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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6), by 
+P. Martin Duncan and A. H. Garrod and W. S. Dallas and R. Bowdler Sharpe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
+and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not
+located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+Title: Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)
+
+Author: P. Martin Duncan
+        A. H. Garrod
+        W. S. Dallas
+        R. Bowdler Sharpe
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2020 [EBook #63592]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jane Robins, Reiner Ruf, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ######################################################################
+
+                          Transcriber’s Notes
+
+    This e-text is based on ‘Cassell’s Natural History, Vol. III,’ from
+    1893. Inconsistent and uncommon spelling and hyphenation have been
+    retained; punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected.
+
+    The spelling of toponyms might differ slightly from today’s
+    orthographical conventions.
+
+    _Underscores_ have been used to indicate italic text in the
+    original. Small capitals have been converted to UPPERCASE LETTERS.
+
+ ######################################################################
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LITH. LONDON.
+
+DEER FAMILY.
+
+    1. Indian Muntjac (_Cervulus muntjac_).
+    2. Reindeer (_Rangifer tarandus_).
+    3. Javan Deerlet (_Tragulus napu_).
+    4. Fallow Deer (_Dama vulgaris_).
+    5. Wapiti Deer (_Cervus strongyloceros_).
+    6. Porcine Deer (_Hyelaphus porcinus_).
+    7. Roebuck (_Capreolus caprea_).
+    8. Elk (_Alces machlis_).
+    9. Chinese Water Deer (_Hydropotes inermis_).
+]
+
+
+
+
+                               CASSELL’S
+
+                            NATURAL HISTORY
+
+
+                               EDITED BY
+
+              P. MARTIN DUNCAN M.B. (LOND.) F.R.S. F.G.S.
+
+  PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN AND HONORARY FELLOW OF KING’S COLLEGE LONDON
+     CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES PHILADELPHIA
+
+
+                               VOL. III.
+
+
+                             _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+
+                      CASSELL AND COMPANY LIMITED
+                      _LONDON PARIS & MELBOURNE_
+                                 1893
+
+                          ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+    UNGULATA:--
+        RUMINANTIA.
+
+    A. H. GARROD, M.A., F.R.S.
+
+
+    RODENTIA.
+
+    W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S.
+
+
+    EDENTATA.
+
+    P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S.
+
+
+    MARSUPIALIA.
+
+    P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S.
+
+
+    AVES.
+
+    R. BOWDLER SHARPE, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:
+
+  BOVIDÆ--SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES.                               PAGE
+
+  Ruminantia--Chewing the Cud--Metaphorical Expression--The
+  Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
+  Reed--Order of Events in Rumination--Feet and
+  Dentition of Ruminants--Brain--Classification--HORNED
+  RUMINANTS--Divided into two Groups--Difference
+  between them--BOVIDÆ--Horns--Aberrant Members--SHEEP
+  AND GOATS--General Characteristics--Sheep of
+  South-Western Asia--Merino Sheep--Breeds of Great
+  Britain--Dishley, or Improved Leicesters--Mr. Bakewell’s
+  Description--Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other
+  British Breeds--Table of the Importation of Colonial
+  and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom--MARCO POLO’S
+  SHEEP--OORIAL--SHAPOO--MOUFLON--AMMON--BURHEL--AMERICAN
+  ARGALI--WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY--THE GOAT--Compared with
+  the Sheep--Descent--Cashmere Goat--IBEXES--PASENG--Their
+  remarkable Horns--Old Theories as to the Use of
+  the Horns--MARKHOOR--TAHR--GAZELLES--General
+  Characteristics--Sir Victor Brooke’s Classification--THE
+  GAZELLE--Appearance--Habits--ARABIAN GAZELLE--PERSIAN
+  GAZELLE--SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE--GRANT’S
+  GAZELLE--SPRINGBOK--SAÏGA--CHIRU--THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA--THE
+  INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK                                       1
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:
+
+  BOVIDÆ: (_continued_)--ANTELOPES.
+
+  THE STEINBOKS: KLIPSPRINGER, OUREBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK,
+  MADOQUA--THE BUSH-BUCKS--Appearance--Distinctive
+  Marks--THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES--Peculiarity in
+  the Chikarah--THE WATER ANTELOPES: NAGOR, REITBOK,
+  LECHÈ, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU,
+  REH-BOK--THE ELAND--Beef--Appearance--Captain
+  Cornwallis Harris’ Description--Hunting--Scarcity--THE
+  KOODOO--Appearance--King of Antelopes--ANGAS’ HARNESSED
+  ANTELOPE--THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES: GUIB--BUSH BUCK, OR
+  UKOUKA--Appearance--Pluck--THE BOVINE ANTELOPES--THE
+  BUBALINE--HARTEBEEST--BLESBOK--BONTEBOK--SASSABY--THE
+  GNU--Grotesque Appearance--Habits--BRINDLED
+  GNU--THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES--SEROW--Ungainly
+  Habits--GORAL--CAMBING-OUTAN--TAKIN--MAZAMA--THE
+  CHAMOIS--Distribution--Appearance--Voice--Hunted--THE
+  ORYXES--BLAUBOK--SABLE ANTELOPE--BAKER’S
+  ANTELOPE--ORYX--BEISA--BEATRIX--GEMSBOK--ADDAX                      17
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:
+
+  BOVIDÆ (_concluded_)--OXEN, PRONGHORN ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER],
+  AND GIRAFFE.
+
+  THE NYL-GHAU--Description--Habits--THE MUSK OX--Difficulties
+  in associating it--Distribution--Habits--THE
+  OX--Chillingham Wild Cattle--Their Habits--Domestic
+  Cattle--The Collings, Booth, and Bates Strains--American
+  Breeding--Shorthorns, and other Breeds--Hungarian
+  Oxen--Zebu--Gour--Gayal--Curious mode of Capturing
+  Gayals--Banting--THE BISONS--Description--European Bison,
+  or Aurochs--Almost extinct--Cæsar’s Description of
+  it--American Bison--Distribution--Mythical Notions regarding
+  it--Their Ferocity and Stupidity--“Buffalo” Flesh--THE
+  YAK--Habits--THE BUFFALOES--Varieties--Description--Fight
+  between two Bulls--THE ANOA--THE PRONGHORN
+  ANTELOPE--Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull--Professor
+  Baird’s and Mr. Bartlett’s Independent Discovery of
+  the Annual Shedding of the Horns--Habits--Peculiarity
+  about its Feet--Colour--Difficulties as to its
+  Position--THE MUSK [DEER]--Its Perfume--Where is it to be
+  placed?--Description--Habits--Hunters for the Perfume--Their
+  Sufferings--THE GIRAFFE--Peculiarities--Skull processes--Its
+  Neck--Habitat--Running power--Habits--Hunting                       29
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS:
+
+  THE ELK, ELAPHINE, SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER.
+
+  The Deer Tribe--Distinguishing Characters--Exceptions to
+  the rule--The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer--Other
+  Characters of the Cervidæ--Antlers, their Nature,
+  Growth, and Shedding--The Knob--“Velvet”--Getting rid
+  of the “Velvet”--Full equipment--Contests--Interlocking
+  Antlers--Distribution--Classification--Development
+  of Antlers in the Common RED DEER--Explanation of
+  the various stages--Splendid “Heads”--Simple and
+  Complex Antlers--Types of Antlers--THE ELK, OR MOOSE
+  DEER--Appearance--Antlers--Habits--Hunting--THE ELAPHINE
+  DEER--THE RED DEER--Distribution--Appearance--Hunting--THE
+  WAPITI--Acting of the Fawns--THE PERSIAN DEER, OR
+  MARAL--THE CASHMERIAN DEER, OR BARASINGHA--Habits and
+  General Appearance--BARBARY DEER--SUB-ELAPHINE DEER--THE
+  JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER--THE FALLOW
+  DEER--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE PERSIAN FALLOW
+  DEER--THE RUSINE DEER--THE SAMBUR, OR GEROW--Habits--Species
+  of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and The
+  Philippines--THE HOG DEER--THE AXIS DEER--PRINCE ALFRED’S
+  DEER--THE SWAMP DEER--SCHOMBURGK’S DEER--ELD’S DEER, OR THE
+  THAMYN--Description--Habits--Hunting--Shameful havoc                46
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE MUNTJACS--THE ROEBUCK--CHINESE DEER--REINDEER--AMERICAN
+  DEER--DEERLETS--CAMEL TRIBE--LLAMAS.
+
+  THE MUNTJACS--Distribution--Characters--THE INDIAN MUNTJAC,
+  OR KIDANG--Hunting--THE CHINESE MUNTJAC--Habits--DAVID’S
+  MUNTJAC--“Shanyang”--THE ROEBUCK--THE CHINESE WATER
+  DEER--Peculiarity--Chinese Superstition regarding it--THE
+  CHINESE ELAPHURE--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE
+  REINDEER--Distribution--Character--Colouration--Antlers--Canadian
+  Breeds--Food--THE AMERICAN DEER--THE VIRGINIAN DEER--THE
+  MULE DEER--THE BLACK-TAILED DEER--THE GUAZUS--THE
+  BROCKETS--THE VENADA, OR PUDU DEER--THE CHEVROTAINS,
+  OR DEERLETS--Antlerless--Their Position--Bones of
+  their Feet--General Form and Proportions--Species--THE
+  MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET--THE JAVAN DEERLET--THE
+  KANCHIL--THE STANLEYAN DEERLET--THE WATER DEERLET--THE
+  CAMEL TRIBE--Their Feet--Stomach--Its Peculiarity--The
+  Water Cells--THE (TRUE) CAMEL--Description--The Pads of
+  Hardened Skin--Its Endurance--Its Disposition--Anecdote
+  of its Revengeful Nature--THE BACTRIAN CAMEL--THE
+  LLAMAS--Description--Habits--Used as Beasts
+  of Burden--Wild and Domesticated Species--THE
+  HUANACO--THE LLAMA--THE VICUNA--THE ALPACA--The Alpaca
+  Industry--FOSSIL RUMINANTIA--Strata in which they are
+  Found--_Chœropotamus_--_Hyopotamus_--_Dichobune_--_Xiphodon_
+  --_Cainotherium_--_Oreodon_--_Sivatherium_--Fossil
+  Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels, Llamas, Antelopes,
+  Giraffes--The Irish Elk--Its huge Antlers--Its
+  Skeleton--Ally--Distribution                                        61
+
+
+  ORDER RODENTIA.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  INTRODUCTION--THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, AND
+  BEAVER FAMILIES.
+
+  Character of the Order--A well-defined Group--Teeth
+  Evidence--Kinds and Number of Teeth--The Incisors: their
+  Growth, Renewal, and Composition--The Molars--The Gnawing
+  Process--Skeleton--Brain--Senses--Body--Insectivora
+  and Rodentia--Food of Rodents--Classification--THE
+  SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--THE SQUIRREL-LIKE
+  RODENTS--SCIURIDÆ--Distinctive Features--THE
+  COMMON SQUIRREL--Form--Distribution--Food--Bad
+  Qualities--Habits--THE GREY SQUIRREL--THE FOX
+  SQUIRREL--Flying Squirrels--Their Parachute Membrane--THE
+  TAGUAN--Appearance--Habits--Other Species--THE
+  POLATOUCHE--THE ASSAPAN--The Genus _Xerus_--THE GROUND
+  SQUIRRELS--THE COMMON CHIPMUNK--THE MARMOTS--Distinguishing
+  Features--THE SPERMOPHILES--THE GOPHER--THE SISEL,
+  OR SUSLIK--THE BARKING SQUIRRELS--THE PRAIRIE
+  DOG--Description--Species--Habits--Burrows--Fellow-inmates
+  in their “Villages”--THE TRUE MARMOTS--THE BOBAC--THE
+  ALPINE MARMOT--THE WOODCHUCK--THE HOARY MARMOT, OR
+  WHISTLER--ANOMALURIDÆ--Tail Peculiarity--Distinctive
+  Features--HAPLODONTIDÆ--Description--THE
+  SEWELLEL--CASTORIDÆ--THE BEAVER--Skeletal
+  Peculiarities--General Form--Appearance--Distribution--The
+  Beavers of the Old and New World--Habits--Wonderful
+  Sagacity--The Building Instinct--Their Method of Working--The
+  various Stages--Their Lodges--Their Dams--Activity by
+  Night--Flesh--Hunted--The _Castoreum_                               81
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.
+
+  THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS--MYOXIDÆ--Characteristics--THE
+  DORMOUSE--Description--Habits--Activity--Food--Winter
+  Condition--THE LOIR--THE GARDEN DORMOUSE--LOPHIOMYIDÆ--How
+  the Family came to be Founded--THE LOPHIOMYS--Milne-Edwards’
+  Opinion--Skull--General Form--Habits--MURIDÆ--Number of
+  Species--Characteristics--Variety of Forms--Distribution--The
+  Murine Sub-Family--THE BROWN RAT--History--Fecundity
+  and Ferocity--Diet--At the Horse Slaughter-houses of
+  Montfaucon--Shipwrecked on Islands--Story of their
+  Killing a Man in a Coal-pit--In the Sewers of Paris
+  and London--THE BLACK RAT--THE EGYPTIAN RAT--THE
+  COMMON MOUSE--Habits--Destructiveness--Colours--THE
+  LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE--Description--Food--THE HARVEST
+  MOUSE--Description--Habits--In Winter--Agility--Their
+  Nest--THE BANDICOOT RAT--THE TREE RAT--THE STRIPED
+  MOUSE--Allied Genera--THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE--The
+  American Murines--THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE--THE
+  GOLDEN, OR RED MOUSE--THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE--THE AMERICAN
+  HARVEST MOUSE--THE FLORIDA RAT--Description--Their
+  Nest--Food--Mother and Young--THE BUSHY-TAILED WOOD
+  RAT--THE COTTON RAT--THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON--THE
+  HAMSTERS--Characteristics--Appearance--Distribution--
+  Burrows--Disposition--Food--Habits--THE
+  TREE MICE--THE BLACK-STREAKED TREE MICE--THE
+  GERBILLES--Characteristics--Habits--Other Genera--THE
+  WATER MICE--Characteristics--Species--THE
+  SMINTHUS--THE VOLES--Characteristics--THE WATER
+  VOLE--Appearance--Distribution--Food--THE
+  FIELD VOLE--THE BANK VOLE--THE SOUTHERN FIELD
+  VOLE--THE SNOW MOUSE--THE ROOT VOLE--THE MEADOW
+  MOUSE--THE PINE MOUSE--THE MUSQUASH, MUSK RAT, OR
+  ONDATRA--Distinguishing Features--Habits--His House--THE
+  LEMMING--Description--Food--Habits--Disposition--Their
+  Extraordinary Migrations--Other Lemmings--THE ZOKOR                101
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND
+  OCTODONTIDÆ.
+
+  SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS--Characteristics
+  of the Family--Habits--Food--THE MOLE
+  RAT--Distribution--Description--THE CHESTNUT MOLE RAT--THE
+  NAKED MOLE RAT--THE STRAND MOLE RAT--Description--Habits--THE
+  CAPE MOLE RAT--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS--Characteristics
+  of the Family--The Cheek-pouches--THE COMMON POCKET
+  GOPHER--Distribution--Description--Burrowing--Runs--Subterranean
+  Dwelling--THE NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER--HETEROMYINÆ,
+  OR POUCHED MICE--Difficulties as to
+  Position--Characteristics--PHILLIPS’ POCKET MOUSE--Where
+  Found--Description--THE YELLOW POCKET MOUSE--THE LEAST
+  POCKET MOUSE--DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS--Organisation for
+  Jumping--Characteristics--Distribution--THE AMERICAN
+  JUMPING MOUSE--Description--Characters peculiar to
+  itself--Habits--THE TRUE JERBOAS--Characters--THE
+  JERBOA--Distribution--Habits--Mode of Locomotion--THE
+  ALACTAGA--THE CAPE JUMPING HARE--THE PORCUPINE-LIKE
+  RODENTS--OCTODONTIDÆ--Characteristics--Sub-Family
+  CTENODACTYLINÆ--THE GUNDI--THE DEGU--Description--Habits--THE
+  BROWN SCHIZODON--THE TUKOTUKO--THE CURURO--THE ROCK
+  RAT--Sub-Family, ECHINOMYINÆ--THE COYPU--One of the Largest
+  Rodents--Description--Burrows--Habits--Mother and Young--THE
+  HUTIA CONGA--THE HUTIA CARABALI--THE GROUND RAT                    120
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  PORCUPINES--CHINCHILLAS--AGOUTIS--CAVIES--HARES AND
+  RABBITS--PIKAS.
+
+  HYSTRICIDÆ, THE PORCUPINES--Conversion of Hairs into
+  Spines--Skull--Dentition--Tail--Sub-families--The
+  True Porcupines--The Tree Porcupines--THE COMMON
+  PORCUPINE--Distribution--Description--The Crest of
+  Bristles--Nature of the Spines--Habits--Young--Flesh--On
+  the Defensive--Other Species--Species
+  of Tree Porcupines--THE COUENDOU--THE
+  COUIY--Description--Habits--THE URSON, OR CANADA
+  PORCUPINE--Description--Habits--Food--CHINCHILLIDÆ, THE
+  CHINCHILLAS--Characteristics--THE VISCACHA--Description--Life
+  on the Pampas--Their Burrows--Habits--The Chinchillas
+  of the Andes--THE CHINCHILLA--THE SHORT-TAILED
+  CHINCHILLA--CUVIER’S CHINCHILLA--THE PALE-FOOTED
+  CHINCHILLA--DASYPROCTIDÆ, THE AGOUTIS--Characters--THE
+  AGOUTI--Distribution--Appearance--Habits--AZARA’S
+  AGOUTI--THE ACOUCHY--THE
+  PACA--Appearance--Distribution--Habits--DINOMYIDÆ--Founded
+  for a Single Species--Description--Rarity--CAVIIDÆ,
+  THE CAVIES--Characteristics--THE RESTLESS
+  CAVY--Appearance--Habits--The Guinea-Pig
+  Controversy--THE BOLIVIAN CAVY--THE ROCK CAVY--THE
+  SOUTHERN CAVY--THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR MARA--Peculiar
+  Features--Its Burrows--Mode of Running--THE
+  CAPYBARA--Its Teeth--Where Found--Habits--THE
+  DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--LEPORIDÆ,
+  THE HARES AND RABBITS--Structural
+  Peculiarities--Distribution--Disposition--THE
+  COMMON HARE--Hind Legs--Speed--Its “Doubles”--Other
+  Artifices--Its “Form”--Habits--Food--Pet Hares--THE
+  RABBIT--Distribution--Habits--Domesticated--THE
+  MOUNTAIN HARE--LAGOMYIDÆ, THE
+  PIKAS--Characteristics--Distribution--THE ALPINE PIKA--THE
+  ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA                                                133
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  FOSSIL RODENTIA.
+
+  Families of Rodents represented by Fossil
+  Remains--State of the “Record of the Rocks”--THE
+  SCIURIDÆ--Sciurine Genera now Extinct--No Fossil
+  ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ--ISCHYROMYIDÆ--_Pseudotomus
+  hians_--_Gymnoptychus_--CASTORIDÆ--Mr.
+  Allen’s CASTOROIDIDÆ--THE MYOXIDÆ--No Fossil
+  LOPHIOMYIDÆ--THE MURIDÆ--THE SPALACIDÆ--THE
+  GEOMYIDÆ--THE DIPODIDÆ--THE THERIDOMYIDÆ--THE
+  OCTODONTIDÆ--THE HYSTRICIDÆ--THE CHINCHILLIDÆ--THE
+  DASYPROCTIDÆ--THE CAVIIDÆ--THE LEPORIDÆ--THE
+  LAGOMYIDÆ--_Mesotherium cristatum_--Difficulties
+  concerning it--Mr. Alston’s Suggestion--THE
+  HEBETIDENTATA--Teeth--Skull--Skeleton--Conclusions regarding
+  it--Table of Rodent Families--Concluding Remarks                   151
+
+
+  ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  SLOTHS.
+
+  The South American Forests--Discovery of the Sloth--How it
+  derived its Name--Peculiarities of Dentition--Food--Fore
+  Limbs and Fingers--Hind Limbs and Heel--Other
+  Modifications of Structure--Kinds of Sloth--Waterton’s
+  Captive Sloth--Habits of the Animal--Burchell’s Tame
+  Sloths--Manner of Climbing Trees--Disposition--Activity among
+  Trees--Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy--Probable Conclusion
+  regarding it--Skeleton--Vertebræ--the Rudimentary Tail--Most
+  Distinctive Skeletal Characters--Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers,
+  Claws--Mode of Walking--Great Utility of the Claws--Face of
+  Sloth--Skull--Teeth--Classification--_TARDIGRADA_--BRADIPODIDÆ--Genus
+  BRADYPUS--Characteristics--Genus
+  ARCTOPITHECUS--Characteristics--CHOLŒPODIDÆ--THE COLLARED
+  SLOTH--Description--Skull Bones--Habits--Circulation of the
+  Blood--_Rete Mirabile_--THE AI--THE UNAU--Appearance--Skull
+  and Teeth--Skeleton--Interesting Anatomical
+  Features--Stomach--HOFFMANN’S SLOTH--Description--Habits           158
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE ANT-EATERS.
+
+  THE CAPE ANT-EATER--The Cage at “the Zoo”--Appearance
+  of the Animal--Its Prey--The Ant-hills-How the
+  Orycteropus obtains its Food--Place in the
+  Order--Teeth--Skull--Tongue--Interesting Questions concerning
+  the Ant-eater--THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY ANT-EATERS--THE
+  AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS--Differences between the Pangolins
+  and Cape Ant-eaters--Their Habitat--Description--TEMMINCK’S
+  PANGOLIN--Habits--Food--How it Feeds--Superstitious Regard
+  for it shown by the Natives--Scarcity--Appearance--THE
+  LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN--THE
+  GREAT MANIS--THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS--THE
+  SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN--The Species of
+  _Manis_--Skull--Stomach--Claws fitted for Digging--Other
+  Skeletal Peculiarities--THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS--General
+  Appearance--Genera--THE GREAT ANT-BEAR--Habits--Diet--How
+  it Procures its Food--Distribution--Mode and Rate of
+  Locomotion--Stupidity--Manner of Assault and Defence--Stories
+  of its Contests with other Animals--Appearance--THE
+  TAMANDUA--Description--Where Found--Habits--Odour--THE
+  TWO-TOED ANT-EATER--Appearance--Two-clawed Hand--Habits--Von
+  Sach’s Account of his Specimen                                     169
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.
+
+  The Armour-plates--How the Shields are formed--Their
+  connection with the Body--Description of the
+  Animals--Mode of Walking--Diet--Skeleton--Adaptation of
+  their Limbs for Burrowing--Classification--THE GREAT
+  ARMADILLO--Appearance--Great Burrower--THE TATOUAY--THE
+  POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO--THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY
+  ARMADILLO--THE PICHIY--THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU--THE MULE
+  ARMADILLO--THE BALL ARMADILLO--Dr. Murie’s Account of its
+  Habits--Description--The Muscles by which it Rolls itself
+  up and Unrolls itself--THE PICHICIAGO--Concluding Remarks:
+  Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied
+  Species of _Manis_ in South Africa and Hindostan                   181
+
+
+  ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.
+
+  SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.
+
+  THE GREAT KANGAROO--Captain Cook and the Great
+  Kangaroo--Habitat--Appearance of the Animal--Marsupials
+  separated from the other Mammalian Orders, and why
+  (Footnote)--Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)--Mode
+  of Running--The Short Fore Limbs--The _Marsupium_, or
+  Pouch--Head--Dentition--Peculiarities in the Teeth--Hind
+  Extremities--Foot--Great Claw--How the Erect Position is
+  maintained--Whence their Jumping Power is derived--Other
+  Skeletal Peculiarities--Kangaroo Hunts--Becoming
+  Rarer--Mode of Attack and Defence--Hands--Bones of the Fore
+  Limbs--Skull--Stomach--Circulation of Blood--Peculiarity
+  in Young--Nervous System not fully developed--Brain--The
+  Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch--THE HARE KANGAROO--THE
+  GREAT ROCK KANGAROO--THE RED KANGAROO--THE BRUSH
+  KANGAROO--THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO--THE COMMON
+  TREE KANGAROO--THE KANGAROO-RATS--Characteristics--THE
+  RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS--Description--THE WOMBAT FAMILY--THE
+  WOMBAT--Peculiarities--Description--Habits--Teeth--Skeleton        191
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.
+
+  THE PHALANGER FAMILY--THE KOALA--Habits--Characteristics--THE
+  CUSCUS--THE VULPINE PHALANGER--THE DORMOUSE
+  PHALANGER--Habits--Remarkable Characters--THE FLYING
+  PHALANGERS--Its Flying Machine--Habits--THE SQUIRREL FLYING
+  PHALANGERS--Habits--The Parachute-like Membrane--Exciting
+  Scene on board a Vessel--Characteristics--THE OPOSSUM
+  MOUSE--THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT--A Curiosity among
+  Marsupials--Distinctive Features--THE POUCHED BADGER
+  FAMILY--Characteristics--THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES--THE
+  BANDICOOT--THE BANDED PERAMELES--THE PIG-FOOTED
+  PERAMELES--Discussion regarding it--Characteristics--THE
+  DASYURUS FAMILY--Characteristics--THE POUCHED
+  ANT-EATERS--THE BANDED MYRMECOBIUS--Description--Great
+  number of Teeth--History--Food--Habits--Range--THE URSINE
+  DASYURE--Appearance--“Native Devil”--Ferocity--Havoc
+  among the Sheep of the Settlers--Trap to Catch them--Its
+  Teeth--A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the
+  Carnivora--Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself--MAUGE’S
+  DASYURE--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS--Description--Resemblance
+  to the Dog--Habits--Peculiarities--THE BRUSH-TAILED
+  PHASCOGALE--Description--Other Varieties                           203
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE OPOSSUMS.
+
+  Prehistoric Opossums--Description of the Animal--Their
+  Teeth--Habits--THE COMMON OPOSSUM--Appearance--Use of its
+  Tail--Food--The Young--How they are Reared--D’AZARA’S
+  OPOSSUM--THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM--THE THICK-TAILED
+  OPOSSUM--MERIAN’S OPOSSUM--Pouchless Opossums--Their
+  Young--THE MURINA OPOSSUM--THE ELEGANT OPOSSUM--THE
+  YAPOCK--Classification of Marsupial Animals--Geographical
+  Distribution of the Sub-Order--Ancestry of the
+  Marsupials--Fossil Remains                                         219
+
+
+  SUB-ORDER--MONOTREMATA.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.
+
+  Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order--The lowest
+  of the Mammalian Class--THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED
+  ECHIDNA--An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate--Its
+  Correct Name--Description of the Animal--Habits and
+  Disposition--Manner of Using the Tongue--Where it is
+  Found--Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial
+  Bones--The Young--Species of Van Diemen’s Land and New
+  Guinea--THE WATER-MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS--The
+  most Bird-like Mammal--Various Names--Description--Their
+  Appearance and Movements in Water--Their Burrows--Habits
+  of an Individual kept in Confinement--Used by Natives
+  as Food--How they are Captured--The Young--A Family in
+  Captivity--The Snout--Jaws--Teeth--Tongue--Fore and Hind
+  Feet--Heel--Spur--The Shoulder Girdle--Breastbone--Concluding
+  Remarks on the Sub-orders--Postscript                              227
+
+
+  THE CLASS AVES.--THE BIRDS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  INTRODUCTION--WING STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS--DISTRIBUTION.
+
+  Introduction--Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves--Power
+  of Flight--The Wing--Its Structure--The Six Zoo-geographical
+  Regions of the Earth--Birds peculiar to these Regions              235
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.
+
+  The Three Divisions of the Class Aves--ANATOMY OF A
+  BIRD--The Skeleton--Distinctive Features--Peculiar Bone
+  Character--The Skull--Difference between the Skull of
+  Birds and that of Mammals--The Jawbones--Vertebral
+  Column--Sternum--Fore-limbs--Hind-limbs--Toes--The
+  Muscular System--How a Bird remains Fixed when Asleep--The
+  Oil-gland--The Nervous System--The Brain--The Eye--The
+  Ear--The Digestive System--The Dental papillæ--The
+  Beak--Tongue--Gullet--Crop--Stomach--Uses of the
+  Gizzard--Intestine--The Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen--The
+  Blood and Circulatory System--Temperature of Blood of
+  a Bird--Blood Corpuscles--The Heart--The Respiratory
+  System--Lungs--Air-sacs--The Organs of Voice--The
+  Egg--Classification of the Class Aves                              239
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).
+
+  THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.
+
+  VULTURES AND CARACARAS.
+
+  The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How
+  the Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a
+  Hawk, an Owl, and an Osprey--The Three Sub-orders of the
+  Accipitres--Sub-order FALCONES--Difference between the
+  Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New
+  World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as to how the
+  Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of
+  Scent--Mr Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s
+  Views in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE
+  GRIFFON VULTURE--Its Capacity for Feeding while on the
+  Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the Largest of the
+  Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN
+  VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE
+  CONDOR--Its Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING
+  VULTURE--THE TURKEY VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive
+  Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY BIRD--How it Attacks
+  Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA                            254
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.
+
+  THE BANDED GYMNOGENE--Habits--Its Movable Tarsi--THE
+  HARRIERS--Distinctive Features--THE MARSH
+  HARRIER--Habits--Its Thievish Propensities--THE
+  HARRIER-HAWKS--Colonel Greyson’s Account of
+  their Habits--THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS--Why so
+  Called--Habits--THE TRUE GOSHAWKS--Distinctive
+  Characters--THE GOSHAWK--Distribution--In Pursuit of
+  its Prey--Appearance--THE SPARROW-HAWKS--Distinctive
+  Characters--THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK--Habits--Appearance--THE
+  BUZZARDS--Their Tarsus--THE COMMON BUZZARD--Where
+  Found--How it might be turned to Account--Food--Its
+  Migrations--Habits--Appearance--THE HARPY                          267
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  EAGLES AND FALCONS.
+
+  THE EAGLES--THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER--A Visit
+  to their Nest--Habits--A Little Girl carried off
+  Alive--Habits in Greece--Appearance--Von Tschudi’s and
+  Captain Hutton’s Descriptions of its Attacks--THE TRUE
+  EAGLES--THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE--Eye--Crystalline Lens--How
+  Eagles may be Divided--THE IMPERIAL EAGLE--THE GOLDEN
+  EAGLE--In Great Britain--Macgillivray’s Description of its
+  Habits--Appearance--THE KITE EAGLE--Its Peculiar Feet--Its
+  Bird’s-nesting Habits--THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE--THE INDIAN
+  SERPENT EAGLE--THE BATELEUR EAGLE--THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE--A
+  Sea Eagle--Story of Capture of some Young--THE SWALLOW-TAILED
+  KITE--On the Wing--THE COMMON KITE--THE EUROPEAN HONEY
+  KITE--Habits--ANDERSSON’S PERN--THE FALCONS--The Bill--THE
+  CUCKOO FALCONS--THE FALCONETS--THE PEREGRINE FALCON--Its
+  Wonderful Distribution--Falconry--Names for Male, Female,
+  and Young--Hawks and Herons--THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON--THE
+  KESTRELS--THE COMMON KESTREL--Its Habits and Disposition           277
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.
+
+  THE OSPREY--Distribution--Food--How it Seizes its
+  Prey--Nesting Communities--STRIGES, or OWLS--Distinctions
+  between Hawks and Owls--Owls in Bird-lore and
+  Superstition--Families of the Sub-order--THE FISH OWL--PEL’S
+  FISH OWL--THE EAGLE OWL--Dr. Brehm’s Description of its
+  Appearance and Habits--THE SNOWY OWL--HAWK OWLS--PIGMY
+  OWLETS--THE SHORT-EARED OWL--THE LONG-EARED OWL--THE BARN
+  OWL--The Farmer’s Friend--Peculiar Characters--Distribution        296
+
+
+  THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE PARROTS.
+
+  Characteristics of the Order--The
+  Sub-orders--ZYGODACTYLÆ--THE PARROTS--Their Talking
+  Powers--Sections of the Family--THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO--THE
+  PYGMY PARROTS--THE AMAZON PARROTS--THE AMAZONS--THE
+  GREY PARROT--Court Favourites--Historical Specimens--In
+  a State of Nature--Mr. Keulemans’ Observations--THE
+  CONURES--THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET--Known to the
+  Ancients--Habitat--Habits--THE CAROLINA CONURE--Destructive
+  Propensities--THE PARRAKEETS--THE OWL PARROT--Chiefly
+  Nocturnal--Incapable of Flight--How this Fact may be
+  accounted for--Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits--THE
+  STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS--THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS--THE
+  NESTORS--THE KAKA PARROT--Skull of a Parrot--The Bill              308
+
+
+  THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  CUCKOOS--HONEY
+  GUIDES--PLANTAIN-EATERS--WOODPECKERS--TOUCANS--BARBETS.
+
+  THE CUCKOOS--THE BUSH CUCKOOS--THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS,
+  OR COUCALS--THE COMMON CUCKOO--Its Characteristics--Mrs.
+  Blackburn’s Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a
+  Tenant--Breeding Habits--The Eggs--The Call-notes of
+  Male and Female--Food--Its Winter Home--Its Appearance
+  and Plumage--THE HONEY GUIDES--Kirk’s Account of their
+  Habits--Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against
+  the Bird--THE PLANTAIN-EATERS--THE WHITE-CRESTED
+  PLANTAIN-EATER--THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER--THE COLIES--THE
+  WHITE-BACKED COLY--THE WOODPECKERS--How they Climb and
+  Descend Trees--Their Bill--Do they Damage Sound Trees?--THE
+  WRYNECKS--THE YAFFLE--THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER--THE SPOTTED
+  WOODPECKER--THE TOUCANS--Mr. Gould’s Account of their
+  Habits--Mr. Waterton’s Account--The Enormous Bill--Azara’s
+  Description of the Bird--Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame
+  Toucan--THE BARBETS--Messrs. Marshall’s Account of the
+  Family--Mr. Layard on their Habits                                 323
+
+
+  THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER
+  II.--FISSIROSTRES.
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.
+
+  THE JACAMARS--THE PUFF BIRDS--THE
+  KINGFISHERS--Characters--THE COMMON
+  KINGFISHER--Distribution--Its Cry--Habits--After its
+  Prey--Its own Nest-builder--Mr. Rowley’s Note on the
+  Subject--Nest in the British Museum--Superstitions
+  concerning the Kingfisher--Colour--Various Species--CRESTED
+  KINGFISHER--PIED KINGFISHER--Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account
+  of its Habits--New World Representatives--OMNIVOROUS
+  KINGFISHERS--THE AUSTRALIAN CINNAMON-BREASTED
+  KINGFISHER--Macgillivray’s Account of its Habits--THE
+  LAUGHING JACKASS of Australia--Its Discordant
+  Laugh--The “Bushman’s Clock”--Colour--Habits--THE
+  HORNBILLS--Character--Their Heavy Flight--Noise
+  produced when on the Wing--Food--Extraordinary Habit of
+  Imprisoning the Female--Native Testimony--Exception--Fed
+  by the Male Bird--Dr. Livingstone’s Observations on
+  the point, and Mr. Bartlett’s Remarks--Strange Gizzard
+  Sacs--Dr. Murie’s Remarks--Mr. Wallace’s Description
+  of the Habits of the Hornbills--Capture of a Young
+  One in Sumatra--THE GROUND HORNBILLS--South African
+  Species--Kaffir Superstition regarding it--Habits--Mr.
+  Ayres’ Account of the Natal Species--How it Kills
+  Snakes--The Call--Habits--Mr. Monteiro’s Description of
+  the Angola Form--Turkey-like Manner--Wariness--Food--THE
+  HOOPOES--Appearance--Distribution--THE COMMON
+  HOOPOE--Habits--The Name--How does it produce its Note?--THE
+  WOOD HOOPOES--Habits                                               343
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  THE BEE-EATERS--MOTMOTS--ROLLERS--TROGONS--NIGHTJARS, OR
+  GOATSUCKERS--SWIFTS--HUMMING-BIRDS.
+
+  THE BEE-EATERS--Their Brilliant Plumage--Colonel Irby’s
+  Account of the Bird in Spain--Shot for Fashion’s
+  sake--THE MOTMOTS--Appearance--Mr. Waterton on the
+  Houtou--Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail--Mr. O.
+  Salvin’s Observations on this point--Mr. Bartlett’s
+  Evidence--THE ROLLERS--Why so called--Canon Tristram’s
+  Account of their Habits--Colour--Other Species--THE
+  TROGONS--Where found--Peculiar Foot--Tender Skin--Inability
+  to Climb--Their Food--THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR
+  QUESAL--Mr. Salvin’s Account of its Habits--Its
+  Magnificent Colour--How they are Hunted--THE NIGHTJARS,
+  OR GOATSUCKERS--Appearance--Distribution--The Guacharo,
+  or Oil Bird--“Frog-mouths”--Mr. Gould’s Account of the
+  Habits of the Tawny-shouldered Podargus--How it Builds its
+  Nest--Mr. Waterton’s Vindication of the Goatsucker--What
+  Services the Bird does really render Cattle, Goats, and
+  Sheep--Its Cry--THE COMMON GOATSUCKER--THE SWIFTS--THE
+  COMMON SWIFT--Migration--Their Home in the Air--When they
+  Breed--Nest--TREE SWIFTS--The Edible-Nest Swiftlets--Mr. E.
+  L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet--THE
+  HUMMING BIRDS--Number of Species--Distribution--Professor
+  Newton’s Description of the Bird--Mr. Wallace on their
+  Habits--Wilson on the North American Species                       360
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  The Chamois                                            _Frontispiece._
+
+  The Water Deerlet, or Chevrotain                                     1
+
+  Stomach of a Ruminating Animal: exterior and interior                2
+
+  Brain of a Sheep                                                     3
+
+  Merino Sheep                                                         5
+
+  The Ammon                                                            8
+
+  The Ammon                                                            9
+
+  The Barbary Wild Sheep                                              10
+
+  The Ibex                                                            11
+
+  The Markhoor                                                        12
+
+  The Dorcas Gazelle                                                  14
+
+  The Saïga                                                           15
+
+  The Indian Antelope                                                 16
+
+  Head of Female Bush-buck                                            18
+
+  The Water-buck                                                      19
+
+  The Eland                                                           20
+
+  The Koodoo                                                          22
+
+  The Bubaline Antelope                                               24
+
+  The Gnu                                                             25
+
+  The Goral                                                           26
+
+  Head of the Chamois                                                 27
+
+  The Oryx                                                            28
+
+  The Nyl-ghau                                                        30
+
+  Musk Oxen                                                           31
+
+  Chillingham Cattle                                                  32
+
+  The Hungarian Bull                                                  33
+
+  The European Bison                                                  36
+
+  The American Bison                                                  37
+
+  The Yak                                                             38
+
+  The Anoa                                                            39
+
+  Skull of the Pronghorn Antelope                                     40
+
+  The Pronghorn Antelope                                              41
+
+  Skull of the Musk [Deer]                                            42
+
+  The Musk [Deer]                                                     43
+
+  Skeleton of the Giraffe                                             44
+
+  Giraffes                                                            45
+
+  Head of Red Deer, in which the growing Antlers are seen
+  covered with “velvet”                                               46
+
+  Head of Red Deer, in which the Antler is fully developed and
+  the “velvet” has disappeared                                        47
+
+  Various Types of Antlers                                            49
+
+  Elk Hunt                                                            50
+
+  Young Elk                                                           51
+
+  The Red Deer                                                        53
+
+  Red Deer and Fallow Deer in Winter                                  54
+
+  Red Deer Fighting                                                   55
+
+  The Fallow Deer                                                     56
+
+  The Sambur Deer                                                     57
+
+  The Borneo Rusine Deer                                              58
+
+  The Axis Deer                                        _To face page_ 59
+
+  Schomburgk’s Deer                                                   60
+
+  The Indian Muntjac                                                  62
+
+  The Roebuck: Male, Female, and Young                                63
+
+  The Chinese Water Deer                                              64
+
+  The Chinese Elaphure                                                65
+
+  Reindeer at a Lapp Encampment                                       66
+
+  The Reindeer                                                        67
+
+  The Guazuti Deer                                                    69
+
+  The Javan Deerlet                                                   70
+
+  The Stanleyan Deerlet--Foot of Camel                                71
+
+  Stomach of the Llama--Water Cells of the Camel                      72
+
+  Head of the (true) Camel                                            73
+
+  The (true) Camel                                                    74
+
+  The Bactrian Camel                                                  75
+
+  Huanaco attacked by a Puma                                          76
+
+  The Alpaca      _To face page_ 77
+
+  The Llama                                                           77
+
+  Skeleton of the Irish Elk                                           79
+
+  The Irish Elk (_Restored_)                                          80
+
+  The Prairie Dog                                                     81
+
+  Skull of the Taguan, a Flying Squirrel--Dentition
+  of the Hare                                                         82
+
+  Skeleton of the Rabbit                                              83
+
+  Brain of Beaver, from above and in profile                          84
+
+  Teeth of the Taguan                                                 85
+
+  The Common Squirrel                                                 86
+
+  The Black Fox Squirrel                                              88
+
+  The Taguan                                                          89
+
+  The Polatouche                                                      90
+
+  The Common Chipmunk 91
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Marmot--The Striped Spermophile, or Gopher       92
+
+  Burrows of the Prairie Dog                                          93
+
+  The Alpine Marmot                                                   95
+
+  The Fulgent Anomalure--Molar Teeth of the Anomalure                 96
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Beaver                                           97
+
+  The Beaver                                                          98
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Dormouse--The Dormouse                          102
+
+  The Garden Dormouse                                                103
+
+  Skull of Lophiomys--The Lophiomys                                  104
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Black Rat                                       105
+
+  The Brown Rat                                                      106
+
+  The Black Rat                                                      107
+
+  Harvest Mice                                                       109
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Hapalote                                        111
+
+  Head of the Rabbit-like Reithrodon                                 112
+
+  Hamster      _To face page_ 113
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Hamster                                         113
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Gerbille--Skull of the Water Mouse--Teeth
+  of Sminthus                                                        114
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Water Rat                                       115
+
+  The Southern Field Vole                                            116
+
+  The Musquash                                                       118
+
+  The Lemming                                                        119
+
+  Skull of Mole-Rat--The Mole-Rat                                    121
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Mexican Pouched Rat--Under Surface of the
+  Head of Heteromys                                                  122
+
+  Skull of the Mexican Pouched Rat                                   123
+
+  Skull of the Cape Jumping Hare                                     124
+
+  The American Jumping Mouse--Molar Teeth of the Jerboa              125
+
+  The Jerboa                                                         126
+
+  The Alactaga--Molar Teeth of the Jumping Hare                      127
+
+  The Cape Jumping Hare                                              128
+
+  The Degu                                                           129
+
+  Dentition of the Rock Rat--Teeth of the Spiny Rat                  130
+
+  The Coypu                                                          131
+
+  The Hutia Conga--Teeth of Plagiodon--Molar Teeth of
+  Loncheres                                                          132
+
+  Skull of Loncheres                                                 133
+
+  Skull of the Porcupine--The Common Porcupine                       134
+
+  The Tree Porcupine                                                 136
+
+  Mexican Tree Porcupines                                            137
+
+  Viscachas      _To face page_ 139
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Chinchilla--The Chinchilla                      139
+
+  Molar Teeth of the Agouti--Azara’s Agouti                          140
+
+  Skull of the Paca--The Paca                                        141
+
+  The Dinomys                                                        142
+
+  The Patagonian Cavy                                                144
+
+  Molars of the Capybara                                             145
+
+  The Capybara                                                       146
+
+  The Common Hare                                                    148
+
+  The Alpine Pika                                                    150
+
+  Side View of Skull and Lower Jaw of Mesotherium
+  Cristatum--Dentition of Mesotherium Cristatum                      155
+
+  Group of Sloths                                                    158
+
+  Skeleton of the Sloth                                              161
+
+  Bones of Hand of Three-toed Sloth                                  162
+
+  Skull of Sloth                                                     163
+
+  The Collared Sloth                                                 164
+
+  The Ai                                                             165
+
+  Skull of Ai                                                        166
+
+  Stomach of Sloth                                                   167
+
+  Hoffmann’s Sloth                                                   168
+
+  The Cape Ant-eater                                                 170
+
+  Skull of the Cape Ant-eater                                        171
+
+  Temminck’s Pangolin                                                172
+
+  The Four-fingered Pangolin                                         173
+
+  The Five-fingered Pangolin                                         175
+
+  The Great Ant-Bear                                                 177
+
+  The Two-toed Ant-eater                                             180
+
+  Bones of Claw of Great Armadillo                                   181
+
+  Skeleton of the Armadillo--Skull of the Armadillo                  182
+
+  The Great Armadillo--Brain of the Armadillo                        183
+
+  The Poyou                                                          185
+
+  The Ball Armadillo                                                 188
+
+  The Pichiciago                                                     189
+
+  The Great Kangaroo                                  _To face page_ 191
+
+  Skeleton of the Great Kangaroo                                     192
+
+  Teeth of the Great Kangaroo                                        193
+
+  Stomach of the Great Kangaroo                                      195
+
+  Brain of the Great Kangaroo                                        196
+
+  The Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroo                                     197
+
+  The Common Tree Kangaroo                                           198
+
+  The Kangaroo Rat--Teeth of the Kangaroo Rat                        199
+
+  Fore and Hind Foot of Hypsiprymnus                                 200
+
+  Skeleton of the Wombat                                             201
+
+  The Wombat--Lower Jaw of the Wombat                                202
+
+  Teeth of the Wombat                                                203
+
+  The Koala                                                          204
+
+  The Cuscus                                                         205
+
+  The Vulpine Phalanger                                              206
+
+  The Squirrel Flying Phalanger                                      208
+
+  The Banded Perameles                                               210
+
+  The Dasyure                                                        213
+
+  Teeth of the Dasyure--Brain of the Dasyure                         214
+
+  Upper and Under View of Skull of Dasyure                           215
+
+  The Dog-headed Thylacinus                                          216
+
+  Skeleton of the Dog-headed Thylacinus                              217
+
+  The Brush-tailed Phascogale--The Antechinus                        218
+
+  Opossum and Young                                   _To face page_ 219
+
+  Teeth of the Opossum                                               219
+
+  Skeleton of the Crab-eating Opossum                                220
+
+  The Crab-eating Opossum                                            221
+
+  Merian’s Opossum                                                   222
+
+  The Yapock                                                         223
+
+  Pelvic Arch of the Echidna                                         227
+
+  The Porcupine Echidna                                              228
+
+  Mouth and Nose-snout of Echidna                                    229
+
+  Jaws of the Duck-billed Platypus                                   231
+
+  Fore and Hind Foot of the Duck-billed
+  Platypus--Shoulder-girdle and Sternum of the Echidna               232
+
+  The Duck-billed Platypus                                           233
+
+  The Imperial Eagle                                                 235
+
+  Bones of Wing of Bird--Feathers of Wing of Bird                    237
+
+  Parts of a Feather                                                 238
+
+  Skeleton of Eagle                                                  241
+
+  Skull of Young Ostrich from above and from below                   242
+
+  Sternum of Fregilupus varius--Pelvis of an Adult Fowl, side
+  view                                                               243
+
+  Section of the Eye of the Common Buzzard                           246
+
+  Digestive Organs of the Kingfisher                                 248
+
+  Front View and Section of Inferior Larynx of
+  Peregrine Falcon                                                   251
+
+  Diagrammatic Section of a Fowl’s Egg                               252
+
+  Head and Bill of Sea Eagle                                         255
+
+  Bill of Egyptian Vulture, to show form of Nostril--Bill of
+  Turkey Vulture, to show the perforated Nostril                     256
+
+  The Griffon Vulture                                                259
+
+  The Egyptian Vulture                                               261
+
+  The Condor                                                         262
+
+  The Brazilian Caracara                                             264
+
+  The Secretary Bird                                                 266
+
+  The Marsh Harrier                                                  269
+
+  The Goshawk                                                        272
+
+  The Sparrow-Hawk                                                   273
+
+  Hind View of Tarsus of Buzzard, showing the plated
+  arrangement of Scales--Hind View of Tarsus of Serpent Eagle,
+  showing the reticulated arrangement of Scales                      274
+
+  The Common Buzzard                                                 275
+
+  The Harpy                                                          276
+
+  The Bearded Eagle, or Lämmergeier                                  279
+
+  Eye of Eagle, showing Crystalline Lens                             280
+
+  The Golden Eagle                                                   282
+
+  The Bateleur Eagle                                                 285
+
+  The White-tailed Eagle                                             287
+
+  The Common Kite                                                    289
+
+  The Peregrine Falcon                                               292
+
+  A Hooded Falcon--Falcon’s Hood                                     293
+
+  The Common Kestrel                                                 295
+
+  The Osprey                                                         296
+
+  Skull of Tengmalm’s Owl                                            297
+
+  The Little Owl                                                     298
+
+  The Eagle Owl                                       _To face page_ 301
+
+  The Snowy Owl                                                      303
+
+  The Short-eared Owl                                                304
+
+  Face of the Barn Owl                                               305
+
+  Breast-bone of the Barn Owl                                        307
+
+  Cockatoos                                           _To face page_ 309
+
+  The Amazon Parrot                                                  311
+
+  Great Macaws                                        _To face page_ 313
+
+  The Grey Parrot                                                    313
+
+  The Rose-ringed Parrakeet                                          314
+
+  The Rosella                                                        316
+
+  The Owl Parrot                                                     317
+
+  The Lorikeet                                                       319
+
+  Tongue of Nestor                                                   320
+
+  The Kaka Parrot                                                    321
+
+  Skull of the Grey Parrot                                           323
+
+  The Common Cuckoo                                                  326
+
+  The Great Spotted Cuckoo                                           328
+
+  The Honey Guide                                                    329
+
+  The White-crested Plantain-eater                                   331
+
+  Colies                                                             333
+
+  “Hyoid” Bone of Adult Fowl--Side View of Dissection of Head
+  of Common Green Woodpecker                                         334
+
+  Upper View of Skull of Green Woodpecker--Dissection of Head
+  of Green Woodpecker, viewed from below                             335
+
+  The Wryneck                                                        336
+
+  The Great Black Woodpecker and Great Spotted Woodpecker _To
+  face page_                                                         337
+
+  The Green Woodpecker                                               337
+
+  The Toucan                                                         340
+
+  Bill of Toucan                                                     341
+
+  The Pearl-spotted Barbet                                           342
+
+  The Common Kingfisher                                              345
+
+  The Pied Kingfisher                                                348
+
+  The Laughing Jackass                                               350
+
+  The Great Hornbill                                                 352
+
+  The Ground Hornbills of Abyssinia                                  355
+
+  The Common Hoopoe                                                  358
+
+  The Australian Bee-eater--Bill of Motmot                           361
+
+  The Motmot                                                         362
+
+  Tail-feathers of Motmot                                            363
+
+  The Blue Roller                                                    365
+
+  The Long-tailed Trogon, or Quesal                   _To face page_ 367
+
+  Mouth of Goatsucker--The Oil-bird                                  368
+
+  The Common Goatsucker                                              369
+
+  The Whip-poor-will                                                 370
+
+  The Lyre-tailed Nightjar                                           371
+
+  Foot of the Common Goatsucker                                      372
+
+  The Common Swift                                                   373
+
+  The Tree Swift                                                     374
+
+  The Edible-nest Swiftlets                                          375
+
+  The White-throated Spine-tailed Swift                              376
+
+  The Sword-bill Humming Bird                                        377
+
+  The White-booted Racket Tail                                       378
+
+  The Common Topaz Humming Bird                                      379
+
+  The Crested Humming Bird                                           380
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: CHAMOIS.]
+
+
+
+
+CASSELL’S NATURAL HISTORY.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: WATER DEERLET, OR CHEVROTAIN.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ--SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES.
+
+  Ruminantia--Chewing the Cud--Metaphorical Expression--The
+  Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
+  Reed--Order of Events in Rumination--Feet and Dentition of
+  Ruminants--Brain--Classification--HORNED RUMINANTS--Divided into
+  two Groups--Difference between them--BOVIDÆ--Horns--Aberrant
+  Members--SHEEP AND GOATS--General Characteristics--Sheep of
+  South-Western Asia--Merino Sheep--Breeds of Great Britain--Dishley,
+  or Improved Leicesters--Mr. Bakewell’s Description--Southdowns,
+  Cheviots, Welsh, and other British Breeds--Table of the Importation
+  of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom--MARCO
+  POLO’S SHEEP--OORIAL--SHAPOO--MOUFLON--AMMON--BURHEL--AMERICAN
+  ARGALI--WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY--THE GOAT--Compared with
+  the Sheep--Descent--Cashmere Goat--IBEXES--PASENG--Their
+  remarkable Horns--Old Theories as to the Use of the
+  Horns--MARKHOOR--TAHR--GAZELLES--General Characteristics--Sir Victor
+  Brooke’s Classification--THE GAZELLE--Appearance--Habits--ARABIAN
+  GAZELLE--PERSIAN GAZELLE--SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE--GRANT’S
+  GAZELLE--SPRINGBOK--SAÏGA--CHIRU--THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA--THE INDIAN
+  ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK.
+
+
+The Swine, together with those animals which most nearly approach them,
+namely, the Peccaries and Hippopotami, form but a small division of the
+cloven-hoofed order of the Mammalian animals; by far the greater number
+of the species of the Artiodactyla being included in a group known
+familiarly as that of the Ruminantia, because, as part of the digestive
+process, they chew the cud.
+
+This chewing the cud is a phenomenon restricted to the group of animals
+now under consideration, although it may be mentioned that some
+naturalists have thought that the Kangaroos among the Marsupials do the
+same to a certain extent.
+
+As to the details of the process, the individual, a Cow, for instance,
+whilst grazing, nips off the grass between the large cutting teeth
+in the front of the lower jaw, and the tough pad which replaces in
+these creatures the similarly situated teeth of the upper jaw. After
+each mouthful it does not proceed to masticate the food, but swallows
+it forthwith, and continues thus to graze until it has satisfied its
+appetite. Seeking a quiet and shaded spot, it then seats itself that
+it may ruminate, or chew the cud, at leisure. If watched it will be
+seen that it commences shortly to perform a slight hiccough action, in
+which some contraction of the flanks is to be noticed. Its mouth, which
+was previously empty, is found to be full of what it is not difficult
+to recognise to be coarsely-masticated grass, which has been forced up
+into it; and this it immediately proceeds to chew between its back or
+grinding teeth, in a slow and continuous manner, moving its lower jaw
+uniformly from one side to the other--from right to left. When this
+chewing process has lasted for a time sufficient to convert the food
+into a pulpy state, it is again swallowed, after which another bolus
+is brought up to undergo a similar operation. And this is repeated at
+frequent intervals until most of the food swallowed has been masticated.
+
+A complicated stomach is necessary for the operation of this elaborate
+chewing process, the undisturbed duration of which has led to the word
+by which it is designated being applied metaphorically to a brooding
+condition of mind. Thus the poet of the “Night Thoughts” says:--
+
+[Illustration: STOMACH OF A RUMINATING ANIMAL: (A) EXTERIOR, (B)
+INTERIOR.]
+
+  “As when the traveller, a long day past
+  In painful search of what he cannot find,
+  At night’s approach, content with the next cot,
+  There ruminates awhile his labour lost.”
+
+This complicated stomach is not identical in all the Ruminantia. In the
+Camels and the Llamas it presents many points of difference from that
+of all the other members of the group, and in the Chevrotains it has
+slight peculiarities of its own.
+
+This organ, as found in the Ox--and it is almost identically the same
+in the Giraffes, the Antelopes, the Sheep, and Deer--is seen to be
+divided into four well-defined compartments, as represented in the
+accompanying figures. These are known as--
+
+    1. The Rumen, or Paunch (_b_).
+    2. The Reticulum, or Honey-comb Bag (_c_).
+    3. The Psalterium, or Manyplies (_d_).
+    4. The Abomasum, or Reed (_e_).
+
+The paunch (_b_) is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a
+blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base opens the
+œsophagus, or gullet (_a_), at a spot not far removed from its wide
+orifice of communication with the second stomach, or honey-comb bag
+(_c_). Its inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a pale skin
+(known as mucous membrane), which is beset with innumerable close-set,
+short, and slender processes (known as villi), resembling very much
+the “pile” on velvet. It is this organ, together with its villi, which
+constitutes the well-known article of food termed “tripe.”
+
+The honey-comb bag (_c_) is very much smaller than the paunch. It
+is nearly globose in shape, and receives its name on account of the
+peculiar arrangement of the ridges on the mucous membrane which lines
+it, these being distributed so as to form shallow hexagonal cells all
+over its inner surface, as seen in the figure on the previous page.
+
+It is situated to the right of the paunch, with which, as well as with
+the manyplies (_d_), it communicates. Running along its upper wall
+there is a deep groove coursing from the first to the third stomach.
+This groove plays an important part in the mechanism of rumination; its
+nature must therefore be fully understood.
+
+Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with which it is
+associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes it
+completely closes round so as to become converted into a tube by the
+apposition of its edges. At others it forms an open canal.
+
+The manyplies (_d_) is a very peculiar organ. It is globular, but most
+of its interior is filled up with folds, or laminæ, running between its
+orifices of communication with the second and fourth stomachs. These
+folds are arranged very much like the leaves of a book, and very close
+together. They are, however, not of equal depth, but form series of
+greater or less breadth. Their surfaces are roughened by the presence
+of small projections or papillæ.
+
+The reed (_e_) is the stomach proper, corresponding with the same
+organ in man. Its shape is somewhat conical. The valve which partially
+obstructs its communication with the intestine is at the left of the
+foregoing figure. Its walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane,
+which secretes gastric juice, and it is this stomach that, in the
+manufacture of cheese, is employed to curdle the milk.
+
+Whilst grazing, the possessor of this complicated stomach fills its
+paunch with the imperfectly masticated food, and it is not until it
+commences to chew the cud that any of the other parts are brought into
+play.
+
+In the act of rumination, the following is the probable order of
+events:--The paunch contracts, and in so doing forces some of the
+food into the honey-comb bag, where it is formed into a bolus by the
+movement of its walls, and then forced into the gullet, from which,
+by a reverse action, it reaches the mouth, where it is chewed and
+mixed with the saliva until it becomes quite pulpy, whereupon it
+is again swallowed. But now, because it is soft and semi-fluid, it
+does not divaricate the walls of the groove communicating with the
+manyplies, and so, continuing on along its tubular interior, it finds
+its way direct into the third stomach, most of it filtering between
+the numerous laminæ on its way to the fourth stomach, where it becomes
+acted on by the gastric juice. After the remasticated food has reached
+the manyplies, the groove in the reticulum is pushed open by a fresh
+bolus; and so the process is repeated until the food consumed has all
+passed on towards the abomasum, or true digestive stomach.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF A SHEEP.]
+
+There are other features also which are characteristic of the
+ruminating animals. Their symmetrical four-toed feet (in which the
+thumb on the fore and the great toe on the hind are entirely absent)
+have the toes so proportioned that the axis of the limb runs down
+between the two middle toes at the same time that both the inside and
+outside toes are much reduced in size, and lost entirely in the Camel
+tribe, the Giraffe, and the Cabrit.
+
+Another peculiarity which exists in all ruminating animals is the
+absence of cutting-teeth in the middle of the upper jaw; and it is only
+in the Camels and their intimate allies, the Llamas, that there are any
+upper cutting-teeth at all, they being replaced in all the others by a
+callous pad, on which the lower cutting-teeth impinge in mastication.
+
+The canine teeth, which correspond to the tusks of the Lion and Dog,
+also deserve attention. Those of the lower jaw are always present, and
+are modified so as to appear like lateral cutting-teeth. In the upper
+jaw they are most often absent, but are enormous, projecting far down
+outside the lip, in the Musk, the Chinese Water Deer, and the Muntjacs.
+In some other Deer they are present, but small, and generally they are
+wanting.
+
+The grinders are six on each side of each jaw, and are so formed that
+their surfaces wear down unevenly by the lateral movement to which
+they are subject during mastication. As in the Elephant, this depends
+upon each tooth being made up of alternate layers of enamel, dentine,
+and cementum, which, being of different degrees of hardness, are
+differently affected by the grinding action.
+
+The ruminating animals exhibit a fair amount of intelligence, never,
+however, attaining that power of perception and memory exhibited by
+the Carnivora and other higher forms. The figure of the surface of the
+brain of the Sheep indicates that the convolutions of the brain are far
+from inconsiderable in number, and its allies of the same size agree
+with it in this respect, whilst larger species have more, and smaller
+less elaborate brain-markings, as is nearly always found to be the case
+in every group.
+
+The accompanying table gives an outline sketch of the classification of
+the ruminating animals which has been adopted by zoologists:--
+
+  _Sub-order._      _Section._           _Division._        _Group._
+
+                                                          { Ox-tribe
+                                                          { (_Bovidæ_).
+                                    { HORNED RUMINANTS.   {
+                                    {                     { Deer-tribe
+                { TRUE RUMINANTS.   {                     { (_Cervidæ_).
+                {                   { CHEVROTAINS OR
+  RUMINANTIA.   {                   {  DEERLETS
+                { CAMEL TRIBE.      { (_Tragulidæ_).
+                { (_Tylopoda_).
+
+The large sub-order of the Ruminantia is seen to be primarily divided
+into two sections, namely, the typical Ruminants and the aberrant
+Ruminants (the _Tylopoda_). The typical Ruminants, in which the stomach
+is formed upon the plan of that described above in the Oxen, fall
+into two divisions, the smaller of which--that of the Chevrotains
+or Deerlets--possesses no psalterium, or third stomach, except in
+a rudimentary condition. The Horned Ruminants, including the Deer,
+Muntjacs, Elk, Oxen, and Antelopes, compose by far the largest number
+of the whole sub-order, and will be first described.
+
+
+HORNED RUMINANTS.
+
+The Horned Ruminants--with which, anomalous as it may at first
+seem, have to be included one or two hornless species, on account
+of their so closely resembling them in other respects--have their
+_cranial appendages developed after one or other of two principles_.
+In one group, which, from the fact that the Oxen are included with
+them, are named the _Bovidæ_, the horns are hollow, straight, or
+variously-twisted cones, supported upon bony prolongations from the
+forehead, resembling them in shape upon a smaller scale. These horns
+are permanent, except in the American Antelope, increasing in size each
+year, at the same time that they often exhibit transverse markings,
+which indicate the annual increase. In the other group--the _Cervidæ_,
+or Deer Tribe--the horns or antlers are deciduous, being cast off each
+year, to be shortly replaced by others, which share the fate of their
+predecessors. These antlers are entirely made of bone, and when fully
+grown are not covered with any less dense investment.
+
+To commence, then, with the _Bovidæ_, or Oxen, and their allies.
+
+
+THE BOVIDÆ, OR HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.
+
+In these ruminating animals the permanent bone-cones on the forehead
+are covered with a black horny coating, which is not shed during the
+whole life of their owners, and in which, as they continue to grow
+until adult life at least, the tips are the oldest parts. The females
+in some species have horns like their mates, but smaller, as in the
+Ox and Eland; while in others--the Koodoo and the Sing-Sing Antelope,
+for example--the males alone are horned. The most aberrant members of
+this group are the Giraffe, the Cabrit, and the Musk, which will be
+considered after the less peculiar genera have been discussed. These
+include the Oxen, Bush-Bucks, Antelopes, Koodoos, Goats, Sheep, &c.,
+which will be referred to more in detail.
+
+[Illustration: MERINO SHEEP.]
+
+
+THE SHEEP AND GOATS.[1]
+
+Between the bearded Goat and the beardless Sheep there exist
+intermediate species, which so completely fill up the gaps that it
+is almost impossible to separate the two into different genera. With
+triangular, curved, and transversely-ridged horns in both sexes,
+a characteristic general appearance, and feet formed for mountain
+climbing, the species present differences which are recognised with
+facility.
+
+With reference to the domestic Sheep, it is the opinion of most
+naturalists that it has descended from several distinct species. “Abel
+was a keeper of Sheep,” is a Biblical statement from which the immense
+antiquity of a domestic breed may be inferred, whose origin cannot
+be better studied than by a comparison of the different forms found
+wild in Asia, the head-quarters of the genus. That no Sheep existed
+in Australia when that continent was first discovered is a well-known
+fact.
+
+“Endowed by nature,” as Mr. Spooner, in his work on the Sheep aptly
+puts it, “with a peaceable and patient disposition, and a constitution
+capable of enduring the extremes of temperature, adapting itself
+readily to different climates, thriving on a variety of pastures,
+economising nutriment where pasturage is scarce, and advantageously
+availing itself of opportunities where food is abundant,” it is not to
+be wondered at that the animal has become the companion of man from the
+earliest times.
+
+The fleece of the wild species of Sheep is composed of hair with wool
+at its roots, in the same way that in the Duck there is a covering of
+feathers and down. In the domesticated species the hair, by selection,
+has been reduced to a minimum, so that the wool forms the only coat.
+
+In the southern parts of Western Asia many of the Sheep have a curious
+tendency to the deposition of fat on the tail rather than under the
+skin of the body generally, and this may occur to such an extent that
+the thus loaded caudal appendage may contain a large part of the entire
+weight of the body.
+
+The Astracan breed, of small size, has a fine spiral black and white
+wool, sometimes entirely black, which is obtained from the lamb when
+the finest furs are required.
+
+Of all the breeds of Sheep the Merino of Spain is one of the most
+important, on account of the excellence of its wool. In England the
+breed can hardly be said to exist, because the dampness of the climate
+does not suit its constitution. It is extensively found in Germany,
+and is _the_ Sheep of Australia. The animal is small, flat-sided, and
+long-legged. The males have long horns, these appendages being absent
+in the females. The face, ears, and legs are dark, and the forehead is
+woolly, at the same time that the skin about the throat is lax. The
+body-wool is close-set, soft, twisted in a spiral, and short.
+
+In Great Britain the breeds of Sheep are very numerous, some of the
+best being of quite recent origin. First among the heavy breeds are
+the Dishley, or Improved Leicesters, which, from their early maturity,
+aptness to fatten, smallness of bone, and gentle disposition, well
+deserve the high repute in which they stand. It is to the persevering
+energy and acuteness of Mr. Bakewell that we are indebted for the
+present animal, which in origin is far from pure bred. His aim was
+entirely in the direction of the carcass, and in his object he and
+his followers have quite succeeded, notwithstanding an inherent
+delicacy in constitution and an inferiority of the wool. “The head of
+this breed,” we are told, “should be hornless, long, small, tapering
+towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards; the eyes
+prominent, and with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long,
+and directed backwards; the neck full and broad at its base, where it
+proceeds from the chest, but gradually tapering towards the head, and
+being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck; the neck
+seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the
+slightest possible deviation, one continuous horizontal line from the
+rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad
+and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join
+either the neck or the back, particularly no rising of the withers or
+hollow behind the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy through its
+whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small,
+standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively
+bare of wool; the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs
+forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases--and
+especially when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent
+width of the chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed
+well home; no irregularity of line on the back or the belly, but on
+the sides, the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards
+the rump; the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the
+muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full;
+the legs of a moderate length; the pelt moderately thin, but soft and
+elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as
+in some breeds, but considerably finer.”
+
+The large-sized Lincoln Sheep, with lengthy fleece, those of the
+Cotswold Hills, the Teeswater, and Romney Marsh, are also heavy breeds,
+not equal in the totality of their points to the Improved Leicesters,
+although excelling them either in quantity of wool or hardiness of
+constitution.
+
+The Short-woolled Southdowns, with close-set fleece of fine wool, face
+and legs dusky brown, curved neck, short limbs, and broad body, is one
+of the oldest and most valuable unmixed breeds that we possess. Their
+mutton greatly excels that of the Improved Leicesters, which, taken
+in association with their other good qualities, has caused them to
+extend to nearly every county. In parts of Hampshire, Shropshire, and
+Dorsetshire there are local breeds of Short-woolled Sheep which replace
+the Southdowns.
+
+The Cheviot and the Black-faced, or Heath breed of our northern
+counties are mountain Sheep, of small size and hardy constitution, the
+former horned, the latter hornless and with a white face.
+
+Welsh mutton is obtained from the small, soft-woolled Sheep with a
+white nose and face. The rams alone have horns, wherein the breed
+differs from that of the higher mountains, in which the ewes also are
+horned, at the same time that a ridge of hair is present along the top
+of the neck.
+
+As wool forms so important an element of the mercantile transactions
+of Great Britain, and as Sheep-farming has so rapidly increased in
+Australia and New Zealand, a few words with reference to the statistics
+of the subject will not be out of place.
+
+In 1788, when Governor Phillip landed at Port Jackson, there was not a
+Sheep in all Australia, and it was not until 1793 that about thirty of
+the Indian breed reached Sydney, their number being shortly augmented
+by the importation of breeding-stock from England and the Cape of
+Good Hope, principally Merinos. The progeny soon spread towards the
+interior, where the growing of wool became a lucrative pursuit. Sheep
+were first imported into New Zealand in 1840. It is estimated there are
+now one hundred million sheep in Australia, and nearly thirty million
+in New Zealand.
+
+The following table of the number of bales of wool imported into Great
+Britain at twenty-year intervals, that is, in 1836, 1856, and 1876,
+gives a better idea than can be otherwise obtained as to the changes
+in the sources of wool as well as to the richness of each colonial
+district:--
+
+
+IMPORTATION OF COLONIAL AND FOREIGN WOOL INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM
+(IN BALES).
+
+    -------------------------------+----------+---------+----------
+                                   | =1836.=  | =1856.= |  =1876.=
+    -------------------------------+----------+---------+----------
+    New South Wales and Queensland | 19,066   | 59,342  |  169,874
+    Victoria                       | None     | 64,843  |  306,803
+    Tasmania                       | 15,449   | 17,951  |   20,480
+    South Australia                | None     | 16,618  |  102,067
+    West Australia                 | None     |  1,267  |    7,510
+    New Zealand                    | None     |  6,840  |  162,154
+                                   +----------+---------+----------
+      _Total Australasian_         | 34,515   |166,861  |  768,888
+    Cape of Good Hope              |  1,740   | 50,607  |  169,908
+                                   +----------+---------+----------
+      _Total Colonial_             | 36,255   |217,468  |  938,796
+                                   +----------+---------+----------
+    German                         | 90,426   | 22,272  |   29,580
+    Spanish and Portuguese         | 20,451   |  8,106  |    7,906
+    East Indian and Persian        |  1,981   | 45,236  |   86,678
+    Russian                        | 15,072   |  4,181  |   34,511
+    River Plate                 }  |          |  5,151 }|
+    Peru, Lima, and Chili       }  | 16,653 } | 52,477 }|
+    Alpaca                      }  |        } |        }|  118,593
+    Mediterranean and Africa       | 14,714   | 13,665 }|
+    Mohair                         |No returns| 13,515 }|
+    Sundry                         | 12,784   | 10,735 }|
+                                   +----------+---------+----------
+      _Total Foreign_              |172,081   | 175,338 |  277,268
+                                   +----------+---------+----------
+        TOTAL IMPORTATION          |=208,336= |=392,806=|=1,216,064=
+    -------------------------------+----------+---------+----------
+
+So much for the domestic Sheep; of other species of the genus _Ovis_
+we have Marco Polo’s Sheep.[2] This splendid Sheep, one of the finest
+species of the genus, has horns, describing a spiral of about a circle
+and a quarter when viewed from the side, pointing directly outwards,
+and sometimes measuring as many as sixty-three inches from base to tip
+along their curve, and as much as four and a half feet from tip to tip.
+At the shoulder the animal measures just under four feet. It inhabits
+the high lands in the neighbourhood of the lofty Thian Shan mountains,
+north of Kashgar and Yarkand, not descending below an elevation of
+9,000 feet above the sea level, often ascending much higher. It is on
+account of the rarefaction of the air in these regions that there is
+considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens which have been wounded,
+because Horses at these heights are much distressed in their breathing,
+whilst the Sheep are not so. Mr. N. A. Severtzoff, an eminent Russian
+naturalist, has described three or four other species closely allied to
+Marco Polo’s Sheep, which are smaller than it, from Turkestan and the
+district east of it. In this Sheep, during the winter, the sides of the
+body are of a light greyish-brown, changing to white below. There is a
+white mane all round the neck and a white disc round the tail. A dark
+line runs the whole length of the middle of the back. In summer the
+grey changes to dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: AMMON.]
+
+The OORIAL and the SHAPOO are bearded Sheep, from Ladakh and the
+Suliman range of the Punjab respectively, with large horns, which form
+not more than half a circle in the Shapoo and nearly a complete one in
+the Oorial. The colour of the Oorial is a reddish-brown above, paler
+beneath, the abdomen being white. A lengthy dark beard, reaching to the
+knees, fringes the whole length of the neck from the chin to the chest.
+The points of the horns are directed inwards. It is found at altitudes
+of 2,000 feet. The Shapoo is brownish-grey, white below, with a short
+brown beard. Its horns turn outwards at the tips. It is never found at
+altitudes lower than 12,000 feet.
+
+The MOUFLON at one time abounded in Spain, but is now restricted to
+the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The species is a small one, of a
+brownish-grey colour, with a dark streak along the middle of the back,
+at the same time that there is a varying amount of white about the face
+and legs. The horns, present in the males only, are proportionately not
+large, curve backwards and then inwards at the tips. The tail is very
+short, in which respect they differ strikingly from the domestic Sheep,
+to which otherwise they are intimately related. The Mouflon frequents
+the summits of its native hills in small herds, headed by an old ram.
+Its skin is used by the mountaineers for making jackets. It breeds
+freely with the domestic species.
+
+[Illustration: AMMON.]
+
+The AMMON of Tibet has been known to measure as much as four feet and
+an inch at the shoulder, and has a most imposing appearance on account
+of the erect attitude in which it holds its head. Its horns attain a
+great size, being sometimes as much as four feet long and twenty-two
+inches in circumference at their bases, forming a single sweep of
+about four-fifths of a circle, their points being turned slightly
+outwards and ending bluntly. Its body colour is dark brown above, paler
+posteriorly and below. A mane surrounds its neck, white in the male,
+dark brown in the female. The tail measures only an inch in length. In
+the female the horns do not exceed twenty-two inches in length.
+
+The BURHEL, or Himalayan “blue wild Sheep,” stands three feet at the
+shoulder, and has horns which, commencing very close together on the
+forehead, describe a half circle of two feet or so, and are directed
+very much outwards and backwards. In the female the horns do not exceed
+eight inches in length, and stand backward instead of diverging. The
+coarse fleece of winter is of an ashy-blue colour, which, in summer, is
+replaced by one that is much darker. The abdomen is white, and a black
+stripe runs along each side of the body, the front of the legs and the
+chest being also black. It has no beard.
+
+The AMERICAN ARGALI, or BIG-HORN, inhabits the range of the Rocky
+Mountains. Its height is three and a half feet at the shoulder. The
+horns form a complete circle, and are nearly three feet long in the
+male. They are said to come so far forward and downward that old rams
+find it impossible to feed on level ground. Its flesh is peculiarly
+well flavoured.
+
+The WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY, known also as the TRAGELAPHUS, is a large
+and handsome species, with a comparatively lengthy tail, tufted at
+its end. The hair on the chin is short, whilst that along the lower
+margin of the neck, as well as on the front of the knees, attains a
+great length. The horns are not massive, and hardly exceed two feet in
+length. They are black, and are directed outward as well as backward.
+
+
+THE GOATS.[3]
+
+Modern naturalists, as intermediate forms become more numerous, find
+much difficulty in separating off the Goats (which constitute the genus
+_Capra_ of earlier authors) from the Sheep (_Ovis_). In the Goats the
+horns are flattened from side to side, and rough in front and arched
+backwards, whilst in the Sheep they are more uniformly cylindrical,
+turned laterally, curling downwards, and often cork-screwed. A beard is
+a common addition to the former animal, and a most unpleasant odour is
+emitted by them.
+
+[Illustration: BARBARY WILD SHEEP.]
+
+The domestic Goat is almost certainly descended from the Paseng, or
+Ibex, of the mountains of Asia, with little or no admixture of other
+blood. In it, however, the female is bearded as well as the male, which
+is not the case with the Paseng. It has been subjugated from time
+immemorial, when the flesh of the kid was considered a delicacy. Its
+sure-footedness and its boldness are proverbial, as is its unpleasant
+odour. The power possessed by the species of ascending precipitate
+heights is marvellous. On more than one occasion it has been
+recorded--contrary to the teaching of Æsop--that whilst two individuals
+have met on a path too narrow for both to pass, one has lain down in
+order that the other might go over its back. With no great bulk of
+body; coarse hair of different lengths and tints, springing from out
+of a mass of much shorter wool; horns of varying size, but always
+out-turned at the tips; narrow ears, an almost entirely hair-covered
+nose; sight, hearing, and smell all acute; powerful thick-set legs, and
+a short tail naked below, it stands its own in mountainous and less
+civilised districts. Varieties occur with large pendulous instead
+of upright ears; others with extra horns, occasionally spiral as in
+Nepaul, or none at all. In the Angora and Cashmere breeds the hair is
+white.
+
+The Goat of Cashmere is famous on account of the long and very fine
+wool with which it is covered, which is employed in the manufacture
+of Cashmere shawls. It is said that the wool of ten of these Goats is
+required for the material of a single shawl.
+
+[Illustration: IBEX.]
+
+The IBEX is found in the Alpine heights of Europe and of Western Asia,
+including the Himalayas. The large scythe-blade-shaped horns of the
+male curve boldly upwards and backwards, diverging all the way. Along
+the front of their convex surfaces there is a series of protuberances
+or partial rings, which are only just indicated laterally. The largest
+specimens reach three feet and a half in height at the shoulder, which
+is a little less than the length their horns sometimes attain. The body
+colour is a yellowish-grey, white below, with a dark brown line along
+the middle of the back. The soft and close-set hair hides an under-fur
+still finer. The beard is black. European specimens are smaller than
+those from Asia, rarely exceeding two feet and a half in height, with
+horns three feet in length. The species inhabits the most precipitous
+and dangerous parts of mountain regions, and is wonderfully sure-footed.
+
+The PASENG is the wild Goat of Western Asia; it is also found on the
+northern side of the Caucasus and in some of the islands of the Ægean.
+In height the male measures two feet and three-quarters at the withers,
+the female being nearly six inches less. In the male the horns may
+measure as much as four feet in length. They are flattened, slender,
+curved backwards as part of a large circle, having their points turned
+sometimes inwards, so much so as now and again to cross, whilst at
+others they are directed outwards. Along their anterior edges are
+protuberances, separated by a greater distance as they approach the
+tips, indicative of the age of the animal, as after the third year a
+fresh knob is formed in each succeeding one. Mr. Danford, who has made
+a special study of the species, remarks, with reference to the reputed
+use to which their owners turn their immense cranial appendages, that
+“regarding the use of the great horns carried by the Ibex family,
+the general idea among the older authors was that they were employed
+to break the animal’s fall in leaping from a height. Pennant relates
+that Monardes was witness to the wild Goat saving itself in this way;
+and Gesner says: ‘Cadens ab alto totum corpus inter cornua protegit a
+collisione et ictus lapidum magnorum excipit cornibus!’[4] This view
+is confirmed by Mr. Hutton, whose tame Aegagrus [Paseng] repeatedly
+used his horns for this purpose. I made many inquiries among the
+native hunters, and they all agreed in saying that the horns were
+never so used, or for any purpose except fighting; and the result of
+my own observations is, that during the leap the head is carried as
+far back as possible, though it may be that the situations in which I
+observed the animals did not necessitate the employment of the horns
+in the way referred to.” The horns of the female are not more than a
+foot long, the knobs being almost obsolete. Unlike its consort, also,
+it has no beard. The general colour of the species is grey, shaded
+with reddish-brown. A blackish-brown line extends from the similarly
+coloured forehead along the spine.
