that the prophet Ishâía spoke of -himself the words[487] which have been applied to Aísya. They assert -that Ibrâhím was no prophet, but a holy man, and they esteem a holy -man higher than a prophet. They say that, in the Mosaic book, no -mention is made of Pharâún’s pretensions to be a god; but they relate -that this king was a tyrant who oppressed the children of Israel, -wherefore Musiâ (Moses) rose, and protested against his tyranny. As -Pharâún did not attend to his words, he met with his fate. They also -say that it is not to be found in the sacred book that Harun (Aaron) -was joined to Musiâ in the divine mission, although he acted as his -substitute. They agree in saying that Dáúdâ (David) sent Urîa to be -killed, because the king coveted the possession of that man’s wife, -whom he took afterwards, and hence Solíman was begotten. They further -insist that Aísia was no prophet, as the Nazaréans believe. Dáudâ -said: “My hands and feet will fall, and my bones have been counted;” -all this was fulfilled at the time when Aísia suffered death; but they -assert that Dáúda spoke those words of himself, and in such manner all -things which the Nazáréans set forth about Aísia, the Yahuds interpret -clearly in another sense. It is besides written in their sacred book -that, when the children of Isráîl shall perform iniquitous acts, -Muhammad will appear. About this, Sarmed said that, although the name -of the prophet is in the sacred book, yet another meaning may more -evidently be attached to it; but if even the prophet’s very name be -insisted upon, it has no other import but that it exhorts the children -of Isrâíl to convert themselves to his religion, and, in such an -endeavour, carried beyond all bounds, he said many other things. - -The Yahuds receive no stranger into their community; circumcision is -the law of their prophet, not that of others. They say also that a -prophet is always living and present, to be the propagator of the law -which is contained in the sacred book. _Abhî Chand_, having translated -a part of the Mosaic book, the author of this work revised it with -Sarmad; they corrected it completely, affixed their mark to it, so -that it became a correct copy, from which is the following: - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE SECOND: ON THE BOOK OF ADAM. - -The Dabistan gives here a Persian translation of the Genesis, from the -beginning to chapter VI, verse 8; at the end of which the author says -that this is the only portion of the sacred book of the Jews which he -had an opportunity of examining. According to Eichhorn (see Einleitung -in das alte Testament, 4th edit., vol. II. p. 329) the five books of -Moses were translated into Persian by the rabbi Jacob, son of Joseph, -after the ninth century; the translation contained in the Dabistan is -said to have been executed by Abhi Chand; we cannot say whether it was -made from the Hebrew original, or from the Arabic, or any other -language. We are informed by the baron Hammer-Purgstall (see -Gemaldesaal moslimisher Herrsher, p. 57) that Werka ben Nafil, a -cousin of Khadija, Muhammed’s wife, and a Christian priest, translated -the Old and New Testament from the Hebrew into Arabic; this -translation appears however to have been but little known. Eichhorn -says (loco citato, p. 231), that the first certain traces of a -translation of the Hebrew sacred books into Arabic are to be found in -the tenth century. Pocock mentions (pp. 34, 361) Sâadias, a learned -Jew, who lived from 892 to 941 A. D., as translator of all the books -of the Old Testament into Arabic; and another Jew (not named) who made -a version of the book of Kings into the same language. - -The Persian translation of the fragment under our consideration was -revised by the author of the Dabistan, and by Sarmed, who was a Jew -and a Rabbin, converted to Muhammedism, most probably in the first -half of the seventeenth century. As it was undoubtedly executed from -another original copy than that which had served to the translators in -Europe, it appeared interesting enough to examine whether the Persian -version of the Dabistan differs in any material point from the -translations known in Europe. For that purpose I have consulted the -following copies of the Bible: - - I. The polyglot Bible, printed at Paris, 1645, in which I - chiefly compared the Arabic translation. - - II. The Persian translation, published by the Bible Society - in 1825. - - III. The German Bible, translated by Martin Luther. - - IV. The English Bible, appointed to be read in Churches, 1837. - - V. The English translation from the original Hebrew, by John - Bellamy, 1818. - - VI. The French translation from the original Hebrew, by S. - Cahen, 1831. - - VII. The French translation, by Messrs. Glaire and M. Frank, - 1835. - -Here follow some variations which I have remarked in the Persian -translation compared with the text of the versions just enumerated. -(References are made to the respective copies, by repeating the Roman -numbers prefixed to each.) - - -GENESIS, CHAP. I. - - V. 2. II. III. IV. V. VI. read: “the spirit of God;” I. the - Arabic translation has “the winds of God;” VI. “un vent - violent (divin) agitait la surface des eaux;” the Dabistan, - - وباد خدا مى وزيد بہ روي آب - - “And the _wind of God_ blew upon the face of the water.” - - VV. 6. 7. 8. I. the Arabic translation has جلد, _jeld_, “a - skin, a volume;” II. پرده, _perdah_, “veil, curtain, fence;” - both Arabic and Persian, only figuratively “heaven;” III. - German, “veste;” IV. English, and VI. French, “firmament;” V. - English, “expanse;” VII. French, “étendue” (atmosphere); the - Dabistan رفيعه, “an elevation.” - - V. 26. V. Mr. Bellamy objects to the translation of this verse - by the words: “Let us make man in our image” (in which all - the other versions agree), and he substitutes for it: “We - will make man;” in the Dabistan we find, in support of Mr. - Bellamy, بكنم آدم, “I will make man.” - - -CHAP. II. - - V. 6. All the translations have: “a vapor _watered_ the face of - the earth;” the Dabistan says: “covered, decked.” - - V. 7. All the copies agree in: “he breathed _into his nostrils_ - the breath of life;” the Dabistan translates: “into his body.” - - V. 8. Every where we read: “God planted a garden _eastward in - Eden_;” in the Dabistan: “from old times in Eden;” Mr. Cahen - remarks that Onkelos (a Hebrew commentator before our era) - interprets in the same manner: “in former times.” - - V. 11. We read generally: “Pison: _that is it which compasseth - the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold_;” Messrs. - Glaire and Frank add: “l’or _de ce nom_;” in the Dabistan: - - زمين حوملارا کہ آنجاست بلور و سذك يشب - - “The land Havemla, where there is the beryl (also crystal) - and the stone jasper (especially a whitish kind found on - mount Imaus).” - - V. 12. is not in the Dabistan. - - V. 13. In the Dabistan are omitted, after the name of Gihon, - the words: “the same is it that compasseth the whole land of - Ethiopia.” - - V. 14. The Dabistan reads, after the name of the river Hîdîkel, - رونده پيش طايفه يشراو, “running towards the _people of - Ashur_;” other versions have “towards the east of Assyria.” - - V. 23. VII. Messrs. Glaire and Frank translate: “qu’elle soit - nommée _Ischâ_ (femme), parce qu’elle a été tirée de _Ish_” - (homme). This analogous derivation for man and woman does not - exist in other languages; we find however, in the old Latin, - _vir_ and _vira_, which words are used in the Latin - translation of the Samaritan text; in the Arabic version we - find امرعه for “virago,” and امريه for “virilitas;” the - translator, in the Dabistan, endeavored to reproduce the same - derivation, by _ânsán_ and _ânsn_: - - از ابراي همين كَفته ميشود انسان كه كرفته شده است ار اسن - - V. 24. The version in the Dabistan deviates from the other - translations by the word - ميخسپند بزنش - “he will _sleep_ with his wife,” instead of “cleave unto, or - adhere to, his wife.” - - -CHAP. III. - - Offers no variation to be pointed out. - - -CHAP. IV. - - V. 13. The translation in the Dabistan deviates from IV. VI. - VII. which have: “my _punishment_ is greater than I can - _bear_;” it agrees with I. II. III. and V. which say: “great - is my _iniquity_ to be _forgiven_;” - - بزرك است كناه من از برداشتن - - “Great is my _crime_ to be _overlooked_” (disregarded). - - V. 16. There is coincidence between I. II. III. IV. VI. and - VII. which have: “he dwelt in the land _of Nod_, on the east - of Eden.” V. Mr. Bellamy translates: “he dwelt in the land - _wandering_ eastward of Eden;” in the Dabistan: - - نشيست در زمين اواركي ييش عدن - - “He dwelt in the land of vagrancy, before Eden.” - - -CHAP. V. - - V. 25. All translations have: “Methuselah lived _a hundred - eighty and seven_ years, and begat Lamech;” in the Dabistan - we read only “eighty-seven years.” - - V. 27. All versions agree in the words: “All the days of - Mathuselah were _nine hundred sixty and nine_ years;” in the - Dabistan we find: “the whole life of Manusalah was eight - hundred and fifty-nine years” (according to its own text it - ought to be 869). - - V. 30. According to all versions: “Lamech lived after he begat - Noah _five hundred ninety and five_ years;” according to the - Dabistan, only “five hundred years.” - - V. 31. Pursuant to all translations: “the days of Lamech were - _seven hundred seventy and seven_ years;” pursuant to the - Dabistan: “six hundred eighty and two years.” - - -CHAP. VI. - - V. 3. In the Dabistan we read: “My spirit shall not always - _take patience_ with man;” other versions have: “shall not - always remain,” or “strive with man.” - - V. 5. is omitted in the Dabistan. - -The notice given in the Dabistan of the opinions of the Jews will be -found very incomplete and inaccurate, inasmuch as it is exhibited -without a due distinction of the different Jewish sects, to which they -may be attributed. For a far better account of the Jews, see that of -Makrisi, given in the “Chrestomathie arabe” of Silvestre de Sacy (vol. -I. pp. 284-369), with the various explanatory notes of that celebrated -orientalist. - - - [484] Tata is a town belonging to the Amírs of Sind, the - capital of a district of the same name, and situated near - the banks of the Indus about 130 miles, by the course of the - river, from the sea; lat. 22° 44´ N. long. 68° 17´ - E.――(Hamilton’s _East India Gazetteer_.) - - [485] See pp. 152-153. - - [486] _Katéb_, the name of the sultan, signifies the north - pole; hence the author plays with the words _kateb_, - “north,” _naśif nahar_, “midday,” and _shám_, “evening.” - - [487] The author leaves us in a total uncertainty about the - words to which he alludes; if to those of Isaiah, chap. - LIII, vv. 2-12, the prophet would have predicted his own - sufferings. According to the learned Jew, Isaac Orobio (see - _Israel vengé, ou Exposition naturelle des Prophéties que - les Chrétiens appliquent à Jésus, leur prétendu Messie_), - the words of Isaiah, chap. LIII, are not to be referred to a - single individual, but to the whole people of Israel. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - -Of the religion of the Tarsá[488], containing three sections. - - _Section I_――an account of the Lord Aisíá (Jesus). - _Section II_――of the creed of the Nasárá. - _Section III_――of the works of the Tarsá. - -Of the Tarsá I saw several learned individuals, such as the Padrî -Fransaî, who is highly esteemed by the Portuguese in Goa, and by those -who are in Surat, a maritime place in India. In the year of the Hejira -1057 (A. D. 1647) the author of this book found him in the port of -Surat. - - -SECTION THE FIRST: AN ACCOUNT OF THE LORD AISIA (JESUS).――They say -that the birth of the Lord Mesîah took place in the year 3199 of the -creation of the world,[489] 2957 after the deluge of Noah,[490] 2015 -years after the birth of Ibráhím,[491] and 1510 from the coming of -Mosîah (Moses);[492] and when the children of Israél were in the 65th -week, which the prophet Dáníel had announced, 752 years after the -building of Rome,[493] in the 42nd year of the reign of Cæsar -_Tiberius_. When Aísía appeared, the high priest said: “We charge -thee, upon thy oath by the living God, say, art thou the son of God?” -The blessed and holy Lord Aísîâ replied to him: “I am what thou hast -said. Verily, we say unto you, you shall see the son of man seated at -the right hand of God, and he shall descend in the clouds of heaven.” -They said: “Thou utterest a blasphemy, because, according to the creed -of the Yahuds, God never descends in the clouds of heaven.” Ishâîá the -prophet has announced the birth of Aîsîá in words the translation of -which is as follows: “A branch from the root of Ishaî shall spring up, -and from this branch shall come forth a flower in which the spirit of -God shall dwell: verily, a virgin shall be pregnant and bring forth a -son.” Isháî is the name of the father of Dávid. When they had -apprehended Aisîa, they spit upon his blessed face and smote him. -Ishâa had predicted it: “I shall give up my body to the smiters, and -my cheek to the diggers _of wounds_; I shall not turn my face from -those who will use bad words, and throw spittle upon me.” When Aflátes -(Pilatus), a judge of the Yahuds, scourged the Lord Aîsiâ in such a -manner that his body from head to foot became but one wound, so was it -as Ishâía had predicted: “He was wounded for our transgressions; I -struck him for his people.” When Pilatus saw that the Yahuds insisted -upon the death and the crucifixion of Jesus, he said: “I take no part -in the blood of this man; I wash my hands clean of this blood.” The -Yahuds answered: “His blood be on us and on our children.” On that -account, the Yahuds are oppressed and curbed down, in retribution of -their iniquities. When they had placed the cross upon the shoulder of -Aísiá, and led him to die, a woman wiped with the border of her -garment the face, full of blood, of the Lord Aîsîa; verily, she -obtained three images of it, and carried them home: the one of these -images exists still in Ispániah, in the royal town which is situated -within the country of the king of Portugal; and is shown there twice -every year:[494] the other is in the town of Milan, in the country of -Italy, and the third in the city of Rome. - - - [488] _Tarsa_ is derived from _tarsiden_, “fearing, timid, a - Christian, an infidel, a pagan, a worshipper of fire.” - - [489] Upon the epoch of the creation of the world we have, - according to Riccioli, 70, according to Dortous de Mairan, - 75 or 90, and according to the marquis de Fortia d’Urban, - 108 different systems, to which many more may be added. - These epochs vary from 6984 to 3619 years; that of the - Dabistan, 3199, is the lowest known to me. - - [490] The deluge is placed: - By the Septuaginta 2250 years before Christ. - ―― Archbishop Usher 2348 ―― ―― ―― - ―― Others 3882 ―― ―― ―― - - [491] The above epoch differs 94 years from that given by - Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1921 years before Christ. - - [492] The above epoch differs 19 years from that given by - Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1510 years before Christ. - - [493] The date of the birth of Christ, as given by our - chronologers, varies from 747 to 754 years after the - building of Rome, or is uncertain within seven or six years - (see Chronologie de Jésus-Christ par M. le marquis de - Fortia, p. 102-103, Paris, 1830). - - [494] The viscount of Santarem, to whose most extensive - learning in history and geography, I fortunately had an - opportunity in Paris of applying for information upon the - above mentioned fact, gave me the following notice: “In no - town of Portugal do I find any indication of the existence - of these relics. I think that there is, in the statement of - the Dabistán, an error and a confusion with the fact related - by Brandâo, in 1643, viz.: the famous Portuguese prince don - Pietro, son of John I., having, on his return from Jerusalem - to Spain, in 1428, married in the town of Alcoba in - Catalonia, the countess Isabella, daughter of D. Jayme, - count of Urgel, gave to the bishop of Valenza an image of - our Saviour, taken by St. Veronica. These relics were still - preserved in the cathedral of Valenza in Spain, called by - distinction ‘the royal town,’ in the year 1643.” It was a - few years after this (see p. 305), that the author of the - Dabistán might have received from father Francia, the - Portuguese missionary, the account above stated. - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE SECOND: OF THE CREED OF THE AI SU YAH (CHRISTIANS). They -say that, in the name of God the Father, God the Son, and of the Holy -Ghost, every one ought to bear in his heart and to keep perpetually on -his tongue the Lord Jesus, the Son of God, and never to deny him, if -even it were at the peril of his head.[495] The holy cross is the sign -of the Christians. They reckon fourteen parts of their creed: seven of -which relate to God the Almighty, and seven to the human nature of the -Lord Jesus. The first seven are as follow: 1. to confess that God is -omnipotent and supreme; 2. to believe that he is the Father; 3. to -believe that he is the Son; 4. that he is a pure spirit; 5. that he is -the Creator; 6. that he bestows heaven; 7. that he grants -salvation.[496] The seven other articles, which relate to the human -nature of Jesus are the following: 1. to believe that he is the Son of -God, by the power of the Holy Ghost, born in the body of Maria; 2. -that he was born of Maria, the virgin, and without detriment to her -virginity; 3. that for our sake he was crucified, died, and was -buried; 4. that he shall descend from heaven, and raise up the former -generations, who there anxiously expected his blessed arrival; 5. that -he resuscitated on the third day; 6. that he ascended to heaven, and -sits at the right hand of the Father, the omnipotent and supreme God; -7. that he shall come at the end of the world to judge the living and -the dead, and to reveal their good and bad actions. They call God a -father, because he is bountiful to his servants as a father to his -children. They maintain that, although God has three different -persons, yet, in truth, he is but one being; in such a manner that the -persons are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, without the unity -of the blessed entity being affected by it, and this peculiarity -belongs to the divinity; in no creature is such an attribute to be -found. Jesus is in truth the Son of God; it is only metaphorically -that other holy personages are called the sons of God; it is in an -abstract sense,[497] inasmuch as, being God, that Jesus came forth in -heaven from the Father, not from the mother; in a similar manner, in -an abstract sense, inasmuch as, being a man upon earth, he has a -mother, but no Father. Jesus did not die, but, having a perfect love -for the sons of Adam, he sacrificed himself for the people, that they -may be liberated again from all sins. They say further, that below the -earth there are four places: the undermost of all is hell, which is -the place of severe punishment for the Satans and the iniquitous. -Another place, above this, is that which they call _purgatory_, that -is, a place of purification for good men, as some of the disobedient -who have rebelled, when they shall have there been purified, go to -heaven. A third place, higher than the last, is called the _limbus_, -in which are children under age; except that of being deprived of the -sight of the Lord Almighty, they are there exempt from all other -suffering. The fourth place is the most elevated of all; they call it -“the House of Ibrahîm,” that is, the dwelling of the souls of the -prophets and holy men: these were formerly not quite happy, because -they expected anxiously the arrival of the Saviour, the Lord Jesus; -when Jesus left the body which was buried, he descended to this fourth -place, and when he rose from the grave, he brought the pure souls with -him, leaving the souls in the three other places where they were. -When, after having been put to death, he was restored to life, his -soul was reunited to his body, and he remained forty days with his -disciples; he then, before their eyes and those of others, ascended to -heaven, and, in the highest place, seated himself at the side of God -Almighty. They declare: “When we say that Jesus is seated at the right -side of God, his Father, we mean not to say that God has a body and is -any thing corporeal. No! the Divine Being has neither right nor left -side. By such a description we intend to be intelligible _to the -vulgar_; for Jesus, in the abstract sense of being the son of God, -possesses the same greatness and power which his Father has, and in -the abstract sense of his being a man, he dwells in the most glorious -and most excellent place, which is in heaven.” They declare further: -“When we say that Jesus shall come on the last day of the world to -judge the dead and the living, and to give their due to all men, we -mean not to imply that all men will then be alive, but by the living -we denote the good men, and by the dead, the wicked.” Except -Christians, nobody else will be found pure and holy. On the day of -resurrection, all men shall live and their souls shall be reunited to -their bodies, and none will ever more die. - - - [495] Here the author shows how the Latin word “_filius_” is - to be written in Arabic or Persian characters. - - [496] Here the author shows how the Latin word “_Deus_” is - to be written in Arabic or Persian characters. - - [497] I render here, by “abstract sense,” the Persian word - حيثيت _hâysîyat_, which in the Dictionary is interpreted - “ubiquity, universality, capacity, merit, conditional - proposition, examination, etc.” - - * * * * * - -SECTION THE THIRD: OF THE WORKS OF THE CHRISTIANS.――Ten commandments -are established in the Gospel; three of them relate to God, and seven -others to the servants of God: 1. thou shalt love the Lord thy God -above all things; 2. thou shalt not swear by the name of God for the -sake of an argument, that is, thou shalt accustom thyself to the -truth; when this quality shall be manifest in thee, thou wilt never -have occasion for an oath. The wise master of secrets, the king Naser -Khusró says: - - “At any time speak nothing else but truth, that thou mayst - not have need of an oath.” - -3. keep the holy days, that is the Sunday and the other sanctified -days; 4. honor thy father and thy mother; 5. thou shalt not kill: this -means, evidently, thou shalt not kill a living being at all; but they -have interpreted it that only the animal which is a _private_ property -ought not to be killed, such a one as is serviceable, and in life, or -after death, may be of use. The true sense is, that we ought not only -not to kill our brother (and such is any son of Adam), but even not -hurt him by any deed or word; 6. thou shalt not commit fornication, -that is, with a woman not thy own, be she married or without a -husband; 7. thou shalt not steal; 8. thou shalt not calumniate nor -lie: in this command enters that, if any thing bad concerning somebody -be a secret, although we know it as a certainty, we ought nevertheless -to keep it concealed, and not to divulge it, except the bad thing were -against religion and faith, or tended against the king; 9. thou shalt -not covet another’s wife; 10. thou shalt not covet another’s good. - -The other five commandments, which are less imperative, are: 1. to -hear mass on Sunday, and on other holy days; and this is a rite of -devotion which a padri performs; and every body ought in solitude to -turn his whole mind towards the remembrance of the sufferings of -Jesus; 2. every one ought to go to confession at least once a year. -The confession implies three conditions: the first is truth; the -second, contrition; the third, completeness; that is, to recount -humbly one’s own sins without diminution or addition, to speak out, -and to beg absolution; 3. it is necessary that every one should take, -yearly, the communion at the Easter feast, that is, when Jesus -attained to manhood and made his testament, establishing the rule of -the holy sacrament, which is a worship; 4. let every man keep the fast -at Christmas, and other fasts, except a person be excused; 5. it is -obligatory to pay the tithes, that is, the tenth part of whatever -grows from the earth, or comes forth from an animal, is to be given to -God. - -At the time of prayer, they say, God is to be invoked as our Father; -he loveth us just as a father loveth a son, and his own Son says and -orders that we should call him a father. We ought then to abstain from -sins, that he may enable us to be his children. And when we say to -God: “thou art in heaven,” it is because we think he has chosen -heaven, and for that reason we raise our hearts from the earth -upwards, if even God has no dwelling so as to be beheld in heaven. -Besides, in their prayer, they do not demand bread from God, because -he is displeased at our wanting to-day the necessaries of life for a -future day, but because he wills us to be contented, and to feel no -anxious care about to-morrow. They say, that we ought to pardon the -mischief that we receive from others, in order that God Almighty may -also pardon our transgressions. They offer likewise prayers in praise -of the glorious Mary, saying that the Lord God diffuses abundantly his -grace in any place in which the image of the blessed Lady Mary be -present. In the same manner they consider the image of the Lord Jesus, -and that of the holy cross. - -There are seven sacraments, which consist in submissive prayers and -invocations for remission of sins from God the Almighty: 1. _Baptism_; -that is, an external ablution in the name of God, of his Son, and of -the Holy Ghost; for this act any sort of water that may be procured is -acceptable; by this act the soul is purified from the contamination of -all sins; this rite may be performed by the first padri who may be -present, and if none are at hand, by any individual among the -Christians; 2. _Confirmation_; that is, a friction with holy oil, -given in the name of God; and the giver, that is, a padri of -known merit, bestows it on all Christians of an adult age; -_Sanct-Eucharisty_: this, they say, is the holiest of all the -sacraments, as it presents the Lord Jesus under the form of bread, -that he may become the power of the soul. Three conditions are -required in this act: the first is a true faith; the second, -abstinence from sins; the third, to fast, and eat nothing until taking -the sacrament; the time of taking it is Christmas; 4. _Penitence_; -which consists of two conditions that the Lord Jesus has imposed -therein: the first is confession; that is the avowal made by the -sinner of his sins, and the absolution of the padri, as of one who is -the substitute of Jesus, and whose forgiveness is the absolution of -Jesus. Then, it is necessary that the sinner should give a detailed -account of his concealed and open crimes, and to this he must add two -things; the one is an aversion to, and a repentance of, every action -which he may have done without the approbation of God; the other is a -sincere resolution of never undertaking any blamable acts; to execute -faithfully the penance imposed upon him by the padri, as Jesus ordered -a return for every crime. Further, whatever sins, venial or capital, -may have struck the ear of the padri, he ought never, even at the -peril of his head, to reveal or publish them; 5. _Sacrament of extreme -unction_; this is a friction by which they anoint a Christian with -holy oil, and they bestow this sacrament with some words which the -Lord Jesus has spoken. The above five sacraments are obligatory to -every adult Christian; 6. _Ordination_; this sacrament is taken by -devoting one’s self by free choice to the worship of God, which -vocation the Christians recommend; 7. _Matrimony_; this is an -agreement which a man and a woman take together at the time of their -binding themselves in wedlock, that during the whole of their life -they will keep faith to each other. This is peculiar to the adults. -This act is allowable to women frequently at the age of twelve years; -to men at that of fourteen. The man is not permitted to take more than -one wife, and the woman is bound to a single husband. The padri who -gives this sacrament, after having ascertained that there is no -objection to the marriage, and the compact being made before -witnesses, unites both to each other in wedlock according to the -conditions of matrimony. - -The Christians say that faith is something by which we know a religion -to be certainly true, and that, whenever God, the Almighty, has sent -his message, however hard and difficult, and out of the natural mode -and rule it may appear, we know that God cannot tell a lie. The truth -is found in the book of God, by means of the evidence given by him who -is the substitute of the Lord Jesus, and whom they call _Pope_. It is -certain that he throws nobody into an error, because the Lord Jesus -has in the holy Gospel, made an arrangement with him to that effect. -It should be known that the life of man depends upon these laudable -qualifications. To search and to acquire knowledge is a laudable -intention, in every business and profession; on that account it is by -method and virtue that affairs find a proper arrangement; knowledge is -the master of things; it is like salt in meat, it is the eye of the -body; and as the sun in heaven. _Justice_ consists in using moderation -in the manifold transactions of men, and in keeping men in peace and -in mutual satisfaction: if therefore every body were contented with -his share, and entertained no desire for more, there would be no war -and contention. _Fortitude_ is something by means of which one obtains -superiority over the difficulties which obstruct the life of men, and -the business of fortitude is to triumph over terror and fear, which -Iblis (Satan) throws into the heart, in order to retain us from acts -which are to be done. _Continence_ is a faculty which bestows measure -and order in sensual pleasures; the business of continence is to -prevent men from being carried away by the delights of the world; we -ought to tend in this life towards godliness; blessed are those who -feel hunger and thirst after God. It is required that, in our devotion -to God there enters no other desire but that of the beatitude to see -the Divine Being; on that account blessed are those whose hearts are -pure, because the sight of God shall be their reward in heaven, and -even in this world they shall in a certain way see God: because those -whose eyes are pure, behold things of _superlative_ beauty; it is -required that we carry strife to a peaceful end, and accomplish our -virtuous endeavors. Those who are in a state of opposition to this, -take with efforts and struggles the road of misery. On that account -blessed are the peace-makers, for they shall be called the children of -God. - -There are fourteen gifts of God, the all merciful; seven of them are -bodily, and seven spiritual. The seven bodily gifts are: 1. to satiate -the hungry; 2. to quench the thirst of the thirsty; 3. to clothe the -naked; 4. to harbor the stranger; 5. to inquire after the sick, and to -console the captive; 6. to procure liberty to prisoners; 7. to bury -the dead. The spiritual acts are as follow: 1. to instruct the -ignorant; 2. to advise the poor _in spirit_; 3. to comfort the heart -of the mourners; 4. to admonish the sinners; 5. to forgive injuries -inflicted; 6. to show forbearance to the deformities of nature; 7. to -offer pious prayers for the living and the dead. The Christians say -that every necessitous individual is worthy of charities, to whatever -religion or sect he may belong, but the person of the same faith, or a -relative, is more deserving of favor. It is a sin, when by choice we -perpetrate an action which is in opposition to the pleasure of God, -and when we abandon an act which we are commanded to perform. A -capital sin is it for a man, by his own choice, to commit an -abominable act and deed, such as the unrighteous spilling of blood, -and whoredom. Of venial sins seven are enumerated: such as stealing -some slight thing without a perfect concurrence of the will in it. The -summary of the capital sins is as follows: pride, avarice, lust, -anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth. - -Pride consists in esteeming one’s self higher than others, whence -proceed petulance, which displays itself in vaunting one’s self and -despising others, and in dispute, and disobedience. The remedies to be -applied to it are trust, submission, and obedience to another; these -are suitable means by which the hateful mind may be subdued. - -Avarice is a desire without measure of the brittle things of the -world, and the bad consequences which result from it are theft, -deception in buying and selling, lies, and perjury: the remedies for -it may be good works and liberality. - -Lust is an unbounded desire of sensual pleasures; but the way and -scandalous display of it is the defilement of women: the remedy to be -sought for counteracting it is chastity. - -Anger is a desire without measure of vengeance upon somebody, and the -display of it is hatred of God’s creatures, insulting speeches against -men, contentions, and a total want of mildness: the remedies for it -are patience, forbearance, and the reflection that, for our crimes and -shameful acts, we are deserving of the adversity which comes upon us, -and to keep before our sight the Lord Jesus and his apostles, who -showed nothing but mercy and kindness to those very men who caused -their distress and affliction. - -Gluttony is a desire without measure of eating and drinking; the -offspring of this is sensuality, rejection of fasts, slowness in -worship, and all sorts of diseases ruining the body: the remedies for -this are abstinence, moderation in eating and drinking, in order that -a becoming attention to divine favor be excited, the constitution -restored to health, and a return from all extravagance accomplished. - -Envy is a pain and sadness derived from the good condition of the -affairs of other people; whence proceeds the jealous intention to find -fault and occasion for detraction. It displays itself by rejoicing at -the distress of one’s neighbors, when related by other tongues, by -reviling certain people, and by leading an unprofitable life: the -remedy for it is affection for mankind on account of their being God’s -creatures, and to consider that happiness and welfare are bestowed -upon them by the mercy of God, and that it is an exceeding offence -against good morals to be afflicted on account of the works and -effects which result from _divine_ disposition. - -Sloth is negligence in the worship of God and in good behaviour. It -displays itself by a frequent deficiency in laudable and obligatory -actions, and in always letting slip out of our hands the expedients of -spiritual and material life: the remedy for it is activity and -alacrity. - -Hell is a place a worse than which cannot exist, and in this abode one -is imprisoned to all eternity, on account of commission of sins for -punishment, more severe than which none can be imagined. Heaven is a -place full of all sorts of delight; the happiness of this place -manifests itself for all ages by jubilation and pleasure. - -Jesus told his disciples: “After me, a great number of men will set -forth pretensions to divine mission, but all will be deceivers: remain -you persevering and steady in your adherence to me, until my coming.” - -The Gospel has been translated from the tongue of Jesus into different -languages; namely, into Arabic, Greek, Latin, which last is the -language of the learned among the Firang; into Syriac, and this all -men of letters know. