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diff --git a/old/63583-0.txt b/old/63583-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a9bf20b..0000000 --- a/old/63583-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1622 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Indians of Louisiana, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Indians of Louisiana - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: October 30, 2020 [EBook #63583] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF LOUISIANA *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - INDIANS OF LOUISIANA - - - SPONSORED BY THE INTER-TRIBAL COUNCIL OF LOUISIANA - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA INDIANS - 1. Lithic Period - 2. Archaic Period - 3. Poverty Point Period—Late Archaic - 4. Tchefuncte Period - 5. Marksville Period - 6. Troyville—Cole Creek Period - 7. Plaquemine Period - 8. Mississippian Period - 9. 1540-Present - HISTORIC PERIOD - I. ATAKAPA - 1. Atakapa - 2. Opelousa - II. CHITIMACHA - 1. Chitimacha - 2. Chawasha - 3. Taensa (Tensas) - 4. Washa (Quacha) - III. CHOCTAW - 1. Choctaw - 2. Jena Band - IV. COUSHATTA - V. HOUMA - 1. Houma - 2. Acotapissa - 3. Bayogoula - 4. Mugulasha - 5. Okelousa - 6. Quinipissa - 7. Tangipahoa - VI. KADOHADACHO (CADDO) - 1. Caddo - 2. Addi (Adai) - 3. Doustian - 4. Nasoni - 5. Natasi - 6. Natchitoches - 7. Nanatsoho - 8. Soacatino (Xacatin) - 9. Washita (Ouachita) - 10. Yatasi - VII. TUNICA - 1. Tunica - 2. Avoyel - 3. Biloxi - 4. Grigra (Gris) - VIII. INTER-TRIBAL COUNCIL OF LOUISIANA - - - - - PREHISTORIC LOUISIANA INDIANS - - - _Paleo-lithic Period_ (approximately 12,000-5,000 BC): - -According to anthropologists there have been people in Louisiana for at -least 12,000 years. They probably migrated from the northern United -States in search of game as more and more of the northern areas fell -under sheets of advancing ice. Louisiana was much cooler and the -plant-life very different from modern times. - -These early men hunted bison, mastodon, camels, and horses with simple -spears made by attaching a sharpened rock flake to the end of a spear. -They were the true pioneers of this state. They came here without -benefit of guides to show them the best hunting farm lands. - -One of their villages has been discovered on Avery Island. Artifacts -found among extinct animal bones indicate the area was inhabited when -mastodons, bison, and camels, roamed Louisiana. *(Cabildo) - - - _Archaic Period_ (5,000-1400 BC): - -The large animals gradually became extinct as the glaciers melted, the -climate grew warmer, and the plant life changed. The native Louisianians -were forced by necessity to hunt smaller animals and to supplement their -diet with shellfish. The people of the Archaic Period moved from place -to place leaving behind huge mounds of discarded shells which eventually -increased the elevation of area and reduced flooding. During this period -they developed such tools as spear—throwers, knives, scrapers, drills, -and darts. - - - _Poverty Point Period_ (1700-200 BC): - -In northeastern Louisiana, near Epps, is an ancient village site called -Poverty Point. It contains a unique bird effigy mound and a large -geometrical village. Houses of palmetto were built on ridges of earth -arranged in an octagon east of the 600 foot long and 70 foot high bird -mound. - -Since they did not have clay pottery, food was cooked by placing it in -an earthen pit lined with hot baked clay balls. Tools, called -micro-flints, were made from stone slivers to open shellfish, nuts, and -seeds. - -There are also indications of developing trade with other areas. - - - _Tchefuncte Period_ (200 BC-400 AD): - -In coastal Louisiana much of the old Archaic tradition of shellfish -gathering, augmented by hunting, continued long after the Poverty Point -culture was 1,000 years old. About 200 BC crude pottery was added to the -basic Archaic Culture on the coast and around Lake Ponchartrain. They -continued to eat shellfish, supplemented with small game and wild -plants. They lived on shell middens in circular houses made from poles -and thatch. - - - _Marksville Period_ (100-550 AD): - -The development of agriculture during this period freed the early -Louisianians from daily hunting and food gathering which allowed them -time for more religious and recreational activities. They began making -fine pottery and flint projectile points for ceremonial and burial -purposes rather than for purely utilitarian uses. - -They continued building earthen mounds and added rather elaborate burial -practices by placing the deceased in the mound with pottery and -recreational items such as chunkey stones. Some of these burial -artifacts were made from materials from as far away as Yellowstone Park -and marine shells from the Gulf. Their artifacts included copper items. - - - _Troyville-Coles Creek Period_ (500-1200) - -This was basically a continuation of the Marksville Period. Mound -building became more advanced with a shift toward large flat topped -pyramidal mounds as foundations for temples. These were probably used -for sacred and ceremonial activities. The burial mounds continued to be -built in conical shapes. - -Agriculture improvements included clearing fields by slashing the trees -and burning them in the fields to provide fertilizer for crops. Bows and -arrows were used for the first time which increased their hunting -successes. With these improvements came larger populations as the people -developed methods for feeding their growing numbers. - -It also meant time for improving the art of pottery making. -Archaeologists are able to tell the tribe and with whom they traded by -examining the styles of decoration and the lines incised on the pottery. - - - _Plaquemine Period_ (1100-1450) - -Maize agriculture was important during this period. Villages were -located on bluffs and terraces near large streams and rivers to utilize -the rich alluvial bottom land for farming and water for the villagers. - -Rectangular shaped houses were built by digging trenches 12-18 inches -wide and as deep. Poles 6 inches or smaller were set upright in the -trench and earth was packed around them until the trench was filled. -Sometimes rocks or horizontal logs were laid in the trench to brace the -upright poles. The spaces between the rows of upright poles were -intertwined and woven with vines and mud smeared over the entire -structure. When the first Europeans came to Louisiana this type of house -was very common among the Indians. - -The houses were usually arranged in small clusters around several large -mounds which surrounded a central plaza. The plaza was used primarily -for ceremonies. The famous Emerald Mound near Natchez, said to be the -second largest prehistoric man-made object in the United States, is a -nearby example of such a village arrangement. - - - _Mississippian Period_ (1400-1700) - -Trade routes with other Indians in the Southwest and Mexico increased -and cultural diffusion was extensive. Trade with the first Europeans -began during the 16th century. - -After 