+
+[Illustration: MARKHOOR.]
+
+The MARKHOOR, or “Serpent Eater,” of North-east India and Cashmere,
+is a fine Goat of larger size than the Ibex, with much-flattened
+triangular horns, which, while running upwards from the head, are
+spiral and attain an immense size, sometimes as much as five feet along
+their curve. The spiral twist is much more open in some specimens than
+in others, depending on the locality in which they are found. The body
+colour is a dirty light blue-grey, the lengthy beard being of a darker
+colour. It inhabits very similar localities to the Ibexes and is very
+shy.
+
+The TAHR of the Himalayas is a not common Goat, with small horns curved
+directly backwards, not much more than a foot in length, flattened
+from side to side, with a notched anterior margin. The body colour
+is a fawn-brown; the hair of the neck, chest, and shoulders being of
+great length and reaching to the knees. In the female the horns are
+much smaller and of lighter colour. According to Captain Kinloch,
+“the Tahr is, like the Markhoor, a forest-loving animal, and although
+it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally
+prefers the steep slopes which are more or less clothed with trees.
+Female Tahr may be frequently found on open ground, but old males hide
+a great deal in the thickest jungle, lying during the heat of the day
+under the shade of trees or overhanging rocks. Nearly perpendicular
+hills, with dangerous precipices, where the forest consists of oak and
+ringall cane, are the favourite haunts of the old Tahr, who climb with
+ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal could
+find a footing. Tahr ground, indeed, is about the worst walking I know,
+almost rivalling Markhoor ground; the only advantage being that, bad as
+it is, there are generally some bushes or grass to hold on to.”
+
+
+THE GAZELLES.[5]
+
+Under the title of Gazelles are included several strikingly elegant,
+small, slender, sandy-coloured species of ruminating animals, in which
+the males always, and the females in most cases, carry horns, which
+are transversely ringed, and vary considerably in the direction which
+they take, many having them curved in such a way that the two together
+form a lyre-shaped figure, at the same time that in others they are
+nearly straight, turned slightly backwards or forwards, and diverging
+or converging at the tips. Where present, the horns of the females are
+more slender than in the corresponding males.
+
+The Gazelles inhabit Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and Central Asia
+only. They rarely exceed thirty inches in height at the shoulder; the
+largest, the Swift Antelope of Pennant (_Gazella mohr_), reaching
+nearly three feet. In all the Gazelles the face is marked with a white
+band running from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down
+to the upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central
+patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line. The under
+surface of the abdomen is white, and there is a dark line traversing
+the flank which bounds this. The rump is also white, which in many
+cases encroaches more or less upon the haunches.
+
+Of the twenty species of Gazelles known to naturalists, only a few
+of the best known will be specially mentioned here. By Sir Victor
+Brooke they have been thus arranged, in accordance with certain easily
+ascertained distinctive features in coloration and shape of horn:--
+
+  I.--BACK UNSTRIPED.
+
+    A. _The white colour of the rump not encroaching on the fawn colour
+       of the haunches._
+
+    _a. Both sexes bearing horns._
+
+    1. HORNS LYRATE OR SEMI-LYRATE.
+
+    The Gazelle (Arabia and N.E. Africa).
+    Isabelline Gazelle (Kordofan).
+    Korin (Senegal).
+    Sundevall’s Gazelle (Sennaar).
+    Black-tailed Gazelle (Bogosland).
+
+    2. HORNS NOT LYRATE.
+
+    Cuvier’s Gazelle (Morocco).
+    Small-horned Gazelle (Sennaar).
+    Speke’s Gazelle (Somali Country).
+    Muscat Gazelle (Muscat).
+    Arabian Gazelle (S. Arabia).
+    Bennett’s Gazelle (India).
+    Dusky-faced Gazelle (Persia).
+
+    _b. Females hornless._
+
+    Persian Gazelle.
+    Mongolian Gazelle.
+    Ladakh Gazelle.
+
+    B. _The white colour of the rump projects forward in an angle into
+       the fawn colour of the haunches._
+
+    Dama Antelope (S. Nubia).
+    Swift Antelope (Senegal).
+    Soemmerring’s Antelope (E. Africa).
+    Grant’s Gazelle (Ugogo).
+
+
+  II.--BACK WITH A MEDIAN WHITE STRIPE.
+
+    Spring-bok (S. Africa).
+
+The GAZELLE _par excellence_, from Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, stands
+scarcely two feet high. The elegance of its proportions are too well
+known to need description. The beauty of its eyes is not to be
+compared with that of some of the other ruminating animals, the whole
+face being far too sheep-like, and this remark equally applies to all
+its near allies. The Dorcas Gazelle is a name by which it is also
+known. Like many other members of the genus, it has a tuft of hair
+upon each knee. The tail is long and tapering; the body hair rather
+coarse and of a pale fawn colour. The hips, as well as the breast and
+the abdomen, are white. As to their habits, Mr. Blanford, in his work
+on Abyssinia, tells us that, so far as his observation went, “neither
+the Dorcas nor Bennett’s Gazelle is ever seen in large flocks, like
+the animals of the Spring-bok group. Usually both are seen solitary,
+or from two to five together, inhabiting thin bushes generally on
+broken ground. They feed much upon the leaves of bushes. The male has a
+peculiar habit, when surprised, of standing still and uttering a short,
+sharp cry. Like most Antelopes, they keep much to the neighbourhood
+of some particular spot. After long observation, I am convinced that
+Bennett’s Gazelle never drinks; and all that I could ascertain of the
+Dorcas Gazelle leads to the same conclusion in its case.”
+
+[Illustration: DORCAS GAZELLE.]
+
+Captain Baldwin says that, “like other Antelopes, the little Ravine
+Deer [by which is meant Bennett’s Gazelle] has many enemies besides
+man. One day, when out with my rifle, I noticed an old female Gazelle
+stamping her feet, and every now and then making that ‘hiss’ which
+is the alarm-note of the animal. It was not I that was the cause of
+her terror, for I had passed close to her only a few minutes before,
+and she seemed to understand by my manner that I meant no harm. No;
+there was something else. I turned back, and on looking down a ravine
+close by, saw a crafty Wolf attempting a stalk on the mother and young
+one. Another day, at Agra, a pair of Jackals joined in the chase of a
+wounded Buck.
+
+“The Chikarah [again another name for Bennett’s Gazelle] is as easily
+tamed as the common Antelope; they are favourite pets, and become
+strongly attached to those who rear and feed them. I have seen tame
+ones driven out with a herd of Goats to graze, and never attempt to
+make their escape. It is not at all unusual to find the wild Gazelles
+feeding close to, sometimes almost mingling with, herds of Goats, when
+the latter have been driven out to pasture.... Like all Antelopes, the
+eyesight of the Chikarah is very acute, and the animal is perpetually
+on the watch against danger. It, however, appears to be gifted with
+only a moderate sense of hearing, and still less so of smell.”
+
+THE ARABIAN, OR ARID GAZELLE, is the same size as the preceding,
+differing, as may be gathered from the table given on page 13, in the
+shape of its horns, which, from being directed upwards and outwards,
+turn at their tips more outward and also forward. The speed of the
+Gazelle, like that of most of its allies, is very great; its eyes are
+large and lustrous, and its general colour a rich yellowish-brown.
+
+The PERSIAN GAZELLE stands twenty-six inches. Its body colour is grey
+fawn colour, the breast and abdomen being white. Of its habits, Major
+St. John says that, “like the wild Ass, it especially affects the
+neighbourhood of the salt deserts. It appears to retire generally to
+the valleys at the base of hills to breed, and is most commonly seen in
+small parties of three to half a dozen. The fleetest Greyhound cannot
+come up with the Gazelle when it gets a fair start; but when suddenly
+roused from a hollow, or when the ground is heavy after rain, good Dogs
+will often pull down males. The does are more difficult to catch.”
+
+[Illustration: SAÏGA.]
+
+SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE stands two feet and a half high. The body colour
+is sandy fawn above; the horns are massive and lyrate, more slender in
+the female. It lives in pairs, and is a powerful species.
+
+The horns of GRANT’S GAZELLE are larger than in any other of the
+species.
+
+The SPRING-BOK derives its name from the habit it has of leaping
+straight up in the air for several feet when alarmed or whilst running.
+Its height is two feet and a half. The horns are lyrate, being very
+small in the females. Its colour is yellow dun, with the under parts,
+as usual, white. A peculiar white line along the middle of the back can
+be varied in extent within certain limits by the animal at pleasure.
+Major C. Hamilton Smith, when writing of this species, tells us that
+it assembles in South Africa in vast herds, “migrating from north to
+south and back with the monsoons. These migrations, which are said to
+take place in the most numerous form only at the interval of several
+years, appear to come from the north-east, and in masses of many
+thousands, devouring, like locusts, every green herb. The Lion has been
+seen to migrate and walk in the midst of the compressed phalanx, with
+only as much room between him and his victims as the fears of those
+immediately around could procure by pressing outwards. The foremost of
+these vast columns are fat, and the rear exceedingly lean while the
+direction continues one way; but with the change of the monsoon, when
+they return towards the north, the rear become the leaders, fattening
+in their turn.”
+
+The SAÏGA[6] and CHIRU[7] differ from the Gazelles but slightly, and
+approach the Sheep; the former belonging to Eastern Europe and Western
+Asia, the latter to Tibet.
+
+The Saïga is as large as a Fallow Deer, tawny yellow in summer, light
+grey in winter; being specially peculiar about the nose which is much
+lengthened, at the same time that the nostrils are expanded to such a
+degree that in feeding they have to walk backwards. The horns, found
+only in the males, are not a foot long, slightly lyrate, and annulated.
+In its native haunts--which are barren, sandy, and salt--it assembles
+frequently in vast herds. It runs rapidly when pursued, but is soon
+exhausted.
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN ANTELOPE.]
+
+The CHIRU is slightly smaller, of a reddish fawn colour, with the face
+and front of the limbs black. The slender jet-black horns, very small
+in the female, are ringed nearly to the tips, curved forward, and about
+two feet long. From Captain Kinloch’s account we learn that “in the
+early part of the summer the Antelope appears to keep on the higher and
+more exposed plains and slopes where snow does not lie; as the season
+becomes warmer, the snow which has accumulated on the grassy banks
+of the streams in the sheltered valleys begins to dissolve, and the
+Antelope then comes down to feed on the grass which grows abundantly
+in such places, and then is the time that they may most easily be
+stalked and shot. They usually feed only in the mornings and evenings,
+and in the day-time seek more open and elevated situations, frequently
+excavating deep holes in the stony plains in which they live, with only
+their heads and horns visible above the surface of the ground.”
+
+
+THE PALLAH.[8]
+
+THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA, of South and South-east Africa, is another
+closely-allied form of large size, being more than three feet high at
+the shoulder. Its colour is dark red above, yellow dun on the sides,
+and white below. There are no false hoofs in the usual situation on
+the lengthy legs: a peculiarity which it shares with the Cabrit and
+the Giraffe. The eyes are very large and liquid. The horns, wanting in
+the female, are twenty inches long in the male, and lyrate; they are
+ringed nearly to their tips. They are abundant on or near to hills,
+and collect in herds of from twenty to thirty. Mr. Drummond, vividly
+describing his South African experience, on an occasion whilst hunting
+Buffalo, “saw something red moving among the trees, and stopped to
+watch it. It turned out to be a troop of Impalla coming back from water
+and making for some of the grassy glades. There might have been seventy
+or eighty of them, picking their way along in Indian file, nibbling
+here and there, but always moving, and seeming like a troop of ghosts
+in the dim twilight and silence.”
+
+
+THE INDIAN ANTELOPE.[9]
+
+THE INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK.--This species differs but little
+from the Gazelles in many respects, whilst its peculiarities are
+striking. Like the Nylghau, the male differs greatly from the female in
+its colour. The female has no horns; those in the male are black and of
+great size, spirally twisted for three or four turns like a corkscrew,
+slightly divergent, and often reaching thirty inches in length. It
+stands a little over two feet and a half at the shoulder. The colour of
+the males is deep brown-black above, with an abrupt line of separation
+from the pure white of the belly. This dark colour extends down the
+outer surface of each limb. The face is also black, with a white circle
+round the eyes and nose. In the females and young of both sexes the
+black and brown are replaced by a light fawn colour. The tail is very
+short and white below. At certain seasons of the year the glands below
+the eyes are much enlarged and form a prominent feature in the face of
+the male.
+
+The Black Buck is one of the swiftest of the Antelopes, no Greyhound
+having any chance against it. Its flesh, being dry and unsavoury, is
+rarely eaten. The species falls a frequent prey to the Tiger, and is
+generally found in herds, fifty does, or so, accompanied by a single
+buck. The height to which they can bound is very great. According to
+Major C. Hamilton Smith, the native Indians “have raised the common
+Antelope among the constellations, harnessed it to the chariot of the
+moon, and represented it as the quarry of the gods. In the opinion of
+Hindoos the animal is sacred to Chandra, female devotees and minstrels
+lead it, domesticated, by the harmony of their instruments, or the
+power of their prayers, and holy Brahmins are directed to feed upon
+their flesh, under certain circumstances prescribed by the _Institutes
+of Menu_.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ (_continued_)--ANTELOPES.
+
+  THE STEINBOKS: KLIPSPRINGER, OUREBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK, MADOQUA--THE
+  BUSH-BUCKS--Appearance--Distinctive Marks--THE FOUR-HORNED
+  ANTELOPES--Peculiarity in the Chikarah--THE WATER ANTELOPES:
+  NAGOR, REITBOK, LECHÈ, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU,
+  REH-BOK--THE ELAND--Beef--Appearance--Captain Cornwallis Harris’
+  Description--Hunting--Scarcity--THE KOODOO--Appearance--King of
+  Antelopes--ANGAS’ HARNESSED ANTELOPE--THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES:
+  GUIB--BUSH BUCK, OR UKOUKA--Appearance--Pluck--THE BOVINE
+  ANTELOPES--THE BUBALINE--HARTEBEEST--BLESBOK--BONTEBOK--SASSABY--THE
+  GNU--Grotesque Appearance--Habits--BRINDLED
+  GNU--THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES--SEROW--Ungainly
+  Habits--GORAL--CAMBING-OUTAN--TAKIN--MAZAMA--THE
+  CHAMOIS--Distribution--Appearance--Voice--Hunted--THE
+  ORYXES--BLAUBOK--SABLE ANTELOPE--BAKER’S
+  ANTELOPE--ORYX--BEISA--BEATRIX--GEMSBOK--ADDAX.
+
+
+THE STEINBOKS.
+
+THE KLIPSPRINGER, the OUREBI, the STEINBOK, and the GRYSBOK form a
+small section of the African Antelopes, elegant and small, with horns
+only in the males, these being straight, or nearly so. Their body hair
+is harsh. The Klipspringer stands a little under two feet high; it is
+the heaviest in build of the four; its horns are four inches long and
+curved a little forward. Its colour is olive. It lives singly or in
+pairs, in mountainous districts, and it was at one time so abundant in
+the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope that its hair was employed
+to stuff saddles with.
+
+The Ourebi, in height and length of horn, resembles the last-mentioned
+species. Its build is very delicate, its general colour being a
+tawny yellow, white below. Its speed is very great. According to Mr.
+Drummond, “its peculiar colour so much resembles the soil on which
+it lies that, trusting to remain unobserved, it often allows you to
+get within fifteen or twenty yards of where it is squatting. It is a
+handsome and peculiarly graceful Antelope, extremely good eating, and
+well worth the hunter’s attention. One thing he should bear in mind is,
+that however slightly they may be wounded, they will go and lie down
+within a few hundred yards, if not chased by a Dog, and will in such
+cases very generally allow him to get within shot again.” The Steinbok
+is twenty inches high, with straight horns four inches long, large
+ears, and a mere stump of a tail. Its colour is red-brown, white below.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF FEMALE BUSH-BUCK.]
+
+The Grysbok, with the same measurement, is chocolate-red.
+
+The MADOQUA of Abyssinia is not bigger than a Hare, standing fourteen
+inches high, the slender legs being comparatively long. The horns,
+present only in the males, are not more than half the length of the
+head, being nearly straight, and curved a little forward. The tail is
+a mere stump. The back is reddish-brown, the sides grey; the face,
+together with a peculiar tuft between the horns, is red, as are the
+legs. The under parts are white.
+
+
+THE BUSH-BUCKS.[10]
+
+The Bush-bucks form a clearly-defined group of small Antelopes peculiar
+to tropical and Southern Africa. They are also known by sportsmen as
+Duykers, or Bush-goats. They are characterised by the possession of
+horns in the male sex, which are short, straight, and simple cones,
+very much depressed, or slanting backwards, and rising some distance
+behind the eyes; at the same time that there is a tuft of lengthy
+hair, directed backwards, which is arranged in a kind of horseshoe
+shape between the ears. The crumen or gland in front of each eye is
+also peculiar. Instead of it being a sac with a circular opening, it
+is spread out in the form of a curved line, and not contracted to form
+an orifice at all. This feature, which is not observed in any other
+animal, may be seen in the drawing of the head of the female Bush-buck.
+The muffle, or extremity of the nose, is much like that of the Ox,
+comparatively large and always moist. The tail is very short, whilst
+the ears are of a fair size and oval in form. The legs are particularly
+slender and delicate, terminated by minute hoofs. In most the forehead
+is strongly convex. The coloration of the many species is not striking,
+being a uniform red-brown, dark bluish-grey, or sooty-black. The
+smallest of the species, the Pigmy Bush-buck, is not bigger than a
+Rabbit, and might at first sight, especially the female, be mistaken
+for a Deerlet. According to Mr. Drummond, “it feeds principally on
+certain berries and shrubs found growing in the jungles, and seems to
+be on the move, more or less, the whole day, though, in common with
+the rest of the animal creation, it is most often to be seen at early
+morning and evening.”
+
+Of the Bush-bucks, the Philantomba, of West Africa, is grey-brown; the
+Blau-bok, of Southern Africa, a bluish-grey; the Duyker-bok, of South
+Africa, a yellowish-brown; the Coquetoon, a deep reddish-bay; the Bay
+Antelope, of West Africa, a dark bay, whilst there are other species
+black, brown, &c.
+
+[Illustration: WATER-BUCK.]
+
+
+THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES.[11]
+
+In India and Tibet there are two peculiar species of small Antelopes,
+the true Four-horned and the Brown Indian Antelope. In the former of
+these, known also as the Chikarah, different from what is found as a
+natural condition in any other living animal, there are two pairs of
+well-developed horns; the hinder, which are the larger, being five
+inches long, in the usual situation; the smaller, an inch and a half
+long, are close together not far behind the eyes. In the Brown Indian
+Antelope the anterior pair of horns are rudimentary, and nothing more
+than knobs. All these horns are straight and conical. Neither species
+is common. Their size is about that of the Arabian Gazelle; their
+colour a reddish-brown, becoming lighter below; the hair is coarse;
+the female is hornless. Captain Kinloch says of them that “four-horned
+Antelopes are generally found alone, or frequently in pairs; they
+conceal themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and somewhat
+resemble hares in their habits. They are seldom to be seen out feeding,
+but usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away at a great
+pace.”
+
+
+THE WATER ANTELOPES.[12]
+
+The NAGOR, the REITBOK, the LECHÈ, the AEQUITOON, the SING-SING, and
+the WATER-BUCK are closely allied African Antelopes, with good-sized
+horns (only present in the males), which are transversely wrinkled,
+curved forwards, and a little inwards at the tips. Most of them are
+water-loving animals, and abound in marshy districts on the banks of
+rivers.
+
+The Nagor is a little more than two feet and a half in height at the
+shoulder, the horns being six inches long, and the tail ten inches. The
+colour of the long, loose hair is fulvous-brown above, white below. The
+Reitbok is of a grizzly ochreate colour. Its height is nearly three
+feet, the horns being twelve inches long. According to Dr. Kirk, the
+species is “commonly found feeding in small herds; in the heat of the
+day it rests in long grass, and may be approached within fifty yards
+before starting. It seldom runs far without stopping to look round.
+Before again making off it gives a shrill whistle, as it does often
+when first started. Should the female have young unable to run far, and
+danger near, she places her foot on the shoulder and presses it to the
+ground; after which it never moves until almost trodden upon, and is
+expected to remain in the same spot until the return of the mother.”
+The Lechè is of a pale brown colour above and white below. Sir John
+Kirk says it “is a water Antelope, frequenting damp, marshy places,
+and taking to impassable swamps, among reeds and papyrus. It goes in
+considerable herds, accompanied by several males, mingling often with
+the ‘Poku,’ another Antelope peculiar to that region (the valley of
+the Zambesi). In the distance the Lechè may be known by the peculiar
+way in which it allows its horns to recline back, almost touching the
+withers.” The POKU, Vardon’s Antelope of Livingstone, is smaller than
+the Lechè, and thicker in the neck; otherwise it closely resembles it.
+
+[Illustration: ELAND.]
+
+The Sing-sing Antelope and Water-buck are much alike, the former
+wanting a white elliptical patch, which is found near the base of the
+tail in the latter. The body colour is a greyish-brown. Long hair on
+the neck produces a mane. At the shoulder they stand four feet six
+inches, and the pale horns are two feet and a half long. “The Water
+Antelope,” says Mr. Drummond, “is an extremely fine animal, and so
+plentiful that there are, perhaps, more of them shot than of any of
+the other large Antelopes. The large ringed horns which, in the male,
+crown its brow, bear a strong resemblance to those of the Reedbuck
+[Reitbok], while the habits and general appearance of both species are
+almost identical. Both frequent thickets and reedy places near water,
+and are principally found in pairs or small groups. The hair of the
+species [of Water-buck] inhabiting Eastern Africa is very long and
+coarse, though that of the one found in Central Africa [the Sing-Sing]
+is remarkably soft, and is highly prized by the natives as being so.”
+
+The REH-BOK of South Africa, “though almost approaching a Fallow Deer
+in size, more nearly,” says Mr. Drummond, “resembles a Chamois in
+other particulars; indeed, it has been called the African Chamois,
+and so far deserves the title, that it certainly possesses many of
+the characteristics and habits of the European species--decidedly
+more so than any other of the Antelope genus found in South Africa,
+with the exception of the Klipspringer. Their colour is light grey,
+the hair being somewhat long and coarse, and the horns are straight
+[bent forwards at the tips], and by no means unusually large for the
+animal’s size. They are never found but on the bare hills, among rocks
+and stones, and their powers of springing are wonderful. It seems
+extraordinary how their delicate limbs escape injury, when they take
+bound after bound like an indiarubber ball, in places that a Cat would
+shudder at.” According to Major C. H. Smith, “it is an animal of great
+swiftness, moving with wonderful rapidity by lengthened stretches,
+close to the ground, so as to seem to glide over the desert like a mist
+driven by the winds, and, favoured by the indistinct colours of the
+fur, is immediately out of sight. The Bushmen and western tribes [of
+South Africa] make lance-heads, awls, and other tools of the horns, and
+occasionally cloaks of their skins for the women.”
+
+
+THE ELAND.[13]
+
+This fine species attains to the size of an Ox, the bull standing six
+feet and a half at the withers. Attempts have within the last few years
+been made to breed it in England for the sake of its flesh, which is
+as good as the best beef. It is, however, found to be impossible to
+get the price sufficiently low for market purposes. Two varieties are
+known, one of a pale fawn colour from Central Africa, the other, from
+South Africa, of a bright yellow tan colour, marked transversely with
+narrow white lines, about fifteen in number, running from a black
+line which goes along the back, to the belly. These marks are present
+in all young individuals, and disappear or fade considerably in the
+adults. The full-grown bull has a broad tuft of lengthy slight brown
+hair on the forehead, between and in front of the horns, which are
+situated some distance behind the eyes, being straight, a foot and a
+half in length, and at their bases carrying a thick and conspicuous
+screw-like ridge which extends in some cases nearly to their ends. In
+the females the horns are never quite so large as in the males. A large
+dewlap hangs from the throats of the bulls, whilst a dark, short mane
+continues from the forehead backwards. The tail is about two feet and a
+quarter in length, with a large tuft of brown hair at its end.
+
+According to Captain W. Cornwallis Harris, “in size and shape the body
+of the male Eland resembles that of a well-conditioned Guzerat Ox,
+not unfrequently attaining the height of nineteen hands, and weighing
+two thousand pounds. The head is strictly that of an Antelope, light,
+graceful, and bony, with a pair of magnificent straight horns, about
+two feet in length, spirally ringed, and pointed backwards. A broad and
+deep dewlap fringed with brown hair reaches to the knee. The colour
+varies considerably with the age, being dun in some, in others an ashy
+blue with a tinge of ochre; and in many also sandy-grey approaching
+to white. The flesh is esteemed by all classes in Africa above that
+of any other animal; in grain and colour it resembles beef, but is
+better tasted and more delicate, possessing a pure game flavour, and
+the quantity of fat with which it is interlarded is surprising, greatly
+exceeding that of any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted.
+The female is smaller and of slighter form, with less ponderous horns.”
+
+When writing on the hunting of these creatures, known in South Africa
+as the _Impoofo_, the same author remarks that, “notwithstanding the
+unwieldy shape of these animals, they had at first greatly exceeded the
+speed of our jaded horses, but being pushed they soon separated; their
+sleek coats turned first blue and then white with froth; the foam fell
+from their mouths and nostrils, and the perspiration from their sides.
+Their pace gradually slackened, and with their full brilliant eyes
+turned imploring towards us, at the end of a mile, each was laid low by
+a single bullet.”
+
+With reference to these animals, the Hon. W. H. Drummond tells us
+that “more Eland are killed from horseback than on foot; for as it is
+utterly out of the question to make a practice of running them down,
+and as they generally inhabit the treeless flats, where they cannot,
+except by chance, be stalked, while the uncertainty of their movements
+and their keeping out of cover render it impossible to find them, like
+the large animals, by the aid of their spoor, some more certain method
+is needed than the chance meetings which occur to the hunter when in
+pursuit of other game, more especially as their hide is held in great
+repute by the Dutch colonists, who make trek-tows for their wagons, and
+reins for their oxen from it, even preferring it to that of a Buffalo.
+The demand thus induced has so diminished their numbers as to have
+restricted this noble Antelope to a few favoured localities, even in
+which it is becoming more scarce every day, while not many years ago it
+formed a component part of almost every landscape in the southern and
+eastern portions of Africa.”
+
+
+THE KOODOO.[14]
+
+[Illustration: KOODOO.]
+
+This is one of the handsomest of all the Antelopes. It is more slender
+in build and smaller than the Eland, which it somewhat resembles. The
+horns are about four feet long, and form most graceful open spirals
+like corkscrews, there being a ridge along their whole length. The
+females are hornless. The ear is large and trumpet-shaped, moved at
+the slightest noise towards its source. The eyes are large and liquid.
+The body colour is slaty-grey, with transverse white markings, like
+those on the striped variety of the Eland. A small mane extends along
+the neck and withers, and another from the chin to the throat and
+breast. The tail is of moderate length, and hairy. This species is most
+abundant in Southern Africa, but it extends as high as Abyssinia. It is
+able to travel with very great speed, and makes prodigious bounds. It
+stands about five feet in height at the shoulders.
+
+“Majestic in its carriage,” writes Captain Harris, with all the
+enthusiasm of a true sportsman, “and brilliant in its colour, this
+species may with propriety be styled the king of the tribe. Other
+Antelopes are stately, elegant, or curious, but the solitude-seeking
+Koodoo is absolutely regal! The ground colour is a lively French grey
+approaching to blue, with several transverse white bands passing over
+the back and loins: a copious mane, and deeply fringed, tricoloured
+dewlap, setting off a pair of ponderous yet symmetrical horns,
+spirally twisted, and exceeding three feet in length. These are thrown
+along the back as the stately wearer dashes through the mazes of the
+forest or clambers the mountain-side. The old bulls are invariably
+found apart from the females, which herd together in small troops, and
+are destitute of horns.”
+
+
+ANGAS’ HARNESSED ANTELOPE.[15]
+
+This elegant animal, much like the Koodoo in its proportions, stands
+three feet four inches high at the shoulders. In the male, which alone
+bears horns, these appendages are nearly two feet long, twisted and
+sub-lyrate, having sharply-pointed tips of a pale straw colour, their
+other parts being of a brownish-black, deeply ridged for half their
+length from their bases. The colour of the body is greyish-black,
+tinged with purplish-brown and ochre, white transverse stripes, like
+those of the Koodoo, being present on the neck, flanks, and cheeks.
+A black mane courses down the neck, whilst from the neck and belly
+depends long shaggy hair in abundance, reaching to the knees. The ears
+are large, and the face is of a bright sienna-brown. The tail is one
+foot eight inches long, black above, with under side and tip white. The
+female is small, and of a bright rufous colour, with transverse stripes
+more numerous than in the male.
+
+This species is found in troops of eight or ten together, feeding on
+the mimosa bushes in the Zulu country. Closely allied to it is a second
+from Central Africa, which is of a dull bay, nearly uniform, colour,
+the horns reaching thirty inches in length. It is known as Speke’s
+Antelope.
+
+
+THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES.[16]
+
+The HARNESSED ANTELOPES proper are all of small size, the elegant GUIB
+not being larger than a Goat, its proportions being infinitely more
+delicate. It is of a pale bay colour, and the distinct transverse white
+streaks, running down from the middle of its back with connecting
+bands, have given the origin to its name.
+
+The BUSH BUCK differs in wanting any body stripes. It is also African.
+Writing of it, Mr. Drummond remarks that the Bush Buck, “the male of
+whom is known as the ‘Ukouka,’ and the female as the ‘Umbabala,’ and
+which differ so greatly that experience is necessary to teach one that
+they are of the same species, is undoubtedly the finest in every way of
+all the Antelopes, whether found in the [Cape] Colonies or interior,
+that are known to the hunter as ‘small game.’ In size it resembles
+a full-grown Fallow Buck, weighing, according to age and condition,
+from nine to thirteen stone; its colour is a dark reddish-brown,
+often verging into black, and with indistinct markings on the sides,
+haunches, and legs; it has a great deal of hair, and a considerable
+mane, while the neck, which is thick out of all proportion, is nearly
+bare. The last mentioned peculiarity detracts from the otherwise
+graceful outlines of its body, the more so, perhaps, from the head
+being so finely shaped and small. The horns are nearly straight, rough,
+and ringed for about three inches from their base, and then taper away,
+smooth and polished, to an almost invisible point; they vary from nine
+inches to a foot long, and from the way in which they are set on the
+skull, the immense strength in the neck and shoulders of the animal,
+and their extreme sharpness, form about as formidable weapons as
+could well be imagined, especially as their owner is the most plucky
+Antelope, without exception or consideration of size, with which I have
+become acquainted in Africa. I do not think that in all my experience
+... I remember a single instance in which a Ukouka has not tried to
+charge when wounded and brought to bay; and no one, even after a very
+moderate experience, would ever allow any Dog on which he placed any
+value to attack them.”
+
+
+THE BOVINE ANTELOPES.[17]
+
+The BUBALINE ANTELOPE, together with the HARTEBEEST, has a peculiarly
+elongated and narrow head, at the same time that the body is not
+elegant in its proportions, being triangular in form, heavy in the
+shoulders, and falling away behind. The horns, which are smaller in
+the females, are turned abruptly backwards at their tips after having
+been directed forwards and upwards in a lyrate manner. The Bubaline of
+North Africa is of a uniform bay colour, and the much more recently
+discovered TORA ANTELOPE of Eastern Africa resembles it in this
+respect, whilst its horns differ slightly in their direction and size,
+being more divergent and slender. The Hartebeest is grey-brown, and
+black on the outer sides of the limbs, with large, triangular white
+spots on the haunches; a black line also runs down the middle of the
+face from between the horns.
+
+Mr. Pringle, when writing on the Hartebeest, says of it that it “is one
+of the largest and handsomest of the Antelope family.... In the nooks
+of the narrow ravines, through which the game are wont to descend from
+the steep and stony mountains, for change of pasturage, or to drink at
+the fountains that ooze from their declivities, I have frequently found
+fresh skulls and horns of the Hartebeest, those slight relics being all
+that remained to indicate that there the Lion had surprised and rent
+his prey, and that the ferocious Hyæna had followed and feasted on the
+fragments, devouring even the bones, except the skull and a few other
+unmanageable portions.”
+
+[Illustration: BUBALINE ANTELOPE.]
+
+The BLESBOK, BONTE-BOK, and SASSABY are about the size of a calf three
+months old. Their horns are lyrate and ringed at their bases. The two
+former are of a purple-red colour, white faces and white rumps. Of the
+Blesbok, Mr. C. J. Andersson remarks--“It is of a beautiful violet
+colour, and is found in company with black wilde-beests and Spring-boks
+in countless thousands, on the vast green plains of short, crisp,
+sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle and
+Horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains, which
+afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin emits a most
+delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling herbs.”
+
+The Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest of the Cape colonists, stands four
+feet and a half in height. It has strong horns a foot in length,
+crescentic, with the points directed inwards. Its body colour is a
+dark purple-brown above, which changes into dusky-yellow underneath, a
+slate-coloured patch extending from the shoulder and the hip down to
+the knee and hock, at the same time that the rump is fawn-coloured. The
+tail is nearly two feet long.
+
+
+THE GNUS.[18]
+
+The GNU and the BRINDLED GNU are two of the most grotesque of
+creatures. With the head not unlike that of a small Cape Buffalo,
+it has the limbs and hind-quarters not unlike those of a pony, in
+proportions as well as size. The nose is broad and flattened, with a
+bristly muzzle. The horns are broad at the base, where they nearly
+meet, and after turning downward as well as forward, they again turn up
+abruptly in a hook-like manner. They are found abundantly in Southern
+Africa, where, as their flesh is worthless, they are not much hunted.
+They are extremely wild and fearless, and remarkably tenacious of life.
+Their speed is great, and they have a habit of prancing about and
+kicking out furiously when suspecting danger. Both species have a mane
+along the neck, and lengthy hair between the forelegs. In both the tail
+is long, covered with a mass of hair not unlike that of the Horse.
+
+[Illustration: GNU.]
+
+The Common Gnu is of a deep brown-black, the tail and mane being white,
+whilst the bushy beard, running back to the chest and between the
+forelegs, is black. Lengthy black hairs, diverging and ascending from
+a median line, cover the upper part of the nose, at the same time that
+other smaller tufts under the eyes help to give a most ferocious aspect
+to the face. From Captain Harris’s description of the animals of South
+Africa, an excellent idea of the peculiarities of the creature may
+be gained. “Of all quadrupeds,” he writes, “the Gnoo is probably the
+most awkward and grotesque. Nature doubtless formed him in one of her
+freaks, and it is scarcely possible to contemplate his ungainly figure
+without laughter. Wheeling and prancing in every direction, his shaggy
+and bearded head arched between his slender and muscular legs, and his
+long white tail streaming in the wind, this ever-wary animal has at
+once a ferocious and ludicrous appearance. Suddenly stopping, showing
+an imposing front, and tossing his head in mock defiance, his wild red
+sinister eyes flash fire, and his snort, resembling the roar of a Lion,
+is repeated with energy and effect. Then lashing his sides with his
+floating tail, he plunges, bounds, kicks up his heels with a fantastic
+flourish, and in a moment is off at speed, making the dust fly behind
+him as he sweeps across the plain.”
+
+In the Brindled Gnu the front of the face lacks the lengthy hair of its
+ally; the tail is also black instead of white. Its body colour is a
+dirty dun, variegated with obscure pale streaks. This species, as well
+as the Common Gnu, is the constant companion of the equally abundant
+Quaggas of the same region.
+
+
+THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES.
+
+The SEROW (sometimes written Surrow) of India, the CAMBING-OUTAN
+of Sumatra, with the GORAL of North India, form a small group of
+strongly-built Goat-like Antelopes, with short, conical, upright horns,
+ringed at the base, and of nearly equal size in both sexes. The feet
+are large, and the tapering tail short.
+
+Captain Kinloch gives us the following account of the Serow. He says
+it “is an ungainly-looking animal, combining the characteristics of
+the Cow, the Donkey, the Pig, and the Goat! It is a large and powerful
+beast.... The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes
+the form of a bristly mane on the neck and shoulders, and gives the
+beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition.
+The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and
+white underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very
+large; the muzzle is coarse.... The Serow has an awkward gait; but
+in spite of this can go over the worst ground; and it has, perhaps,
+no superior in going down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and
+is nowhere numerous; two or three may be found on one hill, four or
+five on another, and so on. It delights in the steepest and most rocky
+hillsides, and its favourite resting-places are in caves, under the
+shelter of overhanging rocks, or at the foot of shady trees.”
+
+[Illustration: GORAL.]
+
+Of the Goral, the same author remarks that it “is an active little
+beast, and much resembles a small Goat, but the back is more arched.
+The prevailing colour is a brownish-grey, with a dark stripe along the
+back, and dark markings on the legs. Underneath the throat is a large
+white spot, which is very conspicuous when the animal is standing
+above one, and often betrays its presence when it would otherwise have
+escaped observation. The hair is soft but rather coarse, and about two
+inches long.” In the male the horns reach nine inches in length.
+
+The Cambing-outan stands about two feet and a quarter at the shoulder.
+Its long, coarse hair is brown-black in colour, the mane and throat
+alone being white. The horns are not more than six inches in length,
+cylindrical, slightly annulated and curved backwards at their lips.
+Mountain forests, where it leads a particularly active life, are its
+haunts.
+
+Dr. J. Anderson remarks of the TAKIN, or BUDORCAS, another allied
+species, “Major Stewart informs me that it is found in all the high
+ranges of the north-east of Debrooghur, and is far from uncommon. The
+Mishnees, with their very inferior appliances to shoot and catch them,
+are, nevertheless, frequently dressed in their skins, or have a part of
+a skin with the hair on as an ornament, which would seem to indicate
+that they are numerous.... They are seen in pairs, and sometimes in
+herds of twenty or more. They are swift of foot and good climbers.”
+
+In Formosa and Japan there are also Goat-like Antelopes, that from
+the former locality being named after Mr. Swinhoe, who discovered it.
+Its horns are short and conical, its brown fur harsh and crisp. Both
+closely resemble the Cambing-outan. There is still another with a long
+tail inhabiting Northern China.
+
+The MAZAMA, or Mountain Goat of California and the Rocky Mountains,
+is an allied species, with short, thick, conical, recurved horns, and
+long, straight, soft hair of a white colour, specially abundant in the
+region of the throat, shoulders, sides, and tail. Its size is that of
+a large Sheep, which it much resembles in physiognomy. The flesh has
+an unpleasant musky flavour, the skin is thick and spongy, at the same
+time that the hair is considered of but little value.
+
+
+THE CHAMOIS.[19]
+
+This well-known Goat-like Antelope inhabits the snow-clad mountains
+of Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, ascending during the
+summer, and in winter going below the line of snow in search of food.
+Both sexes possess horns--black, short, and cylindrical--rising
+perpendicularly and parallel from the forehead for some distance, then
+forming a small hook directed backwards to their pointed tips. These
+rarely exceed seven inches in length. The female is slightly smaller
+than the male, which stands a little over two feet at the shoulder.
+In winter the colour of the lengthy, hairy coat is dark brown, which
+becomes a brownish-yellow in the summer, a darker streak along the
+back alone remaining. The head is pale yellow, darker from the nose
+upwards to between the ears and around the eyes. Behind the horns and
+between the ears is a pair of peculiar glands, opening externally, the
+function of which is unknown. The voice of the species is a rough bleat
+under all ordinary circumstances; but when the one which watches whilst
+the others feed--and there is always found to be one such in every
+herd--finds cause to fear, it gives a shrill whistle as a danger signal
+to its companions.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF THE CHAMOIS.]
+
+The senses of sight, hearing, and smell of the Chamois are developed
+to a maximum, and this fact, taken in association with the animal’s
+great sure-footedness among the lofty, snow-covered Alps, in which it
+has its home, makes hunting it a task of no mean difficulty and danger.
+Dogs are of no service on the rocky eminences to which the Chamois
+will retreat when it is pursued, and the sportsman has to rely upon
+his own sure-footedness and courage in climbing the steep and slippery
+precipices, whither he is tempted by the sight of game. If so hard
+pressed that it is driven to some height beyond which it cannot go, it
+is said that it will precipitate itself upon its pursuer, sending him
+down into the depths below. Besides man, the eagle is an enemy whose
+constant endeavour is to obtain the kids from their watchful mothers.
+Its skin is much valued for its toughness combined with its pliability.
+Its flesh is also greatly esteemed.
+
+
+THE ORYXES.[20]
+
+Of the Antelopes there is a fairly well-marked section, distinguished
+by the possession of horns in both sexes, at the same time that the
+body is peculiarly deep at the shoulder, whilst the lengthy tail is
+cylindrical and tufted at the extremity. Among these there is a mane
+along the neck in three closely-allied species, the BLAUBOK, or Equine
+Antelope of South Africa, the SABLE ANTELOPE of the Transvaal and the
+eastern coast of Africa, and BAKER’S ANTELOPE, or the Maarif of Upper
+Nubia, as well as in the ORYX, which is found in many parts of Africa,
+the BEISA of Abyssinia, the BEATRIX ANTELOPE of Arabia, and the GEMSBOK
+of South Africa; whilst in the not distant ADDAX ANTELOPE of North
+Africa there is no nape-mane, but a slight one on the throat.
+
+[Illustration: ORYX.]
+
+In the Blaubok, which stands more than four feet and a half at the
+shoulder, with a glaucous, grey coat upon a black skin; in the Sable
+Antelope, which stands four feet and a half, being black except upon
+the abdomen, as well as in streaks upon the face, which are white;
+and in Baker’s Antelope, which stands four feet eight inches, being
+of a pale fulvous liver colour, the horns are two feet and more in
+length, and curved gently backwards, being ringed transversely except
+at the tips, where they are smooth. In the Oryx, the Beisa, the
+Beatrix Antelope, and the Gemsbok, the lengthy conical horns, although
+similarly ringed, are much more slender, starting backwards in a line
+with the face, whilst in those previously mentioned they rise at an
+angle from it, being straight in the Gemsbok and Beisa, very slightly
+curved backwards in the Beatrix, and more so in the Oryx. In the nearly
+allied Addax the similarly-constructed horns are gently twisted in
+a corkscrew manner. All these last-mentioned Antelopes are pale in
+colour, being almost white, with the throat protected by long black
+hair.
+
+Whilst speaking of the Beisa Antelope, Mr. Blanford remarks that “the
+appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the
+most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the motions being those of
+a Wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. Their favourite pace appears
+to be either a steady quick walk or a trot; they rarely break into a
+gallop unless greatly alarmed. When frightened they dash off, sometimes
+snorting and putting their heads down, as if charging, raising their
+long tails, and looking very formidable. They are wary animals, though
+far less so than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently
+attack when wounded, and their long, straight horns are most deadly
+weapons.”
+
+Of the Gemsbok, Captain Harris tells us that it “is about the size of
+an Ass, and nearly of the same ground colour, with a black list stripe
+down the back and on each flank, white legs variegated with black
+bands, and a white face, marked with the figure of a black nose-band
+and head-stall, imparting altogether to the animal the appearance of
+being clad in half-mourning. Its copious black tail literally sweeps
+the ground; a mane reversed, and a tuft of flowing black hair on the
+breast, with a pair of straight, slender horns (common to both sexes)
+three feet in length, and ringed at the base, completing the portrait.”
+The resemblance between the Gemsbok, when seen from the side view, and
+the Unicorn of heraldry, is sufficiently striking to make it more than
+probable that the conception of the latter originated in the former.
+
+The author just quoted says of the Blaubok, or Roan Antelope, by which
+name it is also known, that it “is an inhabitant of the elevated
+downs and ridges about the source of the river Limpopo [four degrees
+to the west of Delagoa Bay, and a little north of it], and being
+utterly destitute of speed, may be ridden to a standstill without
+difficulty.... It is heavily built, and has an upright mane, long
+asinine ears, and robust scimitar-shaped horns.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ARTIODACTYLA: RUMINANTIA--BOVIDÆ (_Concluded_).--OXEN, PRONGHORN
+ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER], AND GIRAFFE.
+
+  THE NYL-GHAU--Description--Habits--THE MUSK OX--Difficulties in
+  associating it--Distribution--Habits--THE OX--Chillingham Wild
+  Cattle--Their Habits--Domestic Cattle--The Collings, Booth,
+  and Bates Strains--American Breeding--Shorthorns, and other
+  Breeds--Hungarian Oxen--Zebu--Gour--Gayal--Curious mode of
+  Capturing Gayals--Banting--THE BISONS--Description--European Bison,
+  or Aurochs--Almost extinct--Cæsar’s Description of it--American
+  Bison--Distribution--Mythical Notions regarding it--Their
+  Ferocity and Stupidity--“Buffalo” Flesh--THE YAK--Habits--THE
+  BUFFALOES--Varieties--Description--Fight between two Bulls--THE
+  ANOA--THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE--Peculiarity as to its Horns and
+  Skull--Professor Baird’s and Mr. Bartlett’s Independent Discovery
+  of the Annual Shedding of the Horns--Habits--Peculiarity about its
+  Feet--Colour--Difficulties as to its Position--THE MUSK [DEER]--Its
+  Perfume--Where is it to be placed?--Description--Habits--Hunters for
+  the Perfume--Their Sufferings--THE GIRAFFE--Peculiarities--Skull
+  processes--Its Neck--Habitat--Running power--Habits--Hunting.
+
+
+THE NYL-GHAU, OR BLUE OX.[21]
+
+This is the largest of the Antelopine animals found in India, the adult
+male standing over four feet in height at the shoulders, which are at
+a considerably higher level than the haunches. The female is about
+one-third smaller than her consort, and without horns, which in the
+male are but short, rarely exceeding nine inches in length, and rising
+perpendicularly from the head. Each horn is black, smooth, angular, and
+turned slightly forward, ending in a sharp point.
+
+The body colour of the male is a slate blue, darker about the head
+and under parts of the body, whilst the legs are black; the female
+is tawny-red; the aged bull is nearly black. A short mane runs along
+the neck and over the highest part of the shoulder, in which latter
+situation it is of greater length. There is a considerable tuft of
+dark hair hanging from the middle of the front of the neck, over six
+inches in length, which is situated just below a conspicuous white,
+anchor-shaped throat-patch, the shank of which runs up between the two
+halves of the lower jaw almost to the lip. On each cheek also there is
+a circular white spot below and behind the eye. A transverse white
+line above and below each fetlock stands out conspicuously also. The
+inner sides of the thighs are white, this colour extending for some
+distance upwards and inwards. There is a white patch also in front
+of each pastern joint. The tail is lengthy, and tufted at the end.
+The ears are nearly of the same length as the horns. The limbs are
+elegantly shaped, though rather heavy, and their proportions show a
+tendency towards those of the Giraffe, which animal it also resembles
+in the employment of its tongue for seizing food, and not its lips.
+
+The Nyl-Ghau is found only in continental India, where it abounds in
+parts, not being a favourite with sportsmen, because its small horns
+are so insignificant a trophy, but more so with the larger members of
+the Cat tribe--the Tiger and the Leopard--as well as the wild Dog, with
+whom it is a frequent meal. Its temper is uncertain, which fact, when
+taken in connection with its powerful build, makes it a dangerous pet.
+It lives well in confinement. When attacking, it drops on its knees,
+and thus advances until it feels itself within a sufficient distance
+of its foe to make a sudden leap upon it, which it can do with great
+velocity and force. The leather manufactured from its skin is valuable,
+but its flesh is never eaten by the Hindoos, on account of their belief
+that it belongs to the Ox tribe, which it is not lawful to slay. With
+a good Horse in open country, the Blue bull may be hunted successfully
+with spears. It is very tenacious of life. The first specimens
+introduced into England were brought from Bombay by Lord Clive in 1767.
+
+[Illustration: NYL-GHAU.]
+
+
+THE MUSK OX[22]
+
+is an animal whose exact affinities it is not easy to determine. By
+some naturalists it has been thought to be intermediate between the
+Sheep and the Ox, whence its scientific generic name, _Ovibos_. It
+is found only in Arctic America north of latitude 60°, and exhales a
+strong musky odour at certain seasons of the year, an approach to which
+is recognisable in several of the Bovidæ. It is a heavy-built, but not
+large creature, with short legs, and a very lengthy brown hairy coat,
+which almost reaches to the ground. Its horns are very similar in form
+to those of the Cape Buffalo, and in the bulls they meet in the middle
+line of the forehead. The tail is very short, being entirely hidden
+by the fur of the haunches. The nose is not naked, as in the Oxen,
+but is almost entirely covered with hair, as in the Elk and Reindeer,
+both Arctic ruminants also. The spread of their feet is considerable,
+and they can cover the ground at no little speed. Captain Franklin
+describes their habits as follows:--“The Musk Oxen, like the Buffalo,
+herd together in bands, and generally frequent barren grounds during
+the summer months, keeping near the rivers, but retire to the woods in
+winter. They seem to be less watchful than most other wild animals, and
+when grazing are not difficult to approach, provided the hunters go
+against the wind. When two or three men get so near a herd as to fire
+at them from different points, these animals, instead of separating or
+running away, huddle closer together, and several are generally killed;
+but if the wound is not mortal they become enraged, and dart in the
+most furious manner at the hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade
+them. They can defend themselves with their powerful horns against
+Wolves and Bears, which, as the Indians say, they not infrequently
+kill. The Musk Oxen feed on the same substances as the Reindeer; and
+the prints of the feet of these two animals are so much alike, that
+it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them. The
+largest killed by us did not exceed in weight three hundred pounds.”
+
+[Illustration: MUSK OXEN.]
+
+
+THE OX.[23]
+
+It being quite unnecessary to describe the general form and proportions
+of this animal, as seen among us in a domesticated state--Shorthorns,
+Alderney, Highland, &c.--we will at once proceed to notice the famous
+cattle of Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, which are known to have
+been in existence in the thirteenth century. The wild cattle there are
+all cream white, with a brown muzzle, with the insides and tips of the
+ears reddish-brown, at the same time that the horns are white tipped
+with black, of which latter colour are the hoofs. Calves more or less
+coloured are occasionally born, but these are promptly destroyed by
+the keepers. Some of the bulls have a thin, short mane. Their habit,
+on strangers approaching them, is to “set off in a full gallop, and
+at a distance of about two hundred yards make a wheel round and come
+boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner. On a sudden
+they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking
+wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being
+made, they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not
+to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and again returning
+with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach
+much nearer, probably within thirty yards, when they again make another
+stand, and then fly off. This they do several times, shortening their
+distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such
+a short distance that most people think it proper to leave them, not
+choosing to provoke them further.” They differ from domestic cattle in
+that they feed at night, and generally sleep during the day. They also
+hide their calves.
+
+[Illustration: CHILLINGHAM CATTLE.]
+
+In all the so-called wild cattle of Great Britain the forehead is flat
+or slightly concave, the head is small, the back is straight, and the
+legs are short.
+
+It is now almost universally agreed that domestic cattle are descended
+from two or three species of the genus Bos, which existed in late
+geologic or prehistoric times, the remains being found in Switzerland,
+Ireland, and other parts of Europe. The Zebu, Yak, Gayal, and Arni, to
+be referred to immediately, have also been domesticated.
+
+Cattle have been so distributed and mixed in breeding that any precise
+arrangement of the breeds according to their ancestral affinities
+can scarcely be tabulated. Most important of the heavy breeds are
+the well-known Shorthorns of the north of England, so carefully and
+successfully developed by Charles and Robert Colling between 1780
+and 1818, at Ketton and Barmpton, close to Darlington, in Durham, by
+a process of in-and-in breeding--“Hubback,” _the_ “Duchess,” “Lady
+Maynard,” “Young Strawberry,” “Foljambe,” and “Comet,” the last bull of
+which, at Charles Colling’s sale in 1810, fetched a thousand guineas.
+
+[Illustration: HUNGARIAN BULL.]
+
+Following close upon the Collings came the Booths--Richard, Thomas, and
+J. Booth--between 1814 and 1864, at Studley, Killerby, and Warlaby,
+where “Isabella,” the twin sisters “Necklace” and “Bracelet,” were
+parents of goodly herds, “Commander-in-Chief” being one of the latest
+gems. On one occasion, it is stated, Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby,
+refused the unique offer of fifteen hundred guineas for a cow named
+“Queen of the May.”
+
+In 1810 Thomas Bates, of Ridley Hall, and afterwards of Kirkleavington,
+then a well-known breeder of cattle, purchased at Charles Colling’s
+sale “Young Duchess,” daughter of “Comet,” a granddaughter of
+“Duchess” by “Daisy” bull, and she became the founder of the famous
+“Duchess” tribe. In 1831, with the accession of the bull “Belvidere,”
+a descendant of Robert Colling’s “Princess” tribe, the “Duchess” breed
+produced “Short Tail” and the renowned “Duke of Northumberland.” The
+“Matchem” cow, purchased at the same date, did much to improve the
+stock. Mr. Bates died in 1849.
+
+Several enterprising American breeders have, since 1817, introduced
+Shorthorns into the United States and Canada, Colonel Lewis Sanders,
+of Kentucky, being the first who did so on anything like thorough
+principles. Others followed his example with success, especially about
+the year 1852, when a fresh impulse was given to their production
+because of the rise of price in meat, as well as the foreign demand for
+it. The Booth and Bates bloods predominate in these animals, and form
+the basis of much of the beef now re-shipped to England.
+
+The great advantage of the Shorthorn breed is that they, together
+with a good temper, combine the advantages of great size and aptitude
+to fatten, rapidly reaching maturity. For dairy purposes they are
+excelled by the Suffolk Duns and Ayrshire cattle, the latter, with
+their enormous udders, broad hips, and deep flanks, being the best
+as milkers. Hereford, North Devon, and Scottish black Shorthorns
+are inferior to those of the northern counties in their slowness of
+growth and power of filling out. Those of North Devon are particularly
+symmetrical in form. The mountain cattle of the western Highlands,
+otherwise known as the Kyloe breed, are best known from the hardiness
+of their constitutions, protected as they are by their thick hides
+and shaggy coats. The Welsh and Shetland cattle resemble them in many
+respects.
+
+In Hungary, Turkey, and Western Asia there is a breed of large cattle
+with peculiarly long and slender outward-spreading horns, black-tipped,
+and greyish throughout the rest of their length.
+
+In India, the Sacred Cattle, or ZEBUS, with convex forehead, short
+horns, large drooping ears, and a short head, possess a high hump upon
+the withers, as well as an ample dewlap falling in undulating folds
+along the whole length of the neck. Their disposition is mild, as is
+indicated by their expression, and the liberty they are allowed in
+India is wonderful. They vary greatly in size, some being not bigger
+than an average month-old calf. The breed has extended in times gone by
+through Persia into Eastern Africa, where it is found with a narrower
+and flatter face, at the same time that the hump is smaller.
+
+The introduction of steam, as well as the extension in the employment
+of the Horse, has almost entirely superseded the use of cattle as
+beasts of burden or draught in highly civilised nations.
+
+The GOUR, the GAYAL, and the BANTING are three species of wild cattle
+found in the Oriental world from India to Java, peculiar in possessing
+a ridge running along the middle of the back, and horns which, after
+running outwards from the head, are directed upwards and not backwards.
+Of these the Gour of Central India is the largest, measuring six feet
+at the withers, having also a convex profile, very high withers, and
+an arched back, which makes the line from the nose to the root of the
+tail, along the spine, a fairly continuous curve. Its colour is a deep
+brown glossy black, excepting a ring of white encircling the base of
+each hoof, and a white tuft on the forehead. There is not any trace of
+a dewlap in either sex. The horns are not more than two feet in length,
+strong, and curved boldly upwards at their tips. The Gour is found
+abundantly in herds of twenty or so around the tablelands, especially
+of South Bahar, feeding on the young leaves of the trees and shrubs. It
+appears to have resisted all attempts at domestication. The Gayal is
+found in the hill-region east of the Brahmaputra. It is much the size
+of English cattle. The bull is bold, and the cow easily domesticated.
+Its home is the deep jungle, where it can obtain the young leaves and
+shoots of the brushwood. According to Mr. Macrae the following is the
+method employed by the Kookies of the Chittagong hill-region to catch
+the animal:--“On discovering a herd of wild Gayals in the jungle, they
+prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man’s head, composed of
+a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their
+tame Gayals towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet and
+assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the
+females of the other, and _vice versâ_. The Kookies now scatter their
+balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely
+to pass, and watch its motions. The Gayals, on meeting these balls
+as they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and
+begin to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the
+salt, and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the
+place until all the balls are consumed. The Kookies, having observed
+the Gayals to have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply
+of them to answer the intended purpose, and as the Gayals lick them
+up they throw down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily
+destroyed that the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This
+process generally goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month
+and a half, during which time the tame and the wild Gayals are always
+together, licking the decoy balls, and the Kookie, after the first
+day or two of their being so, makes his appearance at such a distance
+as not to alarm the wild ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and
+nearer, until at length the sight of him has become so familiar that
+he can advance to stroke his tame Gayals on the back and neck without
+frightening the wild ones. He next extends his hand to them, and
+caresses them also, at the same time giving them plenty of his decoy
+balls to lick. Thus, in the short space of time mentioned, he is able
+to drive them, along with the tame ones, to his parrah, or village,
+without the least exertion of force; and so attached do the Gayals
+become to the parrah, that when the Kookies migrate from one place to
+another, they always find it necessary to set fire to the huts they are
+about to abandon, lest the Gayals should return to them from the new
+grounds.”
+
+The Gayal carries its nose forwards, as a rule, like a Buffalo. Its
+ears are longer than those of the Ox. It possesses a dewlap smaller
+than in the Zebu. The tail is short, not descending below the hock.
+Its general colour is a varying and generally dark brown, the abdomen
+and the legs being white in parts. Its cry is a shrill, insignificant
+lowing. Its horns are conical, turned directly outwards, and a little
+upwards at their tips, not exceeding one foot and a half in length.
+
+The Banting extends from Cochin China, through the Indo-Malay
+archipelago, to the islands of Bali and Lombok. Its colour and
+proportions are almost exactly those of the Gour.
+
+
+THE BISONS.[24]
+
+Closely related to the Oxen are the Bisons of Europe and of North
+America, together with the Tibetan Yak. The two species of Bison agree
+closely with one another in general appearance, the American form
+being shorter and weaker in the hind-quarters, and a little smaller
+altogether.
+
+The hair of the head and neck is very abundant and long, forming a
+mane of very dark colour, at the same time that it nearly conceals the
+eyes and ears as well as the base of the short conical horns, which
+are directed outwards and upwards. Under the chin there is a lengthy
+beard. A line of lengthy hair also extends along the back nearly to the
+tail, which is itself only covered with short soft hair, except at the
+end where there is a lengthy tuft. There is a hump developed on the
+shoulders, at which spot the adult male is nearly six feet in height,
+the female being smaller.
+
+The European Bison, or Aurochs, is on the verge of extinction,
+surviving only in the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
+the Caucasus, on account of the severe laws against its destruction.
+The horns are longer and more curved than in the American species. The
+females are less hairy and smaller than their mates. Its strength is
+very great, and an old bull is said to be a match for at least four
+Wolves. Its speed is considerable, and it raises its hoofs above the
+level of its lowered head whilst galloping.
+
+In his description of the Black Forest (_Sylva Hercynia_) Cæsar
+describes the species (the Urus) thus:--“They are but little less than
+Elephants in size, and are of the appearance, colour, and form of a
+Bull. Their strength as well as their speed is very great. They spare
+neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
+the sight of men, nor can they be tamed, even when taken young. The
+people, who take them in pitfalls, assiduously destroy them; and young
+men harden themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this
+kind of chase; and those who have killed a great number, the horns
+being publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact, obtain great honour.
+The horns, in magnitude, shape, and quality, differ much from the horns
+of our Oxen. They are much sought for, and after having been edged
+with silver at their open ends, are used for drinking vessels at great
+feasts.”
+
+According to some authorities, however, it is a mistake to identify the
+European Bison with the Aurochs.
+
+To all intents and purposes the American Bison is an extinct animal,
+killed off by the rifle and the rail and the encroachment of man upon
+its haunts. A few specimens are preserved with what may be described as
+laudably jealous care in the Yellowstone Park, and small herds may be
+found in Montana, Texas, and Canada.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPEAN BISON.]
+
+Huge herds, numbering millions of individuals, “so numerous as to
+blacken the plains as far as they can reach,” were once a common sight
+on the prairies, and repeatedly stopped the Kansas Pacific Railway
+when first formed. Hunters spread false notions as to the organisation
+of these herds, which was of a most simple character, excellently
+explained by Mr. Allen, who says that the timidity and watchfulness of
+the cows, accustomed as they were to the care of their offspring, led
+them to take the initiative in the movements of the herd, and this kept
+them near the front, especially when the herd was moving. The popular
+belief that the bulls kept the cows and the young in the middle of the
+herd, and formed themselves, as it were, into a protecting phalanx,
+had some apparent basis; but the theory that the old bulls, the least
+watchful of all the members of the herd, were sentinels posted on the
+outskirts to give notice of an approaching enemy, was wholly a myth, as
+was also the supposition that the herd consisted of small harems.
+
+[Illustration: AMERICAN BISON.]
+
+These “Buffaloes,” as they were generally called, were much like
+domestic cattle in their habits. They were, however, fond of wallowing
+in the mud, and so coating themselves with a protection from their
+insect pests. Their ferocity of appearance was not evident in their
+true natures, for their disposition was sluggish and fearful. Colonel
+Dodge remarked of them that, “endowed with the smallest possible
+amount of instinct, the little he has seems adapted rather for getting
+him into difficulties than out of them. If not alarmed at sight or
+smell of a foe, he will stand stupidly gazing at his companions
+in their death-throes, until the whole herd is shot down. He will
+walk unconsciously into a quicksand or quagmire already choked with
+struggling dying victims. Having made up his mind to go a certain way
+it is almost impossible to swerve him from his purpose.”
+
+The flesh of the “Buffalo” was thought equal to the best beef if from
+the young animal, but dry and insipid when from the adult. The tongue
+and hump were esteemed great delicacies. Pemmican was made mostly from
+the dried flesh, pounded fine and mixed with an equal weight of tallow.
+
+The YAK differs from the Bisons mostly in the distribution of
+its long hair, which, instead of being situated on its hump and neck,
+forms a lengthy fringe along the shoulders, flanks, and thighs, and
+completely invests the tail, which latter is much prized in India,
+where it is known as “Chowry,” and is employed as a fly-switch in great
+ceremonials.
+
+The Yak is a native of the high ground of Tibet, where it is rigorously
+protected by the native government against the foreign sportsman. Its
+colour is black, except some spots upon the face, which are white or
+grey. Its tail is often white, as is frequently the long hair tuft on
+the top of the withers. Its horns reach nearly a yard in length, and
+are directed outwards, forwards, and then upwards. Its voice is much
+like that of a Pig, whence the name Grunting Ox, by which it sometimes
+goes.
+
+As to the habits of the creature, Captain Kinloch tells us that “the
+Yak inhabits the wildest and most desolate mountains; it delights in
+extreme cold; and is found, as a rule, at a greater elevation than any
+other animal. Although so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest
+pasturage, and its usual food consists of a rough, wiry grass, which
+grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet, up to an elevation of nearly
+20,000 feet.... Yak seem to wander about a good deal. In summer, the
+cows are generally to be found in herds varying in number from ten
+to one hundred, while the old bulls are for the most part solitary
+or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night or early in
+the morning, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren
+hillside during the day, lying sometimes for hours in the same spot.”
+
+[Illustration: YAK.]
+
+
+THE BUFFALOES.[25]
+
+The BUFFALOES have the horns flattened and triangular in section,
+inclined outwards and backwards, turning up at the tips. The Common
+Buffalo is found in Southern Europe, North Africa, and the Indian
+region. The huge Indian variety, with most lengthy horns, is also known
+as the Arni. Its horns are elongated and narrow, sometimes reaching
+six feet and a half in length. It stands nearly or quite six feet
+at the shoulder, its proportions are bulky, and its general colour
+dusky-black. It lives in small herds numbering not more than twenty,
+and solitary bulls are often met with which attack sportsmen in a
+most vicious manner without provocation. The Cape Buffalo has shorter
+horns, expanded at their bases, so that they almost meet in the middle
+line of the forehead. It is found all over Central and South Africa,
+and is a formidable animal when wounded, as, quite regardless of the
+cloud of smoke which follows the shot aimed at it, it charges right
+through it, and so does frequent injury to the experienced hunter.
+Its general colour is blue-black, but in some cases it has a reddish
+tinge. The Hon. W. H. Drummond gives the following account of a fight
+between two bulls of which he was an eye-witness. After having had
+his attention attracted by a loud clattering noise, he remarks that,
+“on looking through the edge of the last thicket which had concealed
+them, I saw two Buffalo bulls standing facing each other with lowered
+heads, and, as I sat down to watch, they rushed together with all their
+force, producing the loud crash I had before heard. Once the horns were
+interlocked they kept them so, their straining quarters telling that
+each was doing his best to force the other backwards. Several long
+white marks on their necks showed where they had received scratches,
+and blood dripping over the withers of the one next me proved that he
+had received a more severe wound. It was a magnificent sight to see
+the enormous animals, every muscle at its fullest tension, striving
+for the mastery. Soon one, a very large and old bull, began to yield
+a little, going backwards step by step; but at last, as if determined
+to conquer or die, it dropped on to its knees. The other, disengaging
+its horns for a second, so as to give an impetus, again rushed at him,
+but, whether purposely or not I could not tell, it did not strike him
+on the forehead, but on the neck, under the hump, and I could see that
+with a twist of his horns he inflicted a severe wound. However, instead
+of following up his seeming advantage, he at once recoiled, and stood
+half facing his antagonist, who, getting on his legs again, remained
+in the same position for several minutes, and then with a low grunt of
+rage, rushed at him. This time he was not met, and his broad forehead
+struck full on his rival’s shoulder, almost knocking it over. The
+old bull then went a few yards off and stood watching the other for
+fully a quarter of an hour, when he walked slowly away in the opposite
+direction.”
+
+The Cape Buffalo, which is found all over Africa south of the equator,
+is replaced in the north-eastern portion of the continent by a smaller
+variety, of a browner colour, and with much shorter horns, which
+are not closely approximated at their bases, at the same time that
+they spread out almost horizontally instead of curving downwards and
+backwards.
+
+[Illustration: ANOA.]
+
+In western and the western-equatorial parts of Africa there is again
+another still smaller variety in which the hair is yellowish-red
+instead of nearly black or brown, the short horns being, as well,
+directed considerably upwards instead of directly outwards.
+
+In the Island of Celebes the smallest species of Buffalo is found,
+which differs but little in appearance from the young of the Cape
+species. It is known as the ANOA; is black, with short, wavy
+hair, and has short, parallel prismatic horns directed upwards from the
+forehead.
+
+
+THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.[26]
+
+This Antelope of North America, one of the few forms of the
+Hollow-horned Ruminants which inhabit the New World, is different from
+all the other members of the group in two respects at least, namely,
+that its horns are branched, as implied in the name, and that they are
+annually shed.
+
+The accompanying figure is a side view of the skull of the animal,
+whose size is nearly that of a Fallow Deer, although its build is not
+so heavy. It is there seen that each horn-core forms a blade-shaped
+projection six inches long, with the pointed end behind, situated above
+the eyes perpendicular to the line of the face, rounded posteriorly and
+sharpened in front. Each horn itself is a foot or so in its greatest
+length, is pointed and gently curved backwards, at the same time that
+from the front of it, very slightly above the middle of its height,
+a short branch arises which is directed forwards, the whole there
+dividing into two. Each horn is flattened from side to side, is not
+annulated, and in its structure scarcely differs from that of a Sheep
+or Goat.
+
+For some years before it was certainly known to be the case, it had
+been rumoured by the hunters of Fort Union that the Pronghorn Antelope
+shed its horns each year; and in the year 1858 Dr. C. A. Canfield,
+of Monterey, California, in writing to Professor Baird, of the
+Smithsonian Institution, Washington, informed him that in specimens in
+his possession “their horns drop off annually.” This letter remained
+unprinted until in England Mr. A. D. Bartlett, Superintendent of the
+Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, London, in 1865 drew attention to
+the same fact, which was observed by him in a male animal living in the
+Gardens at the time.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.]
+
+The horns--not antlers, be it noticed--are, it is now certain, detached
+each year from their supporting cores, and subsequently dropped, to be
+replaced by others which at the time of shedding have already advanced
+some way in growth, although at first they are very pale and soft. In
+this respect the Pronghorn is not resembled by any other Antelope, and
+differs entirely from the Deer.
+
+Of the species Dr. Canfield, in the letter above referred to, gives
+several interesting details as to its habits, from which we may infer
+that they are not so cunning or so fleet as their allies in Africa and
+India:--“From the 1st of September to the 1st of March they run in
+bands, the bucks, does, and kids all together,” shortly after which
+time the young are born, upon which the bucks separate and wander about
+alone until the following season. “A band of Pronghorn Antelopes, when
+frightened, never run directly away from you, but cross over in front
+of you, running across your path from one side to the other repeatedly,
+and keeping about a hundred yards ahead. On this account it is
+sometimes easy, on a smart Horse, to run into a drove of them and catch
+one of them with a noose. When one is alone, and is watched by a person
+or animal and becomes frightened, it makes a sort of shrill blowing
+noise like a whistle, and then commences bounding off. On the neck it
+has a heavy, thick, chestnut-coloured mane, five or six inches long,
+and on the rump a white patch of coarse hair; and when the animal is
+frightened it always erects the mane and the hair and this white spot,
+thus giving it a very singular and characteristic appearance as it runs
+bounding away from you. The Antelope has a very peculiar odour, strong
+and, to some people, offensive.... On the whole, I consider the meat of
+the Pronghorn to be very excellent.”
+
+[Illustration: PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.]
+
+There is a peculiarity in the feet of the Pronghorn in which it
+resembles the Giraffe, a few Antelopes, and the different members
+of the Camel tribe, namely, that the false hoofs, as well as their
+supporting bones, are entirely absent, from which it may be inferred,
+as is the case, that the number of digits in each foot is only two.
+
+In the females of the species the horns are present, but they are much
+reduced in size, and almost hidden in the hairy covering of the head.
+The end of the nose--in other words, the muffle--is hairy, and not,
+therefore, damp at all times in any part, as is that of the Ox and most
+ruminants. The tail is very short; the fur is very short and close set,
+being stiff and wavy. Its colour is a pale fawn above and on the limbs,
+whilst the breast as well as the abdomen are a yellowish-white, at the
+same time that the tail and round about it are pure white, as is the
+inside of the ear.
+
+Although the Pronghorn is here described after all the more ordinary
+hollow-horned Ruminantia, it is far from impossible that it is much
+more intimately related to some one of the above-mentioned families
+than to the others. It must either have originated direct from the
+earliest type of Bovine Ruminant, and from that time continued
+isolated until the present day, or it may have been a straggler from
+some already differentiated group, like the Gazelles, for instance,
+that, arriving in a land so unlike the haunts of its progenitors,
+took on itself from altered circumstances peculiar modifications in
+its horn-growth and foot-form which have resulted in its present
+characteristics.
+
+
+THE MUSK [DEER].[27]
+
+This interesting animal, from the male of which is obtained a powder
+contained in a pouch about the size of an orange, on the surface of
+the abdomen, and which is one of the most fragrant of perfumes, is
+generally included among the Cervidæ. Nevertheless, there are many
+reasons in favour of its being considered an Antelopine animal. Apart
+from the fact that it has a gall-bladder, which is not found in any
+Deer, but in almost all Antelopes, its pale grey hair is peculiarly
+coarse and Goat-like, and the absence of antlers or horns in both sexes
+tells in neither direction, for, as in the Brockets of South America
+and the Chinese Muntjac, the antlers are rudimentary, so are the horns
+in the Bush-bucks of Africa, and in some domestic Sheep as well as Oxen.
+
+The presence of enormous canine tusks, three inches long, would at
+first sight seem to be in favour of its relations with the Deer,
+because in the Muntjacs they are also found. Nevertheless there is no
+_à priori_ reason why these formidable weapons should not be developed
+in a hollow-horned ruminant; for, cropping up independently in genera
+so distant as the Deerlets, the Muntjacs, and the Water Deer, why
+should they not do so in the Antelopes as well?
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE MUSK [DEER].]
+
+The Musk is twenty inches in height, its ears large, and its tail
+rudimentary. Its hoofs are small, but their spread is large, because
+of the yielding attachment of the false hoofs, as in the Reindeer. The
+coarse and brittle hair is grey and slightly brindled. Its habitat is
+Central Asia, from the Himalaya Mountains to Pekin, at elevations above
+8,000 feet.
+
+“The Musk Deer,” according to Captain Kinloch, “is a solitary and
+retiring animal; it is nearly nocturnal in its habits, remaining
+concealed in some thick bush during the daytime, and only coming out
+to feed in the mornings and evenings. It frequents the highest parts
+of the forest, preferring the birch, rhododendron, and juniper, and is
+almost always found alone, rarely in pairs, and never in flocks. No
+animal seems more indifferent to cold, from which it is well protected
+by its thick coat of hollow hair, which forms as it were a sort of
+cushion, which acts as an insulator, and enables the Deer to lie even
+on snow without much loss of animal heat. It is amazingly active and
+sure-footed, bounding along without hesitation over the steepest and
+most dangerous ground. Its usual food seems to be leaves and flowers,
+but the natives say that it will kill and eat Snakes.”
+
+The value of the Musk perfume causes the animal to be persecuted beyond
+measure. From Chardin we learn that the hunters are obliged to cover
+the nose and mouth with linen when removing the scent-sac, to prevent
+pulmonary hæmorrhage. “I have,” says he, “gained accurate information
+respecting this circumstance, and as I have heard the same thing talked
+of by some Armenians who had been to Boutan, I think that it is true.
+The odour is so powerful in the East Indies that I could never support
+it, and when I trafficked for musk I always kept in the open air, with
+a handkerchief over my face, and at a distance from those who handled
+the sacs; and hence I know by experience that this musk is very apt to
+give headaches, and is altogether insupportable when quite recent. I
+add that no drug is so easily adulterated, or more apt to be so.”
+
+[Illustration: MUSK [DEER].]
+
+
+THE GIRAFFE.[28]
+
+Apart from its unique proportions and its size, the Giraffe presents
+peculiarities in its organisation which compel us to separate it from
+the Deer on the one hand, and the hollow-horned ruminants on the other.
+In both these groups the appendages on the head, whether developed
+as antlers or as horns, are distinct prolongations from the forehead
+bones themselves. In the Giraffe, however, the three bony appendages,
+one median and two lateral, all covered with skin, instead of being
+produced as outgrowths from any portion of the skull, are separate
+and independent conical bony “processes” which stand upon the skull,
+capping roughened conical prominences destined to support them. Neither
+are horns, like those of Sheep or Oxen, nor antlers like those of the
+Deer, ever found upon these processes, a tuft of hair alone surmounting
+the lateral pair.
+
+The neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of any other living animal,
+notwithstanding which it conforms to what, on account of its almost
+constant applicability, may be termed a law, namely, that there are but
+seven vertebræ which go to form the neck of a mammalian animal. In this
+animal, such being the case, each vertebra is very long, which makes
+the neck correspondingly awkward and inflexible; so that when the head
+is much carried to the side, the conformation and enumeration of the
+bones in the cervical region is not a matter of any difficulty.
+
+The Giraffe is a native of Africa south of the Sahara. Most of the
+specimens which reach Europe in a living state are brought from Nubia
+and the north-east of the continent generally. The adult male attains
+a height of sixteen feet, the female rarely exceeding fourteen feet.
+They live and have bred well in captivity, although, as may be readily
+imagined, they are most delicate, and require much special care,
+particularly to prevent the joints of their lengthy limbs from being
+injured.
+
+M. Thibaut, who, in 1836, obtained the first specimen of the Giraffe
+alive for the Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, tells us that “the
+first run of the Giraffe is exceedingly rapid. The swiftest Horse,
+if unaccustomed to the desert, could not come up with it unless with
+extreme difficulty. The Arabs accustom their coursers to hunger and to
+fatigue; milk generally serves them for food, and gives them power to
+continue their exertions during a very long run. If a Giraffe reaches
+a mountain, it passes the height with rapidity; its feet, which are
+like [not exactly in structure] those of the Goat, endow it with the
+dexterity of that animal; it bounds over ravines with incredible power;
+Horses cannot, in such situations, compete with it.”
+
+“The Giraffe eats with great delicacy, and takes its food leaf by
+leaf, collecting them from the trees by means of its long tongue. It
+rejects the thorns, and in this respect differs from the Camel.... It
+is extremely fond of society, and is very sensible. I have observed one
+of them shed tears when it no longer saw its companions or the persons
+who were in the habit of attending it.”
+
+By Le Valliant and other sportsmen most graphic accounts have been
+given of the hunting of the Giraffe. Quoting from Captain Harris, we
+learn that “the rapidity with which the awkwardly-formed animals can
+move is beyond all things surprising, our best Horses being unable
+to close with them under two miles. Their gallop is a succession of
+jumping strides, the fore and hind leg on the same side moving together
+instead of diagonally, as in most other quadrupeds; the former being
+kept close together, and the latter so wide apart, that in riding by
+the animal’s side the hoof may be seen striking on the outside of
+the Horse, threatening momentarily to overthrow him. Their motion,
+altogether, reminded me rather of the pitching of a ship or rolling
+of a rocking-horse, than of anything living; and the remarkable gait
+is rendered still more automaton-like by the switching, at regular
+intervals, of the long black tail, which is invariably curled above the
+back, and by the corresponding action of the neck, swinging as it does
+like a pendulum, and literally imparting to the animal the appearance
+of a piece of machinery in motion. Naturally gentle, timid, and
+peaceable, the unfortunate Giraffe has no means of protecting itself
+but with its heels; but even when hemmed into a corner, it seldom
+resorts to this mode of defence.”
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE GIRAFFE.]
+
+[Illustration: GIRAFFES.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS: THE ELK, ELAPHINE,
+SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER.