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Of the religion of the Muhammedans, or of the people of Islám (right - faith), consisting of two sections: the first treats of the religion - of the _Sonnites_, the second of the religion of the _Shiâs_. - - -SECTION THE FIRST: OF THE RELIGION OF THE SONNITES.――The author of -this book was informed by respectable persons of the Sonnites (the -mercy of God be upon them!) and saw in their books, namely, in the -doctrine presented by the imam _Mohammed Sheh eristanî_,[498] where it -is said, that in sign of revelation the verses of the high prophet -(upon whom be blessing!) show the right faith; that his religion will -divide into seventy and three sects,[499] and that of this number one -shall obtain salvation, and the rest shall share darkness and -perdition. It was asked: “Upon what people shall the sun of salvation -shine?” He answered: “It shall shine upon the people of the -_Sonat_[500] and _Jamáât_.”[501] It was further asked: “Who are the -people of Sonat[502] and Jamáât?” He said: “Those who walk the road -upon which I am to-day a traveller, and by which my successor shall -proceed.” The same book treats also of the _Sifátîah_,[503] a great -number of which sect has from all times acknowledged the greatness of -the divine nature, whose attributes are omniscience, power, life, -hearing, sight, providence, command, majesty, bounty, profuse -liberality, greatness, and magnificence; they make no difference -between the _essential attributes_ and the _attributes of operation_; -because in logic, according to their definition of the words, both -these attributes are but one; they maintain that some of the -attributes are proclaimed by the evidence of the blessed revelation; -and these they call _attributes declarative_: for instance, the hand, -the countenance; these they do not interpret in a particular sense, -but they say, these attributes are found mentioned in the sacred book, -on which account these attributes are called _declarative_. Whereas -the sect called the _Mâtazalah_[504] deny the attributes, and the -ancients maintain them by arguments; the latter are called _Sifátiah_, -and the Mâtezalah are entitled _Mâtalah_; but these last employ -exaggeration in their arguments to such a degree that they approach -the boundary of a mere image. Some use more restriction with respect -to the attribution, which is indicated by the actions _of God_. -Information derived from the sacred book devolved equally to both -sects; but some interpret these words in a manner that they may appear -probable, whilst others are firm in their interpretation, saying: “We -know by the application of the intellect that nothing can be like the -Lord’s divine power, and that at all times nothing of what is created -can be like him, and firmly convinced of it, we think these words are -to be considered as a mere simile, such as: ‘_God seated upon his -throne_,’ or such as ‘_I created you with my hand, and I preserve -you_.’ Except these words, which are to be considered as a mere -simile, we know no other meaning, and to know _thoroughly_ the meaning -and interpretation of it, we feel ourselves perplexed; but, in spite -of this perplexity, we deny the likeness of the created beings and the -Creator, on account of the extent of the divine power.” - -The sect called _Jamáâtî_, which belongs to the moderns, amplified -what the ancients had maintained, and said, that necessarily an -evident sense is to be ascribed to these words, and by means of a -commentary an agreement was obtained upon the proper bearing which the -text of the sacred book has, so that we may without difficulty -interpret it, or establish the evident meaning of it. They always fell -into a pure simile, and in such an acceptation, they are in opposition -to the ancients. Whatever, as a pure simile, is taken from the sacred -book of the Jews, this is also not received by all the Jewish tribes, -although the readers of the Koran, having found some such words in the -Old Testament, employ the simile as an argument, and in this belief -are the _Shîâh_. Some fell upon the side of excess, and some upon that -of deficiency; but others of the sect, which by exaggeration[505] -exceeded all bounds, declared as vain any comparison with the Lord -Almighty, whilst the sect which happened to take the side of -deficiency and error compared something which is created to the Lord -God. When the _Mâtazalah_ and the _Matakalmán_,[506] “scholastics,” -appeared, then some openly turned their face from exaggeration and -deficiency in which they were, and became _Mâtazalah_. And some of the -ancients, inasmuch as they attached themselves to the imagery of -certain words which are to be considered as a mere simile, fell into -an error; but the sect of the ancients in general did not oppose the -interpretation of those words, and made themselves no objects of -contention and blame on account of the simile. It was the example of -the theologians and of the Imáms of the right faith, the Imám _Ans_ -Ebn _Málik_,[507] (the peace of God be upon him!) who said that the -words: “_God was seated upon his throne_,” are evident; the attribute -is unknown, and the faith to be placed in it is necessary. The -question thereupon being a novelty, and carried to such a state, the -Imáms _Ahmed Hanbal_[508] and _Dáúd Jśfaháni_,[509] (the mercy of God -be upon them!) and the Jamáâtî, who followed them, came to a final -conclusion, until the time of _Abd-Alah Kalabî_, and _Abî al Abas -Kalánasî_, and _Háres Jben Asad Mahásebi_.[510] Although these were of -the ancients, it happened that, by devoting themselves to scholastic -theology, they became inflamed with it, but were not able to expound -the creed of the ancients; in such a manner as to impart, by means of -arguments, clearness to the fundamentals of theology, and their fervor -and activity became doubled and increased, until by the intervention -of the Shaikh _Abu ’l Hasen Asharî_[511], and by his instruction in -the precepts of rectitude and perfection an opposition appeared, and a -dispute arose, and enmity displayed itself. Ashâri inclined to their -side, and by opening roads to the fundamentals of theology, he lent -strength to their endeavors, and this creed became the religion of the -_Sonnites_ and the _Jamáât_. The title of _Sifátíah_, which they bore -as a title of honor, was changed, and they called themselves _Ashârî_. -As the _Ashârîáh_ and _Keramiah_[512] are among the establishers of -the divine attributes, they are acknowledged as two sects of the -totality of the Sifátîah. The principal point among the precepts of -the Ashârîs is, that every being that may _really_ exist must be -perfect, that it may answer its own purpose; perfection is a necessity -of existence, and the Lord Almighty is the _real_ being: the necessity -of the Lord God is always right, and the law by him is a salvation -acquired, so that the faithful believers shall in the other world, by -a beneficent necessity, become exalted: - - “God said: ‘Some countenances shall on that day look towards - their Lord.’”[513] - -They say besides, that if he gave access to heaven to all creatures, -or sent them to hell, it would not be unjust; because tyranny can be -exercised every where except in his empire. They maintain also, that -the office of an Imam becomes firm by union and election, not only by -manifestation and establishment: because, if there was manifestation, -it did not remain occult, and the excitements occasioned by the report -of it were abundant. Upon the plank of the children of Sáâdah[514] -they united to elect _Abubeker_; after having established Abubeker, -they chose _Omar_; and after consultation _Osman_, and afterwards -their choice fell upon _Alî_ (the blessing of God, the Highest, be -upon them all!). The order of their succession in the office of Imam -was according to the order of their excellence. - -An example of what was said about the ancients is to be found among -the possessors of the sacred sayings, the Imam Ahmed Hanbal[515] and -Dáúd Ebn Ali Muhammed Jsfahánî[516] and the Jamáâtî of the ancients -(the blessing of God be upon them!) who proceeded as leaders upon the -high road of the ancients, such as Málik Ans and Makábil Ben Solîman, -and persevered upon the high road of peace, saying: “We made oath by -the book and the Sonna, and we were no opposers to the interpretation;” -therefore they placed confidence in the book of God, and the Sonnites -said: “We know that the Lord Almighty is not like any thing that is -created, and none of the created beings is like the Lord Almighty;” -and they were very careful of the simile, and said: “Whoever makes a -motion with his hand in reciting these words: - - ‘I created with my hands,’ - -“or extends his finger, repeating these words of the sacred sayings: - - ‘The heart of the believer is between two fingers of God the - Merciful.’ - -“it shall be necessary to cut off his hand.” They said besides: ”We -persevere in the interpretation of it, because there is a remedy for -the heart, which remedy proceeded from the heavenly revelation; -namely, - - “They whose hearts are inclined to error will follow that - which is parabolical therein (the Koran), out of love of - schism and a desire of the interpretation thereof; yet none - knoweth the interpretation thereof, except God. But they who - are well grounded in knowledge say: ‘We believe therein the - whole is from our Lord.’[517] - -“And we are safe from doubt, and the interpretation of the command is -fixed in our thought; by common consent the word about the attributes -of God Almighty, interpreted according to opinion, is not to be -depended upon; it may sometimes happen that we interpret it contrarily -to the will of the Lord God; we always fall into doubt and some -deviation from truth; but we say what the men firm in knowledge say: -that the whole is from the Lord, the Almighty God; we manifested this -belief externally, and internally we acknowledged it as true; we -consign it to the Lord, the Almighty God, and we are not perplexed by -the abstruseness of this knowledge, because to possess it, is not -imposed upon us by the law of the faith.” Some have carried -scrupulousness to that degree, that they do not interpret in Persian -the words “hand, countenance, and strength;” but, like the _Hashaviyat -Ashâriah_, they enjoined that whatever is contained in the Koran about -strength, both hands, countenance, arrival, meeting, supremacy, and -the words in the sacred sayings, such as: - - “God created Adam after his own image.” - -and other expressions therein of a similar sort, are to be read in the -very terms of the original, so that the words which there openly bear -upon solid bodies, are understood by them in such a manner as to -answer the belief of the religious sects and the attribution. - -The author of this book heard, in the year of the Hejira 1048 (A. D. -1638) in the royal capital of Lahore, from _Mulla Adel_, of Kashghar, -that he (the Mulla) has read in the revered book of his faith, and -also the _lord Mawlána Abd al rahmen Jámî_[518] has stated, in his -noble verses, that by the right faith it is necessary to believe in -our heart, and to confess with our tongue, that the author of -existence is independant, absolute, and without wants; and that his -being is free of matter and without a form, and that he is better than -whatever can be imagined; he existed primitively whilst the beings -were in the mansions of nothingness; after which, as an object -everlasting, he remained firm, and no other being but he is always, -and one; but his greatness, his attributes, and his names are without -measure and number, although in a thousand parts he is but one; in -these however he is not confined; the qualities of his majesty are not -perceived by the eye; and no being but he has life inherent in his -qualities; but he lives neither by his spirit, nor breath, nor body, -although he be living by himself. He is another universe, endowed with -such a knowledge that the world has no superiority over him, and his -omniscience comprehends the totalities and the parts, the inhabitants -and the places, and the town of existence, in such a manner that not a -grain of sand is without his knowledge; he is the author of every -thing by his will, and the actions of all things may be voluntary, -such as the doings of mankind; or natural, such as the inclination of -a stone, and are all produced by his will. - - “Not a thorn pricks without his will; - Not a thread is broken without his direction.” - -He is strong, and possesses a perfect power; without the help of -instruments he performs every thing; from nothingness he brings forth -beings; he hears without an ear; he sees without an eye: - - “He hears the petition from afar and near: - He sees, be there light or darkness.” - -He speaks, but his speech comes not from his throat, nor from the -tongue and the palate; but what he announces or withholds is nothing -more than his speech; and his silence is eloquence. - - “When God, the Almighty, without words and letters - Spoke to nothingness sublime mysteries, - Nothingness was moved by delight at these speeches, - Dancing through the area of existence.” - -The emergencies of the world, good or bad, are all from his -disposition; and the actions pleasing or repulsive, are all his -creation. - - “The good and evil, if they be the necessities of predestination, - The one is contrary, the other conformable, to his pleasure. - He does what he likes, and knows of no hinderance nor favor; - Who is possessed of power like his? - Justice and virtue tend towards him, - Injustice is foreign to his actions.” - - * * * * * - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE ANGELS. - -The angels are neither females nor males, and are pure of all -depravity and sins. Some of the first rank among them are entranced in -the contemplation of the divine perfection which they witness, so that -they are not aware of God Almighty having created the world and -mankind. The second order of angels are the ministers of bodies and -gigantic forms; the revolution of the heavens is their office; and -with every drop of rain an angel comes down, and no leaf appears -without an angel fostering it. But among the angels four are -distinguished, namely: _Jabrîl_, _Isráfîl_, _Mâîkáíl_, and _Azráîl_. -The message of revelation is the business of Jabrîl; to sound the -trumpet belongs to Isráfîl; the surety of professions is Mâikáil’s; -and Azráil seizes the souls. Four angels are the appointed guardians -of mankind, and write down the good and the bad; two of them are -occupied with this business during the day, and two during the night. -The writers of the good keep the right side, those of the bad the -left. The angels can in some form appear to men; - - “Especially to the eyes of the guides of the ways, - From among the possessors of constancy,[519] the prophets and - apostles.” - -The prophets are the select of God from among all the children of Adam -and of the exalted angels, and the spirit of Satan can never hurt -them, if, by an extraordinary emergency, one of them commits a fault, -it is reckoned to be for giving good advice. - - “Adam, at the moment when he tasted wheat,[520] - Received the seed for the propagation of mankind; - From the grain which he ate sprang up a tree; - Life in me and in thee is its fruit.” - -Although there be among the prophets, as compared with each other, a -higher and a lower rank in their exaltation, yet Muhammed the Arabian -(may the blessing of God, the high and omnipotent, be upon him!) is -the noble and excelling prophet, who unites all virtues and -perfections. - - “Before the intelligent, there is no messenger - But Muhammed for all mankind.” - -He is the seal of God’s prophets, and after him no other shall come, -and when at the end of time the Messiah shall descend, he shall adopt -the law of Muhammed; he shall convoke the nations to his religion; the -law of the prophet shall cancel all other laws. - - “If the decision of the law of the sovereign (Muhammed) happens to be - Corresponding with another law, - There is no obedience whatever due to the latter, - Except from the circumstance of its being right according to the - law of the prophet.” - -The ascent of the prophet[521] with his body happened during his being -awake, as far as the mosque _Aksa_; there he mounted on the back of -_Borák_,[522] and passed above the heavens. He saw all the prophets, -and the stories of the heavens and the hells; in the heavenly mansion -of Jabrîl (God be praised!) the angel remained behind him; then, by -means of the arch he proceeded further. - - “There was no confident but God; - He saw what was to be seen, he heard what was to be heard; - From thence he turned his face towards his dwelling; - His place of repose had not yet become cold.” - -If this supernatural event was associated with the claim of prophecy, -so was it a miracle, and if not, so was it divine favour; in the -existence of the Lord prophet (the blessing and peace of God be with -him) was a great number of miracles attesting his mission to the -nations, and such ones as are not to be found with other prophets. -There are many books attributed to God Almighty, and in their whole -number one hundred and four are approved; but they are not confined to -this number, and some of those which are known, are not praised. - - “Every book which God has sent, - Is received by the believing as revealing God’s perfection. - Such is the _Tawrit_ (the Old Testament) this book of the Merciful, - Which by tradition and writing came to Ibrahim. - Another is the Gospel, which came down - By the Messiah, and the psalms by Dáúd. - A summary of all these four is the Koran, - Which Muhammed has composed, - The sense and the text of which is a wonder. - When the eloquent men of Arabia united - Breathe enchantment into the sounds of words, - They become weak, defective, and vile - Altogether, in comparison with the shortest Súrah.”[523] - -As the book of God contains divine words, it is ancient, and the -letters and sounds are new; the novelty of an old meaning is like a -dress. - - “If the dress be perpetually with the heart, - How can the person who possesses the dress be disturbed?” - -The Muhammedan religion is among the most excellent and most noble -religions, and the father of this religion, the prophet of Arabia, is -the best and the most eminent among the saints of the religions; there -is a number of prophets, particularly the friends and the posterity of -the prophet, but none is higher than he, the prophet. - - “Among them all there was, in truth, - None more apt for the khalifat than Sidík (Abu beker); - And to succeed him, there was among the noble - None more worthy of the office than Fárúk (Omar); - After Fárúk, from none more than Zo-ul Narain (Osman) - Did the state of religion find ornament; - After them all, by knowledge and faith, - Was Asad Allah (Ali) the seal of the khalifs.[524] - Do not bestow veneration upon other names but theirs; - To none offer greater honors than to them.” - -When thou findest one of the people of the Kibla (the true faith) in a -sin and fault, accuse him not of infidelity, and number him not among -the people of damnation; in like manner, consider not a fit and good -man, although he be removed from sins, as belonging to the inhabitants -of heaven. - - “Whoever is an unbeliever with a zunar, - Do not consider him for certain as belonging to the inhabitants - of hell.” - -Having found the happy tidings that ten personages[525] have entered -into heaven, do not however include him in their number. - - “Because they are all formed of the pure offspring, - They received also the happy tidings of going to heaven.” - -When any body is placed in the tomb, then two angels of a frightful -appearance ask him: “Who was thy God, thy prophet, what thy creed?” If -he give a right answer, then they keep his grave open, and make a -window from heaven to it, that he may behold his future dwelling. But -if his answer does not prove satisfactory, they beat his face soft -with a club, and close the grave so tight upon him, that a noise -issues from the compression of his sides; they also open a window from -hell to him, so that he may there see his fate and his habitation. -When the period of the world shall be terminated, the name of God -shall not be pronounced by any tongue; then, by God’s orders, shall -Israfíl sound the trumpet, and extinguish all like lamps; afterwards, -during ages, there shall be no motion upon the face of the earth, -until Israfíl shall again, at God’s order, by a blast of the trumpet -blow the souls into the dispersed parts of their bodies, so that all -shall revive. Afterwards, at the last judgment, the angels shall place -the journal of actions recorded at the right hand of the virtuous, and -at the left of the iniquitous. If the balance is weighed down by the -good actions of a person, he goes to heaven; but if the scale, heavy -with sins weighs down the other, hell awaits the sinner. This being -brought to a close, an invisible bridge is thrown over hell; this -bridge is sharper than the edge of a sword and thinner than a hair, -and the believers and unbelievers are to be driven over it. - - “When any unbeliever puts his foot upon it, - The abyss of hell shall be his habitation.” - -The believer also shall, according to his knowledge and his actions, -sooner or later pass over it; a weak faith shall not easily cross it. - - “But he shall find salvation at the end of the business, - Although he may see many difficulties.” - -There are fifty stations in the space on which the obedient and the -rebels shall stop: upon each station another question is asked: - - “He who gives a right answer - Crosses each station with rapidity. - But if not, in each, from a distressing condition, - He suffers pain and grief during one thousand years.” - -The unbeliever shall suffer the torment of hell eternally; and the -iniquitous believer shall remain in it, according to the estimation of -his crimes. - - “Either the entreaty of the intercessors - Shall liberate him from the retribution and punishment, - Or if, by intercession, the door of liberation does not open, - The most merciful of the merciful shall bestow salvation.” - -When they come out of hell, they wash themselves clean of smoke in the -_Kawser_.[526] There are eight gradations, or steps, in heaven; and -every man, according to his knowledge and conduct, shares a place in -them, and enjoys eternal beatitude. The highest of blessings is the -sight of God, the Almighty, whom the good behold as the moon of -fourteen nights. This is upon the authority of the lord Mulána Abd-ul -rahmen Jami.[527] It is written in an esteemed book, that there are in -hell eight steps, in which men are placed according to the estimation -of their sins. - -Here is a short account of what I have learned from the speeches of -intelligent men of the right faith. It is contained in their books -that the first being created was the spirit of Muhammed. - - “The first creature of God was my soul.” - -To this allusion is made in the words quoted from the Koran. Then all -the spirits of mankind were brought forth; these, before being united -with bodies, remained four thousand years in the vicinity of the grace -of the most high God: - - “God created the souls four thousand years before the bodies.” - -The heavens are understood to be the heavenly bodies of the sphere -which is over our heads, and this has seven circles; the earth is the -cover of the tortoise which is beneath our feet. There are seven -earths: - - “Who created seven heavens and earths like them.” - -In each earth there are creatures, and amcng these creatures -propagating inhabitants. The width of each earth is five hundred -journeys of travel. The compartments of heaven are round; but in the -middle of the circle is the tent of majesty; and in each sphere is an -order of angels occupied with the worship and adoration of the -divinity; one troop standing somewhat erect; another multitude -inclined (with their hands on their knees); a number prostrated, with -the forehead touching the ground; others sitting; some carry the -throne of God; and every angel has a place and a post determined, -which he cannot leave. - - “Their place is a place known.” - -From sphere to sphere there is a distance to be traversed in five -hundred years of travelling; in each heaven is one of the seven -planets, all the other stars are in the first heaven, which is the -next to the world of mankind. - - “We have adorned the inferior heaven with the ornament of stars, - And we have preserved it from all obstinate demons.” - -The borders of heaven are upon the mount Kaf, and the throne of -God[528] is higher than the seven spheres. - - “He created the heavens and the earths.” - -Above the throne of God is the ninth sphere (ârsh). - - “He created the heavens and the earths in ten days, and then - took rest upon his throne.” - -The throne of God, the seven stories of heaven, and the seven -_âshîánah_ (nests, houses) of the earth are firm, and having taken -their rest, do not move in any way, and are absolutely without motion. - -All that has been enumerated did not exist in the beginning; the -Almighty God created them without elementary matter by the action of -his wisdom and absolute power. When the day of resurrection arrives, -he shall fold together the heavens, and change the earth for another -earth, and plunge the heavenly sphere and the earth into nothing. The -earth of the resurrection will be like an earth of pure silver, and in -this earth nobody shall have committed a crime. As the happy Abd ullah -says: - - “On the day when the earth shall be changed for another - earth, that is, shall be changed for an earth of white - silver, where no blood shall be shed, and no crimes shall be - committed.” - -On the day of resurrection, heaven and hell shall be made ready; the -dispersed members shall again form their body and be reunited; and the -soul shall again take possession of them. Some shall be carried to -heaven, others to hell. The first of mankind who was created was Adam; -he was the father of men; his body was of earth; Adam was the father -of all bodies, and Muhammed the father of all spirits. - - “I was a prophet and a man, between water and earth;” - -and all existence was brought forth according to, and in dependance -upon, the existence of the prophet Muhammed. - -The angels have wings to fly, with which they cross in one minute a -distance of one thousand years’ journey. Satan was brought forth from -fire, and was accursed on account of disobedience.[529] - -This is the greatest part of the creed professed by the people of -Islam. They are divided into many sects. According to the account of -some belonging to the persuasion of the Sonna and the Jamáât, the -Mulla Muhammed Mâsúm, of Kashghar,[530] was a learned and virtuous -man, and one of those who followed the doctrine of Hanefí, to whom he -attached himself so much as to choose him for his master. His origin -was from Badkahshán, and his name Shaikh Hossan; he always studied the -Koran, the traditions, and other books of religion and law, and -regulated his conduct after them; in such way he passed the day; he -kept frequent fasts, never read poems nor listened to stories, and if -any body uttered before him speeches of worldly people, he became -angry. He was very cautious with the Shiâhs, and admitted them not to -his house. The author of this book asked him, in Lahore: “What is the -cause of the aversion which you always show to the Shiâhs.” He -replied: “I was originally a Shiâh, and therefore conformed myself to -that creed. One night I saw in a dream the lord Imâm Hossen, the son -of the lord Alí, the son of Abí Taleb, and asked him about the real -truth of religion; he enjoined me: ‘Be a Sonni, and keep away from the -inconstant, for they are heretics and idolators of my person, and then -utter unbecoming words against the heads of religion, Abubekr, Omar, -and Osman, and by such an illusion they lost the right way: the way of -truth is the doctrine of the Sonnites and the Jamáât.’” - -Here follows what I have learned from the Shaikh Hossen, as well as -from Mulla Aádil. A Shiâh is no Muselman, and when he brings forth his -faith, it is not right, according to the saying of the prophet: - - “Reviling the two shaikhs is an infidelity without - repentance (remission).” - -I heard from Mulla Yâkub Tarfánî, that these words for restraining the -tongue exceed all bounds, and are an exaggeration in the veneration of -the two Shaikhs (the grace of God be upon them); that yet repentance -(remission) is admitted; he said besides that it is agreed, reviling -is no infidelity. - -Shaikh Manśur Máterîdî[531] became a follower of the lord Imám Abú -Hanífa of Kufa, and _Hujjet ul islam_, “the proof of Islam,” the Imám -Muhammed Ghazáli,[532] who was a traveller on the same road with the -lord Jmám Sháfâyat[533] (the peace of God be upon them!) said in their -literary compositions, and in books we read, that the root and the -foundation of the seventy and two branches of religion are six -doctrines, namely: the _Tashbíah_, _Tâtîl_, _Jaber_, _Kadr_, _Rafs_, -and _Naseb_.[534] - -In the _âmedat ul mâtekad_, “the pillar of believers,” composed by -_Shaháb ul hak_, “flame of truth,” Shaikh of Islamism and of the -Muselmans, _Abu abd ulla Faselella_, son of the Imám, the blessed, -whom God has taken in his mercy, and whose sins are forgiven, _Taj -eddin_, “the crown of the faith,” _Abu Sâid al Hassan_, son of -_Hassan_, son of _Yúsef al Súrí_, is to be found, that the -_Tashbîhîan_, “assimilators,” have attached to the most high God -improper and unsuitable attributes, inasmuch as they have connected -his creation partly with an elementary principle, and partly with -accidents. The _Tâtîlîan_, “the indifferent,”[535] have denied God and -his attributes. In the before-mentioned book we find, the creed of -this sect is, that the world has no Creator, and that it always was -such as it is, and that, except what is surely perceived, there is no -other existence. - -We have also heard from Shaikh Hossen, that the _Tât´íl_ maintain -what some philosophers asserted, that God is the cause of things, and -that the matter of the world was always in him. We learned also from -Azîzî, that, according to this sect, God, the Almighty, when he -created the world, attached its destiny to every thing that appeared, -and that now, without God’s taking any active part in it, every thing -exists or perishes.[536] - -The sect of the _Jaberiah_, “the compelled,” having given up, and -denying, freedom of action in men, attach all their deeds to God.[537] - -The _Kadariah_, “the powerful,” affect God in themselves, and reckon -themselves the creators of all their actions.[538] - -The _Rafs_, “heretics,” profess their devotion to Alí (the peace of -God be with him!), and in the exaggeration of their affection, they -make an unbecoming use of their tongue in reviling the illustrious -Abu-bekr, Omar, and Osman (the peace of God be upon them!); they -rebelled, and went so far that, whoever did not, after the prophet of -Arabia, without hesitation acknowledge the supremacy of Alí (the grace -of God be with him!) and profess his being the chief of the faith and -substitute of the prophet, was not reckoned by them among the -Muselmans. - -The _Nawaséb_, “enemies,” are devoted to Abu-bekr and Omar, and having -prevailed in this devotion, they rejected Alí (the mercy of God be -upon him!) and proceeded so far that, whoever did not, after the great -prophet, plainly and decidedly acknowledge Abubekr and Omar (the grace -of God be with them!) as khalifs of the prophet, and as Imáms, was by -them excluded from the circle of the right faith. - -Each of these six sects was subdivided into twelve, whence seventy and -two sects arose.