1,000 years the elaborate burial practices from the Tchefuncte -Period were revived and expanded into a “Cult of the Dead”. Great burial -mounds were built to contain the dead and their burial artifacts. Many -wooden forms of men and animals covered with hammered copper, pottery -shaped as human or animal heads, and pottery depicting bones, skulls, -rattlesnakes, and “feathered serpents” were placed with the corpse in -the mound. - -Villages were enclosed by walls of poles plastered with mud. During this -period Indian populations decreased significantly. As they decreased and -the palisade walls rotted, smaller and smaller compounds were built -around the remaining village. - - - _1540-Present_ - -It is not known how many Indians lived in Louisiana, however, -archaeological evidence, as well as written accounts by early Spanish -and French explorers indicate there were large numbers. From the -northern farmlands of the Caddo and Tunica to the southern swamps and -bayous of the Chitimacha; from the southwestern prairie of the Atakapa -to the eastern hills and rivers of the Natchez and the Muskhogee (Houma) -were many tribes who adapted their culture, their lives, and their -economy to available products in their segment of Louisiana’s -environment. Following is a brief history of the major tribes and those -groups which merged with them. - - - - - HISTORIC PERIOD - - - ATAKAPA - - - _Atakapa_— - -This large group of Indians occupied the prairies of southwestern -Louisiana from Bayou Teche to the Sabine River and from Opelousas to the -coastal marshes. They were a semi-settled, partially agricultural people -occupying a number of favorable villages along waterways; the lower -coast of the Calcasieu and around the shores of Calcasieu Lake, lower -Mermentau, Grand Lake, along Bayou Plaquemine, along the Vermillion near -the present site of Abbeville and a site near the present town of -Opelousas. - -They were culturally less advanced than their neighbors, however they -were more advanced than their reputation as wandering cannibals would -lead us to imagine. They had several semi-permanent villages and are -known to have participated in trade with other Indians along the Texas -coast. They traded fish to the Opelousas for flints and other items they -did not manufacture. - -Although individuals frequented various French posts with other Indian -tribes, it was well into the 18th century that the Atakapa began to feel -the influences of the Europeans on their culture. This was probably due -in part to the relative isolation of their villages. - -In 1760 Skunnemoke (“Short Arrow”) sold the land on which his village -stood along with a wide strip between Bayou Teche and Vermillion -village, the group did not abandon their site until the early 19th -century. Other lands of the Atakapa were steadily sold and the villages -moved and combined to survive the advance of the Europeans. - -In 1787 the principle Atakapa village was at the “Island of Woods” later -known as the “Island Lacasine”. It was abandoned about 1799 when they -moved to a village on the Mermentau. This was the last village of the -Eastern Atakapa and is said to have been occupied as late as 1836. Some -of the Indians united with the Western Atakapa around Lake Charles, but -others scattered as far as Oklahoma. The last village of the Western -Atakapa was on “Indian Lake”, later called “Lake Prein”, which was -occupied until after the middle of the 19th century. - -In 1885 a considerable vocabulary of Atakapa was gathered from two women -living in Lake Charles who had belonged to this last Atakapa town. A -later survey disclosed a few former residents of the old town were still -living in 1907-1908 but, by 1942 all known villagers of the last Atakapa -town were dead. - - - _Opelousa_— - -Probably a divergent group of Atakapa. They lived in the vicinity of the -present city of Opelousas and acted as middlemen in trade between other -Indians in the South. They bought fish from the Chitimacha and Atakapa -which they exchanged for flints from the Avoyels. Some of these flints -were passed on to the Karankawas from the Texas coast for globular or -conical oil jugs. They traded such items as Caddo pottery, Texas pots, -stone beads, arrow points and salt along routes from the interior of -Texas to the coast and inland through Caddo country in northern -Louisiana and onward through Arkansas. (737) - -The last representatives of this tribe apparently joined the Atakapa to -whom they were probably related. - - - CHITIMACHA - - - _Chitimacha_— - -The Chitimacha are the only Louisiana Indians known to currently live in -the vicinity of their ancestral homelands. It is evident they were one -of the largest tribes in Louisiana. Their large population was probably -the result of a favorable environment which provided an abundant food -supply of plants, animals and marine life without the necessity of -extensive hunting or fishing expeditions, or the necessity to -periodically abandon their village sites for lack of food. The men did -the hunting and fishing. - -Although the women planted such crops as maize and sweet potatoes, many -of their foods grew wild. Foods such as beans, wild potatoes, pond lily -seeds, palmetto grains, rhizoma of common sagittaria and large leaf -sagittaria, persimmons, strawberries, blackberries, mulberries, white -berries, many kinds of tree fruits, pumpkins, and several others grew -close to their villages. - -The Chitimacha inhabited two groups of villages. One group was located -along the upper reaches of Bayou Lafourche near the Mississippi River -while the other group was located on Grand Lake and the Bayou Teche -area. These areas consist of many bayous and swamps which were easy to -protect. - -They made their houses from poles covered with palmetto leaves on the -roofs and walls. All the necessary building materials were readily -available and easily replaced when damaged or destroyed by storms and -hurricanes. - -Women exerted strong influence in the tribe’s affairs because important -political positions were available to them. Usually the men controlled -the governmental offices, however if a chief died his widow could assume -his responsibilities if she were a capable leader. Women could also work -as medicine men. Only the leadership of religious affairs was denied -them. - -The political system was run by a group of powerful men. One head chief -controlled the affairs of the entire confederation, with sub-chiefs -governing the outlying villages. These leaders inherited their offices, -lived in large homes, and carried heavily decorated peacepipes to all -ceremonies and social affairs as reminders of their importance. They -ruled by personal edicts, which were enforced by sub-administrators -appointed especially for that purpose. They maintained groups of -warriors to protect them, and to defend their villages against raids by -neighboring tribes. - -The head chief, sub-chiefs, sub-administrators and war leaders were -entrenched by the rules of a rigidly stratified society. The Chitimacha -were the only southeastern