+
+  The Deer Tribe--Distinguishing Characters--Exceptions to
+  the rule--The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer--Other
+  Characters of the Cervidæ--Antlers, their Nature,
+  Growth, and Shedding--The Knob--“Velvet”--Getting rid
+  of the “Velvet”--Full equipment--Contests--Interlocking
+  Antlers--Distribution--Classification--Development of Antlers in
+  the Common RED DEER--Explanation of the various stages--Splendid
+  “Heads”--Simple and Complex Antlers--Types of Antlers--THE ELK,
+  OR MOOSE DEER--Appearance--Antlers--Habits--Hunting--THE ELAPHINE
+  DEER--THE RED DEER--Distribution--Appearance--Hunting--THE
+  WAPITI--Acting of the Fawns--THE PERSIAN DEER, OR MARAL--THE
+  CASHMERIAN DEER, OR BARASINGHA--Habits and General
+  Appearance--BARBARY DEER--SUB-ELAPHINE DEER--THE JAPANESE,
+  FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER--THE FALLOW DEER--Peculiarity of its
+  Antlers--THE PERSIAN FALLOW DEER--THE RUSINE DEER--THE SAMBUR, OR
+  GEROW--Habits--Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor,
+  Ternate, and the Philippines--THE HOG DEER--THE AXIS DEER--PRINCE
+  ALFRED’S DEER--THE SWAMP DEER--SCHOMBURGK’S DEER--ELD’S DEER, OR THE
+  THAMYN--Description--Habits--Hunting--Shameful havoc.
+
+
+The Deer tribe, known scientifically as that of the CERVIDÆ, is more
+circumscribed, and therefore better defined, than are the BOVIDÆ, or
+hollow-horned ruminants. Their best distinguishing character is that
+in the males there is each year developed a pair of antlers which is
+shed at the end of the season to be reproduced in the following spring.
+The females do not carry antlers, except in the case of the Reindeer,
+in which, although these elegant appendages are of the same form as in
+their mates, they are constructed upon a much smaller scale. There are,
+however, one or two Deer in which not even the males carry antlers, and
+these are the only members of the family with reference to which there
+is any serious doubt on the subject of affinity. The Musk (_Moschus
+moschiferus_) may be taken as an example. In this pretty creature,
+which is more fully described on pages 42-3, there are no antlers and
+no horns. Nevertheless, other peculiarities in its organisation have
+led most naturalists to include it among the Cervidæ, a position which
+is, however, so doubtful that it is quite possible that it may be an
+aberrant member of the bovine section, as we have for several reasons
+thought best to consider it.
+
+A more certain Deer without antlers is the Water Deer of China, the
+flesh of which has formed an article of food among the natives of
+Shanghai for years. This small Deer has lengthy tusks, as has the Musk
+Deer, and nearly every member of the family in which the antlers are
+diminutive. Its very existence was not known in Great Britain until the
+year 1862, when Mr. Swinhoe, then our consul at Shanghai, described it,
+which shows how ignorant we still may be of the creatures which inhabit
+the mighty Celestial Empire.
+
+In most other respects the Deer closely resemble the hollow-horned
+ruminants. Their complicated stomach does not differ from that of the
+Ox, and their other organs are constructed upon the same plan, except
+the liver, which, like that of the Giraffe, lacks a gall-bladder,
+this reservoir being present in nearly all the Bovidæ. Their general
+proportions are also much the same. The Red Deer and the Fallow Deer
+are those best known to most of us, as both are to be found living in
+Great Britain, as is the Roebuck in the north of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE GROWING ANTLERS ARE SEEN
+COVERED WITH “VELVET.”]
+
+The nature, growth, and shedding of the antlers deserve special
+consideration. In the commencement of the spring a pair of knobs is to
+be seen upon the forehead of the adult male animal. This is covered
+with a nearly smooth dark skin; and a scar can be detected in the
+middle of each, which is that left by the antler of the year before,
+where it fell off.
+
+As the weather becomes more propitious these knobs commence to
+grow, feel warm to the touch, and are evidently filled with
+actively-circulating blood, supplied by special vessels which
+are developed at the time. They do not increase regularly in all
+directions, for if they did the antler would be a sphere, but they
+sprout out, as it may be termed, around the above-mentioned scar; in
+most cases there being one branch which takes a direction forward,
+whilst a second larger one makes its way backward. These become, in
+the fully-formed antler, the brow antler and the main beam; and it is
+by other branches growing upon the beam, according to definite laws,
+different in different species, that the elaborate complications of the
+fully-developed structure are produced.
+
+As long as the antler, which is composed of genuine bone of very dense
+texture, is increasing in size, it will be found to be covered with
+the same warm black skin as is the knob from which it sprang; and as
+this skin is covered with short, fine, close-set hair, it has received
+the name of the “velvet.” It is this “velvet” which secretes the bony
+texture of the antler from its inner surface, just in the same way
+that the outer covering (the periosteum) of any long bone of the body
+is mainly concerned in the formation of the bone itself. As, also, in
+the same way, if we seriously graze our shins, and scrape off this
+covering, the bone exposed is very apt to die, so in the Deer any
+mishap to the “velvet” injures the growth of the antler in the part
+affected. The animals, therefore, during the time they are “in velvet”
+are more than usually careful to protect their cranial appendages, and
+are inoffensive even to strangers.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE ANTLER IS FULLY DEVELOPED
+AND THE “VELVET” HAS DISAPPEARED.]
+
+When their antler-growth has ceased their natures change. The “velvet”
+has performed its function and dries into a parchment-looking membrane,
+to get rid of which the Deer adopt a very simple method. They rub their
+antlers against any neighbouring trees, and force them into the soft
+earth until there is none left, and the bare bone, with scarcely any
+trace of hollow in the middle of it, is completely exposed. Now, in the
+glory of their full equipment, they go in search of others of their
+kind, having previously maintained a comparative solitude. They try
+their strength by butting at imaginary enemies, and choose their wives,
+unless prevented by others of their species mightier than themselves,
+with whom, if fairly matched, they enter into the most formidable
+contests, to win or to be driven from the herd with ignominy. During
+these contests the sound of their battering antlers may be heard
+for considerable distances, whilst now and then, by accident, they
+interlock themselves inextricably, and perish both, as is attested by
+skulls so found, and to be seen in more than one museum.
+
+Looking upon the Deer generally, we find them inhabiting many parts of
+the world--Europe, Asia, and America. In Africa none occur south of
+the Sahara, they being there replaced by members of the Bovine section
+of the order. None are found in Australia, and in America they are far
+less common than in Great Britain. To understand the peculiar features
+and the distribution of the various species, it is necessary to
+classify them in groups of kindred genera, most falling into sections
+which are distinguishable without difficulty.
+
+In arranging the different members of the Deer-tribe for description,
+there are peculiarities in their outward conformation which agree
+with those internal differences upon which all correct notions of
+relationship alone can be established. In classifying animals,
+naturalists must always be guided by the totality of the structure of
+each member of each group; but, as in describing them to those who
+have not made the minute details of their organisation their special
+study it is impossible to lay stress on all the various parts which
+have to be included by the student in arriving at the desired result,
+those outward features only can be mentioned which are found to tally
+with their total structure, namely, their osteology, their visceral
+anatomy, and their muscular arrangement. As an example of the relative
+importance of different external structures, we may mention that the
+late Dr. J. E. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Ruminant Mammalia in the
+British Museum, gives the following arrangement of the genera, in which
+the length of the tail suggests one distribution of them, whilst the
+shape of the antlers is in favour of another, which is very different:--
+
+
+  1.--_Tail very short                      2.--_Tail elongate, with
+        or clubbed._                             longer hair at
+                                                    the end._
+
+                                 Antlers    { Mantchurian Deer.
+  Red Deer and its near allies.  elaphine   { Japanese Deer.
+                                            { Fallow Deer.
+  Eld’s Deer.                 }
+  Barasingha Deer.            }  Antlers    { Hog Deer.
+  Schomburgk’s Deer.          }  rusine     { Spotted Axis.
+  Sambur and its near allies. }
+
+  Roebuck.                    }  Antlers
+  Chinese Elaphure.           }  capreoline.
+
+This table is useful as a means of comparing the tails of the different
+genera; but other points of structure do not in the least support the
+classification suggested by that appendage, as a result of which it has
+to be ignored in the consideration of distant affinities, although,
+where questions of specific proximity are concerned, it is found to be
+of considerable value.
+
+The antlers render much more trustworthy information in the
+determination and expression of relationships; and their characterising
+features can be most readily grasped by having an ideal type in the
+mind wherewith to compare all aberrant and complicated specimens. This
+ideal type may be derived in one or other of two ways. The first of
+these is from the study of the antlers as they are each year developed
+in any given kind of Deer, commencing with its earliest age. For
+example, in the Common Red Deer: in the spring of the year following
+its birth the antlers are nothing more than straight, conical, and
+unbranched “beams,” the animal being then known as a “Brocket.” In
+the following spring the antler has, besides the “beam,” a small
+branch from its base, directed forwards, known as the “brow antler;”
+it is then termed “Spayad.” In the third year an extra front branch
+is formed, known as the “tres,” and the whole antler is larger. This
+“tres” is sometimes seen in the smaller antler of the Spayad. In
+the fourth year the brow-antler is doubled, to form the “brow” and
+“bez-tyne,” at the same time that the top of the main beam divides
+into the “sur-royals” of the “Staggard,” or four-year male. In the
+fifth year the sur-royals become more numerous, the whole antler of the
+“Stag” being heavier than previously, only to be exceeded in weight
+by those of the fully adult “Great Hart,” with ten or more “points,”
+each being larger and longer than the year before. In Great Britain
+the conditions of life and the food are not of the quality which
+develops first-rate antlers, at the same time that it is--in Scotland,
+at least--the habit to shoot those with the finest heads, and so leave
+the indifferent specimens to perpetuate their species. In some of the
+ancient forests of Germany superb heads of the Red Deer are to be
+obtained, whilst in several of the old castles of that country antler
+trophies are preserved as memorials of sport in times gone by, with as
+many as six-and-sixty points. Lord Powerscourt has in his possession a
+pair with five-and-forty tynes.
+
+The second way is from the study of the antlers of the species in
+which they are simple, in comparison with those in which they are
+particularly complex, both methods as they ought to do, leading to the
+same result. There are Deer--as, for example, the American Brockets,
+David’s Deer, and Reeves’ Muntjac--in which the antler is never more
+than a simple dag, like that of the “Brocket” stage in the Red Deer.
+There are others with never more than a single tyne besides the beam,
+as instances of which may be mentioned the Indian Muntjac and the
+Huamel. Others, again--and these form an important section of the
+family--are triply branched, as in the Spayad, the beam bifurcating
+some distance above the brow-antler. As instances of these we find
+the Sambur Deer of India, with its large and thus simple antlers; the
+closely-allied Javan and Swinhoe’s Deer; the Spotted Axis; the Hog
+Deer, and the Roebuck.
+
+We have now arrived at the stage in which the beam has bifurcated,
+and almost all the more elaborate forms result from an excess in the
+development of both, or one or other, of the limbs of this bifurcation.
+In the Deer known as Elaphine--because they more or less resemble the
+Red Deer (_Cervus elaphus_)--the front of these two branches (the
+“tres”) does not increase or become complicated, whilst from the
+much-enlarged hind one the numerous sur-royals spring in the biggest
+species, such as the Wapiti, Cashmere, Red, and Barbary Deer, as well
+as the Maral, of Persia. In the smaller species which follow this type
+of structure the sur-royals are less developed, at the same time that
+the brow-antler does not split in two to form a “bez” as well, examples
+of which are to be seen in the Mantchurian, Formosan, and Japanese
+Deer, as well as in the Fallow Deer and its newly-discovered ally
+from Mesopotamia. These two last-named differ also in the “palmation”
+of their antlers--a peculiarity referred to further in the special
+description of the species.
+
+[Illustration: VARIOUS TYPES OF ANTLERS.
+
+(From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]
+
+The accompanying outline diagram represents the most important types
+of antlers, to one or other of which those of almost every known Deer
+can be referred. To facilitate future description, they may be named as
+follows:--
+
+    Fig. 1.--Rusine type.
+         2.--Normal Rucervine type.
+         3.--Intermediate Rucervine type.
+         4.--Extreme Rucervine type.
+         5.--Sub-elaphine type.
+         6.--Elaphine type.
+
+    (A) Brow-tyne.
+    (B) Tres-tyne.
+    (C) Royal-tyne.
+
+The Rusine type (1), in which the brow-tyne (A) is simple, at the
+same time that the beam ends in a simple bifurcation, is found in the
+Sambur Deer (_Rusa Aristotelis_) of India. The Rucervine type, in
+which the bifurcate beam is further subdivided, tends to be prolonged
+in the direction of the tres-tyne (B), at the same time that there
+is a corresponding reduction of the royal (C). In Schomburgk’s Deer
+(_Rucervus Schomburgki_) of Siam, both branches of the beam are equally
+developed (2); in the Swamp Deer (_Rucervus Duvaucelli_) of India
+(3), the tres (B) is larger than the royal (C); whilst in Eld’s Deer
+(_Rucervus Eldi_) (4), of Burmah, there is but a small snag (C) at the
+back of the enormous tres-tyne (B) to represent the royal. The Red Deer
+(_Cervus elaphus_) (6), besides having the brow-tyne (A) re-duplicated,
+has the royal (C) developed at the expense of the tres (B), and much
+divided up in well-grown animals. In the Japanese Deer (_Cervus sika_)
+(5) and its allies the relative proportions of the tynes are much the
+same, although the brow-tyne (A) is simple.
+
+
+THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER.[29]
+
+The Elk, the largest of the family of the _Cervidæ_, is found in
+North America, Northern Europe, and the coldest parts of Asia, thinly
+scattered in all but the first-named locality. At the shoulder it
+may attain so great a height as eight feet when adult. The female is
+antler-less. In the male these appendages possess quite a peculiar
+shape, the two together forming a kind of basin, on account of their
+being developed into huge palmated concave sheets of bony tissue, which
+diverge laterally from the skull.
+
+[Illustration: ELK HUNT.]
+
+[Illustration: YOUNG ELK.]
+
+At nine months old the antlers first appear, not being more than
+straight and rounded dags in the first year. They reach their full
+length in the fifth year, from which period for many more years they
+increase in breadth and weight, and add, it is said, a fresh point
+to their palmated margins until the fourteenth, when the creature is
+considered quite adult.
+
+The colour of the animal is a deep blackish-brown; the neck is short
+and thick, with a peculiar bob-shaped, pendulous, and hair-covered
+lap of skin hanging down from its middle, just behind the angles of
+the jaw. The limbs, especially the front ones, are long; the tail is
+rudimentary. The coat is formed of close-set harsh angular hair, which
+breaks when bent, produced into a mane upon the neck and shoulders.
+Sir John Richardson gives the following account of the habits and food
+of the Elk, with the mode of hunting it:--“In the more northern parts
+the Moose Deer is quite a solitary animal, more than one being very
+seldom seen at a time, unless during the rutting season or when the
+female is accompanied by her fawns. It has the sense of hearing in very
+great perfection, and is the most shy and wary of all the Deer species,
+and on this account the art of Moose-hunting is looked upon as the
+greatest of an Indian’s acquirements, particularly by the Crees, who
+take to themselves the credit of being able to instruct the hunters of
+every other tribe. The skill of a Moose hunter is most tried in the
+early part of the winter; for during the summer the Moose, as well as
+other animals, are so much tormented by Mosquitoes that they become
+regardless of the approach of man. In the winter the hunter tracks the
+Moose by its footmarks in the snow, and it is necessary that he should
+keep constantly to leeward of the chase, and make his advance with the
+utmost caution, for the rustling of a withered leaf or the cracking of
+a rotten twig is sufficient to alarm the watchful beast. The difficulty
+of approach is increased by a habit which the Moose Deer has of making
+daily a sharp turn in its route, and choosing a place of repose so near
+some part of its path that it can hear the least noise made by one that
+attempts to track it. To avoid this, the judicious hunter, instead
+of walking in the animal’s footsteps, forms his judgment from the
+appearance of the country of the direction it is likely to have taken,
+and makes a circuit to leeward until he again finds the track. This
+manœuvre is repeated until he discovers by the softness of the snow, in
+the footmarks and other signs, that he is very near the chase. He then
+disencumbers himself of everything that might embarrass his motions,
+and makes his approach in the most cautious manner. If he gets close
+to the animal’s lair without being seen, it is usual for him to break
+a small twig, which, alarming the Moose, it instantly starts up, but
+not fully aware of the danger, squats on its hams and waits a minute
+before setting off. In this posture it presents the fairest mark, and
+the hunter’s shot seldom fails to take effect in a mortal part. In the
+rutting season the bucks lay aside their timidity, and attack every
+animal that comes in their way, and even conquer their fear of man
+himself. The hunter then brings them within gunshot by scraping on the
+blade-bone of a Deer, and by whistling, which, deceiving the male, he
+blindly hastens to the spot to assail his supposed rival. If the hunter
+fails in giving it a mortal wound as it approaches, he shelters himself
+from its fury behind a tree, and I have heard of several instances in
+which the enraged animal has completely stripped the bark from the
+trunk of a large tree by striking with its fore-feet. In the spring
+time, when the snow is very deep, the hunters frequently run down the
+Moose on snow-shoes, which give them immense advantage, because the
+slender legs of the animal sink into the snow for their whole length
+each step they take, which makes their progress very slow.”
+
+The usual pace of the Moose is a high shambling trot, and its strides
+are immense. On account of their necks being short at the same time
+that their legs are long, they browse upon the bushes rather than on
+the ground, which they find difficulty in reaching with their mouths.
+
+
+THE ELAPHINE DEER.[30]
+
+This group is characterised by the presence of a bez-tyne in all its
+members--except that under the influence of protracted bad nutrition
+individuals resident in barren parts may lose it--whilst the tres-tyne
+is small, and the third main branch of the antler splits up into
+several snags, sometimes arranged in the form of a cup. The deep brown
+coat is varied by a conspicuous light, almost white patch upon the
+rump, in which the uncovered rudiment of a tail is included. All the
+species are large, the best known to us being
+
+
+THE RED DEER.[31]
+
+This species is a native of the British Isles and many parts of Europe.
+Northern specimens are much the smaller, and carry far inferior
+antlers, those of South Germany and Hungary possessing heads worthy,
+of the species. In England they are still to be found wild in Exmoor
+Forest, in Scotland north of the Forth and Clyde; and in Ireland about
+Killarney, Connemara, and Erris.
+
+[Illustration: RED DEER.]
+
+A well-grown Stag stands over four feet at the withers, with a
+thickly-coated neck of a greyish tint, a rich red-brown body-colour,
+uniformly curved symmetrical antlers, and head held high. The Stag in
+summer is a lordly creature. In winter its coat is longer and of a
+greyer tint. As is the case in allied species, and all but a few of the
+Rusine Deer, the new-born calves are brilliantly spotted with white.
+
+[Illustration: RED DEER AND FALLOW DEER IN WINTER.]
+
+The pairing season occupies the early part of October. The calves are
+born at the end of May or the beginning of June; whilst the Stags
+drop their antlers between the end of February and the earlier days
+of April, the youngest latest. Up till the age of twelve the animal
+continues to increase in bulk and strength, and it is highly probable
+that they do not ever much outlive twenty years, although superstition
+credits them with very many more.
+
+It is towards the end of August or the beginning of September that the
+well-nourished Stags, having already cleared their antlers of their
+“velvet,” leave their retirement, and with swollen necks as well as
+restless mien, seek out the hinds. During the rutting season, which
+lasts about three weeks, they eat but little, and lose weight rapidly,
+to be regained in the subsequent repose upon the summer-developed
+foliage. In the southern counties of Great Britain the hunting of the
+Stag has degenerated into the repeated chase of a few individuals,
+deprived of their antlers, and let out of boxes shortly before the
+sportsmen put in an appearance; whilst long-ranged rifles have reduced
+the difficulties of what not many years ago--more especially in
+Scotland--was a form of sport which very severely taxed the physical
+capacities of the most determined and courageous.
+
+[Illustration: RED DEER FIGHTING.]
+
+The WAPITI, the PERSIAN, the CASHMERIAN, and the BARBARY DEER resemble
+the Red Deer in almost every detail except size, the first and second
+being considerably larger. Their antlers all branch in the same manner,
+except that the proportionate sizes of some of the snags are apt to
+vary. Superb heads of Wapiti are numerous in Great Britain, with their
+brown beams and white burnished tips.
+
+The Wapiti is kept in confinement without difficulty, although in
+autumn the stags become savage. Its home is the woodlands and the
+mountains of North America, where it is generally incorrectly called
+the “Elk.” Stalking the species is a common sport, but there is not so
+much interest associated with it as with Moose-stalking, because it
+is a more stupid creature, and its senses are less acutely developed.
+When started, a herd will make off for a short distance, and stop
+to recognise the source of danger before continuing its flight. Its
+food is mostly leaves of trees and shrubs, though it frequently eats
+grass and weeds. Dr. J. D. Caton, of Ottawa, Illinois, who has had
+much experience in the preserving of American Deer, has published
+many interesting details with regard to this species. Among others
+he mentions, with reference to the young, that “the most prominent
+instinct of the young fawn is that of deception. I have several times
+come across fawns evidently but a few hours old, left by the mother in
+supposed security. They affect death to perfection, only they forget
+to shut their eyes. They lie without a motion, and if you pick them up
+they are as limp as a wet rag, the head and limbs hanging down without
+the least muscular action, the bright eye fairly sparkling all the
+time.” The venison is excellent; it is said to be more nutritious than
+any other meat.
+
+The Persian Deer, or Marāl, differs from the Cashmerian Deer but
+little. Its head, however, is longer and more pointed.
+
+The Cashmerian Deer, or Barasingha, again, is hardly distinguishable
+from the Wapiti. Professor Leith Adams remarks, with reference to it,
+that “the Cashmere forests seem the head-quarters of this species
+on the western ranges, for it is seldom, if ever, met with between
+Mussouree and the Vale of Cashmere. The dense forests and fertile
+valleys of the latter country are particularly inviting to this
+species. In habits and general appearance the Cashmere Stag bears a
+striking resemblance to the Red Deer. Although it is seldom, nowadays,
+that individuals of the latter species escape the hunter so long as to
+attain the size and magnitude of the Barasingha [twelve points], yet I
+think it will be found that the horns of those killed in the forests of
+Scotland in former years are equal in size to any at present met with
+in Cashmere. It is in the dense pine forests on the Northern Pinjal,
+and in the many beautiful valleys among these ranges, that we find
+the species most abundant. There are very few on the southern ranges.
+In the secluded depths of these solitudes they lie all day, to issue
+forth at dusk and feed on the grassy hill-sides, or descend even into
+the Valley of Cashmere when forced by the snows of winter. An adult
+Stag averages thirteen hands in height. The colour of the coat varies
+but little in the sexes or the seasons of the year; dark liver-colour,
+with reddish patches on the inner sides of the hips; belly and lower
+parts white, or a dirty white. The male has the hair on the lower part
+of the neck long and shaggy (wanting in the female); the horns large,
+and usually very massive, with from ten to fifteen or more points,
+according to age (the largest pair of horns I have measured were four
+feet round the curves, with six and seven points). They are shed in
+March; and the new horn is not completely formed until the end of
+October, when the rutting season commences, and the loud bellowings of
+the Stags are heard all over the mountains. During vigorous winters
+they are frequently driven to seek for shelter and food around the
+villages in the valleys, when many are destroyed by natives, who hunt
+them with Dogs. The Cheetahs, Wild Dogs, and Bears are said to kill the
+young.”
+
+The very similar Barbary Deer is most interesting, in that it is the
+only member of the Cervine group which is found in Africa.
+
+[Illustration: FALLOW DEER.]
+
+
+THE SUB-ELAPHINE DEER.[32]
+
+The JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, and MANTCHURIAN DEER are all species allied
+to those just described, but differing in being smaller in size, at
+the same time that the antlers conform to the sub-elaphine type,
+in which the bez-tyne is never present, and the sur-royals are but
+inconsiderably branched. They are all strongly spotted in their
+summer dress, which, especially in the Mantchurian--the largest of
+the species--is most brilliant. In the winter their coats are nearly
+uniform, and of a dark brown colour. A fawn-red is the groundwork
+of the summer coat, the spots being yellowish-white, whilst a black
+streak, in perfect contrast, runs the whole length of the middle of
+the back, continuing down the tail and expanding slightly at its base.
+The throat is white. The sombre winter coat is a nearly uniform dark
+red-brown.
+
+[Illustration: SAMBUR DEER.]
+
+The FALLOW DEER (_Dama vulgaris_), so well known on account of its
+being preserved in a semi-domesticated state in so many English parks,
+has antlers constructed upon the same plan as those of the Mantchurian
+Deer (sub-elaphine). These, however, present special peculiarities
+found in none of the allied species, for they are palmated in their
+upper parts, in the region of the sur-royals, the digitations or
+terminal points being developed along the convex posterior margins
+of the palmated surface. The buck is about three feet high at the
+shoulder. The head is short and broad, the tail between seven and
+eight inches long. The colour of the wild animal, both buck and doe,
+is a rich yellowish-brown in summer, spotted with white all over. In
+winter the tints are more sombre and greyish. Domestic varieties vary
+immensely, both in the distinctness of the spotting and the general
+colouration. Until six years of age the buck receives a separate name
+each year from sportsmen--fawn, pricket, sorrel, soare, buck of the
+first lead, and buck complete, being the terms employed--the antlers
+not being developed at all in the fawn, being simple snags in the
+pricket, with two front branches in the sorrel, with slight palmation
+of the extremity of the beam in the soare, and the whole antler larger
+and larger until the sixth year. The venison of the Fallow Deer is
+fatter than that of the Red Deer, and is preferred by most.
+
+[Illustration: BORNEO RUSINE DEER.]
+
+The species is not a native of Britain, having most certainly been
+introduced, although exactly when is not known. The dark-coloured and
+more hardy breed was brought from Norway by James I. Its true wild
+habitat was probably the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, both north
+and south.
+
+The PERSIAN FALLOW DEER,[33] so closely related to the species just
+referred to that they breed together, was made known to us in 1875 by
+Sir Victor Brooke, who described it from specimens sent to England by
+Mr. Robertson, the British Vice-Consul at Busrah. It resembles the
+Common Fallow Deer in almost every detail, except that it is slightly
+larger, and that the antlers are not the same. As stated above, in the
+Common Fallow Deer the antlers, whilst developed on the sub-elaphine
+type, are palmated in the region of the royals, with several snags
+projecting from the upper margin, at the same time that the lower
+portion of the beam, the tres, and the brow-tynes are cylindrical, as
+usually is the case in other species.
+
+[Illustration: AXIS DEER.]
+
+In the Persian Fallow the palmation at the extremity of the antlers is
+much less conspicuous, and scarcely exists, although many snags are
+present there, directed upwards. The palmation is at the bases of the
+antlers instead, including the brow-tyne and the beam, so that the
+general appearance of the antlers is quite peculiar to the species.
+
+
+THE RUSINE DEER.[34]
+
+The SAMBUR, OR GEROW (_Rusa Aristotelis_), of India, is found
+abundantly in all the hill-districts of that country. It is nearly
+five feet high, of a deep brown colour, with the hair of the neck
+developed almost into a mane. The tail is of fair length. Its build is
+massive, as are its antlers, which present three powerful points, and
+reach over three feet in length. Above the considerable brow-tyne the
+beam bifurcates high up into two fairly equal snags, and no more in
+well-grown antlers. The hind is much less massive, and of a yellowish
+tint. Captain Kinloch says of the species that “Sambur delight in
+stony hills, where there is plenty of cover, and where they can have
+easy access to water. They browse more than graze, and are nearly
+nocturnal in their habits. During the daytime they seek the most
+shady retreats, and old Stags especially are most difficult to find,
+frequently betaking themselves to almost inaccessible places, where
+the uninitiated would never dream of looking for them. The experienced
+hunter, indeed, has frequently to depend more upon fortune than his
+own knowledge of woodcraft.” In Java an almost identical species
+differs mostly in having the hinder of the two branches of the beam of
+the antler longer than the one in front. Swinhoe’s Deer from Formosa
+is also almost indistinguishable, at the same time that Sumatran and
+Bornean specimens agree with it in being particularly dark in colour.
+
+Three smaller species, with antlers branched in exactly the same
+manner, are found in the islands of Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and the
+Philippines.
+
+The HOG DEER of India and Ceylon is not bigger than the Roebuck
+although the legs are shorter and the body heavier. Its antlers
+consist of a brow-tyne and bifurcate beam, of which the posterior
+tyne is short, and turned inwards; they rarely exceed a foot and a
+half in length. It is of a uniform dark brown colour, rarely spotted
+indistinctly with white. Their name is derived from the pig-like way in
+which they run, with their heads low, when pursued.
+
+The SPOTTED HOG DEER is a rare species, of a slightly lighter colour,
+and with pale yellow spots.
+
+The AXIS DEER of India, sometimes called the Cheetal, resembles the
+Fallow Deer in size and colouration most closely, although its antlers
+serve to show that its true relations are quite different. These latter
+are not palmated at all, and are quite rusine in type, presenting the
+three points characteristic of them, the front tyne of the bifurcate
+beam being of great length. There is a beauty in the intensity of the
+spotting of the coat of this species which is unequalled by any other
+member of the Cervidæ, and it is interesting to know that according to
+the universal testimony of sportsmen, the effect of sunlight through
+foliage so much resembles it that it is almost impossible to recognise
+the animal in the woods. They have a reputation for being indolent, as
+they feed during the night, and sleep throughout the day, frequenting
+the heavy grass jungles along the banks of rivers. Their cry is a
+shrill bark at the approach of danger. The accompanying figure (see
+Plate 26), drawn from a specimen in captivity, gives an excellent idea
+of the immense length attained by the antlers, which in this particular
+case are blunt-tipped, because not quite fully grown. The hinder tyne
+on the right side, it will be noticed, is almost entirely hidden in the
+hair of the flank.
+
+PRINCE ALFRED’S DEER,[35] about the size of the Fallow Deer, was first
+described by Dr. Sclater from a specimen brought from the Philippine
+Islands by the Duke of Edinburgh in 1870. Its glossy coat is of a rich
+chocolate colour, covered with pale yellow spots; a broad line along
+the back, as in all spotted Deer, being uninterrupted; the under parts
+are of a pale yellow. The antlers are only nine inches in length, but
+comparatively thick, and simply branched upon the rusine type, with
+three points. The legs are rather short, at the same time that the body
+is heavy.
+
+The SWAMP DEER.[36] The name Barasingha, signifying “twelve points,” is
+applied to two very different species of Indian Deer, the Cashmerian
+Deer, previously mentioned, and the Swamp Deer.
+
+The Swamp Deer of India and Assam is slightly smaller than the Sambur,
+not exceeding four feet in height. Its colour is a rich light
+yellow. As its name signifies it delights in moist situations, where
+it congregates in herds of great numbers. Its antlers are large, and
+of the intermediate rucervine type. The brow-tynes reach a foot in
+length, and are directed forwards with an upward turn at their tips.
+The beam is long, and branches into an anterior, massive, and branched
+continuation of itself, as well as a posterior smaller bifurcate tyne.
+
+[Illustration: SCHOMBURGK’S DEER.]
+
+In Siam this species is replaced by the closely-allied SCHOMBURGK’S
+DEER, a little-known species, in which the antlers are extremely
+elegant, the long brow-tyne being followed by a short beam which
+bifurcates into two equal branches, these again, each of them,
+bifurcating in a similar manner.
+
+ELD’S DEER, OR THE THAMYN.[37] This Deer, which differs from the Swamp
+Deer only in its antlers, was discovered by Captain Eld, in 1838. It
+abounds in the swamp lands of Burmah, and extends as far east as the
+Island of Hainan. Its form is slimmer than that of the Red Deer, at the
+same time that it is somewhat smaller, attaining a height of over four
+feet. During the summer months its body-colour is a light rufous brown,
+with a few faint indications of white spots. Its under parts are nearly
+white, as are the insides of the hairy ears. Its tail is short, and
+black above. In winter its lengthy hair takes on a darker tint.
+
+Lieutenant R. C. Beavan has given an excellent account of the habits
+of Eld’s Deer, from which we learn that their food must consist almost
+entirely of grass and paddy, which grow both cultivated and wild, in
+the swamps in which they dwell. “In habits they are very wary and
+difficult of approach, especially the males. They are also very timid,
+and easily startled; the males, however, when wounded and brought
+to bay with Dogs, get very savage and charge vigorously. On being
+disturbed they invariably make for the open, instead of resorting
+to the heavy jungle like Hog Deer and Sambur. In fact the Thamyn is
+essentially a plain-loving species; and, although it will frequent
+tolerably open tree-jungle for the sake of its shade, it will never
+venture into dense or matted underwood.... When first started the
+pace of the Thamyn is great. It commences by giving three or four
+large bounds like the Axis or Spotted Deer, and afterwards settles
+down into a long trot, which it will keep up for six or seven miles on
+end when frequently disturbed.” As to the means employed to hunt them,
+the same author informs us that “a large number of men would assemble
+from the neighbouring villages, and gradually encircle three or four
+moderate-sized herds with long strings, upon which plantain-leaves were
+tied so as to flutter in the wind. The circle, originally formed at
+some distance, was gradually lessened as the Deer, afraid to pass the
+scarecrows, got gradually driven together, until they were completely
+surrounded and at the mercy of the hunters. The object was to get them
+into a corner near the heavy jungle, into which, if they attempted
+to run, they either became entangled, or allowed their pursuers to
+get up quite close. As many as a hundred and fifty to two hundred,
+my informant tells me, he has himself seen killed in one battue in
+former years. To such a length was this [shameful] system carried, and
+such enormous havoc was thereby created, that the Burmese Government,
+fearing the species would be utterly exterminated, wisely put a stop to
+the practice.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MUNTJACS--THE ROEBUCK--CHINESE DEER--REINDEER--AMERICAN
+DEER--DEERLETS--CAMEL TRIBE--LLAMAS.
+
+  The MUNTJACS--Distribution--Characters--THE INDIAN MUNTJAC,
+  OR KIDANG--Hunting--THE CHINESE MUNTJAC--Habits--DAVID’S
+  MUNTJAC--“Shanyang”--THE ROEBUCK--THE CHINESE WATER
+  DEER--Peculiarity--Chinese Superstition regarding it--THE
+  CHINESE ELAPHURE--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE
+  REINDEER--Distribution--Character--Colouration--Antlers--Canadian
+  Breeds--Food--THE AMERICAN DEER--THE VIRGINIAN DEER--THE MULE
+  DEER--THE BLACK-TAILED DEER--THE GUAZUS--THE BROCKETS--THE VENADA,
+  OR PUDU DEER--THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS--Antlerless--Their
+  Position--Bones of their Feet--General Form and
+  Proportions--Species--THE MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET--THE JAVAN
+  DEERLET--THE KANCHIL--THE STANLEYAN DEERLET--THE WATER DEERLET--THE
+  CAMEL TRIBE--Their Feet--Stomach--Its Peculiarity--The Water
+  Cells--THE (TRUE) CAMEL--Description--The Pads of Hardened
+  Skin--Its Endurance--Its Disposition--Anecdote of its Revengeful
+  Nature--THE BACTRIAN CAMEL--THE LLAMAS--Description--Habits--Used
+  as Beasts of Burden--Wild and Domesticated Species--THE
+  HUANACO--THE LLAMA--THE VICUNA--THE ALPACA--The Alpaca
+  Industry--FOSSIL RUMINANTIA--Strata in which they are
+  found--_Chœropotamus_--_Hyopotamus_--_Dichobune_--_Xiphodon_--
+  _Cainotherium_--_Oreodon_--_Sivatherium_--Fossil
+  Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels, Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes--The
+  Irish Elk--Its huge Antlers--Its Skeleton--Ally--Distribution.
+
+
+THE MUNTJACS.[38]
+
+The Muntjacs form a group of small and elegant Deer found in India,
+Burmah, China, the Malay Peninsula, and the large islands of the
+Indo-Malay Archipelago. They differ from all other members of the
+family in that their diminutive antlers are supported on lengthy bony
+pedestals, covered with a hairy skin much like the horn-processes of
+the Giraffe. Most, also, have a pair of elongated longitudinal ridges
+between the eyes, within the folds of which small glands are situated,
+at the same time that there is a dark crest of retroverted hair,
+tending to the shape of a horseshoe, upon the forehead. In the males
+the upper canine teeth develop into tusks, which project externally
+some way below the lip, though not so far as in the Musk, forming
+efficient instruments of attack.
+
+The INDIAN MUNTJAC, OR KIDANG, is the best known species. Its antlers
+attain a larger size than those of any of the others, although they are
+not more than four inches long, composed of an undivided beam, at the
+base of which there is a diminutive brow-tyne. Its size is slightly
+less than that of the Roebuck, its colour uniformly foxy red-brown,
+with the throat, hind part of abdomen, and under surface of tail white.
+A black line runs up the inner side of each antler-pedestal of the
+male, instead of forming the frontal horseshoe of the female.
+
+Dr. Horsfield tells us that in Java, where it is much hunted, “the
+Muntjac selects for its retreat certain districts, to which it forms
+a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many
+of these are known as the favourite resort of the animal for several
+generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, diversified
+by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities of the more
+considerable mountains, or approaching the confines of extensive
+forests.... The Muntjac has a strong scent, and is easily tracked by
+Dogs. When pursued it does not go off, like the Stag, in any accidental
+direction; its flight, indeed, is very swift at first, but it soon
+relaxes, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which
+it was started. After several circular returns, if the pursuit be
+continued, the Kidang thrusts its head into a thicket, and in this
+situation remains fixed and motionless, as if in a place of security,
+and regardless of the approach of the sportsman.”
+
+[Illustration: INDIAN MUNTJAC.]
+
+In China the Muntjacs are smaller than those of India and Java; their
+antlers are less developed at the same time that the tint of their
+coats is less rufous, and the neck is not white. They were first
+described by Mr. Ogilby under the name of Reeves’ Muntjac, a larger
+form having been more recently discovered by M. A. Milne-Edwards and
+Mr. Swinhoe. With reference to its habits the last-named naturalist
+tells us that “this species affects the low ranges of hills which
+are covered with long, coarse grass and tangled thicket. It is there
+usually found in small herds, basking in the sun, or lying in hidden
+lairs. They are very seldom approached near, except by stealth. The
+least noise startles them, and they dash away with bounds through the
+yielding grass, occasionally showing their rounded backs above the
+herbage. They have, however, their regular creeps and passes through
+the covert, near which the natives lie when stalking them, while others
+drive them. The little startled creatures hurry from danger along
+these beaten tracks, and are then picked off with the matchlock.” In
+captivity they soon become very docile, even when taken in the adult
+state. The flesh of this animal is very tender and palatable.
+
+The enterprising missionary Père David, among his numerous discoveries
+in Chinese zoology, sent from Moupin, in Western China, to Paris,
+skins of a peculiar Muntjac, which is of special interest. Having
+canine tusks, a black frontal hairy horseshoe, and the proportions of a
+Muntjac generally, its antlers are not more than an inch long, at the
+same time that their pedestals are correspondingly reduced in length
+as well as thickness. Its body-colour is mouse-brown, verging on grey,
+whilst the hairy covering is coarse. It may be called DAVID’S MUNTJAC.
+
+Very shortly after the above-mentioned skins arrived at Paris, Mr.
+Michie, of Shanghai, forwarded to Mr. Swinhoe in England another
+specimen from Ningpo, which, although derived so far east of Moupin, is
+almost indistinguishable from that belonging to the latter district.
+The animal is there known as the “Shanyang,” or Wild Goat. It is an
+undoubted Muntjac, although peculiar in not possessing the glands on
+the forehead found in the more common species.
+
+
+THE ROEBUCK.[39]
+
+This elegant, small, and almost tailless Deer is, like the Red Deer,
+a native of Great Britain, as well as of all Northern Europe and Asia
+below the line of perpetual snow. In Asia the individuals attain a
+greater size than in Europe. The adult Roebuck stands a little over
+two feet high at the shoulder. Its colour is a dark reddish-brown in
+summer, becoming yellowish-grey in the cold weather. There is a large
+patch of white on the rump. The antlers, which are peculiarly near
+together at their bases, rarely exceed a foot in length, possessing
+three points, the rugose unbranched beam continuing from the
+considerable burr for half a foot unbranched; then bifurcating fore
+and aft, the posterior branch again bifurcating. The destruction of
+the forests throughout Britain has driven the Roebuck farther north,
+till now it is most common in the north of Scotland, although it still
+survives in the woods of Westmoreland and Cumberland. Its disposition
+is wild, shy, and cautious. Its favourite resort is the thick underwood
+of forests, living singly or in small companies of a pair with their
+young, which latter--contrary to what we find in the case of most other
+Deer--are two or three in number. Its venison makes very indifferent
+food.
+
+[Illustration: ROEBUCK: MALE, FEMALE, AND YOUNG.]
+
+
+THE CHINESE WATER DEER.[40]
+
+This is an entirely isolated small species, not bigger than an Indian
+Muntjac, discovered by Mr. Swinhoe, _in which there are no antlers_,
+the canine teeth of the upper jaw being developed into immense tusks
+which project downwards, as in the Musk and Muntjacs. The legs are
+short, and the body lengthy. The body-colour is a light red-brown
+all over. There is no tuft of hair on the head as in the Muntjacs, to
+which by some it might be imagined to be allied. From Mr. Swinhoe’s
+account of the species we learn that “In the large riverine islands of
+the Yangtsze, above Chinkiang, these animals occur in large numbers,
+living among the tall rushes that are there grown for thatching and
+other purposes. The rushes are cut down in the spring; and the Deer
+then swim away to the main shore and retire to the cover of the
+hills.... Fortunately for the Deer, the Chinese have an extraordinary
+dislike for their flesh. I could not ascertain why; but it must be
+from some strange superstition, as the Celestials are otherwise
+pretty omnivorous. The Deer are killed only for the European markets
+[of Shanghai], and sold at a low price. Their venison is coarse, and
+without much taste.... The Chinese at Shanghai call this animal the
+_Ke_, but at Chinkiang they are named _Chang_--the classical term for
+the Muntjac.”
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE WATER DEER.]
+
+
+THE CHINESE ELAPHURE.[41]
+
+This most interesting Deer was discovered in 1865 by the indefatigable
+French naturalist, M. Armand David. In his account of the animal, Dr.
+Sclater[42] tells us that M. David first observed it whilst looking
+over the wall of the Imperial Hunting-park at Pekin, to which no
+European is allowed admission. There it is found in a semi-domesticated
+state, its native place probably being Eastern Mantchuria. In 1869, Sir
+Rutherford Alcock succeeded in sending a living pair to England, which
+were exhibited for some time in the London Zoological Gardens, and
+from which much information has been obtained with reference to their
+habits. It resembles the Swamp Deer of India (_Rucervus Duvaucelli_) in
+its proportions and size, standing nearly four feet at the shoulder.
+The legs are somewhat heavy and the feet expanded, but it is in its
+antlers that the Elaphure is quite different from any other Deer. They
+are represented in the accompanying engraving, from which the abrupt
+ascent of the beam, with an enormous back-tyne arising from the lower
+end, and no brow-tyne, may be most clearly seen. The beam branches
+higher up, but its furcations follow none of the ordinary rules of
+cervine antler-growth.
+
+The body-colour of the animal is light and rufous, paler on the under
+parts. A black line runs some way down the back, being most conspicuous
+at the shoulders. The tail is not longer than in the Fallow Deer, and
+is hairy at the tip. Mr. Swinhoe tells us that the Chinese name is
+Sze-poo-seang, which signifies “like none of the four”--to wit, the
+Horse, the Cow, the Deer, or the Goat.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE ELAPHURE.]
+
+
+THE REINDEER.[43]
+
+The Reindeer, which differs from all its allies in that the females
+carry antlers as well as the males, forms so important an element in
+the social economy of the Laplanders that more has been written on its
+habits than of any other species of the family. It is found distributed
+throughout the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, extending
+farther south in the last-named of these in the same way as the
+isothermal line of 32° Fahr., as might be expected from the relation
+borne by its economy to its temperature. In Spitzbergen, Finland, and
+Lapland it attains the greatest size, being inferior in strength and
+stature in Norway and Sweden. In Iceland it has been introduced and
+thrives. The Caribou is the name by which it goes in the New World,
+where it extends through Greenland, Canada, and Newfoundland. The horns
+of the American variety differ from those of the Old World so much that
+it is not difficult to recognise their origin; nevertheless, attempts
+which have been made to establish the specific difference of the two
+forms have not found much favour with naturalists generally.
+
+[Illustration: REINDEER AT A LAPP ENCAMPMENT.]
+
+The animal, with a characteristic deer-like form, is powerfully
+built, with short limbs and heavy neck. The feet have the false hoofs
+well developed, while the fissure between the median toes is so much
+extended upwards, and the ligaments which bind them together are so
+loose, that their hoofs spread out considerably when pressed upon the
+ground, and so increase the surface for support upon the yielding
+snow--their most frequent foothold. Upon raising the limbs in rapid
+action these hoofs make a sharp snap at the moment when they close
+together.
+
+[Illustration: REINDEER.]
+
+Individuals vary much in tint as well as with the season. Some are
+entirely white, whilst in winter the coat is always lighter than in
+summer. Deep brown is the prevailing tint, and there is generally a
+band of white above each hoof. As in the Elk--another Arctic ruminating
+animal--the muffle of the nose is covered with hair, and is not moist.
+The fur is of two sorts--an outer covering of longer, harsh, brittle
+hair, and an under-coat of closely-matted and much finer, wool-like
+texture, which serves as an excellent protection against the inclement
+temperature, and makes the skins so valuable for articles of clothing
+in the Arctic regions.
+
+The antlers are strikingly large for the size of their owners.
+Although they vary considerably in detail, the general plan of
+their construction is always the same, agreeing with that of the
+Virginian Deer and the Barasingha. As in the Wapiti and Red Deer,
+the brow-antlers on each side are, however, re-duplicated, so that
+a bez is present. This, as well as the brow-tyne, is branched, or
+palmated, wherein it is peculiar; and further, in the Caribous one
+of the brow-tynes is generally aborted, in order to allow of the
+great development of its fellow of the opposite side into a palmated
+triangle, flattened from side to side, directed straight forward in
+the middle line of the head, and attached by its apex to the beam. The
+function of this share-like expansion in the economy of the animal can
+hardly be other than to remove the snow which covers its favourite
+food, each movement of the lowered head from side to side effecting
+this result. The beam is lengthy, curved boldly upwards and forwards,
+with a small snag at the back, about half-way from each end. Its
+extremity is branched and often palmated, much like the horns of the
+Fallow Deer. The beam may reach a length not more than three inches
+less than five feet. In the females the same plan of structure of the
+antlers exists as in the males. They are considerably smaller in every
+respect, more slender, and scarcely palmated, if at all so.
+
+The Woodland Caribou and the Barren-ground Caribou are the names
+given to a larger and a smaller breed in Canada. Both are hunted by
+the Indians for their flesh as well as for their hides, the venison
+obtained from the latter being held in high estimation. The pounded
+meat, when mixed with melted fat, is known as pemmican. The tongue is
+esteemed a great delicacy.
+
+The Reindeer, from the nature of the country it inhabits, is compelled
+to lead a migratory life, in which the natives of Lapland, who have
+to depend entirely for their sustenance on the animal, have to
+participate. Troops of them during the winter months reside in the
+woods, feeding on the lichens that depend from boughs of the trees, as
+well as on those that grow upon the ground beneath. In the spring they
+repair to the mountains in order to escape the swarms of stinging Gnats
+and Gad-flies which infest the air, and inflict wounds in the skin of
+most serious severity.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN DEER.
+
+In America there are several species of Deer which differ considerably
+from those of the Old World. In our remarks on these animals we will
+not include among them the Wapiti and the Elk: the Wapiti, because it
+is nothing but a large representative of the Red Deer of Great Britain;
+the Elk, because it stands very much by itself, at the same time that
+it is found in the Arctic Old World as well as in America. We ourselves
+think that the Reindeer conforms to the American type of structure,
+and have therefore described it in relation with the New World Deer,
+although most authors class it not far from the Elk.
+
+None of the typical Deer of America attain any considerable size, and
+their antlers are decidedly small when contrasted with those of the Old
+World. The species which will be first described is the VIRGINIAN DEER,
+which is the “Common” Deer of North America, and is slightly smaller
+than the Fallow Deer. Its colour is uniform, being of a reddish-yellow
+in summer and light grey in winter. The individual members of the
+species are small in Mexico, and get larger as they live more north.
+The antlers belong to the extreme rucervine type, their beams turning
+outwards and forwards in a very characteristic manner, with several
+points directed upwards from their convex border. The brow-tyne is
+short and pointed upwards instead of forwards. The tail is nearly a
+foot and a half in length. In disposition it is timid and wild, and is
+therefore domesticated with difficulty. Its flesh was in times gone
+by one of the staple articles of food of the aborigines. Audubon and
+other authors have described in detail the various modes employed in
+capturing these Deer, including the “still hunt,” “jack hunt,” “fire
+hunt,” &c., according to the nature of the country.
+
+The MULE DEER and the BLACK-TAILED DEER are not far distantly related
+North American species. The former is slightly larger than the
+Virginian and of a heavier build. Its tail is short, tufted, and white;
+its colour a dark grey in winter, dull yellow in summer. Its name was
+suggested from its lengthy ears. The latter is smaller, and has shorter
+legs. Its colour is tawny grey, the short tail black above and white
+below. Of both these species the antlers differ from the Virginian
+Deer in detail, only the brow tyne of the Black-tailed species being
+rudimentary, at the same time that the snags on the convex margin of
+the beam spring from a single stem instead of independently. In the
+Mule Deer they are smaller and less branched. Lord Walsingham, in
+writing of them, remarks, “They appear to frequent the thick willow
+clumps and other brushwood bordering the streams and swamps. They were
+extremely difficult to distinguish among the foliage, and remarkably
+quick when alarmed. As they bound off over logs and fallen trees, or
+dash through the thicket, they have a habit of swinging their broad
+white tails with a conspicuous flourish, which becomes annoying to a
+sportsman, to whom they never afford anything but a snap shot, which is
+very apt to fail.”
+
+[Illustration: GUAZUTI DEER.]
+
+The GUAZUS are small South American Deer with large ears and short
+tails, in which the antlers want the brow tyne, and have the beam
+branched in almost exactly the same way as Schomburgk’s Deer when not
+quite full grown. The Guazuti, one of them, is not more than two feet
+six inches in height.
+
+The BROCKETS are equally small, with minute antlers of a most simple
+form--whence the name--they being unbranched and shelving backwards.
+The colour of the fur in the Guava Viva and Brazilian Brocket is pale
+brown, and shining red-brown in the Red Brocket and the Eyebrowed
+Brocket.
+
+The VENADA, OR PUDU DEER, is not bigger than Reeves’ Muntjac or a Hare.
+Its colour is red-brown, and it has minute antlers, not far separated
+from one another. It inhabits the western coast of South America.
+
+
+THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS.[44]
+
+It is not until within the last few years that naturalists have
+separated off from the true Deer a group of diminutive animals which
+look like them in miniature, but are entirely destitute of antlers.
+These little creatures, known as Chevrotains, for which we take the
+liberty of coining the name Deerlets, were placed together with the
+Musk into a single section, characterised by the fact that the males
+possess large tusks situated in the upper jaw, which project downwards,
+and are conspicuous even when the mouth is fully closed, grooving the
+lower lip on each side. Now, however, they are entirely separated
+off from the Deer and Ox tribes, to constitute an independent family,
+because of the peculiarities of many of their parts. They have a
+complex stomach composed of paunch, honeycomb-bag, and reed, the
+manyplies being so much reduced in size, that it may practically be
+said not to be present.
+
+From the bones of their feet it is evident, too, that they cannot be
+correctly classed with the more ordinary Ruminants, and that they
+tend towards the other family of the Cloven-hoofed Ungulata, namely,
+the Swine. Each foot of the common Pig possesses four toes, that
+corresponding to our thumb in the fore-limb, and to our great toe in
+the hind being absent, as has been previously explained. The bones of
+all these toes are quite separate from one another, as in those of
+man, at the same time that those of the outer and inner digits in each
+limb are smaller than those which bear the larger hoofs. In the true
+Ruminants and in the Camel tribe these larger toes are partly fused
+together, the bones of digit three and digit four corresponding to
+those situated in the human palm and sole, being joined from end to end
+to form the “cannon-bone;” whilst those of digit two and digit five are
+reduced to mere imperfect splinters, or are sometimes altogether lost,
+as in the Giraffe and in the Camel. Now, in the Deerlets, these bones
+are not blended at all in the fore-limbs of the Water Deerlet of West
+Africa, in which, as in all the other species, digit two and digit five
+are perfect from end to end. They therefore stand, in this respect, as
+in others easily explained, intermediate between the Swine and the true
+Ruminants.
+
+[Illustration: JAVAN DEERLET.]
+
+All the Deerlets are particularly delicate, diminutive, and graceful
+animals, the slenderness and clear-cut outline of their limbs being
+exceedingly striking. With bodies as big as that of a Hare or Rabbit,
+their legs are not so thick as a cedar pen-holder or a clay pipe-stem.
+Their proportions are very much those of the small Water Bucks of
+Africa, and of many of the kinds of Deer, especially the Hog Deer of
+India, in which the body, as in them, is not carried very high above
+the ground. The want of antlers in both sexes makes them resemble Hinds
+rather than Stags at first sight, whilst their elegantly-pointed noses,
+and large dark eyes, add to their general interesting appearance.
+
+Of the Deerlets there are five species--the Meminna, the Kanchil,
+the Javan, the Stanleyan, and the Water Deerlets. The first four are
+confined to India, Ceylon, Malacca, Java, and Sumatra, the last being
+found in Sierra Leone and the Gambia district. These differ slightly in
+their size and markings, the MEMINNA, or INDIAN DEERLET, being nearly
+eighteen inches long, and about eight inches high at the shoulder, the
+tail being very short. As in its allies, the white spotting of the
+surface is disturbed by two or more streaks of the same which run along
+the flanks.
+
+The JAVAN DEERLET, known sometimes as the Napu, is smaller than the
+preceding. It is of a rust-brown colour above and white beneath, three
+white stripes radiating backwards, one along the middle line, and the
+other two laterally from the front of the neck. The short tail is
+white-tipped. The naked and moist muzzle is black. The Javan Deerlet
+is gentle in disposition, and somewhat uninteresting in captivity.
+Specimens are frequently brought to Great Britain, and live if
+carefully protected from the cold.
+
+The KANCHIL is still smaller in size, at the same time that it is
+darker in colour, especially along the back. Its activity and cunning
+are remarkable, so much so that Sir Stamford Raffles, in his original
+description of the creature, tells us that it is a common Malay
+expression, with reference to a great rogue, that he is “as cunning as
+a Kanchil.” Feigning to be dead when caught, its captor incautiously
+releases his hold, when the animal is immediately up and away before
+any means can be employed for its recapture. It is also said that when
+pursued by Dogs it will jump up towards a bough, and there hook itself
+by means of its lengthy tusks until its tormentors have passed under it.
+
+[Illustration: STANLEYAN DEERLET.]
+
+The STANLEYAN DEERLET was named after the grandfather of the present
+Earl of Derby, in whose menagerie at Knowsley the species was first
+recognised.
+
+The WATER DEERLET of West Africa is slightly larger than the Meminna.
+Its deep glossy brown coat is also streaked with white lines, and is
+irregularly spotted.
+
+
+THE CAMEL TRIBE, OR TYLOPODA.
+
+The name _Tylopoda_, by which the Camels, together with the Llamas,
+are known to naturalists, is derived from two Greek words (τύλος, a
+knot or callus, and πούς, a foot), signifying that the feet, instead of
+being protected by hoofs, are covered with a hardened skin, enclosing
+the cushion-like soles of the feet, which are so constructed that
+they spread out laterally when brought in contact with the ground, an
+arrangement of evident advantage to desert-ranging animals. The tips
+of each of the two toes are protected by nails, as can be seen in the
+accompanying drawing.
+
+[Illustration: FOOT OF CAMEL.]
+
+There are also other points in which these creatures differ from the
+more ordinary Ruminantia. In the front of the upper jaw there are two
+teeth--one on each side, placed laterally--which correspond to the side
+cutting teeth in man, and to the similarly-situated “nippers” of the
+Horse. In the Deer, Ox, Sheep, and their allies there is not a trace of
+these, as has been previously explained (page 4). As to the limbs, it
+may also be mentioned that the true knee-joints--which in animals like
+the Horse are almost entirely hidden within the general skin-covering
+of the body--are much more conspicuous and free.
+
+The stomach is peculiar; it wants the “manyplies,” or third
+compartment, but possesses the “paunch,” “honeycomb-bag,” and
+“abomasum,” the last-named of which is of great length. In the
+walls of the paunch there are present two extensive collections of
+“water-cells,” which serve their owners in good stead whilst traversing
+the desert or residing in regions where fresh water is not to be
+procured except with difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. A.--STOMACH OF THE LLAMA.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. B.--WATER CELLS OF THE CAMEL’S STOMACH.]
+
+Fig. A is a view of the stomach from below (or, in other words, from
+the side farthest from the backbone), in which it is seen that the
+clusters of water-cells (_a_ and _b_) are arranged, one (_a_) the
+larger, along part of the right border of the viscus, whilst the second
+(_b_) is transverse, the remainder of the walls being smooth. These
+water-cells, seen from within in Fig. B, are formed by the development
+of septa, both transverse and longitudinal, in the substance of the
+paunch-wall. They are deep and narrow, much like the cells of a
+honeycomb, and have a muscular membrane covering their mouths, in
+which there is an oval orifice opposite to each compartment capable of
+being further dilated or completely closed, probably at the will of
+the animal. When fully distended, these paunch-cells in the Arabian
+Camel are capable of storing a gallon and a half of water. The second
+stomach, or reticulum, is also modified in the same direction, the
+usually extremely shallow cells being deep, at the same time that
+food is never found in them after death. Of the last compartment, or
+“abomasum,” it may be noted that it is nearly cylindrical in shape, its
+walls being very muscular. It is in this stomach that true digestion is
+carried on.
+
+Of the Camels two species are known, differing in the number of the
+humps upon their backs. Nothing is known of either variety in the wild
+state. We will commence with the description of
+
+
+THE (TRUE) CAMEL.[45]
+
+The One-humped Camel of Arabia is frequently termed the Dromedary, but
+this latter name is correctly applicable only to the swift variety of
+the species which is employed for riding, the heavier-built One-humped
+Pack-Camel not being included under the designation.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF THE (TRUE) CAMEL.]
+
+It is the Arabian Camel--the _Ship of the Desert_--which is much
+more serviceable to man than its Bactrian ally. Its distribution has
+extended westwards along North Africa, from which attempts have been
+made to introduce it into Spain. Eastwards it is found as far as India.
+
+In the Camel the limbs and neck are lengthy. A single bulky hump
+is present on the middle of the back, composed of fatty cells held
+together by strong bands of fibrous tissue which cross in all
+directions. Like all similar accumulations, it varies much in size
+according to the condition of the animal, dwindling almost to nothing
+after protracted hard work and bad feeding, being firm and full in
+times of ease and plenty. When on the point of commencing a long
+journey, there is nothing on which an Arab lays so much stress as on
+the condition of his Camel’s hump, which, from what we have just said,
+must be considered to be nothing more or less than a reserved store of
+food.
+
+Upon the chest, the elbows, the fore-knees (true wrists), knees, and
+hocks, callous pads of hardened skin are found, upon which the creature
+supports its weight whilst kneeling down, a position in which it
+always rests, and one which it assumes when being loaded. These pads
+are present in the new-born Camel-calf, proving, contrary to the view
+maintained by some, that they are not the direct result of pressure,
+but are special provisions in accordance with the requirements of
+the species, arrived at by a process of natural selection, those
+individuals alone surviving in which there is the power of resisting
+the injurious effects of protracted strain upon a few spots of the skin.
+
+The coat is, in the summer, scanty; in the winter, of considerable
+length, and matted into lumps. The two-toed feet are very much
+expanded, and tipped with a pair of small hoofs. The lips are
+covered with hair, the upper one being split up for some distance
+in the middle line. The nostrils, when closed, are linear, and from
+their construction prevent sand from entering the air-passages when
+the animal desires it. The tail is of fair length, reaching to the
+ankle-joint. There is a fixity about its attitudes, and a formality
+about its paces, which is quite characteristic. Its power of enduring
+fatigue upon its scanty fare, whilst carrying a weight as great as 600
+lbs., together with its endurance, makes it invaluable in its desert
+home.
+
+[Illustration: (TRUE) CAMEL.]
+
+A stolid obstinacy is its usual disposition. Mr. Palgrave, criticising
+the reputation that the animal has for docility, remarks:--“If docile
+means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is the very model
+of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal that
+takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can; that in some way
+understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate fashion;
+that obeys from a sort of submissive or half fellow-feeling with his
+master, like the Horse or Elephant: then I say that the Camel is by no
+means docile--very much the contrary. He takes no heed of his rider,
+pays no attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on
+when once set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside;
+and then, should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of
+the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply because he
+is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a word, he is from
+first to last an undomesticated and savage animal rendered serviceable
+by stupidity alone, without much skill on his master’s part, and any
+co-operation on his own, save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither
+attachment nor even habit impresses him; never tame, though not wide
+awake enough to be exactly wild.”
+
+[Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMEL.]
+
+Nevertheless the animal gives indications of intelligence when badly
+treated, if we may judge from its revengeful nature, well illustrated
+in the following account:--
+
+“A valuable Camel, working in an oil-mill, was severely beaten by its
+driver. Perceiving that the Camel had treasured up the injury, and was
+only waiting a favourable opportunity for revenge, he kept a strict
+watch upon the animal. Time passed away; the Camel, perceiving that it
+was watched, was quiet and obedient, and the driver began to think that
+the beating was forgotten, when one night, after the lapse of several
+months, the man was sleeping on a raised platform in the mill, whilst,
+as is customary, the Camel was stabled in a corner. Happening to awake,
+the driver observed by the bright moonlight that, when all was quiet,
+the animal looked cautiously around, rose softly, and stealing towards
+a spot where a bundle of clothes and a bernous, thrown carelessly on
+the ground, resembled a sleeping figure, cast itself with violence upon
+them, rolling with all its weight, and tearing them most viciously
+with its teeth. Satisfied that its revenge was complete, the Camel was
+returning to its corner, when the driver sat up and spoke. At the sound
+of his voice, and perceiving the mistake it had made, the animal was
+so mortified at the failure and discovery of its scheme, that it dashed
+its head against the wall and died on the spot.”
+
+
+THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.[46]
+
+The Two-humped Camel is found in the regions to the east and north of
+the home of its One-humped ally, extending as far as Pekin and Lake
+Baikal. It it a heavier, shorter-legged, and thicker-coated species, at
+the same time that the feet are more adapted to a less yielding soil
+from their greater callousness. The hair is specially abundant upon the
+top of the head, the arm, wrist, throat, and humps. There is no variety
+of this species corresponding to the Dromedary One-humped Camel.
+
+[Illustration: HUANACO ATTACKED BY A PUMA.]
+
+
+THE LLAMAS.[47]
+
+The Llamas, when the term is employed in its wider sense, include the
+American representatives of the Camel tribe, none of which have any
+trace of the dorsal hump or humps found in their Old World allies. They
+are mountain animals, found in the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili, in
+this respect also differing from the desert-loving Camels, with which
+they agree in all important structural peculiarities, including the
+stomach, lips, nostrils, and coat. The feet are somewhat modified in
+accordance with the rocky nature of the mountain regions which they
+inhabit, the sole-pads being less considerable, and almost completely
+divided into two hard cushions, with a long and hooked nail in the
+front of each.
+
+[Illustration: ALPACA.]
+
+Llamas were found domesticated when South America was first discovered
+by the Spaniards, and as there were then no Mules or Horses there,
+these creatures were employed exclusively as beasts of burden, as well
+as for their flesh, their wool, and hides. Their disposition and their
+habits also resemble those of the Camel. They have their own peculiar
+gait and speed, from which they cannot well be made to vary. When
+irritated they foam at the mouth and spit, sulking and lying down when
+overloaded. As beasts of draught their most important use is to convey
+the ores from the mines of Potosi and elsewhere in the Andean range.
+From the account of Augustin de Zerate, who was a Peruvian Spanish
+Government official in the middle of the sixteenth century, we learn
+that “in places where there is no snow the natives want water, and
+to supply this deficiency they fill the skins of Sheep [Llamas being
+meant] with water, and make other living _Sheep_ carry them, for it
+must be remarked that these _Sheep_ of Peru are large enough to serve
+as beasts of burden. They can carry about one hundred pounds or more,
+and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would go four or five
+leagues a day. When they are weary they lie down upon the ground,
+and as there is no means of making them get up, either by beating or
+assailing them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is
+a man on one of them, if the beast is tired he turns his head round and
+discharges his saliva, which has an offensive odour, into the rider’s
+face. These animals are of great use and service to their masters, for
+their wool is very good and fine, particularly that of the breed called
+Pacas, which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is
+trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four
+or five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat
+Sheep of Castile.”
+
+[Illustration: LLAMA.]
+
+It is somewhat difficult to decide exactly the relations of the wild
+to the domesticated species of the Llamas. It seems most probable that
+there are two true species, known as the Huanacos (_Lama huanacos_) and
+the Vicuna (_Lama vicugna_), of the former of which the true Llama is a
+domesticated variety, as the Alpaca is of the latter.
+
+The HUANACO--or Guanaco, as it is sometimes written--has a more
+elongated head and more slender legs than the Vicuna, at the same
+time that there are elongated warty tubercles upon the hinder limbs
+not found in the latter species. Its height at the shoulder is three
+feet and a half. The fur is uniformly brown, at the same time that it
+is rough and short. It can be domesticated without difficulty. Its
+tail is short and hairy. Its native haunts are the highlands of Peru
+and Chili, as well as farther south, where it lives in herds, which
+descend to the valleys in the winter months. When hunted they have a
+habit of now and again facing their pursuers, after which they gallop
+off afresh. When attacked at close quarters they defend themselves by
+striking with their fore-feet. From Mr. Darwin’s account of the animal
+in the “Voyage of the _Beagle_,” we learn that it “abounds over the
+whole of the temperate parts of South America, from the wooded islands
+of Tierra del Fuego, the rough Patagonia, the hilly parts of the La
+Plata, Chili, even to the Cordillera of Peru. Although preferring an
+elevated site, it yields in this respect to its near relative the
+Vicuna; on the plains of Southern Patagonia we saw them in greater
+numbers than in any other part. Generally they go in small herds, from
+half a dozen to thirty together, but on the banks of the St. Cruz we
+saw one herd which must have contained at least five hundred. On the
+northern shores of the Strait of Magellan they are also very numerous.
+Generally the Guanacoes are wild and extremely wary. The sportsman
+frequently receives the first intimation of their presence by hearing
+from a distance the peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then
+looks attentively, he will perhaps see the herd standing in a line on
+some distant hill. On approaching them, a few more squeals are given,
+and then off they set at an apparently slow--but really quick--canter
+along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If, however, by
+chance he should abruptly meet a single animal, or several together,
+they will generally stand motionless, and intently gaze at him; then,
+perhaps, move on a few yards, turn round, and look again. What is the
+cause of this difference in their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the
+distance for their chief enemy, the Puma, or does curiosity overcome
+their timidity? That they are curious is certain; for if a person lies
+on the ground and plays strange antics, such as throwing up his feet
+in the air, they will almost always approach by degrees to reconnoitre
+him.... On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, and in other places, I
+have more than once seen a Guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh
+and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner,
+apparently in defiance as a challenge.... The Guanacoes readily take to
+the water; several times at Port Valdez they were seen swimming from
+island to island. Byron, in his ‘Voyage,’ says he saw them drinking
+salt water. Some of our officers likewise saw a herd drinking the briny
+fluid from Salina, near Cape Blanca. I imagine, in several parts of the
+country, if they do not drink salt water they drink none at all. In the
+middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust in saucer-shaped
+hollows.... The Guanacoes appear to have favourite spots for dying
+in. On the banks of the St. Cruz the ground was actually white with
+bones in certain circumscribed places, which were generally bushy, and
+all near the river. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty
+heads, some gnawed, as if by beasts of prey.”
+
+The Domestic Llama resembles its wild ancestor in most respects. Its
+colour may, however, be variegated, or even white. Its woolly coat is
+longer, but not so fine, and when it is removed by shearing the animal
+is conspicuously spotted.
+
+The VICUNA is a smaller animal of a light lion-brown colour, with a
+short and hairy face; its neck is lengthy, as in its allies; its height
+about two feet six inches. Its wool is particularly fine, and has been
+much employed, undyed, as a material for clothing. It is active and
+spiteful, inhabiting a region higher and therefore colder than the
+Huanaco.
+
+The Alpaca is its domestic form, with thicker and much darker wool,
+as well as shorter limbs. Its colour is often nearly black, or black
+varied with white or brown.
+
+The manufacture of alpaca stuffs dates from the year 1836, when Mr.
+(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt commenced weaving the unusually long-haired
+wool, which at the time found no sale in the markets on account of
+its not being suited to the existing combing apparatus. Since that
+period alpaca has been much employed as a fabric, possibly to be again
+replaced in great measure by the sheep wool of the Australian and other
+British colonies.
+
+
+FOSSIL RUMINANTIA.
+
+The study of fossil forms throws as much light upon the development
+of existing types of Ruminantia as it does in the case of the
+Perissodactyla. Until the last of the three great geologic epochs none
+have been found; whilst in the Tertiary strata from Eocene, Miocene,
+and Pliocene formations, numerous species are known, resembling
+existing types more closely as they are discovered in the more recently
+deposited strata.
+
+As might be anticipated from what has been said above, and as is
+indicated in the table of classification of the Artiodactyla on page
+336, Vol. II., the oldest forms of cloven-hoofed Mammalia must have
+been intermediate in structure between the Pigs and Ruminants. Such a
+creature existed at the close of the Eocene period in _Chœropotamus_,
+discovered first by the illustrious Cuvier in the palæontologically
+most interesting gypsum beds at Montmartre. Another specimen has also
+been found near Ryde, in the Isle of Wight. The creature was pig-like
+in size, and in the tuberculated structure of its grinders, the parts,
+together with the lower jaw, alone discovered as yet.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE IRISH ELK.]
+
+_Hyopotamus_, _Dichobune_, _Xiphodon_, and _Cainotherium_ were
+four-toed Upper Eocene transitional forms approaching the Ruminants,
+but all possessing upper cutting-teeth, the last-named differing but
+little from the Deerlets. _Oreodon_ is a genus of small pig-like
+animals, appearing first in the Miocene of North America, and evidently
+closely related to the Ruminantia. _Sivatherium_ was a gigantic
+Ruminant with four horns in pairs, and evidently a trunk. Its remains
+are found in the Miocene deposits of the Sewalik hills of India. Deer,
+Oxen, Goats, and Sheep first appeared in the Pliocene period, as did
+Camels and Llamas. Antelopes and Giraffes existed earlier, namely, in
+the Late Miocene. It is a fact of interest that Camels are abundant in
+the Miocene and Pliocene of North America, whilst they are only very
+scantily distributed in the same strata of the Old World, Arabia and
+Asia being their sole living habitat.
+
+Among the most interesting of the Pleistocene species which has been
+discovered in Great Britain is the gigantic Irish deer, a species
+originally included with the Elk, on account of the palmation and
+outward inclination of its huge antlers, in some specimens only a few
+inches less than eleven feet in span, and each more than five feet
+long in a straight line from burr to tip. In general form the antlers
+do not strikingly differ from those of the Common Fallow Deer. The
+brow-tyne is quite simple at its base, and generally slightly bifid at
+its extremity, there being no true “bez.” The beam is cylindroid as far
+as the insignificant “trez,” beyond which it is flattened out into a
+gigantic triangular expansion, or “palm,” with the free base developed
+into snags, usually about seven in number, and a fairly independent
+posterior tyne.
+
+[Illustration: IRISH ELK. (_Restored._)]
+
+At the withers the skeleton, which is quite cervine in every detail,
+measures as much as six feet; its great peculiarity in the male being
+the large size of the cervical or neck vertebræ, necessarily extra
+strong that they may support the massive antlers, about seventy pounds
+in weight. In the females, which had no cranial appendages, the
+vertebræ of the neck were one-third smaller.
+
+The accompanying figure is an attempt to represent the species under
+consideration, as it must have appeared when living. It is worthy of
+note, however, that as the coat of the Fallow Deer, which may be its
+nearest ally, is brilliantly spotted, the great Irish Deer may have
+resembled it in that respect.
+
+The first fairly complete skeleton of the species was found in the
+Isle of Man. Others have been obtained from Waterford and elsewhere in
+Ireland.
+
+    A. H. GARROD.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PRAIRIE DOG.]
+
+
+
+
+ORDER RODENTIA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION--THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, AND BEAVER
+FAMILIES.
+
+  Character of the Order--A well-defined Group--Teeth
+  Evidence--Kinds and Number of Teeth--The Incisors: their
+  Growth, Renewal, and Composition--The Molars--The Gnawing
+  Process--Skeleton--Brain--Senses--Body--Insectivora
+  and Rodentia--Food of Rodents--Classification--THE
+  SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--THE SQUIRREL-LIKE
+  RODENTS--SCIURIDÆ--Distinctive Features--THE COMMON
+  SQUIRREL--Form--Distribution--Food--Bad Qualities--Habits--THE
+  GREY SQUIRREL--THE FOX SQUIRREL--Flying Squirrels--Their
+  Parachute Membrane--THE TAGUAN--Appearance--Habits--Other
+  Species--THE POLATOUCHE--THE ASSAPAN--The Genus
+  _Xerus_--THE GROUND SQUIRRELS--THE COMMON CHIPMUNK--THE
+  MARMOTS--Distinguishing Features--THE SPERMOPHILES--THE
+  GOPHER--THE SISEL, OR SUSLIK--THE BARKING SQUIRRELS--THE PRAIRIE
+  DOG--Description--Species--Habits--Burrows--Fellow-inmates in their
+  “Villages”--THE TRUE MARMOTS--THE BOBAC--THE ALPINE MARMOT--THE
+  WOODCHUCK--THE HOARY MARMOT, OR WHISTLER--ANOMALURIDÆ--Tail
+  Peculiarity--Distinctive Features--HAPLODONTIDÆ--Description--THE
+  SEWELLEL--CASTORIDÆ--THE BEAVER--Skeletal Peculiarities--General
+  Form--Appearance--Distribution--The Beavers of the Old and New
+  World--Habits--Wonderful Sagacity--The Building Instinct--Their
+  Method of Working--The various Stages--Their Lodges--Their
+  Dams--Activity by Night--Flesh--Hunted--The _Castoreum_.
+
+
+While the last few chapters have been devoted to orders which contain
+the largest and most powerful of terrestrial mammalia, we have now to
+treat of a group, all the members of which are of comparatively small
+size. “Mice, rats, and such small deer,” to use Shakspere’s phrase,
+make up a great proportion of the order Rodentia. The biggest of them
+is only about the size of a small Pig; and perhaps the common House
+Rat, or, at any rate, the common Squirrel, may be taken as showing the
+average dimensions of a Rodent. But, although from this point of view
+they may be looked upon as “a feeble folk,” their numerous species
+render them a most important section of the mammalian fauna of nearly
+all countries, and this importance is greatly increased, practically,
+by the immense number of individuals by which each species is usually
+represented.
+
+The Rodentia, or gnawing mammals--GLIRES, as Linnæus and some modern
+zoologists call them--notwithstanding the great number of the species
+and the immense variety of forms which they display, constitute,
+perhaps, the most definitely circumscribed order of the Mammalia. In
+most other groups of the same value, we find that some types exhibit
+divergent characters, which render it difficult to frame a general
+description of the order which shall include them; or else some species
+present a marked tendency towards some other order; but in the case of
+the Rodents, we never have any difficulty, a cursory inspection of the
+dentition is always sufficient to decide whether a quadruped belongs
+to the Rodentia or not; and in spite of an almost infinite variety of
+form, the structure of the rest of the organism is most clearly in
+accordance with the evidence derived from the teeth.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE TAGUAN, A FLYING SQUIRREL.]
+
+The teeth are only of two kinds--incisors and grinders (_see_ the
+above figure of the skull of the Taguan)--and the number of efficient
+teeth of the former kind is never more than two in each jaw. Almost
+throughout the order, indeed, there are actually, even from the first,
+only two incisors present; but in the Hares and Rabbits, and some
+allied forms, there are in the upper jaw, in addition to the working
+teeth, a pair of rudimentary incisors,[48] placed immediately behind
+the large ones, but quite incapable of taking any part in the business
+of gnawing, for which the latter are so admirably fitted. Their
+presence is, however, of interest, as indicating the direction in which
+an alliance with other forms of Mammalia more abundantly supplied with
+teeth is to be sought.
+
+[Illustration: DENTITION OF THE HARE.]
+
+The great incisors, which are characteristic of the Rodents, exhibit
+the following peculiarities:--They possess no roots, but spring from
+a permanent pulp, so that they continue growing during the whole
+life of the animal; and their form, and that of the cavity which
+constitutes their socket, is always that of a segment of a circle,[49]
+in consequence of which, they always protrude from the front of the
+jaws in the same direction, and meet at the same angle. By this means,
+as the teeth are worn away at their summits by use in gnawing, a fresh
+supply of tooth is continually being pushed forward to take the place
+of the portion thus removed, and, in fact, so intimately are the two
+functions of use and growth correlated in the teeth of these animals,
+that if by chance one of the incisors should get broken, or the natural
+opposition of these teeth should be disturbed in consequence of injury
+to the jaw, the teeth, thus deprived of their natural check, continue
+growing, and, following the curve of their sockets, gradually form
+circular tusks, which must always be greatly in the way of the animal
+when feeding, and sometimes, by actually penetrating again into the
+mouth, cause its death by absolute starvation. The teeth themselves are
+composed of dentine, coated along the front surface with a layer of
+hard enamel, which substance is wanting on the other surfaces of the
+teeth, except in the Hares, Rabbits, and other forms with additional
+rudimentary incisors in the upper jaw, in which, as further evidence
+of their relationship to the other Mammalia, the whole surface of the
+incisors is encased in enamel, although this coat is excessively thin
+except on the front or outer face. The purpose of this structure
+of the incisors is easily understood. In the action of gnawing, the
+dentine, which forms the greater part of the tooth, is more easily
+abraded than the harder enamel, which is thus left as a sharp front
+edge, to which the mass of dentine behind it, being worn away into
+a bevelled surface, gives the necessary firmness and support, the
+whole forming a chisel-like instrument, constructed precisely on the
+principle of those tools in which a thin plate of hard steel forms the
+cutting edge, and is stiffened by a thicker bevelled plate of softer
+iron.
+
+The canine teeth are entirely deficient, and behind the incisors
+we find on each side a toothless gap of considerable extent (_see_
+figures p. 82), beyond which come the grinding teeth. In these it is
+difficult to recognise any distinction of molars and pre-molars; the
+whole series presents nearly the same structural characters, and for
+all practical purposes we may speak of them as molars, although some
+zoologists prefer to regard the three hindmost teeth on each side as
+true molars, and any others that may be present as premolars. In one
+genus (_Hydromys_) the number of grinding teeth is reduced to two on
+each side in each jaw; in a great proportion of the species the number
+is three; others have four or five grinders on each side, either in one
+or both jaws (usually one more in the upper series); and the largest
+number is possessed by the Hares and Rabbits, in which the upper jaw
+has six and the lower five grinders.[50] The grinders are sometimes
+furnished with true roots, but are more commonly open below, and
+provided, like the incisors, with a permanent pulp. They are sometimes
+tubercular, at least in youth, but generally show a flat, worn surface
+with transverse bands, or re-entering folds, and sometimes cylinders of
+enamel, which display a great variety of patterns. Sometimes the enamel
+is confined to the surface of the tooth; in other cases each tooth is,
+as it were, made up of two or more variously-shaped tubular portions
+of enamel, filled up with dentine. Curiously enough, this structure
+of the grinders, especially the arrangement of the transverse ridges
+and plates of enamel in these little animals, reminds us strongly of
+the characters of the molars of the gigantic Proboscidea, in which,
+moreover, the incisors also are represented by the permanently-growing
+tusks.