[539] All are in the fire _of hell_, by the precepts -of the sayings of the prophet: - - “My nation is divided into seventy and three sects, who are - all in the fire _of hell_, except one.” - -And those only who are without these seventy and two sects belong to -the people of salvation, because they are of the true religion and -upon the right road; but the true religion is that which is not to be -found among the sects mentioned, and in which those six religions are -not likely not to be, because these six religions did not exist in the -time of the prophet and in the last will of the apostle. After him -innovations took place, so that it is not unknown, in what time, and -in what place or town, and by whom they became manifest, and from what -cause they originated. By concordance of the people of Islam, the -right road and the true religion is that which Muhammed (blessing be -upon him!) and after him the noble companions professed, and this -faith is that of the Sonnites and the Jamáât. This is in substance the -creed of Shaíkh _Mansúr_, and of _Hajet ul islám Abu Abd’ulla_:[540] -We are informed by the learned of the Hanefî persuasion, and by Mulla -_Yakúb Turkhanî_, who was an assistant and companion of Mulla _Adil_, -that the religion of the Sonnites and the Jamâát is divided into four -branches, which are the four sides of the city of the law of Muhammed, -namely, the _Hanefîah_, _Málkîah_, _Sháfâya_, _Hambalîah_,[541] and -the wanderer in these four religions is liberated. - - * * * * * - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE UMAVIYAH AND YEZIDIAH CONNECTED WITH THE -ALI-ILAHIAN. - -In the east of Kohistan is a tract of country known by the name of -_Shekúnah_, and the lord of it is Malek Yakúb, who boasts of having -issued from the family of the lord of the believers, Mâaviah Ebn Abi -Safîan. The inhabitants of that country are brave, warlike, pious, and -abstemious. They have many commentaries, and knowledge of law and -religion, and religious books. They acknowledge the divine mission of -Muhammed (the blessing of God be upon him!) as well as the office of -Imám and the khalifat of Abu-bekr and Omar, and of the lord of -believers Mâaviah, and they revile Alî for having pretended to a -divine rank. His belief was that they ought to possess all kinds of -grain;[542] his followers worshipped him as divine; this he insinuated -to them by this prayer, which he pronounced himself in the sermons, -related as his saying: - - “I am God; I am the merciful; I am the bountiful; I am the - high; I am the creator; I am the provider of the necessaries - of life; I am the most compassionate; I am the most - propitious; I am he who bestows a form to the drop of the - sperm in the wombs.”[543] - -and the like; these words are of Pharâún and Nimrod,[544] and like -these are many of their sayings. They are besides fond of bloodshed, -and cruel. They say improper things about the prophet, as of one who -did not always behave with decency. So it happened once, that eating -dates in company with other persons, the prophet threw the stones of -the dates towards Alí, and then said: “O Alí! thou hast eaten a great -many dates, because all the stones are before thee;” Ali answered, -“Thou hast swallowed them with the stones;” and they say this passage -is in the sacred book: - - “There are men whose speeches about the present life will - astonish thee, and who will take God for witness of what is - in their heart, whilst they are the most quarrelsome of - adversaries.” - -And they are approving Ebn Maljám,[545] and say Maljám is among them: - - “There are some men who rescue their soul, desiring in this - manner to perform the will of God.” - -They assert that the two Hasáîn are not of the family of the prophet, -according to this verse of the Koran: - - “Muhammed is not any thing else but one of us; he is yet the - prophet of God, and the seal of the Apostles.” - -They say that Yazîd killed Hasan, the son of Alí, in his house, and -did not bring him forth from the corner where he was concealed.[546] -He was come for subduing the country of Bîrak; on that account he was -put to death. On the tenth day of the Moheram, they go on horseback -upon a wide field which is before their town; there they make, of -earth, an image of Hosain who was killed; against him they dash their -horses, and think fortunate those who can say, that they have been -riding against the bodies of the martyrs of Kerbala;[547] this they -call a day of victory, and on this day they make a greater show of -festivity and rejoicing, because the Imám of the time, that is, Yazîd, -was upon the field of victory. And on Fridays and festivals they -revile from their pulpits the lord Alí and his offspring. Among them -is one sect in particular which act in this manner, and, with their -swords drawn, curse Alí and his sons, and in this way they pass one -day: they are called _Sîáf_, “fencers.” - -The same say that the prophet and his offspring, and particularly -their prophet, had the power of recalling to life and putting to -death, of creating and annihilating any being; and that they did -whatever they wished. But this mode of acting was no more allowable to -their successors, such as that of the prophets to destroy the living, -which power they possessed on account of their having also that of -recalling to life; but it is not one of our attributes to render -lifeless the living, because we have not the power of restoring them -to life; also because the creatures have not been made on our account; -besides, the prophet took whatever mate he liked, because the world -was his share, whilst it is not permitted to us to take the woman of -another man. It is however right, making it our profession, to wage -war against the opposers of faith, and to fight the enemies of -religion for the protection of the law. This people kill no living -beings in the country of Shekúnah. Their usual food is animal juice, -such as honey, butter, and the like; they use no intoxicating liquors, -nor that prepared from the palm-tree, nor opium. - -Among the _Maksud chep_, who are a more intelligent people, the author -of this book found himself in the house of one of them. There a man -called _Hushíar Refik Nikarindah_, asked him: “If it were not -permitted to drink intoxicating liquors, how was it that the former -prophets, and some of the khalifs, the sons of Ommiah,[548] drank -wine?” He answered: “The wine could not overcome their understanding; -with us, it is not so.” Hushiar said again to the author of this work: -“If the khalifs, after the prophet, possessed the power to create and -to annihilate lives, why did they not render the heretics dumb?” The -answer was: “A king sent a phial of deadly poison to the Amir of the -believers, Omar (the grace of God be with him!) that he may give it to -an enemy; the khalif said: ‘I have no greater enemy than my own -spirit,’ and he drank the whole phial, from which however his sacred -body received no harm; now, the gentle-minded personage, who could -drink poison, how would he not hear the abuse of mistaken men? So -represent to thyself the other khalifs.” The _Cheps_ are a tribe of -the people of Shekunah. - - - [498] Sheheristâni is the surname of _Al Fath Mohammed Ben - Abdalkerim_, one of the most celebrated doctors of the - Ashârian sect, an account of which is to follow. He died in - the year of the Hejira 548 (A. D. 1153). He composed several - works upon metaphysics and the scholastic theology of the - Muselmans, and among others that which is entitled _Nehajat - alekdam fi êlm al Kelam_, and on account of which he is - entitled _Mâtakellam al-Ashari_, “the scholastic of the - Ashârian.” We have also from him a book called _Al Melal u - alnahal_, “the means of curing wearisomeness and - melancholy.”――(Herbelot.) - - [499] According to Sheheristani, quoted by Pococke (p. 211, - 1st edit.), the Magians were divided into seventy sects; the - Jews into seventy-one; the Christians into seventy-two; and - the Moslem into seventy-three. Among the sects there was - always one to be saved. - - The baron de Hammer says (Journ. As., juin 1825, p. 321, - Tableau généalogique des soixante-treize sectes de Islam): - “The best information which we have yet upon the sects and - the heresies of Islam are those given by Pococke, - Marraccius, and Sale, according to Sheheristânî, and the - Commentary of Mewakif. Pococke (Specimen historiæ Arabum, - Oxoniæ, 1650, pp. 194 and 210), Marraccius (Prodromus), and - Sale (Engl. transl. of the Koran) trace the principal - classes of the genealogical table of the heresies; but their - catalogue is not quite exact, and still less complete. This - subject, interesting for the history of religions, and above - all for that of the Islamitic heresies, is treated - fundamentally in the Commentary of the great scholar Jorjani - upon the _Mewakif_, that is to say, the metaphysics of Adhad - eddin al Ijí, a valuable work in more than one respect, - which work was printed in Constantinople” (in folio, of 635 - pages, in the year of the Hejirah 1039, A. D. 1824). The - baron de Hammer treated this subject summarily in the number - of the journal quoted, pp. 321-335, and in the subsequent - number for July, 1825, pp. 32-46. - - [500] The points of faith in dispute among the schoolmen are - reducible to four general heads, called the four bases or - great fundamental articles. The first relates to the - attributes of God, and his unity consistent therewith; the - second regards predestination and the justice thereof; the - third concerns the promises and threats; the fourth treats - history and reason, and also the mission of prophets, and - the office of Imâm, or chief pontiff. About all these heads - the Muhammedans are divided into different sects, which may - be classed under two principal sorts: the _orthodox_ and the - _heretical_; the former, by a general name, are called - _Sonnites_, or “Traditionists:” the latter _Shiâts_ (see - note, vol. I. p. 101). - - [501] Jamaât signifies properly the _assembly_, or as we may - say, the _church_ of Muselmans. This name is assumed by the - Ashârian, who, as Sheheristâni contends (see Pococke, p. - 211), were the sect whom the prophet indicated as selected - for salvation. - - [502] The Sonnites, just mentioned, are divided into four - sects, the founders of which I shall mention, in the order - as they occur, in the text of the Dabistán. - - [503] The Sifátiah are one of the orthodox sects; they - maintain the existence of the eternal attributes of God, and - are on this account named _Sifátiah_, or “Attributists.” - - [504] The _Mâtazalah_, or “Separatists,” were the followers - of _Wasel Ebn Ata_. He was the disciple of Hassan al Baśri, - of whom hereafter. When he separated from his master, the - latter exclaimed: _Kad êttazal amma Wassel_, “Wassel - separates from us:” hence is derived the name of his - followers, _Mâtazalah_――(See Herbelot). They entirely - rejected all eternal attributes of God, saying that eternity - is the proper or formal attribute of his essence; that God - knows by his _essence_, and not by his _knowledge_, and the - same they affirmed of his other attributes, and hence this - sect were also named _Mâtalah_, or _Mâtalites_, from their - _divesting_ God of his attributes, in which they place the - unity of God. They denied also all vision of God in paradise - by the corporeal eye, and rejected all comparison or - similitude applied to God. They established further, that - the word of God is created; that God is necessarily holden - to the observation of justice in his decrees, to the - rewarding of good and the punishment of the wicked. Moreover - they refuted the dogma of absolute predestination, - maintaining that God was not the author of evil, but of good - only, and that man was a free agent: on which account they - are also called _Kadarian_, from _kadr_, “destiny.” They are - subdivided into twenty sects, taxing each other with - infidelity――(See _Sale’s Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Discourse, - pp. 211-212). The latter are to be particularly mentioned in - these pages hereafter. - - [505] There is a sect among the _Shiîtes_, or “the - Dissidents,” called the _Gholats_, or “the Exaggerators.” - - [506] متكلم _Matkallem_, according to Richardson’s - Dictionary, Johnson’s edition, signifies “a speaker, orator, - declaimer, advocate;” but, according to Pococke (_vide_ pp. - 195, 198 1st edit.), _Al Motacalmín_ are those who - investigate and dispute. _Al Kalem_ signifies “scholastic - theology,” synonymous with _Al mantik_, “logic.” According - to Eben al-Kossai, quoted by Pocock, _Al Kalem_ is a science - by which disquisitions are made about the essence and - attributes of God, and the condition of possible things, - about creation and restitution, pursuant to the canons of - Islamism. Others define it the science of legal principles - which belong to the articles of faith, and are acquired by - positive demonstrations. Further, conformably with the - author of _Al Mawakef_, “stations, or rather theses of - metaphysics,” who himself composed a system of this science, - it is a doctrine by which one is rendered capable of - confirming by demonstrations the articles of religion, and - of solving doubts. - - [507] _Mâlik Ebn Ans_ (see Sale’s Koran, vol. I. p. 206), - was born at Medina, according to different accounts, in the - years of the Hejira 90, 93, 94 or 95 (A. D. 708, 711, 712, - or 713), and died there in the years of the Hejira 177, 178, - or 179 (A. D. 793, 794, or 795). This doctor and head of his - sect, is said to have paid great regard to the traditions of - Muhammed. He was distinguished by the humble confession of - his ignorance. Being asked his opinion as to forty-eight - questions, his answer to thirty-two of them was, that he did - not know. - - [508] _Ahmed Ebn Hanbal_ (see Sale’s Koran, vol. I. p. 208) - was born in the year of the Hejira 164 (A. D. 780) at Meru, - in Khorasan, according to some, or according to others in - Baghdad, where he died in the year of the Hejira 241 (A. D. - 855). He could repeat no less than a million of Muhammed’s - traditions. Refusing to acknowledge the Koran to be created, - he was, by order of the Khalif Al Mótasem, severely scourged - and imprisoned. - - _Ahmed Hanbal_ was the contemporary and friend of _Muhammed - Ebn Edris al Shâfei_, the founder of the sect of the - _Shafâites_. The latter was born in the year of the Hejira - 150 (A. D. 767-8) either at Gaza or at Ascalone, in - Palestine, and died in the year of the Hejira 204 (A. D. - 819-20), in Egypt. He is said to have been the first who - discoursed of jurisprudence, and reduced that science into a - method (_ibid._, p. 207). - - To the names of the three founders of sects just mentioned, - I am to add the name of _Abu Hanîfa al Noman Ebn Thabet_, - who was born at Cufa, in the year of the Hejira 80 (A. D. - 699), and died in the year 150 (A. D. 767). He is the - founder of the sect called the _Hanefites_. This sect is - reckoned, in the order of time, the first of the four - orthodox sects of the Sonnites, distinguished by the title - of “_the followers of reason_,” whilst the other three are - called “_the followers of traditions_.” Of these three last, - the sect founded by Mâlik Ebn Hans is the second; that - instituted by Muhammed Ebn Edris al Shâfei, the third; and - that of the followers of Ahmed Ebn Hanbal, the fourth of the - orthodox sects, acknowledged by the Sonnites. - - [509] _Dáúd Isfahâni_ was born in Cufa, in the year of the - Hejira 202 (A. D. 817); he died A. H. 270 (A. D. - 883)――(_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 261); he was the chief of one - of the _six_ orthodox sects of the Muhammedans (see - hereafter the enumeration of these sects). - - [510] Mahásebi died in the year of the Hejira 243 (A. D. - 875).――_Abulfeda_, II, p. 201. - - [511] _Abul ’l Hasan al Ashari_ was first a Mótazalite, and - the disciple of _Abu Ali al Jobbai_, from whom he disagreed - in opinion as to God’s being bound (as the Mótazalites - assert) to do always that which is best, or most expedient; - on which account he left his master, and founded a new sect, - called the _Ashárian_, who are a subdivision of the - Sifatian. Their opinions were, that they allowed the - attributes of God to be distinct from his essence, yet so as - to forbid any comparison being made between God and his - creatures. They further assert, after their master, that all - the actions of men are subject to the power of God, being - created by him, and that the power of man has no influence - at all on that which he is empowered to do, but that, both - the power and what is subject thereto, fall under the power - of God. Manifold are the subtle distinctions in this - abstruse subject; those who appear the least obscure, use - this form: There is neither compulsion nor free liberty, but - the way lies between the two; the power and will in man - being both created by God, though the merit or guilt be - imputed to man. Yet, after all, it is judged the safest way - to follow the steps of the primitive Moslems, and, avoiding - subtle disputations and too curious inquiries, to leave the - knowledge of this matter wholly unto God.――(See Sale’s - _Koran_, vol. I. pp. 219-225.) Abul Hasan died in Baghdad in - the year of the Hejira 324 or 329 (A. D. 935 or - 940).――(Herbelot.) - - [512] The _Keramian_ are followers of _Muhammed Ebn Kerâm_; - (who died in the year of the Hejirah 255 (A. D. 868)) - (_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 229), they are also called - _Mojassemian_, or “Corporealists,” who not only admitted a - resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God - to be corporeal. The more sober among them, indeed, when - they applied the word “body” to God, would be understood to - mean that he is _a self-subsisting being_, which with them - is the definition of a body: but yet some of them affirmed - him to be finite and circumscribed, and others allowed that - he might be felt by the hand or seen by the eye. - - [513] The Koran, ch. LXXV. v. 23. - - [514] Sáâdah is the name of a tract of Arabia. - - [515] See page 328, note 2. - - [516] See page 329, note 1. - - [517] The Koran, chap. III. v. 5. - - [518] Abd al rahmen Ben Ahmed received his surname _Ja mi_ - from a place called Jám, very near Herat, in Khorasan, where - he was born; he lived under the reign of sultan Hossain Bai - kara, who issued from the family of Tamerlan, and whose - capital Herat was. Jâmî is one of the most celebrated - Persian poets, author of a Divan, which contains the whole - mystical theology of the Muselmans; of the Baharistan, or - “the spring,” a composition mixed with prose and verse; and - of the romance Yúsef and Zuláikha, a most favourite poem of - the Orientals. Jâmî died in the year of the Hejira 888 or - 891 (A. D. 1483 or 1486). - - [519] This title is more particularly applied to Noah, - Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammed. - - [520] According to some rabbins and to some Muselmans, wheat - was the forbidden fruit which Adam eat.――(See upon this - subject, _Les Oiseaux et les Fleurs, allégories d’Azz-eddin - el Mocadessi_, publiées en arabe avec une traduction - française par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 167, notes.) - - [521] Muhammed, in the fifty-second year of his age and the - twelfth of his preaching (A. D. 621), whilst lying asleep - between the mountains Al Safa and Merva, in the vicinity of - Mecca, had a vision in which he proceeded from earth through - the seven heavens to the throne of God. Muhammed himself - alludes to it twice in the Koran, the seventeenth chapter of - which is entitled “the night journey;” but he mentions - nothing else but a vision: it was the fanaticism of his - followers which wrought the most strange circumstances into - an absurd fable, according to which their prophet was - visited by the angel Gabriel, and in his company carried - first from Mecca to Jerusalem, and then, upon a ladder of - light, to the presence of God. - - [522] For the just mentioned miraculous journey, Gabriel had - brought with him the sacred animal on which the prophets - used to ride when executing a divine command; it was called - _Al borak_, “flashing as lightning,” in shape resembling an - ass of a larger size, with a face like that of a man, the - eyes brighter than the star Aldebaran, the ears of an - elephant, the neck of a camel, the body of a horse, with the - tail of a mule and hoofs of a bull; the breast of the animal - shone like rubies, his legs like pearls, and a silken - caparison of Paradise bedecked his back.――(See hereafter on - the _Borak_, in chapter XI, the section “on the miracles of - the prophet.”) - - [523] Surah means a chapter of the Koran. - - [524] See note, vol. I. pp. 99-100. - - [525] These ten personages are the four khalifs: I. Abubekr; - II. Omar; III. Osman; and IV. Ali; then V. Talha; VI. Zohair - ben Awam; VII. Saad ben Abu Wakkas; VIII. Abdur rahmen ben - Auf; IX. Abu Obaida ben Jarrah; and X. Saad ben Zaid. These - are called the ten evangelists, to whom the Muhammedans add - Hamzah and Jafar, and account them the twelve apostles of - Muhammed.――(See _Eucologe musulman_, par M. Garcin de Tassy, - Paris, 1840, p. 200.) - - [526] كوثر _Kawser_ is a river of paradise, mentioned in the - Koran (chap. CVIII). According to a tradition of Muhammed, - the water of this river is whiter than milk or silver, - sweeter than honey, smoother than cream, and more - odoriferous than musk; its banks are of chrysolithes. This - river supplies in two pipes the pond of the prophet, who - describes it to be an exact square of a month’s journey in - compass. The cups to drink this water are of silver, and are - set around as numerous as there are stars in the - firmament.――(See Sale’s _Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Disc., p. - 126; vol. II. p. 514.) - - [527] See pp. 334-335, note 1. - - [528] Kersi: this is the crystaline or the empyrean heaven, - as being supposed the throne of God. - - [529] Satan, or Iblis was cursed for refusing to worship - Adam at God’s command. This will be further developed in a - note, vol. III. chapter VII. - - [530] A city in Turkistan. - - [531] _Mâterídí_ was the surname of _Abu Mansúr Muhammed al - Hanefí_. He was a doctor of the Hanefian sect, to whom the - praise and title of _Imám al hada_, “the Imám, the - director,” was given. He died, and was buried in the year of - the Hejirah 333 (A. D. 944-5) in the town of Samarkand, a - native of which he was; _Mâterídí_ is a quarter of this town - whence he had his surname. This doctor was a _Motkalin_, - that is, a great metaphysician and scholastic theologian; he - composed, among many other works, a book entitled: _Bian - vahem al Mâtazalah_, against the Mâtazale.――(_Herbelot sub - voce Matridi_). - - [532] _Muhammed Ghazáli_, his full name is _Abú Hamed - Muhammed Ebn Muhammed_, surnamed _Hajjet ul islam Zain eddin - al Tusí_, born at Tus, n Khorasan, in the year of the Hejira - 450 (A. D. 1058-9), the son of a merchant of cotton thread, - _ghazal_, whence his surname _ghazáli_; he died in 504 or - 505 (A. D. 1110-11). In the latter half of his life, which - extended very little beyond the half of a century, he - composed more than one hundred works, several of which are - thick volumes in folio, such as the most celebrated amongst - them entitled _Jhyá al âlum eddín_, “the revival of the - sciences, concerning faith;” upon which the judgment was - passed, that, were the Islam destroyed with all its works - except this, from this alone it could be restored in all its - perfection. This great dogmatic, ethic, and philosophic work - was nevertheless, during the author’s life, condemned as - heretical and consigned to the flames, by the Academy of - Cordova, in Spain, the western Baghdad, or seat of - Muhammedan learning. This composition of Ghazáli has been - abridged by _Abul Faśel Ahmed ben Mussa al Arbeli_, under - the title _Ruh al Ihyá_, “the spirit of the book entitled - Ihyá.” See _Pocock Spec. Hist. Arab._, p. 371; _Herbelot sub - voce Ghazálí_; _Hammer’s Gemäldesaal grosser moslimischer - Herrsher, III^{ter} Band, S._ 182, 1837. By the last - mentioned author was published a Biography of Ghazáli, as - introduction to the text and translation of a treatise of - Ghazali, under the title: “_O Kind! die berühmteste ethishe - Abhandlung of Ghazáli_,” Vienne, 1838. - - [533] See page 329. - - [534] The sects may be distinguished by the names of their - founders, and called _Hanefites_, _Asharian_, _Keramían_, - _Shafeites_, etc.; or by the nature of their doctrine, and - named _Sefatian_, “attributists;” _Matazalah_, - “separatists;” _Mashabian_, or _Tasbiah_, “assimilators,” - etc.; or by their relation to some established doctrine or - community, and then entitled _Rafs_, “heretics;” _Navaseb_, - “enemies;” finally, these sorts of distinctions may be - mixed. No doubt, these various classifications burden the - memory with a great number of names which may create - confusion. I am sparing in introducing others than those - which are in the text of the Dabistan. According to those - distinctions, their number may be diversely stated. We have - already seen the principal sects reckoned to be _four_; here - above are reckoned _six_; the author of _Sharh-ol Mowakef_ - (Pocock, p. 209) enumerates _eight_ principal sects. - - [535] From تعطيل _tâtíl_, “neglecting, causing to be - unemployed, rendering useless, vacation.” Rigorously they - are perhaps not to be declared atheists, as above: for their - creed consists rather in denying the attributes of God, and - in presenting him as inaccessible to human intelligence and - strange to the government of the world, than in denying - positively his existence.――(See _Chrestomathie Arabe_, tome - II. p. 96, by _Silvestre de Sacy_.) - - [536] The scholastics among the Muhammedans employ in their - discussions principally two words: القضا, _al ka[:z]a_, - and القدر, _al kadr_, necessarily annexed to each other, but - still distinct by a nice sense particular to each: _al - ka[:z]á_ signifies God’s universal and eternal judgment or - decree, by which the particular things are created and - disposed so as they are to remain to all the ages of - eternity; _al kadr_ means God’s will in bringing forth, at a - determined time and by a determined cause, things in their - proper measure and fixed proportion with regard to their - essence as well as to their condition.――(_Pocock_, first - edit., pp. 207-209.) - - [537] There are three principal opinions about the decrees - of God, and the power of man with regard to his actions, - among the Muhammedans. - - The first is that of the _Motazalahs_, according to which - man is the agent in good and evil, in faith, and infidelity, - in obedience and rebellion; all his actions are his; for it - could not be said to man, “Act,” if he had not the faculty - of acting. Evil and iniquity can by no means be attributed - to God; an infidel is composed of a man and of infidelity: - God created the first, but not the latter. - - The second opinion is that of the _rigid Jabariahs_, - followers of _Jahmi Ebn Sefwan_, whose sect flourished about - the middle of the eighth century. According to them there is - no action but in God; man acts, without power his own, - without will or choice, exactly as a tree produces fruits, - as water runs, as a stone moves. Reward and punishment are - likewise proceeding from necessity, as well as the - imposition of orders comes from necessity. - - The third opinion is that of the _moderate Jabariahs_, and - also that of the Asharian, who maintain that God creates the - actions of man, good as well as bad, but that man _acquires_ - them: that is to say, God creates the power by, under, and - with, which man acts, but man wills the action, and prepares - himself to it, which is called كسب _kasb_, “acquisition;” an - action therefore, with respect to creation, belongs to God, - but with respect to production, by which it is manifested, - that is, by “acquisition,” it depends upon man, and falls - under his power. Abul Hasan of Isfahan says, that what makes - an impression upon a fact, are the power of God and the - power of man _jointly_. When man applies his mind to - obedience, God creates in him the action of obedience, and - when he applies his mind to transgression, God creates in - him the action of transgression; and in that respect it is - man who brings into existence or produces his action, - although in reality he be not the producer.――(See on this - abstruse subject, Pocock, pp. 243-251, with quotations from - several authors.) - - [538] The _Kadariahs_ or _Kadarian_ belong to the Motazalah - (Abul Faraj, p. 20). The Kadarian have been compared to the - Magians, inasmuch as they acknowledge two principles, light - and darkness, or good and evil; the first of which they - ascribe to God, the other to man and to the devil; - nevertheless, every thing belongs to God, as created by his - will; that is, with respect to creation; but the actions - belong to the actors.――(_Pocock_, pp. 234, 235, etc.) - - [539] We have already seen, p. 323, that Muhammed has - predicted the division of his followers into seventy-three - sects (and not seventy-two, as above). Why seventy-three? It - was (see _Pocock_) to make Muhammedism have one sect more - than Christianism, which had seventy-two, counting one more - than Judaism, which, to have seventy-one, had added one to - the seventy sects of Magism. - - [540] See p. 349, notes 1 and 2. - - [541] See the names of the founders of the four principal - sects, notes, pp. 324-5, 328-9. - - [542] The meaning of this passage appears to me to be that - Alí wished the Muselmans to apply to agriculture, which the - Arabs generally despise or neglect. - - [543] According to the most probable account of historians, - it never was Alí who pretended to be a God, but _Abdallah_, - son of _Wahab_, son of _Saba_, a Jew converted to Islamism, - who was the first instigator of the seditious movements to - which Omar fell a victim, promulgated the doctrine, that a - particle of divinity resided in Alí, the true Imám, that he - is not dead, but only for a time withdrawn from the eyes of - men; that he would reappear one day upon the earth, and fill - it with justice, in the same manner as it is now filled with - iniquities. This doctrine served as a foundation to the - different sects which admitted the transmission of the - Imamate to the descendants of Alí, by right of succession, - and spread in the east and west of Asia, in Africa, and in - Spain. - - [544] Nimrod and Pharáun maintain, in the Koran and in the - traditions of the Muhammedans, the same character as in the - Bible of the Hebrews, for tyranny against men and - presumption towards God; the first was the enemy of Abraham, - the other of Moses: both were punished by God. - - [545] _Ebn Maljam_, “the son of Maljam,” was _Abd-ur-rahman_, - who assassinated Alí. - - [546] We have already (see vol. I. p. 100, note) touched - upon the enmity which existed between the family of Alí and - that of Moaviah, the son of Abu Sofian and of Hinda, a woman - famous for her animosity against Muhammed, the prophet. - Nevertheless Moaviah became one of the secretaries of - Muhammed, after whose death he was appointed to the - government of Syria by Omar, and confirmed in that station - by Osman. After the violent death of this khalif, Moaviah - declared himself the avenger of his protector, and would not - submit to Alí, upon whom he waged war during four years, and - after whose death he opposed with equal ardour Hasan, who - succeeded his father in the khalifat. Surrounded by - rebellion in his own camp, Hasan could not resist, but - resigned his right and person to Moaviah. He died in Medina - of poison given him, as some say, by his wife, Jáda, or by - his minister, at the injunction of Moaviah (see _Elmacin, - trad. Erpenii_, p. 56); according to others, in concordance - with the Dabistán, by the fraud of Moaviah’s son, Yazid, who - seduced Jáda, and instigated her to poison her husband, - promising to marry her, but after the perpetration of the - act, rejected, with scorn, the woman supplicating for the - price of her deed. I shall add, according to _Abulfeda_ - (_edit. of Reiske_, p. 350), that in Hasan terminated (A. D. - 661) the legitimate khalifat, or the succession of chiefs - whom the free consent of the Muslims called and established, - and thus was fulfilled the prediction of the prophet, which - from the mouth of Safina, his freeman, is recorded in the - traditions as follows: “Thirty years after his decease shall - last the true and legitimate khalifat, and then be succeeded - by tyranny.” - - [547] After Moaviah’s death, A. D. 679, Yazid, his son, - assumed the khalifat, but Hosain, another son of Alí, still - lived, and was invited by the inhabitants of Kufa to their - town for receiving their oath of allegiance. Yielding to - their invitation, he set out from Mecca, where he had - concealed himself, with thirty-two horsemen and forty men on - foot. Not far from Kerbela, in an arid tract of country in - Jrak Arabi, he was encountered by five or ten thousand men, - sent by Yazid to destroy him. The son of Alí bravely fought - this superior force during one-half of the day, but at last - fell, with four of his brothers, as many of his own sons, - and all his surrounding friends, seventy-two in number. The - survivors, his women, were conducted to Damascus, where - Hosain’s head, severed from his body, rejoiced the savage - eyes of Yazid, now fixed in the khalifat. Hosain’s relics - (as mentioned vol. I. p. 48) lie buried at Kerbela. The - anniversary of his death, the 30th September, A. D. 680, is - still celebrated by the Shiâhs, with every imaginable - demonstration of grief about the fate of Alí’s posterity, - and of execration of their oppressors. - - [548] Ommiah, according to Herbelot (_sub voce_) is the name - of a respectable personage among the Arabians, who was the - son of _Abd-ul-shems_, and whose posterity bears the title - of _benu Ommiah_, “the children of Ommiah.” But their - celebrity begins with the before mentioned Moaviah; he was - the first of fourteen khalifs of this family, who reigned in - succession ninety-one years. The last of them was _Mervan - Muhammed ben Mervan, ben Hakem_, and after him there - remained of this family but _Abd-ur-rahmen_, who escaped - from the hands of the Abbasides, and later (in 756 A. D.) - established the dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, where - fifteen of them held successively the government during - nearly two hundred years, until 986 A. D., when the Alides - seized the sovereignty of that country. - - * * * * * - -SECTION II: AN ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND SECT OF THE PEOPLE OF ISLAM, -WHICH SECT IS KNOWN UNDER THE NAME OF SHÍAHS.