tribe with a true caste system. The leaders -and their respective families comprised the “noble class”; all others -belonged to the “commoner” class. Noblemen addressed commoners in -popular language, but commoners spoke to noblemen only in terms that -were used solely for that purpose. With rare exceptions, noblemen -married only noblemen because the husband joined the clan of the wife, -therefore he would become a commoner. A nobleman was inclined to remain -unwed if no woman of his class was free to marry. - -Religious affairs were controlled by Holy Men (and assistants who were -to succeed them after their deaths). Holy Men were in charge of the -sacred ceremonies of their respective clans. They had the responsibility -of perpetuating the ancient parables and stories of miraculous events -which embodied the moral codes of their villages, and which contained -beliefs concerning man’s kinship to nature and to nature’s creatures. - -The Chitimacha men wore long hair, weighted with pieces of lead to hold -their heads erect. They wore necklaces, bracelets and rings made of -copper, gold and silver. Women wore their hair in braids, used makeup of -red and white dyes, and wore bracelets, earrings and finger rings. - -Their aesthetic appreciation is revealed in their manufacture of objects -from shells and stones and in their excellent baskets. Basket-makers -gathered swamp cane, split it into strands then dyed it either black or -yellow or red, and let it dry. When the strands were completely dry they -wove them into baskets in two layers, in such a way as to produce -symbolic designs on the exterior walls. Their first contact with -Europeans in 1699. Between 1701 and 1705 war broke out after a party of -French soldiers reinforced by Acolapissa and Natchitoches Indians took -twenty Chitimacha women and children prisoner. In retaliation, -Chitimacha warriors killed French missionary, St. Cosme, and his 3 -companions in a battle near the Mississippi River. When news of the -incident reached New Orleans the governor of the new French colony -declared war. - -When peace finally came thirteen years later many Chitimacha had been -killed, displaced, or enslaved. This mighty Chitimacha nation was not -only reduced in population; it had lost its power and political -importance among the southern Louisiana tribes. - -In 1762 another important milestone in Chitimacha history occurred. The -Acadians from Nova Scotia began to arrive at New Orleans and move out -along the bayous to escape persecution from British colonial -authorities. These cajun French people married Chitimachas and within a -century full bloods became scarce. The Chitimachas began to speak “cajun -French” instead of their own language. Many converted to the Roman -Catholic religion. - -By 1880 the remaining Chitimacha people were struggling for survival. -Since they were too poor to own any of the large sugar plantations they -worked on them during summer and harvest time for wages, some of them -cut timber, manufactured baskets or raised small quantities of -vegetables and sugar cane the rest of the year to supplement their -wages. They were an impoverished remnant of the old culture. - -In 1905 the Chitimacha fought a court battle to retain the last 505 -acres of their once vast territory. An out of court settlement was made -and they were given title to 280.36 acres of the disputed tract. This -too was almost lost when the attorney in the litigation presented them a -bill plus interest almost a decade later. However, Miss Sarah Avery -McIlhenney, a wealthy philanthropist intervened and purchased the -judgement on the land for $1450. She agreed to assign ownership to the -United States government on behalf of the Chitimacha, therefore -preventing the loss of the last of their land. - -In response to Miss McIlhenney’s efforts government officials took an -interest in the Chitimacha affairs for the first time. On May 8, 1916, -Congress placed the land in trust for the benefit of the tribe and -established a roll of all known living members. Only 60 members were -named. However, they did not receive any actual government assistance -until a reservation school was established in 1934. - -Until the 1940’s they still relied upon traditional occupations because -there were few job opportunities near the reservations. Many Chitimacha -shuttled back and forth between the reservation and area lakes where -fishing was good, while others lived out on the lakes. It took all day -to get to the outlying lakes from the reservations in their “push-skiff” -or pirogue. - -World War II marked a general turning point in tribal history as -returning war veterans infused the tribe with new ideas, enthusiasm and -a desire to insure tribal identity for the future. On November 28, 1946 -Chief Earnest Darden resigned as chief and urged the tribe to appoint -someone to engineer the formation of a constitutional form of -government, thus ending the traditional chief-type of rule that had -existed since prehistoric times. - -Through the years there were many obstacles to obtaining the education -necessary for the Chitimacha to secure well paying jobs. Until recently -those desiring a high school education had to attend the Haskell High -School in Kansas. Since few tribesmen could afford to send their -children to Kansas for a high school degree a cycle of low education and -low paying jobs continued. - -After World War II several Chitimachas began working in the oil industry -on “in-shore” drilling crews and more were working “off-shore” -operations by the early 1950’s. Their success soon attracted others to -more middle income jobs and today there are Chitimacha working as -mechanics, plant workers, carpenters, mental health directors, community -health representatives and administrators and other such professions. - -On January 14, 1971 the Chitimachas became members of the first -organized tribe in the state of Louisiana to be recognized by the United -States government. - -They were also one of the founding members of the Inter-Tribal Council -in May, 1975 and have continued to play an important role in the agency. - - - _Chawasha_— - -A small tribe allied to the Chitimacha living in the alluvial country -about the mouth of the Mississippi River. It is possibly this tribe -which survivors of DeSoto’s expedition found using atlatls in 1543. - -Their village and that of the related Washa was on Bayou Lafourche in -1699 when the colony of Louisiana was founded. - -In 1713 British slave traders formed a party of Natchez, Chickasaw and -Yazoo to attack the Chawasha under the guise of a peace embassy. They -killed the head chief and took 11 prisoners including the chief’s wife. - -There seems to have been 2 or possibly 3 successive villages by 1722 all -on the Mississippi River. In 1730 in order to quiet panic fears of the -French in New Orleans, Governor Perrier allowed a band of slaves to -destroy the Chawasha town. Although he described it as a total massacre -it is more likely the adult men were absent from the village on a -hunting trip and possibly only 7 