+
+The articulation of the lower jaw with the skull is peculiar, and in
+special relation to the armature of teeth which we have described.
+Instead of articulating freely, as in man and many herbivorous mammals,
+by which provision is made for a sort of rotatory action of the molars,
+or by a regular transverse hinge-joint, as in the Carnivora, the
+articulating surfaces are elongated in a direction parallel to the
+middle line of the skull, an arrangement which, like that occurring in
+Carnivora, has the effect of preventing much lateral movement of the
+jaw; but, at the same time, the pits with which the jaw articulates are
+open in front, so that the jaw is allowed a certain amount of play,
+backwards and forwards. This motion greatly increases the gnawing power
+of the large incisor teeth.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE RABBIT.]
+
+The head in the Rodents is generally of small or moderate size in
+proportion to the body, and the skull is usually rather elongated,
+and flattened on the upper surface. The tympanic bullæ are generally
+of considerable size; the zygomatic arch is in nearly all cases well
+developed; but the orbits of the eyes are never closed behind, and only
+in certain families is there even a small process of the zygomatic
+arch behind the orbits, as an indication of possible closure. Of
+the vertebral column we need only say that the lumbar vertebræ are
+remarkable for possessing large transverse processes directed forwards,
+and that the tail varies greatly in length, being sometimes longer
+than the body, sometimes reduced to very small proportions, whilst
+between these two extremes almost every grade of development may be met
+with.
+
+The sternum, or breast-bone, is usually long and narrow. Collar-bones
+are nearly always present, but in a few forms they become rudimentary,
+or even disappear altogether. The pelvis is long and narrow. The limbs
+exhibit a very great variety in their development; in many, the two
+pairs are nearly equal in length, but in the majority the hind limbs
+are distinctly longer and more powerful than their fellows, and in some
+groups they attain a most disproportionate length, and serve almost
+exclusively as the organs of locomotion. On the other hand, in the
+great majority of the order, the fore limbs serve in a certain degree
+as hands, and are used for holding the food to the mouth; and in these
+the radius and ulna, which are always distinct bones, retain the power
+of rotation. The corresponding bones in the hind limbs (tibia and
+fibula) are, on the contrary, firmly anchylosed together in two great
+groups of the order. The feet have usually five toes, but sometimes
+this number is reduced to four, or even to three, in the hind feet.
+These toes are armed with claws, which, however, in one family, acquire
+more or less of the appearance of hoofs.
+
+In point of intelligence the Rodentia do not stand high. The brain is
+comparatively small, and the cerebral hemispheres show no traces of
+those convolutions of the surface which are characteristic of most
+Mammals (_see_ figures). The Capybara alone is known to have a few
+convolutions. The cerebellum is entirely uncovered by the hemispheres.
+The organs of the senses are generally well developed, and the eyes
+and external ears, especially, are often of large size. In the Mole
+Rats and some other burrowing forms, however, the external ears are
+entirely wanting, and the eyes are very much reduced in size, and in
+some instances even concealed beneath the skin. The intestinal canal is
+long, and in all but one family furnished with a distinct cæcum.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF BEAVER (_from above_).]
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF BEAVER. (_Profile._)]
+
+The body in the Rodents is generally plump and short, and the head is
+borne upon a short neck. The limbs also are usually short, so that the
+belly is close to the ground; but in some cases all four legs are of
+moderate length, or, as already stated, the hind legs are enormously
+developed, forming powerful leaping organs. In general structure, as
+to a certain extent in habits, there is, in fact, a most striking
+parallelism between the Rodentia and the Insectivora (_see_ Vol. I.,
+p. 343); in both we find arboreal and terrestrial forms, and among the
+latter some specially organised for burrowing in the earth, and others
+equally adapted for springing lightly over its surface; a few, also, in
+both orders, are aquatic. But here the parallel ceases. The dentition
+in the two groups is widely divergent, and, as might be anticipated
+from this circumstance, the food is very different; for, although some
+Rodents, such as the common Mouse and Rat, are omnivorous, there is no
+doubt that, as a whole, the Rodents must be regarded as vegetarians.
+Grass and the leaves of plants and trees furnish some of them with
+nourishment; whilst others feed upon fruits, seeds, and nuts, in the
+consumption of which last the powerful incisor teeth come into play.
+Many species lay up stores of food for the winter season, of which
+they pass more or less in a state of torpidity; and some of these are
+provided with cheek-pouches, often of considerable size, in which to
+convey their harvest into their store-houses.
+
+As might be expected from the great number of species belonging to this
+order, and their general uniformity of structure, their classification
+is a matter of some difficulty, and very different views as to their
+relationships have prevailed at different times. Nowadays, however,
+zoologists have arrived at something like uniformity of opinion in
+this matter, and except in some minor points they may be said to be
+pretty nearly agreed. In the following sketch of the natural history
+of the Rodents we shall follow the classification proposed by the
+late Mr. E. R. Alston in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.
+Mr. Alston accepted the division of the order into two primary groups
+(sub-orders), proposed fifty years ago by Professor Gervais, and
+characterised by the number of incisor teeth. The first of these
+sub-orders, which includes by far the majority of the Rodents, is
+formed by those species which never at any period of their lives
+possess more than two incisors in the upper jaw, and have the enamel on
+these strictly confined to the front surface of the teeth. These are
+denominated SIMPLICIDENTATA, or SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS. In the second
+group, which includes only the Hares, Rabbits, and Calling Hares, we
+have those species which in the adult state possess four incisors in
+the upper jaw, namely, two large and efficient teeth, and behind these
+two small, almost rudimentary incisors (_see_ figure of the dentition
+of the Hare on p. 82). These are called DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS, or
+DUPLICIDENTATA.
+
+
+SUB-ORDER I.--SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.
+
+Besides the characters derived from the number of incisor teeth above
+mentioned, several other peculiarities of structure seem to show the
+existence of a decided difference between the Simple-toothed and
+Double-toothed Rodents; but most of these are of a rather abstruse
+nature, and need not be noticed here, the most important additional
+distinctive characters of the former being that the bony palate is well
+developed, and that the fibula does not articulate with the calcaneum,
+or heel-bone; whereas in the Double-toothed Rodents the palate is
+reduced to a mere bridge between the portions of the upper jaw in
+which the teeth are inserted, and the fibula does articulate with the
+heel-bone.
+
+The Simplicidentata include a great number of families, and various
+attempts have been made to group these under larger heads; but it must
+be confessed that, owing to the way in which the families approach one
+another, it is difficult to bring them together in sections capable of
+being very strictly defined. Certain broad principles of relationship
+are, however, generally recognised, and Mr. Alston represented these
+by placing the Simple-toothed families under three great sections, the
+first indicated by Mr. Waterhouse--the Squirrel-like, Mouse-like, and
+Porcupine-like Rodents.
+
+The Squirrel-like Rodents have four molars on each side in the lower
+jaw, and either four or five in the upper. When the latter number
+is present, the foremost tooth is smaller than the rest. The fibula
+remains as a distinct bone through life, and is usually quite free,
+although sometimes attached to the tibia at the extremity. The upper
+lip is usually cleft, the muffle is small and naked, and the nostrils
+are comma-shaped, with the rounded part above. The zygomatic arch is
+formed chiefly by the process of the malar bone, which is not supported
+below by a continuation of the zygomatic process of the maxillary. The
+collar-bones are perfect. The tail is usually cylindrical and hairy.
+
+The Mouse-like Rodents agree with the preceding in the characters of
+the upper lip, muffle, and nostrils, but they have the tibia and fibula
+completely united for at least the last third of their length. The
+zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely extends so far
+forward as in the preceding group and is generally supported below by
+a continuation of the maxillary process. The collar-bones are perfect,
+except in one very small family; and the tail is cylindrical, and
+although sometimes hairy, more commonly covered with scales arranged in
+rings. The number of molar teeth in this section varies from three to
+six[51] on each side in each jaw, but three is the most usual number.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE TAGUAN.]
+
+The Porcupine-like Rodents, with one exception, have four molars on
+each side in both jaws; the fibula distinct throughout life; the upper
+lip rarely cleft; the muffle clad with a velvety coat of fine hairs;
+and the nostrils either S-shaped or straight. The zygomatic arch is
+stout, and the malar process does not advance far forward, nor is it
+supported below by the maxillary process.
+
+
+SECTION I.--(_SCIUROMORPHA._) SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS.
+
+
+FAMILY I.--SCIURIDÆ.
+
+This first family, which includes the true Squirrels and the Marmots,
+is distinguished from the rest of the section by the possession of five
+rooted molars on each side of the upper jaw (_see_ figure of the teeth
+on p. 85), the first being very small and sometimes deciduous, and
+four molars on each side of the lower jaw, and by the presence on the
+skull and zygomatic arch of small processes, indicating the posterior
+boundary of the orbits (_see_ figure of the skull on p. 82). The molars
+are tubercular, at least at first; but the summits of the tubercles are
+generally more or less worn down as the animal increases in age.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SQUIRREL.]
+
+The true Squirrels, which may be regarded as the types of this family,
+are distinguished by their slender and graceful forms, and their long
+and generally bushy tails, the latter character having originated
+their classical name of _Sciurus_, as a compound of two Greek words,
+indicating their habit of carrying their tails thrown up, so as to
+shade the back. Our COMMON SQUIRREL (_Sciurus vulgaris_) may serve
+as a good example of this division of the family. It is too well
+known as a pet to need any detailed description; its elegant form and
+graceful movements, the rich brownish-red colour of its upper surface,
+contrasting with the white of the belly, and the beautifully-pencilled
+or tufted ears, which, combined with its bright black eye, give it such
+a lively appearance, must be familiar to every one. When full-grown,
+the Squirrel measures from eight to ten inches in length of body, and
+has a tail seven or eight inches long. British specimens are generally
+smaller than those from the Continent of Europe. It varies considerably
+in colour with the seasons, especially in northern regions; but even
+in Central Europe and in Britain the fur of the sides and back becomes
+mixed with a certain quantity of greyish-white hairs in the winter,
+whilst in Lapland and Siberia the whole upper surface acquires a grey
+tint at that season. In the summer also the ear-tufts diminish, or
+altogether disappear. In the Alps and Pyrenees, there is a variety
+having the back of a dark brown colour, speckled with yellowish-white.
+This has been described as a distinct species, under the name of
+_Sciurus alpinus_.
+
+The Common Squirrel is a widely-distributed species. It is abundant all
+over Europe, except, according to Pallas, in the Crimea, and extends
+beyond the Ural Mountains through the whole length of Southern Siberia
+to the Altai and the Amoor region. It occurs in the Caucasus, and
+probably in Persia. Everywhere it haunts the woods and forests, living
+chiefly upon the trees, among the branches of which it displays the
+most astonishing agility. On the ground--to which, however, it does
+not often descend--it is equally quick in its movements. If alarmed
+under these circumstances, it dashes off to the nearest tree with
+lightning-like rapidity, and by the aid of its sharp claws rushes up
+the trunk till it has reached what it considers a safe elevation,
+when the little sharp face and bright eyes may be seen peeping at the
+intruder, apparently in triumph over his supposed disappointment.
+
+The food of the Squirrel consists chiefly of nuts, beech-mast, acorns,
+and the young bark, shoots, and buds of trees. In eating the former
+articles, they are held in the fore-paws, which thus supply the place
+of hands, and the strong incisors soon make a way through the outer
+shells into the contained kernels, which alone are eaten; for in all
+cases in which the kernel is coated with a coarse brown skin (as in
+the common hazel-nuts), the Squirrel carefully removes every particle
+of this from the portions on which he feeds. The bark, buds, and young
+shoots of trees seem generally to be attacked by the Squirrel when he
+finds a deficiency of other and more congenial nourishment; but this
+is so regularly the case in the spring of the year, that these animals
+actually cause a great amount of damage to the trees in forest regions.
+Hence, not unnaturally, the Squirrel is regarded in forest countries
+as a most mischievous little animal, whose depredations are not to be
+condoned on account of its elegant appearance and lively habits. As
+another unamiable quality, may be mentioned its habit of plundering
+birds’ nests and eating the eggs, which appears to be established upon
+unquestionable evidence. In some northern regions the inhabitants
+turn their Squirrels to a more profitable use than putting them, as
+we so often do, into a sort of treadmill. In Lapland and some parts
+of Siberia, especially on the banks of the Lena, these animals are
+killed in great numbers for the sake of their grey winter-coats, which,
+however, are not equal in beauty to those of the north American Grey
+Squirrel.
+
+The Squirrel passes the greater part of the winter in a torpid state,
+lying coiled up in some hole of a tree, where its long bushy tail is
+of service in keeping it warm and comfortable. On fine and warm days,
+however, it rouses itself from its slumbers; and, as if foreseeing
+the occurrence of such days, it lays up in the autumn stores of nuts,
+acorns, and beech-mast, upon which it can feed when it wakes during
+the winter. This winter provision is not laid up all in one place, but
+stored away in several different holes in trees surrounding the place
+of its own retreat.
+
+Squirrels appear to be strictly monogamous, pairing for life, and
+constantly inhabiting the same dwelling. The young, three or four in
+number, are produced in June, and for their reception the parents
+prepare a very beautifully constructed nest, formed of interlaced moss,
+leaves, and vegetable fibres, which is placed either in the hole of a
+tree, or in the fork between two branches. The young Squirrels are
+very carefully attended by both parents, and the family remains united
+until the following spring, when the young go out to find partners, and
+settle themselves in the world.
+
+The Common Squirrel may serve as an example of the whole genus
+_Sciurus_, which includes the ordinary Tree Squirrels, the species
+of which are very numerous, probably more than one hundred, and
+distributed over nearly all parts of the world. The species are most
+numerous in the warm Oriental regions, in India, and the countries
+and islands lying to the east of it, from which nearly fifty species
+have been recorded. The northern parts of the Old World only possess
+half a dozen species, but North America has about eighteen, many of
+which are considerably larger than the European Squirrel. The most
+striking of the North American species are the GREY SQUIRREL (_Sciurus
+carolinensis_) and the FOX SQUIRREL (_Sciurus niger_), both of which
+are abundant in the Atlantic States, and vary considerably in colour,
+presenting both grey and black individuals.
+
+[Illustration: BLACK FOX SQUIRREL.]
+
+Besides the ordinary Squirrels, a considerable number of other species
+are arboreal in their habits, and, indeed, even more strictly so than
+the true Squirrels. These are the Flying Squirrels, as they are called,
+which may be at once distinguished from the others by the presence
+of a large fold of skin, extending along the sides of the body, and
+including the limbs as far as the wrists and heels (_see_ figure on
+next page). In the case of the Common Squirrels, it is observed that
+in performing leaps of any considerable extent the limbs are stretched
+out, and the long, bushy tail extended, so as to give the animal as
+large a surface as possible; but in the Flying Squirrels, as in the
+Flying Lemur (Vol. I., p. 344), when the limbs are extended laterally
+the folds of skin (_patagia_) become tightly stretched, and form a
+regular parachute, which seems to give the animal essential support in
+its most extensive leaps. The extent of this membrane is increased by
+means of a sort of bony spur, which articulates with the wrist.
+
+The TAGUAN (_Pteromys petaurista_) is a large species, indeed, the
+largest of the whole family Sciuridæ. It measures about two feet long,
+and has a bushy tail of nearly equal length. Its ears are pointed, but
+not tufted, and its eyes are large and prominent. Its colour above
+is greyish-black, produced by a mixture of entirely black hairs with
+others having the tips greyish-white; beneath it is greyish-white.
+About the head and on the limbs the fur is tinged with brown or
+chestnut brown, and the lateral folds are sometimes of the latter
+colour, sometimes blackish-brown above and grey beneath. The tail is
+rounded in its form.
+
+This species inhabits the peninsula of India and Ceylon, Malacca and
+Siam, where it is found only in the forests, living in trees, either
+singly or in pairs. Its activity is chiefly nocturnal, in which respect
+it differs from the ordinary Squirrels. During the day it sleeps in
+the holes of trees, but at night it comes forth, climbing and leaping
+with the greatest rapidity about the trees on which it lives. While
+thus engaged the lateral membranes are loosely folded at the sides of
+the body; but from time to time the Squirrel wishes to pass from one
+tree to another at some distance, and then it ascends to a considerable
+elevation and springs off, at the same time extending all four limbs
+as much as possible, when the tightly-stretched folds of skin lend
+the body a support, which enables it to glide through the air to some
+distance, although it seems always to alight at a lower level than that
+from which it started. During these aerial excursions the long bushy
+tail serves as a sort of rudder, and enables the animal even to change
+its course during flight. Of the habits of the Taguan very little is
+known. It appears to feed upon fruits, and is exceedingly shy and
+fearful. Of a nearly-allied species which he observed in China, Mr.
+Swinhoe says that the nest, which was placed high up in a large tree,
+measured about three feet in diameter, and was composed of interlaced
+twigs, and lined with dry grass. It contained only a single young
+Squirrel; but this might be exceptional.
+
+[Illustration: TAGUAN.]
+
+Some nine or ten additional species of the genus _Pteromys_, which
+includes the Flying Squirrels with cylindrical tails, are found in
+the forest regions of India and of the countries to the east of that
+peninsula, including China, Formosa, and Japan. The same region also
+harbours three or four species of another kind of Flying Squirrel, in
+which the long hairs of the tail are arranged in two rows, and the
+tail is flat instead of cylindrical. These animals, to which the name
+of _Sciuropterus_ has been given, are, however, more numerous in the
+north, where their distribution extends from Lapland and Finland,
+through Siberia, to Northern China and Japan. Squirrels of this genus
+also occur over the whole continent of North America and as far
+south as Guatemala. The best known of the Old World species is the
+POLATOUCHE (_Sciuropterus volans_), which inhabits the north-eastern
+parts of Europe and nearly the whole of Siberia. It is an elegant
+little creature, about six inches in length, and with a broad, flat
+tail, rather shorter than the body: as, indeed, is the case in all
+the _Sciuropteri_. Its silky coat is in summer of a tawny brown on
+the upper surface, darker on the flying membrane and the outsides
+of the limbs, beneath pure white; whilst the tail is greyish above
+and light rusty red beneath. In winter the fur becomes longer and
+thicker, and appears of a silver grey colour on the upper surface.
+The Polatouche lives in the birch woods, or in places where pines,
+firs, and birches grow intermingled; but the presence of the birch
+seems to be a necessity of its existence. It is met with singly or in
+pairs, but always on the trees, sleeping during the day in its nest
+or in the hole of a tree, and coming forth at dusk to climb and leap
+about the branches with great agility. In going from tree to tree by
+the aid of its lateral membranes, it is said to cover distances of
+twenty or thirty yards with ease, always, however, taking its leap from
+the highest branches of the tree it starts from, and alighting at a
+considerably lower level. Its food consists of nuts, seeds, berries,
+the buds, young shoots, and catkins of the birch, and the young shoots
+of pines and firs. The nest is made in the hole of a tree, carefully
+lined with soft moss and herbage. Like the Common Squirrel, the
+Polatouche sleeps through the cold weather, but wakes up from time to
+time and goes out in search of food.
+
+[Illustration: POLATOUCHE.]
+
+This group of Flying Squirrels is also represented on the North
+American continent. The number of species seems rather uncertain, some
+authors making it two, others four; while Mr. J. A. Allen regards all
+the North American Flying Squirrels as belonging to a single species,
+which varies greatly in size in different localities. This species
+is the ASSAPAN (_Sciuropterus volucella_), one of the smallest of
+its family, the length of its head and body being only from four and
+three-quarters to seven and a half inches; the smaller specimens
+(var. _volucella_) being found in the more southern States, and even
+as far south as Guatemala; and the larger ones (var. _hudsonius_) in
+more northern localities. In its habits this elegant little Squirrel
+resembles the Polatouche, but appears to be more sociable. It thrives
+well in confinement.
+
+Besides these Tree Squirrels, a few species of the Sciurine sub-family
+live upon the ground. In Abyssinia and in other parts of Africa some
+curious animals, forming the genus _Xerus_, are found, distinguished
+by their very small ears, longish limbs, and the singular texture of
+their hair, which scantily clothes the skin and generally takes the
+form of flattened spines. They have a slender body, a pointed head,
+and a longish tail. These animals live in elevated forest regions,
+and even upon comparatively barren steppes, where they burrow in the
+ground under rocks, or among the roots of trees and bushes. They are
+diurnal, and feed chiefly upon buds and herbage, but also devour small
+birds, eggs, and insects. The best known species (_Xerus rutilans_) is
+about twenty inches long, of which the tail makes about nine inches.
+Its colour is reddish-yellow above, becoming paler on the sides, and
+whitish below.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON CHIPMUNK.]
+
+The true GROUND SQUIRRELS (_Tamias_) are distinguished from the rest
+of the Squirrels (_Sciurinæ_), and approach the Marmots, which form a
+second sub-family of Sciuridæ. Like some of the latter, they possess
+large cheek-pouches opening into the mouth. The ears in this genus are
+short; the fourth toe of the fore feet is longer than the rest, as in
+all the Sciurinæ; the limbs are short, and nearly equal in length; and
+the tail is shorter than in the true Squirrels. In general form and
+appearance, however, the Ground Squirrels greatly resemble the latter,
+except that they are rather stouter in the body. Four species of this
+group inhabit the continent of North America, where they are known as
+Chipmunks; and one of these, according to Mr. J. A. Allen, is identical
+with the only known Old World species (_Tamias asiaticus_), which is
+found in North-eastern Europe and across Northern Asia, as far as the
+mouth of the Amoor, North China, and Japan. This species, which goes
+by different names in the different localities which it inhabits,
+and the COMMON CHIPMUNK (_Tamias striatus_) of the United States,
+agree very closely in all respects, and are exceedingly pretty little
+animals, with light-coloured fur adorned with darker stripes, varied
+in the case of the Chipmunk with streaks of white. They are from eight
+to ten inches long, including the tail. These animals live in burrows
+in the ground, and feed upon nuts, acorns, grain, and other seeds
+of various kinds, of which they lay up great stores in the autumn,
+carrying home their provisions in their cheek-pouches, which they
+stuff as full as they can hold. In this way they do no small damage to
+cultivated grounds near their haunts, plundering the corn and maize
+fields very freely; over eight pounds of corn in the ear are often
+found in the granaries of the Siberian form. The burrow is made deep
+enough to protect the animals from frost in winter, and the sleeping
+chamber contains a large nest of leaves and grass, in which several
+individuals, probably the parents with their grown-up family, sleep
+through the cold weather; but it must be remarked that their torpidity
+is very imperfect, and that they have frequent recourse to the supplies
+of food which they have stored up during the summer and autumn in
+separate chambers at the ends of lateral passages. These stores are so
+large that they generally greatly exceed the wants of the provident
+little animals, and in the spring the residue is greedily devoured by
+Wild Pigs and Bears. Even the poorer human inhabitants of the countries
+frequented by the Ground Squirrels do not disdain to eke out their
+scanty means of subsistence by plundering the hoards of these animals.
+Many of them perish in severe winters, great numbers are destroyed by
+man, by the smaller Carnivora, and by birds of prey, but, nevertheless,
+they manage to hold their own, in consequence of the great fertility of
+the females, which produce several young twice in the year, namely, in
+May and August. At pairing time the males fight violently.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE MARMOT.]
+
+From the Ground Squirrels we pass, by a perfectly natural transition,
+to the MARMOTS (_Arctomyinæ_), the second sub-family of Sciuridæ. These
+animals differ from the preceding forms by their broader incisors,
+shorter tail, and stouter form of body, and by having the third finger
+longer than the rest. The first upper molar, also, is larger and more
+persistent than in the Squirrels, and the other molars differ in
+structure (_see_ figure). The Marmots are all terrestrial animals,
+living and storing provisions in burrows, which they dig in the ground,
+and they are strictly confined to the northern parts of the two
+hemispheres.
+
+[Illustration: STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, OR GOPHER.]
+
+[Illustration: BURROWS OF THE PRAIRIE DOG.]
+
+The nearest approach to the Squirrels is made by the SPERMOPHILES
+(_Spermophilus_), several species of which occur in North America
+from Mexico to the Arctic regions, but never to the east of the
+great central prairie region; whilst in the Old World their domain
+extends from Silesia, through Russia, and across Asia, to the Amoor
+and Kamstchatka. The Spermophiles are Squirrel-like in form and have
+rather short tails, but in the American species this organ is generally
+longer than in those of the Eastern continent. On the thumb the claw is
+either very small or altogether wanting; the two series of molars are
+nearly parallel, and the mouth is furnished with large cheek-pouches.
+The ears are very small. These animals live in society, and prefer
+a dry, sandy, or loamy soil, in which they can easily make their
+burrows, which terminate in a chamber lined with grass and herbage,
+and have, besides, side-chambers, in which provisions can be stored
+for winter use. Like the other species of the family, the Spermophiles
+pass the winter in a state of partial torpidity. In the summer they
+are exceedingly lively and playful. Their food consists of roots,
+berries, and seeds of various kinds, and their winter stores of these
+articles are carried into the burrows in their large cheek-pouches.
+The females are very prolific, producing from four to eight young at
+a birth, and in some cases even as many as ten have been found. The
+commonest and most widely distributed of the North American species is
+the STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, or GOPHER (_Spermophilus tredecimlineatus_),
+a pretty little creature of from six to eight inches long, usually of
+a chestnut brown colour with seven yellowish-white lines running along
+the back and between these six rows of small squarish spots of the same
+colour. This species extends its range from the Red River in Canada
+southwards as far as Texas, and is common on the prairies east of the
+Mississippi. This and some other species of the genus are said to be
+very carnivorous in their habits, preying upon small birds and mammals;
+and the Gopher was even described as feeding upon the flesh of Bisons,
+which it found lying dead on the prairies. The other American species
+are more local in their distribution; four of them occur in Mexico, and
+one of these is only known from that country. Of the Old World species
+the best known is the SISEL, or SUSLIK (_Spermophilus citillus_), which
+is abundant in Central and Eastern Europe and in Siberia. Several
+other species are known from Asia Minor, Siberia, and Central Asia.
+
+The BARKING SQUIRRELS, or PRAIRIE DOGS, of which two species (_Cynomys
+ludovicianus_, _see_ figure on p. 81, and _C. columbianus_) are found
+in the United States of America, are of a stouter form than the
+Spermophiles, and have the ears and tail short. The claws are well
+developed on all the toes of the fore feet, the cheek-pouches are
+shallow, and the two rows of grinding teeth converge towards the back
+of the mouth. These animals are peculiar to North America, where the
+former inhabits the prairies east of the Rocky Mountains, and the
+latter is found on the plains of the Columbia river, and in other parts
+of the western territories as far south as New Mexico. The best known
+of the two species is the _Cynomys ludovicianus_, to which the name of
+the PRAIRIE DOG was first applied: this name being given to it from
+a fancied resemblance of its voice to the barking of a small Dog. It
+measures about a foot in length, and its tail is about four inches
+long. Its colour on the upper surface is reddish-brown, variegated with
+grey, and with a few scattered black hairs; the tail is flattened,
+and brownish-black towards the end, and the lower surface is brownish
+or yellowish-white. These animals live together in great societies,
+especially upon those portions of the prairies where the so-called
+buffalo-grass (_Sesleria dactyloides_) grows most luxuriantly, this
+grass and succulent roots constituting their chief food. They live
+in burrows, which they dig in the ground at a distance of twelve or
+fifteen feet apart; a hard-beaten path runs from burrow to burrow, and
+would seem to give evidence of the sociable disposition of the animals;
+and at the mouth of every burrow there is a little hillock, formed by
+the earth thrown out of it, which serves the occupant as a watch-tower.
+These burrows are usually so numerous upon favourable pieces of ground
+that the space occupied by them is quite populous, and presents a scene
+of considerable animation when the inhabitants are out in the pursuit
+of their business or their pleasure, and hence they are in common
+parlance spoken of as “towns” or “villages.” Their curious appearance
+is heightened by the almost constant presence in them of numerous small
+Owls, of the species known as the Burrowing Owl (_Athene cunicularia_),
+a widely-spread species, which in some places digs its own subterranean
+habitation, but on these prairies saves itself the trouble by taking
+possession of the deserted abodes of the Prairie Dogs. These birds are
+diurnal in their habits, and are to be seen mixed up with the Prairie
+Dogs in their settlements. Another inhabitant of the burrows is the
+Rattlesnake; and some of the earlier observers thought that the Prairie
+Dogs, Owls, Rattlesnakes, and some other animals, such as Horned Frogs
+and an occasional Tortoise, occupied the same burrow, and lived there
+on the most amicable footing. Unfortunately, this paradisaic picture
+is an imaginary one. It is true that the Rattlesnake does take up his
+abode in the Prairie Dog’s burrows, but he either selects a deserted
+one, or dispossesses, and perhaps devours, the rightful owner; and his
+object in his residence among the lively little Marmots is anything
+rather than peaceful, as they constitute his favourite food. The little
+Burrowing Owl has also been said by some writers to feed on the young
+Prairie Dogs; but this is not proved, and the food of the Owls is known
+to consist chiefly of Grasshoppers and Crayfish. According to the
+latitude in which they live, the Prairie Dogs seem to be more or less
+subject to torpidity during the winter.
+
+The true MARMOTS (_Arctomys_) are nearly related to the Prairie Dogs.
+They are stout in the body, have a short tail, and a rudimentary thumb
+with a flat nail; and are either entirely destitute of cheek-pouches
+or have mere indications of those organs. The rows of molar teeth
+are placed nearly parallel to each other in each jaw. The skull is
+broad and flat above, with a depression between the orbits; and
+the post-orbital processes are larger than in any other Sciuridæ.
+The Marmots are confined to the Northern hemisphere, but over it
+they are widely distributed in both continents. Of the Old World
+species, the best known are the BOBAC (_Arctomys Bobac_) and the
+ALPINE MARMOT (_A. Marmota_), of which the former extends from the
+south of Poland and Galicia over the whole of Southern Russia and
+Siberia to the Amoor region and Kamstchatka, whilst it is found in
+elevated situations as far southward as Cashmere, Tibet, and the
+Himalayas; and the latter inhabits only the higher regions of the Alps,
+Pyrenees, and Carpathians. In North America the common species is the
+WOODCHUCK (_Arctomys Monax_), the distribution of which is from the
+Carolinas northward to Hudson’s Bay, and westward from the Atlantic
+coast to Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota; the Rocky Mountain region
+is inhabited by a distinct species (_A. flaviventer_); and a third
+very large species, the HOARY MARMOT, or WHISTLER (_A. pruinosus_),
+which measures from twenty-three to twenty-five inches in length of
+body, appears to be most abundant in the north-western parts of the
+continent, and is said to range northward as far as the Arctic Circle.
+The Marmots live usually in large societies in extensive burrows, which
+they form underground; and in some localities, as on the great plains
+of Russia and Siberia, their dwelling-places are described as producing
+a remarkable effect, owing to the multitude of little hillocks formed
+by the earth thrown out of their burrows. During the summer they are in
+a state of constant activity, playing and running about in search of
+food in the neighbourhood of their dwellings. The winter they pass in a
+state of torpidity, in a comfortable chamber lined with soft herbage,
+and protected from the outside cold by the closure of the main passage
+leading into their abode. For a time after their retirement for the
+winter they continue active in their domicile, and feed upon the stores
+of food which they have laid up during the summer; and as a preparation
+for their winter sleep, they become exceedingly fat during the autumn.
+The Marmots are the largest members of their family, and, indeed, some
+of them may be reckoned among the larger Rodents. The Alpine Marmot
+measures more than twenty inches in length, and the Bobac about fifteen
+inches, exclusive of the tail.
+
+[Illustration: ALPINE MARMOT.]
+
+
+FAMILY II.--ANOMALURIDÆ.
+
+Some curious African animals, closely resembling the Flying Squirrels,
+and at first regarded as belonging to that group, were formed by Mr.
+Waterhouse into a distinct genus, which he called _Anomalurus_, in
+allusion to the peculiar characters presented by their tail. This
+organ, which is long and well clothed with hair, although not so bushy
+as in the true Squirrels, has on the lower surface of its basal portion
+a double series of horny scales, which project from the skin, and
+probably serve to assist the animal in climbing upon the branches of
+trees.
+
+Besides this peculiarity, these animals exhibit certain other
+characters which have induced modern zoologists to separate them from
+the Squirrels as a distinct family. Thus, the post-orbital processes
+are wanting, or nearly so; the infra-orbital openings are large; the
+molar teeth are four in number on each side, above and below, nearly
+equal in size, and not tubercular, but with a flat surface, crossed by
+transverse loops of enamel; and the palate is contracted in front and
+deeply notched behind. In the skeleton we find sixteen pairs of ribs,
+whereas in the Squirrels there are only twelve or thirteen pairs; and
+the internal anatomy, first described by Mr. Alston, is very peculiar.
+The flying membrane is quite as largely developed as in the Flying
+Squirrels, and is in the same manner extended from the wrists to the
+heels, and further supported by cartilaginous spurs starting from the
+fore limbs; but, whilst in the Flying Squirrels this spur springs from
+the wrist itself, in the Anomalures it projects from the elbow, and
+thus produces a still greater extension of the membrane. The ears are
+well developed, the eyes large, and the general aspect both of head and
+body completely squirrel-like. Six species of this family have been
+described, all from the West Coast of Africa. One of them occurs in the
+island of Fernando Po. The species figured (_Anomalurus fulgens_) is
+from the Gaboon. It is a handsome little creature, of a bright reddish
+colour, paler below, and having a small white spot between the ears.
+Its length is fourteen inches, and its tail is seven inches long. In
+some of the other species the tail is as long as the body. Of the
+habits of these animals little is positively known, but they are said
+to feed upon fruits. They probably resemble the Flying Squirrels in
+their general mode of life.
+
+[Illustration: FULGENT ANOMALURE (From the _Proceedings of the
+Zoological Society_).]
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE ANOMALURE.]
+
+
+FAMILY III.--HAPLODONTIDÆ.
+
+This is another small family, smaller even than the preceding one, for
+it includes only a single known species, limited in its range to the
+western coast of North America. This is the Sewellel, a little Rodent,
+first observed by the American travellers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1805
+or 1806, described in 1814 by Rafinesque under the name of _Anisonyx
+rufa_, and afterwards, in 1829, by Sir John Richardson, as the type
+of a new genus, as _Aplodontia leporina_. This generic name has been
+corrected, in accordance with its derivation, by more recent writers,
+to _Haplodon_, from which the name of the family has been formed.
+
+In this animal there are five molars in the upper and four in the
+lower jaw; the first upper molar is very small, and all these teeth
+are rootless, simple, and prismatic, the surface of each tooth being
+surrounded by a mere border of enamel. The skull is very flat, very
+wide behind, and furnished with large zygomatic arches; between
+the orbits and in front it is much contracted, and there are no
+post-orbital processes. In the lower jaw the angular portion is twisted
+so as to form a horizontal ridge. The body is stout and clumsy, the
+tail very short, and the claws of the fore feet (which are five-toed,
+as well as the hind ones) are very powerful; in fact, as Dr. Coues
+says, “The whole organisation, viewed externally, indicates terrestrial
+and highly fossorial habits.”
+
+The SEWELLEL (_Haplodon rufus_) is about a foot long, with a tail
+of an inch or an inch and a half; its colour is brownish, with an
+intermixture of black hairs, lighter and more greyish below. The
+whiskers, claws, and upper surface of the feet are whitish, and
+the incisor teeth yellow. It inhabits the Washington and Oregon
+territories, from the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific, and
+extends also into the southern portions of British Columbia and the
+upper parts of California.
+
+The Sewellel is described as having very much the same habits as
+the Prairie Dog, living in society, burrowing very readily in the
+ground, and feeding on roots and berries. Their companies, however,
+seem to be much smaller than those of the Prairie Dog, and they are
+said chiefly to frequent spring-heads in rich, moist places. They are
+described as having the curious habit of neatly cutting off some herb
+or plant, which, when packed in bundles, they lay out and expose to
+the sun to dry; this is probably for the purpose of storing for winter
+consumption. It seems to be uncertain whether the Sewellel is torpid
+during the winter, but probably in this respect it varies according to
+local conditions or the coldness of the seasons. Dr. Suchley believes
+that the Sewellel has several litters of young during the season. The
+Indians trap them, and esteem them very highly as food. Cloaks or
+blankets are made of their skins, which are sewn together with fibres
+derived from the sinews of the Elk and Deer. A robe described by Sir
+John Richardson was composed of twenty-seven skins.
+
+
+FAMILY IV.--CASTORIDÆ.
+
+Unlike as the Beaver may be to a Squirrel, it yet presents many
+characters which prove that its nearest affinity is to the animals
+which compose the group Sciuromorpha. This relationship has indeed
+been overlooked by many zoologists, but Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen have
+clearly shown that Professor Gervais was right in placing the Castoridæ
+in close juxtaposition with the Squirrels. The peculiarities which make
+the apparent discrepancy so striking are indeed chiefly those by which
+the Beaver is adapted to an aquatic life.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE BEAVER.]
+
+The Beaver, which is the sole living representative of this family, is
+a more powerful animal than any of the preceding, and his incisor teeth
+and the means of working them are especially well developed. The head
+is large and the skull massive, and furnished with a distinct median
+(sagittal) crest for the insertion of the strong muscles which move the
+lower jaw. There are no post-orbital processes. There are four molars
+on each side in each jaw, and these are nearly similar in size and
+structure; but, contrary to what we have seen in the preceding groups,
+the first molar is the largest, and the others diminish in size towards
+the hinder end of the row. The series of teeth in the two sides of the
+mouth converge toward the front; and the teeth themselves, which are
+for a long time rootless, and only close up to form a simple root when
+the animal grows old, show three folds or loops of enamel on one side,
+and a single fold on the other: the three folds entering from the outer
+surface of the tooth in the upper jaw, and from its inner surface in
+the lower.
+
+The general form is stout and heavy, especially in the hinder parts;
+the tail is of moderate length, broad, flattened, and covered with a
+scaly skin; the feet are all five-toed, the fore pair considerably
+smaller than the hinder, but all well furnished with claws, and the
+hinder pair fully webbed to the extremities of the toes. The wrist has
+a large ossicle, in addition to those usually composing that part
+of the body. The eyes are small, have the pupil vertical, and are
+furnished with a nictitating membrane; the ears are small and short,
+and their antitragus can be so applied to the head as almost entirely
+to close the auditory aperture; and the nostrils are also so arranged
+as to be capable of closing.
+
+[Illustration: BEAVER.]
+
+The Beaver is usually about two feet and a half long, and is,
+therefore, one of the largest of the Rodentia, except the Capybara.
+The tail, which is flattened above and below, and of an elongated
+oval form, measures about ten inches. The muffle is naked; the ears
+scaly; the soles of all the feet are naked, and their upper surfaces
+clothed with hairs; and the second toe of the hind feet is usually
+furnished with a double claw, the additional one being placed beneath
+the other. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown on the upper
+surface, lighter and greyish below. The colour varies a little in
+different individuals, and appears to become darker, or even blackish,
+in northern localities. White or pied individuals are not uncommon.
+The Beaver appears to increase in size for some years after it has
+attained maturity. Mr. Allen says that in America “two-year-old Beavers
+generally weigh about thirty-five to forty pounds, while very old ones
+occasionally attain a weight of upwards of sixty.” The size of the
+skull seems to increase throughout life; the thickness and density
+of the bones also increase, and the ridges for the attachment of the
+muscles become stronger in old individuals.
+
+The Beaver is, or has been, distributed generally over all the northern
+parts of the Northern hemisphere, especially in the forest regions.
+Formerly it ranged over the whole of Europe, including the British
+islands, where there is historical evidence of its former existence,
+besides the skulls and bones which have been found in various places,
+but especially in the Fen lands. At present the animal appears to be
+completely exterminated in the southern parts of Europe from France
+southwards, with the exception of a small colony on the Rhone, which we
+believe is still in existence; and only a very few individuals survive
+in Germany, where they are found on a tributary of the Elbe, and in one
+or two other places. In some parts of Poland, Russia, and Austria, and
+in the Scandinavian peninsula, they still, to a greater or less extent,
+hold their ground; and in Asia they abound about the rivers of Siberia,
+and in the streams which flow into the Caspian Sea. In North America
+Beavers formerly abounded from Texas, and, according to manuscript
+evidence cited by Mr. Allen, even from Mexico, northward to the extreme
+limit of forest growth, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. The
+constant pursuit to which the animals were subjected, in consequence of
+the demand for their skins, greatly diminished their numbers, and in
+many localities altogether exterminated them; but they still occur over
+a very large extent of the North American continent, especially in the
+western territories, where they are even abundant in some of the wilder
+parts.
+
+In the preceding statements we have spoken of the Beaver as forming a
+single species; but it has long been a moot question with zoologists
+whether the Beavers of the Old and New Worlds were or were not
+specifically identical. The external differences are very slight,
+and those observed in the skull, upon which most stress has been
+laid, do not appear to be of sufficient importance for the separation
+of the animals as distinct species. They consist chiefly in the
+greater breadth of the anterior portion of the skull, including the
+inter-orbital space; the extension farther back of the nasal bones,
+the greater size and depth of the basilar cavity and the more anterior
+position of the auditory bullæ, in the European Beaver; but the
+examination of large series of specimens has proved that the skulls
+from both hemispheres present many exceptions, in which one or more
+of the peculiarities which they ought to exhibit do not occur: a
+circumstance which of necessity greatly invalidates the distinction
+founded upon such characters. Dr. Ely sums up the results of an
+extended investigation in the following words:--“The extremes of
+difference, in their aggregate, on the one side and on the other, are
+sufficiently striking to justify us in regarding them as varieties
+of one and the same species; while the want of constancy in these
+peculiarities suggests the inference that these variations are due to
+long separation of the races, and to accidental causes, rather than to
+original diversity of the stock.” The Beaver may thus be regarded as a
+species with two geographical forms (varieties or sub-species), viz.,
+_Castor fiber_, var. _europæus_, and _Castor fiber_, var. _canadensis_.
+
+So much has been written upon the habits of the Beaver, that the
+following short statement will suffice to give the leading facts in the
+natural history of the animal, the accounts of the marvellous sagacity
+of which, given by the older writers, have, perhaps, invested it with
+an exaggerated interest.
+
+In populous countries the Beaver is contented, like the Otter, with a
+long burrow for his residence; but in the wilder regions of Siberia and
+North America his dwelling-place is a much more complicated affair. But
+even in these regions, according to some authorities, a certain number
+of Beavers--always males--show a lazy unwillingness to take part in the
+common labours of the colony, and these, as idlers, are expelled from
+the community, often with rather severe treatment, and then take up
+their abode by themselves in holes, which they dig out in the banks of
+rivers, whence they are called “terriers.” On the other hand, it would
+appear that the building instinct which is so remarkably manifested by
+the Beaver is not always extinct even in those which inhabit populous
+countries, for we have a most interesting account from M. Meyerinck
+of the construction of a lodge, and even of a dam, by the colony of
+Beavers on a tributary of the Elbe.
+
+In North America, from which we have the fullest accounts of the habits
+of the Beavers, these animals select for their habitation some small
+stream running through a locality well covered with trees, especially
+willows, birches, and poplars, upon the bark of which they chiefly
+feed. These trees they cut down with their powerful incisor teeth,
+usually selecting those from the thickness of a man’s arm to that
+of his thigh, but sometimes even felling trunks eighteen inches in
+diameter. The operation, which at first sight would seem to be a rather
+difficult one for an animal like the Beaver to perform, is effected
+by gnawing all round the trunk for a certain distance, and gradually
+working deeper and deeper into its substance in the middle of the part
+attacked, until at length the tree stands upon quite a slender piece
+of wood, with the trunk both above and below this tapered off into
+the form of two cones, united by their apices. The work is done as
+sharply and neatly as if the wood had been cut away by a chisel; and
+the animals are said to have the sagacity to weaken the trunk more on
+the side that looks towards the water than on the opposite side, by
+which means, when it falls, it will generally do so in the direction
+of the water, which materially facilitates the further operations of
+the Beavers. The quantity of trees cut down by them in this way is very
+great, so that in the neighbourhood of a Beaver encampment the ground
+is everywhere full of the stumps which they have left.
+
+These tree trunks are then cut up into lengths of five or six feet,
+which, after their bark has been stripped off and eaten, are employed
+in the formation of a lodge, to serve as a shelter for the company of
+Beavers forming it. Access to the lodge is obtained by means of several
+subterranean passages, which always open under water, and lead up into
+the chamber occupying the interior of the lodge. The lodge is usually
+of an oven-like shape, and is built close to the edge of the water;
+its walls are very thick, and composed of the above-mentioned trunks
+of trees, plastered over with mud, clay, &c., mixed with grasses and
+moss, until the whole fabric measures from twelve to twenty feet in
+diameter, and forms a hill some six or eight feet high. The larger
+lodges are in the interior about seven feet in diameter, and between
+two and three feet high; and the floor of this spacious chamber is
+covered with fine chips of wood, grasses, and the soft bark of trees,
+which serve to form the beds of the occupants. Occasionally the lodges
+are said to contain store-rooms. In front of the lodge, according to
+Audubon, the Beavers scratch away the mud of the bottom until they
+make the water deep enough to enable them to float their pieces of
+timber to this point, even when the water is frozen; and, communicating
+with this, a ditch surrounds the lodge, which is also made so deep
+that it will not readily freeze to the bottom. Into this ditch, and
+the deep water in front of the lodge, the passages by which access to
+the water is obtained always open, and thus the inhabitants can at
+any time make their way out when their business requires them to do
+so. In the neighbourhood of the lodge the timber cut into lengths,
+as above described, is piled up, so as to furnish a supply of food
+as it is required; and the pieces of timber, after being stripped of
+their bark, are usually employed by the Beavers either in repairing
+their lodges or in constructing or strengthening the dams which they
+very frequently throw across the streams haunted by them. These dams,
+which are destined to keep the water of variable streams up to the
+necessary height for the convenience of the Beaver, are wonderful
+pieces of work, and almost justify the marvellous stories told of its
+intelligence and sagacity by the older writers. They are often of
+great length--sometimes 150 or 200 yards and more--and run across the
+course of the brook inhabited by the Beavers--sometimes in a straight
+line, sometimes in a curved form, according to peculiarities in the
+ground or the stream, and the exigencies of the engineers. They are
+composed, like the lodges, of lengths cut from the trunks and branches
+of trees, filled in with smaller sticks, roots, grasses, and moss, and
+all plastered with mud and clay in a most workmanlike manner, until the
+whole structure becomes quite water-tight. Their height is from six to
+ten feet, and their thickness at the bottom sometimes as much as double
+this, but diminishing upwards by the slope of the sides until the top
+is only from three to five feet wide. These dams convert even small
+rivulets into large pools of water, often many acres in extent; and in
+districts where Beavers abound these pools may occupy neatly the whole
+course of a stream, one above the other, almost to its source. Their
+use to the Beavers, as constantly furnishing them with a sufficiency of
+water in which to carry on their business, and especially to float to
+their lodges the tree trunks necessary for their subsistence, is easily
+understood; but it is a more remarkable circumstance that by this
+means the Beavers exercise a considerable influence upon the external
+appearance of the locality inhabited by them, which may persist even
+long after they have themselves disappeared. In and about the pools
+the constant attacks of the Beavers upon the trees produce clearings
+in the forest, often many acres in extent; at the margins of the pools
+the formation of peat commences, and under favourable circumstances
+proceeds until the greater part of the cleared space becomes converted
+into a peat-moss. These peaty clearings are known as Beaver-meadows,
+and they have been detected in various countries where the Beaver is
+now extinct.
+
+As in the case of the majority of Rodents, the chief activity of the
+Beaver is nocturnal; and it is only when driven from its lodge by a
+high flood, or in the wildest and most sequestered localities, that it
+goes about during the day. It swims quickly, but entirely by the agency
+of the hind feet, the fore feet being used chiefly for carrying and
+building operations, and for conveying the food to the mouth. Before
+diving, it is said to slap the surface of the water with its tail,
+producing a sound that may be heard at a considerable distance. On land
+it sometimes travels a good way in the warm season, and is then stated
+to indulge in a change of diet, feeding upon roots and fruits, and
+sometimes upon corn. The roots of the water-lily (_Nuphar_) are also
+said to constitute part of its food. The Beaver is hunted--but less
+now than in former years--for the sake of its skin, the soft under fur
+of which was much used in the manufacture of hats. It is asserted that
+the flesh is very good, but according to some authorities, only certain
+parts of it are palatable; and Audubon declares that the tail, which is
+regarded as a peculiarly choice morsel, closely resembles marrow, and
+is so rich that only those whose stomachs are incapable of being upset
+by greasy food can eat more than a very little of it.
+
+The Beaver has been hunted not only for its fur, but also, and from
+time immemorial, for the sake of a peculiar secretion produced by it,
+which, under the name of _Castoreum_, has been for many centuries a
+highly-esteemed medicament. This substance is secreted in a pair of
+glandular pouches, situated in the inguinal region of the male Beaver;
+and it would seem that it was almost entirely in order to procure these
+that the ancients hunted this animal. Even in connection with this
+they had wonderful tales to tell of its sagacity: as how that, when it
+was pursued and found itself unable to escape, it would throw itself
+upon its back, as if to invite the hunter to take what he wanted and
+spare its life. Nay, some ancient writers seem to have believed that
+the Beaver would go the length of biting off its own castoreum glands,
+and leaving them for the hunter to pick up! Castoreum contains some
+volatile oil and resin, and a peculiar crystallisable substance called
+castorine; it is used in medicine as a stimulant, and seems to act
+especially on the nervous system, but is not much employed nowadays.
+Its odour, which appears to spread over a considerable space, is
+described as being very attractive to other Beavers. Audubon states
+that it is used for this reason as a lure by the American trappers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.
+
+  THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS--MYOXIDÆ--Characteristics--THE
+  DORMOUSE--Description--Habits--Activity--Food--Winter Condition--THE
+  LOIR--THE GARDEN DORMOUSE--LOPHIOMYIDÆ--How the Family came to be
+  Founded--THE LOPHIOMYS--Milne-Edwards’ Opinion--Skull--General
+  Form--Habits--MURIDÆ--Number of Species--Characteristics--Variety
+  of Forms--Distribution--The Murine Sub-Family--THE BROWN
+  RAT--History--Fecundity and Ferocity--Diet--At the Horse
+  Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon--Shipwrecked on Islands--Story
+  of their Killing a Man in a Coal-pit--In the Sewers of Paris
+  and London--THE BLACK RAT--THE EGYPTIAN RAT--THE COMMON
+  MOUSE--Habits--Destructiveness--Colours--THE LONG-TAILED FIELD
+  MOUSE--Description--Food--THE HARVEST MOUSE--Description--Habits--In
+  Winter--Agility--Their Nest--THE BANDICOOT RAT--THE TREE RAT--THE
+  STRIPED MOUSE--Allied Genera--THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE--The
+  American Murines--THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE--THE GOLDEN,
+  OR RED MOUSE--THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE--THE AMERICAN HARVEST
+  MOUSE--THE FLORIDA RAT--Description--Their Nest--Food--Mother and
+  Young--THE BUSHY-TAILED WOOD RAT--THE COTTON RAT--THE RABBIT-LIKE
+  REITHRODON--THE HAMSTERS--Characteristics--Appearance--Distribution--
+  Burrows--Disposition--Food--Habits--THE TREE MICE--THE BLACK-STREAKED
+  TREE MICE--THE GERBILLES--Characteristics--Habits--Other
+  Genera--THE WATER MICE--Characteristics--Species--THE
+  SMINTHUS--THE VOLES--Characteristics--THE WATER
+  VOLE--Appearance--Distribution--Food--THE FIELD VOLE--THE
+  BANK VOLE--THE SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE--THE SNOW MOUSE--THE ROOT
+  VOLE--THE MEADOW MOUSE--THE PINE MOUSE--THE MUSQUASH, MUSK RAT,
+  OR ONDATRA--Distinguishing Features--Habits--His House--THE
+  LEMMING--Description--Food--Habits--Disposition--Their Extraordinary
+  Migrations--Other Lemmings--THE ZOKOR.
+
+
+SECTION II.--MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS (_MYOMORPHA_).
+
+The Myomorphic, or Mouse-like group of Rodents, includes a much greater
+variety of forms than the preceding, and the number of species is
+also very great. We find in it arboreal, terrestrial, and aquatic
+species; and in the second of these categories some presenting almost
+every variety of habit which the Rodent type is capable of assuming.
+Naturally the families and sub-families into which it is divided are
+rather numerous. Mr. Alston distinguished seven family groups, the
+first of which is the Myoxidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY V.--MYOXIDÆ.
+
+The Dormice, which constitute this family, have generally been regarded
+as nearly related to the Squirrels; and certainly, although they fall
+under the definition of the Myomorphic section, they have a plain
+affinity to the Sciuridæ. In form they are Squirrel-like, and the tail
+is long and hairy, although not so bushy as in the true Squirrels. They
+have four molars on each side in each jaw (_see_ figure), the front
+one in each series being smaller than the rest. All these teeth are
+rooted, and their crowns show transverse folds of enamel. The frontal
+bones are much narrowed; the fore limbs are small, with the thumbs
+rudimentary and furnished with a small flat nail; and the hind feet
+have five toes. The Dormice differ from all other Rodents by having
+the intestine entirely destitute of a cæcum. They are confined to the
+Eastern hemisphere, and chiefly to its temperate and colder regions;
+although a species of _Myoxus_, and some forms on which a special genus
+(_Graphiurus_) has been founded, inhabit Africa. The number of known
+species is only about a dozen.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE DORMOUSE.]
+
+The common DORMOUSE (_Myoxus avellanarius_) is an elegant little
+creature, about three inches long, with a somewhat bushy, cylindrical
+tail, two inches and a half in length. Its fur is of a light
+reddish-tawny colour above, becoming paler and yellowish on the lower
+surface. On the throat there is a small whitish mark. It is widely
+distributed in Europe, ranging from Britain and Sweden in the north to
+Tuscany and Northern Turkey in the south. Generally it is more abundant
+in southern than in northern countries, but in the south of France it
+is less common than either of the other two European species. Eastwards
+it does not extend beyond Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania.
+
+[Illustration: DORMOUSE.]
+
+The Dormouse is nocturnal in its habits. During the day it sleeps in
+its nest or in some snug retreat, and at night comes forth in search of
+its food, which consists of nuts, acorns, seeds, berries, and the buds
+of trees and shrubs. It is particularly fond of the nuts of the common
+hazel, whence its specific name, and the name of “Haselmaus,” which it
+bears in Germany; these nuts it is said to pierce and empty without
+plucking them or taking them out of their cups. The Dormouse lives in
+small societies in thickets and hedgerows, where it is as active in its
+way amongst the bushes and undergrowth as its cousin the Squirrel upon
+the larger trees. Among the small twigs and branches of the shrubs and
+small trees the Dormice climb with wonderful adroitness, often, indeed,
+hanging by their hind feet from a twig in order to reach and operate
+on a fruit or a nut which is otherwise inaccessible, and running along
+the lower surface of a branch with the activity and certainty of a
+Monkey. Detached articles of food are held up to the mouth by the fore
+paws, after the fashion of a Squirrel. Towards the winter the Dormouse
+becomes exceedingly fat, and having collected a small store of food,
+makes for itself a little globular nest, composed of small twigs,
+leaves, pine-needles, moss, and grass, and within this, coiled up into
+a ball, passes into a torpid state.
+
+Nevertheless, the winter sleep is not wholly uninterrupted; on mild
+days the Dormouse wakes up for a time and takes a little of its
+stored-up food. The female produces usually about four young, in the
+spring according to Professor Bell, in August according to Brehm; but
+the former writer thinks that in some cases two broods are produced
+in the year, as he has received from the same locality in September a
+half-grown Dormouse and three very young ones, evidently not more than
+a fortnight or three weeks old.
+
+Of the other common European species, the LOIR (_Myoxus glis_) is
+found only in southern regions, its range extending from Spain to
+Southern Russia, and passing into the neighbouring parts of Asia. It is
+considerably larger than the Dormouse, measuring rather more than six
+inches in length, and has a bushy tail, in which the hairs are arranged
+in two rows, as in that of the Squirrel. The habits of this species
+are like those of the Dormouse. Fruit constitutes a portion of its
+diet, and it is said also to destroy and devour small birds and other
+animals. The Loir is a very voracious feeder, and becomes exceedingly
+fat in the autumn. By the ancient Roman epicures it was regarded as a
+dainty morsel, and they spared no pains to fatten it for the table.
+It sleeps during the day, and hibernates in some hole in a tree or in
+the ground, and the nest is formed in the former situation. The female
+usually produces about six young.
+
+[Illustration: GARDEN DORMOUSE.]
+
+The GARDEN DORMOUSE, or LEROT of the French (_Myoxus nitela_), is
+common all over the southern and western parts of the Continent,
+extending northwards through Germany into the Baltic provinces of
+Russia. It is a little smaller than the preceding species, which,
+however, it resembles in its general habits; but it dwells commonly in
+gardens, and feeds on fruits, often doing much damage to the choicer
+varieties. It is a lighter and more active animal than the Loir, and is
+said to be even more predaceous in its habits. The female produces from
+four to six young, sometimes in a beautifully-made nest of her own,
+sometimes in the deserted or usurped nest of a Blackbird or Thrush, or
+in that of a Squirrel.
+
+
+FAMILY VI.--LOPHIOMYIDÆ.
+
+The importance of an animal in the zoological system by no means
+depends either upon its size or on its abundance in the world; its
+rank in the classification is decided solely by peculiarities of
+organisation which distinguish it more or less from its fellows; and in
+many cases the creatures which are regarded with the most interest by
+the naturalist are those which seem most to withdraw themselves from
+general observation. A single genus, perhaps containing only one or two
+species, may, by a singular combination of characters, be so completely
+isolated from all the recognised allied groups that it cannot be placed
+in any of them, and accordingly a distinct family, possibly even an
+order, has to be established for its reception. Sometimes subsequent
+discoveries add to the number of species forming the group thus set up,
+and in this way the prescience of its founder is confirmed. Sometimes
+the group remains in its original condition, leaving us, according
+to circumstances, to regard the anomalous creatures of which it is
+composed either as a special development of their general type, or as
+the residue of a group which may have presented a greater variety of
+forms at some past period of the earth’s history.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF LOPHIOMYS.]
+
+The latter is perhaps the case with the curious little Rodent which
+alone forms the present family, of which its original describer,
+M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, writes as follows:--“In its general
+aspect it somewhat resembles certain Opossums, and like these it is
+pedimanous;[52] but these are the only analogies it presents to the
+Marsupials, and in its dental system, as also in the rest of its
+organisation, we easily see that it belongs to the order Rodentia. It
+differs, however, from all the members of this group by characters of
+considerable importance; I may even say that, by some peculiarities
+of structure it departs from all other Mammals, and that we find in
+it anatomical arrangements of which we have hitherto had examples
+only in the class of Reptiles.” After an exhaustive discussion of the
+characters of this curious little animal, M. Milne-Edwards comes to
+the conclusion that it is most nearly related to the members of the
+following family, and especially to the Hamsters, although he found it
+impossible to unite it with them. In this course he has been followed
+by other writers.
+
+[Illustration: LOPHIOMYS.]
+
+The general construction of the skull is the same as in the Muridæ,
+but from the temporal ridges thin plates are developed, which bend
+downwards, and articulate with similar plates springing from the malar
+bones, and thus completely arch over the temporal fossæ after a fashion
+only met with in certain reptiles, and especially in the Hawksbill
+Turtle (_Chelone caretta_). The whole upper surface of the skull is
+covered with minute but perfectly definite granules, arranged with much
+regularity, and these, which occur in no other Mammal, give the skull
+a very peculiar aspect, such as may be seen in some fishes. As in the
+Muridæ, there are three molars on each side in each jaw, and these are
+rooted and strongly tubercular; the foremost in each series having
+three and the others each two ridges. Without entering in detail into
+the peculiarities described at great length by M. Milne-Edwards, we
+may say that in its general structure, and especially in that of the
+skeleton, the animal is murine, but with a very important distinction,
+namely, that the collar bones, which are well developed in the Rats and
+their allies, are here reduced, as in the Hares and Rabbits, so as to
+form only two small bony styles freely suspended among the muscles,
+and that the first toe in the hind feet, although not very long, is so
+attached as to be opposite to the rest, thus converting the organ into
+a prehensile hand which the animal uses freely in climbing. The cæcum
+is small.
+
+In its external characters this animal is as remarkable as in its
+anatomical structure. In general appearance, as stated by its
+describer, it has much resemblance to a small Opossum, but the bushy
+tail and the peculiar arrangement of the hair on the body are met
+with in no Marsupials. The head is small; the general form stout; the
+limbs short, and the hind ones not much longer than their fellows;
+and the ears are of moderate size and sparingly clothed with hair.
+The prevailing colour is blackish-brown, but a triangular spot on the
+forehead, a streak under each eye, and the tip of the tail, are white;
+and the long hairs which clothe the body and tail are dark only in the
+middle, the base and tip being white, as are also a great quantity of
+finer and shorter hairs which form a sort of under fur. But the chief
+peculiarity of the coat is to be found in the arrangement of the hairs
+of the body. The long hairs of the middle of the back and tail, some of
+which are nearly three inches in length, are capable of being raised
+into a nearly upright position, forming a sort of crest which gives
+the animal a very peculiar aspect, and this crest is separated from
+the pendulous hair of the flanks by a sort of furrow clothed with very
+peculiar hair of a greyish-tawny colour. These hairs are unlike any
+others known to occur among Mammals. The apical part is of the ordinary
+construction; but the following portion down to the base is “very
+rugose, and presents a spongy aspect, due to the interlacing, and, so
+to speak, felting of a multitude of epidermic filaments emanating from
+radiate cells, which constitute a perfect network of irregular meshes.
+Within the sort of sheath thus formed longitudinal filaments which
+break up into bundles of fibrils are to be seen.”
+
+Very little is known as to the habitat of this animal, which M.
+Milne-Edwards has named _Lophiomys Imhausi_, the former name referring
+to the crested character of the back, the second commemorating the
+person who first brought the creature to the notice of naturalists. M.
+Imhaus, stopping for a few hours at Aden on his way home from Réunion,
+saw a living specimen of this Rodent in the possession of a negro
+from whom he bought it, but could learn nothing as to its origin. He
+inferred, however, that it had not been brought very far, and that its
+native country was either Southern Arabia, or some region in Abyssinia,
+or Nubia, on the other side of the Red Sea. This specimen was brought
+to France, and lived for about a year and a half in the Garden of
+Acclimatization in the Bois de Boulogne, where it fed upon maize,
+vegetables, and bread, slept during the day, and climbed with ease upon
+chairs and other convenient objects by the aid of its hinder hands. It
+never took its food in the fore-paws to carry it to the mouth as so
+many Rodents do. When irritated it elevated the crest right down to the
+end of the tail, and defended itself by biting vigorously.
+
+It is doubtful whether the _Lophiomys_ inhabits Arabia, but it is found
+in the neighbouring parts of Africa. Professor Peters described the
+skull of the animal as representing a new generic type under the name
+of _Phractomys æthiops_. His specimen was obtained by Dr. Schweinfurth
+from the tombs of Maman, north of Kassala, in Upper Nubia. A third
+specimen has been brought from Keren in the Bogos country, and a fourth
+from the Erkanid mountains between Suakim and Singat.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE BLACK RAT.]
+
+
+FAMILY VII.--MURIDÆ.
+
+We come now to the largest and most typical family of the Rodents:
+that, namely, which includes the Rats and Mice and their numerous
+allies. Mr. Wallace estimates the number of known species at 330, which
+is probably within the mark. All these forms agree in the following
+characters:--The lower incisors are compressed; the molars are usually
+three in number on each side in each jaw, in one genus only two in
+the lower or in both jaws, and in another four in both jaws. They are
+rooted or rootless, tubercular or flat, with folds of enamel; the
+malar bone is short and slender, generally reduced to a mere splint
+between the maxillary and squamosal processes of the zygomatic arch;
+the thumb is rudimentary, but often furnished with a small nail; and
+the tail is generally scaly, with a few scattered hairs, densely hairy
+only in a few species.
+
+As might be expected in so large an assemblage of species, the variety
+of forms is very great among the Muridæ, but broadly, the common Rats
+and Mice, which are only too well known to most of us, may serve as
+characteristic types of the whole series. The family, however, includes
+jumping forms, swimming forms, arboreal forms, and burrowing forms,
+in which the peculiarities of the life-habits are very distinctly
+indicated by the external appearance of the creatures. In their
+distribution the Muridæ are almost absolutely cosmopolitan, the family
+being represented in every part of the world, with the sole exception
+of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Australia possesses about thirty
+species of the family. New Zealand, at the time of its discovery,
+harboured a Rat, known as the Forest Rat, or Maori Rat, which was a
+favourite article of food with the natives, and is now almost extinct.
+It was proved by Capt. Hutton to be identical with the Black Rat (_Mus
+rattus_), and was probably introduced by the ancestors of the Maoris.
+Certain species also, such as the common Brown Rat and Mouse, are now
+perfectly cosmopolitan in their distribution, having accompanied man in
+all his migrations on the surface of the globe.
+
+[Illustration: BROWN RAT.]
+
+The Rat and Mouse form the types of a great sub-family, MURINÆ, which
+have the molars rooted and tuberculate when young, the infra-orbital
+opening high and perpendicular, widest above, and the lower root of the
+zygomatic maxillary process flattened into a perpendicular plate. They
+possess no cheek-pouches, have the fore and hind limbs approximately
+equal in length, the thumb rudimentary, and the tail nearly naked,
+covered with scaly rings. The genus _Mus_, to which our household pests
+belong, includes upwards of one hundred species, scattered over most
+parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, and living sometimes chiefly in the
+neighbourhood of human habitations, granaries, &c., where they often
+feed indifferently upon animal and vegetable substances, sometimes in
+the open country, and feeding almost exclusively upon the latter. The
+common BROWN RAT (_Mus decumanus_), sometimes called the Norway Rat,
+which is almost too well known to need description, is not a native of
+Great Britain, but was certainly introduced there by commerce, probably
+from some southern or eastern country--perhaps, as Pennant thinks,
+from the East Indies. Haunting ships in great numbers, it has now been
+introduced into all parts of the world, and it is quite impossible to
+ascertain its original habitat. It was known in Asia long before it
+made its appearance in Europe; and its passage into Russia is fixed by
+Pallas in the year 1727, when, he says, after an earthquake it swam
+across the Volga from the countries bordering the Caspian. Its first
+appearance in France and England is said to have occurred about the
+middle of the last century.
+
+[Illustration: BLACK RAT.]
+
+From its great fecundity and determined ferocity of disposition, the
+Brown Rat has become a great pest wherever it has taken up its abode.
+“It digs,” says Professor Bell, “with great facility and vigour, making
+its way with rapidity beneath the floors of our houses, between the
+stones and bricks of walls, and often excavating the foundations of
+dwellings to a dangerous extent. There are many instances of their
+fatally undermining the most solid mason-work, or burrowing through
+dams which had for ages served to confine the waters of rivers and
+canals.” It is almost impossible to keep them out of our houses, and,
+once in, there is no end to the mischief they do. Their ferocity
+is very great; and although they will, if possible, retreat from a
+powerful enemy, they will fight in the most savage fashion when they
+cannot escape.
+
+Although not averse to a vegetable diet--as those who have to do
+with corn and seeds, whether in the field or the store-house, know
+to their cost--the Brown Rat evinces a decided preference for animal
+food, which he consumes of all kinds and in all states. The case of
+the horse slaughter-houses of Montfaucon, near Paris, is well known;
+here, the carcases of all the Horses killed during the day, sometimes
+to the number of thirty-five, would be picked to the bone by the next
+morning; and one main argument against the removal of the establishment
+to a greater distance from the city was that these swarms of ferocious
+vermin would be left without means of support, and would become a
+complete pest in the neighbourhood. That such an apprehension was not
+unfounded is proved by several instances recorded of the escape of
+Rats from wrecked ships upon small islands. In the course of a few
+years they exterminated every other living thing. Professor Bell, on
+the authority of the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, relates the following
+instance of the extreme ferocity of the Rat when driven by hunger:--“In
+a coal-pit,” he says, “in which many Horses were employed, the Rats,
+which fed upon the fodder provided for the Horses, had accumulated
+in great multitudes. It was customary in holiday times to bring to
+the surface the Horses and the fodder, and to close the pit for the
+time. On one occasion, when the holiday had extended to ten days or
+a fortnight, during which the Rats had been deprived of food, on
+re-opening the pit, the first man who descended was attacked by the
+starving multitude, and speedily killed and devoured.” Stories are also
+told, with what truth we do not know, of the occurrence of similar
+catastrophes in the sewers of Paris and London, where, as is well
+known, Rats abound.
+
+The Brown Rat breeds several times during the year, and produces as
+many as ten, twelve, or fourteen young ones in a litter. Its general
+length is about nine inches. It may be distinguished from the old
+English Rat, which it has displaced in most localities, by its
+greyish-brown colour and by the comparative shortness of its ears,
+which, when pressed down, do not reach the eye.
+
+The BLACK RAT (_Mus rattus_), or old English Rat, as it is sometimes
+called, agrees closely in its habits with the Brown Rat. It is smaller
+than the Brown Rat, measuring only about seven inches in length,
+but has a comparatively much longer tail and larger ears, which,
+when pressed forward, cover the eyes. Its colour above is greyish or
+brownish-black, and the lower parts are dark ash colour. Although the
+Black Rat has generally been compelled to give way before its larger
+and more vigorous competitor, it is still widely dispersed, but not in
+such numbers as formerly, in Europe. Its native country was probably
+Southern Asia. Nearly allied to it, if indeed specifically distinct, is
+the EGYPTIAN RAT (_Mus alexandrinus_). Both these Rats are said to keep
+more to the upper parts of houses than the Brown Rat.
+
+Although the true Mice are very nearly allied to the Rats, of which
+they are copies on a small scale (and some of them, at any rate, are
+as destructive in their way as their larger relatives), they do not
+excite by any means the same sentiments of disgust with which Rats
+are generally regarded; ladies, indeed, will sometimes scream at the
+mere sight of a Mouse, but most of them will admit that, apart from
+its predatory habits, it is an elegant little creature. The COMMON
+MOUSE (_Mus musculus_) seems to be as completely associated with man
+as the Rat, and has accompanied him in his wanderings to all parts of
+the world. It is, however, said not to occur in the Sunda Islands. Of
+its general appearance and habits we need say nothing; they are too
+familiar to need description. But besides haunting our houses, the
+Mouse takes up its abode in the rick-yard, and here its devastations
+are often very serious. The Mice live in the ricks, through which they
+make passages in every direction, and their fecundity is so great
+that several bushels of Mice are often destroyed during the removal
+of a single rick. The Mouse breeds all the year round, and usually
+produces five or six young at a birth, so that its rapid increase under
+favourable circumstances is easily understood. Several varieties of the
+species are well known, especially the Albino form, or White Mouse,
+which is such a favourite pet with boys. The Common Mouse in England
+is sometimes patched with white, and we sometimes see in the shops
+Pied Mice, which are said to be of Indian origin. A pale buff variety
+is also sometimes met with; and during the removal of a rick some
+years ago, it was found to be infested by a breed of Mice with a naked
+wrinkled skin, to which the name of Rhinoceros Mice was given at the
+time.
+
+Besides these more or less domestic species, there are in Britain
+two other representatives of the genus _Mus_, which do not generally
+frequent houses. One of these is the LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE (_Mus
+sylvaticus_), sometimes called the Wood Mouse, an exceedingly pretty
+little creature, rather larger than the Common Mouse, and having a
+proportionally longer tail. It measures about four inches in length,
+and the tail is about as long as the body; its colour is yellowish or
+yellowish-brown on the upper surface, whitish beneath; and the tail
+is brown above and white beneath. This species is found all over the
+temperate parts of Europe and Asia, living in the fields and gardens,
+where it takes up its abode, either in some small cavity under the root
+of a tree, in the deserted runs of the Mole, or less commonly in a
+little burrow excavated by its own labour. It feeds chiefly upon grain
+and seeds, of which it lays up a considerable store for winter use in
+its subterranean dwelling, and in this way does considerable damage
+to the crops. The Field Mouse does not, however, strictly confine
+itself to a vegetable diet, but under circumstances of privation will
+attack and devour smaller and weaker animals, not even sparing its
+own species. It breeds more than once in the year, and produces from
+seven to ten young in each litter. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes
+familiar.
+
+[Illustration: HARVEST MICE.]
+
+The remaining British species, the HARVEST MOUSE (_Mus minutus_), is
+the smallest of the British quadrupeds, with the exception of the
+Lesser Shrew (_Sorex pygmæus_). The Harvest Mouse is to be found in
+most parts of England. It also occurs in Scotland as far north as
+Aberdeenshire; and in Ireland, but very rarely. On the Continent its
+range extends over nearly the whole of Europe, from Russia in the
+north to Italy in the south. It is well known in Siberia, and occurs
+abundantly in the steppes near the Caucasus.
+
+The total length of this pretty little Mouse is about five inches, of
+which nearly one-half is made up of the tail. In it the eyes are less
+prominent than in the common Field Mouse, and the ears considerably
+shorter in proportion. Its colour on the upper surface is bright
+reddish-brown, and below pure white, the two colours being sharply
+separated. During the summer, the Harvest Mouse associates with the
+other Field Mice in corn-fields, and with them is very frequently
+carried in the sheaves of corn to rick-yards and barns, where it then
+takes up its abode for the autumn and winter, and, like other Mice,
+multiplies very rapidly, and no doubt does a good deal of mischief.
+The less fortunate individuals who are left behind in the fields
+retreat to little burrows for protection from the inclemency of the
+winter, which they pass in a state of at least partial torpidity; and
+to provide against exigencies they lay up in their dwellings a small
+store of food, to which they can have recourse when a fine day recalls
+them for a time to activity. Those which have been introduced into
+ricks and barns are, of course, liberally provided for, and they show
+their gratitude by remaining awake all the winter, as if on purpose to
+consume their abundant provender. In the open field their food consists
+of corn and the seeds of grasses and other plants, but also to a
+considerable extent of small insects.
+
+In its movements the Harvest Mouse is wonderfully agile. On the ground
+it runs very rapidly; and it climbs upon shrubs and plants as cleverly
+as a Monkey, running out upon the thinnest twigs with the greatest
+confidence, and climbing up stalks of grasses so thin that they bend
+nearly to the ground with its weight. In these operations the long
+slender tail comes into use, as its extremity is prehensile, and can
+be twisted neatly round the small stalks and branches over which the
+little climber is making its way. From its lively habits, and the
+elegance of its form, the Harvest Mouse is a very interesting pet.
+
+The Harvest Mouse breeds several times during the year, producing from
+five to eight or nine young at a birth, and provides for them one of
+the prettiest cradles formed by any Mammal. It is placed, according to
+the locality, upon several grass-leaves split and interwoven with the
+other materials, or suspended at a height of from eighteen inches to
+three feet above the ground, upon the twigs of some shrub or between
+several stalks of corn or strong grasses. It is egg-shaped, or nearly
+round, about the size of the egg of a Goose, and is composed externally
+of slit leaves of the reeds or grasses among which it is formed, each
+leaf being carefully divided longitudinally by the sharp teeth of the
+little architect into six or eight thread-like portions, which are then
+all woven together, so as to produce a firm structure. The interior is
+lined, or rather stuffed, with all sorts of soft vegetable substances,
+so that it has been a question with many observers how the mother could
+get at all the members of her family to suckle them, and how the nest
+could contain them all as they began to increase in bulk. The young
+usually remain in the nest until they can see; but as soon as they are
+able to provide for themselves, the mother takes them out, gives them
+some practical instructions in the art of living, and then leaves them
+to their own devices. According to Brehm, as these Mice increase in age
+they improve in the art of nest-building.
+
+Besides these few species, a multitude of Rats and Mice, belonging to
+the same genus, occur as natives of nearly all parts of the world,
+but in their habits they agree in general with the British species.
+India harbours a considerable number, among which we may mention the
+BANDICOOT RAT (_Mus bandicota_), a large species, which inhabits the
+Indian and Malayan peninsulas, and is very destructive in plantations;
+and the TREE RAT (_Mus arboreus_), a native of Bengal, seven or
+eight inches in length, which lives partly on grain, of which it
+lays up stores in its nests, and partly on young cocoa-nuts, which
+constitute its favourite food, and in search of which it climbs the
+trees. This species builds a nest on cocoa-nut trees and bamboos, and
+occasionally makes predatory visits to the houses. The STRIPED MOUSE
+(_Mus barbarus_) is remarkable for its coloration, its ground colour
+being a bright yellowish-brown or reddish-yellow, adorned with several
+longitudinal blackish-brown streaks. This elegant Mouse inhabits
+Northern Africa, especially in stony places. It is very abundant in
+Algeria.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAPALOTE.]
+
+Nearly allied to the true Mice are numerous forms more restricted
+in their distribution, which have been formed into distinct genera.
+Thus _Pelomys fallax_, in which the incisors are grooved, the tail
+short, and the first and fifth toes of all the feet shorter than
+the three middle ones, is peculiar to Mozambique; _Acanthomys_,
+in which the fur is mixed with flattened spines, is an African
+genus; whilst _Echinothrix_, which has a somewhat similar coat, is
+Australian. Madagascar possesses two peculiar genera, _Nesomys_ and
+_Brachytarsomys_, the former having some relation to the American
+Murinæ, the latter remarkable for the shortness of the hind feet; and
+in Australia, besides the genus already mentioned, and one or two
+species of true _Mus_, we find the genus _Hapalotis_ represented by
+about thirteen exclusively Australian species. These animals have the
+hind limbs rather long, the ears large, and the tail long and hairy,
+terminating in a tuft. The molar teeth also exhibit a peculiar pattern;
+The best known species is the WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE (_Hapalotis
+albipes_), an animal about the size of the Brown Rat, of a smoky brown
+colour, with the belly and the feet white. It inhabits New South Wales,
+especially in the mountainous parts. The animals of this genus were
+formerly regarded as allied to the South American Chinchillas and
+Viscachas.