――The author of this book -was informed, by the learned of this sect, that they agreed to -attribute the office of Imám and the khalifat, with the title of Amir -of the believers, in particular to Alí (the peace of God be with him!) -that he was established by clear tradition, or by manifestation or by -testament; and they maintain that the khalifat was not alienable from -the descendants of his highness, and if such a transgression happened, -it can have been only by violence and by tyranny; they also said, that -the office of an Imám is not to be given by the decision of a council, -which may depend upon the choice of the vulgar, so that the Imám may -be appointed by their injunction, but the true decision is that which -derives its origin and support from the pillars of the faith; and the -dignity of the prophetic asylum, _Muhammed_ (may the benedictions of -God be upon him!) does not deserve that there be negligence used or -carelessness shown in such a matter, or that it be committed to the -multitude. They argue thus upon the condition necessary for the -appointment of an Imám, upon its establishment and stability, which -requires to be defended by the inferior and higher people. These are -the opinions in which they agree about opposing or appointing an Imám, -about words or deeds in the state of religion. - -Some however, called _Zaydiyat_,[549] opposed them in what was said; -and there is among the Shiâhs a great difference of opinion about the -establishment of the Imám’s office, and at all times, before us until -later days, there was much discoursing about it: they differ widely -about the number of the Imáms. They are divided in different sects, -and we shall in this book give an account of what we have seen of them. - - * * * * * - -OF THE TWELVE SECTS OF THE SHIAHS. - -The author of this book relates what he has learned from Mulla -Muhammed Mâsúm, from Muhammed Múmin, and from Mulla Ibrahim, who in -the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643) were in Lahore, and from -others. The Mulla Ibrahim had great faith in his religion, and had a -great aversion to the followers of the Sonna and the Jamaât, whom he -never approached at meals; he did not during six months taste any -butter in Lahore, because it happened to be a Hindu or Sonnite who was -selling it. He said: “In the beginning of my manhood, I once slept in -a field, and saw in a dream a great host of luminous beings, who said -to me: ‘Be a Muselman.’ I answered: ‘Such is my inclination.’ They -said again: ‘Take care of not being a Sonnite;’ and they added much -about this subject to dissuade me from it. When they had disappeared, -I asked their followers: ‘Who were they?’ They replied: ‘Imáms.’ When -I awoke, from that moment I never associated with the Sonnites.” - -With this sect there is but one Lord God, and no other: he is one, -living, omniscient, self-acting, almighty, hearing and seeing every -thing, and the first of speakers; they acknowledge his power, not only -over possible, but even impossible things; they consider God Almighty -as possessed of qualities necessarily inherent in his essence; they -hold the servant of God to be master of his own actions. With them the -word of God is not ancient, but it is a novelty, because its meaning -is understood from sounds. They adduce the words of _Abu Jâfr -Túsî_[550] (the mercy of God be with him!), who says that, -fundamentally considered, the seventy and three sects are only two -religions, namely: _Navá seb_, “the enemies of Alí,” and _Ravafés_, -“heretics” (the Shiâhs), because on the day on which Muhammed (the -peace of God be upon him!) left the _mortal_ garment, there were forty -thousand companions present, who all acknowledged, with approbation -and satisfaction, Abubekr as khalif, except eighteen persons, who were -attached to Alí (the peace of God be with him!) who were joined by -seventeen other individuals, who, averse to Abubekr, did not -acknowledge him, nor give their consent to his khalifat. He said of -these seventeen, _rafas á na_, “they abandoned me,” or “they separated -from me,” whence they received the name _raváfés_, “schismatics;” and -those eighteen persons said to the companions: - - “You have appointed Abubekr without inauguration.” - -that is: “You raised to the khalifat Abubekr, without having due -sanction for it;” on which account they received the title of -_Naváséb_, “enemies,” and each of these two sects had two names; the -one their own, on account of the part which they took in the -appointment of the khalif, and the other name, which their antagonist -or enemy gave them; all the companions called themselves _the people -of the faith_, or _the people of the Sonnat and Jamáât_, whilst those -eighteen persons called them _naváseb_, “enemies,” and to themselves -they gave the title of _múmin_, “believers,” and _Shiâhs_, “troop,” -but all the companions named them _Ráfés_, “heretics.” Afterwards, the -religion of the Naváséb divided itself into fifty and five sects, and -that of the Raváfés into eighteen, as it was said: - - “All are in the fire of hell, except one.” - -Of these sects, one only is to belong to the people of salvation, -because they profess the right faith, and this right faith consists in -believing the unity, the justice of God, the dignity of the prophet -and of the Imám, and the resurrection, and in maintaining the truth of -each of these five articles. As God Almighty thinks good to choose one -among his servants, whom he sends as his prophet and apostle, that he -may announce the right way to his subjects and creatures, he who is -sent must be pure of all our venial and mortal sins; his word is to be -a mediation between God and man; and the prophet, who is sent by God, -finds it necessary to choose one like him to fill his place after him, -and this substitute must also be pure of all venial and mortal sins; -this substitute, or khalif, must choose one who may take his place -after him, so that the centre of the face of the earth may never -remain destitute of Imáms; and that, by the reasoning of wisdom and by -his efforts, the decisions in the law may be preserved right, and the -collection of proofs not lose its purity among them. Muhammed chose -Alí, and appointed him his executor and khalif, and Alí, after -Muhammed, was the best and wisest of all prophets of the family; the -other Imáms (the blessing of God be upon them!) were his sons; as the -first, so were the last, and at the end they remained the same as they -had been in the beginning. The number of Imáms, according to the -_Akhbár Nabi_, “History of the Prophets,” was twelve,[551] eleven of -them passed to the other world, the twelfth is living for ever; at -last he shall appear, and render the world as full of virtue as it is -now full of injustice and tyranny. - -They say, that Abubekr, Omar, and Osman, and the children of Amîah, -and Abasíah, their companions, usurped the dignity of Imáms, on which -account they revile them. Some of them assert that Osmán burnt some -volumes of the Koran, and threw away some of the surahs, which were in -favor of Alí and of his descendants; of which the following is -one:[552] - - In the name of the bountiful and merciful God. - - O you who have faith, believe in the two lights, _Muhammed_ - and _Ali_, whom we have sent, and who recite our verses to - you, and put you on your guard against the chastisement of - the great day. These two lights _proceed_ the one from the - other. As to myself, I understand and I know. - - Those who fulfil the order of God and of his prophet, such - as it is given to them in the verses of the Koran, those - shall enjoy the gardens of delight. As to those who, after - having believed, became infidels by transgressing their - compact, and what the prophet had stipulated for them, they - shall be thrown into hell, because they have unjustly - treated their own souls, and have disobeyed the preaching - prophet. These shall be drenched with hot water. - - It is God who illuminated the heavens and the earth, as it - was his pleasure; who made his choice among the angels and - prophets; who placed the latter among the number of - believers in the midst of his creatures.――God does what he - wills: there is but he, the bountiful and merciful God. - - Those who preceded them, have already machinated against - their prophets; but I have punished them for their perfidy, - and, certainly, my punishment is violent and severe. God had - already destroyed Ad[553] and Tamud,[554] on account of - their crimes; he made of them an example for warning you. - Shall you then not fear? - - Because Pharaoh acted tyrannically towards Moses and his - brother Aaron, I drowned him in the waters, as well as those - who followed him, in order that it may serve as a sign for - you. - - Many among you are prevaricators; but God will assemble them - all on the day of resurrection; and they will not be able to - answer when interrogated by him: certainly, hell is their - habitation. God is all-knowing and wise. - - O prophet! my advertisement arrived (at its destination); - perhaps will they act (conformably to it). Those who turned - away from my words have already experienced detriment. Are - they comparable to those who accomplish thy ordinances, and - whom I will reward by the gardens of delight? For God is the - Lord of mercy and great rewards. - - Ali is of the number of pious; we shall restore him his - right on the day of judgment. We are not ignorant of their - intention to defraud him. We have honored him more than all - thy family. He and his race are of the number of sufferers, - and certainly their enemy is the Imam of sinners.[555] - - Say to those who became infidels after having believed: “You - have sought after the comforts of the present life, and you - have been eager in the pursuit of them; but you have - forgotten what God and his prophet have promised you. You - have broken the engagements which you had taken in a formal - manner; yet we quoted to you examples, in the hope that you - would follow the good direction.” - - O prophet, we have sent thee clear verses. Those who were - faithful, and attached themselves to them, will receive - assistance after thee. Turn away from those who turn away - from me. Certainly, he shall make them appear on the day on - which nothing shall avail them, and when they will have no - pity to hope for. Their habitation shall be hell, from which - they shall not be removed. - - Celebrate the name of thy lord, and be of the number of his - adorers. We have already sent Moses, and Aaron, and those - who followed them; but they treated Aaron unjustly. Patience - is an excellent virtue. Among them we changed some into - apes[556] and hogs; we cursed them until the day of - resurrection. Have patience; certainly they shall be - punished. - - We have gratified thee with an authority equal to that which - was possessed by the messengers who preceded thee, and we - have given thee instructions in their persons. Perhaps - mankind will be converted. He who turns away from my command - shall be soon called away by me _from this world_. Let them - therefore enjoy some time their impiety. Ask no information - concerning the violators of God’s law. - - O prophet, we granted thee the power of loading the neck of - those who believed in the strength of a compact which we - contract. Be thou of the number of the grateful. - - Certainly, Ali is pious. He passes the night prostrate - _before God_. He is cautious with respect to another life, - and he hopes to merit the reward of his Lord. Say, will they - be treated in the same manner, they who have acted unjustly, - although they knew the chastisement which I prepare for - them? Chains shall be put on their necks, and they shall - repent of their acts. - - We have announced to thee a progeny of just men,[557] who - will not oppose my commands. My bounty and mercy are upon - them, living or dead,[558] until the day of resurrection. My - anger is against those who act tyrannically towards thy - posterity; wicked men who shall suffer the pain _which they - deserve_. - - As to those who walked upon the road of thy posterity, my - mercy is granted to them, and they shall be safe in the - kiosques _of paradise_. Glory to God, King of the creatures. - - * * * * * - -THE RELIGION OF THE AKHBÁRIN.[559] - -Mulla Muhammed Amîn, of Asterabád,[560] gave currency in this time to -this religion: they say, after having acquired the natural and -revealed sciences, he made a pilgrimage to the temple of Mecca, and -after having critically examined the sacred sayings, he adhered to -what he thought the right sense, and composed the work _Fava-íd -Madaníy_, “Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.” In the book _Danish -nameh, Káteb Sháhî_, which was written for the use of Dáráí Sekander -Dostgáh Muhammed Kalí Kateb Shah, it is stated, that the exalted wish -and furthermost intent is the knowledge of what is particular to the -origin and end, and the explanation of this meaning is contained in -the verse of the merciful: - - “The faith in God, and in the day of eternal life.” - -And the tradition of the noble Amír of the believers and the adored -Imám (the blessing of God and peace be upon them and upon their holy -descendants): - - “God take compassion upon the man of whom I know from whence he - came, where he is, and whither he goes,” - -entered into this meaning. The learned, in the maintenance of this -station, divided into several sects. The one sect established this -station by investigation and evidence; then a division of this sect -rendered it obligatory not to say any thing contrary to the possessors -of revelation, and these are called _Matkalmin_,[561] “scholastics,” -for the reason that they have composed the science of scholastic -theology, on account of rational considerations, and have enlarged -argumentation in the science of scholastic dialectics and theological -questions. - -Another sect did not bind themselves in their -reasoning; they are called _Hukmá másháyîn_,[562] “the walking -philosophers,” because their first founders followed the stirrup of -_Arastu_ (Aristotle),[563] and at the time when Arastu, as Vizir of -_Iskander_ (Alexander) was walking to and from the palace of this -king; they took the opportunity of being instructed in science by this -philosopher. - -Another sect adopted this doctrine with pious austerities. Afterwards, -a division of this sect made an application of this doctrine as -necessary to the Koran, and took care not to maintain any thing -contrary to the companions of the revelation, and these are called -_Sofis matsherâîn_, “orthodox Sofis.” Another sect did not believe -this necessary, and these are entitled _Hukmá âshrákîn_, to whom -_Aflátún_ (Plato)[564] who was the preceptor of Arastú, furnished -lessons and instructions of piety. - -Another class adopted this doctrine with a view to the precepts of the -possessors of holiness, and made it a necessary condition that in all -questions about customs, in which reason is _likely_ to err, they -should strictly adhere to the sayings of the possessors of holiness; -and these are called _Akhbárîn_. The companions of the pure Imáms (the -blessing and peace of God be upon them!) all observed this rule, and -the Imáms (peace be upon them!) prohibited them the science of -scholastic theology, and the science of the fundamentals of religion -and law, which have been collected according to the views of the -intelligent; and likewise they prohibited the science of -jurisprudence, which has been composed as an abstract of opinions, for -this reason: because, safe from error, one is inclosed in what is -right by the words of the possessors of holiness, and because many -contradictions and discordancies occur in the three sciences.[565] As -it is evident and clear that there are no contradictions in truth, so -certainly one of the different opinions is false. The Imáms also -instructed their companions in the science of scholastic dialectics, -in the science of the fundam etals of religion and of law, and in -jurisprudence; but these three sciences are, in many of the questions, -not without contradiction with the sciences which the professors of -common religion have combined. The lords of the temple (peace be upon -them!) have declared, “that in the three sciences, as received by the -generality of the people, truth is that which from us is come to them, -and error is whatever originate from their conceptions.” The doctrine -of the _Akhbárîn_, in after times called _Gháibet sâry_, “the minor -absence,” which by some is reckoned among the traditions of the -seventy-and-three, and by others among the traditions of the seventy -four sects, became diffused among the learned of the _Imámíyat_; -although it was also known among the first of the _Ghâibet[566] -Kaberî_, “the great absence,” and the companions of the Imáms (peace -be upon them!) after having received the three sciences from the -people of the temple (blessing be upon them!), formed a collection of -them in a book according to their direction; it was to this that the -people of the temple referred in their belief and actions, until the -time of the Ghâibet Kaberî of the Shíahs, and this book, by way of -continuation, was brought down to the times of the moderns; the entire -work, which was compiled by the trusty friend of the right faith, -_Muhammed ben Yâkúb al Kalbiy_,[567] (may his tomb be sanctified!) -comprehends the three sciences. - -Further, when _Muhammed ben Ahmed Aljanáîd_, who was eminent in -analogy,[568] and _Hassen ben Hassáîn ben Alí, ben Abí âkîl_, a lofty -scholastic theologian, appeared, and were violent jurists; in their -time, the circle of teaching and learning the common religion being in -the colleges and schools, they studied the book of theology, and the -book of the fundamentals of the common religion; but as they did not -possess all the expertness required for the science of the -fundamentals of religion and for that of theology, which were derived -by tradition from the Imáms, they adapted to the common religion some -among the subjects of scrutiny in the science of scholastic theology, -and in that of the fundamentals of theology: and made choice of a -doctrine which was a mixture of the doctrine of the Akhbárîns and of -that of the common religion, and so laid the foundation of rational -dialectics.[569] After them, _Shaikh Mafíd_, “the beneficent Shaikh,” -(the mercy of God be with him!) that is, the Shaikh _Abú Jâfr_, on -account of heedlessness and of the good opinion of those two eminent -men, conformed himself to them, and he formed, in scholastic theology -and in fundamental jurisprudence, a system of doctrine, mixing with -that of the common religion that of the Akhbarîn, and that of the -_Aśulîn_, “solid reasoners;” on that account, the learned of the -Imámíyat sect divided into _Akhbárîn_ and _Asulîn_. Likewise _Alámah -hallî_, “the most learned ornament,”[570] that is, Shaikh _Jemál eddin -mátaher_, has exhausted to the utmost this subject, in the discussion -about prophecy and unity, and at last the _sharh movákef_,[571] -“explanation of the stations” and the origins of the book of religions -and attributes have also been elucidated by it. When shaikh _Mafíd, -istáz-îlm alihadî_, “the teacher of the science of direction,” that -is, _Saíd Mírtasí_, lived, and was the _istáz rais al taifah_, “chief -teacher of the sect,” this religion was diffused among the learned of -the Jmámîyat, until the time of the most learned of the East and the -West, _Alámah-hallí_; and as, penetrating into the depth of knowledge, -he, _Alámah-halli_, surpassed in the sciences _Ebn Janaíd_, and _Ebn -abî âkîl_, and the shaikh _Mafîd_; they gave a greater expansion and -currency to the mixt religion in the book of scholastic and -fundamental theology, and in the controversial dialectics relative to -faith and law, established the mixt religion. As the _ahádís_,[572] -“traditions” of the common religion, on the subjects of revelation and -unity, were not exempt from adulterations, they published the series -of traditions in their own book, divided into four parts. And -Alámah-hallî (the mercy of God be with him!) on account of heedless -confidence divided into four parts the traditions of his book, and the -book of the sect of the _Mahakah_, “the asserters of truth,” in such a -manner as was also manifested by the _Ilm ilahadî_, “the science of -the direction” (revelation), and the _ra-is_ (chief) of the sect, and -_sikat al islám_, “the trusty friend of the right faith,” and head of -the Shaiks, _Alsadik_, “speaker of truth,” that is, _Muhammed Ebn -Bábúyah[573] Alkamî_; and others: hence the whole tribe _Mahakah_ -professed this as true, and, after _Alámah-hally_, the shaikh _Shahîd -awl_, “the first witness,” that is, the shaikh _Muhammed maki_, made -it the rule of his religion, and laid the foundation of his literary -works upon it; after them, the _sultan Almadkakín_, “the sultan of the -refiners” (acute investigators), shaikh _Alí_ (the mercy of God be -upon him!) conformed himself to them, and _Al âalem al rabánî, -Shahid-alsánî_, “the learned of the world, the doctor of divinity, the -second witness,” that is, the shaikh _Zin eddin_ “the ornament of the -faith,” _Jabel al âamlî_ (the mercy of God Almighty be with him!) took -also the rule of this religion. This was until the time arrived for -the learned of the moderns, in the science of _Muhammedan_ traditions, -and the science of biographies and characters of persons to whom the -traditions were handed down, and the most pious among them, the master -of the whole in the whole, that is, _Mirza Muhammed of Asterabâd_ (may -the light of God illume his tomb!). _He said_:[574] “At last, as a -sequel to this, he (Jabel) instructed me, a humble individual, in all -the sciences relative to the traditions, and gave me this injunction: -‘Revive thou the religion of the Akhbárîn, and if any doubt arise, -that creates an opposition to this creed, discard that doubt.’ And -this doctrine has fixed itself in my mind. But it was decreed by the -Lord of Glory that it should be manifested through my pen. Afterwards, -having received all the praised sciences from the greatest of the -learned, I, humble individual, during some years staying in the -splendid town of Medina, bowed my head under the collar of meditation, -and humbled myself at the door of the temple of the Lord of Glory; I -sought refuge with the spirits of the sacred place of the companions -of prophecy, and I repeated afresh the sacred sayings, and the book of -the common religion; that is, that of the opposers to the Imámíyat, -and the special book, that is, that of the Imámíyat; in order to -perfect myself in penetration and meditation; so that, by the favor of -the Lord of Glory, and by the benedictions of the prince of prophets -(Muhammed), and of the pure Imáms (the blessing and peace of God be -upon them all!) by the direction of him, to whom obedience is due, I -conformed to what was right, and succeeded in composing the _Faváid -madaníy_, ‘The Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.’” Subquently, -Muhammed Asterabádí had the honor of being instructed by the most -noble of this sect; afterwards they approved his composition, and -congratulated the author upon it. (The mercy of God be upon them!) - -Among the Imámíahs it is decided that the Imám _Muhammed, son of -Hassan Askery_,[575] is still alive, but concealed from view; they -divide the time of his absence into two epochs;[576] namely, “the -minor and the greater absence.” The minor absence, which extends to -seventy-three years, falls into the time of _Mâtemed Abásí_,[577] in -the year of the Hejira 266 (A. D. 879); the greater absence took place -in the time of _Rásí_, the son of _Mukteder Abásî_.[578] The -distinction between these two epochs is that, during the minor -absence, there were a registrar and delegates as intermediates between -the pious persons of the religion and the Imáms, whilst, during the -greater absence, the appointing and establishing was broken off. The -first Vakîl, “delegate, agent,” was _Osman_, son of _Said ul Umrul -Asadi_, in the holy place (of Medina); after him, by command of the -Imám of the time, his son, _Abu Jâfer_, took charge of the office, -which he held about fifty years; after him came _Abu ’l Kásem Hossain -Ebn Rúh Ebn Ali Baher Nóubakhtí_, who bequeathed his place to -_Abu’l-Hasan Alî Ebn Muhammed Samírí_, and this was the last Vakíl. -When he was sick, the Shíâhs asked him: “Who shall after thee be the -Vakíl of the holy place?” He wrote his command by a last will, by -which he abolished the charge, and the command is as follows: - - In the name of the bountiful and merciful God: - - O Ali, son of Muhammed Samiri, may God increase the - recompense of thy brothers with regard to thee, for thou art - dead, and between thee and me there are six days;[579] - therefore arrange thy affairs, and propose to nobody to fill - thy place after thy death; certainly the complete absence is - now accomplished, and no further manifestation shall take - place but after the permission of God, the most high. He - mentioned it, and this after a long delay, and the obduracy - of hearts, and after the filling of the earth with violence. - And there shall come from among my people one to be a - witness; but he who desires it before the coming forth of a - Safiani and the Sihat, he is a deceiver, and ought to be - avoided. There is no power and no strength but one God, the - most high and most great. - -Abul-Hasan died in the middle of Shâbán (the eighth month of the -year), in the year of the Hejira 328 (A. D. 939). - -It is to be known, that the tradition among the Shiâhs of the -_Imámiyat-âsulín_ sect is divided into four parts: _sáhíh_, -“authentic;” _hasen_, “elegant;” _músik_, “strong;” and _sâíf_, -“weak.” - -An _hadís sahih_, “an authentic tradition,” is one, the authority of -which goes back to _mâsúm_,[580] according to the narration of an -_âdil Imám_, “a just Imám,” in the description of whom the -_árbáb-i-hadis_, “the masters of history,” have used the word _âdil_, -whether the narrator be one person, or whether there be more than one, -provided in the description of them all the same language has been -used. - -An _hadis hasen_, “an elegant tradition,” is one, the authority of -which goes back, like that of the _hadis sahih_, to the _mâsúm_; but, -according to the narrative of a venerable Imám, in this way, that -although, in regard to the narrator of it, the words _sikah âdíl_, -“trusty and just,” have not come down to us from the historians, yet -they have praised him in other words. - -An _hadis músik_, “a strong tradition,” is that, in the description of -whose narrators the words _sikah âdil_ have been used by the -historians, but some or all of the narrators of which are not -_Imámís_, “followers of Ali.” - -An _hadis sâíf_, “a weak tradition,” is that in which none of these -three conditions are found; viz.: 1st, the inference from the -commendation of _sikah âdil_; 2nd, a praise other than these two -words; and 3rd, the qualification _sikah âdil_, with erroneous belief -on the part of the narrator. - -A tradition is either _in regular succession_, or _not in regular -succession_. A tradition is in regular succession, when a great -multitude on the authority of a great multitude make the same -narration, until it reaches to the _mâsúm_, in such a manner, that the -number of each multitude, in each particular age, shall have been so -great as to exclude the idea of their having combined in telling a -lie. A tradition is without a regular succession, when the number of -narrators does not, in all or several stages, reach to that multitude, -as before said, and this kind of tradition is called, in the peculiar -idiom of the masters of history, _the information of one_. Among the -Akhbarians, there is no such arrangement and classification of -evidence, and God knows the truth. - -The author of this book writes what he has learned of the religion of -the _Akhbáríns_ from the Amíns of this doctrine, one of whom was -Muhammed Razái Kazvíní. They call themselves _Akhbárín_, “dogmatic -Traditionists,” because they place the centre of their belief in the -prophetic book,[581] and employ no reasoning. _Mulla Muhammed Amín_, -after having acquired the requisite theoretical and practical -knowledge and that of the law, went to Mecca and to the revered -places, and he declared openly, that controversial dialectics belong -not to the rule of the ancient Shiâhs. The author of this book writes -what he has heard from pious persons, the confidents of secrets of -this sect; whoever desires to know more of it, may have recourse to -the book _Faváid Almadíniy_, which is the composition of the last -mentioned writer. - -The following passage is said to be found in the sacred writings: - - “God take compassion on the man of whom I know whence he - comes, where he is, and whither he goes.” - -My desire is God himself, and as an indication of it is my perception -of him, the scope of which is the return to him. Afterwards we ought -to have the knowledge of three perceptions. The _Imánah_ conform -themselves to the religion of the community which is composed of the -people of the temple; but it is required that we acquire in Medina the -knowledge of what the prophet is, and that we enter through the doors -(chapters) of sciences, in which twelve Imáms are to be praised; -whatever further is behind this religion will belong to that of the -heretics. Of the two other religions, the one is that of the _people -of pious austerity_; and this again is divided into two sects: the one -comprehends the ancient _Ashrákíán_, who did not follow the prophet; -and the second consists of the _Matákherîn_, “the moderns,” who, known -under the name of “Sufis,” believe the prophet, and in theory and -practice conform themselves to him and to the Imáms. They say, the -prophet showed the way of righteousness and revealed the hidden; and -the Imáms also taught purity, which from them was conveyed to us; the -Imáms, by their pious austerity, promoted the purity of manners, and -practised abstinence from food and sleep; the lord of the prophetic -protection committed this religion to Alí; and Alí was the delegate of -this pious austerity, the chief master, the Amir of the true -believers; _Hassan Baśri_[582] was one of the devoted followers of the -Amír, and _Báyazîd_ was the disciple of the Imám _Jâfr sadek_;[583] -_Mârúf Kœrkhí_, “the celebrated of Karkh,”[584] gave the hand of -devotedness to the Imám _Reza_.[585] Similar to them is the sect -_shigref_, “the venerable,” who think themselves the vice-regents of -the Imáms, and lieutenants of the prophet (the peace of God be upon -him):[583][**extra anchor] their sayings deserve no attention, as in -our religion there never was a lieutenant, whatever from a spirit of -vanity they may assume. These men are professedly monks, and these are -numbered among heretics. - -The second sect is that of the _Istidlal_, “the arguers,” and of -old[586] they were called _Masháyín_, “the walkers, peripatetics;” -they did not follow the prophet, and the moderns call them -_Matkalemín_, “scholastics.” These sectaries are said to mix the -principles of the true faith with the belief of the peripatetics, and -are also reckoned heretics:[587] because the true religion is that -which the lord professed, and this is the religion of the Akhbárins. - -Mulla Muhammed Amîn[588] addressed a crowd of _mujtahids_,[589] -“casuists,” who make a profession of ratiocination (discussion), in -the following terms:――“You agree and acknowledge, that the ancient -believers and the religion of old knew of no contentious arguing; and -that the ancient way and the old religion which prevailed in the time -of Muhammed and of the Imáms (the peace of God be upon them!) is the -way of the Akhbarîns. Further, we have likewise a satisfactory proof, -that our way is the constant religion; but try to combine a -demonstration in the way of reasoning, and show to us by whose -direction from among the possessors of holiness you adopted your -creed, whilst after Muhammed (the peace of God be upon him!) no other -prophet is to appear and to bring another religion? In like manner it -has not been stated, in the book of the prophet and in the sacred -sayings of the Apostles and of the Imáms, that the relators should, in -practice act at discretion, and after the disappearing of the Imám, -make a profession of ratiocination. Moreover, it is positively -understood that you have mixed your principles with the principles of -the Sonnites and Jamáat, and your creed has taken the nature of -oxymel, which is neither honey nor vinegar; and you are neither -Sonnites nor Shiâhs; and this is the manner in which the moderns -exercise reasoning as a profession, that, in the time of religious -zeal, they went and helped themselves to the acquisition of knowledge -from the books of the adversaries (schismatics), and a similar desire -has taken hold of your hearts. Afterwards they threw out of their -books what appeared reprovable, but nevertheless mixed something of it -with their own faith.” - -It should be known that some things proceed from the exigencies of the -faith: thus the dissentient as well as the consentient use the same -prayers, and even the unbelievers admit, that in these Muhammed is -necessarily honoured. Several things are among the exigencies of the -faith, as for instance the office of an Imám, as the dissentient and -consentient know that, in point of faith, acknowledging the Imáms is -indispensable for strength, firmness, and unimpairable stability. It -should be known that, whatever is established from the verses of the -Koran renders the conforming of the action to it indispensable; but -what is expressed in an allegorical or ambiguous sense, we have not -the capacity of understanding; it is then evident that this is -particular to the prophet and to the Imáms, and we should not meddle -with it; further, we ought to conform our actions to the tradition of -the prophet and of the Imáms. As many traditions are opposed to each -other, and the distinction therein is arduous; on that account, if two -traditions present themselves to our view, such as to be contrary to -each other, then the Imám affords the believers a firm rule, which -proves to the understanding a protection from error. The truth is, -that when two traditions happen to contradict each other, _good -Theologians_ refer them to the incontrovertible authority of the -Koran; the tradition which is conformable to a verse of the Koran, is -that to which they refer the action, and ascribe to religious -zeal[590] the other tradition, and if this does not coincide with the -incontrovertible authority, as it exceeds your power to decide the -dubious question; fix then your eyes upon the creed of the opposers, -and observe by what rule they are actuated.