or 8 of the Indians were murdered. - -In 1758 Governor de Kerlerec states they had formed a little village 3-4 -leagues from New Orleans. Afterward the population steadily declined, -and they seemed to disappear toward the close of the 18th or beginning -of the 19th century. - - - _Taensa (Tensas)_— - -The Taensa occupied 7 or 8 villages near Lake St. Joseph, on the west -bank of the Mississippi River in Northeastern Louisiana. - -In March, 1700 the temple near Newellton on the west end of the lake was -destroyed by lightning and was never rebuilt, fearing raiding parties -from the Yazoo and Chickasaw the tribe abandoned their villages in 1706 -and moved down the Mississippi River to the Bayogoula village. The -Bayogoula treated them well but soon after their arrival the Taensa -turned on the Bayogoula killing many and driving the rest away. The -Taensa had intended to return to their ancient villages after this -massacre, but apparently they remained in the neighborhood of the old -Bayogoula town, for they were at the Manchac in 1715. They also had a -village during this period on the south side of the Mississippi, (about -30 miles) above New Orleans. - -Before 1744 they had moved to the Tensaw River, to which they gave their -name and where they remained until the country was ceded to England in -1763. They then removed to the Red River and were later granted -permission to settle on the Mississippi at the entrance of Bayou -Lafourche. - -They were living beside the Apalachee, the settlements of the two tribes -extending from Bayou d’Appo to Bayou Jean de Jean and their own village -standing at the head of the turn. Subsequently both tribes sold their -land and moved to Bayou Boeuf. - -Later the Taensa parted with this land also and drifted farther south to -a small bayou at the head of Grand Lake, still known on local maps as -Taensa Bayou. - -They intermarried with the Chitimacha and the Alabama becoming gradually -lost as a distinct people. - - - _Washa_— - -Small tribe living on Bayou Lafourche west of present city of New -Orleans in 1699. By 1805 only 5 individuals living with French settlers -in 1805. - - - CHOCTAW - - - _Choctaw_— - -The Choctaw were the second largest tribe in the Southeastern United -States. They were excellent farmers who lived in permanent towns in the -territory which is now Southern Mississippi and Southeastern Alabama. -Although they were non-nomadic they developed and maintained extensive -trade routes with other tribes as far away as Canada. Some of our modern -road and highway routes follow those established by this tribe. - -The women did most of the farm work, fetched the water and cut firewood. -They spun cloth for long skirts from buffalo wool and strong herb -fibers, silk grass or mulberry bark. It was a thick canvas-like material -which could be worn with either side out. - -The men did the hunting, built the houses, made wood and stone tools, -and helped the women in the fields. They were fond of games, wrestling -and jumping contests as well as ball and chunkey games. - -Their houses were circular with clay mixed with straw sides and thatched -roofs. Cane seats about 2 feet off the ground lined the walls inside. -During the day they were used for seating and for beds at night. The -space under these seats was used to store vegetables. In the center of -the house was an open fireplace. - -Their society was divided into different classes or castes. There were -the chiefs, one to preside over war ceremonies and another over peace -ceremonies, the upper class (“their own people” or “friends”), and 5 -classes of slaves. - -The Choctaw women had their babies alone and it was not until later -times they accepted the practice of mid-wives. When the mother was about -to give birth the father retreated to another house and would not eat -until after sunset. He also abstained from pork and salt until the baby -was born. - -When the baby was born the mother washed him and placed him in a cradle -with a bag of sand tied over his forehead to flatten it. This is why the -Choctaw were called “flat heads” by neighboring tribes. - -Mothers were not allowed to discipline their sons. This was the duty of -the maternal uncle who acted as the boy’s teacher. All the boys were -schooled morning and afternoon in tribal legends, hunting with bows and -arrows, and other manly tasks. - -In 1540 the Spanish explorer, DeSoto, began trading with them. The -Choctaw were intrigued by Spanish goods, especially metal. They also -established trade with the French and by the 1700’s had adopted many -French ideas, life styles, cultural attitudes and incorporated French -words into their language. Unlike their Indian neighbors, the men -continued to wear their hair in full length styles. - -The Choctaws served as guides for the European expeditions across -Louisiana which resulted in many Choctaw words being used as name -locations throughout our state. - -As colonization increased pressures to choose alliances with either the -French to keep the English and their powerful allies, the Chickasaw and -Creek Nations, from closing trade routes to the north and Canada. - -From 1754-1763 the Choctaws were in almost constant warfare. In 1763 the -French and Indian wars ended with France ceding all her lands east of -the Mississippi River to the English. This resulted in half the Choctaw -towns being allied to the French and the other half with the English. -War pressures eroded inter-tribal tranquility in the Choctaw Nation, -leading to civil war. - -When the French retreated to New Orleans they in effect deserted their -Choctaw allies. On January 3, 1786, the Treaty of Hopewell was -negotiated with the United States Government recognizing the Choctaw -Nation as a nation and defining the eastern boundary of the Choctaw -Lands. - -Hostilities with their former Indian allies during the wars, coupled -with increasing pressures from settlers desiring their lands, led the -tribe to migrate west of the Mississippi River in search of farm land -and tranquility. - -Between 1801 and 1830 they were methodically negotiated off their tribal -homelands in Alabama and Mississippi. In 1830, they signed the treaty of -Dancing Creek, agreeing to leave their homelands and not return. The -following year the greater part of the nation moved to lands along the -Red River in Oklahoma granted by the treaty. There they established a -small republic modeled after that of the United States government. -However, this republic came to an end when the State of Oklahoma was -organized. - -A considerable number of Choctaw remained in Mississippi while smaller -bands migrated to northern and central Louisiana. - -Prior to 1778 Choctaw communities moved from north Central Louisiana to -LaSalle, Rapides, Jackson, and Grant Parishes in the vicinity of two saw -mill towns, Jena and Eden. Other Choctaw communities were scattered -throughout the Florida parishes north of Lake Pontchartrain. - - - _Jena Band_— - -Although they function autonomously, the Jena Band of Choctaw continue -to maintain a close relationship with their