+
+The American Murines all belong to a group to which the name of
+Sigmodontes has been given, because their molar teeth, which in the
+young state have two tubercles in each transverse row (instead of
+three, which is the usual number in the preceding forms), when ground
+down by use, show some S-like patterns in the enamel folds in place
+of transverse ridges. The greater number of the species belong to
+the genus _Hesperomys_ (Western Mouse), which is represented in both
+divisions of the American continent, and has been divided by authors
+into several sub-genera. The WHITE-FOOTED, or DEER MOUSE (_Hesperomys
+leucopus_) is perhaps the best known of all the species, and its
+varieties, or rather local permanent races, are distributed all over
+the continent of North America. The fur shows various brownish or
+greyish tints above; and the lower surface, with the feet up to the
+wrist and ankle, is snow-white. What Dr. Coues gives as the normal
+colour of typical specimens is a rich fawn, with a darker streak along
+the back: but he says that this is shown by not more than one example
+in six. The tail is generally white beneath. The length of the head and
+body is about three inches; the tail varies considerably in length. The
+White-footed Mouse is nocturnal in its habits, and feeds to a great
+extent upon corn, of which, with acorns and other nuts, it lays up
+stores for winter use. It lives a good deal upon trees, taking up its
+abode in the deserted nest of a Squirrel or of some small bird. When it
+constructs its own nest the little fabric is placed in a bush at from
+five to fifteen feet from the ground, and is very neatly constructed,
+usually of fine moss and strips of bark. In some localities it burrows
+in the ground. The GOLDEN or RED MOUSE (_H. aureolus_), which resembles
+the preceding species in form and size, has the fur of the upper
+surface golden-cinnamon colour, and the lower parts yellowish-white. It
+inhabits the Central and Southern States of the North American Union.
+The RICE-FIELD MOUSE (_H. palustris_), which has been placed in a
+distinct genus (_Oryzomys_), is a larger species, sometimes attaining
+the size of a small Rat. This is found in the Southern States, chiefly
+along the coast, and in rice-fields, where it is exceedingly abundant
+and does considerable damage. It is eminently aquatic in its habits.
+The AMERICAN HARVEST MOUSE (_Ochetodon humilis_) closely resembles
+the preceding species, but differs from them in a rather remarkable
+character. It has the upper incisor teeth grooved, a peculiarity which
+occurs also in the South American Rats of the genus _Reithrodon_.
+The American Harvest Mouse inhabits the Southern States, and extends
+northwards as far as Iowa and Nebraska.
+
+The FLORIDA RAT, or Wood Rat (_Neotoma floridana_), is a widely
+distributed species in the United States, inhabiting especially the
+southern portion, but extending northwards as far as New York and
+Massachusetts. It measures from six to nine inches in length, with
+a tail from four to six inches long. In its coloration it presents
+a general resemblance to the common Brown Rat, but is brighter,
+especially on the sides; the lower surface is white. According to
+Audubon and Bachmann, the habits of this species vary considerably in
+different localities. These authors say that “in Florida they burrow
+under stones and the ruins of dilapidated buildings. In Georgia and
+South Carolina they prefer remaining in the woods. In some swampy
+situations, in the vicinity of sluggish streams, amid tangled vines
+interspersed with leaves and long moss, they gather a heap of dry
+sticks, which they pile up into a conical shape, and which, with
+grasses, mud, and dead leaves, mixed in by the wind and rain, form,
+as they proceed, a structure impervious to rain, and inaccessible to
+the Wild Cat, Raccoon, or Fox. At other times their nest, composed of
+somewhat lighter materials, is placed in the fork of a tree.” This
+species is very active and Squirrel-like in its habits. It feeds on
+grain, seeds, and fruits, and sometimes makes a meal of a Crayfish
+or a Frog. There are from three to six young in each litter, and two
+litters in the year. The young animals in very early days continue to
+adhere to the teats of their mother, even when she is walking about
+outside the nest, and even at a later period they will cling to her
+sides and back, after the manner of some Opossums. The female seems
+but little inconvenienced by this burden, and shows great affection
+for her family, defending them even at the risk of her own life. A
+nearly-allied, but smaller species, the BUSHY-TAILED WOOD RAT (_N.
+cinerea_), inhabits the western and north-western parts of America,
+also extending eastward to Hudson’s Bay, and southward to New Mexico
+and California. The COTTON RAT (_Sigmodon hispidus_), another
+inhabitant of the Southern States and Mexico, ranges southwards to Vera
+Cruz and Guatemala.
+
+Besides several species of _Hesperomys_, South America possesses
+various Murine animals, which have been placed in special genera. Among
+these the most remarkable are those of which Mr. Waterhouse formed
+his genus _Reithrodon_, as these, although true Murines, have a very
+Rabbit-like character, and further present the peculiarity of having
+the upper incisors grooved. They have the profile much arched, the
+eyes large, the ears hairy, and the first and fifth toes of the hind
+feet very short. The tail is well clothed with hair. The RABBIT-LIKE
+REITHRODON (_R. cuniculoides_) inhabits Patagonia, where it was
+discovered by Mr. Darwin. It is of a yellowish-grey colour, mixed with
+black, with the throat and belly pale yellow, and the rump and feet
+white. The tail is about half the length of the head and body, dusky
+above, white beneath. The length of the head and body is six inches and
+a half. Two other species are described: one (_R. typicus_) from the La
+Plata; the other (_R. chinchilloides_) from the Strait of Magellan.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD OF THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON.]
+
+The HAMSTERS, forming the sub-family CRICETINÆ, are very nearly related
+to the true Mice and Rats, but differ from them at the first glance by
+their possession of large internal cheek-pouches, those organs being
+entirely wanting or very small in the Murinæ. Their molars, three in
+number in each series, are also tuberculate when young and regularly
+rooted. As age advances they become more and more worn away, so as
+to exhibit folds of enamel. They are stoutly-built rat-like animals,
+generally with short tails, with the upper lip cleft, and with short
+limbs, of which the hinder have five, and the anterior four, toes, the
+thumb being represented by a small wart. The Hamsters are confined to
+the Old World, and chiefly inhabit the temperate parts of Europe and
+Asia; two or three species occur in Africa. They live generally in
+corn-fields, where they dig deep burrows with numerous chambers, into
+which they can retreat to take their repose, and in which they pass
+the winter, previously, however, taking care to lay up a good store of
+provisions in some of the chambers of their domicile.
+
+[Illustration: HAMSTERS.]
+
+The best known species is the HAMSTER (_Cricetus frumentarius_, _see_
+Plate 28), a rather pretty little beast, of about ten inches long, with
+bright, prominent, black eyes, short, membranous ears, and a tapering
+hairy tail, about two inches and a half in length. The fur, which is
+thick and somewhat lustrous, is usually of a light yellowish-brown
+colour above, with the snout, the neighbourhood of the eyes, and a
+band on the neck reddish-brown, and a yellow spot on each cheek;
+the lower surface, the greater part of the legs, and a band on the
+forehead are black, and the feet white. Many varieties occur. This
+Hamster is widely distributed, ranging from the Rhine, through Europe
+and Siberia, to the Obi; and in most localities where it occurs it
+appears in great numbers, and causes great injury to the crops. Its
+burrows are exceedingly spacious, and consist of numerous passages and
+chambers. In its temper it is exceedingly irascible, and at the same
+time very courageous, defending itself bravely against its enemies,
+and standing boldly on the defensive the moment any danger appears to
+threaten it. Its diet is by no means of a purely vegetable nature,
+but it will destroy and devour all sorts of small animals that come
+in its way. Besides the corn, which forms its chief winter provender,
+green herbage, peas and beans, and roots and fruits of various kinds,
+are welcome articles of diet, and in confinement it will eat almost
+anything.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAMSTER.]
+
+The Hamsters pass the winter in their burrows in a torpid state, but
+waken up very early in the spring, generally in March, but frequently
+in February. At first they do not open the mouths of their burrows, but
+remain for a time subsisting on the stores laid up during the preceding
+autumn. The old males make their appearance first, the females about
+a fortnight after them, the latter about the beginning of April. They
+then set about making their summer burrows, which are not so deep or
+so complicated as the winter dwellings; and shortly afterwards the
+sexes pair. The young are produced twice in the year, in May and July;
+their number varies from six to eighteen. They have teeth when first
+born, and their development as babies is very rapid. Their eyes open in
+little more than a week after birth, and in another week they begin to
+burrow in the ground, and then their hard-hearted parent drives them
+off to take care of themselves.
+
+The other species of this sub-family generally very closely resemble
+the Hamster, both in appearance and manners. Most of them are found
+in Central Asia and Siberia, extending southwards as far as Persia
+and South Tartary. _Cricetus songarus_ has been obtained at Kumaon.
+The recorded African species belong to two peculiar genera: they are
+_Saccostomus lapidarius_ and _fuscus_, and _Cricetomys gambianus_.
+
+Other African forms constitute the small sub-family of the TREE MICE
+(_Dendromyinæ_), which are entirely confined to the southern portion of
+the continent. They are characterised by having the incisors rounded
+and grooved in front, the infra-orbital opening not narrow below, and
+the coronoid process of the lower jaw very small. The ears are clothed
+with hairs; and the feet, which are five-toed, are furnished with long
+claws, which are serviceable to the little rat-like animals in climbing
+up the trunks of trees. The BLACK-STREAKED TREE MOUSE (_Dendromys
+mesomelas_) is a rather pretty little species, of a greyish colour,
+with a black line down the middle of the back. It is slender in form,
+with a long, scaly tail, rounded ears, and the two outer toes in each
+foot shorter than the rest. _Steatomys pratensis_, from Mozambique,
+is stouter in form than the preceding, and has a short, densely hairy
+tail; and in _Lophuromys ater_, from the same locality, the incisors
+are not grooved, and the fur is developed into fine flattened bristles.
+
+The GERBILLES (_Gerbillinæ_) are distinguished from all other Muridæ
+(although approached by _Hapalotis_) by the great length of the hind
+limbs, which are converted into powerful leaping organs, somewhat as
+in the Jerboas and Kangaroos, although not quite to the same extent.
+Like all the preceding forms, they have the molars furnished with
+roots, but not with tuberculate crowns, these being divided into
+transverse plates formed by separate elliptical or rhomboidal coats
+of enamel. The incisor teeth are narrow, the infra-orbital opening as
+in the Murinæ, and the tail long and hairy. The Gerbilles are plump
+little animals, with a short neck, a broad head, and a pointed muzzle.
+The feet are five-toed, but the thumb on the fore feet is reduced to
+a mere wart-like process with a flat nail. They are confined to the
+Eastern hemisphere, and, indeed, to the African continent, the south
+of Asia, as far as India, and the south-east of Europe, where they
+live both in cultivated districts and in the driest deserts, and often
+occur in great numbers, when they may cause considerable damage to the
+neighbouring crops. They shelter themselves during the day in shallow
+burrows, and come forth in the evening in search of their food, which
+consists chiefly of grain and roots. They store up great quantities of
+the ears of corn in their subterranean dwellings, and in many places
+the poorer inhabitants search after these stores, and by digging them
+out procure a good supply of grain. They are very prolific, the females
+producing large families several times in the year.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE GERBILLE.]
+
+Several other forms of Muridæ, with rooted molars, have been
+distinguished, and all are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere. The
+genera _Phlœomys_ and _Nesokia_, each including a single species, form
+the group PHLÆOMYINÆ, characterised by having broad incisors and the
+molars divided by transverse plates of enamel. The characters of the
+skull are as in the Murinæ. _Phlœomys Cumingii_ is from the Philippine
+Islands; _Nesokia Griffithii_ inhabits Northern India. _Platacanthomys
+lasiurus_, the only known species of the group PLATACANTHOMYINÆ,
+resembles a Dormouse in its form, and is nearly allied to the preceding
+species, but has the fur of its back mixed with long, flattened,
+bristle-like spines. It is a native of the Malabar coast.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE WATER-MOUSE.]
+
+The WATER MICE (_Hydromyinæ_) are of particular interest, as being
+a small group, exclusively confined to the Australian region, and
+presenting the exceptional character among the Rodents of having only
+two molars on each side in each jaw. These teeth, are rooted, and
+divided into transverse lobes by ovate enamel lobes; the front tooth is
+much larger than its fellow. The _Hydromys_ are small rat-like animals
+of slender form, with long tails, rather densely clothed with short
+hairs, and short limbs. The hind feet have much stronger claws than
+the fore feet, and their toes are partially webbed. Five species of
+this group are known from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, where they
+inhabit the banks of the streams. The best known are the Yellow-bellied
+and the White-bellied Water Mice (_Hydromys chrysogaster_ and
+_leucogaster_), both of which inhabit New South Wales, and the latter
+is also found in Van Diemen’s Land. The Sooty Water Mouse (_H.
+fuliginosus_) is an inhabitant of Western Australia.
+
+In the SMINTHINÆ--a group which includes only the genus _Sminthus_,
+founded for the reception of a rat-like Rodent (_S. vagus_) first
+discovered in the Crimea, but now known to range from Hungary, Finland,
+and Sweden, through Russia to the banks of the Irtisch and Yenisei,
+and into Tartary (Bokhara)--we find another exceptional character of
+the molar teeth. There are four of these teeth on each side both above
+and below, the first and fourth of which are much smaller than the
+intervening ones. In this animal the ears are rather long and pointed,
+the legs are rather short, and the tail is about as long as the body,
+and clothed with short hairs.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF SMINTHUS.]
+
+In the remainder of the Muridæ, the molars, which are again only three
+in number on each side, are generally rootless, although occasionally
+the growth of the teeth stops and they close up below. The molars are
+composed of triangular prisms placed alternately. Two groups are thus
+characterised, namely, the Voles and the Zokors.
+
+The VOLES (_Arvicolinæ_), which, next to the true Rats and Mice,
+form the most important group of Muridæ, are represented in the
+northern parts of both hemispheres. The brain-case in these animals
+is rhomboidal when looked at from above, the frontal region of the
+skull is much contracted, and the zygomatic arch stands out very far.
+The infra-orbital opening is as in the Murinæ. The molars are so
+constructed of alternating triangular prisms that the whole margin is
+enclosed by deep angular folds of enamel. These are mouse-and rat-like
+Rodents of a rather stout build, with the limbs and tail of moderate
+length, or short, and the latter more hairy than in the true Murines.
+The ears are short, often nearly concealed beneath the fur.
+
+The true Voles (genus _Arvicola_) number about fifty known species,
+which have been arranged by various writers under a considerable number
+of sub-genera, generally corresponding to differences in mode of
+life. Three species, representing three of these groups, are found in
+Britain, and may serve to illustrate the natural history of the Voles.
+The largest of these is the well-known WATER VOLE, or Water Rat, as
+it is more commonly called (_Arvicola amphibius_), an animal rather
+smaller than the Common Rat, and having, like all the Voles, the muzzle
+considerably blunter, and the tail a good deal shorter and more hairy.
+Although thoroughly aquatic in its habits, the feet of the Water Vole
+are not webbed; they have five toes, but the thumb in the fore feet is
+very short. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown, mixed with
+grey on the upper surface, and yellowish-grey beneath; the ears are
+nearly concealed in the fur; and the incisor teeth are deep yellow in
+front, and very strong, presenting a considerable resemblance to those
+of the Beaver, to which great Rodent the Voles were formerly considered
+to be related. It is very widely distributed, being found in all parts
+of Europe, and stretching right across Central and Northern Asia, to
+China, the Amoor region, and the Sea of Okhotsk. In Ireland, however,
+it is not found. Its habits vary a little in different localities,
+but in general it haunts the banks of rivers, in which it burrows to
+a considerable distance. In the water it is very active, swimming and
+diving with the greatest facility, and it is here that it seeks its
+food, which appears to consist exclusively of vegetable substances.
+Professor Bell says:--“A decided preference is shown, during the summer
+months, for the inner or concealed part of some species of sword-flags,
+which is very succulent and sweet-tasted. As this portion is usually
+below water, the animal gnaws the plant in two near its root, when it
+rises to the surface, and being conveyed to some sound footing, is
+consumed at leisure. In default of its more favourite food, it will
+make a satisfactory meal on the common duckweed. Only the green and
+fleshy leaf is eaten, the roots and other fibrous parts being rejected.
+While feeding on this plant, the creature sits like a Squirrel on
+its haunches near the water’s edge, and taking up a lump of the soft
+and slimy-looking mass in its fore paws, eats a small part only, and
+letting the remainder fall, takes up some more in the same manner.” The
+accusation sometimes brought against the Water Vole of eating worms
+and insects, and even of destroying fish-spawn, young fishes, and even
+young ducks, seems to be entirely unfounded. In the winter the Water
+Voles will feed on turnips, mangel-wurzel, and other roots, and also
+upon the bark of osiers and willows, to which they do considerable
+damage; and in some localities they appear to frequent gardens at all
+seasons of the year, burrowing in the ground, and feeding luxuriously
+upon the produce of the gardener’s labour. Their greatest activity is
+in the twilight, but in quiet situations they are to be seen abroad
+during the day. The female produces from two to six young at a litter:
+twice in the year in Britain, according to Professor Bell; three or
+four times in the course of the summer, according to Brehm and other
+Continental naturalists.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE WATER RAT.]
+
+A second British species is the FIELD VOLE, or Short-tailed Field
+Mouse (_Arvicola agrestis_), which is less than half the size of the
+Water Vole, and has the tail only about one-third the length of the
+body, instead of half that length. In the general form of the head
+and body the two species are a good deal alike, but the ears project
+farther beyond the fur in the Field Vole. The general colour of this
+species is greyish-brown, becoming tinged with reddish or yellowish
+on the sides; the lower surface is pale grey or dirty white, and the
+tail is brown above and greyish beneath. The Field Vole is a very
+abundant species in the northern and central parts of Europe, but is
+wanting in Ireland and south of the Alps and Pyrenees. It is usually
+found in damp places, especially in meadows in the neighbourhood of
+woods and copses, where it forms burrows of considerable extent. Its
+food consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, such as
+roots and herbage, and in times of scarcity it will climb up trees and
+bushes to feed on the tender parts of the bark. In case of necessity,
+however, it does not disdain animal food, but will eat insects and
+meat, and even sometimes kill and devour smaller individuals of its
+own species. It breeds three or four times in the year, producing from
+four to six young at a birth, in a small round nest made of moss and
+leaves, among the roots of the herbage in some hollow of the ground.
+Their increase, which would otherwise be very formidable, is checked
+by the smaller predaceous beasts and birds, such as the Weasel, the
+Kestrel, and the Owls, which destroy them in great numbers. The BANK
+VOLE (_Arvicola glareolus_[53]), the third British species, which is
+chestnut-coloured, with white feet and with a longish tail, closely
+resembles the preceding species in its habits, but feeds rather on
+fruits and roots than on herbage, and is far more addicted to a diet of
+animal food, freely devouring insects, worms, snails, and even young
+birds and carrion. It is pretty generally distributed over Europe, but
+not so uniformly as the Field Vole, which it even exceeds in fecundity,
+the females producing from four to eight young three or four times in
+the year, in a nest constructed of grass and moss placed in a hollow of
+the surface of the ground among dense herbage.
+
+[Illustration: SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE.]
+
+The Continent of Europe is inhabited by several other species of Voles,
+among which we may notice the little SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE (_Arvicola
+arvalis_), which more or less completely takes the place of our common
+Field Vole in Southern Europe, but also extends over the whole of
+Central Europe, and into Western Asia. Several of these species, and
+others to which we cannot specially refer, ascend to considerable
+elevations on the mountain-sides, but at least one species, the
+SNOW MOUSE (_Arvicola nivalis_), lives on the Alps and Pyrenees, at
+elevations of 4,000 feet and upwards, being most abundant about the
+limit of perpetual snow, where it not only resides during the short
+period of summer, when some portion of the surface is freed from its
+snowy covering, but actually throughout the winter, buried under the
+snow, through which it makes its way in search of the roots of plants.
+The ROOT VOLE (_Arvicola œconomus_) is a large and abundant Siberian
+species, the range of which extends from the Obi to Kamstchatka. This
+and some other northern species often migrate in great bodies, after
+the fashion to which we shall have to refer when speaking of the
+Lemmings.
+
+In North America, it would appear from Dr. Coues’ monograph, there
+are about a dozen distinct species of Voles. One of them, confined to
+the northern parts of the Continent, he identifies with the _Arvicola
+rutilus_ of the Old World, which he regards as a circumpolar species.
+South of a line running from sea to sea, a little north of the boundary
+of the United States, comes another form, _A. Gapperi_, which is
+regarded as a sub-species of _A. rutilus_, to which _A. glareolus_
+(_see_ p. 116) is considered to stand in a similar relation. The most
+abundant North American species is the MEADOW MOUSE (_A. riparius_),
+which is distributed, apparently, over the greater part of the
+Continent, and takes the place of the Field Vole. On the prairies there
+is a peculiar species (_A. austerus_), a sub-species of which (_A.
+curtatus_) is found in the Western territories as far as California;
+the PINE MOUSE (_A. pinetorum_) inhabits the country east of the
+Mississippi; and the genus is represented in Mexico by one species (_A.
+quasiater_). The Voles are most numerous and abundant in the northern
+and north-western parts of North America.
+
+Another American species is the MUSQUASH, MUSK-RAT, or ONDATRA (_Fiber
+zibethicus_), which constitutes a genus distinguished from the true
+Voles by having the tail compressed and nearly naked, the hinder toes
+united by short webs, and fringed with long hairs, and the enamel
+folds of the molars united by a line running down the middle of the
+tooth. The form of the animal is thickset, and in this respect, as in
+its aquatic habits, it resembles the Beaver, to which it was formerly
+supposed to be nearly allied. The head is short and broad, the ears
+project very little beyond the fur, the hind limbs are longer than the
+fore legs, and terminate in five toes with strong claws, while the fore
+limbs have only four toes and a wart-like thumb; the fur is very thick
+and shiny, and the colour is usually brown above and grey below, with
+the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, black. The fur is well
+known in commerce. The length of the head and body of a full-grown male
+is about twelve inches. The name Musk-rat, often given to this species,
+refers to the musky odour diffused by the secretion of a large gland
+situated in the inguinal region.
+
+The Musquash, which may be described as a large Water Rat, inhabits
+all the suitable parts of North America, from the thirteenth to the
+sixty-ninth degree of north latitude, and is most abundant in the
+Canadian region, which offers it peculiarly favourable conditions of
+life in the multitude of rivers and lakes, upon the banks of which
+the Musquash always takes up its abode. It is a nocturnal animal,
+passing the day in concealment, and coming forth with the twilight
+to seek its nourishment, and amuse itself with its fellows. In the
+water it displays wonderful activity, and, in many respects, presents
+much resemblance to the Beaver. Curiously enough, the parallelism of
+habits holds good to a certain extent, even in the construction of
+their dwellings. The Musquash generally lives in a burrow dug out of
+the bank of the stream in which he disports himself, and consisting of
+a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface
+of the water. But, under certain conditions, especially in the north,
+he builds himself a house of a rounded or dome-like form, composed
+of sedges, grasses, and similar materials, plastered together with
+mud, and supported upon a mound of mud of sufficient height to raise
+it above the water. The house contains a single chamber from sixteen
+inches to two feet in diameter, and is entered by a passage which opens
+at the bottom of the water. Other passages are said to issue from this,
+and to lead down into the ground under the bottom of the water; these
+are made by the animal in his search for the roots of water-lilies and
+other aquatic plants, which constitute a great part of his nourishment.
+The Musquash also seeks provisions on land, and in this way often does
+much mischief in gardens. Fresh-water mussels also form a part of its
+diet. It passes the winter in its house, which it then furnishes with
+a soft bed of leaves, grasses, and sedges, and, according to Audubon,
+ventilates by covering the middle of the dome only with a layer of
+similar materials, through which the air can pass. Of the propagation
+of the Musquash very little seems to be known with certainty. They
+pair in April and May, and the female produces from three to six young
+at a birth; but whether this takes place once or several times in
+the course of the summer is a matter of doubt. They are captured in
+fall-traps baited with apples, or by traps set at the mouth of their
+burrows. The Indians sometimes spear them in their houses.
+
+[Illustration: MUSQUASH.]
+
+The LEMMING (_Myodes lemmus_) is one of the most remarkable of
+the Muridæ, on account of the great migrations which it performs,
+apparently with no special object. In Norway, where it is best known,
+they make their appearance in the cultivated districts in such enormous
+numbers, and so suddenly, that the peasants have always believed them
+to fall from the clouds. The Lemming is a Vole-like animal, about six
+inches long, of which the tail makes up about half an inch. It varies
+considerably in colour, but is usually brownish-yellow, with dark spots
+above, and with a yellow streak enclosing the eye on each side of the
+face; the under surface is yellowish. The ears are very short, scarcely
+projecting beyond the fur; the eyes are small, black, and bead-like;
+the soles of the feet are hairy, and the claws of the fore feet much
+stronger than those on the hinder extremities. The Norwegian Lemmings
+live and breed among the peat mosses of the mountains. They are lively
+and active little creatures both by day and night, and feed upon the
+scanty vegetation of their Alpine home--grasses, lichens, the catkins
+of the dwarf birch, and roots. They are active even through the winter,
+when they make passages for themselves under the thick covering of
+snow which then veils the whole country, and thus are enabled to go
+in search of their ordinary food. They also make their way up to the
+surface, upon which they may occasionally be seen running, even in
+the depth of winter. They breed in their burrows and under stones,
+and must be very prolific, seeing that every predaceous animal in the
+country destroys and devours them. The Lemming is, in one sense, an
+exceedingly timid little creature, the slightest disturbance of its
+quietude, or even the passing over-head of a cloud, being sufficient to
+alarm it; but when attacked it displays the most dauntless courage,
+standing on the defensive against both men and animals, and biting very
+sharply at anything that comes within its reach. From time to time,
+from some unexplained cause, the Lemmings start in vast swarms from
+their mountain fastnesses, and make their way in a straight line in
+some definite direction. Nothing seems to turn them from their course;
+they go straight on, over hill and dale, and, although said at other
+times to have an aversion to water, they now swim across any lakes or
+rivers that come in their way. In this operation many of them lose
+their lives, for they require smooth water for their navigation, and
+the least breeze ruffling the surface suffices to send hundreds of them
+to the bottom. In this way they gradually arrive at the cultivated
+regions, where they do so much damage to vegetation, that in olden
+times a special form of prayer and exorcism was in use against them.
+Their march is accompanied by great numbers of carnivorous beasts and
+birds of all sorts. Wolves, Foxes, and Wild Cats, and the smaller
+quadrupeds of the family Mustelidæ, Eagles, Hawks, and Owls, all prey
+upon them with avidity--even the Reindeer is said to stamp them to
+death; and the story of his eating them, long discredited, has been
+confirmed on good authority, while man, with his Dogs and Cats, is not
+behindhand in the work of destruction. Nevertheless, a great multitude
+survives all these dangers, and, strange to say, the termination of
+this painful migration is always the sea, into which the survivors
+of the march plunge, and, apparently, voluntarily commit suicide.
+Mr. Crotch, who has published several papers on the Lemming and its
+migrations, says that in Norway these animals always proceed from the
+central backbone of the country in an east or west direction, and that
+in either case the survivors of the march drown themselves, those
+that go westward in the Atlantic, those that go eastward in the Gulf
+of Bothnia. His notion is that the migration is in obedience to an
+inherited instinct acquired at a time when there was land where the
+sea now rolls; but there are many difficulties in the way of such a
+hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: LEMMING.]
+
+Besides the Scandinavian Lemming above noticed, several other species
+occur in the northern parts of the world. Three species (_Myodes
+lagurus_, _obensis_, and _torquatus_) inhabit Siberia; the latter
+two are found in North America, the last also in Greenland. In this
+species, which has been placed in a distinct genus under the name of
+_Cuniculus torquatus_, the third and fourth toes of the fore feet are
+much larger than the second and fifth (the thumb being rudimentary),
+and their claws become periodically enlarged to double their ordinary
+size by an enormous growth during winter of horny matter on the lower
+surface.
+
+The transition from this to the next family is effected by two genera,
+which to such an extent combine the characters of the two as to have
+led different zoologists to place them sometimes in the one, sometimes
+in the other. Externally they have all the characters of the Mole-rats
+of the following family; in the characters of the skull and teeth
+they more resemble the Voles. The ZOKOR (_Siphneus aspalax_), which
+may be taken as an example of these forms, is an inhabitant of the
+Altai Mountains, has the eyes very small, the external ears reduced to
+mere rudiments, the body cylindrical, as in the true Mole-rats, and
+the fore-feet armed with very long and strong claws, of which that
+on the fifth toe is longer than the toe itself. This animal lives
+in subterranean runs something like those of the Mole, but of much
+greater extent, and in burrowing in the earth makes use of its strong
+incisors to cut through the roots it meets with, and when necessary
+to loosen the earth. The runs pass very near the surface, and are no
+doubt made for the purpose of feeding on the tender roots of grasses. A
+species of _Siphneus_ is said to occur in North China. The other genus
+(_Ellobius_) includes two species; one (_E. luteus_) from the country
+about the Sea of Aral; the other (_E. talpinus_) from south-eastern
+Russia and the west of Asia. The latter abounds in the Crimea. These
+animals form the sub-family Siphneinæ.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND OCTODONTIDÆ.
+
+  SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS--Characteristics of the
+  Family--Habits--Food--THE MOLE RAT--Distribution--Description--THE
+  CHESTNUT MOLE RAT--THE NAKED MOLE RAT--THE STRAND
+  MOLE RAT--Description--Habits--THE CAPE MOLE
+  RAT--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS--Characteristics of
+  the Family--The Cheek-pouches--THE COMMON POCKET
+  GOPHER--Distribution--Description--Burrowing--Runs--Subterranean
+  Dwelling--THE NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER--HETEROMYINÆ, OR POUCHED
+  MICE--Difficulties as to Position--Characteristics--PHILLIPS’
+  POCKET MOUSE--Where Found--Description--THE YELLOW POCKET
+  MOUSE--THE LEAST POCKET MOUSE--DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS--Organisation
+  for Jumping--Characteristics--Distribution--THE AMERICAN JUMPING
+  MOUSE--Description--Characters peculiar to itself--Habits--THE
+  TRUE JERBOAS--Characters--THE JERBOA--Distribution--Habits--Mode
+  of Locomotion--THE ALACTAGA--THE CAPE JUMPING HARE--THE
+  PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS--OCTODONTIDÆ--Characteristics--Sub-Family,
+  CTENODACTYLINÆ--THE GUNDI--THE DEGU--Description--Habits--THE
+  BROWN SCHIZODON--THE TUKOTUKO--THE CURURO--THE ROCK
+  RAT--Sub-Family, ECHINOMYINÆ--THE COYPU--One of the Largest
+  Rodents--Description--Burrows--Habits--Mother and Young--THE HUTIA
+  CONGA--THE HUTIA CARABALI--THE GROUND RAT.
+
+
+FAMILY VIII.--SPALACIDÆ (MOLE RATS).
+
+Although the Zokor and its allies in the preceding family have to a
+certain extent prepared us for the peculiar characters presented by the
+Mole-rats, these are exhibited by the latter in a much more extreme
+form. They have a very large broad head, which is usually flattened
+above, and forms an appropriate anterior termination to a clumsy,
+cylindrical body, supported upon short stout limbs; their incisor
+teeth are large and broad, and are most formidably exposed in front
+of the mouth; their eyes are exceedingly small, hidden in the fur,
+and sometimes quite rudimentary; the external ears are reduced to the
+smallest possible size, or altogether wanting; and their tails are
+either so short as to be concealed within the hair of the hinder part
+of the body, or altogether wanting externally, although the skeleton
+still shows some caudal vertebræ. The molar teeth are rooted, and not
+tuberculate; their surface shows re-entering folds of enamel. The
+feet have five toes, but the thumb is generally very small, although
+furnished with a nail. The number of molars varies from three to six on
+each side in each jaw.
+
+In their mode of life, as in their form and the condition of the organs
+of sight and hearing, these animals present a considerable resemblance
+to the Moles; but as their food is exclusively of a vegetable nature,
+the object of their burrowing is not exactly the same. They all inhabit
+the eastern hemisphere, and are generally met with in dry sandy plains,
+the soil of which lends itself readily to mining operations. They
+seldom quit their burrows, and usually work in these only at night,
+when they make their way rapidly through the ground, and, like the
+Mole, can run either backwards or forwards in their subterranean
+galleries with equal facility. They feed chiefly on roots, and
+especially on the bulbs and tubers which so many plants possess in the
+dry districts which they frequent; but some of them also eat nuts,
+seeds, the young bark of trees, and herbage. None of them fall into a
+state of torpidity during the winter--indeed, only two species inhabit
+northern regions; but these, although active in the winter season, are
+said not to take the precaution to lay up a store of provisions.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF MOLE-RAT.]
+
+Most zoologists distinguish two groups of Spalacidæ. In the SPALACINÆ,
+the representatives of which range from south-eastern Europe to further
+India and the south of China, and also occur in Africa in the countries
+of Abyssinia and Shoa, the palate between the molar teeth is broader
+than one of the sockets of the molars, and the angular portion of the
+lower jaw springs from the lower edge of the bony case of the incisor.
+To this group belongs the MOLE-RAT (_Spalax typhlus_), which inhabits
+Hungary and Galicia, and the south-east of Europe generally, and
+ranges eastwards into Asia as far as the Caucasus and Ekaterinoslav.
+It possesses only three molars on each side in each jaw, and has the
+eyes rudimentary and covered by the skin, so that the animal is quite
+blind; the upper incisors are placed perpendicularly; and the tail
+reduced to a sort of wart. The toes, especially those of the fore-feet,
+are furnished with very powerful claws, which are vigorously employed
+by the animal in the digging operations above described. The general
+covering of the body is a soft fur of a yellowish-brown colour, tinged
+with ashy-grey; the head lighter, but becoming brownish behind; and
+the lower surface ashy-grey, with some white streaks and spots. The
+muzzle, chin, and feet are whitish, and along each side of the face
+there runs a sort of ridge of stiff bristle-like hairs. This species is
+particularly abundant in the Ukraine and the country about the Volga
+and the Don.
+
+The genus _Rhizomys_, of which there are an East Indian and two African
+species known, has the eyes uncovered, though very small, short naked
+ears, and a short partially hairy tail. The upper incisors are arched
+forward. The CHESTNUT MOLE-RAT (_Rhizomys badius_) lives in Northern
+India, Siam, and Arracan; and, according to Mr. Finlayson, the food of
+a specimen in confinement consisted of unhusked rice and other grain,
+but he showed himself fond of yams and pumpkins. The NAKED MOLE-RAT
+(_Heterocephalus glaber_), which has no external ears and a short tail,
+has the body almost entirely naked. It is a native of Shoa.
+
+[Illustration: MOLE-RAT.]
+
+The other section of the Mole rat family, the BATHYERGINÆ, is entirely
+confined to Africa, and, indeed, almost exclusively to the southern
+extremity of that continent, only a single species being found
+elsewhere--at Mozambique. They show a resemblance to the Hystricine
+Rodents in the structure of the lower jaw, the angular portion of which
+springs from the side of the bony case of the lower incisor; and the
+palate between the molars is narrower than in the Spalacinæ. The best
+known of the six species inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope is the STRAND
+MOLE-RAT (_Bathyergus maritimus_), which is nearly as large as a small
+Rabbit, its length being about ten inches, with a tail two inches in
+length. In general form it resembles the species last described; it has
+small but uncovered eyes, a broad nose, no external ears; very long,
+compressed, and powerful claws on all the toes, except the thumb of
+the fore-feet, which has a crooked nail; four molars on each side, and
+long white incisors, of which the upper ones are strongly grooved in
+front. The colour of the fur is greyish-white, with a yellowish tint
+on the upper surface. The tail has a sort of radiating tuft of hairs
+at the end. The Strand Mole-rat lives entirely in sandy localities
+near the sea-shore, and especially in the sand-hills or dunes which
+fringe the coast of the Cape of Good Hope in some parts. Here it
+burrows freely in all directions, its galleries generally radiating
+from several central points, and joining in various places. It avoids
+the light as much as possible, and if by chance it is exposed on the
+surface it is exceedingly helpless. Very little is known of the habits
+of this species, which probably feeds chiefly on roots like the other
+members of the family. It is regarded as mischievous, as it undermines
+the ground so much as to make it unsafe to ride over. The colonists,
+therefore, often destroy it by various means. The enamel folds of the
+teeth become effaced with use.
+
+The _Georychi_, five species of which inhabit Cape Colony, resemble
+the preceding species, but are smaller and weaker. The claws of the
+fore-feet are shorter and weaker, and the upper incisors, which are
+long and arched forward, are not grooved. The best-known species is
+the so-called CAPE MOLE-RAT (_Georychus capensis_). In the Mozambique
+species (_Heliophobius argenteo-cinereus_) there are six molars on
+each side above and below, and the second toe of the hind feet is the
+longest. In most other characters it resembles _Georychus_.
+
+
+FAMILY IX.--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS.
+
+The Pouched Rats, or Pocket Gophers, and the Pouched Mice of North
+America, constitute a family distinguished from all the preceding forms
+by the presence of a pair of great cheek-pouches, opening _outside_
+and not inside the mouth (_see_ figure). These cheek-pouches are hairy
+inside throughout. The angular portion of the lower jaw is strongly
+twisted, the molars are four in number on each side in each jaw, and
+the squamosal bone is very large. In external characters the animals
+of this family present considerable diversity, which has led to their
+being divided into two well-marked sub-families, the distinctive
+peculiarities of which are of such importance that Dr. Coues has raised
+them to the rank of distinct families. The GEOMYINÆ, or Pouched Rats,
+are more or less Rat-like animals, in which the feet are five-toed, and
+all the toes furnished with claws, those of the fore feet being very
+strongly developed; and the tail is short. Certain other characters
+are presented by the skull. The outline of this part, including the
+zygomatic arches, is almost quadrangular; the infra-orbital opening is
+far in front of the jugal process; the malar bone extends forward to
+the lachrymal.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.]
+
+[Illustration: UNDER SURFACE OF THE HEAD OF HETEROMYS.]
+
+Of the animals thus characterised, the Continent of North America
+possesses, according to Dr. Coues, seven species, and they are met with
+from Hudson’s Bay and the Columbia River in the north, as far south
+as Mexico. The best-known species, the COMMON POCKET GOPHER (_Geomys
+bursarius_), inhabits the whole valley of the Mississippi, and extends
+northwards into Canada. It reaches the foot of the Rocky Mountains in
+Colorado, but is not known to occur west of that range. It is also
+found in Texas. This Pouched Rat, like the rest of its genus, has the
+incisors broad and the upper ones deeply grooved; but in addition to
+the ordinary deep groove it has a fine line close to the inner margin
+of each of these teeth. Its form is stout and clumsy, but its coat is
+beautifully soft and velvety, like that of the Mole, but of a dull
+reddish-brown colour, with the feet and tail white. The average length
+of an adult specimen is from seven to eight inches, and the tail is two
+or three inches long. This organ is clothed with hair nearly to the tip.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.]
+
+Like the Mole, this animal lives in burrows, which it makes in all
+directions in the ground, throwing out as it proceeds heaps of earth,
+which exactly resemble ordinary mole-hills. To enable it to perform
+these labours the claws of the fore feet are exceedingly powerful; and
+to adapt it the better to its subterranean existence, the eyes are very
+small, and the external ears are wanting. Its digging operations have
+generally the same object as those of the Mole--namely, the search
+for food. The tunnel is carried along not far from the surface of the
+ground, and the roots of any plants that lie in its course are bitten
+off and devoured by the little miner. Besides the runs, the Pouched
+Rat digs himself a convenient dwelling in the shape of a chamber
+hollowed out under the roots of a tree, access to which is gained by
+a somewhat spiral descending passage. This chamber, which is usually
+at a depth of four or five feet, is comfortably lined with soft grass,
+and the nest in which the female brings forth her young is a cavity of
+the same kind, but surrounded by circular passages, from which, like
+that of the Mole, other passages branch off. One of these, according
+to Gesner, leads from the nest to a large store-chamber filled with
+nuts, seeds, and roots, among which the potato was found to play an
+important part. These provisions are carried to the store-house in the
+great cheek-pouches, which the animal is said to fill by the aid of its
+tongue, and to empty with the fore paws. This Pouched Rat does much
+damage in cultivated ground by attacking the roots of both plants and
+trees, sometimes destroying a great number of the latter in a few days.
+The female produces from five to seven young at the end of March or the
+beginning of April. The other species of _Geomys_ closely resemble this
+in their habits.
+
+Of the second genus belonging to this sub-family (_Thomomys_) Dr. Coues
+admits only two species, one of which, however, occurs under three
+named forms. They may be distinguished from the species of _Geomys_ by
+their having the upper incisors plain, without grooves.
+
+The NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER (_Thomomys talpoides_), with its
+sub-species, ranges over nearly the whole of North America from the
+Hudson’s Bay Territory to California and New Mexico. The three forms
+are for the most part in accordance with geographical distribution.
+A small species (_Thomomys clusius_) has been obtained in the Rocky
+Mountains.
+
+The HETEROMYINÆ (forming the family Saccomyidæ of Dr. Coues, although
+he does not accept the genus _Saccomys_) are more slender and delicate
+in form than the Geomyinæ, and have the hind limbs and tail elongated,
+the former, indeed, being converted into leaping organs like those
+of the Jerboas and Kangaroos. The eyes and ears are larger, and the
+animals are in every respect adapted to life in the open, while the
+Geomyinæ, on the contrary, are subterranean in their habits. The hair
+in the present family is coarse and harsh, sometimes even spiny. In
+skeletal characters we find a similar alteration. The incisors are
+narrow; the skull is delicate, with its angles rounded off, and the
+mastoid bones form a considerable part of the roof of the cranial
+cavity; the zygomatic arches are slender; and, the lower root of the
+maxillary process being undeveloped, the infra-orbital opening is
+not defined. As in the Jerboas, the cervical vertebræ are sometimes
+anchylosed. Like the Geomyinæ, these animals are confined to America,
+and chiefly limited to the Southern United States and Central America,
+although some of the species occur as far north as the Columbia River
+and Hudson’s Bay, and one is found in Trinidad. By American writers
+they are called “Pocket Mice.”
+
+PHILLIPS’S POCKET MOUSE, also known as the Kangaroo Rat (_Dipodomys
+Phillipsii_), is one of the best known species of this group. It is
+an elegantly formed little creature, about four inches long, with
+a slender tail nearly six inches in length. Its colour above is
+mouse-brown, white beneath; the sides of the body have some white
+streaks, especially one from the ear towards the shoulder, and one on
+the thigh running towards the root of the tail; the tip of the tail is
+also white. This is a Californian species, but extends throughout the
+Pacific region of the United States. It is represented in the Rocky
+Mountains by a rather larger and stouter form, with smaller ears and
+a shorter tail (_Dipodomys Ordii_), which is generally regarded as
+distinct, but is placed by Dr. Coues as a sub-species. The habits of
+the species are comparatively little known, but they appear to live in
+the most desert places they can find, the barren spots on which the
+only plants that seem to flourish are the great mis-shapen cactuses.
+They dwell in holes under rocks and stones, from which they emerge at
+sunset, and hop about gaily after the fashion of little Kangaroos. The
+places in which these Pocket Mice are found are so bare of vegetation
+and destitute of water, that it is difficult to imagine how they
+contrive to exist. In all probability they pick up a scanty living in
+the shape of roots and grasses, especially seeds, carrying a supply for
+the day into their holes in their great cheek-pouches.
+
+The YELLOW POCKET MOUSE and the LEAST POCKET MOUSE (_Cricetodipus
+flavus_ and _parvus_) are very minute creatures, only about two inches
+long in the head and body. The tail is longer than the head and body in
+the latter, shorter in the former species, and the colour of the fur
+in both is a pale buff. These species are found in the Rocky Mountains
+and the region west of that range to the Pacific, the latter being
+inhabited by the second of the above species. Several species of the
+genus _Heteromys_ inhabit Central America, and one is found in the
+island of Trinidad. Nothing appears to be known of their habits.
+
+From these we pass as by a natural transition to
+
+
+FAMILY X.--DIPODIDÆ (THE JERBOAS).
+
+The JERBOAS are a more extensive and much more widely distributed
+family of hopping Rodents. In these we find the organisation for
+jumping brought to greater perfection than in any other group. The
+body is light and slender, the hind limbs much elongated, the fore
+limbs very small, and the tail long and usually tufted at the end. The
+number of toes on the hind feet varies from three to five, and the
+metatarsal bones are very often united so as to form what is called
+a “cannon bone” in the Horse. The incisor teeth are compressed; the
+molars sometimes four, but usually three in each series, rooted or
+rootless, not tuberculate; the infra-orbital opening is rounded and
+very large, and the zygomatic arch slender. The great home of these
+animals is the vast steppe region which stretches from South-eastern
+Europe across the greater part of Central Asia, but they extend
+southwards round the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, through
+Syria and Arabia to Egypt and Africa, over a great part of which they
+are found, and eastward to India, Afghanistan, and Ceylon. A single
+species occurs at the Cape of Good Hope; and another is found in North
+America. We may commence by noticing this last species, as it not only
+makes the nearest approach to those of preceding families, especially
+the Muridæ, but differs from the rest of the Jerboas in characters of
+such importance, that Dr. Coues maintains its right to form a separate
+family (_Zapodidæ_).
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE CAPE JUMPING HARE.]
+
+The AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE (_Zapus[54] hudsonius_) has a wide range,
+extending across the continent of North America from sea to sea, and
+from Labrador, Hudson’s Bay, and the Great Slave Lake in the north,
+to Virginia and the elevated portions of Arizona and New Mexico in
+the south. It is an elegant little mouse-like creature, rather more
+than three inches long, and furnished with a cylindrical tail, which
+exceeds the head and body in length by about two inches. Its hind limbs
+are not quite so disproportionately developed as in the other members
+of the family. Its fur in summer is of a brown colour above, becoming
+yellowish on the sides and white below; in the winter the brown tint
+covers the whole surface. The ears, which are not very large, are
+black, with a light-coloured rim; the hind feet are greyish, and the
+fore feet whitish on the upper surface; and the tail, which tapers to
+an exceedingly fine point, where there is a fine pencil of hairs, is
+ringed and nearly naked.
+
+The characters in which this animal differs from its nearest relatives
+are as follows:--In the upper jaw there are four rooted molars on
+each side, the first being very small, the second the largest, and
+the rest gradually diminishing in size; the fore feet have the thumbs
+rudimentary, and the hind feet have five toes, all of which touch the
+ground; the metatarsal bones are separate; and the soles of the feet
+naked, with granules and small horny shields.
+
+[Illustration: AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE.]
+
+The American Jumping Mouse is found in meadows in the neighbourhood of
+woods and copses. It is nocturnal in its activity, sleeping during the
+day in its burrow, which is usually about two feet deep, and coming
+forth at night. It is sociable in its habits, and excessively active,
+covering from three to five feet of ground at each leap, so that it is
+a matter of no little difficulty to capture a specimen in the open. In
+the woods it is worse, as the little creature will bound over bushes,
+and get out of sight in a moment. Its food consists of seeds of various
+kinds, and it is exceedingly fond of beech-mast. For protection from
+the cold of winter the Jumping Mouse makes a little hollow clay ball,
+within which it coils itself up, and goes comfortably to sleep. The
+nest is made about six inches under the surface of the ground, and
+is composed of fine grass, sometimes mixed with feathers, wool, and
+hair; and in this the female produces from two to four young, probably
+several times in the course of the summer, as the nests and young are
+to be found from May to August.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE JERBOA.]
+
+If we regard the American Jumping Mouse as constituting a peculiar
+section of the family, ZAPODINÆ, a second group, DIPODINÆ, is formed
+by the TRUE JERBOAS, which make up the greater part of the family.
+These either possess only three molars, or a very small additional
+tooth exists in front of each series in the upper jaw. The molars are
+rooted, and diminish in size backwards in each series. The cervical
+vertebræ are anchylosed; the fore feet have the thumbs rudimentary, but
+sometimes furnished with a small nail; the hind feet have only three
+toes fully developed, and the metatarsals are united into a single bone
+of great length; the soles are furnished with elastic balls; and the
+tail is very long, well-clothed with hair, and tufted at the end.
+
+[Illustration: JERBOA.]
+
+Of these pretty little creatures, which are in some respects singularly
+bird-like, about twenty species have been recorded, and these occupy
+the whole of the Old World area of the family, except South Africa.
+The JERBOA (_Dipus ægyptius_) may serve as an example of this section
+of the family. This is a most lively and active little creature, which
+inhabits the deserts of north-eastern Africa as far south as Nubia, and
+extends its range into Arabia and south-western Asia. On these arid
+plains, so scantily clothed with a few grasses and dry shrubs that it
+is difficult to conceive how any animal can find a living on them, the
+Jerboa lives, often in numerous societies, and in company with the few
+birds and lizards which enliven the wilderness. These animals dwell
+in subterranean abodes consisting of many branched galleries, which
+they dig out in the hard soil not far from the surface. The Arabs
+assert that these habitations are produced by the joint labour of the
+whole society. They retreat into their burrows at the least alarm. The
+females are said to produce from two to four young at a birth in a nest
+made in the deeper part of the burrow, and lined with hair pulled from
+the under surface of her own body. When going along quietly, the Jerboa
+walks and runs by alternate steps of the hind feet, but when there
+is occasion for rapid motion it springs from both feet at the same
+time, covering so much ground at each leap, and touching the ground so
+momentarily between them, that its motion is more like that of a bird
+skimming close to the surface of the ground than that of a four-footed
+beast.
+
+The Jerboa is about six inches long, with a tail about eight inches in
+length exclusive of the tuft with which its tip is adorned. Its upper
+surface is of a greyish sand-colour, like that of many other desert
+animals; the lower surface is white; and the tail pale-yellowish above
+and white beneath, with the tuft white, with an arrow-shaped black mark
+on its upper surface.
+
+[Illustration: ALACTAGA.]
+
+Several other species of Jerboas are known, some from the deserts of
+North Africa, others from the steppes of Central Asia. The latter
+region harbours some forms, which differ from the preceding, among
+other characters, by having five toes in the hind feet, whereas the
+true Jerboas have only three, but of the five toes only three are
+sufficiently developed to take part in the animal’s progression.
+The best known of them is the ALACTAGA (_Alactaga jaculus_), a
+rather larger species than the Jerboa, and with a still longer tail,
+reddish-yellow with a greyish tinge above, white beneath and on the
+hind legs. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don
+across Central Asia to the borders of China. It walks upon all-fours,
+and when advancing quickly springs along after the fashion of the
+Jerboa. Its food consists of all sorts of vegetable substances, but
+it is especially fond of the bulbs of plants, and does not refuse
+occasionally to eat insects, or even the eggs and young of the
+birds which inhabit the steppes with it. The Alactagas live in very
+complicated burrows, with many passages and branches, and they are said
+always to make one passage from the central chamber of their residence,
+which terminates close to the surface of the earth at some distance,
+but is only opened in case of danger, when the inhabitants escape
+through it, the position of its intended aperture being previously
+unrecognisable. In cold weather they sleep in their nests. The female
+produces from five or six to eight young, in a nest lined with her own
+hair. Species of _Alactaga_ occur not only in Central Asia, but also in
+Arabia and North Africa.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE JUMPING HARE.]
+
+South Africa produces one species, the CAPE JUMPING HARE (_Pedetes
+caffer_), which constitutes a distinct sub-family, PEDETINÆ, having
+four rootless molars on each side in each jaw, the metatarsal bones
+separate, the tail bushy, and the hind feet furnished with four toes
+having broad, hoof-like nails. This is a much larger animal than any
+of the preceding, being about the size of the common Hare, which it
+also resembles in its colours. The Jumping Hare inhabits a considerable
+portion of South Africa, extending on the west coast at least as
+far as Angola. It is abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, both in the
+mountains and in the plains. Great numbers of the animals often live
+together, and their burrows, which, like those of other Dipodidæ, are
+inhabited by numerous individuals as a common residence, consist of
+many-branched galleries made at no great depth from the surface, but
+leading into a more deeply-seated habitation. They generally go about
+slowly upon all-fours, but can advance with extraordinary rapidity by
+Kangaroo-like springs, in each of which, when pressed, they will cover
+a space of twenty or thirty feet. Their food consists of roots, seeds,
+and herbage. The female produces three or four young at a birth.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE JUMPING HARE.]
+
+
+SECTION III.--PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS (_HYSTRICOMORPHA_).
+
+
+FAMILY XI.--OCTODONTIDÆ.
+
+This first family of the Porcupine alliance consists of a number of
+rat-like animals, nearly all of which are inhabitants of South America,
+three species only being peculiar to the large West Indian Islands,
+whilst, singularly enough, four more are known from different parts of
+the African continent. Except in one of these last, all the members of
+the family have four molars on each side in each jaw, and the crowns
+of these teeth show internal and external folds of enamel. The malar
+portion of the zygomatic arch has an angular process at its lower
+margin. The hind limbs are not disproportionately developed, and both
+they and the fore feet are nearly always furnished with five toes,
+armed with curved claws; and the clavicles are perfect. The ears are
+generally short and sparingly hairy, and the tail, which is of various
+lengths, is either clad with short hairs, or naked and scaly.
+
+We may begin with two African species of this generally American
+family, which have the two inner claws of the hind feet furnished with
+comb-like fringes of horny bristles, whence the name of _Ctenodactylus_
+has been applied to the best known species. These two species,
+which exhibit strong affinities to the Jerboas, form the sub-family
+CTENODACTYLINÆ. The GUNDI (_Ctenodactylus Massoni_) has only three
+molars on each side in each jaw, and only four toes upon each foot. It
+is an animal about the size of the Water Rat, but with a mere stump
+of a tail, very small ears, very long whiskers, and the hind limbs
+rather longer than their fellows. It lives in North Africa, chiefly on
+the borders of the Sahara, where it takes up its abode in the rocky
+hills, and descends therefrom to the cultivated grounds to feast upon
+the growing corn. It is diurnal in its habits, but exceedingly shy
+and watchful, making off to its fastnesses at the least appearance of
+danger. _Pectinator Spekei_, a species named after its discoverer, the
+celebrated African traveller, is nearly related to the preceding, but
+has a small additional molar in each series. The tail is of moderate
+length, and bushy, and the ears have a small antitragus. It inhabits
+the Somali land in the interior of North-eastern Africa.
+
+[Illustration: DEGU.]
+
+The DEGU (_Octodon Cumingii_), a very abundant species in Chili, which
+also extends into Peru, may be taken as a typical example of the whole
+family, and also of its typical sub-family OCTODONTINÆ, in which the
+molars are simply indented on each side. The fur is soft, and the
+tail is short. The Degu is a rat-like animal, rather smaller than
+the Water Vole, the head and body measuring from seven and a half to
+eight inches in length, and the tail, exclusive of its terminal tuft,
+rather more than half that length. The general colour of the animal is
+brownish-yellow, pencilled with black on the back; the lower surface is
+yellowish, the feet white, and the tail dusky above, whitish beneath,
+with the tufted tip dusky or blackish. In the central parts of Chili,
+according to various travellers, the Degu is exceedingly abundant,
+living in large societies about hedges and thickets, and running about
+boldly, even on the high roads. The animals make their burrows in
+the hedge-banks and similar places, and when alarmed rush into them
+with their tails elevated, very much after the manner of Rabbits. As
+the burrows communicate freely with each other, the Degus can easily
+escape pursuit, going in at one opening and coming out at another at
+some considerable distance. They sometimes climb up into the bushes
+among which they live. Their ordinary food consists of the herbage
+which grows about their dwelling-places, but they also invade gardens
+and fields, where they may do considerable damage. In the winter they
+will feed upon the tender bark of certain trees, but they are said by
+some authors to lay up a store of food against this season. They do
+not become torpid. The female is believed to produce two broods in the
+year, each consisting of from four to six young. Two other species
+of _Octodon_ are known from Chili and Bolivia, which region is also
+inhabited by two species of _Habrocoma_, a genus distinguished by the
+large size of the ears, and the extreme softness of the fur. In these
+animals the molar teeth differ in the two jaws, the upper ones being
+as simple as in the preceding species, while the lower ones show a
+complication of the enamel folds like what we shall meet with in the
+third sub-family.
+
+The BROWN SCHIZODON (_Schizodon fuscus_), which inhabits certain
+elevated spots in the southern part of the Andes (75° S. lat.), has
+the enamel folds of the molar teeth meeting in the middle. It is about
+the size of the common Rat (seven and a half to nine inches long),
+and has a shortish tail clothed throughout with short hairs. Its fur
+is dark brown above, dirty yellowish beneath. This animal inhabits
+grassy places near mountain streams, where the ground is sometimes so
+undermined by its burrows as to render travelling on horseback very
+uncomfortable. It is a nocturnal animal, and passes most of its life
+underground. The valleys it inhabits are covered with snow for at least
+four months in the year.
+
+In the TUKOTUKO (_Ctenomys brasiliensis_) and its congeners, about
+four of which are known from different parts of South America, one of
+them extending as far south as the Strait of Magellan, the eyes and
+ears are very small, and the animal seems to be still more specially
+adapted to a subterranean mode of life. In these animals the claws
+are longer than the toes, and those of the hind feet are fringed with
+a sort of comb formed of bristles. The incisor teeth are very broad.
+The Tukotuko is about the size of a large Rat, namely, from eight and
+a half to nine and a half inches long, with the tail from two and a
+half to three and a half inches. Its name is in imitation of the sound
+which it constantly emits--a sound which rather surprises a stranger
+when he first hears it, seeing that the animal uttering it is concealed
+underground. In many places, as in the Argentine Republic, this animal
+is exceedingly numerous, living generally in sandy soil, but sometimes
+in damp situations. It makes long burrows not far from the surface, and
+thus in some places completely undermines the ground. In making these
+galleries the Tukotuko is engaged in the search for its food, which
+consists chiefly of the roots of plants. According to Azara, it lays up
+stores of food in its burrows. Its activity is nocturnal.
+
+The CURURO (_Spalacopus Pöppigii_) has the ears quite rudimentary,
+and is also organised for a subterranean existence. This and another
+species inhabit Chili, where they make extensive burrows in the ground,
+and feed upon the bulbous and tuberous roots of various plants, large
+stores of which they collect in their subterranean abodes. These
+magazines are sought out by the poorer people, and their contents used
+as food.
+
+[Illustration: DENTITION OF THE ROCK RAT.]
+
+The ROCK RAT (_Petromys typicus_), although most nearly allied to
+the preceding species, lives on the opposite side of the Atlantic in
+the rocky hills of South Africa, especially towards the mouth of the
+Orange River. It differs from the preceding forms in the harshness of
+its fur, in which it resembles another sub-family of Octodontidæ, in
+the shortness of its thumbs, which are furnished with a small nail,
+and in its rather bushy tail. The molars are semi-rooted, with the
+enamel folds nearly meeting in the middle. The whiskers are of great
+length, and entirely black. The general colour is reddish-brown, with
+the head and fore parts greyish, the throat whitish, and the belly
+pale yellow. The tail is of the colour of the body at the root, with
+the remainder black. The length of the animal is about seven and a
+half inches, of the tail from five to five and a half inches. It feeds
+upon various vegetable substances, and appears to be very fond of the
+flowers of syngenesious plants, especially a species of groundsel,
+which it eagerly devours. It forms its retreat among loose stones, or
+in crevices of the rocks.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE SPINY RAT.]
+
+While the Octodontinæ may be regarded as specially characteristic of
+the region of the Andes, the other great group of this family is almost
+exclusively confined to the country east of that great chain, and to
+some of the West Indian islands. Curiously enough this sub-family also
+has a single representative in Africa. Its members are distinguished
+at once by the complicated enamel folds of their molar teeth in both
+jaws, by these teeth being generally rooted, and by the texture of the
+fur, which is harsh and frequently mixed with fine spines. Hence the
+name of _Echinomys_ (Spiny, or rather Hedgehog, Rat), applied to the
+typical genus, from which the sub-family is named ECHINOMYINÆ. The tail
+in these animals is usually long.
+
+The Rodents belonging to this sub-family are generally of considerable
+size, as large as Rats, or larger, stoutly built, with the hinder part
+of the body larger than the fore-quarters, with limbs of moderate
+length, the hinder larger than the anterior, the former furnished with
+five toes, the latter with four complete digits and a rudimentary
+thumb, and the toes armed with strong curved claws. The tail is scaly,
+with scattered hairs. In their habits these animals appear to be
+strictly vegetable-feeders, but in other respects they present some
+variety. The majority live in and upon the ground; but one or two are
+arboreal, and one aquatic, in their mode of life.
+
+The last species alluded to is the well-known COYPU (_Myopotamus
+Coypus_), one of the largest of Rodents, which occurs in nearly
+all parts of South America and on both sides of the Andes, from
+the tropic of Capricorn to about 15° N. lat. It is usually about
+twenty inches long, but often attains still greater dimensions. The
+tail, which is about two-thirds the length of the head and body, is
+scaly, with hairs about as thickly scattered as in the common Rat.
+The ears are of moderate size; the incisor teeth very large and
+powerful; the molars, the hindmost of which are the largest, have
+two internal and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three
+internal folds and one external in the lower, jaw; the hind feet are
+webbed. The general colour of the upper surface is brown, produced by
+dusky and brownish-yellow pencilling; the sides and under parts are
+brownish-yellow, and the front of the muzzle and the chin white.
+
+[Illustration: COYPU.]
+
+The Coypus live upon the shores of the rivers and lakes of South
+America, generally, according to Rengger, in pairs, each pair digging
+for themselves a burrow in the bank, which extends to a depth of three
+or four feet, and widens out into a cavity eighteen inches or two feet
+in diameter. Here they pass the night, and take refuge when necessary
+during the day. They select for their dwelling-places the stiller parts
+of the water, where the aquatic plants on which they chiefly feed grow
+freely. They are said to swim well, but not to be expert in diving. On
+land they are slow and awkward in their movements. They feed chiefly on
+the roots of plants, but in the Chonos Archipelago, where the Coypus
+frequent the sea and make their burrows at some little distance from
+the beach, they are said occasionally to eat shell-fish. The female
+produces from four to five young once in the year. The little animals
+very early accompany their mother into the water, when she swims with
+them on her back, until they have acquired the art of swimming. Mr.
+Waterhouse thinks that this habit may “explain the singular position
+of the nipples noticed in the female Coypu. Of these four were found
+by Mr. Lereboullet on each side of the body, and situated rather above
+the mesial line of the flanks, the foremost being placed behind the
+shoulder, and the hindermost in front of the thigh.” The Coypu is
+hunted for the sake of its flesh, which is described as white and of
+good flavour, and of its skin, which is well known in the fur trade
+under the name of “Nutria,” signifying Otter. Great quantities of these
+skins are annually exported from Buenos Ayres. It is said to be a
+courageous animal, fighting bravely with the dogs engaged in chasing it.
+
+[Illustration: HUTIA CONGA.]
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF PLAGIODON.]
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF LONCHERES.]
+
+The HUTIA CONGA (_Capromys pilorides_) is another large Rodent,
+measuring from twenty to twenty-two inches in length, with a stout
+rat-like tail about half as long as the head and body. It is an
+inhabitant of Cuba. The incisors are considerably smaller and weaker
+than in the Coypu; the upper molars have one internal and two external
+folds; the lower ones are similar but reversed. The fur, which is
+long, is very harsh, and consists of a mixture of black and yellow
+hairs, becoming rusty on the hinder part of the body. The belly is
+rusty yellow. This animal lives in the dense forests of Cuba, where
+it resides either upon the trees or in the thick underwood. It is a
+nocturnal or crepuscular animal, and is tolerably active when going
+about on the branches of trees, but is less at home on the ground.
+Its food consists of fruits, leaves, and the bark of trees, but,
+according to M. Ramon de la Sagra, it does not disdain animal food,
+and is especially fond of a species of Lizard belonging to the genus
+_Anolis_. On the other hand, the negroes are very partial to the flesh
+of the Hutia, and they capture the animal either by snaring it on the
+branches of trees, or by sending Dogs after it. Like the Coypu, it is
+said to fight courageously against its pursuers. Another Cuban species,
+the HUTIA CARABALI (_C. prehensilis_), has a slightly longer tail,
+which is prehensile at the tip. It is described as keeping chiefly to
+the highest branches of the trees. In St. Domingo there is an allied
+form, _Plagiodon ædium_, in which the enamel folds of the molars are
+singularly complex (_see_ figure on p. 132). This animal frequents
+the neighbourhood of human habitations, and approaches them at night
+in search of its food, which consists of fruit and roots. In most of
+the other members of this sub-family, which appear to be terrestrial
+in their habits, the intermixture of spines with the fur of the back
+is a striking character. In the genus _Echinomys_ itself, and in
+_Loncheres_, which together include about a dozen species found chiefly
+in Guiana and Brazil, the spines frequently form the principal outer
+covering of the back. Side by side with these hedgehog-like species,
+however, others occur in which the fur is soft.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF LONCHERES.]
+
+The GROUND RAT (_Aulacodus Swinderianus_), of Western and Southern
+Africa, is remarkable as being the sole representative of this group
+outside the South American province. It has very broad incisors, and
+those of the upper jaw exhibit three deep grooves; the molars show
+the same arrangement of folds as in _Capromys_; the fur is harsh and
+bristly, and of a general brown tint; and the tail is of moderate
+length, sparingly haired, dusky above, and whitish below. The fore
+feet have the thumb rudimentary and the outer toe very short; and the
+hind feet have only four toes, of which the outer one is rudimentary.
+This curious animal, which is nearly two feet long, is known to be an
+inhabitant of Sierra Leone and the Gambia, and also of South Africa
+(Port Natal); in all probability it occurs at many intermediate
+localities. In Sierra Leone it is known as the Ground Rat, or Ground
+Pig, and is said to feed upon ground nuts, and cassada and other roots
+in search of which it digs into the ground, where it also forms large
+burrows for its residence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PORCUPINES--CHINCHILLAS--AGOUTIS--CAVIES--HARES AND RABBITS--PIKAS.
+
+  HYSTRICIDÆ, THE PORCUPINES--Conversion of Hairs into
+  Spines--Skull--Dentition--Tail--Sub-families--The
+  True Porcupines--The Tree Porcupines--THE COMMON
+  PORCUPINE--Distribution--Description--The Crest of
+  Bristles--Nature of the Spines--Habits--Young--Flesh--On the
+  Defensive--Other Species--Species of Tree Porcupines--THE
+  COUENDOU--THE COUIY--Description--Habits--THE URSON, OR CANADA
+  PORCUPINE--Description--Habits--Food--CHINCHILLIDÆ, THE
+  CHINCHILLAS--Characteristics--THE VISCACHA--Description--Life on the
+  Pampas--Their Burrows--Habits--The Chinchillas of the Andes--THE
+  CHINCHILLA--THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA--CUVIER’S CHINCHILLA--THE
+  PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA--DASYPROCTIDÆ, THE AGOUTIS--Characters--THE
+  AGOUTI--Distribution--Appearance--Habits--AZARA’S
+  AGOUTI--THE ACOUCHY--THE
+  PACA--Appearance--Distribution--Habits--DINOMYIDÆ--Founded
+  for a Single Species--Description--Rarity--CAVIIDÆ, THE
+  CAVIES--Characteristics--THE RESTLESS CAVY--Appearance--Habits--The
+  Guinea-Pig Controversy--THE BOLIVIAN CAVY--THE ROCK
+  CAVY--THE SOUTHERN CAVY--THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR
+  MARA--Peculiar Features--Its Burrows--Mode of Running--THE
+  CAPYBARA--Its Teeth--Where Found--Habits--THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED
+  RODENTS--Characteristics--LEPORIDÆ, THE HARES AND
+  RABBITS--Structural Peculiarities--Distribution--Disposition--THE
+  COMMON HARE--Hind Legs--Speed--Its “Doubles”--Other
+  Artifices--Its “Form”--Habits--Food--Pet Hares--THE
+  RABBIT--Distribution--Habits--Domesticated--THE MOUNTAIN
+  HARE--LAGOMYIDÆ, THE PIKAS--Characteristics--Distribution--THE ALPINE
+  PIKA--THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA.
+
+
+FAMILY XII.--HYSTRICIDÆ (PORCUPINES).
+
+This second family of the section Hystricomorpha exhibits the
+conversion of the hairs into spines in perfection, the whole upper part
+of the body being in several instances completely covered with long,
+hollow, pointed quills, whilst in all cases great numbers of spines
+and stiff bristles are mixed with the hair. The form of the skull in
+these animals is distinctive. It is ovate, the cranial portion being
+more or less inflated by air-cavities in the bones, and the facial
+portion short, but the occipital or hinder surface is usually nearly
+perpendicular; the malar portion of the zygoma has no angular process
+as in the preceding family; the molar teeth are four in number on each
+side in each jaw; and the limbs are about equal in development. The
+incisor teeth are large and powerful. With regard to the development of
+the tail there are considerable differences, some species having that
+organ quite short, while in others it is of moderate length, or long
+and sometimes prehensile.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PORCUPINE.]
+
+The Porcupines fall readily into two distinct groups (sub-families)
+characterised by structure, habits, and geographical distribution. In
+the strictly terrestrial species, or True Porcupines (HYSTRICINÆ),
+which inhabit the warmer parts of the eastern hemisphere, the skull
+is rather more elongated than in the others; the front margin of the
+orbit is over the third molar; the molars are rootless when young, but
+become closed after a time, and the clavicles are imperfect. The upper
+lip is furrowed; the tail, which may be either long or short, is never
+prehensile; the soles of the feet are smooth; and the female has six
+teats.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON PORCUPINE.]
+
+The arboreal species (SPHINGURINÆ), which are all American, have the
+skull peculiarly short, the front margin of the orbit over the first
+molar, the molars always rooted, and the clavicles perfect. The upper
+lip is not furrowed; the tail is moderate or long, and generally
+prehensile; the soles of the feet are covered with wart-like tubercles;
+and the female has only four teats.
+
+The COMMON PORCUPINE (_Hystrix cristata_) may serve as a characteristic
+and well-known example of the first of these two groups. It is an
+inhabitant of the Mediterranean region, occurring in most parts of
+North Africa, and extending as far southwards as the Gambia and Soudan;
+in Southern Europe it is abundant in Italy, Sicily, and Greece. It
+measures about twenty-seven or twenty-eight inches in length to the
+root of the tail, which is about four inches long. The head, shoulders,
+limbs, and under parts are clothed with short spines intermixed with
+hairs usually of a dusky or brownish-black hue; the neck is marked
+with a whitish collar; from the back of the head and neck there rises
+a great crest of long bristles, many of them fifteen or sixteen inches
+in length, which can be elevated and depressed at the pleasure of the
+animal, are gently curved backwards, and are either dusky with the
+extremities white, or whitish throughout; the hinder portion of the
+body is entirely covered by a great number of long, sharp spines,
+ringed with black and white, but always having the extremities white.
+These spines vary considerably in size, some of them being very long
+(fifteen or sixteen inches), comparatively slender and flexible; others
+shorter (from six to twelve inches), but much stouter. They are all
+hollow, or filled only with a sort of spongy tissue, but from their
+structure are exceedingly resistant, and when the animal erects them,
+which he is able to do by contracting the muscles of the skin in which
+their roots are imbedded, they constitute a most formidable armature.
+They appear to be but loosely attached to the skin, and readily fall
+out, a circumstance which no doubt gave rise to the belief prevalent
+among the ancients (and many moderns) that the Porcupine was able to
+shoot his spines at an approaching enemy, or even to project them
+behind him at a pursuer when he was rushing away in search of a place
+of safety. The tail of the animal bears at its tip about twenty spines
+of very curious construction; they are about two inches long, hollow,
+open, and cut off square at the end, and about a quarter of an inch in
+diameter for the greater part of their length, but they are inserted
+into the skin by the extremity of a thin stalk half an inch long.
+
+The Porcupine lives in holes among the rocks, or in a burrow, which he
+makes for himself in ordinary ground. In this retreat he passes the
+day in sleep, coming forth in the evening in search of food, which
+consists of herbage of various kinds, fruits, roots, and the bark and
+leaves of trees and bushes. He is slow in his movements, and does
+not even display much activity in burrowing. His habits are solitary
+except during the pairing season; and during the winter he passes
+most of his time in his habitation, without, however, falling into a
+torpid state. The pairing takes place early in the year, but varies
+in this respect according to the climate of the locality; and in the
+spring or early summer the female produces from two to four young, in a
+nest carefully lined with leaves, grasses, roots, and other vegetable
+substances. The young Porcupines are born with their eyes open, and
+their bodies are covered with short, soft spines, which are pressed
+closely to the body. These speedily harden and grow longer, and the
+young do not appear to remain very long with their mother. The flesh of
+the Porcupine, like that of most purely vegetable-feeding Rodents, is
+very good, and is eaten in the countries where the animal occurs. When
+pursued or irritated, he stands on the defensive, erects his formidable
+quills and crest, stamps on the ground with his hind feet after the
+manner of a Hare, jerks himself towards the object of his dread, as if
+to wound it with his spines, and at the same time produces a curious
+noise by rattling the open quills of the tip of his tail. But all these
+manœuvres are generally in vain, and the Porcupine, in spite of his
+defensive armour, is pretty easily captured by those who know how to
+set about it. The Leopard is said to manage the business at once by a
+single blow of his paw on the head.
+
+A very similar Porcupine (_Hystrix hirsutirostris_) takes the place
+of this species in Syria and Asia Minor, and extends thence eastward
+to India; another (_H. javanica_) inhabits the Sunda Islands; and the
+district of Nepaul has a peculiar species of its own. In Siam and
+Malacca, and on the west coast of Africa, we find two species of an
+allied genus, in which the spines of the body are comparatively short
+and depressed, and the tail is elongated, scaly, with a few scattered
+bristles in the middle, and with a large tuft of long flat bristles at
+the tip. The Malayan species (_Atherura fasciculata_) is about eighteen
+inches long, the African one (_A. africana_) about fourteen inches.
+Both are somewhat rat-like in their form.
+
+The Tree Porcupines, forming the second sub-family, several species
+with prehensile tails, range over the continent of South America, east
+of the Andes, and one of them, the Mexican Tree Porcupine (_Sphingurus
+mexicanus_), is found as far north as Guatemala and Southern Mexico.
+The most abundant and widely-distributed species in the Brazilian
+region are the COUENDOU (_Sphingurus prehensilis_) and the COUIY (_S.
+villosus_), inhabiting Guiana, Brazil, and Bolivia, the latter being
+found throughout the forest region of Brazil and as far south as
+Paraguay.
+
+These animals are of considerable size, usually measuring from sixteen
+to twenty inches in length without the tail, which is about one-third
+the length of the head and body. By the aid of the prehensile tip
+of this organ they climb with great facility and security upon the
+branches of the trees, but their feet are also specially adapted for
+this particular mode of activity, and they are said even to climb
+the palm-trees in order to feed upon their fruit. They are nocturnal
+in their habits, passing the day in sleep concealed in the fork of
+a branch, and going abroad at night in search of their food, which
+consists of fruits of various kinds, and the buds, leaves, and even
+flowers, of the trees on which they live. Roots also form a part of
+their nourishment, probably when they reside rather among thickets than
+in the high forest. Their spines, although short when compared with
+those of the Common Porcupine, are formidable defensive weapons when
+the animal erects them; in some species, as especially in the Couiy,
+they are concealed, when depressed, by the long hair, and, according
+to Hensel, this serves as a protection to the animal from rapacious
+birds, for, when it sits in a heap, sleeping away the daylight, these
+soft grey hairs give it a most deceptive resemblance to a mass of
+the beard-moss which so commonly grows on the trees in the Brazilian
+forests.
+
+[Illustration: TREE PORCUPINE.]
+
+The URSON, or CANADA PORCUPINE (_Erythizon dorsatus_), the only North
+American species of the family, according to Mr. Allen, although other
+writers distinguish two or three such forms, is about two feet or
+more in length when full grown, and is covered with woolly hair, and
+with long coarse hair of a dark brown colour, with the points white
+or yellowish, this difference in the colour of the tips of the hairs
+being the chief distinction between the two varieties which Mr. Allen
+recognises. The spines in both forms are white, with the points usually
+dusky or brown. The Canada Porcupine is distributed through the whole
+of the Eastern United States, except on the seaboard, from New York to
+Virginia, and north of the States through Canada, as far as the limit
+of trees. The Western Porcupine, which has the tips of the long hairs
+yellowish (whence it has received the name _E. epixanthus_), occurs
+west of the Missouri river, extending to the Pacific shores and going
+southward along the mountains to Arizona and New Mexico, and northwards
+at least as far as Alaska and Sitka.
+
+[Illustration: MEXICAN TREE PORCUPINES.]
+
+Although a heavy and clumsy-looking beast, and destitute of the
+prehensile tail of its South American cousins, this Porcupine is a
+good climber, and passes nearly the whole of its life upon trees;
+nevertheless, according to Mr. Allen, it may be met with travelling
+upon the prairies, probably on its way from one suitable residence to
+another. On the ground it moves slowly, but its armature of spines is a
+protection against most of its enemies, and it has the art of striking
+very forcible and judicious blows with its spiny tail. Audubon and
+Bachmann mention many cases in which Dogs, Wolves, and even a Puma were
+found dead or dying in consequence of the severe inflammation caused
+by the spines of this animal sticking about their mouths; and the
+former gives an interesting account of a lesson in urbanity given by
+a captive Urson to a Mastiff that attacked him. The food of the Urson
+consists of various vegetable substances, fruits, buds, and the young
+shoots and leaves of trees. In the winter it subsists chiefly upon the
+bark, which it strips off the upper branches of the trees, and when it
+has taken up its abode upon a tree it stays there until the suitable
+bark has been consumed. As it prefers young trees this operation is
+generally effected pretty quickly, and in this way it is estimated
+that a single Porcupine may destroy hundreds of trees in the course
+of a winter. The Urson resides in the holes of trees, and in such
+situations, or in crevices among the rocks, the female prepares her
+nest, in which she brings forth usually two, but occasionally three or
+four, young in April or May.
+
+
+FAMILY XIII.--CHINCHILLIDÆ (THE CHINCHILLAS).
+
+In the Chinchillas, which form a small family peculiar to South
+America, the incisor teeth are short; the molars are rootless, divided
+by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates, and the two
+series in each jaw converge towards the front; the zygomatic arch has
+no angular process on the lower margin; the clavicles are slender but
+perfect; the fore limbs are small, the hind limbs long; the tail of
+moderate length or long, and turned up at the end; and the fur is very
+fine and soft. They are Rodents of moderate size and more or less of
+Rabbit-like appearance, except that the tail is always elongated and
+bushy. Of the five known species, four are inhabitants of the mountain
+regions, and one lives in the plains of the region of La Plata.
+
+The latter, the VISCACHA (_Lagostomus trichodactylus_), is a
+stout-built and almost Marmot-like creature, from eighteen inches to
+two feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures from six to eight
+inches. It has four toes on the fore limbs, and three on the hind feet,
+the latter furnished with long, compressed, and pointed nails; the
+muffle is broad and covered with a velvet-like coat of brown hair; the
+fur, which is soft and moderately long, is of a mottled grey colour
+above, and white or yellowish-white beneath; on each cheek there is a
+dark band; a white band crosses the muzzle and runs back on each side
+almost as far as the eye; the tail is dusky-brown or black.
+
+The Viscacha lives on the Pampas from Buenos Ayres to the borders
+of Patagonia, and where it occurs is generally to be found in great
+numbers, residing in extensive burrows which it digs for itself in the
+ground, generally in the neighbourhood of copses, and, if possible,
+near cultivated fields. Each burrow has a great number of passages
+leading down to several chambers, in which the Viscachas live in family
+parties to the number of eight or ten. The Burrowing Owl already
+mentioned as an associate of the Prairie Dogs of North America, is
+found about the settlements of the Viscachas, living in their burrows,
+but it is said that the intrusion of these birds immediately drives out
+the real owners of the dwelling, as the Owls will not observe those
+rules of cleanliness which are characteristic of their unwilling hosts.