[591] Whatever is contrary -to them, this tradition they should reckon to be truth; and whatever -agrees with the opposers, they should acknowledge as belonging to -religious zeal; and if both these traditions in the creed of the -opposers were laudable, they should consider, that a thing which -according to them deserves pre-eminence, is the contrary of that which -they ought to take. And if one says: “You have many opposers, and -there are seventy-and-two sects whose opinions are conflicting with -each other;” _I answer_: “The Imám declared that they ought to proceed -upon a road contrary to that upon which the victorious, the rulers, -and the learned among the opposers, walk; and if, nevertheless, it may -appear to all that they find themselves upon the same road; there are -then two laws: according to whichever of the traditions they act, it -does not matter in that tradition in which way it comes from the -_mâsúm_,[592] provided, without doubt, it comes from the Imám; and the -Imám is a person to whom obedience is obligatory. Moreover, by -whichever authority they act, they must conform their action to the -direction of the Imám. Another thing is to be said: “Have patience -until the time of the happy meeting with the Imâm.” If any body says: -“We have no option to act or not to act; how long shall we wait? the -coming of the Imám is not determined?” This is the reply: Having -already acted, why should it be said: “Have patience?” This has -reference to _the precept_: “If thou art in business, act peaceably; -and if devoted to religion, follow the rites of the most comprehensive -religion.” Should any one say: “To conform my actions to this rule is -also subject to discussion,” we answer to that: “This is the rule the -Imám has established; if there be discussion, it is therefore the -Imám’s, not our’s.” To weigh a religious doctrine is the same as to -compare two traditions contrary to each other: we found, for instance, -that “as to purity of wine, there are two colors.”[593] The wine is in -the traditions; we then made reference to the incontrovertible -authority of the Koran; we found no verse decisive about it; and in -the allegories we saw, that wine is called uncleanness, and how many -meanings are attached to uncleanness; and as we had the power of -understanding the truth, the ambiguity disappeared. We made reference -to the creed of the opposers _to the right faith_: they acknowledge -wine to be impure. Then we took the contrary of it, and reckoned the -wine to be pure, as the traditions announce the purity of wine. -Further, the tradition which denotes the impurity of wine, we ascribed -to religious caution. And it is to be known that the Mujtahíd ought to -conform his actions to his opinion; but opinion is _shabhah_, “doubt,” -and is so called (very like _shabah_, “an image”), because it is vain, -and “truth-like.” - -The religion of the Akhbarín consists in the conviction that, without -an exception, whatever they have heard from the Imám is to them -_dalîl-i-katáí_, “a final, decisive proof” (cutting off all further -questions); moreover the practice followed by the Akhbaríns, is the -_terík-í-katáí_, “the final religion;” and _katáí_, “final,” is that -which does not depend upon _mere_ opinion. The modern among the Shiâh -said, that it becomes the Mujtahed to conform his actions to his -opinions, and that it is incumbent upon others to submit to his -doctrine: this religion is not ancient; as to the rest, the practice -of contentious arguing and restlessness is an error. - - * * * * * - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISMAI LIAH. - -Information was received from Mír Amír, who was a governor of the -Naváhi, “district” of the town Shekúnah, that the Ismâílíah, are a -tribe among the Shiâhs; and their creed is ascribed to the lord Imám -Ismâíl, the son of the lord Imám Jâfr sádik,[594] and this sect -believe this lord an Imam; they say, that Imám Jâfr consigned the -office of an Imám to him; and that he never admitted to a partnership -with the mother of this lord any other woman or girl, in the manner -that had been done by the prophet with regard to Khadíjah, and by Alí -with respect to Fátmah.[595] About the departure of Ismâíl from this -perishable world, there are different accounts. Some say that he died -during the lifetime of Jâfr; then the prerogative of appointing to the -Imámate was transferred from the Imám Jâfr to the offspring of Ismâíl; -in like manner as Músí (Moses) transferred the appointment to Hárún -(Aaron), who died during the lifetime of Músí. The appointment does -not return by retrocession; and a convention _reversed_ from whence it -came is impossible. Jáfr was not likely to appoint, without -traditional credentials from noble ancestors, one from among his -distinguished descendants, and to be uncertain and unknown is not -suitable to an Imám. As to the appointment of the Imám Jáfr, its -legality is in accordance with the twelve Imáms. Some say, that Ismâíl -had not departed from life, but the news of his death was spread -about, from fear that his enemies should attempt his life, and a -declaration of his death was written. It is reported, according to -some, that during the khalifat of Manzur, Ismâil was seen in Basra, -where a person afflicted with a malady of the foot was cured by means -of his prayers. Mansur asked information from the Imám, who sent to -the khalif a certificate (of Ismâil’s death), in which was included a -letter of the âamil (collector of revenue) of Mansur. - -They say that, after Ismâil followed Muhammed, the son of Ismâil, with -whom closed the series of the Shiâh Imáms,[596] and after him the -Imáms disappeared; but no age remains destitute of conspicuous Imáms, -and when an Imám has appeared, he certainly evinces himself as such. - -The number of the commands of the Imáms is seven, like the seven days -of the week, the seven heavens, and the seven planets.[597] They hold -the number of the religious leaders to be twelve, and therein the -Imámíyas have committed an error, by counting the Imáms after the -leaders, and these are the _Baténian_, “interior.”[598] These -sectaries do not conform themselves to the evidence of the divine law; -they declare: “we do not say, God is omnipresent or not omnipresent, -omniscient, or not omniscient, almighty, or not almighty, and so in -all attributes;” they maintain further as a confirmation of the truth, -that there is a connexion between God and the _other_ beings, and this -is the creed of the _Tashbíah_, “assimilators;” but from an absolute -negation a connexion takes place with non-existences, which is -maintained by the _Tâtíl_, “indifferent,” and the application of this -thesis to the Lord, the self-existent, leads to the opinion, that -there is no community to be imagined between the Lord God, -self-existent, _and other beings_. They also say that the Almighty God -is the operator of opposite effects, and the creator and ruler of -conflicting results. They further set forth, that when the lord Yzed, -the most sublime, bestowed the gift of knowledge upon the inhabitants -of the world, they called him all-knowing; when he displayed his power -on account of his majesty, they called him all-mighty: certainly the -attribution of knowledge and power to the being of the most sublime -Yzed is founded upon the belief that he is the giver of knowledge and -force. Moreover they assert that, by a single command, God created -intelligence, which among all things is perfect, and by means of -perfect intelligence, he brought forth the spirit which is not -perfect; there is a relation between intelligence and spirit, a -relation between the sperm and the child produced, as well as a -relation between the egg and the bird, or a relation between father -and son, or husband and wife. The spirit becomes then desirous of, and -longing for the excellence of perfect intelligence[599] which he -derives from expansion, therefore he feels himself pressed to move out -of his deficiencies towards excellence,[600] but he does not attain at -perfect motion, except by means of an instrument. - -Afterwards, God created the heavenly bodies, and gave the heavens a -circular motion; from his disposition emerged the spirit, the simple -elementary natures, and by means of them the uncompounded beings; -further, he brought forth the compounded bodies from among minerals, -vegetables, and various animals, among which man was the best, on -account of the merit of much sanctity, and his connexion with the -celestial world. Thus the upper world is composed of perfect universal -intelligence, and the rational sense of universality which is the -origin of creatures. It is necessary that in the nether world perfect -universal intelligence and reason prevail, that they may afford to the -inhabitants of the world the means of salvation, and this intelligence -is the prophet _nát´ik_, “speaking,” and the reason is the Imám. As -the heavens are moved by the impulse of intelligence and reason, in -like manner are the other souls set free by the impulse of the -“speaker;” there is one who commands in every age, and every time has -its revolution; every revolution depends upon the authority of seven -persons[601] until it terminates by the last revolution and the time -of judgment comes; the exigencies of the law and religious rule rise -as the rapid movements of heaven, and the necessity of law is the -cause of the acquisition of reason _carried_ to excellence; it is a -_laudable_ trial of mankind to attain to the dignity of wisdom, and -this is “the great judgment.” - -When they wish to convert any body to their creed, they throw doubts -upon his religion into his mind, not with any evil intention on their -side, but that he may find the road to God and attain truth, as well -as be convinced that, except their religion, any other is remote from -certainty and without firmness. Their manner of creating doubts about -the pillars of the law, is that they ask about detached parts of a -sura: what (for instance) is the meaning of the detached letters in -the first sura,[602] and the command about fasting, a menstruous -woman, the command of prayers, and why the necessity of bathing with -regard to sperm and urine; the number of the sacred inclinations of -the head, which, according to some, are four, according to others, -three, and perhaps two: which number is right? and so on in all -actions of the pious.[603] When the person desirous of truth, finds -himself by such questions surrounded with doubts, and inquires after -truth, they answer, and conduct him upon the road of the right belief, -in such a manner that all doubt is banished from his heart; he then is -received in their community, and walks in the right way, whence he is -strengthened against any creation of doubts, and this is the manner of -agreement current among the followers of God, by way of compact and -convention. - - “When we took engagements with the prophets.” - -Further, according to convention, comes _haválet_, “giving in charge” -to the Imám, and settling arduous matters, when a difficulty occurs in -an affair which presents itself to him; inasmuch as, by the laudable -nature of his qualities, an Imám is wise, and nobody else possesses -the power with which this exalted personage is firmly invested. To -this is joined _tedlís_, “artifice,” which consists in managing -relations with powerful personages, in religious and worldly matters, -in order to increase the proselyte’s inclination for what he seeks and -wishes. Then is _tásís_, “making sure,” or confirming the arrangements -which are agreeable to him, so that he may be confident, and put in -possession of what he expects. Further, there is _khalâ_, “divesting,” -which is obscure. Afterwards by renouncing the actions of this world: -this is _silkh_, “estrangement from the observances of exterior -religion.” Finally, at this period, whoever may find it agreeable to -indulge in, and to excite himself to, pleasurable practices, and to -interpret the law, which is the office of exalted personages, _he may -do so_, as whatever in the world is not hurtful, is proper to the -favourites of God, as for instance wine, which, to enjoy with -moderation and without abuse and noise, is salutary.[604] - -They say likewise _vazu_, “ablution,” is as much as acknowledging the -faith of the Imám, and abstersion with sand (from want of water) the -same in the absence of the Imám, as he is the umpire. _Namaz_, -“prayer,” is a precept of the prophet, according to the word of God -the Almighty. - - “Prayer preserveth from filthy crimes, and from what is - blameable.”[605] - -_Jhtilám_,[606] “nocturnal pollution,” refers to the divulging of a -secret to a person not one of those who ought to know it, without the -intention of guiding him into the right road. _Ghasel_, “bathing,” is -a renewal of the covenant. _Zakat_, “alms,” is the sanctifying of life -by means of the understanding of mankind. _Súm_, “fasting,” denotes -the preservation of the mysteries of the Imám. _Zena_, “sexual -intercourse with a strange woman,” is equivalent to divulging the -mysteries of religion. These sectaries say also that praying in an -assembly is following the holy Imám. The alms are to them a metaphoric -signification of the fifth part of property which they give to the -Imám.[607] Further, there is the _Kábah_[608] of the prophet, the -_bâb_, “door,” of Alí, the _śafá_ of the apostle, the _marvah_ of the -_vasí_, “executor,” the _míkát itinás_, “the place of familiarity” -(where the pilgrims assemble and whence they proceed to perform the -solemnities at the temple of Mecca), and the _talbiyat_, “pilgrimage -of obedience” to the blessed; the _seven circuits_, around the house -of lordship which the Shiâhs devote to the Imâms (the peace of God be -upon them!)[609] - -Heaven is repose of bodies from all distresses. Hell is the torment of -bodies by distresses. - -And in this manner they interpret every thing, and say that every -thing exterior has its interior, which is the cause of the exterior, -whilst this latter is the manifestation of the interior; and there is -nothing exterior which has not its interior; and if not, there is, in -reality, nothing; further, there is nothing interior which has not its -exterior, unless it be an illusion. When God created the exterior -(visible), and the interior (invisible) world, the latter was the -world of spirits, souls, and intelligences; the visible world was that -of bodies, upper and nether, and of accidents. The Imám is the lord of -the interior world, and there is no knowledge of God to be acquired, -except by his instruction. The prophet is the lord of the exterior -world, and the law, of which men stand in need, will not be perfect -except by him; and the law has an exterior side, which is called -_tanzil_,[610] “revelation from heaven, the Koran,” and an interior, -which is entitled _táwîl_,[611] “interpretation.” The age is never -destitute of a prophet, or of law; it is likewise never without an -Imám, or his authority. These sectaries further say, that his -government is sometimes concealed, although the Imám be manifest, and -that at another time the government is manifest, although the Imám be -concealed; in such a manner that the people may know a prophet by the -wonders of his words and deeds; but they recognize the Imám by his -government and direction, and they cannot know God Almighty but by the -Imám. The Shiâhs also maintain that the existence of an Imám through -all times is necessary, whether manifest or concealed, so that no -period of time be destitute of the splendour of the sun, or plunged in -the darkness of night. - -A book was seen, composed by Hassan Sábáh,[612] who was a deputy of -the Imám. In the first chapter of it, he says, that the _mufti_, -“wise,” in the knowledge of the Lord God ought to follow one of the -two sentences: either that which says that he may know God by mere -reason, without the aid of instruction by an intelligent _sádik_,[613] -“a sincere friend,” or that which declares that the knowledge of the -Lord God by reason is difficult, and cannot be acquired unless by the -instruction of an intelligent sincere friend; and he further states, -that whatever decision he may give according to the first sentence, he -does not assume to reject the other, because, when he rejects, the -rejection amounts to teaching and demonstrating, that the disavowal of -the posterity of Alí is required by the other. These sectarians say, -that both modes are necessary, and constitute a proof: because the -muftí, when he gives a decision by a sentence, this sentence is either -his own or that of another; in the same way, when he professes a -creed, either he adopts it firmly from his own original persuasion, or -this sense is communicated to him by another. This is what the first -section _of the book before mentioned_ contains. In the contents of -this section is a digression upon the lords of reason and of wisdom. - -In the second section of it, we read the statement that, when there is -an occasion for a teacher, either every intelligent man, by a free use -of his ability, gives instruction, or the learned sádik is -indispensable; and the author says, that a person who may agree with -whatever instruction an able master imparts, will not think it -allowable to carry on controversy with this learned antagonist; and -when he permits himself to do so, certainly he may have kept the faith -which is absolutely due to the learned _śaáik_ and confidential -friend. This section is said to contain a digression upon the lords of -the tradition. - -In the third section it is stated that, although the necessity of a -learned _sádik_ be established, yet it is required to take advantage -of the knowledge of the first learned man; and after the instruction -received from him, that is, instruction from any teacher without a -special appointment, it is proper to be assured of his truth; as the -right way of religion is not attainable without a companion, certainly -the first concern is to have a _true_ friend. After this subject, -there is a digression upon the Shiâhs. - -In the fourth chapter, the author says, that the individuals of -mankind are divided into two classes. - -The one says: “We require for the knowledge of the Creator a learned -_sádik_, or sincere friend; and his special appointment is required, -and after that instruction from him.” The other class says, -“Instruction for the knowledge of any science can be obtained from any -person, whether a master or not a master _specially appointed_.” As, -by previous investigations, it is understood that the truth is with -the first class, certainly the chief and leader of the first class -will be the chief of the philosophers; and as it has been ascertained -that the second class is erring, their leader is the leader of the -deceived. The author says further, the _true_ doctrine is, that we -acknowledge the _muhikk_, “him who knows for certain” _bahakk_, that -is, “in truth,” which is a summary knowledge; and after the summary -knowledge by which we recognise “him who knows for certain,” “in -truth,” we want a detailed (distinct) knowledge of these questions; -and our purpose in using the word _bahakk_, “in truth” is to express -the necessity of having a _muhikk_, and the author says: By necessity -we are to know the Imám, and by the Imám we know God in such a manner -that by lawfulness we acknowledge him who is necessary, that is to -say, that we acknowledge by the possibility of perfection the -existence of the self-existent being. - -The author also says, that knowing the _true_ doctrine is knowing the -unity _of God_. After this illustration, having in several sections -exhibited an account of his own faith, and in some established it, he -made in other sections a digression upon the creed of others, and the -digressive sections are frequent; the proofs and disquisitions by -controversy with regard to false religions, and the disquisitions by -concordance with regard to the rightfulness of his own religion, are -distinct from the totality of those arguments, which are between truth -and falsehood, and the contrast between truth and falsehood, and that -between small and great _is made evident_. The author further alleges, -that in science there is truth and falsehood; but the distinguishing -mark of truth is unity, and the distinguishing mark of falsehood is -multiformity; unity is related to _authoritative_ instruction, and -multiformity is related to opinion; instruction belongs to the -assembly, and the assembly to the Imám; opinion is allied with -conflicting sects, and these agree with their chiefs. As for the -separation of truth from falsehood, and the resemblance which truth -has with falsehood, and for the distinction between what is consistent -and what is absurd, on both sides, a balance ought to be formed in -which every thing may be weighed.[614] The author moreover says, that -we obtained the knowledge of this balance from the speeches of the -witnesses, and whatever is compounded of negation and affirmation; and -whatever is deserving negation is falsehood; and whatever is deserving -affirmation is truth; and by this balance we weigh the good and bad, -the sincere and the lying, and all contradictions; and the acute -distinction and mystery of this speech is, that in the sentences each -word relates to truth by proof of evidence, and unity and -confirmation. The Imámate unites itself with prophecy in such a degree -that prophecy, by the very nature of the Imámate, is prophecy; and -this is the scope of the discourse in these topics of inquiry. - -Besides, the author forbade the vulgar to dive deeply into science; -and he prohibited the nobles the study of the books of the ancients, -unless there was a person fit to master the particulars of their -contents, and the comparative merits of the men who have delivered -speeches. He also determined, with his companions in divinity, to say: -_illah illah Muhammed ast_, “God is God the praise-worthy;” so you; -but the adversaries say: _illah illah akel ast_, “God is God the -wise;” that is, whatever is reason, every reason takes its direction -towards the side of this leader (Muhammed); and as some of them raise -these questions: “God Almighty is he present or not? one or many? -knowing or ignorant? powerful or not?” An answer sufficiently strong -is given, namely: _illah ba illah Muhammed_, “God by God is -praiseworthy:”[615] as it is God who sent the prophet for leading the -creatures, and the prophet is the leader of the creatures. - -These sectaries are to be found in many places, but in great numbers -in the _navahi_, “district,” of the eastern Kohistan, in the districts -of Khita, of Káshghar, and Tibet. The author of this book saw, in the -year of the Hejira 1054 (A. D. 1644), in Multan, one belonging to this -sect, called Mír Alî Akbar, and heard frequently this account from his -mouth: The Khalifs of the Ismâílíah maintained, during a long time, -their dignity in the West. The lineage of the first Khalifs, according -to the manner which is agreed upon among the Ismâílíah, is stated as -follows: Khájah[616] Násir Túsi (of Tús) showed himself or really was, -in his time, a professor of Ismâílísm. Muhammed al mahtadí ben -Abd-ullah, ben Ahmed ben Muhammed, ben Ismâíl, ben Jâfr sádik, united -the dignity of the Imámate with his own nobility, and declared that -Mahdi, the last of the age, is represented in Muhammed ben Abd-ullah, -and he quoted from the writing of Sádik, who said: “_At the end of -thirteen hundred years, the sun shall rise in the west._” They say -that the word _sun_ in this sentence alludes to Muhammed, son of -Abd-ullah.[617] They give to Abú yazíd, who fell off from the lord -(Sadik), the name of Antichrist (dajál).[618] - -A great number of learned men are followers of the Ismâílíah: such was -_Amír Náśer Khusró_, from among all learned poets, the contemporary of -Ismâíl, surnamed _Montáser_, “the victorious.”[619] Amir Naser[620] -was born in the year of the Hejira 359 (A. D. 969). When he arrived at -the age of discernment and rectitude, he heard the voice of Hassen, -_teaching_ the morals of the Ismâílíah, in the time of the khalifat of -the legitimate Imám Montáser;[621] he hastened from Khorassan to -Egypt, where he dwelt seven years; every year he made a pilgrimage to -Mecca, and returned from thence; he was exceedingly devoted to the -practice of the law. At last he went to Mecca, and returning by the -way of Baśra (Bussora) he was disposed to go to Khorassan. Having -fixed himself in Sabakh, he invited mankind to the khalifat of -Manteśer, and to the religion of the Ismâíliah, and showed the way to -it. Hence, a number of the enemies of the prophet’s descendants wished -to destroy Amír Nás r Khusró. A prey to fear and terror, he concealed -himself from mountain to mountain in Badakhshan,[622] and lived twenty -years upon water and grass in inaccessible places. Some of the -ignorant reckoned him a companion among the Ismâíliah Almutíah; others -of the uninformed composed a book of regret on the subject of his -alliance with the Almutíah which they supposed: the fact is that he, -following the Ismâílíah of the West, kept no communication nor society -with the Almútíah. This is what we have heard from the Ismâílíah with -regard to Nás r, and what is also recorded in historical books.[623] - -The Imáms of the Ismâílíah showed themselves very kind to all -creatures. Thus Manśur, the son of Azíz, known under the name of -Alhákem ba amra allah, an Ismáílah, ordered in Egypt that, for the -convenience of purchase and sale, the doors of the shops should be -kept open at night, and the windows of Cairo not shut, that besides -torches should be lighted in the narrow streets the whole night, and -the people freely move in the market places and squares. This lord was -skilful in all sciences, and powerful in prodigies, like his glorious -ancestor Muhammed Mokhtar. Thus he said: “in such a night, a -misfortune will befall me:” and so it happened.[624] - -The Imáms of the western Ismâílíah were all zealous in the practices -of exterior worship, and an account of them is published in the -historical books. The Ismâílíah of Iran are celebrated with the -Ismâílíah of Kohistán and Rúdbár.[625] The first of the former was -_Hassan_, son of _Sábáh_. As the account of him in the histories has -been traced with the pen of partiality, therefore I shall endeavor to -make a statement such as obtains credit among the Ismâílíah concerning -him.[626] - -The lineage of Hassan is connected with Muhammed Sabah Zamérí; his -grandfather, who descended from the family of Sábah Zamérí, came from -Yemen to Kúfa, from Kúfa to Kam, and from Kam to Ráí. His father is -also said to have been Alí,[627] a person devout and learned in the -religion of Ismâílísm; he found a livelihood in the country of Ráí. -The judge of this province, Abú Muslem Rází, on account of the -contrariety of religion, bore him enmity. At the time when the Imám -Mavafek Níshápúrí, one of the most learned Sonnites, flourished in -Khorássan, the father (Alí), in order to remove from the suspicions of -the enemy, having brought his fortunate son to Níshápúr, into the -society of the Imam Movafik, procured him the opportunity of being -intent upon his own advantage, whilst he himself, seated in the corner -of tranquillity, devoted himself to piety. He never permitted himself -speech above the comprehension of the vulgar, for fear that any person -might consider them speeches of heretics and infidels, and accuse him -of impiety and irreligion. Hassan was a condisciple of Nizam al mulk, -of Tús,[628] and Omar Khayám[629] of Níshápúr. As his glorious father -had revealed to him that Nizám al Mulkh would rise to a high rank of -worldly greatness, and Hassan to a great dignity, visible and -invisible, therefore Hassan said to Nizam al mulk: “Whichever of us -attains a high dignity, shall divide the fortune by him acquired -between us three equally;” and in this sense they bound themselves by -a covenant. When khájah became a vizir in the time of Alp -Arselan,[630] then Hakím Omar Khayám came to him, and in the corner of -contemplative retirement, devoted himself to the acquisition of -virtues. Khojah took no notice of his arrival. Hassan expected that -Nizam al mulk would call him to his presence; disappointed in this, -he, during the reign of Alp Arslan, did not join Khajah, but in the -time of Sultan Malik Shah[631] he presented himself in Níshápúr to -Khajah, but the latter did not mind the covenant that he had made, nor -introduce him to the assembly of the king. Helpless then, the _Sayid -al táífah_, “the chief of the sect,” that is, Hassan, said to Khájah: -“Thou belongest to the learned, and to the companions of certainty, -and thou knowest that the world is a vile object; should such a -meanness be allowable, that thou, on account of rank and the love of -sway, shouldst exhibit thyself a violator of promises, and enter the -number of those of whom it is said: ‘They break the covenant of God.’” - - “Place the hand of faith into the girdle of promise, - And endeavor to be no breaker of thy word.” - -Khájah, perplexed, brought him to the court of the Sultan, to whom he -said much of Hassan’s sagacity, but also gave information that the man -was violent, avaricious, inconsistent, and undeserving of confidence. -As Hassan was learned, and an able man of business, therefore his -piety and prudence made in a short time a great impression upon the -mind of the Sultan, who, in many great and important affairs, acted -according to his advice. As the Sultan thought that what Khâja had -said of the inconsistency and avarice of Hassan’s character was mere -falsehood, and on account of other disorder, some dissatisfaction with -Khájah came into the Sultan’s mind. One day he asked Khájah: “In what -time art thou able to settle a clear account, such as that of a -collector of the receipts and charges of the empire?” Khájah replied: -“In two years.” The Sultan said: “That is a long time.” Hassan took an -engagement with the king that he would bring it to a conclusion in -forty days, under the stipulation that, during this time, all the -writers should be at his service. The Sultan gave his approbation to -the proposal, and Hassan, faithful to his promise, settled in forty -days the account of the finances of the empire with the utmost -exactness. Khájah, on hearing this intelligence, was troubled. -According to the account of some, a slave of Khájah, who was upon -terms of friendship with a servant of Hassan, or according to others, -Khájah himself, took the register from the hands of the servant, who -was carrying the leaves of it outside the king’s hall,[632] and -mutilated the register. The servant brought to Hassan the leaves, -without minding their order and without mentioning to him the -occurrence; therefore, at the time of presenting the register, Hassan -found it mutilated, and intent upon arranging and putting it in order, -confused the leaves. The Sultan was impatient to know the receipts, -charges, and revenues of the country; but Hassan was not able to -answer, and spoke with hesitation. The Sultan, being vexed at meeting -with such delay, said: “What is the reason of these difficulties?” As -he received no answer, suitable to his questions, he became agitated. -Khájah Nizám ul mulk took the opportunity to say: “Intelligent -persons, to complete this business, demanded a delay of two years; an -ignorant man pretends that, to finish it, forty days are sufficient -for this important work: his answer to any question can but be -insignificant. I have formerly represented, that in his character -there is a total levity, and that his speeches deserve no -confidence.”[633] On this account, the Sultan was displeased. Hassan -consequently betook himself to flight, and hastened to Rudbar, in -which country he found refuge with Abed-ul Malik Atás, who was a -follower of the Ismâílíah; from thence he went to Isfahán, and, from -fear of the Sultan and of Khájah, he concealed himself in the house of -the Ráis Abulfazil. One day, in the midst of conversation, it escaped -from his tongue: “If I found two proper friends, I would put in -confusion this Turk and his places.” The Ráís Abulfásil ascribed this -speech to a derangement of the brain; and, without disclosing his idea -to Hassan, he prepared for him aliments, such as are proper for -strengthening the brain. Our Sáid Hassan, from his great sagacity, -having perceived the intention of his mind, hastened from thence to -another place, and afterwards took possession of the fort -_Almút_.