parent tribe, the -Mississippi Band in Philadelphia, Mississippi and continue to speak -their native language. - -In 1974 they incorporated as a non-profit organization and are currently -preparing for federal recognition as a separate tribe from the -Mississippi Band. - -They are basically rural people, but maintain a community at Jena, -Louisiana on Highway 167, approximately 46 miles northeast of -Alexandria. - -The Jena Band of Choctaws are a founding member of the Inter-Tribal -Council. - - - COUSHATTA - -The Coushatta occupied many villages in their Alabama homeland. They -lived in towns and farmed the surrounding lands. The tribe was divided -into clans. Each clan was allotted specific fields and a portion of -their crops were collected for the public granary to protect against -poor harvests, war emergencies and to feed the needy and hungry -travelers. - -The clans elected their best orator as chief who in turn appointed a -town chief and war chief for each town. In the center of the town was a -square where the tribal leaders met to discuss the religious, political -and economic affairs. - -The Coushatta were primarily farmers who supplemented their crops of -maize, peas, beans, squashes, pumpkins, melons, potatoes, and rice by -hunting, fishing and trading with other tribes. They were accomplished -archers and were reluctant to accept the use of guns. They also used -their bows and arrows for fishing or they used blow guns, hook and -lines, spears, traps and handnets. - -In 1540 a Spanish exploration party led by DeSoto robbed an outlying -Coushatta village, kidnapping the chief and other leaders. They -threatened to burn their hostages alive unless the tribe agreed to give -future explorers whatever they wanted. - -Co-existence with the Spanish and French assumed relatively peaceful -proportions and was mutually beneficial until the end of the -Revolutionary War when land seeking settlers pushed farther and farther -into Coushatta territory. - -The years were marked by a continuing struggle over land, warfare, -broken treaties, migration away from white settlements and a dwindling -Coushatta population. The final blow came when 3,000 warriors were -killed and 22 million acres of Indian land lost in the Creek War of -1813-1814. - -The Coushatta migrated through Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana -and Texas in their search for unclaimed land where they could -re-establish their peaceful agricultural way of life. - -By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, some 250 Coushattas had -settled along the Calcasieu River near Kinder. Here the tribe continued -its traditions and enjoyed amicable relations with their neighbors, -until their peaceful and prosperous existence was again lost when -American settlers became interested in Coushatta lands. In 1884 most of -the Coushattas remaining in Louisiana moved to a site 15 miles east of -the Calcasieu River and 3 miles north of Elton in Allen Parish. Life was -hard for the Coushattas, but by 1920 individual tribespeople had carved -out an Indian community that encompassed more than 1,000 acres of -farmland, forest and lush, green swamps. - -In 1898 the United States government placed 160 acres in trust for the -tribe and assumed partial responsibility for educating the children. -Later a federally sponsored elementary school for grades 1-5 was -established and medical services were added for the tribal members. -During the repudiated “termination” policy in 1958 the United States -government ended its trusteeship of tribal lands and discontinued its -meager services. Legally this meant the Coushatta tribe no longer -existed. - -In 1973 a newly formed corporation, the Coushatta Alliance, Inc. finally -succeeded in getting the United States government to legally -re-establish recognition of the Coushatta tribe. - -With the development of a strong tribal government came the revival of a -culture almost lost; a heritage almost forgotten. - - - HOUMA - - - _Houma_— - -The Houmas were accomplished farmers who lived in towns or villages and -farmed the surrounding lands. Certain unique cultural traits indicate -they may have migrated to Louisiana centuries ago from a homeland -somewhere in South America. It is evident they had some contacts, -directly or indirectly, with other Indian cultures in Mexico and South -America. Several varieties of squash and pumpkin native to the Indian -south of the equator were part of the Houma agriculture. Also, grew -peas, beans, and other vegetables. They relied heavily on their maize -crop but also grew several varieties of peas and beans in addition to -squash and pumpkins. - -Another indication of ties with South America is their composite type -grooved blow-gun. It was made in two pieces and tightly bound with sinew -or fiber cord. Although this type of blow-gun was very common among -South American tribes it is quite different from the cane blow-guns used -by other Southeastern tribes of the United States. - -When anyone in their village fell ill two wise men were summoned to the -cabin to chase evil spirits away by singing. Their cabins were perfectly -square structures made with pole frames covered with a plaster of mud -and Spanish moss. There were no openings in the house except for a very -small door 2 X 4 feet or less. There were no smoke holes for their -fireplaces either. After the house was plastered woven cane mats were -attached to the walls inside and out. These mats were then covered with -bunches of tall grass canes. Such a structure would last 20 years -without repairing. - -A red crawfish was recognized as their war symbol. War parties were led -by women as well as men. One woman was so fierce and respected, she -occupied first place on the council of Houma villages. Women could also -serve as chief. - -French explorer, LaSalle, first encountered the Houma in 1682 in the -area now known as Wilkinson County, Mississippi and West Feliciana -Parish, Louisiana near Angola. This was the first known contact with -Europeans. When the French returned to the area in 1700 half of the -Houma tribe had died of abdominal flu. - -In 1706 the Houma and Tunica formed an alliance to strengthen themselves -against the Chickasaw and their British allies. Three years later the -Tunicans turned on their allies and many Houma were massacred in the -ensuing battle. Those who survived, fled southward and settled briefly -on the Mississippi River near Donaldsonville. - -During much of the 1700’s they migrated from place to place searching -for a suitable location, free from pressures of other groups, where they -could resume their agricultural economy. As their tribe decreased they -united with other tribes and pursued hunting, fishing, and trapping to -feed and clothe their shrinking group. With other tribes joining and -merging with the Houma their cultures and customs were interchanged and -blended until the tribes were indistinguishable from one another. Only -the various chiefs attempted to maintain their tribal identities. - -From 1820-1840 the Houma migrated farther and farther