+Of course the expelled family has to make itself a new residence, and
+in this way great stretches of country come to be so undermined that
+they are dangerous to ride over. According to Mr. Darwin, the most
+favourite resort of the Viscachas in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres
+are those parts of the plain which, during half the year, are covered
+with great thistles.
+
+They are nocturnal in their habits, passing the day sleeping in the
+recesses of their burrows, and coming forth in the twilight one by
+one, until a large and lively company is to be seen playing about the
+neighbourhood of their holes. When all is quiet they go in search of
+their food, which consists of grasses and other herbage and roots, and
+sometimes of the bark of trees and shrubs. In cultivated fields they
+may do considerable damage. While engaged in feeding, one or other
+of the party is perpetually on the watch, and the moment anything
+occurs to cause alarm, the whole of them scamper away with their tails
+elevated, to take refuge in their holes. In their movements they are
+very like Rabbits, but less active.
+
+The Viscacha has the very singular habit of dragging all sorts
+of hard objects to the mouth of its burrow, where bones, stones,
+thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry cow-dung, and other chance
+articles may be found collected into a heap, frequently, according
+to Mr. Darwin, amounting to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain.
+Mr. Darwin says that he was informed that “a gentleman riding on
+a dark night dropped his watch; he returned in the morning, and
+by searching in the neighbourhood of every Viscacha hole on the
+line of road, as he expected, soon found it.” The purpose of this
+accumulation of apparently useless articles by the Viscacha has never
+been ascertained. It has been compared to the habit of some of the
+Australian Bower-birds, which adorn their playing-places with bright
+and glittering objects.
+
+[Illustration: VISCACHAS.]
+
+The Chinchillas of the Andes, or Alpine Chinchillas, are much lighter
+and more elegant animals than their cousins of the plains; in form they
+more resemble Squirrels or large Dormice. Their fur is excessively
+soft, perhaps the softest that clothes any animal, and in all the
+species it is of a grey colour, mottled or clouded with darker and
+lighter tints. The ears are of large size. They are confined to the
+Andes of Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, where they live among the bare rocks
+at a considerable elevation, seeking refuge in natural clefts and
+cavities, sleeping in their holes during the day, and coming forth at
+twilight in search of food. They are exceedingly lively and active in
+their movements, and very shy.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH TEETH OF THE CHINCHILLA.]
+
+The COMMON CHINCHILLA (_Chinchilla lanigera_), the skins of which are
+well known as furs, is a squirrel-like animal, nine or ten inches long,
+with a tail more than half this length. It has large rounded ears; its
+fore feet have five, and its hind four, toes. Its fur on the upper part
+is grey, elegantly marbled with dusky or black, on the lower surface
+yellowish-white; the tail is black above, and dirty white at the sides
+and beneath. The incisors are of a bright orange colour in front. The
+SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (_C. brevicaudata_), a larger species, has the
+tail only three inches long. Its fur is of a general silvery-grey hue,
+tinged with black, especially along the back, and the tail has two
+dark bands on its upper surface. Both these animals inhabit Peru, and
+the former is also found in Bolivia and Chili. They are exceedingly
+abundant, notwithstanding the constant persecution to which they are
+subjected for the sake of their skins. They come out of their holes
+even in the daytime, but then always keep on the shady side of the
+rocks. Their activity is described as wonderful, and they will run with
+great rapidity up perpendicular walls of rock which seem to offer no
+hold for their feet. On the ground they are said to run very much after
+the fashion of our common Mice. The Chinchilla seems to breed nearly
+all the year round, and the female is said to produce from four to six
+young at a birth.
+
+[Illustration: CHINCHILLA.]
+
+The other two species of Alpine Chinchillas are placed in a separate
+genus, characterised by a more hare-like form, longer ears, and the
+presence of only four toes on both fore and hind feet. CUVIER’S
+CHINCHILLA (_Lagidium Cuvieri_) is about eighteen or twenty inches
+long, of an ashy-grey colour with a yellowish tinge above, and pale
+yellow beneath; the tail, which, with the hair, is nearly as long as
+the body is clothed beneath with short black hairs, and above with much
+longer bushy hairs, gradually increasing in length towards the tip,
+where they are black; a black line passes down the middle of the tail,
+and its sides are dirty white. The PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA (_Lagidium
+pallipes_), which is about the same size as the preceding, but has a
+shorter tail, is ashy grey, with a brownish tinge, becoming yellowish
+fawn colour beneath. The range of these animals seems to be the same as
+that of the true Chinchilla, but the second of them passes northwards
+into the mountains of Ecuador. In their habits they agree with the
+Chinchillas.
+
+
+FAMILY XIV.--DASYPROCTIDÆ (AGOUTIS).
+
+In the Agoutis we have the first of three more or less pig-like
+families, furnished with hoof-like nails on the toes, all the members
+of which are inhabitants of South America. The Agoutis especially may
+be compared to small slender-limbed Pigs, but they bear a still closer
+resemblance in external form to the little Musk Deer. The Dasyproctidæ
+have the incisors long; the molars, which are at first rootless,
+and afterwards close up, have enamel folds from both surfaces; the
+clavicles are rudimentary; the upper lip entire; the ears short; the
+tail short and naked, or quite rudimentary; and the fore feet have five
+toes.
+
+Of these animals eight or nine species are known. They inhabit South
+America, from Mexico southwards to Paraguay and Bolivia, and some of
+them also occur in the larger West Indian Islands. They frequent the
+forest region, and especially haunt the banks of rivers.
+
+[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE AGOUTI.]
+
+The AGOUTI (_Dasyprocta aguti_), the most abundant and best-known
+species, is found chiefly in Guiana, Brazil, and eastern Peru, where
+it is to be found plentifully in the primeval forests. Like the other
+true Agoutis, it has only three toes on the hind foot; its ears are
+of moderate size and rounded; its form compact, and supported upon
+slender limbs; its tail rudimentary; and the hair of its back is coarse
+and harsh, and longer towards the hinder parts, which thus obtain a
+somewhat truncated appearance. Its general colour is olive brown,
+produced by a mixture of black and yellow; but the long hairs covering
+the hinder portion of the back are usually of an orange colour, and the
+middle line of the abdomen is whitish or yellow. This animal is from
+eighteen to twenty inches long.
+
+[Illustration: AZARA’S AGOUTI. (From the _Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society_.)]
+
+Although inhabiting the forests, the Agouti is not unfrequently seen on
+the neighbouring grassy plains, but its residence is among the trees,
+in the hollows of which, or in cavities at their roots, it takes up
+its abode, generally lying concealed in its retreat during the day.
+It is very quick in its movements, runs well, and springs with almost
+the agility of an Antelope. The food of the Agouti consists of almost
+any vegetable substances that come in its way. It will eat grass
+and herbage, the roots of plants, their flowers and fruit, and when
+it lives in the neighbourhood of sugar plantations and gardens its
+inroads may give rise to considerable injury. The animal is, however,
+rather solitary in its habits, living by itself in its cell, in its
+departure from and return to which it appears generally to follow
+exactly the same roads, by which means a narrow but very distinct
+footpath is in course of time produced. This naturally often leads to
+the discovery and capture of the little recluse.
+
+The Agouti appears to breed all the year round, usually producing
+two young ones at a birth. The female prepares her dwelling for the
+reception of her family by lining it comfortably with leaves, fine
+roots, and hair.
+
+In the southern parts of Brazil, in Paraguay and Bolivia, the place of
+this species is taken by AZARA’S AGOUTI (_Dasyprocta Azaræ_). A smaller
+species, the ACOUCHY (_D. acouchy_), is found not only in Guiana and
+the north of Brazil, but also in several of the West India Islands. The
+last-named species has a well-developed tail about two inches long.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PACA.]
+
+Besides the Agoutis, this family includes an allied animal, the PACA
+(_Cœlogenys paca_), which differs generically from the Agoutis by
+having five toes on the hind feet. It has a broader head and a blunter
+muzzle, and is altogether a rather stouter animal than the Agoutis;
+but, like most of them, it has a mere tubercle instead of a tail. One
+of the most remarkable characters presented by this animal, however, is
+the enormous development of the zygomatic arches, which are enlarged
+and inflated in the most extraordinary manner, the maxillary portion,
+which occupies the anterior two-thirds being hollowed out beneath into
+a great chamber, lined with mucous membrane, and opening into the mouth
+by a rather small aperture. The function of these remarkable cavities
+is at present quite unknown. Food is not to be found in them, and,
+indeed, as they are enclosed by solid bone, it would seem impossible
+that they could act as cheek-pouches.
+
+[Illustration: PACA.]
+
+The Paca, which inhabits Central and South America from Guatemala to
+Paraguay, is about two feet long, and is clothed with short rather
+coarse hair of a brown or yellowish-brown colour above, white beneath,
+with from three to five bands of white streaks and spots upon each
+side of the body. In its habits the Paca very much resembles the
+Agouti. It usually lives singly, or sometimes in pairs, on the borders
+of the forests, or near the banks of rivers, taking up its abode during
+the day either in a hole at the root of some tree, or in a burrow
+excavated by its own labour, which is generally carried to a depth of
+four or five feet. Its food consists of the leaves, fruits, and flowers
+of various plants, and, like the Agouti, it occasionally does mischief
+in the corn-fields and gardens. The female produces only one, or at
+most two, young at a birth. The Paca swims well, and can cross even a
+broad river in this way. Its flesh, like that of the Agouti, is very
+well flavoured, and is consumed both by natives and Europeans.
+
+
+FAMILY XV.--DINOMYIDÆ.
+
+This family has been founded for the reception of a single species,
+of which only a single specimen has hitherto been obtained. It is
+described by Professor Peters under the name of _Dinomys Branickii_.
+In its external appearance it closely resembles the Paca (_Cœlogenys
+paca_), but may at once be distinguished from that animal by its
+possession of only four toes both before and behind. The ears are short
+and rounded; the upper lip deeply cleft; the incisors very broad;
+the molars four on each side, and divided into transverse plates by
+folds of enamel; the clavicles are imperfect; and the tail of moderate
+length and well clothed with hair. The animal, which inhabits the high
+mountain regions of Peru, is of the size of the Paca, or about two
+feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures rather more than nine
+inches. Its general colour is grey, produced by the sprinkling of white
+among nearly black hairs; and on each side of the body are numerous
+large white spots, of which the upper ones nearly run together, so as
+to form two longitudinal bands. The extremity of the tail is black.
+
+The only known example of this Rodent was obtained by M. Constantin
+Jelski at the Colonie Amable Maria, on the Montaña de Vitoc, in Peru,
+having been found at daybreak walking about the yard. It showed no
+fear of man, and was easily killed by a sword cut or two on the
+head. The species would appear to be rare, as the inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood were not acquainted with it. Of course nothing is known
+of its habits.
+
+[Illustration: THE DINOMYS. (_After Peters._)]
+
+The chief interest at present attaching to this animal, therefore,
+consists in its peculiar combination of characters. Externally, as
+already stated, it resembles the Paca, with which it also agrees in
+the S-like form of the nostrils, and in the structure of the limbs
+(except the number of toes). In the lamellar structure of the molar
+teeth, in the structure of the skull, and of the skeleton generally,
+and especially in the flattened form of the front of the sternum
+and the development of clavicles, it differs from the Paca and all
+other Rodents with hoof-like nails. In some minor particulars it
+resembles the Capybara. By the structure of the molar teeth and certain
+osteological characters, it is most nearly allied to the Chinchillas;
+while it approaches the genus _Capromys_ among the Octodontidæ in
+the structure of the limbs and of some other parts of the skeleton.
+Professor Peters is evidently inclined to regard it as most nearly
+related to the Chinchillidæ, but as constituting a group establishing a
+closer union than previously existed between the families Chinchillidæ,
+Octodontidæ, Dasyproctidæ, and Caviidæ.
+
+
+FAMILY XVI.--CAVIIDÆ (CAVIES).
+
+This family, the last of the simple-toothed Rodents, includes a small
+number of species, of which the Common Guinea-pig may serve as a sort
+of type. The Guinea-pig is, however, one of the smaller species of
+the family, and is shorter in the limbs than most of its relatives.
+They have the incisor teeth short, that is to say, not extending far
+back in the jaw; the molars are rootless, variously divided by folds
+of enamel into lobes, the angles of which are acute; the palate is
+narrow in front, so that the upper series of molars approach each other
+rather closely in front; the clavicles are rudimentary or wanting;
+the fore limbs have four and the hind feet only three toes, all armed
+with hoof-like nails; the upper lip is not cleft; and the tail is
+rudimentary or wanting. They are stout, more or less rabbit-like
+animals, with a soft coat, and the ears variable in length; and they
+are confined to the continent of South America, where they chiefly
+inhabit the plains.
+
+The RESTLESS CAVY (_Cavia aperea_), which is commonly regarded as
+the wild original of the so-called Guinea-pig (_Cavia cobaya_ of
+some authors), is abundant on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and
+extends thence northwards through Paraguay into Bolivia and Brazil.
+It is usually about nine inches long, with the fur of the upper
+part and sides of the body composed of a mixture of black and dingy
+yellow hairs, the chest greyish-brown, and the throat and belly pale
+dingy-yellow or brownish-grey. The incisor teeth are white. The genus
+to which this animal belongs may be at once distinguished from the
+other two genera constituting the family by the shortness of the limbs;
+the ears also are short; the feet are naked beneath; the hind toes are
+not webbed; and the molar teeth are nearly equal in size, and each
+composed of two angular lobes.
+
+The specific name of the Restless Cavy seems to be derived from
+its popular name in the country where it occurs. According to Mr.
+Darwin, it is very common about the banks of the La Plata, sometimes
+frequenting sandy hillocks, and the hedge-rows formed of the agave and
+the prickly pear, but apparently preferring marshy places covered with
+aquatic plants. In dry places it makes a burrow; but when it frequents
+wet localities contents itself with the concealment afforded to it by
+the herbage. Rengger describes it also as generally haunting moist
+situations in Paraguay, and he adds that it keeps near the borders
+of forests, but is never found either in the forests or in the open
+fields. It lives in small societies of from six to fifteen individuals,
+in the impenetrable thickets of Bromelias, where its presence is
+revealed by the numerous beaten paths which it produces by going to
+and fro. In Bolivia, according to Mr. Bridges, it is peculiar to the
+low lands, and there takes shelter among the loose stones of the walls
+enclosing the fields. It is active in search of food early in the
+morning and in the evening, but will also come forth on gloomy days.
+Rengger and Azara both agree in the statement that the female produces
+only one or two young at a time; but the former says that this takes
+place only once in the year, whilst the latter describes the animal
+as breeding all the year round, and, indeed, in this way accounts for
+its abundance, notwithstanding its being preyed upon so extensively by
+rapacious birds and quadrupeds.
+
+The question whether our common Guinea-pig is really the domesticated
+descendant of the animal just described can hardly be regarded as
+finally settled, and, indeed, independently of colour, there are
+sufficient differences between them to justify some doubt on the
+subject. The name Guinea-pig may, as Mr. Waterhouse suggests, be a
+mistake for Guiana-pig, and the first specimens may very probably have
+come from that part of America. Its prevalent colours, as is well
+known, are combinations of white, black, and yellow, and as these
+colours are shown in the drawings of Aldrovandus, dating back to within
+fifty years of the discovery of South America, there seems every
+reason to believe that the animal must have been long domesticated in
+America prior to its introduction into Europe. On the other hand, Dr.
+Rengger says that he saw fourteen Apereas representing the fifth or
+sixth generation from a single couple domesticated about seven years
+before, and that these exhibited no difference of colouring from the
+wild animal. Several allied species inhabit the great plains of South
+America.
+
+The BOLIVIAN CAVY (_Cavia boliviensis_), which is grey in colour, with
+a faint yellowish tinge, with the throat and belly white, the feet
+whitish, and the incisor teeth orange yellow, inhabits the elevated
+parts of Bolivia, generally at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The
+ROCK CAVY (_Cavia rupestris_) is found in rocky districts in Brazil,
+where it shelters itself in holes and crevices. It is always found near
+the upper waters of rivers, and is a large species, measuring thirteen
+or fourteen inches in length. The SOUTHERN CAVY (_Cavia australis_), on
+the other hand, is a small species which inhabits Patagonia, where it
+ranges from 39° S. lat. to the Strait of Magellan.
+
+This part of the world is also the abode of another and much larger
+species of the family, the PATAGONIAN CAVY or MARA (_Dolichotis
+patachonica_), an animal which somewhat resembles the Agouti in the
+length and comparative slenderness of its legs, and differs from all
+other Cavies in having tolerably long, pointed ears. It also possesses
+a very short tail. The molar teeth are rather small, and resemble
+those of the Guinea-pig in being formed of two nearly equal angular
+lobes, but the last molar in the upper jaw, and the first in the
+lower jaw, have three such lobes. The animal is somewhat Hare-like
+in its appearance, and has been mistaken for a Hare by superficial
+observers. It is, however, a much larger animal, measuring from thirty
+to thirty-six inches in length, and weighing from twenty to thirty-six
+pounds.
+
+[Illustration: PATAGONIAN CAVY.]
+
+The Patagonian Cavy is clothed with a dense crisp fur of a grey colour
+on the upper part of the head and body, rusty yellow on the flanks,
+and white on the chin, throat, and belly; the rump is black, with a
+broad white band crossing it immediately above the tail. It inhabits
+Patagonia about as far south as 48°, and extends northwards into the
+La Plata territory as far as Mendoza. It is found only in the sterile
+desert part of the country, where the gravelly plains are thinly
+covered with a few stunted thorny bushes and a scanty herbage. The
+northern limit of the species, according to Mr. Darwin, is at the point
+where the vegetation of the plains becomes rather more luxuriant. The
+Patagonian Cavy usually burrows in the ground, but where it lives
+in the same region as the Viscacha, it will take advantage of the
+excavations made by that animal. It wanders to considerable distances
+from its home, and on these excursions two or three are usually seen
+together. Mr. Darwin says:--“It is a common feature in the landscape of
+Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these Cavies hopping
+one after the other over the gravelly plains.” Their mode of running,
+on the same authority, more nearly resembles that of the Rabbit than of
+the Hare; though their limbs are long, they do not run very fast. They
+rarely squat like a Hare, but are very shy and watchful, and feed by
+day, in connection with which it is to be observed that the eyes are
+defended from the direct rays of the sun by well-developed eyelashes,
+which do not occur in the other Cavies. The female produces generally
+two young at a birth, which are brought forth and suckled in the burrow.
+
+The CAPYBARA (_Hydrochœrus capybara_), the only other member of the
+present family, is the largest of all existing Rodents, large specimens
+measuring over four feet in length. It is a stout-built and massive
+animal, with limbs of moderate length, a large head with a very blunt
+muzzle, small eyes and ears, no tail, and both the fore and hind feet
+webbed. The upper incisor teeth have a broad and shallow groove down
+the front, and the molars present very remarkable characters. In the
+upper jaw the first three molars are each composed of two lobes united
+by cement, and on the outside of each of these lobes there is a fold of
+enamel which passes deeply into the tooth. The last molar consists of
+one lobe similar to those of the preceding teeth, but in place of the
+second there are ten or a dozen transverse plates. The first two molars
+of the lower jaw exhibit complex lobes and folds of enamel; the third
+and fourth a combination of folded lobes and transverse plates.
+
+In its general form the Capybara is more pig-like than any of its
+relatives, and, indeed, its generic name, _Hydrochœrus_, Water-pig,
+recalls this resemblance, and at the same time intimates its aquatic
+habits. Its coat is composed of long and coarse hairs, often five or
+six inches long on the hinder parts, of a reddish-brown colour above,
+and a dirty brownish-yellow beneath. It is distributed over the whole
+eastern part of South America, from Guiana southwards to the Rio de la
+Plata, and ranges westwards into the lower parts of Peru and Bolivia.
+
+[Illustration: MOLARS OF THE CAPYBARA.]
+
+The Capybaras frequent the borders of the lakes and rivers, with which
+all this part of the South American continent abounds, and, according
+to Mr. Darwin, they used to frequent the islands in the mouth of the
+La Plata, where the water is quite salt. In this part of America they
+are called “Carpinchos.” They never wander far from the water-side,
+and show a marked preference for the larger rivers, among the reeds
+and other plants fringing which they take up their abode. In populous
+districts they seem to pass the day in concealment, coming forth in
+search of food only at morning and evening, but where they are less in
+danger of pursuit they come out freely in the day-time. Seen from a
+little distance when walking they have much the appearance of Pigs, but
+they lose this when they sit, like the other Cavies, on their haunches.
+When danger threatens they emit a short, sharp bark, and immediately
+plunge into the water, where they swim about with little more than
+the nostrils above the surface; but under pressing circumstances
+they can dive and swim for a considerable distance under water. When
+swimming, the female is said to take her young ones on her back. About
+Maldonado Mr. Darwin observed that the Capybaras were usually to be
+seen only three or four together, but they are more numerous and go in
+larger companies more in the interior of the country. They constitute
+the ordinary food of the Jaguar, and are also eaten by the Indians,
+although their flesh is said not to be very good. The female produces
+five or six young at a birth, but has only one litter in the year. The
+young follow their mother about at a very early age.
+
+
+SUB-ORDER II.--DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.
+
+With the Cavies concludes the long series of simple-toothed Rodents,
+and some of them, as we have seen, present no small resemblance to the
+Hares and Rabbits which constitute the greater part of the second great
+group into which we have divided the order. The chief peculiarity of
+this section, as has been already stated, consists in the presence in
+the upper jaw of a pair of minute incisor teeth, placed immediately
+behind the large effective incisors; and in the newly-born animal the
+number of these teeth is even greater, there being six incisors in the
+upper jaw, two of which fall out at an early period. Though the number
+of species included in this section is very considerable (about fifty,
+according to Mr. Wallace’s estimate), it includes only two families,
+and each of these contains only a single genus. We will commence with
+that which includes the best-known forms, the Hares and Rabbits.
+
+[Illustration: CAPYBARA.]
+
+
+FAMILY XVII.--LEPORIDÆ (HARES AND RABBITS).
+
+The general appearance of these animals hardly needs to be described,
+and we may, therefore, indicate merely the structural peculiarities
+which serve to define the family. These consist in the presence of
+six rootless molars on each side in the upper, and five in the lower
+jaw (_see_ figure on p. 82), each molar being divided into lobes by
+transverse folds of enamel; in the compressed form of the skull and
+the presence of wing-like post-orbital processes of the frontal bones;
+in the imperfect condition of the clavicles; the greater development
+of the hind limbs; and the presence of a short, bushy, upturned tail.
+The ears are long; the inner surface of the cheeks is more or less
+clothed with short hairs; the fore-limbs have five, and the hind-limbs
+only four toes; and the soles of the feet are hairy throughout. In
+all these characters, however they may differ in some respects, all
+the true Hares and Rabbits agree. The representatives of this family
+occur in nearly all parts of the world, but chiefly in the northern
+hemisphere, and the few species which pass down within the tropics are
+generally found only in mountainous regions. In the north they reach
+the Arctic regions in both continents. In the Old World a few species
+are scattered over India and Further India, and four or five occur in
+Africa, but chiefly in the southern part of the continent. In North
+America the species are numerous, and some of them range southward into
+Central America; but South America has only a single species, which
+occurs in the mountains of Brazil and upon the Andes.
+
+As the whole of the family consists of animals to which in common
+parlance the names of Hares and Rabbits are given, we may take as
+examples of it the Hares and Rabbits which are so abundant in Great
+Britain, the other species agreeing generally with one or other of them
+in character and habits.
+
+They may all be characterised as animals destitute of any means of
+defence against their enemies, except the rapidity of their movements,
+and as exceedingly shy and timid. Their general colour is a mixture
+of grey and brown, sometimes quite tawny, sometimes almost pure grey,
+and, as Mr. Bell remarks, “The admirable wisdom which has assigned such
+colours to a group of defenceless animals which conceal themselves
+amidst the brown sombre vegetation of woods and heaths, will appear
+more striking when it is recollected that certain species inhabiting
+the snowy regions of the north become wholly white in winter. All the
+members of the genus,” he adds, “are remarkable for their timidity,
+and their whole structure is such as at once to announce to them the
+presence of danger, and to enable them to escape from it. The eyes and
+ears are so formed and situate as to become instantly cognisant of even
+distant warnings of peril, and the limbs are admirably adapted for the
+most rapid flight.”
+
+This last statement applies in a special manner to the COMMON HARE
+(_Lepus europæus_), which is singularly well adapted for getting over
+the ground rapidly by the great length and powerful development of its
+hind legs. These organs are nearly twice as long as the fore limbs,
+and, as most of us are well aware, the bones composing them are set
+in motion by an enormous mass of solid muscle. Owing to their great
+preponderance the Hare, when moving slowly in search of food, goes
+with a sort of lolloping gait; but the moment there is occasion for
+him to move with rapidity, the disproportionate hind limbs stand him
+in good stead, and he shoots along over the ground by a series of long
+leaps, and with great swiftness. At the same time, it is observed that
+the length of its hind legs causes the Hare to run with much greater
+facility up hill than down, and, in fact, it is said that in descending
+steep inclines the animal is obliged to run obliquely in order to
+escape over-balancing itself. When pursued, the Hare has the art of
+making sudden turns in its course, known as “doubles” or “wrenches,”
+by which the Dogs in chase of it are thrown out, for although most
+Greyhounds are swifter of foot than a Hare, they are incapable of
+changing their course so sharply, and thus, while they are carried
+some distance onwards by their own impetus, their intended victim is
+making off in a different direction. They adopt other cunning artifices
+in order to escape from their pursuers, and some of these indicate a
+considerable amount of intelligence. Under such circumstances, and also
+in search of a more plentiful supply of food, the Hare will take to the
+water readily, and swim across rivers. Mr. Yarrell observed a Hare even
+swimming across an arm of the sea about a mile broad.
+
+The Hare lives chiefly in cultivated fields, where it resides in
+a small depression of the surface, which is called its “form.” It
+shifts the situation of this simple residence according to the season,
+selecting a shady spot in summer, and a sunny one in winter, and going
+into cover in wet weather. It is rather a nocturnal or crepuscular
+than a day-feeding animal, although it may not unfrequently be seen
+abroad in the day. In the evening and early in the morning it is most
+active, passing the brighter hours at rest in its form. When out in the
+field in search of food it goes hopping along among the herbage and
+cultivated plants, every now and then sitting upright on its haunches
+and listening with erected ears for the slightest sound indicative of
+approaching danger. Its food is exclusively of a vegetable nature, but
+it seems to embrace pretty nearly the whole round of cultivated plants.
+Cruciferous plants appear to be amongst its favourite articles of diet,
+but it also does much damage to fields of young wheat. In the winter,
+when the open fields are covered with snow frozen hard, and, indeed,
+sometimes in the summer, the Hare will make his way into gardens in
+search of food, or, if this resource is not at hand, into plantations
+of young trees, where it will gnaw off and feed upon the bark, thus
+destroying great numbers of the trees. Mr. S. Mawson has recorded
+finding the stomach of a Hare killed in winter filled with hawthorn
+berries. After its wanderings the Hare always returns to its own form.
+
+Hares pair when they are about a year old, and from that time produce
+several broods every year, each consisting of from two to five young,
+which are born covered with hair and with their eyes open. From Mr.
+Bell’s statement, these animals would appear to breed almost all the
+year round; he says that in mild winters young Hares have been found
+in January, and that he has known breeding continue till the middle
+of November. When captured young, the Hare may be easily tamed, and
+become an amusing pet, as, indeed, will be familiar to almost every
+one, through Cowper’s account of his Hares. Formerly the Hare used to
+be trained by jugglers to perform various tricks, one of which was the
+beating of a tambourine with its fore-feet, with which the animal will
+of its own accord drum upon the back of an offending companion. A relic
+of this practice is to be recognised in a common toy, which shows a
+small Hare sitting and beating a tambourine, its fore limbs being set
+in motion by the turning of the wheels of its stand.
+
+The Common Hare is found spread over the greater part of Europe, from
+the south of Sweden and northern Russia to the Mediterranean and the
+Caucasus. It does not occur in Ireland. It varies somewhat in colour in
+different localities, and although it does not become white in winter,
+the northern forms show a tendency in that direction, and the others
+acquire a greyish tint at the approach of the cold weather.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON HARE.]
+
+THE RABBIT, or CONY (_Lepus cuniculus_), differs from the Hare
+in various characters; its colour is a tawny brownish-grey, the
+disproportion between the fore and hind limbs is not so great, and the
+ears are shorter, not exceeding the head in length. Although the Wild
+Rabbit is so plentiful in England as to become a pest to the farmers
+in many places, it is supposed not to be a native of north-western
+and central Europe, but to have been naturalised in Britain, its
+original home being in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. It
+is, and always was, very abundant in Spain, the name of which country
+(Hispania) has been supposed to mean the “country of Conies,” from
+the Phœnician and Hebrew word _Schaphan_, the name of the Hyrax or
+Cony of the Bible. Even in the present day it is very local in its
+distribution north of the Alps, and is not found at all in eastern and
+northern Europe. In Australia it has proved to be a veritable scourge.
+
+In its habits the Rabbit differs from the Hare more than in its form
+and structure. Instead of contenting itself with a shallow depression
+as a resting-place on the surface of the ground, it digs deep holes
+in the ground, into which it may retire to sleep or at the approach
+of danger. It prefers light sandy soils for its residence, as these
+present great facilities for burrowing, and wherever particularly
+favourable conditions exist the Rabbits are to be found living together
+in very large societies. Furzy heaths are favourite places with them,
+as the ground is easily worked, and the furze bushes not only serve as
+a protection to the burrows, but furnish the Rabbit with an abundant
+supply of food, the young shoots being eaten off as high as the animals
+can reach when standing on their hind feet. In wet moors the Rabbits
+avoid burrowing, and live in runs and galleries formed in the matted
+heather and long herbage. Mr. Bell says that in more than one instance
+he has known a family to take possession of a hollow tree, ascending
+its inclined and decayed trunk for some distance.
+
+Like the Hare, the Rabbit is generally quiet during the day, although
+it will not unfrequently be abroad at all hours. The evening, however,
+is its principal time for activity, and then the inhabitants of the
+warren may be seen playing about near their abodes, or wandering to
+greater distances in search of the green vegetables on which they
+feed. The moment there is the smallest suspicion of danger, the whole
+company scamper off at once to seek safety in their burrows. As they
+go, their white tails are the most conspicuous objects to be seen, and
+the spectacle of some hundreds of them rushing along at full speed,
+vanishing one after the other down the burrows, is lively and amusing
+enough.
+
+The Rabbit begins breeding at six months old, and has several litters
+in each year. The young are usually from five to eight in number,
+sometimes even more; they are born blind and naked, and are produced in
+a separate burrow which the female digs for their reception, and lines
+with fur pulled from her own body. This brood-chamber has usually only
+a single entrance, and this the mother closes with earth after visiting
+and suckling her young family, which she is said to do only at night.
+
+When domesticated, the Rabbit, as is well known, differs materially
+from its wild state. It is larger, and its colours are usually white,
+black, brown, or fawn colour, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed in
+patches. Albinoes are common, and form a permanent race. The Angora
+Rabbit, which is usually albino, has the hairs very long; and the
+so-called “fancy Rabbits” have the ears more or less pendent at the
+sides of the head, and often so long as to touch the ground.
+
+A third British species is the MOUNTAIN HARE (_Lepus variabilis_),
+or Northern Hare, an inhabitant of all the northern parts of both
+hemispheres, which occurs in most parts of Scotland, and in Ireland,
+where, indeed, it takes the place of the common Hare. In its summer
+coat it is of a light fulvous grey colour, and is further distinguished
+from the common Hare by the shortness of the ears and tail, the former
+being shorter than the head, and the latter little more than half its
+length. In cold climates this animal becomes pure white in the winter.
+This Hare is absent from Central Europe, but reappears on the chain of
+the Alps.
+
+It will be unnecessary to enter into details with regard to the other
+species of this family, all of which more or less resemble those just
+described, both in appearance and habits. They are distributed over
+nearly the whole world except the Australian region, but they are
+most numerous in North America, where a great many species have been
+described, which are reduced by Mr. Allen to twelve. Four of these,
+however, present well-marked local races, which double the number of
+recognised permanent forms.
+
+
+FAMILY XVIII.--LAGOMYIDÆ (PIKAS).
+
+In many respects the Pikas closely resemble the Hares, but they are
+distinguished by having only five molars on each side in each jaw,
+a depressed skull, with contracted frontal bones destitute of the
+wing-like process seen in the Hares, complete clavicles, short ears,
+limbs nearly equal in length, and no tail visible externally. They are
+much smaller than any of the Leporidæ, the largest being no larger
+than a Guinea-pig, to which the animals have some resemblance; while
+in their habits they somewhat resemble the Marmots. When feeding they
+often produce a chirping or whistling noise, whence the name of Piping
+Hares, or Calling Hares, has been applied to them. Ten or a dozen
+supposed species of these animals have been described, most of them
+inhabiting the northern and mountainous parts of Asia, and one of these
+is also found in Europe, about the southern part of the Volga. In Asia
+species have been found as far south as the Himalayas and Nepaul. In
+North America a single species (_Lagomys princeps_) inhabits the Rocky
+Mountains, where it was first discovered by Sir John Richardson.
+
+The ALPINE PIKA (_Lagomys alpinus_), which inhabits Siberia from the
+Irtish eastwards into Kamtchatka, is a little animal from nine to nine
+and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour above, yellowish-grey
+beneath; the feet are pale, and the ears dirty yellowish-white within,
+becoming dusky towards the margin, which is white. This animal
+occurs in considerable numbers in the Alpine and sub-Alpine parts of
+Siberia, where it either burrows in the ground, or shelters itself
+in crevices of rocks or among loose stones. The Pikas generally come
+out only at night, although they sometimes venture forth on a cloudy
+day. Their food consists of the scanty herbage to be found in their
+elevated abode, and as this would be impossible to procure during the
+winter when the ground is thickly covered with snow, the Pikas take
+care in the autumn to collect a large supply of dried grasses and
+other herbage, which they pile up near their habitations like little
+haystacks. They are, however, sometimes deprived of the fruits of their
+labour by the Sable-hunters, who plunder the Pikas’ stacks to feed
+their Horses. The female produces about six naked young early in the
+summer.
+
+[Illustration: ALPINE PIKA.]
+
+The ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA (_Lagomys princeps_) is a small species from
+six inches to seven and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour
+above, yellowish-brown on the sides, and greyish below. It received its
+specific name from its discoverer, Sir J. Richardson, in allusion to
+the name of “Little Chief Hare” given to it by the Indians. It inhabits
+the summits of the Rocky Mountains from Colorado northwards far within
+British America, and also occurs in the mountains of Utah, California,
+and Oregon. Mr. Allen describes its habits as follows:--“The animals
+are everywhere found in communities, living among the loose rocks from
+a little below timber-line nearly up to the snow-line. They appear to
+rarely wander many yards from their homes; are timid, yet easily become
+familiar. Though retreating to their homes when first alarmed, they
+soon come cautiously out one after another, till one may hear their
+sharp little cries in every direction. Their colour so nearly resembles
+that of the rocks they live among, that they are not easily seen, and
+their cry is of such a character as easily to mislead one in respect
+to the point from which it proceeds, seeming to be far away when only
+a few feet distant. They sit erect, like little Marmots.... They carry
+into fissures of the rocks large quantities of grass, which they lay up
+for winter consumption.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FOSSIL RODENTIA.
+
+  Families of Rodents represented by Fossil Remains--State of the
+  “Record of the Rocks”--THE SCIURIDÆ--Sciurine Genera now Extinct--No
+  Fossil ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ--ISCHYROMYIDÆ--_Pseudotomus
+  hians_--_Gymnoptychus_--CASTORIDÆ--Mr. Allen’s CASTOROIDIDÆ--THE
+  MYOXIDÆ--No Fossil LOPHIOMYIDÆ--THE MURIDÆ--THE SPALACIDÆ--THE
+  GEOMYIDÆ--THE DIPODIDÆ--THE THERIDOMYIDÆ--THE OCTODONTIDÆ--THE
+  HYSTRICIDÆ--THE CHINCHILLIDÆ--THE DASYPROCTIDÆ--THE
+  CAVIIDÆ--THE LEPORIDÆ--THE LAGOMYIDÆ--_Mesotherium
+  cristatum_--Difficulties concerning it--Mr. Alston’s Suggestion--THE
+  HEBETIDENTATA--Teeth--Skull--Skeleton--Conclusions regarding
+  it--Table of Rodent Families--Concluding Remarks.
+
+
+The majority of the preceding families are more or less clearly
+represented by fossil remains, either in the younger strata of
+the earth’s crust, or in those cave-deposits of comparatively
+recent date which have furnished so many interesting relics of the
+Mammals of former days. It must be remarked, however, that while a
+considerable number of fossil Rodents have been named and described
+by palæontologists, the materials upon which many of them have been
+established are very imperfect; in a great number of cases isolated
+molar or even incisor teeth furnish the sole evidence of the existence
+of creatures which were manifestly Rodents, but of which the other
+characters are rather difficult to divine from such scanty material.
+Still, imperfect as may be “the record of the rocks” in this as in
+other instances, it is in some parts sufficiently complete to enable us
+to trace back the existence of many forms of gnawing Mammals through a
+long period of geological time.
+
+Of the SCIURIDÆ a considerable number of fossil species have
+been recorded. Species of the genera _Sciurus_, _Arctomys_, and
+_Spermophilus_, some of them identical with those still existing,
+have left their remains in Post-Tertiary deposits and in bone-caves
+in various parts of Europe; while species belonging to the first two
+genera, and to the American genus _Tamias_, have been detected in
+similar situations in North America. A few forms referred to the same
+genera go down still lower in the series of geological formations.
+True Squirrels are recorded from Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits in
+France, and a single species from the Tertiaries (probably Miocene)
+of Colorado; Marmots from Pliocene and Miocene beds in the South of
+France, and from a Pliocene deposit in Nebraska; and a Spermophile from
+the Miocene of Weisenau in Germany.
+
+Besides these examples of known types, several fossils have been
+obtained both in Europe and America, which are regarded as indicating
+genera distinct from any now living. _Plesiarctomys Gervaisii_ is
+founded on a fragment of jaw with four molars, obtained from Upper
+Eocene beds near Apt, Vaucluse. In its characters it appears to be
+intermediate between Squirrels and Marmots. _Pseudosciurus suevicus_,
+from the Upper Eocene (Bohnerz) of Würtemberg, seems to differ from
+all other Sciuridæ in the form of the molar teeth of the lower jaw,
+which are somewhat elongated, and have four tubercles arranged in two
+pairs, each pair being connected by a ridge. From the Tertiary deposits
+of the western territories of the United States, Professors Cope,
+Marsh, and Leidy have described several Sciurine Rodents as belonging
+to genera now extinct: thus _Paramys_ has five species; _Sciuravus_
+(perhaps identical with the preceding), three; _Heliscomys_, _Mysops_,
+_Colonymys_, _Taxymys_, and _Tillomys_, one or two species each.
+
+Of the ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ no fossil remains are known.
+On the other hand, a North American fossil Rodent, described by
+Dr. Leidy under the name of _Ischyromys typus_, is regarded by Mr.
+Alston as the type of a distinct family, the _Ischyromyidæ_, nearly
+allied to the Sciuridæ, but also showing an affinity to the Beaver
+in some of its characters. The specimen described and figured by Dr.
+Leidy was obtained by Dr. Hayden from Miocene deposits in the “Bad
+Lands” of Wyoming. It was originally referred to the Sciuridæ, with
+which it agrees in its dentition, but is distinguished by its large
+infra-orbital opening, the presence of a sagittal crest, and the
+absence of post-orbital processes. The parietal region of the skull is
+much narrowed, and in this, as in the large size of the infra-orbital
+opening, _Ischyromys_ resembles the Musk Rat.
+
+Two other forms must be referred to here. Under the name of
+_Pseudotomus hians_, Professor Cope has described the remains of an
+animal which he believed to have been about the size of an Agouti, and
+originally thought to belong to the order Edentata. Subsequently he
+referred it to the Sciuridæ; but both Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen think
+that it may belong to the family Ischyromyidæ. In some respects the
+skull resembles that of _Arctomys_, but it has the same contraction
+between the orbits as _Ischyromys_ and _Fiber_. The incisor teeth are
+separated, and Professor Cope believes that the animal had only three
+molars on each side in each jaw. A still more doubtful member of the
+family is Professor Cope’s genus _Gymnoptychus_, which includes four
+species, all said to be from the “Tertiary of the Plains.” In this
+genus there are five molars above and four below on each side, as in
+_Ischyromys_ and the Sciuridæ; but these teeth show two crescents on
+the inner side in the upper, on the outer side in the lower jaw, and
+each crescent gives origin to a cross-ridge running to the opposite
+margin of the tooth.
+
+The CASTORIDÆ, including at present only a single species common to
+the northern parts of both hemispheres, are represented by several
+peculiar fossil forms. Remains of the Common Beaver (_Castor fiber_)
+are not uncommon in peat bogs and other late superficial deposits both
+in Europe and America; and, according to Sir R. Owen, in association
+with those of the Rhinoceros, Mammoth, and Mastodon, even in the
+Fluvio-marine Crag (Newer Pliocene) of Norfolk. In Belgium its bones
+have been found in caves. Among the Mammals from the Upper Tertiaries
+of the Sivalik Hills, Messrs. Falconer and Cautley record a Beaver
+distinct from the existing species, although nearly allied to it.
+The skull of a great Beaver, one-fifth larger than that of the
+living species, was obtained many years ago by M. Fischer from sandy
+deposits on the shores of the Sea of Azov, and, as it differed in
+some peculiarities of the teeth from _Castor fiber_, was described by
+him as constituting a distinct genus under the name of _Trogontherium
+Cuvieri_. It is now regarded as a true Beaver, and named _Castor
+Trogontherium_. The British species, described and figured by Sir R.
+Owen from the Norfolk Forest bed under the name of _Trogontherium
+Cuvieri_, is, however, quite distinct, and belongs to the genus
+_Diobroticus_, characterised by having the third upper and first lower
+molar teeth with four enamel folds, and the rest only with two, most of
+the folds soon becoming isolated as the teeth wear down. This animal
+must have been nearly twice the size of the European Beaver.
+
+At a still earlier period--namely, in the Miocene--the family Castoridæ
+was represented, both in Europe and America, by some small species,
+nearly agreeing with the Beavers in dentition, but differing in
+the characters of certain bones of the skull. These form the genus
+_Steneofiber_. The largest (_S. viciacensis_), from the Miocene of
+the Allier, was about half the size of the Beaver; another (_S.
+sansaniensis_), from the fresh-water limestone of Sansan, was about as
+large as a Rat; an American species (_S. nebrascensis_), from the “Bad
+Lands” of Dakota, was rather smaller than a Marmot, and presented some
+resemblance to the Agoutis in the characters of the teeth; and a fourth
+species (_S. pansus_) occurs in the Santa Fé marls. _Eucastor tortus_,
+a species rather smaller than a Marmot, is described by Dr. Leidy as
+very nearly related to the Beaver. Its remains were found in loose
+sands of the Niobrara River, Wyoming. _Chalicomys_ and _Palæomys_ are
+genera doubtfully placed here. Their species occur in the Miocene and
+Pliocene of Europe.
+
+Some bones of a gigantic Rodent, indicating an animal as large as a
+full-grown Black Bear, obtained from Quaternary and Alluvial deposits
+of various parts of the United States, have been described under the
+name of _Castoroides ohioensis_, Mr. J. W. Foster, its first describer,
+having an idea that it was a great Beaver. It has generally been known
+as the “Fossil Beaver” of North America, but several authors have
+entertained doubts of the correctness of this designation, and Mr.
+Allen has lately made it the type of a special family, CASTOROIDIDÆ,
+which he regards as most nearly related to the Chinchillidæ. In the
+general aspect of the skull it resembles the Beaver, but in several
+details of structure approaches the Viscacha; while the structure
+of the molar teeth, which consist of a series of plates of dentine,
+completely enclosed by enamel, and held together by a thin coating of
+cement, occurs elsewhere only in the Chinchillidæ, and in the last
+molar of the Capybara.
+
+Dormice as well as Squirrels disported themselves in the Tertiary woods
+and thickets of Europe, and remains of several species of MYOXIDÆ occur
+in various deposits in France, Switzerland, and elsewhere, from the
+Upper Eocene onwards. _Myoxus glis_, the Garden Dormouse, has been
+identified with some doubt from the caves of Lunel Viel; and this is
+also probably the species occurring in the Belgian bone-caves, and
+described as _Myoxus priscus_ by Dr. Schmerling. A species a little
+larger than the Dormouse occurs in Russian caves, and has received
+the name of _Myoxus fossilis_ from M. Fischer; and the most striking
+species of all is also a Post-Pliocene form, namely, the gigantic
+Dormouse of Malta (_M. melitensis_). This animal, which seems to have
+been about the size of a Guinea-pig, must have been excessively
+abundant in Malta, for its describer, Professor Leith Adams, says
+that “its remains are met with in abundance throughout the cavern and
+fissure deposits, up even to the superficial alluvium now in course
+of formation.” From older times we have evidence of the existence of
+a Dormouse, about the size of the common species, at the time of the
+deposition of the gypsum of Montmartre (Upper Eocene), in which a
+well-preserved skeleton of the animal has been found. The same deposit
+has furnished traces of a second rather larger species. The Miocene of
+Switzerland and of Sansan has also yielded species of _Myoxus_; and
+Professor Hermann von Meyer has recorded a Dormouse from the Miocene of
+Weisenau, under the name of _Brachymys ornatus_.
+
+No fossil LOPHIOMYIDÆ have yet been detected, but the great family
+MURIDÆ has left abundant evidence of its former existence. Species of
+the genera _Mus_, _Arvicola_, _Myodes_, and _Cricetus_, identical in
+many cases with those now living, have been obtained frequently in
+Post-Pliocene deposits and in bone-caves in Europe. Lemmings (_Myodes
+lemmus_ and _torquatus_) are recorded from English caves. The genus
+_Mus_ is also represented by several species in the Miocene deposits of
+France, and in the Sivalik beds investigated by Falconer and Cautley.
+The Miocene of Sansan has furnished a form which has been doubtfully
+regarded as a Gerbille, and named _Meriones Laurillardi_. In the same
+and other deposits of the same age in South-eastern France several
+species of an extinct genus (_Cricetodon_) have been obtained. Their
+dentition resembles that of the Hamster, but the first molars in both
+jaws have a tubercle less; the largest species (_C. sansaniensis_)
+rather exceeded the Hamster in size, while the smallest was less
+than a Mouse. Associated with some of these are two doubtful forms,
+_Decticus_ and _Elomys_, the latter considered by M. Aymard, its
+describer, to be allied to _Hydromys_. The American fossil Muridæ are
+for the most part either species of the genus _Hesperomys_, or nearly
+related to it. Twelve species of that genus were obtained by Dr. Lund
+from the Brazilian bone-caves, but of these eight were identified by
+him with species still existing. In North America two species of a
+nearly-allied genus (_Eumys_) have been obtained from Miocene deposits;
+and the bone-caves of Pennsylvania furnish the remains of a species of
+_Neotoma_ (_N. magister_), hardly distinguishable from the Florida Rat.
+
+A _Rhizomys_ from the Sivalik deposits of North-western India is the
+only recorded fossil representative of the SPALACIDÆ; and of the
+GEOMYIDÆ the only known species are a _Geomys_ from the Pliocene of
+Nebraska, nearly allied to, if not identical with, the living _G.
+bursarius_; and one from the “Tertiaries of the Plains,” described by
+Professor Cope as _Colotaxis cristatus_, which, however, has only three
+molars in the lower jaw.
+
+The DIPODIDÆ are still more scantily represented. A Jerboa described by
+M. Fischer from Post-Pliocene deposits, probably of Tartary, is very
+nearly allied to the living _Dipus platurus_, but has shorter toes
+and broader cannon-bones. The genus _Dipoïdes_, from the “Bohnerz” of
+Würtemberg, is founded on a single tooth, and its position in this
+family is very doubtful.
+
+On the other hand, some fossil allies of the Dipodidæ and Geomyidæ
+constitute a distinct family, for which Mr. Alston proposed the name
+of THERIDOMYIDÆ, from that of one of its genera, _Theridomys_. In this
+genus, of which six species are recorded from the Eocene and Miocene
+deposits of France, there are four rooted molars in each series, and
+each of these has several enamel folds, some of which are converted
+into isolated loops as the crown is worn away. The best known species
+is _Theridomys platiceps_, from the Miocene of Caylus. In _Archæomys
+chinchilloides_ there are still four molars, but these present a very
+different structure; they are rootless, and have the enamel folds
+extending diagonally across the crown, so that they are composed of
+a series of plates, thus presenting a certain amount of resemblance
+to the Chinchillas, which American family _Archæomys_ was at one time
+supposed to represent in Europe. In fact, in the structure of their
+molar teeth, both the above genera approach American types; but in
+other characters, especially the form of the lower jaw, they appear
+to have been decidedly Mouse-like, and Mr. Alston regards them as
+most nearly related to the Dipodidæ, with which they are joined by a
+third form referred to the family _Issiodoromys_, a genus sometimes
+placed with the Jerboas. The teeth in this genus are of the same
+number as in the preceding, but the molars are much simpler, each of
+them exhibiting one large re-entering fold of enamel, which causes the
+surface of the tooth to present two heart-shaped lobes. This structure
+is not dissimilar to that prevailing in some Dipodidæ, and especially
+in _Pedetes_, but it was formerly thought to indicate a relationship
+to the Cavies, and accordingly the best-known species has received
+the name of _Issiodoromys pseudanæma_ (_Anæma_ being a sub-genus of
+Cavies). This species occurs abundantly in the Miocene lacustrine
+limestone near Issoire. A second species (_I. minor_) has been detected
+in the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-haute.
+
+Of the OCTODONTIDÆ, an essentially American family at the present
+day, nearly all the recorded fossil forms are also American. Species
+of _Echinomys_, _Loncheres_, and _Phyllomys_ were obtained by Dr.
+Lund from the Brazilian bone-caves, which also furnished him with the
+remains of a Coypu (_Myopotamus antiquus_), and of an allied form,
+_Carterodon sulcidens_, distinguished by its having broad incisors
+with longitudinal furrows and raised ridges. The latter has since been
+found living in South America. Another species, allied to _Echinomys_,
+is named by Lund _Lonchophorus fossilis_. The superficial deposits of
+South America have yielded the remains of two species of _Ctenomys_,
+one of which is believed to be identical with a recent species. As
+several species of this family now live in Africa, the occurrence in
+the eastern hemisphere of fossil forms belonging to it would not be
+surprising, but the few that have been referred to it are of very
+doubtful nature. M. Lartet obtained some isolated teeth from the
+Miocene of Sansan, which he described under the name of _Myopotamus
+sansaniensis_; and one or two other types (_Aulacodon_, _Adelomys_),
+from Upper Eocene and Miocene beds, are of very uncertain position.
+
+Of the HYSTRICIDÆ, or Porcupines, remains have been obtained in both
+hemispheres. In the Old World traces of true Porcupines (_Hystrix_) are
+recorded from the Valley of the Arno, from the Sivaliks, the Pliocene
+deposits of the Auvergne, from Pikermi, and, on very doubtful evidence,
+from the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-basse; whilst Dr. Leidy has
+described two teeth from the Pliocene deposits of Dakota, as belonging
+to a species (_Hystrix venustus_) allied to the European Porcupine.
+This determination, if confirmed, would be of great interest, as no
+true Porcupine now occurs in America. Of the American type, two species
+of _Sphingurus_ have been obtained from the Brazilian bone-caves;
+and Professor Cope records a species of the North American genus
+_Erythizon_ from a similar cave in Pennsylvania.
+
+The CHINCHILLIDÆ have left but scanty traces of their former existence.
+_Lagostomus brasiliensis_ is from the Brazilian bone-caves; and
+_Megamys patagoniensis_ from the Eocene sandstone of Patagonia. The
+latter species is founded upon a tibia and rotula, which on comparison
+seemed to approach most nearly to those of the Rodents of this family,
+and if the determination be correct it was probably one of the largest
+species of the order, as the tibia measures about a foot long.
+_Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_, are two genera described by Professor
+Cope from bone-caves in Anguilla Island, West Indies.
+
+The DASYPROCTIDÆ have but few fossil representatives, and the undoubted
+ones are all from the bone-caves of Brazil, which furnished Dr. Lund
+with two Agoutis and two Pacas. Of the former, one is described
+as _Dasyprocta capreolus_; the second is allied to the living _D.
+caudata_. The two species of _Cœlogenys_ are extinct. Some teeth,
+found in Tertiary deposits of the Puy-de-Dôme, have been referred
+to _Dasyprocta_, but this determination is excessively doubtful.
+_Diobroticus schmerlingi_ from Belgian caves has been placed with the
+Castoridæ.
+
+Of the CAVIIDÆ, Dr. Lund obtained three species of the genus _Cavia_,
+and two of _Hydrochœrus_, from Brazilian bone-caves. Of the latter, one
+was allied to the existing Capybara; the other was a gigantic species,
+measuring about five feet in length. Dr. Leidy has described a species
+(_Hydrochœrus æsopi_) from teeth found in Post-Pliocene deposits in
+South Carolina; and the Pampean deposits of the same age furnished M.
+D’Orbigny with the remains of a Cavy (_Cavia antiqua_) which, however,
+is doubtfully distinct from the Patagonian species.
+
+The remains of species of the family LEPORIDÆ are very abundant in
+some Post-Pliocene cave deposits on both sides of the Atlantic, and
+in several cases the species are evidently identical with those now
+living. Besides these, species of the genus _Lepus_ have been found in
+Pliocene and Miocene beds in France. In North America three extinct
+Leporine genera have been recognised, differing from _Lepus_ in certain
+peculiarities of the molar teeth:--_Palæolagus_, with three species,
+from the Miocene of Dakota and Colorado; _Panolax_, from the Pliocene
+marls of Santa Fé; and _Praotherium_, from a bone-cave in Pennsylvania.
+The last-named genus has the crowns of the molars transversely oval,
+and without the enamel-band or crest which is seen on the surface of
+the teeth of other Hares.
+
+The LAGOMYIDÆ are known in a fossil state chiefly from Post-Pliocene
+deposits, and the bone breccias of caves in various parts of Europe.
+In Post-Pliocene times the genus _Lagomys_ seems to have been very
+generally distributed over the South of Europe; and the earliest
+appearance of the genus is in the Pliocene, three species having
+been described from deposits of that age at Œningen and Montpellier.
+The family is, however, carried further back in time by the genus
+_Titanomys_, in which the molars differ but slightly in structure from
+those of _Lagomys_, but there are only four of them in each series,
+both above and below. Two species of this genus have been recorded from
+Miocene deposits in France and Germany.
+
+[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SKULL AND LOWER JAW OF MESOTHERIUM
+CRISTATUM.]
+
+[Illustration: DENTITION OF MESOTHERIUM CRISTATUM.
+
+(A) Upper Jaw; (B) Lower Jaw; (C) Incisors.]
+
+We have thus passed very briefly in review the fossil Rodents belonging
+to the two great sections of the order to which all its living species
+are to be referred; and it will be seen that while a knowledge of their
+existence is necessary to complete the history of the order, they
+present none of those peculiar characters which lend such interest
+to the fossil members of many other orders. There is, however, one
+fossil South American type to which we have yet to refer, as, by the
+curious combination of characters which it presents, it has long been
+somewhat of a puzzle to palæontologists, and although generally placed
+among the Rodents, its peculiarities are such that Mr. Alston found
+himself compelled to establish a third primary section of the order
+for its reception. According to M. Bravard, the first discoverer of
+this peculiar type, the Pliocene deposits of the Pampas of La Plata
+contain the remains of three species belonging to it; but the bones
+which have been sent to Europe, and which represent most parts of
+the skeleton, seem all to belong to a single species, which has been
+very fully described by M. Serres under the name of _Mesotherium
+cristatum_.[55] What distinguishes it at once from all other known
+Rodents is the presence _in the lower jaw_ of four incisor teeth, the
+second pair being very small and placed immediately behind the outer
+edge of the broad middle pair. The latter are peculiarly widened and
+compressed from front to back in both jaws, and their summits, instead
+of being worn to a sharp chisel-like edge as in ordinary Rodents,
+show an elongated ring of enamel surrounding a slightly depressed
+surface. Hence Mr. Alston denominated this section HEBETIDENTATA, or
+BLUNT-TOOTHED RODENTS. The enamel in all the incisors is continuous
+round the tooth. The molar teeth are rootless and curved, the convex
+side being directed outwards, contrary to what occurs in other Rodents.
+They are surrounded by enamel, and show re-entering folds which differ
+in the two jaws. Their number on each side is five in the upper and
+four in the lower jaw. The skull is massive, with enormously-developed
+sagittal and occipital crests, the latter of which run forward so far
+as to join the zygomatic arches; and these crests rise so high that
+the upper surface of the actual brain-case is entirely concealed by
+them when the skull is looked at from the side. The lower jaw in its
+characters presents some resemblance to the same part in the Leporidæ;
+but it has the condyle for its articulation with the skull transverse,
+and fitting into a cavity of corresponding direction, a character
+which occurs in no other Rodent. Of the remainder of the skeleton we
+need only state that the animal possessed perfect clavicles; that the
+shoulder-blade and humerus somewhat resemble those of the Beaver; that
+the fibula articulated with the heel-bone; and that both front and hind
+limbs possessed five toes, some of which, judging from the form of the
+terminal joint, were probably furnished with hoof-like claws.
+
+Thus, as regards its affinities in the order Rodentia, _Mesotherium_
+presents resemblances in its lower jaw (as also in some peculiarities
+of the skull), and in the articulation of the heel with the shank,
+to the Hares; while in the shortness of the incisors and some other
+cranial peculiarities, the form of the shoulder-blades, and the
+probably hoof-like character of the claws, we may notice an approach to
+the Cavies, which are also South American forms, and especially to the
+Capybara, which it probably resembled in its habits, although, if the
+evidence of the Beaver-like shoulder-blade and humerus be taken into
+account, it would appear to have been still more aquatic.
+
+On the other hand, the resemblance to certain other Mammalia, and
+especially to some aberrant Ungulates, is unmistakable. The number of
+incisor teeth is the same as in _Hyrax_, and in these teeth there is
+also a certain amount of resemblance to the curious genus _Toxodon_,
+in which the incisors are four in the upper and six in the lower jaw,
+and worn away in somewhat the same fashion. In _Toxodon_ also, the
+convexity of the curve of the molars is turned outwards. Certain other
+characters of _Mesotherium_--such as the mode of articulation of the
+lower jaw, and the peculiar connection of some of the caudal vertebræ
+with the ischiatic bones--present resemblances to the Edentata. As
+Mr. Alston says, “It appears to have been a survivor, to Pliocene
+times, of a much earlier type, which represented an era at which the
+Rodents were not yet clearly marked off from their allies. In fact,
+_Mesotherium_ seems to continue _into_ the order Glires that line of
+affinity which Professor Flower has pointed out as extending from the
+typical Ungulates through _Hyracodon_, _Homalodontotherium_, _Nesodon_,
+and _Toxodon_.”
+
+The general relationships of _Mesotherium_ to the other Rodents, and of
+these among themselves, are represented by Mr. Alston in a diagrammatic
+form, from which the following scheme, which will serve also as a table
+of the families, is derived:--
+
+    II.--RODENTIA
+         DUPLICIDENTATA.  4. _Haplodontidæ_.                     { I.
+                              1. SCIUROMORPHA. 1. _Anomaluridæ_. { -- S
+                   5. _Castoridæ_.             2. _Sciueridæ_.   { R  I
+                                3. _Ischyromyidæ_.               { O  M
+                                      |                          { D  P
+                                                                 { E  L
+                        6. _Myoxidæ_.          7. _Lophiomyidæ_. { N  I
+                                      8. _Muridæ_.               { T  C
+                  10. _Geomyidæ_.            11. _Theridomyidæ_. { I  I
+                                  2. MYOMORPHA.                  { A  D
+ II.--RODENTIA            9. _Spalacidæ_.      12. _Dipodidæ_.   {    E
+ DUPLICIDENTATA.                |                                {    N
+       |         14. _Hystricidæ_.  13. _Octodontidæ_.           {    T
+       |                 3. HYSTRICOMORPHA.                      {    A
+ /----/ \----\  16. _Dasyproctidæ_.       15. _Chinchillidæ_.    {    T
+ 20. _Leporidæ_.                                                 {    A.
+                                17. _Dinomyidæ_.                 {
+ 19 _Lagomyidæ_.  18. _Caviidæ_.                                 {
+           |       |
+ III.--RODENTIA HEBETIDENTATA.
+       21. _Mesotheriidæ_.
+
+
+It seems quite clear, even from the above brief sketch of the history
+of the Rodentia in time, that, except in the case of _Mesotherium_,
+the fossil remains of animals belonging to this order furnish us with
+no important information bearing upon their alliances and possible
+origin. They make their earliest appearances, so far as we know, in
+deposits of Eocene age; and the earliest forms the remains of which are
+sufficient to give us a clear insight into their nature, are manifestly
+members of families, and often nearly allied to species still extant
+in the regions where their traces are now found. Thus in Eocene and
+Miocene deposits, we have representatives of the families _Sciuridæ_,
+_Castoridæ_, _Myoxidæ_, _Muridæ_, _Geomyidæ_, _Chinchillidæ_, and
+_Leporidæ_, already differentiated as at the present day, so far as
+the evidence goes; and it is clear that we must go much further back
+in time to seek the earliest appearance of the Rodent type, whether it
+branched off directly from the Marsupial series, or passed, as would
+seem to be indicated by _Mesotherium_, through a sequence of forms more
+or less related to the Ungulates.
+
+Nor does the geographical distribution of the animals lead to any more
+definite conclusions. Certain families and even sub-families are of
+very wide range, the Muridæ and Sciuridæ especially being represented
+nearly all over the world, while the Hystricidæ and Leporidæ are also
+spread over very large areas, occurring in both hemispheres. Certain
+groups, such as the Sciuridæ of both sub-families, the Castoridæ,
+the Murine, and Arvicoline sub-families of Muridæ, the Leporidæ, and
+the Lagomyidæ, may be said to have a circumpolar distribution in the
+northern hemisphere, nearly allied and sometimes identical species
+being found in the more northern parts of both the Old and the New
+World, but mixed with other forms peculiar to the regions, especially
+as we advance southwards. On the other hand, the Myoxidæ are peculiar
+to the eastern hemisphere, as are also the Spalacidæ and the Dipodidæ
+(with the exception of _Zapus_, which is considered by Dr. Coues to
+form a distinct family), and all the sub-families of Muridæ, except
+those above mentioned as having a circumpolar range. The Myomorpha may
+in fact be looked upon as an Old World group, the Geomyidæ being the
+only exclusively American family; while the Hystricomorpha as a whole
+may be regarded as American, certain aberrant forms of the Octodontidæ
+inhabiting various parts of Africa and the Old World Porcupines being
+the sole representatives of that great section outside the western
+continent. Considering these facts, we may regard the Sciuromorpha
+and the Duplicidentata as originally polar types, or at all events
+as having an equal claim to an origin in the northern regions of
+either continent; while the Myomorpha, with their multitudinous
+forms spreading over all parts of the Old World, and having a much
+scantier representation in America, probably originated in the eastern
+hemisphere, and spread by a northern passage into the New World; and
+the Hystricomorpha would seem to have originated in South America,
+where they display the greatest variety of forms.
+
+    W. S. DALLAS.
+
+[Illustration: GROUP OF SLOTHS (_Arctopithecus griseus_).]
+
+
+
+
+ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+TARDIGRADA, OR SLOTHS.
+
+
+  The South American Forests--Discovery of the Sloth--How it derived
+  its Name--Peculiarities of Dentition--Food--Fore Limbs and
+  Fingers--Hind Limbs and Heel--Other Modifications of Structure--Kinds
+  of Sloth--Waterton’s Captive Sloth--Habits of the Animal--Burchell’s
+  Tame Sloths--Manner of Climbing Trees--Disposition--Activity among
+  Trees--Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy--Probable Conclusion
+  regarding it--Skeleton--Vertebræ--the Rudimentary Tail--Most
+  Distinctive Skeletal Characters--Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers,
+  Claws--Mode of Walking--Great Utility of the Claws--Face of
+  Sloth--Skull--Teeth--Classification--_TARDIGRADA_--BRADIPODIDÆ--Genus
+  BRADYPUS--Characteristics--Genus
+  ARCTOPITHECUS--Characteristics--CHOLŒPODIDÆ--THE COLLARED
+  SLOTH--Description--Skull Bones--Habits--Circulation of the
+  Blood--_Rete Mirabile_--THE AI--THE UNAU--Appearance--Skull and
+  Teeth--Skeleton--Interesting Anatomical Features--Stomach--HOFFMANN’S
+  SLOTH--Description--Habits.
+
+When the dense forests of the northern parts of South America were
+first explored by Europeans, it was observed that active Spider
+Monkeys, Howlers, and their Quadrumanous allies, were not the only
+climbing animals which frequented the trees. For every now and then,
+hunters came in sight of creatures about the size of a large Monkey,
+but whose sluggish movements, long hair, short heads, small ears and
+tail, and very long claws, enabled them to be distinguished at once
+from their very lively companions. It was noticed that these new
+creatures, instead of climbing quickly and swinging from branch to
+branch and running along the boughs, moved very slowly, by hanging
+head and body downwards and grasping the branches with their long
+claws. During the daytime, these quiet animals were constantly found
+asleep, huddled up in the fork of a branch, and looking like great
+balls of tow, or else hanging by two legs, the rest of the body being
+curled up. Now and then, one was seen at the foot of a tree, and it
+appeared to run along the ground with great difficulty; for the arms
+were so long that it walked on the elbows, and the hind feet were
+turned in, so that it supported itself on the sides of its great hind
+claws. Naturally, the animal took its time in moving, and as it was
+never seen to be lively, it received the name of Sloth. Interesting
+from being so different in its habits from other arboreal animals, it
+became much more so, to naturalists, when its remarkable construction
+was ascertained; but still the hairy creature with a short face, small
+head, long neck, hardly any tail, and very long front limbs, retained
+its popular name.
+
+A very slight examination of one of the Sloths showed that it had no
+front teeth, that is to say, neither incisors nor true canine teeth,
+and that the hinder teeth--the false and true molars--were not like
+those of any other mammal. The back teeth, few in number, have since
+been ascertained to be exceptionally simple in their structure, and
+evidently the masticating process is very simple. But when it was
+noticed that the Sloth fed upon leaves and young twigs, the absence
+of the necessity for more elaborate teeth was acknowledged. Then it
+was observed that they had very long arms, or rather fore limbs, for
+the fore-arm bones and the humerus are all unusually long, and also
+that they had great power of movement. Moreover, it was seen that the
+fingers were reduced to three in number in some kinds, and to two in
+others, and that they were furnished with long and strong claws, which
+did not interfere with a great amount of mobility in the wrist. The
+length of limb, the mobility of the wrist, and the great claws, enable
+the Sloth to bring the leaves to its mouth, to hang on, and to walk, as
+it were, beneath the branches. An examination of the hind limbs showed
+that they were shorter than the others, and always furnished, in all
+kinds of Sloths, with three great claws. But the ankle seemed to be
+turned in, as if there was a state of “club-foot.” This condition would
+enable the toes to clasp a bough without effort, but it would prevent
+the sole from being placed flat on the ground. As the knowledge of the
+anatomy of these constant tree-livers progressed, other modifications
+of structure, equally important in relation to the peculiar arboreal
+life and food, were gradually discovered. For instance, a remarkable
+flexibility of the neck, produced by the peculiar arrangement of
+the vertebræ; a _rete mirabile_, to a certain extent, in the limbs,
+resembling somewhat that in the Lemurs (Vol. I., pages 213, 245),
+and a complicated stomach suited for the digestion of leaves, and
+foreshadowing that of the Ruminants.
+
+Two different kinds of Sloths were described in the first instance,
+and subsequently, several others. The first kinds known were the Ai, a
+Sloth with three claws on the fore limb, and the Two-toed Sloth, with
+two claws on the fore limb. The Ai was called _Bradypus tridactylus_,
+and the other the Unau, or _Bradypus didactylus_, names which have been
+changed somewhat, as will be seen further on.
+
+Sloths are caught without much difficulty, and their habits, in
+captivity, have been observed in South America, and also after their
+removal to Europe. Waterton writes[56] on the subject:--
+
+“Some years ago I kept a Sloth for several months. I often took him
+out of the house and placed him on the ground, in order to have an
+opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough he would
+pull himself forward by means of his fore-legs, at a pretty good pace,
+and he invariably shaped his course towards the nearest tree; but if I
+put him upon a smooth and well-trodden part of the road, he appeared
+to be in trouble and distress. His favourite abode was the back of a
+chair, and often getting all his legs in a line upon the topmost part
+of it, he would hang there for hours together. The Sloth, in its wild
+state, spends its whole life upon trees, not upon the branches, but
+under them; he moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended
+from it, and he sleeps suspended from it; hence his seemingly bungled
+conformation is at once accounted for. One day, crossing the Essequibo,
+I saw a large Two-toed Sloth on the ground upon the bank, and although
+the trees were not twenty yards from him, he could not make his way
+through the sand in time enough to make his escape before we landed. He
+threw himself on his back and defended himself with his fore-legs. I
+took a long stick and held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him
+to a high and stately Mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in
+about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in
+a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree,
+and then proceeded towards the heart of the forest.”
+
+At Santos, in Brazil, in 1826, Mr. Burchell kept a tame Sloth, a
+_Bradypus tridactylus_, which at the end of two months pined and
+died. It fed exclusively on the buds and leaves of a species of
+_Cecropia_, a tree having a slender stem of thirty or forty feet long,
+with horizontal branches, hollow internally, and naked, except at
+the extremities. It ate only the young shoots and terminal buds of
+the unexpanded leaves, rejecting the old leaves on the boughs, which
+were brought to it daily. It was always perfectly silent, and its
+countenance and manners were most expressive of melancholy. It fed by
+day, and slept much; being kept in a room, it sat upright upon its
+short tail, embracing the legs of a chair with its arms and legs.
+
+When resident at Para, near the mouth of the Amazons, Mr. Burchell also
+kept two full-grown Sloths, and a young one of a three-toed species
+(not _Bradypus tridactylus_, but of nearly similar form and habits),
+in a garden enclosed with strong stockades. They were kept tied up
+to the pillars of a verandah, to prevent their escape. Against these
+pillars they always placed themselves in an erect position, embracing
+the pillar with all four legs; when not tied to the verandah, they got
+up into trees in the garden. They slept both by day and night, always
+fixing their arms round something or other. Their food, consisting of
+branches, was brought to them in the verandah. They appeared extremely
+stupid, and would never come to the food. They would eat no leaves but
+those of the _Cecropia_.
+
+They did not mount very large trees, and they ascended with their
+breasts pressing the trunk of the tree, advancing the hind-leg beyond
+the fore-leg. On the ground, they could neither stand nor walk, but lay
+sprawling on their belly, and dragged, or rather warped, themselves
+along, laying hold of a bunch of grass or stone with their three claws,
+which operated like grappling-irons, or, rather, pincers. All these
+died in a month or two. In their wild state they are seldom seen,
+from their colour mingling with the grey foliage of the trees, and
+from their being so extremely quiet and slow. The tame Sloths never
+willingly remained on the ground, except to pass from one tree to
+another. All the movements of the animal are slow. It moves its claws
+slowly. In eating it chews slowly; it also climbs slowly. The moisture
+of the leaves it eats suffices it for drink, without descending to
+obtain water. None of those kept by Mr. Burchell were ever seen to
+drink. The full-grown animals were never heard to utter any sound,
+but the young one occasionally, though rarely, gave a short cry or
+whistling squeak, of a single note.
+
+They showed no indication of fear, and seemed to give attention only
+with their eyes. They took no notice of the boy who often carried them
+across the garden to their place in the verandah, with their long arms
+sprawling; the only objects of their regard were trees. They fight on
+their backs, and grapple their enemy to strangulation. The use of the
+long wool that covers the body, and even the face, seems to be to guard
+them from the annoyance of insects. Possibly it may preserve them from
+the attacks of Snakes, which are, doubtless, their greatest enemies.
+
+The Sloth spends nearly the whole of its life in the trees, and travels
+along the branches body downwards. It rarely comes to the ground, on
+which it walks with difficulty, and it occasionally takes to the water
+and swims. It looks slothful enough when asleep, for it then resembles
+a bunch of rough hair, and a jumble of limbs close together, hanging
+to a branch; but when awake, it is industrious in its search for nice
+twigs and leaves, and moves along the under side of the branches of the
+trees with some activity. It seizes the ends of adjoining branches,
+clinging to the leafy mass, and moves from tree to tree quickly enough,
+when it is requisite, and it has a very singular power of moving the
+head and neck backwards in seeking food. When the atmosphere is still,
+the Sloth keeps to its tree, feeding on the leaves and twigs, but when
+there is wind, and the branches of neighbouring trees come in contact,
+the opportunity is seized, and the animal moves along the forest, under
+the shady cover of the boughs. The Indians have a saying that “when
+the wind blows the Sloths begin to crawl,” and the reason is thus
+evident enough--the animal cannot jump, but it can hang, swing, and
+crawl suspended. Mr. Waterton states, however, that “the Sloth travels
+at a good round pace, and were you to see him passing from tree to
+tree you would never think of calling him a Sloth. Being born up in a
+tree, living amongst the branches, feeding on leaves, and finally dying
+amidst the foliage, and enjoying life as much as any other animal, its
+structure and conformation are, of course, admirably suited for this
+arboreal existence. Its power of grasp is great, and is assisted by the
+great bent claws as it hangs by its feet when asleep, and also often
+when it is dead. One which was much frightened by being taken from the
+forest had a pole placed near it at a little distance from the ground,
+on two supports. It clung directly to the pole and hung on. A Dog was
+then made to attack the Sloth, which seized it in its long claws, and
+did not let go until the enemy died.”
+
+Leading thus a very unusual kind of life, up amongst the dense foliage,
+and having some very unusual peculiarities of construction, much debate
+occurred many years since regarding the general conformation as well as
+the special anatomy of the Sloths. One school of anatomists considered
+the Sloths incomplete and abnormal animals, moving with “pain” on the
+ground, and another regarded their unusual and peculiar anatomy as
+singularly beneficent.
+
+But whilst it is perfectly evident that the long limbs and their
+joints, and the peculiar turning in of the ankles, and the structure
+of the clawed hands and feet, are all admirably adapted for the
+peculiar life which the animal leads, it appears to be consistent
+with anatomical reasoning to believe that the Sloth is an instance of
+retrograde development; that, in fact, the peculiar formation of the
+skull, neck, wrists, and ankles, is the result of the laws of disuse
+and adaptation operating on ancestral animals, which once had their
+anatomy more consistent with a perfect mammalian type.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.]
+
+When the Sloths were first carefully watched and studied, their length
+of neck and their ability to turn the head, so as to look at a person
+standing directly behind or beneath them, without swerving the body,
+struck Mr. Burchell especially. This curious peculiarity led to a
+careful examination of the skeleton of the different kinds, and much
+discussion followed, for it was found that in the Sloth examined (the
+Three-clawed Ai) there were more neck bones (vertebræ of the cervical
+region) than in other Mammalia. Instead of the common number of seven
+neck bones, there were nine. This elongation of the neck of course
+permitted a greater amount of twisting than could occur in an animal
+with fewer neck bones. But there are other reasons why the head can
+be so much twisted round, for the spines on the neck bones are small,
+and the joint between the skull and the first vertebra is so fashioned
+that this remarkable motion is possible. There was a great deal of
+discussion about the extra neck bones, and as the last two had rib-like
+projections from their sides, some anatomists considered them to belong
+to the true rib-bearing vertebræ, or those of the back (the dorsal).
+But when the other Sloths were examined it was found that the number of
+the bones of the neck in all the two-fingered kinds was not as great as
+in other animals. There are only six neck vertebra in one well-known
+species (_Cholœpus Hoffmanni_, for instance), whilst there are seven in
+another two-toed Sloth.
+
+Eating largely and of bulky substances, the Sloths require a large
+digestive cavity, and the ribs are numerous, and the body is long
+and broad. There is much variation, however, in the number of the
+back bones in the dorsal and lumbar regions. Thus in the Ai there are
+sixteen dorsal and three lumbar vertebræ, whilst in the Two-fingered
+Sloth there may be twenty-three or twenty-four dorsal bones, and two,
+three, or four lumbar vertebræ. The ribs are close together and are
+broad. As the hind limbs require strong muscles, for the animal hangs
+on by them whilst it is feeding itself with the fore hands, the pelvis
+is large and is strengthened by having the hip and haunch bones (ilia
+and ischia) united to the conjoined sacral vertebræ, which may be six,
+seven, or eight in number. Moreover, all the strength of the pelvis is
+behind, the fore part or pubic bones being slender and united in front.
+
+Some small tail bones exist, for that organ is rudimentary in all the
+Sloths, there being a stump in the Ai, and eleven very small bones; but
+in the Two-fingered Sloths the tail is not visible, and there are four
+little ossicles. There are no long and very prominent spines to any
+of the back bones, and the whole bony column of the spine is readily
+curved and bent. The animals so constantly bring the hands and feet
+close together, when hanging, that a ready bending of the spine is
+absolutely necessary. Moreover, in sleeping they often rest in the fork
+of a tree, or on a branch, and place the head between the hind legs,
+rolling the body up as it were in a ball, and this is facilitated by
+the peculiar construction of the long chain of back bones with small
+spines.
+
+The most distinctive character of the skeleton of the Sloth is the
+excess of length of the fore limb over the hind one. An examination of
+the slender bones of the arm shows that they are more solid than those
+of most Mammals. The arm bone (humerus) has a hole through it in the
+inner expanded part, just above the elbow (inner condyle), in the Ai;
+but this is not found in the two-toed kinds. The wrist and hand are
+long and narrow, and this is produced by the union of some bones which
+are separate in other Mammalia, and the slight development of others.
+Thus there are six bones in the wrist instead of eight (the scaphoid
+and trapezium, and the os magnum and trapezoid have coalesced). In
+the Ai there are three clawed fingers, and the bones of the thumb and
+of the little finger are absent, and their corresponding hand bones
+(metacarpals) are very small, and are joined on to the next, that is,
+to the metacarpal of the index and third finger.
+
+The three fingers are, moreover, strengthened for their peculiar uses,
+the first two joints being united, and the tip or last joint being
+very long, and supporting the claw. Moreover, as the long claws are
+constantly half closed in the hand, and they are never required to be
+widely open, the tip of the finger is so made that flexion is possible,
+but not unclasping widely. The skin comes up to the base of the claws,
+and encloses the fingers, and the base of each claw is protected by a
+bony sheath. They form capital hooks; they grasp, and although there is
+no opposable thumb, they hold the food; and a tame Sloth may be seen
+holding a carrot very firmly between them and the wrist. In the case of
+the Unau Sloth, the outer claw is the longer.
+
+[Illustration: BONES OF HAND OF THREE-TOED SLOTH.]