[634] The Ráis Abulfazil joined him. Our Sáid then said: “Is -my brain deranged, or hast thou not seen how, as soon as I had found -two proper friends, I have made good my word?” - -At last, our Sáid went to Egypt, and at that time Mantaśer[635] an -Ismâílíah, sat upon the throne of the Khiláfet, and, being pleased -with his sight, bestowed favors upon him, wherefore Hassan remained -one year and a half under Montaśer’s protection. After this, a great -enmity arose between him and Amír _Aljíyúsh_,[636] from this reason: -Montaśer withdrew from his son Nazár the succession to his dignity, -and issuing afterwards a second order, transferred it to his other son -Ahmed surnamed Almistálí billah.[637] As a tumultuous concourse of the -people took place on that account, Amír Aljíyúsh approved of the -latter appointment, but Hassan said: “Respect is due to the first -nomination;” and he invited the people to adhere to Nazár’s -Imámate,[638] Amir Aljíyúsh, with the concurrence of some Umrá, -represented to Montas er that Hassan, on account of this guilt, -deserved to be imprisoned in the fort Damíat. Soon after this was -done, a tower of the rampart of the fort, which was of a perfect -strength, fell down, wherefore the people apprehended a still greater -miracle from Hassan; at last the Amír Aljíyúsh sent him, with some -people of the Franks, on board a ship bound to the West. The vessel -was scarcely in the open sea, when a violent wind began to blow, the -sea became boisterous, and the ship’s crew were agitated; but Hassan -showed himself in that state of mind described by Amir Khusro: - - “That thou mayst not be moved by every blast of wind, - Draw in thy skirts (collect thyself) like a mountain; - For man is but a handful of dust, - And life is a violent storm.” - -On this occasion one of the voyagers asked Hassan: “What is the reason -that I do not see thee disturbed?” Hassan answered: “It is because the -Múláná, that is, the Imám, revealed to me that no misfortune will -befall the passengers of the ship.” At the same moment, the tumult was -calmed. On that account, love for Hassan gained the hearts of the -whole company, and the vessel went to one of the towns of the -Nazaréens. Hassan from thence embarked in another ship, and arrived at -the frontier of _Shám_ (Syria), where he landed. From thence he -hastened to Haleb (Alep),[639] and then satisfied his desire to go to -Baghdad, from which place he betook himself hastily to Khózistan, -which country he left for Isfahán: in this way he travelled, concealed -and clandestinely, in the countries of Irak and Azerbáíjan, and -invited the people to the doctrine of the Ismáílíah, and to the -Imámate of Nazár; he sent _dáâis_,[640] “missionaries,” to the fort -_Almút_, and to other fastnesses and cities of Rúdbár and Kohistán, -that they might invite the people to the true faith: in a short time, -a great number of men adopted this religion. Afterwards, having fixed -his abode in a place near Almút, he devoted himself entirely to a -religious life, to rectitude and the submission to God, which was his -very nature.[641] The inhabitants, having heard his followers, were -converted to his doctrine, and in the month of Rajeb (December) in the -year of the Hejira 484 (A. D. 1091), a troop of the inhabitants of -Almút brought this personage into the fort.[642] Finally, when he had -entered the fort, a chief, Alí Mahdî by name, who, under the authority -of Sultan Malik shah, was governor of this province, found himself -bereft of power and was obliged to submit. The adversaries of the -Ismâlíah say, that one day Alí Mahdî asserted, “deception in law is -allowable,” and gave an account of some deceptions in religious law; -but our Sáid declared that, the centre of law being rectitude, -deception is not permitted, and all those who practise deception, -shall be brought to account for it by God. - -Some time after it, Hassan said one day to Mahdi: “Sell to me for -three thousand dinars as much of the ground of this fort as a cow-skin -will be able to embrace.” Mahdi, having agreed to the bargain, our -Sâid made the cow-skin into thin stripes, which he joined together and -surrounded the whole fort. He then wrote an order to the Ráis Mazafer, -who held a command at the foot of the mountains of Dámâan, and was a -follower of his doctrine, to that effect: “The Ráis Mazafer (may God -Almighty guard him!) shall pay to Alí Mahdî three thousand dinars, as -the price of the fort Almút. Blessing upon the prophet and his -descendants; God suffices to us, and it is good to trust our interests -to him.” - -Having written this, he delivered it to Mahdi, and brought him out of -the fort. The latter, some time after, pressed by indigence, presented -the writ to the Râis Mazafer, and received three thousand dinars in -gold. - -Thus at last the affairs of our Sáid were carried, after many -difficulties, to the possession of the castle Almút, and in a short -time the whole country of Rúdbár and Kohistan fell into his fortunate -hands; within thirty and six years, he rose to great prosperity and -power. After him seven of his followers held the government, and the -duration of the prosperity of this sect was eighty and one years.[643] -Our Sáid strove at perfection of rectitude and piety, and the zeal of -this lord in upholding the law was carried to such a degree, that he -drove out of the fort an individual who played the flute, and in spite -of the intercessions of many persons in his favor, never gave him -entrance again. During the time of his government, he went no more -than twice to sit upon the terrace of his house, and never was seen -out of the fort, always occupied with the direction of the affairs of -the state and of religion. In his time the fedáyís (his devoted -followers) destroyed a great number of the great and noble adversaries -of his sect.[644] At last death transported our Sáid from this world -of vexations to the gardens of paradise, in the fourth month of the -year (September, the beginning of autumn) of the Hejira 518[645] (A. -D. 1124-5). - -His appointed successor was _Kia Buzerk umíd_. - -As _Hussáin Fáni_, one of the trusty companions of our Sáid,[646] with -a troop of refîks (followers)[647] brought Kohistán into his -possession, one of the Umrás of Malikshah, who was in Rúdbár, besieged -several times the fort Almút, and spread slaughter and devastation -about, in such a manner that the situation of the inhabitants of that -castle having become distressing, they desired to retire into the -valley. Our Sáid, exhorting them to patience and perseverance, -declared that the Imám, namely Montaśer, had said, the Almutian ought -not to desert the place, which should become to them the seat of good -fortune. At this very time, that person, their enemy, passed to the -other world, and our Sáid was liberated of all anxiety: on which -account the fort was named _Buldet-ul ikbál_, “the town of good -fortune.” - -In the beginning of the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), the Amír -Arslán sháh[648] moved, by order of the Sultan Maliksháh, the army -against Buldet-ul ikbal. As the situation of the inhabitants of the -fort became desperate,[649] Abu Alí, who was one of the adherents of -our Sáid, and resided in Kazvîn, sent them three hundred valiant men; -and this robust body threw themselves by night into the fort, from -whence, making a night sally upon the Arslánían, they routed them, and -carried off an immense booty. - -When the fugitives arrived in the camp of the Sultan, he sent _Kazil -Sarúk_, with a strong army to reduce the rebels _in Khorasan_. Hassáín -Fáni, _one of Hassan’s chiefs_, having taken refuge with his rafíks in -_Múmin-ábád_, the general of the Sultan made the necessary -preparations for a siege. When he was upon the point of seizing the -splendid conquest, the intelligence suddenly spread of the murder of -Khájah Nizam al mulk by the hand of _Abu Táher Adáni_, who was one of -the fedáyis of our Sâid; and closely to this followed the report of -the death of Maliksháh; on which account this army dispersed, and as -the dissension between Barkíarok and the Sultan Muhammed _sons of -Malikshah_, occasioned their weakness,[650] the strength of the -Ismâílíah was increased, and the forts _Girdkoh_ and _Lámíser_ fell -into the possession of our Sáid.[651] - -At that time the fedáyis, in order to destroy the learned men and -theologians, who entertained a hatred towards the chosen Ismâílíah, -and reviled their creed, were dispersed on all sides, and brought a -great number of this class beneath the blows of their swords and -poniards: on which account the learned men and the theologians of the -adversaries were frightened. - -When Sultan Barkíárok, the son of Malik shah, died, Sultan Muhammed -Doulet[652] succeeded to his sovereignty. The latter sent Ahmed, the -son of Nizam ul Mulk, with an army to the country of Rúdbár. In the -beginning of the year of the Hejira 511[653] (A. D. 1117) he -despatched Alabet Tóshacín shërgír[654] to the assistance of the -Vizir; nearly a year had elapsed when they were about to take the fort -Buldet ul ikbál; at that time the intelligence of the death of Sultan -Muhammed was spread in Atabec’s camp: on which account that army took -to flight in the night time. - -When Sultan Sinjar[655] had placed the crown of sovereignty upon his -head, he sent forces several times to combat the sect of the -Ismâílíah. At that time our Sáid Hassan enjoined to one of the -Sultan’s servants, who had adopted the creed of the Ismâílíah: “Fix a -dagger in the ground near the Sultan’s head; but do him no harm, -because thou art nourished by his salt, and it is not right to lay the -hand on the master.” The servant did so. When Sinjar awoke from sleep, -he saw the dagger, and was very much frightened, but kept this -occurrence concealed. - -Some days after, the ambassador of our Sáid came to visit him, and -said: “If we did not entertain friendship for the Sultan, that dagger, -which in such a night was fixed in the hard ground, would have been -buried in the soft bosom of the Sultan.” After having heard this, the -Sultan’s apprehension increased, and he made peace;[656] wherefore the -state of Hassan’s affairs gained strength. - -In the meantime, Hossâín Fány[657] became a martyr, by the iniquity of -_the Ostad_, “doctor” Hossáín, the son of Hassan, the son of Sabah; -our Sáid ordered, that he should be put to death by the law of -retaliation. About this time, another son of Hassan was found addicted -to drinking wine; by order of his celebrated father, soon after his -brother, he drank the cup of death. - -Our Sáid, having fallen sick in the year of the Hejira 518[658] (A. D. -1124-5), he appointed _Kia buzerg Umid_ his successor, and committed -the dignity of his vizirate to _Abu Alí_; he enjoined these two -persons that, in all transactions they should not deviate from the -direction given them by Hossan Fakrání,[659] and having thus settled -these affairs, on the twenty-eighth day of the last Rabiâ (the fourth -month) of the said year, he emigrated to the gardens of Paradise. - -Kíá Buzurg Umid, who was originally from the country of Rúdbár, -tended, according to the precept of our Sáid, towards devotion and the -strengthening of religion.[660] - -After him, Muhammed Buzerg Umíd took the government. In the beginning -of his reign _Alráshid billah_[661] was killed by a band of fedáyís, -and from this time, fearing the swords of the Almútían, the khalifs -concealed themselves. Muhammed Buzerg also followed the example of -Hassan. - -After him came Muhammed, the son of Hassan, the son of Muhammed, who -is known under the name _Alí zikrihi-al-sálam_, which means “let peace -be upon him.” Concerning Hossan there are many tales. His adversaries -assert, that he was the son of Muhammed Umíd, and a class of the -Ismâílíah of Rúdbár and Kohistan said that, in the time of the reign -of our Sáid, one year after the death of Mont´aser the High, a -person called Abul Hassan Sayidí, who had been in the particular -confidence of the khalif, came from Egypt to Almut, and brought with -him a boy descended from Nazár, the son of Montaśer, to whom the -Imámate belonged, and nobody was informed of this secret except our -Sáid, that is, Hassan, who treated Abul Hassan with regard and -respect, and made the Imám reside in a village at the foot of Almút. -After a delay of six months, he gave Abul Hassan leave to depart. The -Imám was inclined to the worship of God and to retirement, and united -himself in wedlock with a modest woman in the village. When she became -pregnant, he committed her to Muhammed, the son of Buzerg Umíd, and -recommended secresy in that affair, saying: “When a boy comes to -light, take the woman.” Muhammed acted according to the injunction, -and during the reign of Muhammed, son of Buzerg Umíd, the belief in -the appearance of a son, identified with Alí zikrichi-al salam, gained -the way of splendor, and the report was this――that he was the son of -Muhammed. Many asserted that whatever deed and action emanates from -the Imám is not only lawful but laudable. The son of Nazar, whom Abul -Hassan Sâyídí had brought to Almút, when arrived at the age of -virility, had connexion with the lawful wife of Muhammed, the son of -Buzerg Umíd, and Ali zikrichi al salam was the fruit of it. Although, -because proceeding from a prophet and Imám, this action be legal, yet -it was not necessary. The relation between Alî zikrichi al salam and -Montaśer Billah is derived from this cause. The Ismâílíah acknowledge -as a legitimate Imám the victorious by the power of God, Hassan, the -son of Mahdi, the son of Ilhádi, the son of Nazár, the son of Montas ar. -They call his precious spirit “the resurrection;”[662] because they -believe that the resurection takes place at the lord’s time, when men -join God, and when the inconveniences of the law are taken off; this -meaning is expressed by “resurrection;” and that the lord, at the time -of his Imámate, having united the creatures with the Creator, threw -off the observances of the law. - -It is reported that, when this lord placed his foot upon the cushion -of the khiláfet, in the year of the Hejira 559 (A. D. 1163-4), he -convoked all the chiefs and nobles of his dominion in Buldet ul ikbál, -and ordered that, in the meeting-place of that fortunate fort, a -pulpit should be placed towards the Kiblah, and four flags, one red, -another green, the third yellow, and the fourth white, should be fixed -in the four corners of the pulpit. On the seventeenth day of the -blessed Ramzan of the said year, he ascended the pulpit, and unfolding -the tongue of prodigious speeches, he said: “I am the Imám of the age; -and I took off the hardship of the ordinances and prohibitions from -the inhabitants of the world, and I held the commands of the law for -nothing; now is the period of the lord of the resurrection; the -creatures are to be bound by ties of love to God, and enjoy the -external things in whatever manner they like.” He then descended from -the top of the pulpit, and, having broken fast, ordered that, in the -manner of a festival, all should occupy themselves with mirth and -cheerfulness, and playing and gaming; and this fortunate day was -entitled “the festival of resurrection,” and made the beginning of a -new era. This is also the day on which, according to the reckoning of -many historians, the lord _Amír Almumin Alí_, “the Amír of the -believers,” was wounded by Abd ul rahmen. As to escape from this world -and to join heaven is the object of enjoyment of perfect spirits, so -do they on this day chiefly devote themselves to pleasure. The creed -of this lord was, that the world is ancient, and time infinite; that -the other world is spiritual, and heaven and hell figurative; that the -resurrection is the particular death of every one. This lord was -stabbed with a dagger in the month Rubiâ (August) of the year of the -Hejira 561[663] (A. D. 1165-6) by Hassan, the son of Namvár, who -descended from Bavíah.[664] On account of the last will of his father, -he occupied the Imámate; like his celebrated father, he upheld the -faith. - -Jelál eddin, of the same family, made a martyr of his father by means -of poison. As he obtained the Imámate in an undue manner, and seized -the government by usurpation, he also abandoned the religion of the -Ismâilíah. After eleven years, in the month Ramzan of the year of the -Hejirah 618[665] (A. D. 1221-2) he died of dysentery. - -After him, Ala eddin Muhammed, son of Jelál eddin Hassan, put to death -all those who, by orders of Jelál eddin, had given poison to his -grandfather, and who had also participated in the opinions and -behaviour of Jelál eddin; he conformed himself to the manners of his -ancestors, and denied those of his father. He let himself be bled -without the advice of a medical man, and as too much blood was taken -from him, he was overcome by melancholy. - -The Ismâílíah say, that prophets and saints cannot live free from -bodily defects: thus _Músi_ (Moses) was a stammerer, _Shâyeb_ (Jethro, -father in law of Moses) was blind, and _Ayúb_ (Job) was full of -plagues. It was in the time of the lord Ala eddin Muhammed, that Náśer -Motashem, who was the lord of Kohistan, and to whom the book _Akhlák -Naśeri_[666] is dedicated, sent Khájah Náśir to Almút. Hassan -Mázinderáni was contrary to Ismâílism; he made Alá-eddin a martyr (by -killing him). In the time of Ala eddin there was among the learned men -of the age the shaikh Jamál Gíli: in Kazvin, occupied with the -instruction of the people, he was in secret addicted, and made -proselytes, to the creed of the Ismâílíah; on that account, Alâ-eddin -showed him respect, and conferred favors on the inhabitants of Kazvin, -to whom he said that, if the shaikh did not live in that place, he -would carry the ground of Kazvin in a beggar’s wallet to Almút; but -the learned, who were not Ismâílíah, did not acknowledge an Ismâílíah -shaikh. In giving an account of his (Ala-eddin’s) death it was said: - - “The ornament of faith and religion, the polar-star of the elect - of God, - He whose threshold was the Kiblah of hopes, - In the year six hundred and fifty-one[667] (A. D. 1253) he went - to the Lord, - At night, on Monday, on the fourth day of Shavál (the tenth - Arabian month).” - -After Alá-eddin Muhammed, it was Rukn-eddin Khúrshah who became king -in Almút. He put to death Hassan Mazinderání with his family, and -burnt their corpses.[668] - -Holagú khan[669] overcame Rocn-eddin: the latter demanded to be sent -to the court of Maikú khán, which demand was granted; on the journey -he attained the extremity of his life; his reign did not last one -year. - -In Almút had been dug several reservoirs which were filled with -vinegar, honey, and wine; these things and all stores, which had been -deposited in the time of our Sáíd, that is, of Hassan Śabáh, were -found without any alteration: all were astonished, and the Ismâílíah -thought this event to be one of the miracles of their Said. - - * * * * * - -AN ACCOUNT OF THE ALI ILAHÍAN. - -In the east of Kohistan, not far from Bakhtá, is a place called -_Arníl_,[670] and also _Armal_; the king is there entitled _Abáb_. -They say: as it is evident to the swimmer in the sea of the realities -of events, that the door of intercourse is closed between the beings -below and those above, and no intercourse is opened between the -elemental and the heavenly beings, so are the temporal beings and -those of eternity destitute of the bonds of relationship, and no -connexion exists between those confined, and those unconfined, by -space; therefore they are ordered to know God by investigation of -wisdom and of the divine law, and to worship the divinity. The angels -on high and the prophets below have the faculty of knowing the -substance of the blessed verses, but not the divine Being itself: - - “We do not know thee as thou shouldst be known.” - -This is what the crier proclaims. On that account it is necessary to -the Almighty God and eternal Lord that he should descend from the -dignity of purity and from the station of unity and absoluteness, and -that, according to the abundance of his clemency, he should, in every -period and revolution of time, unite his spirit with a bodily frame, -in order that his creatures may behold this holy and exalted Lord, -and, in whatever manner he ordains, acknowledge and reverence him; the -precepts and traditions of history are published to that effect. As -the manifestation of a spirit in a bodily form is a possible fact, and -the learned agree upon it, and as it is stated in the account of the -travellers upon the road of salvation to the city of the true faith, -so is it determined that a pure spirit may assume a bodily likeness; -thus is the appearance of Jabrîl in the form of an ape-dog[671] an -instance of it, and thus, on the occasions of wickedness, is the -appearance of Satan, or a demon in a human form. Besides, it is in the -power of the Almighty to manifest himself in the best, the most -perfect body. - -The individuals among men are, during the business of life, formed -dependent on their mutual wants. To this sect it is an indispensable -rule to associate all together, in order that no oppression may take -place towards each other in their communities, and that the order of -the world may remain upheld. It is indispensable that this great rule -be derived from God, the Lord of glory, in order that all men may -adopt it. On that account, the government of the supreme Judge has -found necessary that, by power of his perfection, a canon, having been -revealed among the different classes of mankind, should be agreed upon -for the regulation of the creatures, in consequence of which the -purpose of the conditions in the affairs of the world might be -settled. Further, by the assistance of reason and instruction, there -is in this age no other moon or sun in the sphere of perfection but -ALI MURTAZA, “the chosen.” Truly, the _illiterate prophet_[672] -(Muhammed) esteemed this blessed personage equal to several learned -apostles, and saw praiseworthy qualities of a prophet united in that -virtuous existence. Hence it follows, that men possessed of sight -behold him sometimes come down from heaven in the shape of the father -of mankind (_Adam_), and reckon his time to be that of one who -inhabited the floating ship of Noah, and place him as far back as that -age when a martyr, in the garment of Ibrahim, he was playing with the -fire _into which Nimrod had thrown him_; another time they find him in -the dress of the speaker with God, _Moses_, and the words of that -Lord: - - “He who knows himself, certainly knows God,” - -confirm that the pure spirit of that embodied soul, and wisdom, -represented in a person, is the Creator of the world, worthy of -praise. And the sentence: - - “God created man according to his image,” - -relates to the same, as Adam, the holy father of mankind, the Just, is -nobody else but _Alí Murtazi_. And the saying: - - “I saw the Lord in the shape of a man,” - -refers to that eternal being, merging into a body, as he has -manifested himself in the prophet’s visible form under the shape a -powerful man; and the honor of the prophet’s presenting his shoulder -by the assistance of the divine grace to the foot of that leader, -relates but to this, that reverence is due to him, as that -truth-speaking and truth-singing poet sung: - - “The prophet, in breaking down the idols, had no other desire - But that his shoulder might be placed beneath the foot of the chosen; - And the house of the worshipped Kâbah be filled with his presence.” - -[673]These sectaries also say, that in every revolution of time, the -Lord God was united to the body of a prophet or saint, namely, from -Adam down to Ahmed[674] and Alí, in which manner they explain the -transmigration of the divine light. And some of them say, that the -manifestation of God in this age took place in Aly alah, and after him -in his descendants, and they acknowledge Muhammed and Alí as prophets -and the mission of Alí alah. They assert, that when God saw that the -business did not go on well by the prophet, he came to his assistance, -as it were, by way of zeal. The author of this book saw a person from -among them, called Ahmed, who said, that the Koran which is among them -does not deserve confidence, as it is not the book which Alí Alah had -given to Muhammed; but is the composition of Abu bekr, of Omar, and -Osman. The author saw also one named Shams-eddin, who said: Certainly -the Koran is the word of Alí alah, but having been collected by Osman, -it ought not to be read. Some were seen among them who asserted that -the verse and prose, ascribed to the Amir of the believers, _Omar_, -were collected by Alí, and inserted in the Koran, and to these they -attach a superiority over the Koran, inasmuch as they came from Alí -allah to the creatures without foreign intervention, whilst the -Farkan, _Koran_, was delivered into the hands of men by means of -Muhammed. - -There is besides a sect among them which is called the _Ulvíahs_.[675] -They themselves derive their origin from Alí allah, and in their creed -participate with that of the just mentioned sect: they say, that the -Koran which is now among men, is not the word of Alí allah, because -the shaiks (Abu bekr and Omar) employed themselves in its -transposition, and at last Osman cast the whole away; as he possessed -eloquence, he composed a book in his own way, and burnt the original -Koran, wherefore these sectaries, wherever they find this book, -consign it to the flames. Their belief is, that when Alí allah left -the body, he was united with the sun; that he is now the sun; and -having also been the sun before, he was for some days joined to an -elemental body. They further maintain, that on this account the sun -was moving by his order, inasmuch as he is the real sun; wherefore -they call the sun _Alí allah_, and the fourth heaven _Daldal_.[676] -They are worshippers of the sun, whom they hold to be God Almighty. -They are a respectable tribe, and a division of them pretend that they -can call upon the sun, who answers them, and affords them protection -in their affairs. - -Abd ullah, one of them so named, reported, that among his relations -was a man called Azíz, upon whom, when he pronounced with fervour Alí -allah, and gave himself up to an ecstatical song or dance, no sword -could take effect. Thus, when one of the incredulous denied this, Azíz -became warm, and took to calling out “Alí allah” in such a manner that -foam settled upon his lips, and he cried to the denier: “Strike, O -accursed!” The latter aimed several blows with a sword at him, but -effected nothing. This person has now joined Alí allah in the other -world. - -Among these sectaries it is not permitted to kill any living being, -nor to eat any flesh, as Alí allah said: - - “Make not of your bellies the tombs of living beings.” - -And the animals which the Koran permits to be killed, and the flesh -which he allows to be eaten, is that of Abu bekr, of Omar, and Osman, -and of their followers, and all prohibited things, they say, have -reference to these three persons. With them, Iblis, the serpent, and -the peacock are symbols of these three, and likewise Shedád,[677] -Nimród, and Phárâún are they. These sectaries admit prostration before -the image of Alí allah; the breaking and worshipping of idols relates, -according to them, to the said three individuals, as Alí allah called -the Shaikhs the idols of the Korêsh. They agree upon transmigration, -and say, that when Alí appeared in former times in the form of a -prophet, those three also made their appearance in the shape of -deniers, and after them many others will come. - - - [549] The Zaydíyat derive their name from _Záíd_, son of - Alí, son of Záín el-abeddin. They are subdivided into three - branches, according to others into five, under as many - chiefs. I shall only mention three. The first, the - _Jarudíyat_, think that the Imámate was destined by the - prophet to Alí, but that after the two sons of the latter, - Hasan and Hosain, the sacred office was uncertain in their - children, and that those only who rose, sword in hand, were - Imáms; they do not agree upon the last Imám, still expected. - The second branch, the _Salaimaniyat_, admit the right of - Abubekr and Omar to the Imámate, but declare as infidels - Osman, Zobeir, and Aisha. The third branch, the - _Báíteriyat_, are for the most part in accordance with the - second, as to what regards Osman. These three branches are - heretics in the dogmas only, but, in jurisprudence, they - follow almost all the orthodox doctrine of Abú - Hanifáh.――(See _Journal asiatique_, 1825, tome VII. p. 32. - Art. de M. de Hammer.) - - [550] Túsí is the name of several celebrated men from the - town of Tús. There are two towns of that name: the one in - Transoxana, in the domain of Bochára; the other in Khorasan; - the latter consists of two towns, one is called _Tabaran_, - the other _Núkan_.――(_Abulfeda_, _Annales Moslemica_, vol. - III. p. 375.) We know several authors named _Abú Jâfar_, to - whom the words above quoted may be attributed, none with the - surname _Túsí_. The author above meant is perhaps _Abú Jâfar - al Tabarî_, celebrated historian, born in the year of the - Hejira 224 (A. D. 838), deceased in 310 (A. D. 922). - - [551] The twelve Imáms are as follow: - I. ALÍ, khalif and Imám, was murdered A. D. 661. - II. HASAN, eldest son of Alî, khalif and Imám, poisoned - A. D. 669. - III. HOSAIN, the second son of Alí, killed in battle - A. D. 680. - IV. ALÍ, surnamed _Zin alâbedin_, eldest son of Hosain, - died A. D. 712. - V. MUHAMED BEKER, son of Alí, poisoned A. D. 734. - VI. JAFR SADIK, son of Muhammed, died A. D. 765. - VII. ISMÁIL, son of Jáfr; see hereafter the account of - the Ismâilah. Herbelot names, as the seventh - Imám, Mussa, the second son of Jáfr, surnamed _al - Kiadhem_, “the debonnair,” and also _saber_, “the - patient,” and _ámin_, “the faithful guardian.” - The latter died A. D. 799. - VIII. ALÍ REZA, son of Mussa, poisoned A. D. 816. - IX. MUHAMMED, son of Alí Reza, called also _Abú Jafr - Muhammed_, died A. D. 835. - X. ALÍ ASKERÍ, son of Muhammed, poisoned A. D. 868. - XI. HASAN, son of Alí Askerí, died poisoned A. D. 873. - XII. MUHAMMED, son of Hasan, surnamed _Mahadi_, - “conductor, director;” he is supposed to be still - living, and expected to appear with the prophet - Elias, at the second coming of Jesus Christ. - - It may be remarked that, of the twelve holy men, seven died a - violent death, and two in an unknown manner. - - [552] I follow here the French translation of the Arabic - text, made by M. Garcin de Tassy.――(See _Journal asiatique_, - _mai 1842_, pp. 436-439.) - - [553] _Ad_ was an ancient and potent tribe of Arabs in the - province of Hadramaut. They chiefly worshipped four deities; - _Sakia_, supplying them with rain; _Háfedha_, preserving - them from all dangers abroad; _Rázeka_, providing them with - food; and _Sálema_, restoring the sick to health. Frequent - mention of them occurs in the Koran. - - [554] The tribe of _Tamud_ dwelt first in the country of the - Adites, then removed to the territory of Hejr, where their - habitations, cut in the rocks, are seen at this day. (See - Sale’s Koran, vol. I, pp. 7. 9. 196. 199.) - - [555] Moavia. - - [556] Koran, chap VII. v. 165. - - [557] Allusion to the twelve Imáms. See their names, pp. - 367. 