south until they -reached the Gulf of Mexico and settled along the bayous and swamps in -Terrebonne and Lafourche Parishes. They shared this territory with the -French Acadians and gradually adopted the French language and Catholic -religion. - -Although they formerly had the skills to weave finely decorated cane -baskets similar to Chitimachan baskets, this skill was lost and replaced -with palmetto, cypress and cane weaving and moss mat making. Many of the -men are skilled wood carvers. - -By 1940 they supported themselves almost exclusively by trapping -muskrats and raccoons in the coastal marshes, by fishing with nets for -shrimp and other fish in season, gathering oysters, and in a small part -hiring out to cane and rice growers in the lower parishes. Thus their -traditional agricultural economy evolved into a hunting and fishing one -on the coastal fringes. - -Today tribal members are concentrated primarily in Terrebonne, Lafourche -and Jefferson Parishes with the majority located in Terrebonne Parish. - -They have historically held the concept of each community retaining a -large measure of autonomy, existing separately and possessing different -outlooks and goals. With such tradition it is not surprising that two -distinctly separate tribal governments currently exist. The Houma Tribe -Inc., domiciled in Golden Meadow in Lafourche Parish serves Lafourche, -St. Bernard, St. Tammy, Orleans, Plaquemine, Jefferson and Terrebonne -Parishes while the Houma Alliance Inc., is domiciled in Dulac, in -Terrebonne Parish. - -The Houma Alliance, Inc. was a founding member of the Inter-Tribal -Council. - - - _Acotapissa_— - -In 1699 this tribe was living on the Pearl River about 11 miles from its -mouth. It is said to occupy 6 villages and the Tangipahoa occupied one -which had formerly constituted a 7th. - -In 1702 or 1705 they moved to Bayou Castine on the North shore of Lake -Pontchartrain, six months later the Natchitoches, whose crops had been -ruined, were settled beside them by the commanders of the Mississippi -fort. - -In 1718 they moved to the Mississippi River and settled 35 miles above -New Orleans on the east bank. In that year a Frenchman described their -village and said the chief’s house was 36 feet in diameter. Six feet -more than that of the Natchez Great Sun. - -A little higher up the river they had a small village, then abandoned. -In their old town was a temple which they rebuilt after they moved to -the Mississippi River. - -This tribe, the Bayogoula and Houma who had settled nearby were -gradually becoming amalgamated. The Bayogoula and the Acotapissa seem to -have combined first and then united with the Houma. - - - _Bayogoula_— - -When the colony of Louisiana was founded in 1699, this tribe was living -on the west bank of the Mississippi River about 5 miles below Plaquemine -at a place which still bears their name. The Mugulasha tribe was then -living with them. - -The Bayogoula were at war with the Houma. When the Mugulasha became too -friendly with the Houmas, the Bayogoula attacked their fellow villagers, -destroyed a considerable number and drove the rest away. They then -invited the Acotapissa and Tiou to take their places. In 1706 the -Taensa, who had abandoned their towns on Lake St. Joseph, settled in the -Bayogoula as they had attacked the Mugulasha. The survivors were given a -place to settle near the French fort on the Mississippi River. By 1725 -they had moved above New Orleans. In 1739 they were living between the -Acotapissa and the Houma and had partially become fused with them. Their -subsequent history is given with the Houma. - - - _Mugulasha_— - -This tribe was living at a site a few miles above the present site of -New Orleans on the opposite side of the river when LaSalle first -encountered them in 1682. In 1699 they shared a village with the -Bayogoula north of their former settlement. Between 1682 and 1699 the -Mugulasha and the Quinipissa joined together. The chief of the -Quinipissa in 1682, when the French first entered the territory, also -served as the chief of the Mugulasha in 1699. In May, 1700 they were -attacked by their fellow villagers, the Bayogoula, and were almost -completely destroyed. Survivors probably united with the Bayogoula or -Houma. - - - _Okelousa_— - -In 1541 the Spaniards described them as a tribe “of more than ninety -villagers not subject to anyone, with a very warlike people and much -dreaded”, occupying a fertile land. - -In 1682 they appear as allies of the Houma in the destruction of a -Tangipahoa village on the east bank of the Mississippi River. They were -a wandering people living west of the river on two little lakes to the -west of and above Point Coupee. - -By the 18th century they were a small tribe living west of the lower -course of the Mississippi River. They evidently joined the Houma tribe -and ceased to exist as a distinct group. - - - _Quinipissa_— - -This tribe was found by LaSalle in 1682 a _few miles above the present -site of New Orleans_, but on the _opposite side_ of the river. The -people received him with flights of arrows, and on his return used -peacemaking overtures as a mask for a treacherous but futile attack upon -his force. Four years later, Tonti made peace with this tribe. In 1699 -Iberville hunted for them in vain, but later learned that they were -identical with the Mugulasha, then living with the Bayogoula about 20 -leagues above their former settlement. According to Sauvolle, however, -the Quinipissa were not identical with the Mugulasha, but had united -with them. In any case, there can be no doubt that the _chief of the -Quinipissa in 1682 and 1686 was the same man as the chief of the -Mugulasha in 1699_. - -In May, 1700, shortly after Iberville had visited them for the second -time, the Mugulasha were attacked and almost completely destroyed by -their fellow townsmen, the Bayogoula. The destruction was not as -complete probably as the French writers would have us believe, but we do -not hear of either Mugulasha or Quinipissa afterward, and the remnant -must have united with the Bayogoula or Houma, the latter having been -their allies. - - - _Tangipahoa_— - -A tribe _probably related to the Acotapissa_ and perhaps originally a -part of them, whose home at the end of the 17th century was on an -_affluent of Lake Pontchartrain_ which still bears their name. Some may -at one time have moved to the Mississippi, Sioucie. LaSalle in 1682, -found, on the east side of the river, 2 leagues below the Quinipissa -settlement, a town recently destroyed and partly burned by enemies, -which some said was named “Tangibao”, though others called it -“Maheonala” or “Mahehoualaima”. The remnants of this tribe probably -united or reunited with the Acotapissa and eventually merged with the -Houmas. - - - KADOHADACHO (CADDO) - - - _Caddo_— - -The name Caddo is applied collectively to an important group of -approximately 25 tribes forming 3 or more confederated groups of -Kadohadacho covering the present states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and -Oklahoma. - -Their culture was