+
+The Sloths walk on the outside of the extremities of the fore and
+hind limbs, and their claws are always curved in, and, as it were,
+retracted. Consequently, the animal cannot place the soles flat on
+the ground, and it cannot open its foot-claws to a great extent. This
+fixing of the claws assists in the clasping and hanging, which are the
+usual and commonest attitudes. The claws surpass the foot in length,
+and are so sharp and crooked that they readily seize upon the smallest
+inequalities in the bark of the trees and branches upon which the
+animals habitually reside. They and those of the fore limb are no mean
+weapons of offence and defence, for, situated at the end of long and
+muscular arms, they can drag, cling, and hold with great tenacity. The
+thigh bone (femur) of the Sloth is straight, and is thicker and shorter
+than the arm bone (humerus); it has no ligament to unite it to the
+joint (no ligamentum teres). On examining the lower bones of the leg
+(the tibia and fibula), they will be found to be bent, so as to leave
+a space between them, and they are shorter than the bones of the fore
+arm. The bones of the ankle joint, are united together immovably--that
+is to say, the usual bones seen in other Mammalia are there, but
+are united by bone. Moreover, this union includes the complete and
+ill-developed feet bones (metatarsals), and the first bones of the
+second, third, and fourth fingers. One bone is not included in this
+strange union. It is the astragalus, or the bone immediately jointed
+with the ends of the bones of the legs. The outer or small bone of the
+leg (fibula) fits into a pit in the outer part of the upper surface of
+this bone, and thus prevents any movement of the foot like a twisting
+outwards, and favours, but does not produce, the usual position of
+twisting inwards. Moreover, there are two powerful muscles in the front
+of the leg which are not opposed by others as strong, and they, by
+their contraction, keep the foot twisted inwards, as in club-foot (the
+anterior tibial and the long extensor of the great toe).
+
+In the Unau, or Two-fingered Sloth, there is the same general
+arrangement of the bones and muscles, with some important differences,
+which result in there being a greater amount of bending and extending
+of the foot, although the foot rests on its outer edge.
+
+A Sloth’s face is short, and there is a broad snub nose, with round
+nostrils, which are widely open. The cheeks become wide suddenly,
+and the forehead slopes rapidly backwards, the eyes being wide apart
+and small, but looking forwards. The head is small and round, and
+as it is covered with hair behind, it cannot be distinguished well
+from the upper part of the back of the neck. The expression of the
+face is always the same, and the method of masticating and eating is
+disagreeable to observe. The animal having no front teeth, and moving
+its jaws usually only upwards and downwards, and not from side to
+side, places the morsel, such as lettuce leaf or carrot, well into its
+mouth, and chews at it, dragging out the food every now and then, when
+it is covered with moisture. On examining the skull, the short cut
+off or truncated appearance of the face is very evident, and it will
+be observed that the teeth are wanting in the front bones of the face
+(the pre-maxillaries), and that only the palatal part of these bones
+exists. The lower jaw is strongly jointed to the upper, and the back
+part is large: there are teeth at the sides, but there are none in the
+front part of it. A very singular-looking cheek bone (zygoma) exists
+on either side. It is not attached behind to the ear bone, so as to
+cover the jaw muscles, but it has two processes behind--an upper and
+a lower--which differ in shape and size according to the species. The
+central bone of the nose does not reach to the nasal outlet, and there
+is a system of air-cavities which is continued from the nose into the
+forehead bone. In some kinds, the lower jaw ends abruptly in front, as
+in the Ai; but in the Unau Sloths it is slightly angular, and projects.
+
+The back teeth of the Sloths are very simple, and consist of three
+structures, called vaso-dentine, hard dentine, and cement, there being
+no proper enamel. The vaso-dentine is a kind of bony substance in
+the centre of the tooth, in which there are the passages and tubes
+of blood-vessels. The dentine is outside this, and consists of more
+earthy particles than the vaso-dentine, and of fewer tubes; it is
+all the denser and more resistant. Wearing away more slowly than the
+vaso-dentine, it forms a ridge which grinds easily. The cement is a
+kind of bony structure on the outside of the tooth. The teeth of the
+Sloth continue to grow from below as they are worn above, and there is
+no entire milk set which are replaced by those of a permanent kind.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF SLOTH.[57]
+
+(From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]
+
+The term Sloth is commonly applied to all the kinds of animals whose
+general shape and habits have just been noticed. It is evident,
+however, that this union of several species under one term is not
+correct in zoology, and it is necessary to distinguish them by
+peculiarities which are permanent. A very ready method of distinction
+is to separate the Sloths into two families, one containing those which
+have three claws on the fore limbs and the same number on the hind
+limbs, and the second including those which have only two claws on the
+fore feet and three on the hinder.
+
+The first family is called the BRADYPODIDÆ, from βραδύς (slow), and
+πούς (foot), and the second CHOLŒPODIDÆ, from χωλός (halting, lame),
+and πούς (foot), and both are included in the group TARDIGRADA, or
+slow-moving _Edentata_.
+
+The BRADYPODIDÆ include two genera, but many naturalists only
+acknowledge one. The first is _Bradypus_. This includes the Sloths with
+three-clawed fingers on the fore limbs, whose males and females are
+alike in their fur, and which have the cheek bone (malar bone) with
+two processes. The upper one is long and dilated at the end, and the
+lower is long and triangular, and neither of the processes reaches the
+ear bone. There are in these Sloths, when full grown, five molar teeth
+on each side in both jaws, and the first is very short. There are two
+mammæ on the chest.
+
+The second genus is _Arctopithecus_ (Gray), and it contains species
+which have the males and females dissimilar in their colour and
+ornamentation, and the malar bone has a thin and narrow upper process.
+
+The second family of the Sloths (the CHOLŒPODIDÆ) contains but one
+genus, _Cholœpus_ (the Unau), whose species have two claws on the fore
+limbs and three on the hind ones. The front of the lower jaw is stuck
+out, and not cut short, and the first molar teeth are long.
+
+The genus _Bradypus_ probably contains several species, but it is only
+necessary to mention one, which is called
+
+
+THE COLLARED SLOTH, OR THE HAIRY SLOTH.[58]
+
+This Sloth lives in the densest forests of Brazil, Peru, and Para, and
+is found not far from Rio Janeiro.
+
+It is a kind of the Three-clawed Sloths, in which there is little
+or no difference between the fur of the males and females. The neck
+is surrounded by a large collar of long black hair, and underneath
+this is a fur of a dark-brown colour. The face is naked, and is of a
+black colour, and the hair of the body is not very flattened, but is
+withered-looking to a certain extent. The forehead, temples, chin,
+throat, and breast are covered with reddish or rust-coloured hair,
+slightly grizzled. On the crown of the head it is long and yellow, and
+pale orange on the rest of the body. This Sloth produces one at a birth.
+
+The lower jaw has a kind of blunted lobe in front, and the angle of
+this jaw is broad, triangular, with a rounded lower edge, and it
+projects backwards beyond the joint which connects the bone with the
+skull. The cheek bone has those peculiarities which have already been
+mentioned. The teeth are peculiar, for the first or foremost grinders
+are smaller than the others, and the second upper grinder is the
+largest of all. The first grinder on the lower jaw is broader than the
+rest, and the hinder are the largest, being also cylindrical.
+
+[Illustration: COLLARED SLOTH. (From Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s
+_Animals of Brazil_.)]
+
+It has the general method of living of the Sloths, being perhaps not
+quite so lively or active as the Unau, and feeds mainly on _Cecropia_
+leaves, finishing those of one tree as far as it can before commencing
+those of another. Like all the Sloths, it has the power of long and
+sustained muscular action, and can cling on, or grasp, for a very long
+time without perceptible fatigue, and this gift is associated with a
+structure of the blood-vessels which supply the muscles, resembling, as
+we have said, that noticed in some of the Lemurs. The main artery which
+supplies each of the fore limbs is the axillary, so called from its
+being found in the armpit or axilla. In quickly-moving animals this
+vessel reaches into the upper arm, and divides into a few rather large
+ones lower down, and these give off others, so that a certain quantity
+of blood is supplied and removed quickly. But in the Sloths the
+axillary artery divides at once into a number of cylindrical vessels
+nearly as large as it is, and they are united here and there. These
+unusual arteries are found in contact with the surface of the muscles,
+and their branches go in and amongst the muscular bundles. As many as
+forty-two of these large vessels were counted by Sir A. Carlisle, on
+the surface of the muscles on the front of the arm, and probably about
+twenty were inside. These arteries thus carry an immense supply of
+blood to the muscles, but blood which, although it is finally removed
+by the veins, does not move very rapidly. In fact, the muscles are
+turgid with blood. The same arterial structure is seen in the hinder
+limbs, and the arteries of the thigh form as numerous a set as those of
+the arm.
+
+[Illustration: AI. (From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]
+
+It seems to be in accordance with careful investigation, to state that
+the species of Sloth called _Bradypus tridactylus_ (the Three-toed
+Sloth, or Ai) has too large a meaning, and that it really refers to
+the Collared Sloth, as well as to others which have been placed in the
+next genus. It is as well to remark here, that although there are three
+clawed fingers to the fore limb, there are vestiges of two other ones
+by their side in the form of two rudimentary metacarpal bones.
+
+
+GENUS ARCTOPITHECUS.--THE AI.[59]
+
+Several kinds of three-clawed Sloths have been called Ai; for instance,
+the Yellow-throated Ai, and De Blainville’s Ai, and all have been
+named _Bradypus tridactylus_. Dr. Gray, however, satisfied himself
+that the kind which was first described by Cuvier as the Ai, and which
+is figured in Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s “Animals of Brazil,” is
+the same as one which has since been called _Arctopithecus Ai_, or
+_Arctopithecus flaccidus_. The word _Ai_ is taken from the noise made
+by the animal, and the term _flaccidus_ relates to its long hair.
+The true Ai inhabits Venezuela and Peru, and has very long flaccid
+grey hair mottled with white. There is an abundant under-fur of a
+blackish-brown colour, which has white and black in spots and blotches.
+
+There is a small spot between the shoulders on the back, where the fur
+is soft and woolly, and a broad, short, blackish streak there, with
+a white or orange ring around it. The claws are coloured brown. The
+head has a curiously-cut short and turned-up nose appearance, and is
+furnished with coarse shaggy hair, disposed on the crown in a diverging
+manner. The short hair of the face contrasts with the long, shaggy,
+shrivelled, dry, hay-looking hair of the body. This hair is coarse and
+flattened at the ends, but it is exceptionally fine at the roots, and
+it greatly resembles in colour and texture some of the vegetation of
+the trees on which it lives. The eyes are bright, and are surrounded
+by a dark ring. Several species of the genus Arctopithecus have been
+described which live in Guiana, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF AI.]
+
+The next genus of the Sloths is represented by
+
+
+THE TWO-FINGERED SLOTH (THE UNAU).[60]
+
+There are several kinds of Sloths with two “toes,” or rather with two
+fingers ending in claws on the fore limb, but the differences between
+the species are not very readily appreciated. They are differences
+which can be recognised, but it is doubtful whether the possession of
+dark brown or pale brown hair is sufficient to decide that there are
+more than one species.
+
+The common Unau Sloth is usually of a darker tint than the others, but
+there is no doubt that the specimens in museums of all these Sloths
+vary much in the colour and length of the hair. Thus the hair may be
+generally dark, and the hairs of the crest on the back of the head
+may be white, and more or less tinted with bright green; or the hair
+may be short, of a dark brown colour, paler on the rump, much paler
+on the head, cheeks, and chin; a band may be across the nose, and the
+orbits dark brown. Others of the same species have very long hair, of
+an uniform dark tint, paler on the head and redder beneath, whilst one
+from Juan de Fuca has short hair, without any indication of a crest.
+From Brazil there are specimens with long paler hair and a crest. All
+these specimens, however, have pale whitish claws.
+
+A Unau from Columbia is of a pale and whitey-brown paper colour, darker
+at the root of the hairs, and it has pale fawn-coloured claws.
+
+In all these animals with different kinds of furs, the two-clawed
+condition is peculiar to the fore limbs only, for on the hinder there
+are three claws, and it is to be remarked that the hair and skin unite
+the fingers and toes close up to the base of the claws. The skull of
+the Unau is rather projecting in front, and not, as it were, quite
+cut off close; and there is a great gap in the upper and lower gums
+in front, the incisor teeth being absent, of course. But at the side
+of the mouth there is a longish tooth above and below, looking like
+a canine, but really it is the front molar, which in both jaws and
+on both sides is longer and larger than the others. The under teeth
+belonging to the lower molar set are placed behind the corresponding
+upper ones when the mouth is shut.
+
+The cheek or malar bone is seen, on looking at the skull, to be
+separated from the ear bone, and to have a forked end posteriorly, the
+lower part of the fork extending downwards and backwards.
+
+The lower jaw is very straight: it projects a little, in front and
+behind, where it is jointed with the upper jaw, there is no upright
+portion or branch, or ascending ramus. The last back tooth is just in
+front of a curved piece of bone called the coronoid process, the base
+of which is on a level with the line of the teeth.
+
+This Sloth has seven neck bones (cervical vertebræ), and the last one
+has a very small and rudimentary rib attached to it on either side.
+There are no less than twenty-three dorsal vertebræ found to be with
+ribs. The Unau has a clavicle which is much smaller in the other group.
+It has no tail. The structure of the ankle joint enables it to turn
+in, even more than that of the Three-clawed Sloth. As the habits of
+the Unau Sloth are the same as those with three claws, and all live
+in the same great district, these anatomical distinctions are very
+interesting, and relate to their remote ancestors, being hereditary
+legacies, which are of little or no importance in assisting the
+creature merely to live. One of the differences between the Sloths is
+singular. The Unaus have a very remarkably formed stomach, which may
+be said to be double. The first stomach is large and rounded, but it
+is contracted behind, and then formed into a kind of conical appendix.
+This appendix is doubled from left to right, and its cavity has a
+fold at its opening into the stomach. It forms a special part of the
+first stomach. Then it is to be noticed, that where the food enters
+the stomach, or at the opening, which is called the cardia, there is
+a pouch, looking like a bag at the end of the tube which runs down
+from the gullet to the stomach. This is the second part of the first
+stomach: and the third is a tube-like space which connects the cardia
+with the stomach far away to the left. These three cavities form the
+first stomach. The second stomach is of a slender form, and is very
+much smaller than the other. Its walls are thin for the first half of
+its length, but towards the spot where the gut commences (the pylorus)
+they are thick and muscular. A small fold occurs midway. There is a
+fold in the body of the smaller or second stomach, and there is a
+little hollow there with glands in it, and it is called the appendix to
+the second stomach.
+
+[Illustration: STOMACH OF SLOTH.]
+
+The stomach is thus rather complicated, and its internal mucous
+membrane is so thrown into folds, and made into hollow spaces, that it
+occupies much more space than if it were a simple bag. This plan is
+also well seen in those ruminating animals which, like the Ox, live
+entirely upon vegetable substances; and it is evident that the diet of
+the Sloth bears some relation to the complicated stomach.
+
+In the Ai, the appendix to the second stomach is larger than that of
+the Unau Sloth, and is more complicated.
+
+
+HOFFMANN’S SLOTH.[61]
+
+This is a Sloth with two clawed fingers on the fore, and with three
+claws on the hinder extremities. Living specimens are occasionally
+brought to Europe, especially from Porto Rico, so that its general
+appearance may now and then be studied at the Zoological Gardens,
+in the Regent’s Park. If it be looked at there in the day-time, it
+certainly merits the name of Sloth, for it resembles a bundle of long,
+light, brown hair, fixed on the top of a bar of wood close to an
+upright branch, or huddled up in a corner on the ground; but in the
+morning, and also late in the evening, the creature begins to move
+slowly, and to look out for the food put for its use on the floor of
+the den. All the Hoffmann’s Sloths have pale brown hair, whiter at the
+tips, and a white face, showing a brown band across the nose, extending
+to a ring round each eye. They have also a long and full crest of hair
+on the neck, and the hair on the limbs is darker than that of the
+rest of the animal. Dr. Peters, who discovered this Sloth, examined
+the skeleton, and found only six vertebræ in the neck, and in this it
+differs from the _Cholœpus_ just noticed.
+
+When its food, consisting of carrots and lettuce, and bread-and-milk,
+is put down in the morning it is soon in movement, and enjoys its meal
+hanging down from a bar with its hind legs, and resting its back on
+the floor of the cage. It seizes the food between the claws and the
+long straight palm of the fore-foot, and passes it into its mouth,
+chewing actively with the molar teeth, especially with the first,
+which are sharp. It cares little for the spectators, and when it has
+finished, slowly mounts up into a corner of its little den and settles
+down to sleep. In the evening it becomes lively, for it is, and,
+indeed, all Sloths are, nocturnal in habit. The hairless snout, of a
+light red tint, the absence of “smellers,” the little eyes with a few
+hairs around them, and the broad forehead, give the animal a curious
+appearance. The hair is brushed back on the forehead, and comes around
+the very small ears on to the cheeks, and is whitey-brown, and this
+same tint is seen over the whole of the back in long slender hairs. But
+the under hair is light red or red-brown. The long and slender hand,
+with its two claws, contrasts with the rather bulky upper part of the
+limbs, and the flesh-coloured palms are very remarkable.
+
+[Illustration: HOFFMANN’S SLOTH.]
+
+The whole of the Sloths lead very monotonous lives; their food is
+ever within their reach, and it is abundant, and they do not appear
+to have to compete much or at all in the struggle for existence with
+other animals. Their enemies are Snakes and the Carnivora, but it is
+evident that they are much more readily preserved by their habits from
+the latter than from the former. Leading such an uneventful existence,
+there is no great call upon their nervous energies or intelligence,
+and these are at a low pitch. The brain consequently is very simple in
+regard to convolutions, which are few in number and shallow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ANT-EATERS.
+
+  THE CAPE ANT-EATER--The Cage at “the Zoo”--Appearance of the
+  Animal--Its Prey--The Ant-hills--How the Orycteropus obtains
+  its Food--Place in the Order--Teeth--Skull--Tongue--Interesting
+  Questions concerning the Ant-eater--THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY
+  ANT-EATERS--THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS--Differences between the
+  Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters--Their Habitat--Description--TEMMINCK’S
+  PANGOLIN--Habits--Food--How it Feeds--Superstitious Regard for
+  it shown by the Natives--Scarcity--Appearance--THE LONG-TAILED,
+  OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN--THE GREAT MANIS--THE ASIATIC SCALY
+  ANT-EATERS--THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN--The
+  Species of _Manis_--Skull--Stomach--Claws fitted for Digging--Other
+  Skeletal Peculiarities--THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS--General
+  Appearance--Genera--THE GREAT ANT-BEAR--Habits--Diet--How
+  it Procures its Food--Distribution--Mode and Rate of
+  Locomotion--Stupidity--Manner of Assault and Defence--Stories
+  of its Contests with other Animals--Appearance--THE
+  TAMANDUA--Description--Where Found--Habits--Odour--THE TWO-TOED
+  ANT-EATER--Appearance--Two-clawed Hand--Habits--Von Sach’s Account of
+  his Specimen.
+
+
+THE CAPE ANT-EATER.[62]--THE AARD-VARK.
+
+In one of the cages in the house, close to where the Kangaroos are
+kept, in the Zoological Gardens of London, there is usually a heap of
+straw to be seen and an empty dish. Outside the cage is placed the
+name of an animal, “The Cape Ant-eater.” People look and wait, and as
+neither the animal nor the Ants it eats are to be seen, they go away,
+supposing that the absence of the last-named insects has caused the
+destruction of the animal, whose straw alone remains.
+
+But in the evening, and sometimes in the morning, when the food is
+placed in the cage--not Ants, however--a long pair of stuck-up ears,
+looking like those of a gigantic Hare with a white skin and little fur,
+may be seen poked up above the straw; and, soon after, a long white
+muzzle, with small sharp eyes between it and the long ears, comes into
+view.
+
+Then a very fat and rather short-bodied animal with a long head and
+short neck, low fore and large hind quarters, with a bowed back, comes
+forth, and finally a moderately long fleshy tail is seen. It is very
+pig-like in the look of its skin, which is light-coloured and has a few
+hairs on it. Moreover, the snout is somewhat like that of a Pig, but
+the mouth has a small opening only, and to make the difference between
+the animals decided, out comes a worm-shaped long tongue covered with
+mucus. The animal has to content itself with other fare than Ants in
+England, but it seems to thrive, and as it walks slowly on the flat of
+its feet and hands to its food, they are seen to be armed with very
+powerful claws.
+
+In Southern Africa, whence this animal came, it is as rarely seen by
+ordinary observers as in England, for there it burrows into the earth
+with its claws, and makes an underground place to live in, and is
+nocturnal in its habits, sleeping by day.
+
+The Orycteropus, which means digging-up foot, from ὀρύσσω (to dig
+up), and πούς (foot), is the deadly foe of the Ants of all kinds, and
+especially of those which, like the White Ants, live in large colonies
+and build nests.
+
+These nest-building Ants abound in certain districts, but not in the
+region of the downs or karoos, nor where it is very dry and woody.
+They choose the country which is covered with a poor and so-called
+“sour” grass, and there they dig galleries in the ground, fetch earth
+from far and wide, and erect large rounded mounds of an elliptical
+figure, and often from three to seven feet in height. Apparently fond
+of company, the Ants congregate, and these gigantic hills of theirs are
+often crowded together and occupy the plains, as far as the eye can
+reach. The nests, or hills, are solidly built, and contain innumerable
+ants. This is the favourite resort of the Orycteropus, and the insects
+are his sole food then. Wherever ant-hills are found, there is a good
+chance of finding one of these Aard-varks, or Innagus, or Ant-Bears, as
+the Dutch and natives call them, leading a sort of mole-like life. But
+he is not easy to catch if the stories told be true. It is stated that
+the long strong flattened claws and short extremities, worked by their
+strong muscles, enable the animal to burrow in the soft soil as quickly
+as the hunters can dig, and that in a few minutes it will get out of
+the way; moreover, its strength is sufficient to resist the efforts of
+two or three men to drag it out of the hole. But when fairly caught,
+the Ant-eater does not resist much; it has no front teeth or eye teeth
+to do any harm with, and it can be killed easily by a blow on the
+head. The Ant-eater runs slowly, and never moves far from the entrance
+of its burrow, being seen to do so only at night-time. The burrows
+are often two feet in diameter and three or four feet deep before
+they branch off. Night is the time for Ant-eating, for the active and
+industrious insects are then all at home and within their solid nests.
+Then the Orycteropus sallies forth, finds a fresh nest, sprawls over
+it, and scratches a hole in its side, using his strong claws, and
+then introduces his long snout. Having satisfied himself that there
+is no danger at hand, the animal protrudes its long slimy tongue into
+the galleries and body of the nest, and it is at once covered with
+enraged Ants, which stick to it, and are finally returned with it into
+the mouth. This goes on over and over again, until the appetite is
+satisfied; and apparently the diet is excellent, for the Ant-eater is
+generally fat, and indeed his hams are appreciated as a delicacy for
+their peculiar flavour, into which that of formic acid is said to enter.
+
+[Illustration: CAPE ANT-EATER.]
+
+Although without an armour to its body, and provided with only a thick
+skin and bristles, the Orycteropus has a great resemblance in many
+points of its anatomy to the Armadillos of America. It is more closely
+allied to them than to the other Edentata. It is one of the order of
+Edentata, for there are no front teeth in the jaws, the incisors and
+canines being absent. The teeth are found in the back part of the
+mouth, and there are five on each side and in the upper and lower
+jaws, or twenty in all; there are also some small teeth which fall out
+during the growth of the animal. As might be expected from the very
+simple nature of the diet, the teeth are not at all complicated in
+their structure. They increase in size from before backwards, the last
+tooth but one being the largest, and all are peculiar in their minute
+construction. The first permanent tooth, which may be called a molar,
+is cylindrical in shape, and consists of a centre of very remarkable
+substance, for the body of the tooth is composed of a great number of
+vertical canals placed side by side, and running up the tooth. It was
+this interesting structure, so different to that of other animals,
+which led Cuvier to compare the teeth to pieces of cane. Outside this
+part of the tooth is a hard and more solid substance. When the teeth
+are unworn, this outer covering covers their top, but as it wears
+off the tubular appearance is seen, and the ends of the tubes become
+exposed. The teeth have no fangs like those of such orders of Mammalia
+as the Carnivora and Insectivora, and they increase in length by
+growth from below, so that the wear above is continually compensated
+for. The second tooth resembles the first in its minute construction,
+but appears like two cylinders fixed together, a longitudinal groove
+indicating the junction, and this is the appearance presented by most
+of the others. The hindermost teeth resemble the first molars. The
+dental number varies according to age, and the presence or absence of
+the teeth which are not permanent. The jaws, in which the teeth are
+fixed, are long, and the lower one is low, but there is an ascending
+back part, or ramus; consequently, the face is long and low. The eye
+is placed far from the ear, and is small. Its bony case, or orbit, and
+its surrounding bones, are somewhat remarkable for an Edentate, for
+there is a lachrymal bone, and the tear canal is open on the bony face.
+Moreover, the malar bone is united to the ear bone by a complete arch,
+the zygoma, and the deficiency so remarkable in some other Edentates
+is thus not observed. The pre-maxillary bones are also to be seen, in
+front of the face. In this completeness of the bones of the face this
+animal is a true mammal, but in the nature and extent of the ear bones,
+the Orycteropus has some resemblance to reptiles and birds.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE CAPE ANT-EATER.]
+
+The tongue is long, narrow, and flat, and can be protruded considerably
+beyond the mouth, but not so far as those of the other insect-eating
+Edentata; and in order to keep up a supply of thick mucus, the glands
+under and at its side, or the sub-maxillary, are very large and active
+in their functions. The stomach is moderately bulky and not simple,
+for the portion towards the right has very thick muscular walls, and
+the rest is thin. The intestine has a blind gut, or cæcum.[63] In
+fact, the stomach and blind gut might belong to an animal which eats
+something more bulky and less nutritious than Ants, and would be of use
+to the creature, did it eat vegetable matters. All these structures,
+the simple teeth, the tear bones, the size of the ear bones, the
+Sloth-like teeth, with tubes, however, and the peculiarities about the
+intestinal canal are, it must be remembered, associated with the life
+of a purely insectivorous animal. Why has it not the kind of teeth of
+the Insectivora and their stomach? and why should it combine high and
+low characters in its skull? These are questions which, when attempted
+to be answered, show that in the great philosophy of nature causes and
+effects are not everything, and that the same definite methods of life
+may be followed by animals very differently constituted.
+
+The claws of the Orycteropus and the limbs are admirably suited for
+its kind of life. There are five claws on the hind limbs and four on
+the front, and they are long, slightly curved, flat, and scooped out
+below. The burrowing is facilitated by the arrangement of the claws as
+regards length, and they diminish in size from within outwards. There
+is a collar bone. The foot rests evenly on the ground and not on its
+outside, and the body is supported either by the whole foot or by the
+palm surface of the claws. The fore arm can be rotated more or less,
+and the pronator quadratus[64] muscle enables this necessary action to
+be carried out. The _Orycteropus capensis_ lives over a wide extent of
+country in South Africa, in Caffraria, and in the western districts. A
+closely-allied species lives in Senegal (_Orycteropus senegalensis_,
+Less.); and a third is found in Southern Nubia, near the White Nile
+(_Orycteropus æthiopicus_, Sund.).
+
+
+THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY ANT-EATERS.[65]
+
+THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS.
+
+An animal living in the same country, on the same kind of food, and
+having many of the habits of the Cape Ant-eater, especially as it
+belongs to the same order of the animal kingdom, might be expected
+to resemble it in shape and in most of the important parts of its
+construction. But the comparison between the Ant-eater, just described,
+and the Scaly Ant-eater, shows that these animals have some very
+remarkable differences. The Scaly Ant-eater is toothless, and covered
+with scales.
+
+[Illustration: TEMMINCK’S PANGOLIN.]
+
+Formerly, the Scaly Ant-eaters roamed far south in Africa, but now
+they are rare animals in South Africa, in the west of the continent,
+and across to Sennaar. They are found in Zanzibar, and as far south
+as the latitude of Mozambique. They are small animals, of from two to
+nearly five feet in length, with long tails; and their body, limbs, and
+tail are covered with numerous large, somewhat angular, and sharp-edged
+scales, as with armour. The scales overlap each other like tiles,
+and the free part pointing backwards is bluntly angular or rounded
+at the tip. When the animal is on its feet walking, they form a very
+close and impenetrable covering, being doubtless of great use to the
+creature, for it must trust entirely to its defences, having no weapon
+of offence. But when the Scaly Ant-eater is alarmed or threatened with
+danger, or positively attacked, it rolls itself up like a ball, places
+the snout between the legs, and the tail underneath, and then sticks up
+its scales, offering their sharp edges to the enemy. There are several
+kinds of them, and one in particular was noticed by Dr. Smith, the
+African traveller, and was named after the zoologist Temminck, MANIS
+TEMMINCKII. He observed that it was rarely seen, but that when it was
+discovered, instead of burrowing, it did not attempt to escape, but
+rolled itself up instantly in the shape of a ball, taking especial
+care of its head, which is the only part unarmoured and likely to be
+injured. He states that Ants form its chief and favourite food, and
+that it secures them by extending its projectable tongue into holes
+which may exist in the habitations of those insects, or which it may
+itself form. The tongue having made an entry, it is soon covered with
+a multitude of insects, and as it is well lubricated with saliva, they
+are held fast, and when a full load is ready, the retracting muscles
+act on the tongue and the whole is carried back into the mouth, after
+which the Ants are swallowed. The same traveller accounts for the
+scarcity of the Scaly Ant-eaters, partly from the disinclination of the
+natives to discover them for strangers, and partly because they are
+environed with supernatural gifts in their eyes. They are carefully
+sought for, by the natives, for their own use and supposed advantage,
+for they believe the animal to have some influence on cattle, and that
+certain treatment to which they are exposed produces this. Whenever
+a specimen is secured by the natives, it is submitted to fire in
+some cattle-pen, apparently as a burnt offering for the increase of
+the health and fertility of all cattle which may henceforward enter
+the fold. “Here,” writes Dr. Smith, “we have another cause for the
+obliteration of a species. Intolerance of their aggression has wrought
+up the shepherd or agriculturist to the destruction of some; but in
+this case, a species is probably dying out under the influence of a
+superstition.”
+
+[Illustration: FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.]
+
+They burrow even in rather hard ground, and feed at night time. It has
+been noticed that the mother sits upright when enticing the young to
+suckle.
+
+This _Manis_ has rather a short head, and a wide body, and the tail is
+as long as the trunk: it is rather less in width near the body, and
+does not diminish much near the end. In a specimen which is twenty-five
+inches and a half long, the back of the animal is eight inches across,
+and the tail at its root is five inches broad. The scales are large,
+and are in about eleven rows. The body is of a pale yellowish-brown
+colour, the scales being lightest in tint near their points, and they
+are often streaked with yellow. Where the scales are wanting the skin
+is dusky brown. The eyes are reddish-brown, and the muzzle is black.
+The nails of the fore feet are bent under, so that the animal walks on
+their upper part. The scales are composed of hairs placed side by side
+and agglutinated together, and when first formed, and for some little
+time after, they are soft. They cover the upper part of the fore and
+hind extremities besides the body, and are striated. This kind lives in
+Eastern Africa, Sennaar, Caffraria, Kordofan, and Latakoo.
+
+
+THE LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.[66]
+
+This Ant-eater is from two to three feet in length, and the tail is
+twice as long as the body. It inhabits the Guinea Coast and the Gaboon,
+and probably Senegal. It is a dark brown animal, with the hair of the
+face and under sides black in tint. There are eleven series of scales,
+with the end rounded, and a central prominence.
+
+Buffon described a pale brown or horn-coloured, very scaly, long-tailed
+Ant-eater as a Phatagin, but it is correctly called _Manis tricuspis_,
+from the scales having three projections on them. It lives in Western
+Africa, Fernando Po, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.
+
+
+THE GREAT MANIS.[67]
+
+This scaled Ant-eater is thirty inches long in the body, and its tail
+measures twenty-five inches in length. The great tail lessens to the
+end, and the scales are striated at the base, the whole colour being
+pale brown. It is an interesting animal from its likeness to one of the
+Asiatic species, the _Manis pentadactyla_ (Linn.); but the difference
+in the length of tail is remarkable. It has been found in West Africa,
+Guinea, and in the Cape Coast Castle district.
+
+
+THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS.
+
+There is one point of great interest about the genus _Manis_, and it is
+that it is not restricted to Africa, for some species are found over
+a wide extent of country in India. They live there in a region from
+the Himalayan Mountains to Ceylon, and eastward to Sumatra and Java,
+and in Southern China as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They afford
+an instance of closely-allied animals now living in large districts
+which are separated by seas, deserts, mountains, and rivers, and other
+impassable barriers. The Javanese are said to have called the animal,
+from the fact of its rolling itself up, Pangolin, and the Bengalese
+termed it the Reptile of Stone. The first to be noticed is--
+
+
+THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.[68]
+
+This is supposed to be the Phattage of Ælian, and much resembles
+Temminck’s _Manis_ from South Africa. It has a small head, which is
+pointed and long at the muzzle; the body is rather stout, and the tail
+is short, broad at the root. The back scales are in longitudinal rows,
+eleven in number, and they are smaller than those of the African kind.
+It has the under part of the body, head, and feet naked, and more or
+less hairy, and some long, fair-coloured hairs spring from between the
+scales. The middle claw of the fore-foot exceeds the others in size.
+They feed on white Ants especially. They are found in Bengal, Madras,
+and Assam.
+
+A _Manis_ with a tail as long as the body, and with the scales of the
+hind feet acutely pointed, and the front and hind claws nearly equal in
+size, is found in Sumatra and in Java. Finally, the other Asiatic kind,
+_Manis Dalmannii_, is found in the Himalayas, China, and possibly in
+Java.
+
+All the species of the genus _Manis_, whether from Africa or Asia,
+are absolutely toothless, and the Edentate peculiarity is perfect,
+for there are no back teeth. The tongue is worm-like, round, very
+long, and can be stuck out far from the mouth, and it supplies the
+want of the teeth, but from having this long organ and no back teeth,
+the palate and the skull are very long and conical. Being without
+masticating teeth, the lower jaw is very flat and simple, and there is
+no ascending ramus. The muscles of the lower jaw being of secondary
+importance, the arch (zygoma) of bone between the face and the ear is
+incomplete, and the outside ear is very small. But the organ of hearing
+is somewhat complicated, and there is a large space in the temporal
+bone which communicates with the internal ear, so that one tympanum is
+in communication with the other.
+
+Much saliva is required to moisten the tongue, and the sub-maxillary
+glands are therefore very large, and reach down under the skin of the
+neck on to the chest. The stomach is usually, if not always, found
+to contain stones which the creature has swallowed. Of course it can
+hardly tell what may be on its tongue in the dark Ants’ nest, and earth
+and stones are likely to rest on it and be swallowed, but the constant
+presence of these hard things may have something to do with the
+absence of the teeth, and the necessity of having a crushing material
+somewhere or other. The walls of the stomach are thin near the entry of
+the gullet tube, but towards the pylorus, or the right side end, the
+muscles are well developed, and the mucous membrane is very dense.
+
+These animals use their claws for the purpose of digging holes in the
+ground, or in the Ants’ nests, for the sake of food, and the position
+in walking is with the front claws bent under, so that the whole weight
+of the front of the body is felt on the back (or upper part) of the
+claws. The hind feet are placed flat, and the sole and under part of
+the claws sustain the hinder quarters. The joints of the five fingers
+of the fore feet are so arranged that they can bend downwards only,
+and indeed they are more or less permanently bent, being kept in that
+position by strong ligaments. This assists the digging powers of the
+claws, which are, moreover, forked at their points in some species, and
+the wrist is rendered very strong by having the joints between two of
+its bones abolished, and they are united by bone, as in the carnivorous
+animals. The bones thus united are the scaphoid and semi-lunar bones.
+Every structure in the creature’s fore limbs tends to the promotion of
+easy and powerful digging, and as the motion of scratching the ground
+is directly downwards and backwards, the power of moving the wrist
+half round, and presenting the palm more or less upwards, as in the
+Sloths and in man, does not exist. In order to prevent this pronation
+and supination, the part of the fore-arm bone, the radius, next to the
+elbow, is not rounded, but forms part of a hinge joint. Finally, it is
+necessary to observe, that the middle claw is the longest of the five
+on all the extremities, and that as the animal does not require to
+reach over its head, there is no collar bone.
+
+[Illustration: FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.]
+
+The long tail of the Pangolins, stumpy at the end in some kinds, has a
+considerable number of bones, usually twenty-six; and the first of them
+joins on to the last of the back bones of the pelvis. This last, or
+sacral vertebra, unites on each side with the haunch bones (ischium),
+and there is no notch in the bone for the passages of the great nerves
+of the back of the leg, but a hole.
+
+The thigh bone is flattened from before backwards, and the bones of
+the leg are wide apart, and all this gives extra powers to the muscles
+which have to direct the scraping and digging by the hind feet. The
+feet are solid and strong, and have not any of the inside turning
+and club-foot appearance of the Sloths, and the heel bone projects
+backwards.
+
+There is an interesting peculiarity about the chest of the Pangolins,
+for the breast bone is very long, and the cartilage at its end is
+large, and has two long projections resembling those of the Lizards.
+The neck consists of seven vertebræ, and the back of thirteen, and
+there are three or four in the sacrum.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS.
+
+The adjective “long” may be applied to nearly all the structures of
+these animals. The tail, body, neck, head, snout, and tongue, and the
+hair are all very long, and the only things which are short are the
+ears. The observer is immediately struck with the curiously-shaped
+head, so narrow, low, and ending in a flexible and very slender snout,
+especially if the round tongue happens to be projecting out of the
+mouth, for it is longer even than the head, and is like a gigantic
+worm. The snout appears bent, and is made to look all the longer, by
+the eye being placed not far from the small ear. Then the huge bushy
+tail, flattened from side to side, as long as the body, has a fringe
+of very long and strong hair. The body itself moves on four powerful
+limbs, well clawed, and looks bulky from the quantity of hair on it,
+but usually it is thin. The animal, when it stands still, is higher at
+the shoulders than behind, and it rests on the sides of the fore-feet,
+where there is a callous pad, the claws being bent inwards and under,
+and not touching the ground with their tips. The under part of the hind
+feet bears the weight of the hind limbs. It is about four feet and a
+half in length from the snout to the tail, the tail being rather more
+than three feet in length, and the height is about three feet and a
+half. So long is the head, that it measures thirteen inches and a half
+from the ear to the snout, and the tongue can be projected for sixteen
+or eighteen inches, and is, when brought back into the mouth, bent so
+that its tip looks backwards towards the throat.
+
+The animal belongs to a group of the Edentata (for it is toothless)
+which has the following genera:--One genus, which is now being
+considered, is _Myrmecophaga_--μύρμης (an Ant), and φαγεῖν (to eat)--a
+second is _Tamandua_, and the third is _Cyclothurus_, from κυκλωτός
+(rounded). The animals of this group represent in South America the
+Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters of the Old World.
+
+The species of the genus _Myrmecophaga_, which has been thus slightly
+alluded to, is called the Maned Ant-eater.
+
+
+THE GREAT ANT-BEAR.[69]
+
+The habits of this animal, which has been named Great Ant-Bear by the
+English and Spaniards, have been described as follows:--“The habits of
+the Great Ant-Bear are slothful and solitary; the greater part of his
+life is consumed in sleeping, notwithstanding which he is never fat,
+and rarely even in good condition. When about to sleep he lies on one
+side, conceals his long snout in the fur of the breast, locks the hind
+and fore claws into one another, so as to cover the head and belly,
+and turns his long, bushy tail over the whole body in such a manner as
+to protect it from the too powerful rays of the sun. The female bears
+but a single young one at a birth, which attaches itself to her back,
+and is carried about with her wherever she goes, rarely quitting her,
+even for a year after it has acquired sufficient strength to walk and
+provide for itself. This unprolific constitution, and the tardy growth
+of the young, account for the comparative rarity of these animals,
+which are said to be seldom seen, even in their native regions. The
+female has only two mammæ, situated on the breast, like those of
+Monkeys, Apes, and Bats. In his natural state the Ant-Bear lives
+exclusively upon Ants, to procure which he opens their hills with his
+powerful crooked claws, and at the moment that the insects, according
+to their nature, flock from all quarters to defend their dwellings,
+draws over them his long, flexible tongue covered with glutinous
+saliva, to which they consequently adhere; and so quickly does he
+repeat this operation, that we are assured he will thus exsert his
+tongue and draw it in again covered with insects twice in a second. He
+never actually introduces it into the holes or breaches which he makes
+in the hills themselves, but only draws it lightly over the swarms of
+insects which will issue forth, alarmed by his attack. ‘It seems almost
+incredible,’ says D’Azara, ‘that so robust and powerful an animal can
+procure sufficient sustenance from Ants alone; but this circumstance
+has nothing strange in it to those who are acquainted with the tropical
+parts of America, and who have seen the enormous multitudes of these
+insects, which swarm in all parts of the country to that degree that
+their hills often almost touch one another for miles together.’ The
+same author informs us that domestic Ant-Bears were occasionally kept
+by different persons in Paraguay, and that they had even been sent
+alive to Spain, being fed upon bread-and-milk mixed with morsels of
+flesh minced very small. Like all animals which live upon insects,
+they are capable of sustaining a total deprivation of nourishment for
+an almost incredible time.”
+
+[Illustration: GREAT ANT-BEAR.]
+
+The Great Ant-Bear is found in all the warm and tropical parts of
+South America, from Colombia to Paraguay, and from the shores of the
+Atlantic to the foot of the Andes. His favourite resorts are the low,
+swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds. He is
+found also frequenting the humid forests, but never climbing trees, as
+falsely reported by Buffon, on the authority of La Borde. His pace is
+slow, heavy, and hesitating; his head is carried low, as if he smelled
+the ground at every step, whilst his long, shaggy tail, drooping
+behind him, sweeps the ground on each side, and readily indicates
+his path to the hunter; though, when hard pressed, he increases his
+pace to a slow gallop, yet his greatest velocity never half equals
+the ordinary running of a man. So great is his stupidity, that those
+who encounter him in the woods or plains may drive him before them
+by merely pushing him with a stick, so long, at least, as he is not
+compelled to proceed beyond a moderate gallop; but if pressed too
+hard, or urged to extremity, he turns obstinate, sits up on his hind
+quarters like a Bear, and defends himself with his powerful claws.
+Like that animal, his usual, and indeed only, mode of assault is by
+seizing his adversary with his fore paws, wrapping his arms round him,
+and endeavouring by this means to squeeze him to death. His great
+strength and powerful muscles would easily enable him to accomplish his
+purpose in this respect, even against the largest animals of his native
+forests, were it but guided by ordinary intelligence, or accompanied
+with a common degree of activity. But in these qualities there are
+few animals, indeed, which do not greatly surpass the Ant-Bear, so
+that the different stories handed down by writers on natural history
+from one to another, and copied, without question, into the histories
+and descriptions of this animal, may be regarded as pure fiction. For
+this statement we have the express authority of Don Felix d’Azara, an
+excellent observer and credible writer, from whose “Natural History
+of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay” we have derived the greater portion of
+the preceding account of the habits and economy of this extraordinary
+animal. “It is supposed,” says Don Felix, “that the Jaguar himself
+dares not attack the Ant-Bear, and that if, pressed by hunger, or
+under some other excitement, he does so, the Ant-Bear hugs him and
+embraces him so tightly, as very soon to deprive him of life, not even
+relaxing his hold for hours after life has been extinguished by his
+assailant. It is very certain that such is the manner in which the
+Ant-eater defends himself; but it is not to be believed that his utmost
+efforts could prevail against the Jaguar, which, by a single bite or
+blow of his paw, could kill the Ant-eater before he was prepared for
+resistance; for even in so extreme a case, his motions are so slow and
+so heavy, that he takes some time to get himself ready, and besides
+being unable to leap, or to turn with even ordinary rapidity, he is
+necessarily forced to act solely on the defensive.” The flesh of the
+Ant-eater is esteemed a delicacy by the Indians and negro slaves, and,
+though black, and of a strong musky flavour, is sometimes even met with
+at the tables of Europeans.
+
+This large Ant-eater, grey in colour, with a black-coloured throat
+and a triangular spot, black in tint, ascending obliquely over each
+shoulder, has four claws on the fore limb and five on the hinder
+extremity. The claws are grooved underneath, and are not split or
+forked as in the _Manis_, and they, and especially the great middle
+claw, are protected by an expansion of bone from the last joint of
+the digits, or toes. This envelopes the base of the claw, except
+quite underneath, leaving the tip free to perform its office without
+endangering the tender base. The tips are protected, moreover, in the
+fore limbs by the position assumed during standing and walking, for
+they are then turned in and do not touch the ground; but this is not
+the case in the feet, for the Great Ant-Bears rest on their soles.
+Without teeth, and having an incomplete arch of bone between the cheek
+and ear bones, they possess a long palate, so long, indeed, that when
+the long nose cavity opens into the throat in the skeleton certain
+bones called pterygoid, or wing-shaped, form part of its boundary.
+This is unusual amongst the Mammalia, and Huxley observes that it is
+only found in some of the Whale tribe (_Cetacea_). Moreover, it is
+not noticed in any other vertebrate animals except the Crocodiles.
+The skull is very low and long, and the framework of the tongue is as
+important as that of the jaws. This kind of Ant-eater has imperfect
+collar bones. As in the other Ant-eaters there is in this one a very
+muscular condition of the right side of the stomach.[70]
+
+
+THE TAMANDUA.[71]
+
+The Tamandua is much smaller than the Great Ant-eater, and is, were it
+not for its long snout and tail, somewhat like a Sloth. It is nearly
+as large as one of these animals, and has a long head, small rounded
+ears, and small mouth. The body, some two feet in length, is rather
+short, and is covered with short, silky, or woolly shining hair, of
+almost uniform length. The fore limbs are very stout, especially above
+the elbow, and the hind ones rest on the rather long sole. The tail is
+about a foot and a half in length; it is stout at its root, and round
+and tapering to the blunt end, is minutely scaled, and covered in some
+places with short hairs. The fore claws are bent on the hand, and the
+animal walks on their outer and upper surface, using them also to clasp
+and to hang on in climbing. The tail is more or less prehensile. The
+colour of the hair and the markings varies much in the species, and
+in captivity the rusty straw-colour of the body becomes whiter; but
+there is a line of black on the upper part of the chest reaching over
+the shoulders and between them and the neck on to the back, and also
+several black patches over the tail and on the flanks.
+
+The Tamandua is an inhabitant of the thick primeval forests of tropical
+America, and lives in Brazil and Paraguay. It is rarely found on the
+ground, but resides almost exclusively on trees, where it lives upon
+termites, honey, and even, according to the report of D’Azara, bees,
+which in those countries form their hives among the loftiest branches
+of the forest, and, having no sting, are more readily despoiled of
+their honey than their congeners of Great Britain. When about to sleep,
+it hides its muzzle in the fur of its breast, falls on its belly,
+letting its fore feet hang down on each side, and wrapping the whole
+tightly round with its tail. The female, as in the case of the Great
+Ant-eater, has but two pectoral mammæ, and produces but a single cub
+at a birth, which she carries about with her on her shoulders for the
+first three or four months. The young are at first exceedingly deformed
+and ugly, and of an uniform straw-colour.
+
+The animal is called Cagouaré by the Guaranis, on account of the
+noxious and infected vapours of the forests in which alone it is found,
+the word literally signifying, in the language of those Indians, “the
+inhabitants of a stinking wood or marsh.” Such at least is D’Azara’s
+interpretation of the term, though it appears more probable that it may
+refer to the strong disagreeable odour of the animal itself, which,
+this very author informs us, is so powerful that it may be perceived
+at a very great distance, particularly when the animal is irritated.
+Tamandua is the name by which it is known to the Portuguese of Brazil;
+the French and the English call it Fourmilier and Little Ant-Bear.
+
+
+THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.[72]
+
+These little animals appear, at first sight, to resemble Sloths with
+tails; and their round heads, furry bodies, and two claws on the fore
+limb, add to the resemblance. They are essentially arboreal animals
+also, but they have long and useful tails, and live on insects. They
+hunt their insect prey in the forests of Costa Rica, Honduras, and
+Brazil. Their two-clawed hands are remarkable, for the rudiments of
+the thumb and little finger are hidden beneath the skin, and the claws
+are placed on the first and second digits. The third digit has no
+claw. There are four claws on the feet, so that in this arrangement
+the animal is peculiar amongst the Ant-eaters. It is not larger than
+a common Squirrel, and the general shape of the body is like that of
+a Tamandua on a small scale. Its whole length, from the snout to the
+origin of the tail, is but six inches, and of the tail, seven inches
+and a quarter. This is consequently rather longer than the body; it
+is thick at the root, and covered with short fur, but tapers suddenly
+towards the point, where it is naked and strongly prehensile. The
+muzzle is not so long, in proportion, as in the other two species; the
+tongue also is shorter, and has a flatter form; the mouth opens further
+back in the jaws, and has a much larger gape, the eye being situated
+close to its posterior angle; the ears are short, rather drooping, and
+concealed among the long fur which covers the head and cheeks; the legs
+are short and stout; and the hair, very soft and fine to the touch, is
+three-quarters of an inch in length on the body, but much shorter on
+the head, legs, and tail. The general colour is that of straw, more or
+less tinged with maroon on the shoulders, and particularly along the
+median line of the back, which usually exhibits a deep line of this
+shade. The feet and tail are grey.
+
+This species is said to have four mammæ, two pectoral, as in those
+already described, and two others on the abdomen. It is reported,
+nevertheless, to have but a single cub at birth, which it conceals
+in the hollow of some decayed tree. The habits and manners of this
+little animal, hitherto very imperfectly known to naturalists, are well
+described by Von Sach, in his “Narrative of a Voyage to Surinam.”
+
+“I have had two little Ant-eaters, or Fourmiliers, which were not
+larger than a Squirrel. One was of a bright-yellow colour, with a brown
+stripe on the back, the other was a silvery-grey, and darker on the
+back. The hair of each was very soft and silky, a little crisped; the
+head was small and round, the nose long, gradually bending downwards to
+a point; it had no teeth, but a very long round tongue; the eyes were
+very small, round, and black; the legs rather short; the fore-feet had
+only two claws on each, the exterior being much larger and stronger
+than the interior, which exactly filled the curve or hollow of the
+large one; the hind feet had four claws of a moderate size; the tail
+was prehensile, longer than the body, thick at the base and tapering
+to the end, which, for some inches on the under side, was bare. This
+little animal is called in Surinam ‘Kissing-hand,’ as the inhabitants
+pretend that it will never eat, at least when caught, but that it only
+licks its paws, in the same manner as the Bear; that all trials to make
+it eat have proved in vain, and that it soon dies in confinement. When
+I got the first, I sent to the forest for a nest of Ants, and during
+the interim I put into its cage some eggs, honey, milk, and meat; but
+it refused to touch any of them. At length the Ants’ nest arrived,
+but the animal did not pay the slightest attention to it either. By
+the shape of its fore-paws, which resemble nippers, and differ very
+much from those of all the other different species of Ant-eaters, I
+thought that this little creature might perhaps live on the nymphæ of
+Wasps, &c. I therefore brought it a Wasps’ nest, and then it pulled
+out, with its nippers, the nymphæ from the nest, and began to eat them
+with the greatest eagerness, sitting in the posture of a Squirrel. I
+showed this phenomenon to many of the inhabitants, who all assured me
+that it was the first time they had ever known that species of animal
+take any nourishment. The Ants which I tried it with were the large
+white termites upon which fowls are fed here. As the natural history
+of this pretty little animal is not much known, I thought of trying
+if they would breed in a cage; but when I returned from my excursion
+into the country I found them both dead, perhaps occasioned by the
+trouble given to procure the Wasps’ nest for them, though they are here
+very plentiful; wherefore I can give no further description of them,
+than that they slept all the day long, curled together, and fastened
+by their prehensile tails to one of the perches of the cage. When
+touched they erected themselves on their hind legs, and struck with
+the fore-paws at the object which disturbed them, like the hammer of
+a clock striking the bell, with both paws at the same time, and with
+a great deal of strength. They never attempted to run away, but were
+always ready for defence when attacked. As soon as evening came, they
+awoke, and with the greatest activity walked on the wire of the cage,
+though they never jumped, nor did I ever hear their voice.”
+
+[Illustration: TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.]
+
+All these Ant-eaters have great glands (sub-maxillary) for the purpose
+of secreting the sticky saliva, and the tongue is most movable, and
+wriggles like an eel in feeding on milk. The Little Ant-eater has a
+_rete mirabile_ of blood-vessels.
+
+Another Cyclothurus lives in Costa Rica, which is golden-yellow in
+colour, and silky in its hair. It has a broad black stripe on the back.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.
+
+  The Armour-plates--How the Shields are formed--Their
+  connection with the Body--Description of the Animals--Mode
+  of Walking--Diet--Skeleton--Adaptation of their Limbs for
+  Burrowing--Classification--THE GREAT ARMADILLO--Appearance--Great
+  Burrower--THE TATOUAY--THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO--THE
+  PELUDO, OR HAIRY ARMADILLO--THE PICHIY--THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU--THE
+  MULE ARMADILLO--THE BALL ARMADILLO--Dr. Murie’s Account of its
+  Habits--Description--The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and
+  Unrolls itself--THE PICHICIAGO--Concluding Remarks: Classification of
+  the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of _Manis_ in South
+  Africa and Hindostan.
+
+
+[Illustration: BONES OF CLAW OF GREAT ARMADILLO.]
+
+These South American animals are more or less covered with a hard
+bony crust, separated into shields and bands, which are more or less
+movable, owing to the presence of special skin-muscles. In the most
+perfectly armoured there are four distinct shields and a set of
+bands, a certain amount of motion being possible between their edges.
+Of the shields, one covers the head, another the back of the neck,
+a third protects the shoulders like a great cape, and the fourth
+arches over the rump like a half dome, and is, in some, attached by
+its deep structure to the bones of the hip and haunch. The movable
+bands cover the back and loins, and are between the third and fourth
+shields. The tail may further be invested by incomplete bony rings,
+and scattered scales, and others are distributed over the limbs. This
+covering is, according to Professor Huxley, strictly comparable to
+part of the armour of the Crocodile; and the Armadillos are the only
+Mammals possessing such structure. The shields and bands are formed
+of many scales, or scutes, which are ossifications of the skin, and
+they may be of many kinds of shape--four, or many-sided--being united
+by sutures, and they are incapable of separate motion. The shields
+and bands, however, vary much in their number, size, and perfectness
+in the different animals, which, being armoured, the Spaniards called
+Armadillos; and, indeed, the number of bands in the back and loin
+division varies in individuals of the same species. These bands cover
+the flanks, and, with the shields fore and aft, protect the limbs,
+which are often more or less hidden by a growth of hair. The bands,
+moreover, by being movable one on the other, enable the rest of the
+armour to accommodate itself to the motions of the body, so that some
+roll themselves up, as in a ball shape. There may be few or many bands
+present, and the extreme numbers are three and thirteen. The Armadillos
+are of different sizes, and whilst the smallest may be only ten inches
+in length without the tail, the largest are more than three feet long.
+The head is long, and broad at the neck, the ears are usually long,
+the neck is short, the body is long, round, and low, and the length of
+tail varies much in different kinds. Where the head shield joins that
+of the shoulders, there is a space for the movement of the short neck;
+but this is protected by a backward projection from the head shield.
+The throat, under parts, and thighs are not protected by armour, except
+here and there by small plates in the skin, or by a granulated state
+of it; and they are naked or hairy. Even between the bands on the back
+there are often long hairs, and the tail fits into a kind of notch in
+the last shield of the body, and its plates are close in almost all
+Armadillos, but not united. So that much more motion is given to it and
+to the body than might be expected by the muscles during their action
+beneath the more or less soldered bony skin. The flat top to the head,
+and the long muzzle, are useful to the Armadillos in their burrowing,
+and this is assisted by short and strong limbs armed with powerful
+claws. Some of the Armadillos are even capable of running with some
+speed; and the little Six-banded Armadillo, or Poyou, and the Matico,
+are very restless and active in captivity. With one exception, these
+animals move with the flat of their feet and hands on the ground; all
+have five hind claws, but there is some variation in the number of the
+fore claws, which may be four or five. They have simple cylindrical
+molar teeth, which, according to the species, are from seven or eight
+to twenty-five on each side of each jaw, and they are separate,
+standing apart from one another. Moreover, they are so arranged that
+when the mouth is closed, the upper teeth fit into the spaces between
+the under ones, and the under teeth into those of the upper, so that
+their grinding surfaces wear down into ridges. In one kind, there are
+some teeth in the pre-maxillary bones; but all the others have only
+molar teeth, which do not, however, go very far back, for there are
+none on the ascending ramus of the lower jaw. They are not, therefore,
+animals which prey upon their fellows, but are vegetable, insect, and
+probably carrion eaters. They dig and burrow, and their sense of smell
+is acute. This is assisted by the position of the nostrils in the long
+muzzle, for they are not at its tip, but rather underneath, so that
+they open downwards. In fact, the ends of the bones of the nose project
+in front of the pre-maxillary bones. The armour is doubtless useful
+against the attacks of their many carnivorous and reptile enemies;
+it assists them in burrowing, keeps off pressure, and may protect
+those which live in forests against a falling bough. They are passive
+creatures, mostly nocturnal in their habits, and their skeleton is
+strengthened in some parts in relation to its armour and its office.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE ARMADILLO.]
+
+Thus the spine of the second vertebra is tall and compressed, and
+reaches backwards over those of the third and fourth vertebræ, and
+it coalesces with them. The bodies of these vertebræ also join more
+or less solidly, and there are no (or very minute) spines on the
+last three cervical vertebræ. This gives a strange appearance to the
+skeleton, which is increased by the length of the spine of the first
+vertebra of the back (dorsal). In order to support the back shield,
+the projections from the back bones are greatly developed, and two
+side processes stand out on either side of the spinous one. Moreover,
+there is much fixity between the last dorsal and lumbar vertebræ, and
+the strong and long sacrum beneath the last shield is formed by the
+junction of the back bones of the root of the tail with the true sacral
+vertebræ. Finally, the transverse processes of some of the upper tail
+vertebræ are united to the pelvic bones. There is a corresponding
+strengthening of the chest, and a broad flat first rib accompanies an
+expanded condition of the upper part of the breast bone; and this bone
+is jointed with bony sternal ribs, which unite on the side of the chest
+with the ordinary ribs of the spine.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE ARMADILLO.]
+
+As they are rapid burrowers, the limbs are fashioned with a view of
+favouring this kind of life, the general skeletal peculiarities of
+the Edentata being more or less preserved at the same time. They have
+a collar bone, and the blade bone is long, rather narrow, and has
+a tall, long spine, and a kind of offshoot from the back edge. The
+humerus of the arm is short and robust, strongly marked by ridges and
+depressions for the great muscles of the shoulder and chest, and the
+fore-arm is characterised by the disproportionate size of its two
+bones. The ulna has a very long and stout elbow process (olecranon) for
+the attachment of the muscles, which can force the hand strongly on to
+and into the earth, and drag it out, and its length makes the whole
+bone twice as long as the radius. The thigh bone has a strong crest,
+arising from the great trochanter, and extending downwards nearly the
+whole length of the bone; moreover, the great trochanter has a large
+process on the middle of its outer edge. The bones of the leg are
+broad, arched, and united at both ends, and the heel bone reaches far
+back, in order to give strength to the squatting position taken up when
+the animal is burrowing. The eye is placed rather high in the head,
+is protected above by the outer edge of the head armour, and by some
+small surrounding scales. It looks as a rule outwards. The lower jaw
+is long, and has a back angle, sometimes of some size; the cheek bone
+unites to the temporal bone, and the arch is complete. In the face
+the intermaxillary bone is well developed, and there is often a crest
+of bone passing over the top of the skull from side to side over the
+occiput, which is in relation to the head armour. The brain is small;
+the back or little brain is not covered by the brain proper, whose
+convolutions and processes are few and simple. The olfactory lobes
+project.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT ARMADILLO.]
+
+These armoured, round-bodied, short-legged, great-clawed animals are
+numerous, and there are several species, which need not, however,
+be collected into more than two genera. But it is by no means easy
+to arrange those of the first genus--the True Armadillos, genus
+_Dasypus_--in any other than an arbitrary and very artificial
+classification. Usually they are grouped and separated by the relative
+number of digits or claws on the fore and hinder extremities; by the
+presence or absence of teeth in the intermaxillary bones; by their
+ability to roll up; and by the excessive or the small number of their
+teeth. The method of walking, whether on the sole or on the tips of
+the claws, and the number of the bands, have been partly employed in
+classification, but their number is often variable in individuals of
+the same species.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE ARMADILLO.]
+
+The Priodontes have but one species, which is readily distinguished by
+its superior size, besides by its great number of teeth, of which there
+are from twenty-two to twenty-four small ones on each jaw on each side,
+making from eighty-eight to ninety-six in all.
+
+
+THE GREAT ARMADILLO.[73]
+
+This is an inhabitant of Brazil, and of the northern parts of Paraguay
+and of Surinam, and is a dweller in the forest, being never found far
+out on the plains. The head is seven inches and a half long, and the
+ears, usually pointed and laid backwards, are not quite two inches in
+length. The head and body, without the tail, measure three feet and
+some inches, whilst the thickly-rooted but rapidlytapering tail is
+about a foot and a half in length. Hence the head is small for the body
+in this Armadillo, and the forehead is protuberant, and the face is
+very tubular and cylindrical-looking. The shoulder and croup shields
+are not expanded and solid, but consist of nine and eighteen rows of
+plates respectively, and the intermediate part of the body has twelve
+or thirteen movable bands, each of which is made up of rectangular
+scales, or scutes, about half an inch square. The circumference of the
+root of the tail is upwards of ten inches, and the organ is covered
+with plates, disposed in rings at the root, and not farther down, but
+forming spiral or crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its
+length.
+
+The Great Armadillo is a persevering and most rapid burrower, and the
+fore limb and hand are singularly modified for the purpose of enabling
+rapid digging and removal of the soil. The olecranon process of the
+ulna is enormous, and the muscle of the deep flexor or tendon of the
+claws is ossified and turned into a hand bone. The metacarpal bones of
+the thumb and first finger are small, and so are the slender digits,
+but that of the middle finger is irregularly rectangular, and is
+broader than long, and the digit which it supports is extraordinarily
+short, stout, strong, and broad. Its corresponding bones of the fourth
+finger are similarly formed, but are somewhat smaller, and the fifth
+finger is very small. The nail phalanx of the middle finger is large
+and strong, being curved _outwards_, and having a large horny hood,
+or core, at its base, for the lodgment of the claw. There are five
+claws on the hands and feet, and the Armadillo moves on the flat of
+its feet, being plantigrade. There is no doubt that, aided by these
+digging weapons, and being of considerable stoutness, the animal makes
+long and deep burrows. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, and insects,
+and there is a story that it seeks carrion, and it used to be said that
+the collectors of Cinchona bark in the dense forests, when they lost a
+companion by death, were obliged to bury the body in a grave surrounded
+with a double row of stout planks, to prevent its being scratched up
+and devoured by the Great Armadillo. Planks must be scarce, however, in
+those localities, and difficult to carry; and probably there are other
+inhabitants of the woods besides the Armadillos which would discover
+and drag out a corpse. To assist the scratching and digging, the soles
+of the feet are partly covered with flat scales.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Kabassous have the fore and hind extremities furnished with an
+equal number of (five) fingers and toes respectively, but the number of
+teeth is, altogether, from thirty to forty.
+
+
+THE TATOUAY.[74]
+
+This Kabassou has the five fingers disposed obliquely; and the great
+middle and fourth claws resemble those of the gigantic Armadillo. It is
+named in allusion to its tail, which is more or less naked, and nearly
+uncovered with rings or plates, so that it has not the usual tube-like
+protection, or beautifully ornamented crust seen in some Armadillos.
+The tail is about seven inches and a half long, and is round and
+pointed, having only a few hard crusts beneath, near the outer third,
+where it often trails on the ground. The rest of its root is covered
+with soft brown fur, interspersed with a few stiff short hairs on the
+upper surface. The ears are large, being nearly two inches in length,
+and they form a segment of a circle in figure. The body is round, and
+the shields of the shoulder and croup have seven and ten rows of scales
+respectively, each scale forming an oblong rectangle, those near the
+root of the tail being the largest. The movable bands are thirteen
+in number, and are composed of much smaller scales than those of the
+shields, and they have a nearly square outline. The head is long and
+larger in proportion than that of the Great Armadillo, and it has not
+the very cylindrical appearance noticed in that and some other species.
+The arrangement of the claws resembles that of the Great Armadillo,
+whose they almost equal in size. The female has two pectoral mammæ.
+
+It inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, and Surinam, and but little
+is known of the habits of these Armadillos. They burrow easily and
+rapidly, and their great claws enable them to grasp the earth, and fix
+themselves so thoroughly that a great amount of exertion is required
+to pull them out of a burrow. They live on insects and on vegetable
+matters.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Encouberts of Cuvier have five toes on the fore and hinder
+extremities, and nine or ten teeth on each side of the jaws, and
+there are two teeth in the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw,
+representing the incisor teeth of ordinary Mammals, and thus forming an
+exception, not only to the other Armadillos, but even to the order of
+_Edentata_, as represented in the recent period.
+
+
+THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO.[75]
+
+This little Armadillo, which in captivity and in the natural state is
+remarkable for its boldness and restlessness, is a native of Brazil
+and especially of Paraguay, where it is common. It has a large, flat,
+nearly triangular top to its head, the face is short, the muzzle
+obtuse, and the ears erect and of moderate size. It has sharp little
+eyes. It measures about sixteen inches from the nose to the tail, and
+this is about seven or eight inches long. The number of movable bands
+is often six, but this is not the invariable number, for there may
+be seven or eight. The tail is surrounded, at its base, with three
+or four bony rings, and throughout the rest of its length is nearly
+covered with regular tuberculous scales, the separations between the
+bands showing some long bristly grey hairs. The body is flat and
+broad, and has short legs, and the creature runs with a very active
+and determined gait. It is a strong little thing, and it is said that
+when it is chased, it will often get away from a man by sheer speed and
+activity. When any noise is made at the entrance of its burrow, or if
+it is teased by spectators around its cage, it comes forth and grunts
+like a Pig, and looks at the disturber with a bold inquiring look.
+When it is attacked it is powerless, and seems incapable of making any
+defence, but it retreats to its burrow, and getting to the bottom of
+it, digs deeper still. Its power of burrowing does not seem to be much
+diminished by the limited rotation of the fore-arm, to which there is
+no pronator quadratus, but a well-developed pronator teres.
+
+[Illustration: POYOU.]
+
+The Poyou feeds much on carrion, and for this reason its flesh, though
+fat, is never eaten by the inhabitants of European origin, though
+the Indians make no distinction in this respect between it and other
+Armadillos. When it stops or rests, it has a custom of squatting close
+to the ground like a Hare on her form, and in this position the great
+breadth of the body becomes apparent.
+
+The hinder shield has two hairs on the hinder side of each of its
+dorsal scales, and the under part of the body has scattered bristles on
+it. The female has two pectoral mammæ.
+
+The next two Armadillos to be noticed were formerly included in the
+same group as the Poyou, but as they have not the incisor teeth on the
+intermaxillary bones, they are placed in the sub-division _Euphractes_.
+
+
+THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY ARMADILLO.[76]
+
+The long, silky, half bristly, abundant black hairs of this little
+Armadillo are the principal characteristics, which separate it, so
+far as its external construction is concerned, from the Poyou just
+noticed. It is smaller, however, the head measuring nearly four inches
+in length, and the whole body about two inches less than _Dasypus
+sexcintus_. The ears are long, large, and elliptical, and are pointed
+outwards, and the muzzle is broad. The forehead is broad and covered
+with rugged scales. The bands are six or seven in number, and the
+border of the shield, as well as that of the movable bands below, is
+indented in a remarkable manner, and forms sharp, regular points. There
+are eight teeth on each side, above and below, and the body, hairy as
+it is, is much scaled interiorly and on the limbs. The tail is long
+and slender, and only hairy at the root. This species does not inhabit
+Paraguay, nor probably is it found in the Brazils, but it exists in
+multitudes in the Pampas north of the Rio Plata, and Mr. Darwin noticed
+it in Chili. Its habits, according to that most accurate observer,
+are nocturnal, but D’Azara, to whom natural history owes very careful
+descriptions, states that “in an expedition which I made into the
+interior, between the parallels of 35° and 36° south latitude, I met
+with vast multitudes of this species of Armadillo, so that there was
+scarcely an individual of the party who did not daily capture one or
+two at least; for, unlike the Poyou, which moves abroad only at night,
+this animal is to be found at all times, and if alarmed, promptly
+conceals himself, if not intercepted. In March and April, when I saw
+them, they were so extremely fat that their flesh surfeited and palled
+the appetite; notwithstanding which, the pioneers and soldiers ate them
+roasted, and preferred them to beef and veal. This Hairy Armadillo,
+like others of the genus, has undoubtedly a very acute sense of smell,
+since it scents the carcases of dead Horses from a great distance, and
+runs to devour them; but as it is unable to penetrate the hide, it
+burrows under the body until it finds a place which the moisture of
+the soil has already begun to render soft and putrid. Here it makes
+an entrance with its claws, and eats its way into the interior, where
+it continues feasting on the putrid flesh, till nothing remains but
+the hide and bones, and so perfectly do these preserve their position,
+that it is impossible, from a mere external view, to anticipate the
+operations which the Armadillos have been carrying on within.” The same
+author states that this species never constructs burrows to reside
+in, that it avoids low, damp situations, and is found only on the dry
+upland plains. Probably there is more than one Hairy Armadillo.
+
+
+THE PICHIY.[77]
+
+This little Armadillo is only fourteen inches long, tail included; its
+scaling is very handsome, and there are six or seven bands according to
+the individual and age. The head is covered with close scales, which
+are elliptical behind, and concealed under the others in front, and the
+whole top has a triangular outline, hiding the eye much. The scales
+on the front shield are large, and are hexagonal or pentagonal, and
+the croup shield has the angular endings noticed in the last species.
+The scales of the bands and of the shields generally are beautifully
+ornamented with lines, depressions, and little tubercles, which are
+more or less concentric. There is some hair on the long neck, and on
+the legs and tail. The five digits and claws on the fore limbs are
+moderately developed, for the thumb is very small, and the fourth
+finger only a little longer. But the index is long, with a short claw,
+and the second has a stouter and longer claw, and the third is shorter.
+It has a slender snout and small ears.
+
+Mr. Darwin writes that it “prefers a very dry soil and the sandy dunes
+of the coast of Chili, where for many months it can never taste water.
+In soft soil, the animal burrows so quickly that its hind quarters
+would almost disappear before one could alight from one’s horse.” It
+also inhabits the Pampas to the south of Buenos Ayres, and extends from
+36° lat. southward to the confines of Patagonia. It inhabits burrows,
+to which, however, it does not confine itself during the day. Its
+flesh is said to be remarkably tender and well tasting. It is a hardy
+species, and can live in the dreary solitudes of Port Desire on the
+east coast.
+
+The Cachicames, another group of Armadillos, were so called after the
+Indian name for a black kind, which has a very long tail, and which is
+the type of it.
+
+The two kinds included in the group have four fingers, and five toes,
+which are separate, and the backs of the feet are round and covered
+with scales. The claws are conical, and the animal walks, as it were,
+on the toes more than on the sole, being thus digitigrade. The teeth
+number about eight on each side above and below.
+
+
+THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU.[78]
+
+This Armadillo has a very wide geographical range, extending from
+Texas, through Central America to Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, and a
+variety called _Dasypus Kappleri_ inhabits Surinam. It has great ears,
+which are long and placed very close together, and the muzzle at the
+end of the long, tapering face is not unlike that of the snout of a
+Hog in shape. The head is small, long, and straight, but the mouth is
+large. There are eight teeth on both sides of both jaws. The body is
+hairy below the shields and bands, which are largely developed. Then
+the neck and shoulder shield extends far back and comes as low as the
+elbow, and is composed of numerous scales disposed in many concentric
+rings, having the concavity in front, the first embracing the neck in
+its curve. The croup shield extends from the back to the origin of the
+tail, and reaches as low as the knees, and the concavity of its rings
+is turned towards the rear, the last embracing the tail. These scales
+are hexagons. Between the shields the bands are marked with zigzag
+lines forming very acute angles, and in some degree gliding over one
+another according to the movements of the animal. Out of fourteen
+specimens, two had six, one had seven, seven had eight, and there were
+four with nine bands; the full-grown ones have the greatest number.
+The head shield descends from the ears to the muzzle, and covers the
+cheeks as far down as the eyes, and there are small, interspersed,
+detached scales over the throat, the under jaw, the legs, and feet. The
+body is sixteen inches long, and the tail is nearly as long--fourteen
+inches--and is stout at the root. One variety of the species has some
+of the rings of the tail soldered into a case, which is used as a horn
+by the Indians. It is a timid, nocturnal animal, tolerably swift-footed
+and very expert in burrowing. It is never found in the woods, but
+delights in the open plains and cultivated fields, and is much hunted
+on account of the delicacy of the flesh, which, when roasted in the
+shell, is fat, and something better than Sucking-pig in taste. These
+long-tailed Armadillos bury garbage and flesh in their burrows, and eat
+it at their leisure.
+
+Another species of this group is the Mule Armadillo (_Dasypus
+hybridus_, Desmarest), which has long, straight ears and a short
+tail. It roams farther north than the other kind, and is common on
+the Pampas, and is not nocturnal, nor does it burrow very easily. The
+female has from eight to twelve young at a birth, and the individuals
+of a litter are often of one sex.
+
+The Armadillos of all kinds, it is said, only have one litter a year,
+and then the young are numerous, but the mother has never more than
+four teats, and many have only two.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The last group of the Armadillos, the _Tolypeutes_, contains some
+remarkable species, which have the power of rolling themselves up as in
+a ball-shape, and they walk in a most extraordinary manner on the tip
+of long and powerful front claws, and also on the flat and tip of the
+hind ones.
+
+
+THE BALL ARMADILLO.[79]
+
+This is a small and very beautifully ornamented Armadillo, which has
+three free central bands and a short tail, with large fore and aft
+shields. It rolls itself up on the slightest alarm, so that the great
+shoulder and croup shields meet, the head and tail fitting in exactly,
+in front, so as to close up the body very safely. The little animal,
+which is rarely more than fifteen inches long, and has a tail of a
+couple of inches in length, is found in Brazil, Paraguay, and Buenos
+Ayres, and its walking on the long, stout claws of the fore legs gives
+it a very curious and unsteady appearance.
+
+It is an active, sprightly, light-footed little thing, according to Dr.
+Murie, and is constantly on the move, going here and there with much
+vivacity. Poising itself on tiptoe, it trots backwards and forwards as
+if on some urgent errand. In captivity the food was raw meat, boiled
+eggs, and bread-and-milk. In the forest land, where it dwells along
+with its fellow armoured creatures, it has the advantage of being able
+to curl itself up, and to present no tangible part of its body to the
+host of mischievous Monkeys of its locality. The other Armadillos,
+when retiring to their holes, are often set upon by their lively
+quadrumanous neighbours, and are dragged out by the tail with great
+gusto; but the little Tolypeutes curls himself up and laughs at the
+disappointed Monkeys, who can find nothing to pull at about him.
+
+[Illustration: BALL ARMADILLO.]
+
+The shoulder shield comes down like a flap, far in front, and the croup
+extends behind in the same way, and they and the bands have large
+scales, which are very pretty in shape and ornament. The shields are
+very stout, and so is the skeleton within. The fore foot has three
+large clawed toes, on the tips of which the animal walks. The thumb of
+the fore extremity is to be seen in the skeleton, but is not always
+visible in the skin, and it is very small and high up; the index is
+long, and the claw also, and it is slightly bent, but sharp at the
+tip. The next claw is the largest and longest, and has a cutting edge
+at the back and outer part, and the point is sharp. The next digit is
+smaller. In the hind foot there are five toes, one being high up and
+rudimentary, and the second and third having broad, flat, curved, short
+nails, the third being the greatest. The fourth nail is smaller, and
+they are all placed more or less flatly on the ground.
+
+The shell of this Armadillo is blackish-brown, and the skin between
+the central bands is bald and smooth. There are nine back teeth on
+each side in both jaws, and there are none in front. The muscles which
+enable this Armadillo to bring its tail and nose together and to
+form a ball shape, are not simply expansions of the common muscular
+tissue, which exists deeply in the skin in so many animals, but are
+special structures. The most important are in relation to the position
+of the head, neck, limbs, tail, and the shields and bands, when
+the body is about to be and while it is being rolled up; and these
+roller-up muscles are so arranged as to permit of the large liver and
+other internal organs not suffering pressure during their natural or
+temporary displacement. On the other hand, the unrollers act when the
+body and bones are in the rolled-up condition. The muscles of the back
+are very tendinous, and to a degree they unroll the animal, but this
+is also performed by muscles which are attached underneath the first
+movable band of armour, and to the front part of the spine of the
+blade bone; this will tend, when it contracts, to pull out the legs
+and protrude the fore part of the body, the centre being still rigid.
+Another drawer-back of the bladebone assists in this action, and it
+is inserted into the front or chest shield. The rolling up is done by
+the action of muscles which draw the nose down, so as to make the long
+head at right angles to the neck; then the fore-legs and bladebones are
+drawn in and up. At the same time, the muscles which pull down the tail
+act on the hind shield, and draw it down and forwards. The legs are
+pulled up, and then a great muscle, which is largely attached to the
+front and hind shields, and has a tendon-like expansion in the middle
+of its course beneath the movable bands, contracts and pulls front and
+stern together. The muscles of the loins, which in jumping animals
+bring the spine to a curve, do not act, and indeed are excessively
+small. The chief bend in the back is between the second and third
+lumbar vertebræ. (Murie.)
+
+
+GENUS CHLAMYDOPHORUS.--THE PICHICIAGO.[80]
+
+[Illustration: PICHICIAGO.]
+
+This is an Edentate animal, resembling the Armadillos more than any
+others, and is about six inches in length. It has a conical-shaped
+head, a large full chest, short clumsy powerful fore limbs, with
+four great nails rising gradually one above the other, the external
+shortest, and broadest; and the whole so arranged as to form a
+sharp-cutting instrument, rather scooped, and very convenient for
+progression under ground. The back and croup are broad and high,
+and the tail is small. The hind legs are weak and short, the feet
+being long and narrow, and there is a well-defined heel. The foot is
+arched, the toes are separate, and the nails are strong. The whole
+surface of the body is covered with fine silk-like hair, which covers
+over the limbs on to the palms. But the most striking peculiarity is
+the long-banded shell, which is loose as it were throughout, being
+attached to the back immediately above the spine by cellular tissue.
+It rests on two knobs on the frontal bones, and these are the great
+attachments of this important covering. There are twenty-four bands and
+no separate shields, and their consistence is somewhat more dense than
+leather of the same thickness. They are composed of scales or plates of
+geometrical form, and the bands are separated by skin. There is a notch
+in the last band for the tail, and the free inferior edges of the bands
+are everywhere fringed with silky hair. This elongated band structure
+is moved, to a certain extent, by two broad thin muscles, which are
+beneath it, on the back, and each of which divides, on approaching the
+shoulder, into two portions, one being attached to the bladebone, and
+the other to the occiput.