368, note 1. - - [558] Allusion to the twelfth Imám, named Mahdi. See - hereafter a further explanation. - - [559] The word _Akhbarín_ is frequently employed to - designate “the transmitters of historical traditions,” in - opposition to مُحدثين _muhad-disin_, “transmitters of - traditions relative to the prophet;” but above it is - employed as the name of a distinct sect. I shall translate - it by “dogmatical traditionists.” It is taken in a much - wider sense by the author of the Dabistán, who does not fix - the precise epoch of the origin of this sect, but only says - that it was in after times called _ghaibet sari_; of which - name an explanation will be given hereafter. - - [560] _Amin_, “faithful,” is a title given to many Imáms, - Shaikhs, and Mullas. - - _Asterabad_ is the capital of the province of Georgia; some - Oriental geographers place the town in that of Tabaristan, - and others in that of Mazendaran, as these three provinces, - which together formed the ancient Hyrcania, were often - united under one denomination. Herbelot mentions two authors - with the surname _Asterabadi_, both commentators of the - Arabic Grammar Cafiah, which seems to have no connection - with the religion above mentioned. - - [561] See note, p. 327, note 1. - - [562] _Ma sha yín_, may be deduced from مشى _máshí_, “walking, - going,” and alludes to the peripatetic philosophers, who - were followers of Aristotle, and were wont to discuss - walking up and down in the Lyceum of Athens. Referred to - مشايهء _mashíyi-at_ (from مشيئ _mas’hiyí_), “willing, - wishing, desiring,” the word may signify knowledge-desiring - philosophers; مشايع _musháíâ_, means “a follower, adherent, - companion.” - - [563] The Orientals give to Aristotle the surname of - _Ilahíyún_, “the divine.” They attribute to him more than - one hundred treatises upon different matters. The greatest - part of his works, such as we have them, have all been - translated into Syriac and Arabic; it was through this - medium, that the great philosopher became first known in - Europe. - - [564] The Orientals attribute more than sixty-five treatises - to Plato. They relate that, being asked what he thought of - this world, he answered: “I entered into it by necessity; I - dwelt in it with admiration; and I leave it with contempt.” - Al Ghazali (before-mentioned, see p. 349, n. 2), among other - distinguished Orientals, wrote a book, called _Monketh_, - upon Greek philosophy, not without condemning several of its - dogmas. - - [565] The author mentions three sciences, viz.: فان قلام - _fán kalám_, “the science of scholastic theology;” فن اصول - فقہِ _fán ás ul fikah_, “the science of the fundamentals of - religion and law;” and فن فِقہ _fan fikah_, “jurisprudence.” - We have already explained the first (see note 1, p. 327); - the four fundamental articles of the faith have been also - enumerated (see note 1, p. 324); but the _fikah_, - “jurisprudence,” although stated as distinct, in reality - comprehends the two first, and in addition shows only the - practical application of them. Al Ghazali, quoted by Pococke - (pp. 200-201, etc., 1st edit.), after having said that this - world is created for furnishing assistance on the way to - future life, in order that men, with a due check on - cupidity, may take as much of this world as may be - sufficient for a viaticum, and after having declared, that - the jurist is to be the director of the king in the mode of - retaining the people in due order, subjoins: “This science - (the law) belongs to religion, although not by itself, yet - by the intervention of the world. For the world is a field - which is sown for the future, nor is religion put into - practice, if not by the world. But religion and government - are twin-brothers; religion is the foundation, and the king - the guardian; but what wants a foundation, verges to ruin, - and what has no guardian, goes off into nothing, etc., etc.” - The same intimate junction of religion and civil law, which - is acknowledged to prevail in the legislation of the Hindus, - as well as in that of the ancient Hebrews and Persians, has - passed into that of the Muhammedans. Just as the Vedas with - the first, the five books of Moses with the second, the - writings of Zoroaster with the third, so is the Koran with - the fourth, the foundation of their code, and contains what - we may call their whole civil and canonical law. With - respect to the last-mentioned book, as it contains likewise - all the articles of faith, it follows, that a doctor in law - is also a doctor in theology; or a _faki_ is at the same - time a lawyer and a theologian: hence the word _al faqui_ in - the language of the Spaniards, who have preserved to our - days, in their character and manners, not a little of their - former conquerors, the Saracens. - - [566] Upon _ghaibet_, “absence, disappearance, concealment” - (see hereafter, p. 383, an explanatory note). - - [567] Muhammed ben Yâkub is the author of the book entitled - القاموس _Kámús_, “the ocean of the Arabic language.” He was - born in the year of the Hejira 729, A. D. 1328, and died in - 816, A. D. 1413, surnamed Al Shirazí, and Al _Firuzabadí_, - the last is a town situated in the environs of Shiraz, the - capital of _Fars_, or Persia proper. I do not, however, find - elsewhere the title _al Kalbi_, “cordial,” joined to his - name. - - [568] The term in the text is القياس _al kíás_. Abu Hanifa - and his commentators are commonly called _ahel al kíás_, - “men of analogy,” because they applied the process of - analysis to the study of sacred tradition, and rely more - upon deductions of human judgment than upon a rigid fidelity - to the precepts of the Sonna. - - [569] I render in this place by “rational dialectics” the - word اجتهاد _ijtihad_, which signifies properly, according - to Silvestre de Sacy, an opinion in religious matters, - founded upon reasoning, and deduced from the Koran or the - Sonna, by way of comparison or induction. It may therefore - be interpreted, as in the sequel, by “ratiocination, - discussion, contentious arguing, reasoning, etc., etc.” It - signifies also “study, effort, war against infidels.”――(See - also upon _Istihad_, _As. Res._, vol. X. p. 492.) - - [570] علامه حلى is a surname which never occurred to me in - any other book which I have consulted, and the translation - of which does not satisfy me. - - [571] _Movákef_ means properly “stations,” such as those of - the Muselmans in their pilgrimages and visits to sacred - places; but this word serves as a title to several books or - treatises of metaphysics and scholastic theology. - - [572] احاديث _ahádís_, means sometimes the tenets of the - Koran, at others, the sayings relative to Muhammed, five - thousand two hundred and sixty-six in number; according to - some writers, seven thousand, genuine and forged. - - [573] The manuscript of Oude reads ابن بالونه _Ebn Balúnah_. - Want of accuracy in proper names is particularly to be - regretted in the historical part of any work; it prevents - me, particularly in this place, from giving a positive - notice of each of the persons introduced in the text. - - [574] The two words in italic are not in the text of the - edition of Calcutta, nor in the manuscript of Oude. We find - here abruptly a passage, distinguished in the translation by - marks of quotation, which belongs to the author of the - _Faváid al madany_ (see p. 372), and makes, perhaps, a part - of the preface of this work. - - [575] We have (see note 1, p. 367. 368) given the names of - the twelve Imáms. The tenth, Alí, born in the year of the - Hejira 212, A. D. 827, being kept a close prisoner all his - life in the city of _Askar_, called also _Sermenrai_, in - Syria, he devoted himself to study and religious exercises, - but did not succeed in calming the jealousy of the ruling - khalif, an Abbaside of the family of Motavakel, the mortal - enemy of the whole race of Alí, and was poisoned in 868 A. D. - - The name “Askerite,” from the city of Askar, was also given - to his son Hasan, above-mentioned, the eleventh Imám, whose - son, Muhammed, born in 868 A. D., also called Abu ’l Cassem, - as the prophet Muhammed, was the last of the twelve Imáms. - He is distinguished by the surnames _Mantazar_, “the - expected;” _Kayim_, “the stable;” _Mahdi_, “the director, - guide;” and others. The followers of this Imám say, that in - his ninth year he was concealed by his mother in a cell or - grot, from which he had not returned in the year 899 A. - D.――(See _Abulfeda_, _Hist. Moslem._, vol. II. p. 223.) The - Sonnites say that he was drowned in the Tigris in 879 A. D. - Some Shiâhs maintain, he died in 941, in his seventy-fifth - year; other Shiâhs pretend that he is still living in the - grot where he was concealed; and all agree in the belief - that he will reappear in the world, immediately before the - second coming of the Messiah, for uniting all the Muselman - sects into one, and all the different religions in - Muhammedism. Several impostors assumed the name of _Mahdi_, - but in vain; nevertheless, two great dynasties were founded - under that name, viz.: the _Almohads_ and _Fatemites_. - ――(_Herbelot._) - - [576] According to the Shiâhs, Mahdi made two retreats or - eclipses, the great and the minor. The minor was that, - during which he now and then gave news of himself, and - decided all the questions which the Muselmans proposed, by - means of certain messengers who carried them to him very - secretly, succeeding each other without knowing each other. - This intercourse lasted until the year of the Hejira 326, A. - D. 937, in which year one of these messengers, called _Alí_, - died, after having brought a letter from Mahdi, by which - this Imám announced to him that he (Alí) would die in six - days, and forbade him to leave the commission of visiting - him to any other person. It is from this time that begins - “the great retreat or absence” of Mahdi: for, after the - death of this Alí, no information was received concerning - the Mahdi, if not by revelation. This statement, found in - Herbelot, is confirmed by that above. - - [577] Mâtemed Abáśí, son of Motavakel, was the fifteenth - khalif of the Abbasides. He began to reign in the year of - the Hejira 256, A. D. 869, and died in 279, A. D. 892. - - [578] Rás í, the son of Mukteder, was the twentieth khalif - of the Abbasides. His reign began in the year of the Hejira - 322, A. D. 933, and ended in 329, A. D. 940. The period - included between the beginning of the reign of Mâtemed and - the end of that of Rási, is seventy-one years, differing by - two from the period above stated; the minor absence might - have begun two years before Mâtemed’s reign. - - [579] See the preceding note 2, pp. 383. 384. - - [580] معصوم means “defended, preserved (by God); innocent, - an infant;” it is the particular name given by the Imamíahs - to the twelfth Imám, Muhammed, the Askerite, who, as was - related in the foregoing note 1, p. 383, was in his infancy - concealed in a grot, from which he never came forth again, - and is still expected. It is an ideal Imám, believed by more - than one sect, and the name of _Mâśum_ was applied to more - than one individual, as will be seen hereafter. - - [581] The author uses here and elsewhere the word _khabr_, - which answers to our _gospel_. - - [582] Hassan al Baśri was the son of an affranchised man, - called Mulla Zaid ben Tabeth, and of a slave woman, - belonging to Omm Salmath, one of Muhammed the prophet’s - wives. Hassan acquired the reputation of the first - scholastic theologian among the Muselmans. He is surnamed al - Baśri, because his father was a slave in Maissan, a borough - of the dependencies of Baśra, or Bassora, and because he - kept his school in that town, where different sectaries - often came to dispute with him. Wassel Eben Ata, his - disciple, deviating from his opinions, became the chief of - the Mâtazalahs (see note 1, p. 325). Hassan al Baśri had - seen the khalif Osman, and Eben Abbas; on that account he - quotes in his works what he had learned from them. He died - in the year of the Hejira 110, A. D. 728, and left a work - entitled _Hadis sherif_, containing a collection of the - traditions which he knew relatively to each of the - fifty-four _feridhat_, or “obligatory precepts,” of the - Muselman law. - - [583] The sixth Imám, of whom hereafter more will be said. - - [584] _Karkh_ is the name of a part of the town of Baghdad - upon the western side of the Tigris, where the khalif Mansúr - built the town and his palace; this is the ancient Baghdad; - the actual town of Baghdad, upon the eastern side of the - river, has been built later. Karkh is chiefly inhabited by - Shiâhs, who had frequent quarrels with the Sonnites, - dwelling in the other part of the town. One of the most - serious tumults between the two parties took place under the - khalif Mostasem. Karkh is the actual suburb of Baghdad, in - which the tombs of Zobeidah, wife of Harun Rashid, and of - the pious Súfí Marúf Karkhí, above mentioned, are to be - seen. The latter died in the year of the Hejira 200, A. D. - 815.――(See _Voyage en Arabie, par Niebuhr_, t. II. pp. - 245-246, and _Chrestomathie arabe de Silvestre de Sacy_, t. - I. pp. 66-70). - - [585] The eighth Imám, son of Mussa. - - [586] The Arabs divide in general the history of philosophy - into two great periods: the first comprises the _ancient - philosophers_, who are subdivided into those anterior, and - those posterior, to Aristotle; the second period is that of - the _Muselman philosophers_, who form two classes, those - before, and those after, Ebn Sina. - - [587] This appears partly to contradict the view which a - recent judicious author, Doctor Schmolders (see his _Essai - sur les Écoles philosophiques des Arabes_, pp. 105. 106. - 133. 139, Paris, 1842), takes of this sect. According to - him, the Motkalemins professed the creation from nothing; - they disputed about the reality or non-reality of general - notions; they endeavoured to adapt philosophy to the dogmas - of the Koran; in short, they were the philosophic - theologians of the orthodox sects, or dogmatic philosophers. - - [588] See above, p. 381. - - [589] مجتهيد _mujtahid_, is a doctor who exerts all the - faculties of his mind to find the truth in contested and - undecided matters; he is supposed to possess the science of - the Koran, and the traditions with their different meanings, - readings, and interpretations, and to be besides skilled in - the disquisition in which truth is sought by analogy and - comparison. (_Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe_, pp. - 169. 170. 171). This term is also used “of one who strives - and contends, even to battle, in the cause of God;” and - expresses further the highest dignity in the Muhammedan - faith, equivalent to Bishop, or Archbishop with us.――(See - _the Life of Shaikh Muhammed Alí Hazin_, _translated by F. - C. Belfour, M. A. Oxon., F.R.A.S., LL.D._, p. 36.) - - [590] تقيه _takíyat_, in the dictionary, “fear, caution, - piety.” I thought it more correctly translated, here and - elsewhere, by “religious zeal.” - - [591] The obscurity which the reader may find in this - paragraph proceeds from the strangeness of the doctrine - itself, and can be cleared up only by bestowing upon it more - attentive study than it perhaps deserves. - - [592] Upon _mâsum_, see note, p. 386. - - [593] It is meant probably “two points of view,” and the - passage above relates to the 219th verse of the IInd chapter - of the Koran, which is as follows: “They will ask thee - concerning wine, and lots; answer: In both there is great - sin, and also some things of use unto men; but their - sinfulness is greater than their use.” And again, the 67th - verse of the XVIth sura: “And of the fruits of palm-trees - and grapes ye obtain inebriating drink, and also good - nourishment.” Yet the verses 92 and 93 of the Vth sura are - decidedly against wine, viz.: “O true believers, surely - wine, and lots, and images, and divining arrows, are an - abomination of the work of Satan; therefore avoid them, that - you may prosper.”――93. “Satan seeketh to sow discussion and - hatred among you, by means of wine and lots, and to divert - you from remembering God, and from prayer; will ye not, - therefore, abstain from them?”――(_Sale’s translation._) - - [594] _Jâfer_, surnamed _S adik_, “the Just,” was the eldest - son of Muhammed Baker, the fifth Imám. Jâfer was born in - Medina, in the year of the Hejira 83, A. D. 702; he is - acknowledged the síxth Imám, and of great authority in - religious matters among the Muselmans. He died in his native - town, under the khalifate of Abú Jâfer Almansor, the second - khalif of the Abbasides, in the year of the Hejira 148, A. - D. 764, in his sixty-second year. - - The two eldest of his seven sons were Ismâil and Mussa. - Ismâil, the elder of the two, having died during his - father’s life, the latter appointed Mussa his successor, - which gave rise to the contest above mentioned, and to - several sects, as well as to two great dynasties. The - Fatimite khalifs in Egypt are considered as descendants of - the branch of Ismáil, called Ismâilahs, of Africa, but the - Suffavean monarchs of Asia claim to derive their origin from - Mussa, and strenuously support his title to the seventh - Imám. - - [595] Muhammed had, during twenty years of wedlock with - Khádija, never another wife; nor gave Alí a partner to his - spouse Fatimá, the prophet’s daughter, during her life. - - [596] All those who believe that the Imamate passed - legitimately from Jâfer to his son Ismáil, and to Ismâil’s - posterity, are called _Ismâilahs_: but their opinions are - not uniform. Some maintain that to Muhammed, - above-mentioned, surnamed _Mectúm_, “the concealed,” - succeeded his son, Jâfer Mosuddek, whose successor was - Muhammed Habib. This last is expected to return in order to - found a new dynasty. The Ismâilahs carry to excess the - prerogatives which they attribute to their Imáms.――(_Makrisi - in Chrest. arabe_, vol. II. p. 92.) - - [597] The number _seven_ acts a great part in the system of - the Ismâilahs. All things, after having attained the - septenary number, are at their end, must undergo a change, - and be succeeded by other things. To the septenaries above - mentioned, I shall add seven palms, of which the height of a - man is said to consist, seven climates, and seven seas, - according to the Koran (Sura XXXI. v. 26): “If all the trees - on the earth were pens, and God should after that swell the - sea into seven seas of ink, the words of God would not be - exhausted.” We know how generally in the world such a belief - with respect to seven existed and still exists. - - [598] “The Batenian, ‘interior,’” says Silvestre de Sacy, - “are so called, because they establish an interior sense of - the Scripture besides the exterior; they say, whoever - attaches himself to the exterior, fatigues himself with vain - practices, whilst he, who follows tho interior, may dispense - with all actions; they give to faith a preference over - Islamism, undoubtedly,” founded upon the authority of the - Koran, where it “is to be found” (Sura XLIX. v. 14): “The - Arabs of the desert say: ‘We believe;’ answer: ‘Ye do by no - means believe; but say: ‘We have embraced Islam;’ for the - faith hath not yet entered into your hearts.’” - - The Ismâilahs are often confounded with the Batenian. The - first who maintained this doctrine of mystic interpretation - was Marzaban, ben Abdullah, ben Maimun al Kadah. He was the - servant of Imám Jâfer Sadík, and also served Jâfer’s son - Ismâil, after whose death he attended Muhammed, the son of - the latter. When Jâfer was poisoned, Abdullah carried off - Jâfer’s grandson, from Medina to Misr (Egypt). When Muhammed - died, he left a concubine pregnant, and Abdullah, having put - her to death, substituted a woman of his own in her room. - This woman brought forth a son, whom Abdullah asserted to be - Muhammed’s son; and when this son had grown up, he succeeded - in making him acknowledged as the Imám by many. Some of this - person’s descendants attained the rank of sovereigns, and - the doctrine of the Batenian spread afar. The first of these - who sat on the throne of the khalifat was Sáid, under the - name of Abu-Muhammed Obaid-alla, the founder of the Fatimite - khalifs, in Africa, in the year of the Hejira 296, A. D. - 908. He took the title of _Al Mahdi_, “the Director.”――(See, - upon this sect, _Asiatic Researches_, vol. II. p. 424.) - - The Fatimites claim their descent from _Alí_, the fourth - legitimate khalif, and from _Fatima_, the daughter of the - prophet; but their adversaries give an account of their - origin similar to that just stated: the opinions of - historians are divided about this fact. - - [599] The manuscript of Oude reads here _âkl_ instead of - _fêz_, which the edition of Calcutta repeats twice; I - adopted the first. - - [600] This part of the doctrine reminds us of the sentiments - expressed in Plato’s Symposion, by Agathon, one of the - interlocutors in this admirable dialogue upon love and the - beautiful. - - [601] According to the Ismàilahs, each speaker or legislator - is associated with a vicar, whom they call _śamet_, - “silent,” because he has nothing new to teach; and of these - vicars he who assisted the legislator, and succeeded - immediately to him, receives the name of _asás_, - “fundamental,” or _sús_, “root, source.” The seven _natíks_, - or “legislators of the revolution, past,” and their vicars, - are as follow: I. Adam and Seth; II. Noah and Sem; III. - Abraham and Ismâil; IV. Moses and Aarún, replaced afterwards - by Joshua; V. Jesus and Simon Kefas; VI. Muhammed and Alí; - VII. Muhammed, son of Jsmâil, who is designated by the title - قايم الزمان _Kaím al zemán_, or صاحب الزمان _śáheb al - zeman_, “the chief, the lord of the age;” in him all the - doctrines of the ancients are terminated.――(See _Journal - asiatique_, 1824, t. IV. p. 298 _et seq._; _Recherches sur - l’initiation à la secte des Ismaéliens. Par Silvestre de - Sacy_.) - - [602] “There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which - have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters - of the alphabet, some with a single one, others with more. - These letters the Muhammedans believe to be the peculiar - marks of the Koran, and to conceal several profound - mysteries; the certain understanding of which the more - intelligent confess, has not been communicated to any - mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwithstanding which, - some will take the liberty of guessing at their meaning, by - that species of _cabala_ called by the Jews _Notarikon_, and - suppose the letters to stand for as many words, expressing - the names and attributes of God, his works, ordinances, and - decrees: and therefore these mysterious letters, as well as - the verses themselves, seem in the Koran to be called - _signs_. Others explain the intent of these letters from - their nature or organ, or else from their value in numbers, - according to another species of the Jewish _cabbala_, called - _gematria_; the uncertainty of which conjectures - sufficiently appears from their disagreement.”――(_Sale’s - Koran_, Preliminary Discourse, pp. 78-79.) - - [603] The questions asked for perplexing the neophyte are of - various natures; for instance, What signifies the throwing - of stones by the pilgrims at Mecca, whilst running between - the hills of Merva and Safa?――Why did God create the world - in six days, when one moment might have sufficed for - it?――What mean the eight angels, bearers of God’s - throne?――What the seven gates of hell, and the eight gates - of paradise?――Further, what is the difference between the - life of a vegetable and that of a man?――Why has a man ten - toes, ten fingers, and why in each three joints, but only - two in the thumb?――Why has a man at the head seven orifices - (eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth), and only two for the rest - of his body? Why twelve dorsal, and only seven vertical - vertebras? etc., etc.――(See _Journal asiatique_, 1824, tome - IV. p. 309; and _Gemäldesaal moslimisher Heersher_. - _III^{ter} Band_, 1837, _Seite_ 237.) - - [604] See upon this subject, the _Journal Asiatique_, tome - VI. 1825. pp. 334-335. - - The above account of the proceeding by which the Ismâilahs - made proselytes to their creed exhibits one of the most - insidious systems that has ever been invented to ensnare - men. Silvestre de Sacy, in the Memoir quoted, note 2, p. - 405, enumerates nine degrees of initiation by which a - neophyte, under the direction of a _Dâí_, or “teacher,” was - to pass, to be made a perfect Ismâilah. The first degree is - to perplex the disciple by difficult questions; the second - degree is to fix that the Imáms only have received the - divine mission to instruct Muselmans; the third, establishes - the series of seven Imáms, beginning at Alí and terminating - at Ismâil, son of Jâfer; the fourth makes known the seven - periods of prophets (as shown in note 1, p. 407); the fifth, - conducts to contempt of the traditions and of the literal - sense of the Koran, and is connected with some principles of - philosophy and mathematics, or rather with fantastic notions - on the power of particular numbers, such as seven, twelve, - etc., applied to some phenomena of nature; the sixth degree - imposes an entire submission to the Imám, and reveals that - all legal and religious ordinances are nothing else but - political contrivances, for keeping the vulgar in necessary - dependence and subordination. At this degree the initiation - stops for the greatest number of the candidates, and even of - the Dáis. The seventh degree shows two principles in the - organization of the universe: the one gives, the other - receives; the one male, the other female: thus is duality - substituted for the unity of the Divine nature; the eighth - degree is consecrated to the development of the above - mentioned notions; two beings are supposed to exist: the one - _sabik_, “the antecedent;” the other, _larik_, “the - subsequent.” Some of the Ismâilahs, however, admit a being - not to be defined, without name and attributes, above the - “antecedent.” To this degree is subjoined the dogma of a - possible ascension, from the undermost stage of hierarchy to - the highest being, by an endless series of periods and - revolutions; a new religion is established upon the ruins of - the former; the resurrection, the end of the world, the last - judgment, the rewards and punishments, are only emblematic - expressions of the successive periodical revolutions of the - stars and of the universe, of the destruction and renovation - of all beings, produced by the disposition and combination - of the elements. Arrived at the ninth degree, the proselyte - knows of no religion, nor submission to any other authority - but his own, and is left to himself for choosing among the - systems of philosophy the one he likes best. - - [605] Koran, chap. XXIX. v. 44. - - [606] This word is also interpreted, in the Dictionary, by - “dreaming, reaching the age of puberty.” The meaning of the - above passage is obscure. - - [607] The Muselmans are enjoined to give the tenth part of - their property to the poor. In general, to understand the - religion of the Ismâilahs, above exhibited, it is required - to be acquainted with that of the Muselmans, which they have - modified according to their own particular views. - - [608] The Kâbah of Mecca has been several times mentioned. - The building of this temple is traced back by the devotees - to Adam and his son Seth; after its destruction by the - universal deluge, it was constructed by Abraham and his son - Ismâil. We may believe that a sacred building existed at - Mecca long before Muhammed, during the prevalence of the - Sabean religion: it is held to have been the temple of - Saturn. After Muhammed it was renewed by Ebn Zobair, and - finally made such as it is by Hejaz, in the year of the - Hejira 74, A. D. 693.――(See Pococke, p. 115.) - - [609] The pilgrims, who crowd to Mecca from the most distant - countries, think to sanctify themselves by the performance - of a series of rites and ceremonies, such as their prophet - himself, at his last visit to this place, fixed by his - example; viz.: he purified himself by bathing; he then went - to the eastern gate of the temple; there he kissed the black - stone, upon which Abraham, so the Muhammedans believe, - conversed with Agar, to which he tied his camels, and upon - which the traces of his feet are still seen; further, the - prophet made the seven circuits of the Kâbah, running round - it three times, and four times marching with a grave and - measured pace. He afterwards proceeded to the two stones, - _Sáfá_ and _Marvah_; the first at the foot of mount Abi - Kobaisi, the second at that of Koaikaban, distant 780 cubits - from each other. These stones are supposed to have been once - two idols, Asaph and Nayelah; or two persons, a man and a - woman, who, for having committed stupration in the temple, - were changed into stones. At each of them he recited with a - loud voice the (since formulary) praise of God. Finally, - having proclaimed his last revelation, by which he declared - his religion to be perfected, he sacrificed sixty-three - camels, one for each year of his then closing age: he - returned to Medina, and soon after died. - - [610] _Tanzíl_ is the literal Muhammedism, or the literal - interpretation of what is revealed. - - [611] _Táwil_ is the allegorical sense of the doctrine. We - have, upon the meaning of _tanzîl_ and _táwîl_, a - Dissertation written by Silvestre de Sacy: _Commentatio de - notione vocum_ Tánzîl _et_ Táwîl, _in libris qui ad Druzorum - religionem pertinent_, in the XVIth vol. of _Comment. Soc. - Reg. Scient. Götting., class. hist. et phil._, p. 3 and seq. - - [612] See a detailed account of him hereafter. - - [613] صادق, _sadik_ is known to be the epithet of Joseph, - Abu bekr, Jesus, and Jâfer, the sixth Imám; it appears to - designate the Imám, the Dái, or the acknowledged spiritual - guide among the Ismâilahs; I shall therefore retaîn the term - in the translation. - - [614] The celebrated Ghazáli composed among a hundred works, - thirty-three of which are enumerated by the baron - Hammer-Purgstall, two with the titles القسطاس _alkistas_, - “the balance,” and مزان الاعمال _mízan olâamál_, “the - balance of actions.” - - [615] The attribute of God and the name of the prophet are, - not without intention, confounded. - - [616] _Khájah_ signifies “lord, professor, man of - distinction” (and also a eunuch). Khájah is the title - commonly prefixed to _Naśir-eddin_, “the defender of the - faith,” which is the surname of Muhammed ben Hassan or Ben - Muhammed al Túsi, born in Tús, in the year of the Hejira - 597, A. D. 1200. He is acknowledged to have been the doctor - who acquired among Muselmans the highest reputation in all - sorts of sciences; he was a commentator of Euclid, and of - the spherics of Theodosius and Menelaus. He left scientific - works, duly admired, and was an astronomer, lawyer, - theologian, and statesman. We shall have to touch upon the - part which he took in the great events of his days. He died - in the year of the Hejira 672, or, according to some, 687 - (A. D. 1273 or 1285). - - [617] See our note 2, p. 400-401, relative to Sáid, under - the name of Muhammed Obaid-alla, Mahdi. The friends and - enemies of the Fatemites concur in the account, that he - descended from Maimún, surnamed _Kaddah_, “the oculist,” - whom some make a descendant of Ali, whilst others say that - he was the son of _Daísan_, “the dualist,” so called because - he ascribed the good to God and the evil to man, and some - attribute to him an origin, not only foreign to the race of - the prophet, but even connected with a Magian and Jewish - lineage. Obaid-allah made Kairwan or Kurm (the ancient - Cyrene) the capital of his dominion, but at the same time he - laid the foundation of a new capital, which he called - _Mahedia_, from his assumed surname _Mahdi_. Abu Tamim Moadd - Moezzledin allah, the fourth in descent from Obaid allah, - but the first acknowledged Fatimite khalif removed his seat - to Cairo in Egypt: this town became then the rival of - Baghdad, which continued to be the residence of the ancient - line of khalifs. Moezz died in the year of the Hejira 365, - A. D. 975. - - [618] Abu Yazid, according to Abulfeda (_Annal. Mosl._, vol. - II. p. 240), was a barbarian of the tribe of Zenata (one of - the Berbers), son of Condad and an Ethiopian mother. He - feigned sanctity, and belonged to a sect inimical to the - Muselmans, whom he persecuted with relentless fury. Herbelot - says, he was a chancellor of Abúl-Kasem Muhammed Kayem, the - second khalif of the Fatimites, who succeeded his father - Obaid-alla, in the year of the Hejira 322 (A. D. 933). Abu - Yazid rose in rebellion against his master, and brought the - empire to the greatest peril; but, after many successes and - conquests, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and died of his - wounds, in the year of the Hejira 336 (A. D. 947). - - [619] Abu Yazid’s conqueror was the above mentioned Abu - Teher Ismâil, son of Kayem, the third khalif of the - Fatimites, who succeeded his father in the year of the - Hejira 334 (A. D. 945). His surname was, besides the above - stated, _al Mansur ba kuvet allah_, “victorious by the power - of God,” to which is often substituted _Mostanser billah_, - as in Makrisi (see _Chrestom. arabe_, vol I. pp. 84-91). He - was succeeded by his son, in the year of the Hejira 341 (A. - D. 952). - - [620] We find in Herbelot’s oriental library a notice of - Nasser Khosrú, an ancient Persian poet, whose animated and - pious verses are often quoted by persons of a contemplative - turn of mind. Baron von Hammer (Schöne Redekünste Persiens, - S. 43) adduces Nassir Khosru of Ispahan, who, famous as a - poet and philosopher, was persecuted on account of doubtful - orthodoxy in matters of faith, and who died in the year of - the Hejira 431 (A. D. 1039). A sect of Ismâilah is said - (_As. Res._, vol. XI. p. 425) to have been called Naśariah, - from Naśar, a poet and learned man. - - [621] The mention made above of Hassan, and further of the - Almutiahs, points to the reign of Abu Tamim Moâd Mostanser - Billah, from the year of the Hejira 427 to 487, (A. D. 1035 - to 1094). At the beginning of this reign, Amir Naśer Khusro, - if the date of his birth be right, would have been more than - sixty-six years old, and twenty years of concealment in - Badakhshan extend his age beyond eighty-six years. - - [622] Badakhshan is the country situated towards the head of - the river Jihon, or Oxus, by which it is limited on its - eastern and northern side. Balkh is the capital of - Badakhshan. - - [623] The author of the Dabistán has given a sufficiently - explicit account of the doctrine of the Ismâilahs, but - without separating the opinions belonging in particular to - each of the sects into which the Ismâilahs in the course of - time divided. We have already mentioned the _Batenian_. - Another division was that of the _Karmatians_, founded by - Hamadan, surnamed _Karmata_, “small and distorted,” son of - Ashath. He appeared first in the year of the Hejira 278 (A. - D. 891), as an adherent of Ahmed, son of Abdallah, son of - Maimun Kaddah, before mentioned (note 1, p. 418). This Ahmed - was an ancestor of Sáid, or Obaid-allah, the founder of the - Fatimite khalifs. Hamden Karmata recommended community of - women, and released men from all moral and religious duties. - In the year of the Hejira 286 (A. D. 899), Abu Sáid, - surnamed Habab, at the head of the Karmatians, waged war - upon the khalif Motadhet, in Syria; he took the town Hagiar, - the Petra deserti of the Romans, once the capital of Arabia, - and made it his residence. He was assassinated in the year - of the Hejira 301 (A. D. 913). He left six sons; after the - death of the last of them, Yusuf (Abu Yakub), in the year - 366, (A. D. 976), the Karmatians confided their government - to six seids called _sadah_, “pure.” This sect, after many - combats, was dissipated towards the end of the tenth century - of our era.――(See _Chrestom. ar._, vol. II. p. 126.) - - The Ismâilahs are also denominated _Talamites_, - _Khurramiah_, _Safiah_, _Babeciah_, _Majmirah_, _Maknâyah_, - etc.