considerably different from those of other Louisiana -tribes. They allied themselves with the plains cultures and unlike the -other tribes of the state, who were afraid of horses, the Caddo readily -accepted and utilized them for hunting buffalo and other game. - -The Caddo was very large and powerful before the arrival of the -Europeans. They had highly developed social and ceremonial organizations -with surrounding tribes. They were excellent farmers and noted for their -outstanding pottery. Their importance in history however quickly -diminished with the arrival of the white man. - -Their name comes from their own word Kadohadacho which was later -shortened to Caddo by the white man. They seem to have always lived on -the Red River where they planted corn, pumpkins, and various vegetables. -They did not tolerate idleness and those who did not work were punished. -They worked their fields in good weather and attended their handiwork, -made bows and arrows, clothing, and tools during cold rainy weather. The -women kept busy making mats out of reed and leaves and by making pots -and bowls from clay. - -When it was time to till the fields all the men assembled and worked -first one field and then another until every field of all the households -were ready for planting. The planting was never done by the men; only -the women. To supplement their crops the men hunted and fished. - -Each tribe had a chief called a Caddi, who ruled within the section of -country occupied by his tribe. The larger tribes also had sub-chiefs, -the number depending on the size of the tribe. - -They lived in a communal arrangement. Eight to ten families lived in a -single conical shaped grass house or one made of thatch supported by a -pole frame. Mat couches lined the walls and served for seating during -the day and for beds at night. A fire burned in the center of house -night and day. (883) - -Their houses were arranged around an open town square which was used for -social and ceremonial functions. The members of each house were -responsible for farming the fields adjacent to their house. - -For their role as ambassadors of peace under the rule of the French, -Spanish and American governments, the Caddo were promised they would -never be disturbed from their land. However, the purchase of the -Louisiana Territory resulted in increased immigration into Caddo -country. Even with military assistance it soon became impossible for the -United States government to restrain the white settlers from inhabiting -the Caddo lands. Finally the Indian agent was authorized to purchase the -Caddo land and the Indians moved westward to Texas. - -As a result of an extermination policy by the Texans who did not want -the Caddo either, those who weren’t killed were driven from Texas east -of the Red River where in retaliation, the Caddo sent small bands into -Texas to plunder and harass the whites. With their hunting grounds so -depleted stealing became almost a necessity. By the early 19th century -their importance as a distinct tribe was over and survivors merged with -other tribes. - - - _Adai_— - -A Caddo tribe which lived near the present site of Robeline, Louisiana -when first encountered by Europeans in the 1500’s. As a result of wars -between France and Spain the Adai suffered severely. One portion of -their villages was under French control and the other part under -Spanish. An ancient trail between their villages became the noted -“contraband trail” along which traders and travelers journeyed between -the French and Spanish provinces. War between France and Spain almost -exterminated the Adai. (891) - -Even though their vocabulary differed widely from the rest of the Caddo -dialects, it is probable that they combined with the Kadohadacho. By the -close of the 19th century all of the Adai had disappeared. - - - _Doustioni_— - -A small tribe living near Natchitoches, Louisiana. They also appeared in -European accounts under the names of Souchitiony, Dubchinsis, and -Oulchionis. - -In 1702 a crop failure caused the Indian agent St. Denis to move their -neighbors, the Natchitoches tribes, from the Red River to an area beside -the Acolapissa on Lake Ponchartrain. The Doustioni however, chose to -remain in their country and reverted for a time to hunting rather than -move to the Lake Ponchartrain area. - -In 1714 when St. Denis brought the Natchitoches back and started an -establishment among them the Doustioni accepted an invitation to settle -close by the post. In 1719 they were known to be living on an island in -the Red River not far away. Since nothing more was written about them, -they probably lost their identity in the Natchitoches tribe. - - - _Nasoni (Nissohone or Nisione)_— - -This tribe appears in 1542 as a “province” entered by the Spaniards -during an attempt by DeSoto’s expedition to reach Mexico by land. It was -southwest of the present city of Shreveport. They were poor and had very -little corn. In 1687 there were 2 Nasoni towns, an upper town and a -lower one. The latter was 27 miles north of Nacogdoches, Texas and Upper -Nasoni was near Red River just south of the river. - -Tribal wars with the Osage Indians and disease left their villages -destroyed and abandoned. By the close of the 18th century they had -disappeared, or merged with the Kadohadacho. - - - _Natasi_— - -A Caddo tribe on Red River between Natchitoches and Shreveport mentioned -by writers between 1690-1719. It was probably part of the Yatasi. - -Their villages were destroyed and abandoned due to tribal wars and -disease and by the close of the 18th century they also had disappeared. - - - _Natchitoches_— - -When first discovered in 1690 by the French, the main tribe bearing this -name, pronounced by the Indians themselves Nashitosh, was living near -the city which is called after them. They were primarily farmers. In -1702 when their crops were ruined they requested and were granted -permission from the French to relocate. St. Denis located them on the -north side of Lake Ponchartrain near the Acolapissa. Twelve years later -he took them back to their country and established a French post close -to their village. As long as he remained commandant of this post, his -influence over the Natchitoches and other tribes which came to live -nearby was unbounded. Even after his retirement relations between the -settlers and Indians continued harmonious and the Indians remained in -their old villages until the first of the 19th century, when they joined -the rest of the Caddo tribes and accompanied them successively to Texas -and Oklahoma. - -There was a second Natchitoches, the “upper” town, allied with the -Kadohadacho. It was heard of only in earliest times and probably united -with the Kadohadacho earlier than the other group. - - - _Nanatsoho_— - -An obscure tribe of Caddo whose village was on the Red River in 1687. -They were allied with other Caddo tribes, the Kadohadatcho, Natchitoches -and the Nasoni. In 1812 another village near their earlier location was -noted. They eventually united with their allies and disappeared as a -distinct tribe by the early 