――(_As. Res._ vol. XI. p. 421, etc.) I have no room for - an account of each of them: I shall only add the name of the - _Druses_, a sect existing in our days, upon which Silvestre - de Sacy gave a particular notice drawn from their own - papers, in his _Chrestomathie arabe_, vol II. pp. 191, 227, - and undertook a detailed history of this sect. The name of - the Druses is derived from دروز _deroz_, or درزية, - _derziyet_, “juncture.” They are the disciples of Hamza, son - of Ali, and honor as a god _Hakem beamr allah_, “he who - governs by the order of God;” the sixth Fatimite khalif, in - descent from Obaid-allah. Hakem was born in the year of the - Hejira 375, A. D. 985; he was saluted khalif in 386 (A. D. - 996); he disappeared, some say was assassinated, at the end - of 441, A. D. 1020. The Druses give the same dates of his - birth, reign, and death, but say he was the son of Ismâil, a - descendant of Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, and his mother was - of the race of Fatima, surnamed Zahra, the daughter of - Muhammed the prophet. In short, every division of the - Ismáilah appears to have its own _Mahdi_, “director,” but - always traces his origin to Ali and Fatima. The Druses - expect the return of Hakem; he is to reign over the whole - earth during centuries of centuries, and the unitarian - Druses with him: the other sects shall be obliged to pay - homage and tribute to him. The Druses esteem the Koran very - much, but the prophet not at all; they have rejected - circumcision, fasting, and prayer, and indulge in drinking - wine, eating pork, and marrying within the prohibited - degrees. - - [624] The character and life of the khalif, mentioned above - and in the preceding note, exhibit a strange mixture of - intelligence and folly, superstition and incredulity, - simplicity and ostentation, abstemiousness and liberality, - intolerance and forbearance, cruelty and mildness; all his - good and bad actions were marked with something whimsical - and fantastical: still more――he wanted to be God: thus he - realized in himself the idea of a monstrous tyrant. To his - honor be it said that he founded in Cairo the first - university of the middle ages.――(See his _Life_, by Macrisi, - in the _Chrest. ar._, tom, I. p. 93 _et seq._, and - _Gemäldesaal mosl., Herrsher, Band III. Seite 226_, etc.) - - [625] We observe two great divisions of the Ismâilahs; - namely, the _Western_, to whom alone, till now, the account - of the Dabistán referred, and the Ismâilah _of Iran_, that - is, those who established themselves in the strongholds of - _Kohistan_ (Khorassan), and in _Rúdbar_, which last is the - name of a fort in the province of _Jebál_, or Persian Irak. - - [626] An excellent work to be consulted with respect to - Hassan, son of Sábáh, is the history concerning him - contained in روضة الصفا فى سيرة الانبيا والمولك ولخالفا - _Rúzat al sáfá fí sírat al anbía w’ al mulk w’ al khalifa_, - “the Garden of Purity, containing the history of prophets - and khalifs,” composed by _Muhammed_, son of _Khavendshah_, - known under the name of _Mirkhond_, born in the year of the - Hejira 837, or at the end of 836 (A. D. 1432 or 1433), - deceased in 903 (A. D. 1498). The Persian text of the part - of it here pointed out was published in Paris, 1812, by Am. - Jourdain, with a French translation and Notes, some of which - are by Silvestre de Sacy. I shall, in my quotations from it, - use only the name “Mirkhond.” - - [627] Some people of Hassan’s sect established his genealogy - as follows: “Hassan, son of Ali, son of Jâfer, son of - Hassan, son of Muhammed, son of Sabah Homairi Yemini, but - Hassan, to whom it was presented, ordered it to be - cancelled, saying: ‘I prefer being a simple privileged - servant of the Imám to being his degenerated - son.’”――(_Mirkhond_, p. 39.) - - [628] We shall have further to notice Nizam al mulk, and a - remarkable work which he left. From this work, Mirkhond (p. - 31) quotes the following words respecting the Imám Movafek, - above mentioned: “The Imám, one of the most illustrious - among the learned men of Khorassan, was generally honored, - and his society sought after as a source of happiness. He - was then more than eighty-five years of age, and it was an - opinion generally received, that all young men who - instructed themselves under his direction in the science of - the Koran and prophetic traditions, obtained the favor of - fortune.” - - [629] Mirkhond has _Hakim Omar Khayam_. Silvestre de Sacy - (p. 32, note) thought that it would perhaps be better to - translate “Hakim, son of Omar,” and _Khayam_ is a surname, - signifying “maker of tents.” - - [630] Alp Arselan, son of Daud (or David), son of Mikail - (Michael), son of Seljuk was the second sultan of the family - and dynasty of the Seljucides. He succeeded to Togrul Bèg, - his uncle, who died without offspring in the year of the - Hejira 455 (A. D. 1063). At first called _Isrâil_, he took, - after his conversion to Muhammedism, the name of Muhammed - with the surname _Alp Arselan_, “the courageous lion” in the - Turkish language. His most memorable victory was that gained - with 12,000 men over 300,000 Greeks, whom he put to flight, - and took their emperor Romanus, surnamed Diogenes. - - [631] Moez eddin (according to others _Jelal eddin_, or - _Jelal daulet_, “the glory of religion or of state”) Abu ’l - fetah Malic-shah, son of Alp Arslan, although not the - eldest, was declared by his father to be his successor, by - the counsel of the above mentioned Nizam ul mulk, and - mounted the throne after his father’s death, in the year of - the Hejira 465 (A. D. 1072). A reform of the Calendar made - under his reign was called _Tarikh Jelali_. - - [632] Mirkhond (p. 37, French transl.) gives a clearer - account of the event, as follows: Nizam-ul-mulk, before the - presentation of the register to the Sultan, having met - Hassan’s servant outside the hall, requested of him to see - the register, in order that he might know the manner in - which it was made, and the servant not daring, out of - respect to the minister, refuse it to him, delivered the - register into the hands of Nizam-ul-mulk, who, having seen - the nicety of the statements, dropped the leaves in such a - manner as to disperse them, and said: “Many plunders are - written in this register.” The servant, on account of the - risk he ran if he avowed what had happened, said nothing of - the fact to Hassan. When the latter presented his - statements, he found them mutilated, and the leaves - confusedly mixed. - - [633] Nizam-ul-mulk, who in the above related anecdote, does - not appear in an advantageous light, has nevertheless the - reputation of having been a most learned man, and a - protector of science. He left a work, called _vaśiyet - Nizam-ul-mulk_, “the testament of Nizam-ul-mulk,” from which - Mirkhond relates, partly in the same words as the author, - what had passed between Nizam-ul-mulk and Hassan; the - former, of course, endeavors to vindicate his conduct - towards the latter. Nizam-ul-mulk, after having rendered the - most eminent services to his Sultan, was discarded by him on - the suggestions of a Sultana, and assassinated, in the year - of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), according to Herbelot (_art. - Malik-schah_), by the successor to his office; according to - our author (see hereafter) by an emissary of Hassan Sabah. - - [634] See hereafter the notice of this fort, when the event - will be related in due order of time. - - [635] This was Moadd, Mostanser Billah, who began to reign - (according to Abulfeda) in the year of the Hejira 427 (A. D. - 1035), and died in 487 (A. D. 1094). - - [636] This word means “the commander in chief of the - Egyptian troops;” his name was _Bedr al Jemalí_.――(See, - respecting him, _Les Mémoires géographiques et historiques - sur l’Egypte, par M. Etienne Quatremère_, t. II. p. 420 _et - seq._, note of Silvestre de Sacy.) - - [637] Abu’l Kasem Ahmed al mistáli billah reigned from the - year of the Hejira 487 (A. D. 1094) to 495 (A. D. 1101). - - [638] On account of their adherence to Nazár, the sect, - headed by Hassan Sabah, and the Ismâilah of Persia are - called also Nazárián, which is a more probable derivation - than that in note 4, p. 419. - - [639] Haleb, a town in Syria, is said to be as ancient as - the dynasty of the Kayanian kings of Persia; it was in this - town, that Kushtasp received the royal crown sent him by his - father Lohrasp. It is the ancient Berrhœa. - - [640] _Da âí_ appears to have been a particular and eminent - dignity among the Ismâílahs. It is said of Nazir-eddin, a - minister of Mostanser Billah, that he occupied at the same - time the places of great Kázi, of great _Dá âí_, and of - Vizir. According to Mokrizi (see _Chrestom. ar._, vol. I. p. - 142) the Dáâi of the Dáâis follows in rank immediately the - Kází of Kázis, and wears the same costume. He teaches the - doctrine of his sect, and receives the engagement of all - those who renounce their former creed, adopting that of the - Fatimites. - - [641] Mirkhond gives a more detailed account of Hassan’s - itinerary, as follows: Hassan went from Isfahan to Yezed, - and to Kirman; whence he returned to Isfahan, where he - resided four months; he departed again for Khozistan, staid - there three months, and then went to Damegan, in which town - and district he passed three years. After that he proceeded - to Jorjan, and using every caution for not falling into the - hands of his enemies, he went to Sari, from thence to - Damawend, whence, by the route of Kazwin, he entered Dilem; - from thence he passed into a town near Alamut, where he - devoted himself to a religious life. I have thus enumerated - the countries in which the doctrine of the Ismâilahs was - more or less spread, but not without opposition. - - [642] Alamut is a town and fort near Kazvin, in the Persian - province of _Ghilan_, on the western shore of the Caspian - sea. آِله اموت, _îlah amut_, means “nest of a vulture.” The - value of the numbers represented by the letters of these two - words make together the epoch of Hassan’s entering the fort, - viz.: - - ا = 1 - ل = 30 - ه = 5 - ا = 1 - م = 40 - و = 6 - ت = 400 - ―――― - 483 - - 483 of the Hejira (A. D. 1090), in the month of Rajeb, the - seventh of the Muhammedan year; Abulfeda (vol. III. p. 425) - says the eighth month of the year 483. This stronghold soon - became the capital of a formidable sovereign, known among - the European crusaders, under the name of _shaikh al Jebal_, - interpreted “the old man of the mountain.” - - [643] The author neglects to mention the date from which he - begins his computation. - - [644] Hassan Sabah, from the height of Alamut, commanded the - country around, and terrified the inhabitants, high and low, - by a set of devoted adherents, whom he sent about to - propagate his religion, and to execute his commands, which - were frequently the murder of his enemies. - - [645] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 508. - - [646] Our author, regardless of order, reverts to events - which took place during the life of Hassan. - - [647] _Refík_, in general acceptation, “follower,” is a - distinctive name given to the Ismâilahs, and particularly to - men carrying arms, in opposition to the class of dáâis, or - “missionaries,” and perhaps also to the fedáyis.――(Note of - _Silvestre de Sacy_, in _Jourdain’s French transl. of - Mirkhond_, p. 39). - - [648] Mirkhond says the Amir Arslan-tash. - - [649] Hassan, according to Mirkhond, had but seventy rafiks - with him. - - [650] Barkíarok, son of Malik shah, was the fourth sultan of - the house of the Seljucides. He received at the circumcision - the Muselman name of Kassem, and the title of _Rokn-eddin_, - “the column of religion,” was given to him by Mectadi, the - khalif of Baghdad. Barkiarok was the eldest son of Malik - shah, whom he succeeded in the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D. - 1092). - - His stepmother, Turkan Khatun, had a son by Malik shah, - called Mahmúd. At the death of the Sultan, being in the town - of Baghdad, she obtained, by solicitations and presents, - from the khalif Mortadi, letters of investiture in favor of - her own son Mahmud, who, then only four years old, was - proclaimed the legitimate heir of his father’s empire, - whilst Barkiarok was at Ispahan, then the seat of the - Seljucides, recognised, by right of primogeniture, the only - legitimate successor of his father. But Turkan Khatun - marched to Ispahan with an army, surprised Barkiarok, and - seized the town, and the person of her step-son. The latter - however, aided by the faithful servants of his father, - escaped from her hands, and found a refuge at Shiraz, the - residence of _Takash-teghin_ the _Atabek_, or - “lieutenant-general” of Persia. With this chief’s - assistance, Barkiarok presented himself with an army of two - hundred thousand men before Ispahan, and besieged Mahmud and - his mother. A peace was concluded: the Sultana and her son - were to possess the town and dependencies of Ispahan, but to - divide Malik shah’s treasury with Barkiarok; he received - five hundred thousand gold dinars for his share, and, having - raised the siege, moved to Hamdan, where Ismâil, one of his - uncles, commanded. - - Ismâil had declared himself for the Sultana: a battle was - fought in the plain of Hamdan, in the year of the Hejira 486 - (A. D. 1093); Bakiàrok gained the victory: his uncle fell. - - In the very same year, the victor was obliged by another - uncle of his, Takash, son of Aslan shah, to retire towards - Ispahan. He was kindly received by his brother Mahmud, then - free from the tutelage of his mother, who had died; both - brothers appeared linked in the bonds of perfect amity; but - the partizans of the younger seized the person of the elder, - and imprisoned him in the castle. It was the sudden death of - Mahmud by the small pox which liberated Barkiarok, and gave - him the possession of the empire. This was not left - undisturbed, but this is not the place to relate the events - of his agitated reign, of about thirteen years, which - terminated in the year of the Hejira 498 (A. D. 1104). I - have said enough to show how, among such disturbances, the - power of the Ismâilah could grow in the Persian provinces: - to this I shall add that during the reign of Barkiarok, the - European crusaders took Nicæa and Antiochia, and the cross - was fixed upon the walls of Jerusalem, Akka, and Edessa. - - [651] This was in the year of the Hejira 495 (A. D. 1101-2). - - [652] Son of Malik shah, the fifth Sultan of the Seljucides, - who reigned from the year of the Hejira 501 to 511 (A. D. - 1107 to 1117). - - [653] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 591. - - [654] Mirkhond has Alabek Nushtékin Shergir. - - [655] The sixth Sultan of the Seljucides, named Moezzeddin - Abu ’l Hareth Sinjar, son of Malik shah. He governed the - province Khorassan during twenty years, under the reigns of - his brothers Barkiárok and Muhammed; after the death of the - latter, he seized the whole empire, and, having overcome his - nephew Mahmud, son of Muhammed, reigned with various - vicissitudes of fortune during forty years and four months - (from 1117 to 1157 A. D). - - [656] This peace, according to Mirkhond (_French transl._, - p. 48) was made under three conditions, to which the - Ismâlíahs were held:――1, not to add any new work to their - castles; 2, not to buy arms and warlike stores; 3, not to - make new proselytes. The Muhammedan doctors, not having - approved the treaty, the people suspected the Sultan of some - hankering for the sect of the Ismâilahs. Notwithstanding the - peace was concluded between Sinjar and them, who had even - the revenue of some districts assigned to them, and were in - others exempt from paying duties. - - [657] Hossáin Fáni was the dáâi of Kohistan. Although, - according to Mirkhond, his death was also ascribed to - Hossáin Damawendi, we can but suppose that Hassan must, upon - very strong grounds, have condemned his own son to death. - - [658] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 580. - - [659] Mirkhond says, that these two personages were to - regulate the affairs of the state conjointly with Hossáin - Káini. - - [660] According to Mirkhond, he reigned twenty-four years, - during which some memorable events took place (see _French - transl._, pp. 49-51) here omitted for want of room. - - [661] The thirtieth khalif of the Abbasides; he who - assassinated in the Hejira 530 (A. D. 1135). His father, - Mostarshed, had met with the same fate by the hands of the - Fedayis, towards the end of Kia Buzurg’s reign. To exhibit - the long series of assassinations by which the Fedâyís - spread terror all over Asia, is a weighty task, which has - been recently performed by the master-hand of the Baron von - Hammer.――(See his _Geschichte der Assassinen_.) - - Muhammed Buzerg died after a reign of twenty-five years. - - [662] In the style of the Batenian and the Druses, - _resurrection_ signifies the day of the manifestation of the - Imám, his doctrine, the entire triumph of his religion and - the abolition of every other sect.――(Note of _Silvestre de - Sacy_, p. 54 of the work already quoted.) - - [663] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 541. - - [664] Mirkhond says (_French transl._, p. 56): Hassan was - stabbed in the castle of Lamsir, by his wife’s brother, who - descended from the family of Baviah, and had preserved the - faith of, and attachment to, the ancient religion. - - There is evidently an omission or hiatus at this place in - the edition of Calcutta. According to Mirkhond (pp. 57-59), - after the murder of Hassan, son of Muhammed, Hassan’s son - Muhammed, occupied the throne. He maintained the doctrine of - his father, and had great pretensions to learning. He - governed, from the age of nineteen, forty-six years with - great success; the _Molheds_ (so were called his adherents) - triumphed every where among rapine and bloodshed. He died in - the year of the Hejira 607 (A. D. 1210-1). He was succeeded - by his son Jelal eddin Hassan, ben Muhammed, ben Hassan, who - was born in the year of the Hejira 552 (A. D. 1157-8), - therefore fifty-three years old when he began to reign. - Mirkhond says, doubtingly, that according to some - historians, he poisoned his father, which is positively - asserted in the text of the Dabistán. He re-established the - Muslim religion, and acquired the name of Jelal-eddin _nóu - Muselman_, “new Muselman.” - - [665] The edition of Calcutta has, most erroneously, 308. - - [666] This is a treatise upon Morals, composed by Naśir - eddin Túsí, upon whom see our note 2, p. 417. - - [667] Mirkhond places the assassination of Ala eddin in the - year of the Hejira 653 (A. D. 1255-6). - - [668] Ruk neddin was the eldest son of Alá-eddin; as heir - presumptive he was much honored by the Ismâilahs, who made - no difference between his orders and those of his father. - The latter, irritated on that account, declared a younger - son his successor, in spite of the people’s attachment to - the eldest. Rukn-eddin, perpetually threatened by - Ala-eddin’s resentment, took refuge in a well defended - castle. He was suspected, and even accused by his own - mother, of having been privy to the murder of his father, - although he punished the murderer. - - [669] Holagú was the grandson of _Jengish khan_. Born in - 1127 A. D., Jengish khan, in the first moiety of the - thirteenth century, came with six hundred thousand Tartars - from the high lands between China, Siberia, and the Caspian - sea, to act his formidable part in the Southern countries, - already deluged with blood by the unceasing wars of the - Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The dominion of the Seljuk - dynasty, torn asunder by the dissensions of their members, - during forty years after Sinjar, their Sultan, last - mentioned in the Dabistán (p. 440), terminated with Toghrul - the Third, in 1193 A. D.; there remained still a vigorous - branch of it in Jelál-eddin, sultan of Khorazm, who retired - before the great conqueror towards India; he was overthrown - in a great battle on the Indus, in 1222 A. D. Jengishkhan - died in 1227, after having made a division of his immense - empire: he gave the kingdoms of Khorassan and Kabul to his - fourth son, Tuli khan, who died soon after his father, - leaving four sons, the two eldest of whom were the above - mentioned Maikú kán (Mangu khán), and Holagú khán. The - former ruled in Tartary, the second proceeded to the - conquest of Persia and the empire of the khalifs. It was - necessary first to subdue the Ismâilahs. - - Rukn-eddin, according to Mirkhond, offered submission to - Holagú: it was by accident that an action took place between - the Ismâilahs and the troops sent by Holagú to take - possession of Alamút. Rukn-eddin, after some delay, during - which he had taken his residence in the fort Maimun-diz, - surrendered his person to Holagú, who had come to besiege - it. With Rukn-eddin was the celebrated astronomer - Nassir-eddin Túsí, who acted as ambassador and mediator; but - seeing the ruin of the Ismâilahs, not, as he pretended, in - the position of the heavenly bodies, but in the - circumstances, he is accused of betraying his master and - delivering him into the hands of the conqueror. More than - forty castles, full of the Molhuds’ treasures, were - destroyed in a short time; among the last were Lamsir and - Alamút; the inhabitants of the latter hesitated to - surrender, not being able to separate themselves at once - from their accustomed glory and independence, whilst their - sovereign acted as an instrument in the hands of the - conquerors for delivering up his own subjects, having lost, - with his good fortune, all firmness and nobleness of mind. - - One of the forts only remained: it was _Kirdcoh_. The feeble - Rukn-eddin, on his way to Mangu khan, could not prevail upon - himself to give it up, and instead of ordering the garrison - to surrender, as he had promised, he sent them word to - resist. Proceeding towards Tartary, he was put to death by - the officers of his escort, who probably had received orders - to that effect from Mangú khán. A death-mandate was also - executed upon Rukn-eddin’s sons, daughters, relatives, - servants, and other followers all over the country; - thousands of the Ismâilahs fell under the sword of the - Tartars. Holagú completed the conquest of this powerful - sect, which had been formidable in Asia during one hundred - and sixty-six years, in the year of the Hejira 654, A. D. - 1256. - - But the Ismâilahs did not cease to exist in Persia, where, - even in our days, some remains of them are to be found. We - read in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay - (vol. II. pp. 281-294), that the parents of a Muhammed - Mahdi, claiming descent from Ali, were inhabitants of - Júnpúr, a town near Benares. He was born in the year of the - Hejira 847 (A. D. 1443), declared himself a Mahdi, in Hejira - 903 (A. D. 1491), first in Mecca, and then in Western India, - in Guzerat, and Ajmír; and died in Hejira 910 (A. D. 1504), - in Furuh, a city of Khorassan, not without leaving many - followers, communities of whom remain, even in our days, - most numerous in Sind, Guzerat, and the Deccan. - - Halagú, after the overthrow of the Ismâilahs, marched - towards Baghdád, it is said, at the instigation of - Nassir-eddin. The celebrated seat of the khalifs was taken - and destroyed in the year of the Hejira 656 (A. D. 1258), - without the required efforts to defend it having been made - by the thirty-seventh and last khalif of the Abbasides. This - inglorious prince, fallen into the hands of his barbarous - enemies, met with a cruel death, being packed up in a piece - of felt, and dragged through the streets of his capital. - With him perished the khalifate, a dominion once the most - powerful and absolute of the world. It began with Abu Bekr - in the eleventh year of the Hejira (A. D. 632), and lasted - 645 lunar, or 625 solar years, during 520 of which it - remained in the house of the Abbasides. The khalifate of the - Fatimites in Egypt had ceased to exist in the year of the - Hejirah 567 (A. D. 1171). All attempts to raise another - khalifate in Asia and Africa had but a short and confined - success, or none at all. - - [670] In the seventh vol. of the Asiatic Researches (p. 338, - edit. of Calcutta), we find an article by T. H. Colebrooke, - Esq., _On the Origin and peculiar Tenets of certain - Muhammedan Sects_. It is there stated that: “The Ali - Ilahiyahs are become numerous in India. This sect is - mentioned by the author of the Dabistán, as prevalent in his - time only at _Uzbil_, or _Azbal_, in the mountainous tract - near _Khata_. It now prevails, according to the information - which I have received, in a part of the dominion of Nawab - Nizamu ’l mulk.” The Calcutta edition of the Dabistán reads - as above, _Arnil_, _Armál_, and _Bakhta_: the manuscript of - Oude agrees with Colebrooke’s reading, _Azbíl_, but has - بخطا, _bakhtá_, and زبال, _zebál_, for the two other names. - The celebrated Orientalist gives an abstract of the doctrine - of this sect according to the Dabistán, joined to an account - of the _Borahs_, according to the _Mejálîsu ’l múmínin_, - composed by _Núrallah of Shoster_, a zealous Shiâh. The - Bóhrahs are described by this author as natives of Guzerat, - converted to the Muhammedan religion about three hundred - years before his time, now 542 years ago. Their converter - was _Mullah Ali_, whose tomb is still seen at the city of - Combáyat. Some of this tribe are Sunnites. The party who - profess the Imámiah tenets comprehended, in the year 1800, - nearly two thousand families. They are chiefly occupied in - trade, and transmit the fifth part of their gains to the - Sayyads of Medina: they are honest, pious, and temperate. - - [671] We find in the Dictionary دحيه الكلبى _dihyat ol - kalbi_, interpreted “the ape-dog; the shape in which the - Muhammedans believe the angel Jabriel to have appeared to - their prophet.” This is not mentioned in the Koran. We read - in a note of Sale’s Koran, vol. II. p. 401: It is said that - Jabril appeared in his proper shape to none of the prophets - except Muhammed, and to him only twice: once when he - received the first revelation of the Koran, and a second - time when he took his night-journey to heaven. According to - the nineteenth chapter of the Koran, Jabril appeared to the - Virgin Mary in the shape of a man, like a full grown but - beardless youth, and caused her to conceive. - - [672] امي _ámí_, “illiterate,” was the epithet which - Muhammed was pleased to give to himself, not without the - intention of rendering it so much more probable that the - writing, which he produced as revelations from God, could - not possibly be a forgery of his own; because it was not - conceivable that a person who could neither read nor write - should be able to compose a book of such excellent doctrine, - and in so elegant a style. It was as “the illiterate” that - in the 155th verse of the VIIth chapter of the Koran he - causes himself to be announced by God, who is introduced - speaking to Moses about the punishment deserved by the Jews - for their iniquities; and says (ibid., v. 154): “My mercy - extendeth over all things, and I will write down good unto - those who shall fear me, and give alms, and who shall - believe our signs――(v. 155): who shall follow the apostle, - the _illiterate prophet_, whom they shall find written down - (i. e. both foretold by name and certain description), with - them in the law and the gospel: he will command them that - which is just, and will forbid them that which is evil,” - etc., etc. We can, however, scarcely doubt that Muhammed, - belonging to the family of Hashem, the most illustrious - tribe of the Koreish, the hereditary guardians of the temple - of Mecca, and himself skilful in commerce, was not more - illiterate than the Arabs of his class: he certainly proved - himself a man of a lofty genius, and, although he wrote not - in verse, a sublime poet. - - [673] We read above the account of sectaries who deified - Alí. So much is certain, that, from his most tender youth, - he was the most zealous, courageous, and intelligent - supporter of Muhammed. The prophet gave him the surname of - “the lion of God:” he said to him: “Thou art my vizir, and - my brother in this and the other world. Thou standest by me - as Aaron stood by Moses; except that no prophet will come - after me, I have no advantage over thee. I am the town of - knowledge, and Alí the gate to it.” Alí was a poet; we have - but half a dozen of his poems and one hundred of his - sayings.――(See the above-quoted work of Baron Hammer, - _Gemäldesaal Mosl. Herrscher, I^{ter} Band_. pp. 321-323.) - - [674] _Ahmed_, “most laudable,” is one of the names of - Muhammed. According to the Commentators of the Koran and the - Traditionists, _Muhammed_ is the name for men: _Ahmed_ that - with which the prophet was greeted by the angels; and - _Mahmud_ that which the inhabitants of hell gave him. He has - a thousand names by means of his attributes. - - [675] _Ulvíahs_, or _Alííades_, are called the descendants - of Alí, the two principal branches of whom were those of his - sons, Husseim and Hassan. In the first continued the twelve - Imáms; in the second, several leaders rose, with unequal - success, in different times and places, against the - government of the Ommiades and Abbasides. - - [676] So is called Muhammed’s mule; also Ali’s horse. - - [677] Shedád is a fabulous personage, said to have lived in - the times of Jemshid, and to have been sent by Zohak to - destroy Jemshid, who made war upon him. The fabulists give - two hundred and sixty years to the reign of Shedád, and - three hundred to that of his brother Shadid. Both these - personages are also said to have lived in the time of the - Hebrew prophet Heber.――(See Herbelot.) - - - - -END OF THE SECOND VOLUME. - - - - -CONTENTS - -OF THE SECOND VOLUME. - - - Page - THE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN - - Describes, in twelve Sections, the religious system of - the Hindus 1 - - Section I.――Concerning the orthodox Hindu system 2 - - Summary of the doctrines contained in the Budah - Mimansa 3 - - Section II.――Of certain opinions entertained by this sect - concerning the creation 9 - - Section III.――Concerning the religious observances and - ceremonies of the Smartas, or orthodox of the - Hindus 53 - - Section IV.――Of the followers of the Vedanta 90 - - Section V.――Concerning those who profess the Sankhya doctrines 118 - - Section VI.――Of the Yogis and their doctrines 123 - - Section VII.――Of the tenets of the Saktian 148 - - History of the illustrious Shaikh Abu Ali Hussain, - the son of Abdullah ben Sina (Avi senna) 168 - - Section VIII.――Of the Vishnuian (Vaishnavas), worshippers - of Vichnu 175 - - Of the Vairagis 184 - - Section IX.――On the creed of the Charvak 197 - - Section X.――On the system of those who profess the doctrine - of Tark 203 - - Section XI.――On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha 210 - - Section XII.--On various religious systems professed by the - people of India 216 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Of the religion of the Kera Tabitian 289 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - Of the religion of the Yahuds (Jews), in two Sections 293 - - Section I.――The information received from Muhammed Said - Sarmed _ibid._ - - Section II.――Upon the book of Adam 299 - - - CHAPTER V. - - Of the religion of the Tarsa (Christians) in three sections 305 - - Section I.――An account of the Lord Aisia (Jesus) _ibid._ - - Section II.――Of the creed of the Aisuah (Christians) 308 - - Section III.――Of the works of the Christians 312 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - Of the religion of the Muhammedans, in two Sections 322 - - Section I.――Of the religion of the Sonnites _ibid._ - - An account of the angels 337 - - An account of the Umaviyah and Yezidiah - connected with the Ali-Ilahian 356 - - Section II.――Of the religion of the Shiâhs 362 - - Of the twelve sects of the Shiâhs 364 - - Of the religion of the Akhbárín 372 - - An account of the Ismâílíah 397 - - An account of the Ali Ilahian 451 - - - - -Transcriber Note: - -Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like -this_. Superscripts are contained within braces and preceded by a -carat, e.g. III^{ter}. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and -were moved to the end of the section in which related anchors -occur. - -Accented consonants d, k, l, and t are shown with the accent following -the letter, like this: d´. Aspirated h after a consonant is preceded -by an apostrophe: ’h. Umlaut above zed is indicated within brackets: -[:z]. - -Except as noted herein, no changes were made to spelling or -diacriticals; many words and names were printed with multiple -variations. Punctuation was standardized, with the addition of -unprinted quotation marks, parentheses, apostrophes, commas, and stops -at ends of sentences and abbreviations. Obvious printing errors were -corrected, e.g. backwards or upside down letters, letters in reverse -order, duplicate words that occurred at line or page breaks, and -spaces missing between words. - -Reversed lines were restored to proper order: - - person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze- - all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a - -was changed to: - - all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a - person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze- - -Comments: - - Added missing anchor to [256]. - There are two anchors to [317]. - Missing anchor to [352] was added where it likely belongs. - [563] First letter of _Ilahíyún_ is unclear in the original. - There are two anchors to [583]; the second follows [585]. - [661] The word “was” likely omitted from “… he who assassinated …” - [662] Page number in cite is unclear; it may be 34 instead of 54. - [669], the year 1127 is at variance with 1162, shown in the index. - The word “of” was likely omitted from “… shape a powerful …” - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dabistán, Volume 2 (of 3), by -David Shea and Anthony Troyer and Muòhsin Fåanåi - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DABISTÁN, VOLUME 2 (OF 3) *** - -***** This file should be named 63276-0.txt or 63276-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/2/7/63276/ - -Produced by Édith Nolot, Carol Brown, Richard Hulse, Bryan -Ness and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images -generously made available by The Internet Archive/American -Libraries.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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