19th century. - - - _Soacatino (Xacatin)_— - -A Caddo tribe visited by the Spaniards in 1542 but not mentioned by -later writers. - - - _Washita (Ouachita)_— - -A small Caddo tribe which has given its name to Ouachita River, -Louisiana. Their village was located near the present site of Columbia -on the Ouachita. By 1690 a part of them had left the village and settled -near the Natchitoches Indians. In 1730 the Louisiana Governor wrote they -had been destroyed by the Taenso, but the greater part probably withdrew -to the Natchitoches or other Caddo tribes farther west. (204) - - - _Yatasi_— - -A Caddo tribe living on the Red River northwest of Natchitoches. When -the post of Natchitoches was established they were so hard pressed by -the Chickasaw tribe that part of them sought refuge nearby, while others -fled to the Kadohadatcho. Later they re-occupied their own country. -Later left Louisiana for Texas with the other Caddo tribes. - -Died out quickly within the 20 year period between 1690 and 1710. - - - TUNICA - - - _Tunica_— - -Tradition and early records indicate this tribe lived in the -northwestern Mississippi and neighboring parts of Arkansas. By 1682 they -had concentrated on Yazoo River a few miles above its mouth, though -parties were scattered throughout northeastern Louisiana to boil salt -which they traded. They had a village on the Ouachita as late as 1687. -In 1706, fearing attacks by the Chickasaw and other Indians allied to -the English, the Tunica abandoned their villages and moved to the Houma -town site opposite the mouth of the Red River. They were well received -by the Houma, but shortly afterward rose against their hosts killing -more than half and driving the rest away. - -Sometime between 1784 and 1803 they again abandoned their villages and -moved up the Red River to the Marksville Prairie, where settled on a -strip of land formerly owned by the Avoyels. This land was recognized as -the Indian Reserve and their mixed-blood descendants have continued to -occupy land. A part of them went farther west and joined the Atakapa and -another part moved to the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma where they -established themselves along the Red River. - - - _Avoyel_— - -Their main village was near the rapids of the Red River, a short -distance above the present city of Alexandria. Another village was -located near the city of Marksville. - -Their name which signifies “Stone People” or rather “Flint People”, -indicates they were active in the manufacture or trade of arrow points, -and raw flint materials. It was not until 1700 that Iberville met some -members from this tribe when they acted as middlemen in providing a -market for horses and cattle plundered from the Spaniards. - -In 1767 they were still occupying a village near the “rapids” of the Red -River. Although they spoke a Natchezen language the tribe merged with -the Tunicas south of Marksville by 1805, except for 2 or 3 women who -made their homes with French families on the Ouachita. It was not until -1932 that the last known person of Avoyel blood passed away. - - - _Biloxi_— - -A Siouan tribe located on the Pascagoula River and Biloxi Bay in 1690’s -probably formerly residents Ohio Valley. - -In early 1700-1703 they settled on Pearl River at site formerly occupied -by Acotapissa then drifted back to Pascagoula River near the Pascagoula -tribe. - -They lived near the same tribe in that general region until 1763 when -both tribes moved across the Mississippi, the Biloxi settling first near -the mouth of the Red River. They must have soon moved to the -neighborhood of Marksville. They established 2 villages; one on a half -section adjoining the Tunica. Soon afterward they sold or abandoned this -site and moved to Bayou Rapides and then to the mouth of the Rigolet de -Bon Dieu, crossed to the south side to Bayou Boeuf in 1794-96 below a -band of Choctaws. - -Soon after 1800 they sold their lands to William Miller and Colonel -Tulton. Although the sale was confirmed by United States government May -5, 1805, the Biloxi remained in the immediate neighborhood and gradually -died out or fused with the Tunica at Marksville and Choctaw where they -still reside. A large group moved to Texas. - -In 1886 a few Biloxi were discovered living on Indian Creek 5-6 miles -west of Lecompte, Louisiana by Bureau of American Ethnology. - - - _Grigra (Gris)_— - -A small Tunican tribe which had given up its independent existence -before the arrival of the French in Louisiana. They moved to what is now -Mississippi and became a part of the Natchez Nation. Even though they -inter-married, language etiquette was used to set them apart from the -original Natchez Indians who were regarded as the noble class. - - - - - INTER-TRIBAL COUNCIL OF LOUISIANA - - -The Inter-Tribal Council of Louisiana, Inc., is a non-profit -organization which was formed as an effort in Indian self-determination, -i.e., Indians governing Indian programs. It is presently composed of -four of the states’ tribes: Jena Band of Choctaws, Jena; Coushatta Tribe -of Louisiana, Inc., Elton; Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana, Inc., -Charenton; and the Houma Alliance, Inc., Dulac. It was incorporated in -May, 1975, and began administering an Employment and Training Program -funded under the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act, 1973 (CETA), -Section 302 by the Department of Labor that same year. - -The Inter-Tribal Council: - - —provides leadership, and services on behalf of its member tribes; - —determines needs of tribal members to better provide services; - —establishes supportive or gap-filling services to its member tribes; - —provides technical assistance and input to federal, state, local and - private providers of social services, in planning for - services and needs of American Indians in the state. - -Since the Inter-Tribal Council, Inc. began serving the needs of -Louisiana Indians in May, 1975, approximately 15 Louisiana Indians have -earned high school diplomas through programs administered by the agency. -An estimated 10 additional diplomas will be earned this school year. - -Approximately 600 Indians have successfully completed job related -training in such fields as carpentry, clerical, auto mechanics, -cosmetology, drafting, and electricians with approximately 550 currently -employed. This represents a significant increase in Indian participation -in the skilled job market since 1975. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Silently corrected a few typos. - -—Collated headings against Table of Contents and added entries to - resolve discrepancies. - -—Retained any publication information from the printed edition: this - eBook is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Indians of Louisiana, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF LOUISIANA *** - -***** This file should be named 63583-0.txt or 63583-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/5/8/63583/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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