+
+The ear is hidden by hair, and is small; so also is the eye, which is
+black. The nostrils open downwards, at the inferior border of a large
+cartilage. The mouth is small, and there are eight teeth on both sides
+in both jaws. They are simple molars, and are separate and cylindrical.
+The head is large behind, and the jaws come almost to a point, and
+the lower has a long ascending ramus. A great passage for the spinal
+cord, and the two processes on the frontal bone, add to the curious
+appearance of this “bumpy” skull. The pelvis is remarkable in its
+structure, and is open in front.
+
+Some of these animals have the bands of the armour not attached, as has
+been mentioned, to the muscles of the back and to the head, but have
+them adherent to the skin of the back to the edge; and the sides and
+under part of the body are then covered with woolly hair. These are the
+largest animals of the two, and are found in Bolivia. The others are
+from Mendoza and Chili. These curious animals live, partly, mole-like
+lives.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From what may be gleaned by reading the previous pages about the
+Edentates, it will appear that the order is a very remarkable one, and
+that it is interesting on account of the different external appearance
+of the species, their diverse modes of life, and singularly restricted
+localities. Evidently, there has been much degeneration in some of
+the anatomical characters of many of the species, and especially in
+those whose foot bones and neck vertebræ have joined more or less. The
+singular resemblance which some species present, in various points of
+their anatomy, to the lower animals, is very interesting, as is also
+their wonderful relation, in points of structure, with a number of
+extinct Edentata, most of which were gigantic.
+
+The Edentata, called also Bruta by Linnæus, form an order, the
+characters of which are, that there are teeth of one or two kinds all
+very similar, and often wanting. The incisors are not developed except
+in one group, and the rest have either molars which are separate, and
+numerous and simple, or there are none. The extremities are clawed, and
+the tongue is more or less elongated. The great groups of this order
+are the _Tardigrada_, or slow movers, which have a short face, long
+limbs, and small tail, and the body is covered with crisp hair; and the
+_Effodientia_, or diggers, which have long faces and worm-like tongues,
+with short limbs.
+
+The Sloths form the only family of the Tardigrada, and the Effodientia
+are divided into the genera _Manis_, the scaly Ant-eaters; _Dasypus_,
+the Armadillos; _Chlamydophorus_, the Pichiciagos; _Orycteropus_, the
+Ant-Bears; and _Myrmecophaga_, the American Ant-eaters. The Sloths form
+three genera--_Cholœpus_, _Bradypus_, and _Arctopithecus_. Amongst the
+Ant-eaters, the genus _Manis_ may stand alone. The genus _Dasypus_
+may be divided, for the sake of convenience, into the subdivisions
+Priodontes, Kabassous, Euphractes, Cachicames, and Tolypeutes. The
+other genera need no subdivision.
+
+The fossil Edentata are mostly gigantic, and formerly lived in Europe
+and in the Americas. The European kinds would, were they now living,
+belong probably to the group of Pangolins, and they are placed in the
+extinct genera _Pervatherium_, _Macrotherium_, and _Ancylotherium_.
+In the Pliocene deposits of North America, there are large Edentates
+belonging to the genus _Morotherium_, and the previous Miocene
+deposits contain _Moropus_. The later, or Post-Pliocene strata of
+North and South America, contain species of _Mylodon_ and _Megalonyx_,
+_Megatherium_, _Scelidotherium_, _Cœlodon_, and _Sphenodon_; they
+constitute a group of Terrestrial Sloths--the Gravigrada. In Cuba,
+the fossil huge Gravigrade Sloths are of the genera _Megalocnus_ and
+_Myomorphus_. The Armadillo group are found fossil in South America,
+and the genera are _Chlamydotherium_, _Euryodon_, _Heterodon_,
+_Pachytherium_, and _Schistopleuron_. The modern genera are found
+with these, and the gigantic Armadillo-like animal, the Glyptodon,
+lived contemporaneously with the others, and possessed many strange
+peculiarities in its skeleton. The Ant-eaters are represented by
+a fossil form called _Glossotherium_. The oldest Edentates of the
+American Continent are found in North America, unless there is a
+Miocene group of them in South America, which is by no means an
+improbable supposition. The European Ant-eaters now found fossil lived
+in the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene ages.
+
+With regard to the discovery of recent and closely-allied species
+of _Manis_, in South Africa and Hindostan, it may be said that they
+are relics of the old forms of the intermediate and now sunken land,
+between Eastern Africa and India, which existed before the last
+upheaval of the Himalayas. The evident structural affinity between the
+Effodient Edentata of South America and Africa, although the genera
+are different, adds to the interest of the corresponding, and in some
+instances greater, resemblance of many African and South American
+fresh-water fish and plants. The geologist looks back in the remote
+ages of the globe, when the great land surfaces and seas of the world
+were rather across the earth than in their present longitudinal
+position, in order to explain this remarkable similarity.
+
+    P. MARTIN DUNCAN.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT KANGAROO.]
+
+
+
+
+ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.--THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.
+
+  THE GREAT KANGAROO--Captain Cook and the Great
+  Kangaroo--Habitat--Appearance of the Animal--Marsupials separated
+  from the other Mammalian Orders, and why (Footnote)--Gestation
+  and Birth of Young (Footnote)--Mode of Running--The Short Fore
+  Limbs--The _Marsupium_, or Pouch--Head--Dentition--Peculiarities
+  in the Teeth--Hind Extremities--Foot--Great Claw--How the
+  Erect Position is maintained--Whence their Jumping Power is
+  derived--Other Skeletal Peculiarities--Kangaroo Hunts--Becoming
+  Rarer--Mode of Attack and Defence--Hands--Bones of the Fore
+  Limbs--Skull--Stomach--Circulation of Blood--Peculiarity in
+  Young--Nervous System not fully developed--Brain--The Baby Kangaroo
+  in the Pouch--THE HARE KANGAROO--THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO--THE RED
+  KANGAROO--THE BRUSH KANGAROO--THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO--THE
+  COMMON TREE KANGAROO--THE KANGAROO-RATS--Characteristics--THE
+  RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS--Description--THE WOMBAT FAMILY--THE
+  WOMBAT--Peculiarities--Description--Habits--Teeth--Skeleton.
+
+
+I. THE KANGAROO FAMILY.[81]--THE GREAT KANGAROO.[82]
+
+In the year A.D. 1770, the great circumnavigator, Captain
+Cook, was on the coast of New South Wales repairing his ship, and a
+party of sailors were sent on land, to procure food for the sick. They
+saw an animal whose description tempted Cook himself, and also Mr.
+Banks (afterwards Sir Joseph Banks), to land and go in pursuit of it
+the next day. The animal was seen in company with others of its kind,
+and its short front limbs, great hind legs, and huge tail, and the
+tremendous hops it made in its very fleet course, quite bore out the
+statements of the astonished crew. They had seen, for the first time,
+the Great Kangaroo in its wild condition and on its own ground. Soon
+afterwards a specimen was shot, and notes were made about the creature,
+and some skins were brought over to Europe.
+
+The animal has now become familiar to the civilised world. It is,
+however, gradually receding before the Australian colonist and
+squatter; but formerly it roamed all over the plains of New South
+Wales, Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, and Van Diemen’s
+Land, with only the aborigines for its enemies. It is called Bundaary
+and Bullucur by the natives of the Liverpool range and Murray, and the
+name Kangaroo is a mistaken native one.
+
+On looking at one of the Great Kangaroos in some menagerie or
+zoological garden, the first peculiarities that strike the eye are its
+small fore limbs, its very large and long hind ones, and the great and
+thick tail. The smallness of the head, which has rather long ears, and
+a long dusky brown muzzle, the length of the body, and the comfortable
+grey-brown, thick, shortish fur, are then noticed. But the principal
+fact which impresses all these things upon the visitor, is that the
+female may have a little Kangaroo with its head poked out of a kind of
+pouch in the under part of the body. Sometimes the little one jumps out
+and gets in again if it is frightened, and the old one moves, hops, and
+jumps about, with its portable nursery, with the greatest ease.[83]
+
+Sometimes the Kangaroos may be seen feeding, and then the awkwardness
+of their gait becomes evident; for the small fore legs and curious
+paws are on or very close to the ground, whilst the back part of the
+body is raised up by the long hind legs, and, as it were, balanced by
+the great tail. These hind legs seem to do nearly all the running, or
+rather jumping, both being used together; and the tail is of use in
+supporting the long body when the animal suddenly raises itself up
+straight, and squats on its hind quarters. The small front legs then
+appear quite stunted, and the ears stick up, and the small head is held
+straight. But in slow walking, the fore feet are placed on the ground,
+and the animal rests on them whilst it brings the long hind quarters
+forward and outside them. Evidently the senses of hearing and sight are
+very acute; but they are used to warn the animal of danger, rather than
+to urge it to attack, for it is a feeder on herbs, leaves, and grass,
+and often may be seen reclining and moving its jaws, as if it were
+chewing the cud after a fashion.
+
+When moving with great velocity, the Kangaroo depends upon the hind
+limbs alone, bounding along with great ease, over ten, fifteen, or more
+feet at a jump. Its body is then carried almost horizontally, and the
+tail is stuck out as if to balance it.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.]
+
+If the short fore limbs are examined, they will be noticed to be able
+to do a great deal in the way of holding, clasping, and turning things
+about, and they are used in patting the little ones, and in embracing
+and cleaning them. The five digits, or fingers, have a very free
+movement, and the fore arm can twist and turn like that of the higher
+animals; that is to say, it is capable of pronation and supination.
+The first digit, or thumb, has two joints (phalanges), and the other
+four have three; and the five curved claws (the third and fourth being
+large) are useful weapons of offence. But they and the fingers are
+often used for very different purposes, and they have, in the female,
+to open the curious pouch for the young ones, and to place them there.
+There is an evident relation between the arrangement of the bones of
+the wrist and this necessary office or function. The _marsupium_,
+or pouch, is a kind of inbending of the skin of the lower part of
+the belly, and is moist and naked inside. In it, in the females,
+are the nipples of the mammary glands, and to these the very young
+Kangaroos[84] hang on for a long time, before they see the outer world.
+They are put in there by the mother, when they are just born, and when
+very small and not perfectly formed. They grow there, and after a
+while, leave the nipple when they think fit. As this pouch, with its
+contents, would drag upon the mother, it is kept from doing so, more
+or less, by two bones which are found amongst the muscles of the lower
+part of the body, and which are attached to the front or pubic bones
+of the pelvis. They are called marsupial bones. They exist also in
+the males, but they have no open pouch, for it is, as it were, turned
+outwards, and contains part of the reproductive organs.
+
+The head is long, and is remarkable for the long nose, and large
+full eyes, with eyelashes, for the Kangaroo is not nocturnal in its
+habits, like most of the Marsupials. The upper lip is split, the end
+of the nose or muffle is naked or hairy according to the kind, and the
+brain-case is small. The nostrils are at the side of the end of the
+muzzle, and are slit-like and oblique, and there are bristly “smellers”
+to the fleshy lips and chin. A slender tongue is sometimes seen for an
+instant whilst the Kangaroo is feeding, and if the bones of the jaws be
+examined, the angle, or lower part of the back of the lower jaw, will
+be found to be turned inwards.
+
+The long jaws have not very many teeth, and there are two large lower
+front ones, or lower incisors, which project in a line with the lower
+jaw; they are horizontal and more or less pointed, but have an outer
+and inner cutting edge. The upper incisors, six in number, or three on
+each side of the middle line, are placed on the pre-maxillary bone, and
+they work up and down. They are broad and have the cutting edge below,
+and the outer one, on each side, is broad, grooved, and complicated by
+one or two folds of its enamel, which are continued from the outer side
+of the tooth obliquely forward and inward. There is a space or diastema
+behind the incisors. There are four premolars, one on each side of both
+jaws, and then follow four molar teeth above and below and on both
+sides of the mouth. The dental formula is thus--Incisors, (3-3)/(1-1);
+premolars, (1-1)/(1-1); molars, (4-4)/(4-4) = 28. There are no canine
+teeth in the adults, but their germs may be found in the very young
+Kangaroos. As the Kangaroo is a vegetable feeder, and delights in
+grass, leaves, and herbs, its teeth are eminently of a non-carnivorous
+kind. It may be remarked that when the mouth is closed, the cutting
+edges of the upper incisors come against the outer cutting edge of the
+long front teeth of the lower jaw. The true molars increase in size
+from front backwards; and the crown of each molar is squarish, but is
+longer than broad, and it has two principal cross ridges, which, when
+not worn, are tall, and have sharp edges. Besides these, there are two
+other transverse ridges which are smaller and not so tall. One of these
+is on the front part of the tooth, and the other on the hinder (in the
+upper molars only). Then there is a long ridge which connects the cross
+ones. They are all covered with enamel. When the tooth is worn, we find
+it presenting, according to Mr. Waterhouse,[85] two powerful loops or
+folds. On comparing these teeth with those of the herbivorous mammalia
+already noticed, a remarkable difference will be seen.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.
+
+(A) Upper and Lower Jaw; (B) Upper Molar; (C) Lower Molar.]
+
+The hinder extremities consist of a nearly straight, long, cylindrical
+bone, the femur, which has a hemispherical joint head, and a large
+trochanter, which reaches above the joint; of two leg bones--the tibia,
+which is prismatic above and cylindrical below, but with only a slight
+inner ankle projection, and the fibula, which is distinct but thinned
+and concave in its lower half, where it is close and attached to the
+other bone, and forms the outer ankle projection. To these are added
+the bones of the ankle-joint and the clawed toes. The Kangaroo being
+a great jumper, and having a great tendon, the analogue of the tendo
+achillis of man, has a powerful projecting process of the hinder ankle
+bone for its attachment. But the great length of the foot is produced
+by the size of the fourth and fifth or two outer toes, and especially
+of the fourth, which often reaches a foot in length, including the
+metatarsal bone behind, and the pointed claw in front. The great
+claw looks like a long hoof, is three-sided and sharp-pointed like a
+bayonet, and with it the animal stabs and rips open the body of its
+opponent.[86] The outer claw is very small, and there is no great toe
+(or first), but the second and third are long and slender, and are
+united in a common skin, so as to look like a single toe with a double
+nail, the hair coming to the roots of it. The long narrow foot is
+nearly as long as the leg bones, and is admirably adapted for jumping
+forwards, as well as sideways, and for supporting, when the legs are
+widely separated, the weight of the erect body. The body in that
+position has the leg bones straight, the thigh bones oblique, and
+the pelvis and spine erect, the great tail being a prop behind. Owen
+remarks that in man it is the massive and expanded muscles of the back
+of the pelvis and upper part of the thigh, or the gluteal muscles,[87]
+which are the chief structures in maintaining the erect posture. But
+in the Kangaroo, the narrow bones of the haunch could not afford
+attachment to great gluteal muscles; so a muscle which is but slightly
+formed in man, and is called the little psoas, is greatly developed
+in the Kangaroo, and has evidently the power of maintaining the erect
+posture, although it is situate within the body and in front of the
+spine. The great jumping power is due to the leverage of the ankle and
+long toes, and the muscles which supply the tendon already mentioned,
+and others which have the same office. These are of great strength
+and size, and there are some accessory muscles to the thigh and leg.
+The long spine of the back has powerful processes, and the jar of the
+great jumps is received by two vertebræ which, anchylosed or united
+together, form the sacrum. The tail is made up of many vertebræ, and
+covered with muscles. The great blood-vessels running underneath it
+have many chevron, or V-shaped, bones, to protect them from pressure.
+The marsupial bones, one on each side, are long, and broad below; they
+are movable on the pubis, and afford attachment to muscular fibres, act
+as a pulley for others, and strengthen the walls of the abdomen. Formed
+within muscles and tendons, they are rather bony growths than parts of
+the true skeleton, and hence they may be absent in some of the order,
+although they are always present in the Kangaroos.
+
+Although well provided with strong limbs and muscles, and acute senses,
+the Kangaroos living the life of the deer and cattle of other regions
+than Australia, are subject to the attacks of beasts of prey and
+hunters. In Australia the great Carnivora do not exist, but there is a
+native dog, the Dingo, aborigines, and trained dogs and colonists, who
+enjoy a Kangaroo hunt. The native dogs stalk and run them down, the
+natives spear them after sometimes forming a great circle and closing
+in and yelling and shouting. But the rifle and trained hounds have
+dislodged many more than the natives, and the animals are becoming
+scarcer near the settlements than in former years. Dogs which run
+by sight afford many an exciting hunt, and the Kangaroo starts off,
+bounding at a great rate, and clearing all sorts of impediments with
+ease. It is hard riding to keep up with the chase, and especially in
+hot weather, when the Kangaroo often escapes, thanks to its greater
+powers of endurance. Sometimes the Kangaroo will stand at bay, and will
+rip up a solitary Dog with its claws, or will kill with a single blow
+of the leg and tail. Three or more Dogs are usually laid on, one more
+fleet than the others, to “pull” the Kangaroo, while the others rush
+in and kill it. Mr. Gould[88] says that it sometimes adopts a singular
+mode of defending itself, by clasping its short, powerful fore limbs
+round its antagonist, leaping away with it to the nearest water hole,
+and then keeping it beneath the water until drowned.
+
+Mr. R. Foulerton, who has paid some attention to the habits of the
+Marsupials, writes that the Great Kangaroo, although its numbers have
+been greatly diminished in some pastoral districts, still is numerous
+enough to render some runs almost worthless for pastoral purposes. They
+may be seen there in thousands, eating off all the best grass, and in
+the bad seasons reducing the cattle to starving point. They have few
+enemies but man, as even the native Dog will never attack them, unless
+they are very young. An “old man” Kangaroo is a formidable opponent; he
+will severely wound and even kill a man, unless approached cautiously.
+Their mode of attack is to “hug” him bear fashion, and then rip him
+with the hind foot. When pursued, they generally take to the water,
+and there stand at bay, and the luckless man or dog who gets within
+their grasp is forced under the water, and held there until drowned.
+The middle-aged Kangaroos, or Flyers, easily outstrip the hunting Dogs
+at the start, but they are gradually gained upon. When caught, the
+Kangaroo fights to the last.
+
+The diminutive fore limbs are separated by narrow shoulders, and
+although the upper arm is short and well furnished with muscles, the
+fore arm is long, slender, but very movable. The hand is short and
+broad, and there are four curved, sharp claws, the first one, or thumb,
+being the smallest, and the third and fourth the largest. The hair
+covers over the fingers to the claws, which can separate widely, grasp
+and hold, and be bent on the palm. The movements of the wrists and
+fore arms are considerable, and a large and long upward-turning muscle
+is in the space between the ulna and radius (the bones of the arm).
+Moreover, the ulna joints with a cavity in the cuneiform bone of the
+wrist; and the first row of wrist bones has three in it, and the second
+has four. The first phalanges, or those of the thumb, are not placed
+as a thumb in relation to the wrist bones, and it is the outer fingers
+that grasp with their claws. As the Kangaroo has to lift up its arm,
+there is a collar-bone, and the arm bone (humerus) is perforated on the
+inner side of the end above the elbow; and the olecranon is long.
+
+The bladebone has a curved ridge, and the muscles of the upper part
+are less than those which are attached to the part below it. There are
+thirteen pairs of ribs to the chest.
+
+The skull is long and comparatively smooth, and even the ridges for
+the temporal muscles are only slightly raised; and in old Kangaroos
+the bones do not unite or anchylose as they do in the other Mammalia
+hitherto noticed. The teeth are not used as weapons of offence, but
+simply to graze with, and the lower jaw is not quite solid at the
+chin, but only so below, so that the lower incisors can be slightly
+separated. The ear-bone is remarkable for being separated into three
+parts, namely, the temporal or squamous, the petrosal, and the
+tympanic; and this is rather a reptilian character. Moreover, the
+air-chambers of the side of the under part of the skull are in the form
+of rounded prominences, or “bullæ.” They are situated in the lower part
+of the ear-bone, called squamosal. The zygoma, or process between the
+cheek (malar) bone and the ear, is hollow, complete, and arched, its
+front part being, moreover, extended downwards in a projection which
+reaches below the grinding teeth, and resembles that of the Sloths
+somewhat. The lower jaw has its back part, or angle, bent inwards (or
+inflected) strongly, and this is, except in one set, a characteristic
+of the Marsupiata.
+
+[Illustration: STOMACH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.
+
+([_œ_]) œsophagus; (_in_) intestine.]
+
+The Kangaroo, being a vegetable feeder, has a stomach suited for the
+diet, which also permits of a certain amount of regurgitation of food
+up again into the mouth, when a kind of chewing of the cud occasionally
+is indulged in. The stomach is large and long, resembling the colon
+or large intestine of the highest Mammalia in its general shape. It
+measured, in one instance, according to Owen, no less than three feet
+six inches, the measurement following its bends or curvatures. It
+consists of a left, middle, and right or pyloric division. The left
+ends in two round sacs, and these are really continuations of the
+stomach separated to a certain extent by a peculiar arrangement of
+the three bands of muscular fibres which pass separately along the
+organ. Numerous clusters of secreting glands are found in the mucous
+membrane of the stomach in its middle part, and they disappear near
+the pylorus where the tissues are thick and corrugated. The animal
+has a small intestine, a cæcum, and a large gut, but this last is not
+much larger than the first part of the stomach. The organs of the
+circulation of the blood resemble those of the other Mammalia, but
+there is a distinction which relates to the short period during which
+the young Kangaroo is a portion of the maternal being. So soon is it
+born, and so soon therefore must it breathe, that before the heart has
+grown much, it has the blood from the lungs and the rest of the body
+running through it. The young Kangaroo breathes when its heart is not
+fully developed, yet it has the perfect double circulation set up. The
+auricles of the heart communicate as in other Mammals until birth, but
+the duration of this communication is very short in the Marsupial,
+and its traces so evident in the other Mammals are wanting in it. The
+arteries of the body are simpler than in those Mammals which have a
+more complicated intestinal arrangement, and Owen, in his great work
+on the Marsupials, has pointed out that the hind limbs and tail are
+supplied with arterial blood by vessels which have an arrangement not
+without its similarity to that of birds. Leading a very simple life,
+and one of great sameness, moving in a manner which does not require
+much complexity of muscular action, the nervous system of the Kangaroo
+could not be expected to be highly organised or fully developed. The
+brain is small for the body of the animal. It is simple in form, and
+does not cover the cerebellum, which is visible behind, and has a
+little lobe on each side. The surface of the brain proper has a few
+convolutions on it, and more perhaps than the Rodent Mammalia have.
+The commissures of the brain, which relate to the complexity of the
+method of life, are unequally developed. The central one, or the corpus
+callosum, is small, and the front one is very large. Finally, the part
+of the brain which refers to the sense of smell is large, but hidden by
+the brain proper, and its nerves supply a large surface in the nose, at
+its upper part at the base of its skull.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.]
+
+The young Kangaroo, when very small, and almost transparent, comes down
+from the womb into a canal, and gets into the uro-genital sac, as it is
+termed. Thence it is taken by the mother, and put into the marsupium,
+or pouch, where it fixes on to a nipple, and holds on. As the little
+one is ever “at the breast,” it might have any quantity of milk go the
+wrong way, but this is provided for by the upper part of the organ
+of voice (the larynx) being prolonged at the back of the nose, above
+the level of the long nipple. Breathing goes on through the nose, and
+swallowing safely through the gullet.
+
+
+THE HARE KANGAROO.[89]--THE TURATT.
+
+There are many kinds of Kangaroos, and one of them, which is solitary
+and nocturnal in its habits, is called the Hare Kangaroo, of which
+Mr. Gould writes:--“The name of Hare Kangaroo has been given to this
+species as much from its similarity of form and size to the common Hare
+as from its similarity of habits. I usually found it solitary, and
+sitting alone on a well-formed seat under the stalk of a tuft of grass
+on the open plains. For a short distance, its fleetness is beyond that
+of all others of its group that I have had an opportunity of coursing.
+Its powers of leaping are also equally extraordinary. While out on the
+plains in South Australia, I started a Hare Kangaroo before two fleet
+Dogs. After running to the distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly
+doubled and came back to me, the Dogs following close to its heels. I
+stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within twenty feet
+before it observed me, when, to my astonishment, instead of branching
+off to the right or to the left, it bounded clear over my head, and,
+on descending to the ground, I was able to make a successful shot, by
+which it was procured. It has the end of the nose covered with a fine
+set of hairs. The fur is long and soft and very hare-like, and it has
+small limbs and sharply-pointed nails.”
+
+
+THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO.
+
+This is very different from its timid congener just described. It
+inhabits the sterile and rocky mountains in the south-eastern part of
+Australia. It scampers about the rocks, and readily escapes Dogs, and
+it is a dangerous and formidable animal to approach, for it will, if
+closely pressed, turn on its enemy, and force him over the rocks. It
+bites, and uses its strong fore-arms very efficiently. It is called
+_Macropus robustus_, and is often found in companies of four or six;
+and it has more powerful fore-limbs than the Great Kangaroo, which is
+even sometimes the smaller of the two. It has the part of the nose
+called the muffle without hair.
+
+THE RED KANGAROO[90] is so called from the red tint of the
+male, which is sometimes marked under the neck and elsewhere. It was
+found in the plains near the Darling and Murrumbidgee rivers, and is
+celebrated for its great fleetness; and the female is often called
+the “Flying Doe.” It is as fast as the Agile Kangaroo,[91] which is
+long-haired, and is found in Northern and Eastern Australia.
+
+Van Diemen’s Land has a Kangaroo with a long, deep-grey fur, with red
+on the back of the ears, neck, and shoulders; and it is called the
+Brush Kangaroo by the settlers. It is eaten and highly esteemed, and
+its skin is exported for leather. Liking the dense and damp forests of
+the island, it finds a safe retreat therein, and probably this is what
+keeps them from extinction, for they have been killed by the thousand,
+in order to supply contracts for boot-leather. The young of this
+Kangaroo, which is also called after Bennett the naturalist (_Macropus
+Bennetti_), does not leave the pouch of its mother permanently, until
+it is as large as a Rabbit.
+
+In the north of Australia, in the region of King George’s Sound, there
+is a small Kangaroo which is not larger than a common Rabbit, and it is
+a very interesting example of how species may differ from the type of a
+genus. It has a slender and rather short tail, which is rather scaly,
+and has but a few hairs on it, but it is not very short. The ears are
+short and round, and the hind feet are short. The departure from the
+configuration of the Great and Brush Kangaroo shape is therefore great.
+It is called the Short-tailed Kangaroo. The last four kinds mentioned
+are grouped together with others under a sub-genus, _Halmaturus_ (ἅλμα,
+a leap, and οὐρά, a tail).
+
+
+THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.
+
+[Illustration: BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.]
+
+Almost as strange as the slender-tailed Kangaroo are those which
+are called the “brush-tailed,” and which inhabit rocky situations
+(_Macropus penicillatus_). Mr. Waterhouse thus notices them:--
+
+“Whilst the Kangaroos of the plain have the fore part of the body
+slender and light, great strength in the hinder parts, combined with
+a long leg and foot, adapting them to fleetness, the tail powerful,
+and assisting in the support of the long body, we perceive certain
+modifications in the form and structure of these parts in the Rock
+Kangaroos which adapt them to their particular habitats. The body, more
+compact in form, requires but little assistance from the tail for its
+support, the leverage being less; and the feet are, though powerful,
+comparatively short, and remarkably rough beneath, being thickly
+covered over this part with hard tubercles, which no doubt prevent
+the foot from slipping. The nails of the two larger toes are shorter
+than usual, and, indeed, in some of the species, scarcely project
+beyond the fleshy pads with which the toes are terminated, and on the
+upper surface of which the nails are placed. A long and slender foot,
+with long nails, as in the typical Kangaroos, it is obvious, would be
+ill-adapted to an animal which has to leap to and balance itself upon
+the small ledges of the rocks. The tail is large, but not thickened
+at the root, as in the plain Kangaroos; and, unlike the tail in those
+animals, it is clothed with long hairs, which, gradually increasing
+in length from the base of the tail, become very long and bushy at
+the opposite extremity. It serves to steady the animal in its leaps,
+and to balance the body when perched in situations which require it,
+but is of little assistance in supporting the weight of the trunk.
+Its muffle, that is to say, the end of the nose, is naked, as in the
+scrub-inhabiting Kangaroos just noticed, and it forms the type of the
+sub-genus _Heteropus_” (ἕτερος, altered, πούς, foot).
+
+One of these was hunted and shot amongst the woods of Liverpool plains,
+New South Wales, by Sir Edward Parry, who wrote that they appear to be
+gregarious, and seem to prefer the neighbourhood of rocky ground, in
+which they had holes, and to which, when hunted, they retreated. They
+swarm along in groups one after the other, and jump from side to side,
+alighting on ledges so slightly prominent that their resting thereon
+appears to be an impossibility. They go into caves and holes in the
+rocks during the day, and they enjoy the night, and gambol and feed by
+moonlight.
+
+A Rock Kangaroo, with white and black bands on it, inhabits Western
+Australia, and a short-eared kind enjoys the hot sands and high rocks
+of Hanover Bay. There is a Kangaroo in the island of New Guinea
+(_Macropus Brunii_), and it was the first seen by Europeans.
+
+
+THE COMMON TREE KANGAROO.[92]
+
+[Illustration: COMMON TREE KANGAROO.]
+
+This is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and instead of frequenting the
+brush and scrub, which are not physical features found in the island,
+or the rocks, it lives in the forests, and is no mean but rather a
+good climber of trees. There is a Kangaroo look about the animal, even
+when it is seated on a thick branch, but the fur is very different to
+that of its fellows of Australia. The fur looks coarse and harsh, and
+is not very unlike that of a Bear. There is no soft under fur, but all
+the hairs are long and resemble the long ones of the Kangaroos, and
+the ears are quite clothed with it. Then, as the animal glides down
+the stem of a tree, the shortness of the hind legs becomes apparent;
+moreover, the claws on the foot do not resemble those of the Kangaroo.
+The feet are stout but rather short, and the toes are more equal in
+size than in the other Kangaroos. The claw of the outer toe is often
+on a line with the middle of the longest one (the fourth), whilst the
+nails of the double inner toe extend slightly beyond its base. The
+nail of this large fourth toe is about an inch in length. Then the
+fore limbs are nearly as large as the hind ones, and are very strongly
+made, and so are the hands, the claw of the middle finger being
+three-quarters of an inch in length. It has a clumsy-looking head, with
+a high muzzle and small lower jaw. The upper lip is straight. It has
+a large face and small ears, and the colour of the fur is brown-black
+and yellow-brown. The tail is very long, tapers slightly, and is
+considerably of use in steadying the climber, and it is carried very
+much after the fashion of the other Kangaroos when the animal has
+come down from its tree and hops off to its retreat. A specimen in the
+Zoological Gardens of London had grizzled-grey fur, whiter underneath
+the jaws and on the neck and limbs, and the ears were wide apart, and
+the powerful fore limbs ended in five claws. The tail tapered but
+very little. This was probably a second species called the Brown Tree
+Kangaroo (_Dendrolagus inustus_).
+
+These Tree Kangaroos have a small superior canine tooth on each side,
+and the hinder incisor is not grooved. Hence they form a sub-genus,
+which is called _Dendrolagus_ (δένδρον, a tree, λαγός, a hare), Tree
+Hare.
+
+
+THE KANGAROO-RATS.[93]
+
+[Illustration: KANGAROO-RAT.]
+
+These are also called Potoroos, and are of small size, being about
+that of a Hare or Rabbit. They have a compact body, the neck being
+short, and the ears are rather rounded, so that their shape is unlike
+that of the Great Kangaroo, but it resembles that of the smaller
+kinds somewhat. They have a rat-like shape, both hind feet like the
+Kangaroos, a long tail, and peculiar teeth. The head is very like that
+of a Rodent, and the incisor teeth in the upper jaw have the front ones
+the longest. The canine teeth exist in the upper jaw, and the premolar
+is large, and has numerous distinct vertical grooves on the outer and
+inner sides; and the front molars are the largest, the smallest being
+in the rear. The toes of the fore foot are unevenly developed; the
+three central ones are large, and those at the side are small. The
+nails are solid, broadest above, and much compressed. The foot is long,
+and the fourth toe and nail are greatly developed. The fifth toe is
+next in size, and the small second and third are coupled together by
+skin, and form a projection, with two small nails, which are useful in
+combing and scratching the fur. The first toe is absent. The Rufous
+Kangaroo-Rat inhabits New South Wales, and is very common.[94] Its nest
+is made up of grasses, and is frequently placed under the shelter of
+a fallen tree, or at the foot of some low shrub. During the day the
+little animal lies curled up in its nest, but it occasionally reposes
+in a “seat” like the Hare Kangaroo; but it never sits in the open
+plains. On being pursued it jumps like a Jerboa, with great swiftness
+for a short distance, and seeks shelter in hollow logs and holes. Its
+food consists of roots and grasses. Another is a native of Van Diemen’s
+Land, and keeps to the open, sandy, or stony forest land, rather than
+to the thick and humid bushes. It is called _Hypsiprymnus cuniculus_.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE KANGAROO-RAT.]
+
+None of the animals hitherto described as Kangaroos have any prehensile
+power in the tail; but in one group of the Kangaroo-Rats, the tip of
+the tail has a brush of long hairs above, and is clothed beneath with
+short hairs, which are closely applied to the skin. This structure,
+and the motion of the muscles beneath, give the Tufted-tailed
+Kangaroo-Rat[95] of New South Wales a power of encircling and holding
+objects, especially for seizing grasses with which to make its nest.
+This is placed in a hollow in the ground, excavated for its reception,
+and its opening being on a level with the surrounding herbage, the
+practised eye of the native is required to discern it. After the little
+things creep in, they drag some grass after them, and close up the
+place. In the evening, they sally forth and scratch and dig up roots
+with their strong fore-claws.
+
+
+THE RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS.[96]
+
+The Rat-tailed Kangaroo-Rat is about fifteen inches and a half long,
+and the tail measures, in addition, more than nine inches. It has a
+long head and rather short hind feet, and the rat-like tail has short
+stiff hairs on it which do not quite hide the scaly skin beneath.
+The body fur is long and loose, and dusky brown, more or less tinted
+with black and pale yellowish-brown. The end of the nose or muzzle
+is spotted, and the ears are short and rounded. This little animal
+lives in New South Wales, and was that which was first described by
+Hunter under the name of Potoroo, or Poto Roo, being the “Bettong”
+of the natives of New South Wales. The stomach of the Kangaroo-Rats
+is less sacculated than that of the Kangaroos, but its left-hand
+portion is enormously developed in proportion to the rest, and may be
+compared with that of the Ruminantia in point of relative size. It
+may be noticed that the lower jaws of the Potoroos, which are largely
+inflected at the angle, articulate with the skull rather differently to
+those of the Kangaroos. In these last, the cavity at the base of the
+zygomatic process which receives the lower jaw is broad and slightly
+convex, permitting considerable side-to-side movement which is useful
+in the occasional “cud chewing.” But in the others the cavity barely
+deserves the name, it being a nearly flat surface, and, therefore,
+not much motion, except that of an up-and-down kind, is possible to
+the jaw. The organ of hearing has been slightly noticed in the Great
+Kangaroo in a former page, and it is necessary to observe that the
+tympanic bone does not form a perfect tube in the Potoroos as in
+the Kangaroos, and that the surface of the auditory cavity is also
+increased by a “bulla,” or bony cavity, bulging out at the under part
+of the skull. Corresponding “bullæ” were noticed in the Rodentia, but
+in their case the swelling is in the temporal bone, whilst in the
+Marsupials, with the exception of the Wombat, they are formed out
+of the sphenoid bone (the great ala). Moreover, the Potoroos, like
+the Kangaroos, and some of the other Marsupials (the Phalangers and
+Koalas), have the ear chamber prolonged, by a number of cells, into the
+zygomatic process of the temporal bone. The Kangaroo-Rats are numerous,
+and there are many species. They are distributed in New South Wales,
+Western Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and South Australia, and to the
+north-east.
+
+[Illustration: FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF HYPSIPRYMNUS.]
+
+Sir R. Owen investigated the anatomy of a small Kangaroo-Rat which had
+been described by Mr. Ramsay in Australia, and which was remarkable
+for its musky smell. It is a long and slender-bodied little animal,
+measuring about one foot three inches and a half from the snout to
+the end of the tail, which is five inches and nine lines in the
+female, and rather less in the male. Its hinder legs are shorter, and
+the head is more slender and pointed than in the Kangaroo-Rats just
+described. The fur is of moderate length, pretty closely applied, and
+has numerous rather long hairs scattered here and there, the visible
+portions being black or blackish, or pointed. These are relieved by
+the dark and light-barred colour of the visible part of the shorter
+hairs, all the hairs being of a leaden-greyish tint at the skin. The
+upper surface of the body has a close and stiff fur of rich golden
+colour, mixed with black; the head, face, and lower parts of the legs
+are dark brownish-grey; and there are a few patches of white along the
+centre of the throat and chest. The fur covers the tail for half an
+inch or more, and then the rest is naked, and covered with a network
+of scales about three to a line in length. The scales are black above,
+and a few minute and very short hairs project from the interstices of
+the scales. The animal has a naked muffle and rounded ears. The hind
+foot is remarkable, for whilst the skull and dentition of the creature
+would associate it more with the Kangaroo-Rats, the position of the
+first toe (wanting in the Kangaroo-Rats) resembles somewhat that of the
+Phalangista group, or the Phalangers, which will be noticed further
+on. The sole of the foot is long, and there is a nailless projecting
+first toe, like a thumb; next come the second and third toes--small,
+united by skin, and leaving the two combing-nails visible; and then the
+largest, or fourth toe, is followed by a smaller fifth. Sir R. Owen
+judged that this animal was an occasional climber of trees, but that
+its usual locality was on the ground. Mr. Ramsay states that it lives
+in the Rockingham Bay district, and that it frequents the dense and
+damp positions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the
+sides of the coast range. Its habits are diurnal, and its movements are
+graceful. It procures its food by turning over the rubbish in search of
+insects, worms, and tuberous roots, frequently eating the palm-berries,
+which it holds with its fore paws, after the manner of the Phalangers,
+sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging. They have a pouch,
+and two young ones have been found in it. Considering the importance
+of the great toe to the animal, and its linking together the climbing
+and jumping Marsupials, Sir R. Owen acknowledged the necessity of
+recognising Mr. Ramsay’s name of _Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_, and of
+thus bringing in a new genus into a new family in the Kangaroo series
+with two large front teeth in the lower jaw.[97]
+
+
+II.--THE WOMBAT FAMILY.--THE PHASCOLOMYIDÆ.
+
+
+THE WOMBAT.[98]
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE WOMBAT.]
+
+On looking at a picture of a Wombat, the outside distinctions
+between it and all the Kangaroo family may be seen at a glance, and
+an examination of its anatomy affords still greater evidence of
+differences which, to a certain extent, relate to the fact that the
+animal now under consideration is a burrower and gnawer. About two to
+three feet in length, the Wombat has only a small stump of a tail, a
+low body, small feet, and strong limbs, ending in broad extremities,
+well provided with claws. It has moderately long and coarse fur of a
+grey-brown colour, and there is some white about the short ears, and
+the feet are black. It is usually a plump animal, with a bare black
+muzzle, and feet naked beneath, and covered with little tubercles
+of flesh. The claws are large, and those of the fore feet (five in
+number) are solid and but little curved, whilst the four on the hind
+feet are curved and concave beneath. It has long moustache hairs,
+and plenty of them. Sir Everard Home had one, and he found that
+its principal desire was to get into the ground, and to do this it
+worked with great skill and rapidity, covering itself with earth with
+surprising quickness. It was very quiet during the day, but was in
+constant motion during the night; was very sensible of cold; ate all
+vegetables, and was particularly fond of new hay, which it ate stalk by
+stalk, taking it into its mouth like a Bear, in small bits at a time.
+It was not wanting in intelligence, and appeared attached to those to
+whom it was accustomed, and who were kind to it. When it saw them, it
+would put up its fore-paws on their knees, and when taken up would
+sleep on the lap. It allowed children to pull and carry it about, and
+when it bit them it did not appear to do so in anger or with violence.
+When wild, the Wombat hides up during the day, and quits its retreat
+at night, to dig and get grass and roots. It is by no means an active
+animal, and shuffles along like a Bear. The Wombat has a slit-like,
+imperfect marsupium, and the special peculiarities of its order, such
+as marsupial bones, the inflected lower jaw, and double uterus. On
+the hind foot the innermost or first toe is very small, nailless, and
+placed at right angles to the foot, and the second, third, and fourth
+toes are joined by skin, and have larger claws than the small fifth
+toe. The stomach is simple, and has a peculiar glandular apparatus, and
+the cæcum is short, and has an appendage as in man and some monkeys.
+The teeth are remarkable for their number in relation to those of
+the Kangaroos, and for having no rootlets. The incisor teeth greatly
+resemble those of a Rodent, like the Rat. They are two in number in
+each jaw, and are widely separated from the other teeth. The molars
+are long, curved, and, like the incisors, have no true fangs, but
+persistent pulps. They are divided into two nearly equal parts by a
+fold of the enamel entering deeply into the body of the tooth on one
+side, and a slight indentation on the opposite side.
+
+[Illustration: WOMBAT.]
+
+[Illustration: LOWER JAW OF THE WOMBAT.]
+
+The number of the persistent teeth is as follows:--Incisors, 2/2; true
+molars, (4-4)/(4-4). It is the only Marsupial which has an equal
+number of incisors in both jaws. There are no canines. As the Wombat
+uses much force in gnawing, the muscles of the jaws and their bony
+attachments are large; consequently the temporal ridges are strongly
+marked. There is a deep and strong zygomatic arch, and in the lower
+jaw the turned-in angle is of great size. The chin is also large,
+and the joint of the jaw also. The sutures of the bones of the skull
+are scarcely ever obliterated, and the auditory “bullæ” are formed
+in the temporal bone. With regard to the marsupial bones, they are
+long, flat, curved, and, moreover, less expanded near their attachment
+to the pubis. The ribs are fifteen in number on each side, and the
+collar-bones are large and stout. There is a curious power of movement
+of the ankle, so that the foot can imitate the turning movements of the
+wrist and fore-arm of man. This pronation and supination is because
+the small bone of the leg, the fibula, is free and not attached to the
+other bone (tibia), and because there is a muscle whose action is to
+move the fibula after the fashion of the corresponding muscle in the
+fore limb. The stomach is smaller than in the Kangaroos, and has a
+large gland.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE WOMBAT.
+
+A, Upper Jaw; B, Lower Jaw; C, Molar.]
+
+The Wombat has been found in South Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, Bass
+Strait, and in New South Wales.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.
+
+  THE PHALANGER FAMILY--THE KOALA--Habits--Characteristics--THE
+  CUSCUS--THE VULPINE PHALANGER--THE DORMOUSE
+  PHALANGER--Habits--Remarkable Characters--THE FLYING
+  PHALANGERS--Its Flying Machine--Habits--THE SQUIRREL FLYING
+  PHALANGERS--Habits--The Parachute-like Membrane--Exciting Scene
+  on board a Vessel--Characteristics--THE OPOSSUM MOUSE--THE
+  NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT--A Curiosity among Marsupials--Distinctive
+  Features--THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY--Characteristics--THE
+  RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES--THE BANDICOOT--THE BANDED
+  PERAMELES--THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES--Discussion regarding
+  it--Characteristics--THE DASYURUS FAMILY--Characteristics--THE
+  POUCHED ANT-EATERS--THE BANDED MYRMECOBIUS--Description--Great
+  number of Teeth--History--Food--Habits--Range--THE URSINE
+  DASYURE--Appearance--“Native Devil”--Ferocity--Havoc
+  among the Sheep of the Settlers--Trap to Catch them--Its
+  Teeth--A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the
+  Carnivora--Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself--MAUGE’S
+  DASYURE--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS--Description--Resemblance
+  to the Dog--Habits--Peculiarities--THE BRUSH-TAILED
+  PHASCOGALE--Description--Other Varieties.
+
+
+III.--THE PHALANGER FAMILY.--THE PHALANGISTIDÆ.
+
+The loftiest of the gum-trees of the country from Moreton Bay to Port
+Phillip, and even more widely than this, were often the familiar haunt
+of a small Marsupial animal, not unlike a little Bear, about two feet
+in length, and without a tail. It is a famous tree-climber, and its
+stout body, small head, short limbs, and well-developed feet, are all
+cased in an ash-grey fur. It has moderate-sized ears, which are hidden
+by the long hair of the head, and it has a short and nearly naked
+black muzzle. The eye is large and without eyelashes. The natives
+climb up the trees after it, according to Mr. Gould, with as much ease
+and expertness as an European would get up a long ladder, and having
+reached the branch, perhaps forty or fifty feet from the ground, they
+follow the animal to the extremity of a bough, and either kill it or
+take it alive. This animal is called the KOALA, and it feeds
+on the tender shoots of the blue gum in preference to those of any
+others, and it rests and feeds in the boughs. At night it descends
+and prowls about, scratching up the ground in search of some peculiar
+roots, and it seems to creep rather than to walk. When angry it utters
+a long, shrill yell, and assumes a fierce and menacing look. They are
+found in pairs, and the young soon learn to perch on the mother’s
+shoulders. Mr. Gould says that, unlike most quadrupeds, the Koala
+does not flee upon the approach of man, and that it is very tenacious
+of life. Even when severely wounded it will not quit its hold of the
+branch upon which it may be. The animal has a nice thick fur, which
+nearly hides the ears, and the pouch is large. A careful examination of
+the animal shows that it differs from the Kangaroos and Wombats; it is
+more like the latter than the former, but it is sufficiently distinct
+to be placed in another family, the Phalangers, in which the incisors
+are six above and two below, and there are two canines in the upper
+jaw, and in some, two in the lower jaw, but not in all. There are two
+premolars above and below, and either six or eight molars in the upper
+and lower jaws. The head is rather small, and the face is short, the
+upper lip being cleft. The limbs are equal; the fore feet have five
+well-made toes with compressed and curved claws; the hind feet have
+five toes, of which the first or inner one is large, nailless, and at
+right angles to the rest, and opposable to them. The second and third
+toes are shorter than the others, and are united in a common skin,
+and they have nails. The fourth and fifth toes are curved and have
+compressed claws. The name Phalangista is derived from this union by
+skin of the phalanges of the foot. The tail may be absent, or long, and
+more or less prehensile, but sometimes not.
+
+[Illustration: KOALA.]
+
+There is a well-developed pouch, and the stomach is simple, and the
+cæcum is usually very long and large. One young one is produced at a
+birth.
+
+The Koala, or Native Bear,[99] may be taken as the type of the tailless
+group, and it belongs to the genus _Phascolarctus_.
+
+The CUSCUS, or Ursine Phalanger,[100] belongs to a second division, for
+it has a prehensile tail. They are common animals in the dense woods
+of the Island of Celebes. They squat on the branches half asleep by
+day, but are lively enough at night, and it is said that they have a
+fancy for flesh as well as fruit. A pretty spotted Cuscus inhabits the
+islands of Amboyna, Waigeoe, Banda, and New Guinea, as well as Cape
+York.[101] They are dull in captivity, but when placed together they
+fight with fury, growling like Cats, and biting. They have small red
+eyes with a vertical pupil, short ears, and a very stupid look. They
+are all nocturnal in their habits, and feed on fruit, buds, leaves,
+meat, and eggs.
+
+One of the Phalangers, called _Cuscus albus_, is abundant in New
+Ireland, Amboyna, Banda, and Timor, and is remarkable for its peculiar
+odour. The male is white, and the female reddish-brown in colour, both
+being about the size of a common Rabbit. It is slow in its movements,
+lives in trees, and takes good care to conceal itself, but its scent
+discovers it. The naturalists Lesson and Garnet stated that when
+they traversed the forests of the island the odour of the Cuscus was
+distinctly perceptible. It is stated that if these animals see any one,
+they suspend themselves at once by the tail, and if they are looked at
+steadfastly, they will drop by-and-by from fatigue, and are then easily
+caught; in fact, they pretend to be dead.
+
+[Illustration: CUSCUS.]
+
+
+THE VULPINE PHALANGER.[102]--THE BRUSH-TAILED “OPOSSUM.”
+
+Waterhouse describes this Marsupial to be about the size of a Cat, but
+in shape it is somewhat between a Squirrel and a Marten. It has long
+and somewhat pointed ears; and the tail, clothed with bushy, harsh,
+black fur, except beneath, near the end, where it is naked, is about as
+long as the body. The limbs are rather short, the muzzle is moderately
+long and foxy-looking, and the whole body and head, except the naked
+muzzle, are covered with a grey and black fur. The moustaches are long,
+numerous, and black, and the feet are yellowish-white, and the naked
+soles are flesh-coloured, the nails being dusky. The pupil of the eye
+is round and intensely dark in colour. They sleep during the day, and
+become active during the evening, and on the alert for their food,
+which consists, in the Zoological Gardens, of bread and milk, fruit and
+vegetables. They hold up the solid food between the hands as a Squirrel
+holds a nut, and nibble very much in the same manner. Their native
+haunts are New South Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia.
+They inhabit the large trees, usually the Eucalypti, selecting such as
+have the heart of the branches or trunk decayed, and they take refuge
+there during the daylight. At night they leave their nests and climb
+the branches of the trees which yield them buds and fruit. They descend
+to the ground for food, and doubtless now and then eat snails and small
+birds. When climbing they use the tail to hold by, and carefully grasp
+every support with it before they let go with their feet or hands. A
+brown-black species, closely allied, lives in Van Diemen’s Land.[103]
+
+[Illustration: VULPINE PHALANGER.]
+
+
+THE DORMOUSE PHALANGER.[104]
+
+This is a very small Marsupial animal, about six inches in length,
+including the tail, which measures nearly, if not quite, one-half. It
+is like a little Dormouse, with its soft fur, ashy-grey in colour,
+large ears, and thick tail. They are broader, not so long in the leg,
+and usually larger than the Dormouse, and the eyes are larger, and the
+upper jaw overhangs the lower. But they look just as fat and sleepy
+in the daytime. The habits of these animals, moreover, are much the
+same, for the Phalangista living in Van Diemen’s Land feeds on nuts
+and other similar food, which they hold in their fore paws, using them
+as hands. They are nocturnal, remaining asleep during the whole day,
+or, if disturbed, are not easily roused into a state of activity. They
+come forth in the evening, and are then more easy and rapid in their
+movements. Some of these were kept in the Zoological Gardens of London,
+and it was noticed that they made great use of their tail, which is
+prehensile, and thus not like that of the Dormouse. They ran about a
+small tree, using their paws and tail to hang on by, and using the tail
+as a suspender when they descended. Sometimes the tail is thrown in a
+reverse direction, and is turned over the back, and at other times,
+when the weather is cold, it is rolled closely up towards the under
+part, and coiled up almost between the thighs. They are like little
+balls of fur, and are very gentle and harmless.
+
+Mr. Gould states that another kind of these Dormouse-looking creatures
+is very abundant in the northern portion of Van Diemen’s Land, and that
+of all trees it appears to prefer the Banksia, whose numerous blossoms
+supply it with a never-ceasing store of food, both of insects and
+sweets. It undergoes a kind of hibernation somewhat similar to but not
+to the extent of that of the Dormouse.
+
+These pretty little marsupials are remarkable by having only three
+true molar teeth in each jaw on both sides; but they have the usual
+two narrow, long, and pointed incisors in the lower jaw. The auditory
+bullæ on the base of the skull are large, and the hard palate has
+four openings in it. The lower jaw is slender behind, and the angular
+process is inflected, the process of bone being, however, slender and
+pointed. Their mouse-like shape is evident, but they have a large eye,
+and the ears are often more or less crumpled and pendent, but they
+start up and are erect at the least noise. There are three species of
+these Phalangistidæ, and they are included in a sub-genus, Dromicia.
+They live in Van Diemen’s Land, Western Australia, and South Australia.
+Some which were found in King George’s Sound district live in retreats
+under the dead bark of trees, and in holes in trees which have been
+burnt out.
+
+
+THE FLYING PHALANGERS.
+
+The next genus of the family Phalangistidæ contains the Flying
+Phalangers, which form the genus Petaurus. They have all the
+peculiarities of the Phalangers, and also a skin on the flank of the
+body, which is extended between the fore and hind legs, which serves
+to sustain the animal in the air, when descending from a height.
+They have a long hairy tail. The Yellow-bellied Flying Phalanger
+(_Petaurus australis_, Shaw) may be taken as the type of the genus,
+and is fourteen inches long in the body, and nineteen in the tail. The
+peculiar fold of fur, which is its flying machine, is attached to the
+fore leg as far as the elbow, and all down the legs to the great toe.
+It is common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
+along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. Mr. Gould states, in
+addition to this, “In these vast forests, trees of one kind or other
+are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of
+blossoms, upon which the animal feeds. The flowers of the gum-trees,
+some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites,
+and, like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits,
+dwelling in holes of trees and in the hollows of branches during the
+day, and displaying the greatest activity at night, while running over
+the small leafy branches, sometimes even to their very extremities,
+in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its
+structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends
+to the ground, except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant
+to be attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops
+of the trees are traversed at a pace and with as much ease as if it
+were on the ground. If chased, it ascends to the highest branches, and
+performs enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful
+address.”
+
+A slight elevation gives its body an impetus, which, with the expansion
+of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always
+ascending a little at the extremity of the leap. By this ascent the
+animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise
+sustain.
+
+
+THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.[105]
+
+This little creature, called the Sugar Squirrel by the colonists, is
+very generally dispersed over the whole of New South Wales, where, in
+common with other Phalangers, it inhabits the magnificent gum-trees.
+Mr. Gould states that it is nocturnal in its habits, and that it
+conceals itself during the day in the hollows of trees, where it early
+falls a prey to the natives, who capture it both for the sake of its
+flesh and skin, which latter, in some parts of the colony, they dispose
+of to the colonists, who occasionally apply it to the same purposes as
+those to which the fur of the Chinchilla and other animals is applied
+in Europe. At night it becomes extremely active in its motions. It
+prefers those forests which adorn the more open and grassy portions of
+the country rather than the thick brush near the coast. By expanding
+the membrane attached to the sides of its body it has the power of
+performing enormous leaps. They have the power of changing their
+course to a certain extent when descending, parachute-like, from a
+height. It is stated that a ship sailing off the coast had a Squirrel
+Petaurus on board which was permitted to roam at large. On one occasion
+it reached the mast-head, and as the sailor who was sent to bring it
+down approached, it made a spring from aloft to avoid him. At this
+moment the ship gave a lurch, which, if the original direction of the
+little creature’s course had been continued, must have plunged it in
+the sea. All who witnessed the scene were in pain for its safety; but
+it suddenly appeared to check itself, and so to modify its career
+that it alighted safely on deck. This kind is not more than eight or
+nine inches in length, and its bushy tail is as long as the body. The
+soft fur of the tail, like that of the body, is a delicate ashy-grey.
+There is a long stripe of black fur from the naked tip of the nose to
+the root of the tail, and the cheeks are white with a black patch;
+the flank membrane is edged with white, and this is the colour of the
+underneath part of the body; the ears are long, and of a brownish flesh
+colour.
+
+Another kind, with a yellow flank membrane, is short-headed, and
+it inhabits Port Essington, North Australia,[106] whilst the true
+Short-headed Flying Phalanger is found in New South Wales.[107]
+Probably it is the first of these which is found in New Guinea, and
+which has been called the Squirrel Flying Phalanger by mistake. These
+Flying Phalangers all have long and nearly naked ears, and the side
+membrane extends to the outer finger. They have the outer two fingers
+of the hand long and equal to each other, or very nearly so; the second
+and third fingers are distinctly shorter than these; and the inner
+finger is very short. Their dentition is--Incisors, (6/2); canines,
+(1-1)/(0-0); premolars, (3-3)/(4-4); true molars, (4-4)/(4-4) = 40. The
+incisors of the lower jaw are, as usual, long and pointed, and almost
+horizontal, whilst the upper incisors are large and dilated, so far
+as the anterior ones are concerned, and the next is smaller than the
+hindmost. The canine is large, and separated from the first premolar,
+which is large and compressed, and all the molars have rounded
+tubercles on them.
+
+[Illustration: SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.]
+
+The OPOSSUM MOUSE[108] of the colonists of New South Wales used to be
+common in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. It is about the size of a
+common Mouse, and of an ashy brown and grey colour on the upper parts
+and on the flank membrane; the rest is white. It belongs to the Flying
+Phalangers, but its side membrane scarcely extends to the wrist, and
+the thumb of the hind foot is large. It has only three true molars in
+each jaw on both sides, and the canine is close to the incisors. It
+forms part of the sub-genus Acrobata, whilst those already mentioned
+constitute the sub-genus Belideus (βέλος, a dart). Finally, the
+short-eared, white-bellied Taguan Phalanger of the scrub of New South
+Wales is the type of the sub-genus _Petaurus_.
+
+
+GENUS TARSIPES.--THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT.[109]
+
+This is an Australian curiosity amongst the Marsupials, and is a small,
+mouse-like thing, with a long muzzle, small ears, long tongue, and
+very few teeth. Its dental formula is--Incisors, (2-2)/(2); canines,
+(1-1)/(0-0); molars, (3-3)/(3-3). The fore and hind extremities have
+toes something like those of the Lemur, called Tarsius (Vol. I., page
+248). The fore feet have five smallish toes, each thickened at the end,
+and a minute scale-like nail, which reaches neither the end nor sides
+of the toe. The hind feet have five toes on each, and the innermost
+has the formation of a thumb, and is slender and nailless. The second
+and third toes are very short, and are joined to the end and furnished
+with small pointed nails, which are directed upwards almost at right
+angles to the plane of the toe; and the fourth toe is twice as long as
+the second and third. The fifth is shorter than the fourth, and has a
+scale-like nail on the upper surface. This is the case with the fourth
+also. There is a long, slender tail. The small bones of this little
+honey-sucker are very thin, and the lower jaw has two slender and
+almost straight sides, and the inflection is wanting.
+
+This little animal is rare, but it is to be found in West Australia,
+from Swan River to King George’s Sound. It is nocturnal in its habits,
+and catches flies in captivity with great ease. But its food is honey,
+which it gets like a moth, with its tongue. The tail is prehensile, and
+the little pouch contains four mammæ in the female.
+
+The little Tarsipes, with its honey and insect diet, has a very
+long intestine and no cæcum, whilst the Koala has a cæcum more than
+three times the length of its body. The pigmy Acrobata has this
+organ disposed in a spiral curve in the left lumbar region. The
+marsupial bones are large in the Koala, and are long, broad, and
+flat, almost equalling the iliac bone in size. Finally, with regard
+to the parachute-fold of skin on the flanks of the Petaurists, it is
+a simple fold with very elastic tissues within, which draw it up to
+the body, more or less, when the animal is walking or standing. When,
+however, the limbs are extended after a jump, the membrane becomes very
+tense, and acts by increasing the surface of the body so as to oppose
+gravitation by the supporting power of the air.
+
+
+IV.--FAMILY PERAMELIDÆ.--POUCHED BADGERS.
+
+This group of Marsupials embraces two genera, Perameles and Chœropus,
+the first having several species and the last but one. They have all
+long, slender heads; large, long ears, with fleshy lobes; longer hind
+than fore limbs; the tail short in some, long in others, and hairy; and
+the pouch is directed backwards. They have a considerable number of
+teeth, there being ten incisors in the upper jaw and six in the lower;
+there are two canines in each jaw, three premolars in each jaw on
+either side, and four true molars behind them, making forty-eight teeth
+in all. The teeth have fangs, the premolars are compressed and pointed,
+and the molars have tubercles on them. The stomach is simple.
+
+
+GENUS PERAMELES (BANDICOOTS).--THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES.[110]
+
+The so-called native Rabbit of the Swan River district of Western
+Australia is abundant in the grassy country in the interior; and it
+frequents, in pairs, places where the soil will permit of burrowing.
+It is about the size of a common Rabbit, and has a long and pointed
+muzzle, which is naked at the tip. It has long, oval ears, which are
+tubular at the base. The eye is small, and the tail is a little shorter
+than the body. The legs are longish, and the fur is well grown.
+
+This sharp-looking animal lives upon insects, and its favourite food
+is a large grub, probably the larvæ of a species of Buprestis beetle
+which infest the roots of the acacia trees. In order to obtain this
+peculiar food, it has to compete with the natives, who like it also,
+and often enough it has to rush to its long and deep burrows for
+safety. Its flesh is sweet, and is much sought after by the aborigines.
+One which was kept at the Zoological Gardens was very active in the
+evening, but usually slept during the day-time, when, sitting upon its
+haunches, with its head thrust between its hind legs, it appeared like
+a ball of fur. It was a very savage animal, and bit severely, holding
+on, moreover, if it could, with its teeth. It waddled on its hind legs
+alone, which were straddled, and the tail assisted in supporting the
+body. They have five toes to the fore-foot, of which the two outermost
+are rudimentary and nailless, the remaining three are well developed,
+and are furnished with strong solid nails, which cover the last
+phalanges which are cleft above in the longitudinal direction almost to
+the root. The hind feet have a rudimentary inner toe, the second and
+third are joined and are slender, and have two hollow nails, and the
+fourth is large and, like the fifth, which is well developed, has a
+solid nail sheathed on the end bone.
+
+
+GUNN’S PERAMELES.--THE BANDICOOT.[111]
+
+This is the animal which has given the native name to the genus, and
+Mr. Gunn, who discovered the species, informed Mr. Waterhouse that it
+is common in many parts of Van Diemen’s Land, going by the name of
+Bandicoot. It is a burrower, and lives principally upon roots, and it
+likes the bulbs which are introduced from the Cape and elsewhere into
+gardens. It is about sixteen inches long, and has a slender muzzle,
+moderate-sized ears, and the under parts of the body are white, the
+rest being grey and pencilled with black and yellow, except behind,
+where it is blacker. There are four broadish white bands on this part.
+
+
+THE BANDED PERAMELES.[112]
+
+[Illustration: BANDED PERAMELES.]
+
+This is a pretty little Perameles with a body about a foot in length,
+and a tail of about four inches long. It has rather a sharp and long
+snout, rather large ears, which are broad at the base, and long and
+pointed at the tip. The fur is longish and harsh, and is pencilled with
+black and yellow in about equal proportions on the upper part of the
+body, there being a black ground colour on the hinder part of the back.
+There, however, there are three broad yellow-white bands, the foremost
+of which crosses the back. The feet and under parts are white, and the
+tail is of the same colour underneath, but black on the top. The feet
+are slender, and the hind ones have a rudimentary inner toe, naked
+beneath, in front, and at the heel. In the skeleton this inner toe has
+one or two phalanges, and a small tubercle without a nail is visible
+before the flesh is removed. It inhabits Southern Australia from east
+to west. This kind resembles the Bandicoot of Van Diemen’s Land on the
+other side of Bass Strait, and may be considered its representative. It
+is smaller than the Van Diemen’s Land species, but its tail is longer;
+moreover, the ear exceeds those of the insular forms in size. Like
+the other Perameles, the pouch for the young opens backwards. “Though
+provided with strong claws it rarely burrows,” says Mr. Krefft, “and
+it is a great enemy to little Rodents. It tumbles the Mice about with
+its fore paws, breaks their hind legs, and eats the head.” New Guinea
+contains a short-legged Perameles,[113] which appears to be deficient
+in the usual number of upper incisor teeth; and another[114] resembling
+the common Bandicoot.
+
+
+GENUS CHŒROPUS.--THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES.[115]
+
+A very rare little, large-eared, small-legged animal was found by Sir
+Thomas Mitchell on the banks of the River Murray, and its appearance
+was so remarkable that much attention was paid to its anatomy, whilst
+unfortunately nothing particular was learned regarding its natural
+history and habits. Subsequently the little creature, whose body is
+about nine inches and a half long, the tail measuring in addition
+about four inches, was found in the interior of the country near the
+Swan River. It is an active little animal, and a hunter of insects,
+but it will feed upon vegetable substances also. Mr. Gould states
+that, like the Perameles, to which it is allied in many parts of its
+construction, it forms a nest composed of leaves and other substances.
+The pouch is deep and runs upwards, and not like that of the Kangaroo,
+and there are eight teats. At first there was much discussion whether
+the animal had a tail, but there is no doubt about its possessing one
+when in the perfect condition. The slender fore limbs, no thicker than
+goose-quills, end in two very small digits, and they are provided
+with small, compressed, and but little curved nails. They have a
+small fleshy pad on their under surface, behind which is a smaller
+one. The hind legs are longer than the front ones, and are almost as
+slender. The foot is long, and at first sight appears to have only
+one large toe, for the others are very small and far removed from the
+end of the foot. The outer little toe has a small nail, and the inner
+toes, joined, are almost as small, but they have hollow nails. The
+greatly-developed toe has a conical and compressed nail, but beneath
+there is a large fleshy pad; the rest of the foot is hairy. Hence it
+appears that the heel is not put to the ground. The colour of the long,
+loose, soft fur is brown-grey above, and yellowish-white beneath, the
+limbs and the fore feet have a whitish tint, and the large toe is of a
+dirty white colour. So far as the skull and teeth are concerned, the
+little Chœropus greatly resembles the other kinds of Marsupials which
+are classified under the genus Perameles. Sir Thomas Mitchell noticed
+the broad head and very slender snout, which, he stated, resembled the
+narrow neck of a wide bottle, in the specimen which the natives took
+from a hollow tree after chasing it on the ground. In the construction
+of the skull and in the number of the teeth, this long-eared creature
+resembles the rest of the genus Perameles. In the upper jaw there are
+five incisor teeth on each side, and they are close, and the canine
+is small, and resembles a premolar, and is slightly distant from the
+incisors. The first premolar is separated from the canine by a space
+of one line and a half, and slightly from the second premolar; and the
+second and third premolars and the four molars form a continuous line.
+
+
+V.--THE DASYURUS FAMILY.--DASYURIDÆ.
+
+These animals are all carnivorous, and prey upon small quadrupeds and
+the young of large ones, as well as upon birds and insects. They are
+of different shapes and sizes, according to the genera to which they
+may belong; and whilst some resemble the Shrew Mice somewhat in outward
+appearance, others are like the Marten, and one important group may be
+compared with Short-legged Wolves, or Jackals. Varying in size from
+that of a Mouse to a small Wolf, the members of the different genera
+of this family are equally variable in the number of the teeth, of the
+claws, and in the development of the marsupial pouch and its bones.
+They all have rather long muzzles and furry tails, which, however,
+are not prehensile. The second and third toes of the hind feet are
+disunited and well developed, and the thumb-toe is small or absent.
+There are eight incisors in the upper jaw, and six in the lower.
+
+
+GENUS MYRMECOBIUS.--THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS.[116]
+
+The BANDED MYRMECOBIUS may be taken as an example of this genus. It is
+about the size of a Rat, but it is more Squirrel-like in shape, and has
+a long and pointed muzzle. The tail is long and furry, with long hairs
+also; and the prevailing colour of the body is reddish, but posteriorly
+it becomes dark or black. There are nine bands of light or white
+colour on the sides of the body, from the back over the flanks, and
+the crupper is also marked with a band. The head is long, the ears are
+moderately long, narrow, and pointed, the gape is considerable, and the
+small pointed snout has some rather long smellers; there are also some
+long hairs under the eye. A black mark runs on the cheek to the ear,
+and has white hairs above and below it. The fur is somewhat remarkable.
+The under hair is scanty and whitish-grey, and the upper hair is rather
+coarse, short, and depressed on the fore parts of the body. It is long
+on the hind and under parts, and the hairs on the fore part of the back
+are black near the skin and reddish at the tip. The fur of the head
+is short and brownish above, being composed of a mixture of black,
+fulvous, and a few white hairs. The fore legs are rather stout and
+strongly made, and the five curved and compressed claws are admirably
+adapted for its method of life, which consists of insect-hunting by
+digging. The hind limbs are suited to support the weight of the animal,
+as it scratches with the fore feet, but they are deficient in the first
+toes. The whole animal is about seventeen inches long, seven inches
+being included in the tail. This animal has a greater number of teeth
+than any other Marsupial, and, indeed, they are only surpassed by some
+Cetacea and Edentate Ant-eaters amongst the other Mammalia. There
+are fifty-two teeth in the mouth--namely, eight upper and six lower
+incisors, four canines, six compressed false molars behind the canines
+above and below, and ten small true molars above, and twelve below. The
+canines of the lower jaw are incurved, and the last lower molars are
+worn in ridges internally. The number of teeth appears, however, to be
+variable, and some have fifty-four and others less than fifty.
+
+The Myrmecobius, although it has the inflected condition of the lower
+jawbone and small marsupial bones, not more than half an inch in
+length, has no pouch. The young adhere to the mother’s nipples, and are
+protected by the comfortable fur and long hair of her body.
+
+The Banded Myrmecobius was first discovered by Lieutenant Dale, who
+procured a specimen whilst on an exploring expedition into the interior
+of the Swan River Settlement, about ninety miles to the south-east
+of the mouth of the river. Two specimens of this very elegant little
+animal were seen by Lieutenant Dale, both of which fled to hollow trees
+for shelter upon being pursued. The district in which they were found
+abounded in decayed trees and ant-hills; and, from some peculiarities
+in the dentition of the animal, combined with its extremely long and
+slender tongue, it became evident that its food was insects, and the
+softer and smaller species, for procuring which, by scratching up the
+earth, the strong fore feet and claws appeared to be adapted. Indeed,
+the peculiarities of structure, combined with the fact that the animal
+was found in the vicinity of ant-hills, suggested that its food, in all
+probability, consisted chiefly of Ants: and hence the generic name.
+As yet, however, we have no direct evidence that Ants form the chief
+food of the Myrmecobius, though it is stated, in Mr. Gould’s “Mammals
+of Australia,” that wherever this animal takes up its abode, there
+Ants are found to be very abundant. In the same work the following
+particulars of the habits of the animal are given from the pen of Mr.
+Gilbert:--
+
+“I have seen a good deal of this little animal. It appears very much
+like a Squirrel when running on the ground, which it does in successive
+leaps, with its tail a little elevated, every now and then raising
+its body and resting on its hind feet. When alarmed, it generally
+takes to a dead tree lying on the ground, and before entering the
+hollow, invariably raises itself on its hind feet to ascertain the
+reality of approaching danger. In this kind of retreat it is easily
+captured; and when caught, is so harmless and tame as scarcely to make
+any resistance, and never attempts to bite. When it has no chance of
+escaping from its place of refuge, it utters a sort of half-smothered
+grunt, apparently produced by a succession of hard breathings.
+
+“The female is said to bring forth her young in a hole in the ground or
+in a fallen tree, and to produce from five to nine in a litter. I have
+not myself observed more than seven young attached to the nipples.” It
+is not nocturnal in its habits.
+
+With regard to the range of the genus Myrmecobius, Mr. Gould states
+that it is very generally dispersed over the interior of the Swan River
+Settlement, from King George’s Sound on the south to the neighbourhood
+of Moor’s River on the north, and as far westward as civilised man has
+yet been able to penetrate. Its species are also found near the Murray
+and Darling.
+
+This many-toothed Ant-eating Marsupial has always been interesting to
+geologists, for in the Stonesfield slates of the Oolitic formation of
+England, which lie low down in the Great Oolite, the lower jaws of an
+animal have been found greatly resembling those of Myrmecobius. The
+fossil Amphitherium has the jaws but slightly inflected, and is not
+without resemblance to insectivorous creatures; but, nevertheless, its
+similarity to Myrmecobius struck Owen and Lyell many years since.
+
+
+GENUS DASYURUS.--THE URSINE DASYURE.[117]
+
+Being a great enemy of the poultry and tender rearlings of the
+colonists of Van Diemen’s Land, this small creature has earned the
+name of the “Native Devil.” It may be compared to a Bear, with a body
+about two feet in length, and the resemblance is tolerably correct in
+the fur, general proportions of the body and limbs, and also in its
+gait and its actions. The Dasyure, however, has a longer tail than the
+Bear, and never grows larger than a Badger. It is a short animal, with
+a round broad head and rather a long snout, and the coarse black fur
+(brown-black on the head, tail, and beneath) is marked by one broad
+white band across the chest and by another over the back, close to
+the tail. The tail is about half the length of the head and trunk.
+Harris notices that these animals were very common on the British first
+settling at Hobart Town, and were particularly destructive to poultry,
+and Mr. Gunn states that they commit great havoc among Sheep, and that
+notwithstanding their comparatively small size, they are so fierce that
+they are a match for any ordinary Dog.
+
+[Illustration: DASYURE.]
+
+As the settlements increased in Tasmania, and the ground became
+cleared, the animals were driven from their haunts near the town
+to the deeper recesses of the forests yet unexplored. They were
+easily procured by setting a trap in the most unfrequented parts of
+the woods, baited with raw flesh, all kinds of which they will eat
+indiscriminately and voraciously. They also, it is probable, prey on
+dead fish and blubber, as their tracks are frequently found on the
+sands of the sea-shore. In a state of confinement they appear to be
+untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same time a low
+yelling growl. A male and female which Mr. Harris kept for a couple of
+months, chained together in an empty cask, were continually fighting.
+Their quarrels began as soon as it was dark, as they slept all day,
+and continued throughout the night almost without intermission,
+accompanied by a kind of hollow barking, not unlike that of a Dog, and
+sometimes a sudden kind of snorting, as if the breath were restrained
+a considerable time and then suddenly expelled. They frequently sat
+on their hind parts, and used their fore paws to convey food to their
+mouths. The muscles of the jaws were strong, and they crushed the
+largest bones asunder with ease.
+
+This Dasyure, like the others of the genus, has the incisor teeth
+equal, and there are eight of them in the upper jaw and six in the
+lower. The four canines are large, and there are two powerful premolars
+in each jaw and on each side. These are succeeded by four molars above
+and below, and on both sides of the mouth.
+
+The incisor teeth, equal in size, are arranged in a semicircle in the
+upper jaw, and those of the lower jaw have a corresponding direction,
+but they are rather the stouter. The canines are well developed, and
+those of the lower jaw bite in front of those of the upper. They look
+eminently adapted for stopping and seizing prey, and their carnivorous
+character is surpassed by that of the premolars and true molars. These
+last have a triangular grinding surface: the first has four sharp
+cusps, the second and third have five, and the last, which is the
+smallest in the upper jaw, has only three. In the lower jaw the last
+molar is of the same size as the last but one, and has four cusps; and
+the other molars have much resemblance to those in the upper jaw.
+
+The hind feet have the toes separate and not united by a fold of skin,
+and there is a rudimentary great toe in this species. The condyle of
+the humerus is not perforated--as in the Kangaroos, for instance--for
+the passage of the blood vessels, but is whole, and the outside of the
+bone is marked by a groove, along which they pass.
+
+Although this Dasyure has the lower jaw inflected, and is a true
+Marsupial, the resemblance in shape, and in dental and other
+characters, as well as in its habits, to the Carnivora is striking. Its
+fierce character and the nocturnal habits add to the similarity; but
+there are some very peculiar anatomical distinctions. The wrist bones,
+called scaphoid and lunar, those which are nearest the radius along
+the first row of carpal bones, are separate in the Dasyure, but in the
+Carnivora they are united to form one bone. And in the foot there is
+a peculiarity: for whilst in the Carnivora there is a groove between
+the heel bone and the astragalus, this is absent in the Marsupial
+Carnivore, and the articular surface of the bones is continuous.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE DASYURE.]
+
+The Dasyures have a small crest of bone on the top of the skull,
+which is also seen on a grander scale in the Carnivora. They have,
+moreover, the zygoma well developed and strong; it bulges outwards and
+curves upwards, but not to the amount seen in the true Carnivora. The
+occipital bone is developed as in the non-Marsupial mammals, but its
+parts, instead of joining together and forming one with age, often
+remain separate; but this does not appear to occur in all the species
+of the genus, for Owen, in his wonderful article on the Marsupials in
+the “Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,” notices that in the little
+_Dasyurus Maugei_ the occipital bone presents the usual state of bony
+confluence. He notices that the Dasyure, in common with some other
+Marsupials, has the temporal bone permanently divided into its several
+parts, there being separate squamous, petrous, and tympanic bones; but
+the petrous and mastoid parts are usually united. This is a reptilian
+peculiarity, but the tympanic bone of the Dasyure is not without its
+resemblances to those of birds. The surface on which the lower jaw
+moves or is hinged, is not composed entirely by the temporal bone, but
+the malar bone is slightly included, and even the sphenoid comes into
+the joint.
+
+Another marked character of the Dasyures is, that their hard palates
+are not whole, but have spaces and perforations, and this denotes a low
+organisation. This absence of a perfect hard palate is seen in other
+Marsupials, and especially in the Bandicoots (Perameles).
+
+The angular process of the lower jaw, where inflected or bent in, is
+triangular and directed upwards, with a blunt point; and the condyle of
+the jaw is low, being on a level with the molar teeth.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE DASYURE.]
+
+It is remarkable that the Dasyures should have the bones of the leg,
+the tibia and fibula, so connected together as to allow of a certain
+degree of rotation on each other, after the fashion of the fore-arm
+bones. The muscles of the leg are modified for the purpose. This
+interesting anatomical point recalls one of the great distinctions
+between the fixed leg bones of man and those of the hand-footed Ape.
+It is not found, however, in the non-Marsupial mammals, whose habits
+of life are simulated by the Dasyure; but it is found in the Wombat,
+a burrower, and in the Koala, Phalangers, and Opossums, which are
+climbers. In examining the stomachs of the Marsupials, Owen noticed
+that differences in food and habit are not met by alteration in the
+shape of the organ, as they are in the higher Mammalia. Thus, the
+common Dasyure, the insectivorous Bandicoot, and the leaf-eating
+Phalangers, have a full round, oval, or sub-triangular-shaped stomach,
+with the right extremity projecting beyond and below the pylorus. The
+length of the stomach seldom exceeds the height by more than one-third.
+No cæcum is found in the carnivorous Marsupial, and the intestine is
+short and wide, being continued, like the intestine of a reptile, along
+the margin of a single and simple mesentery, from the pylorus to the
+rectum (Owen). The liver has a gall-bladder in the Dasyure, and there
+is a pancreas as well as a spleen. The heart is contained in a slight
+pericardium, as in the other Mammalia. The Ursine Dasyure is found in
+Van Diemen’s Land only.
+
+There are several kinds of Dasyure, which have been carefully noticed
+and described. One is called the Long-tailed or Spotted Dasyure,[118]
+and is about the size of a Cat. The fur is reddish-brown, pencilled
+with yellow, and is spotted with white both on the body and on the
+tail. It has a tail as long as the head and body together, and the
+under parts of the body and the fore-legs and feet are of a dirty
+yellow tinge. It lives in Van Diemen’s Land, and was, from its shape,
+at first called a Marten. The teats are six in number, three on each
+side, and seated within a slight fold only of the skin, so that there
+is no true pouch.
+
+[Illustration: UPPER (A) AND UNDER (B) VIEW OF SKULL OF DASYURE.]
+
+
+MAUGE’S DASYURE.[119]
+
+This is a small animal, not larger than a half-grown Cat. It has a
+longish bushy tail, a broad head, and is somewhat of greyish-yellow
+colour. There are white spots on the sides of the body and tail. In
+confinement this little creature is torpid by day, but lively as
+evening comes on, and it rushes about, with its tail extended, with
+great rapidity. It is very injurious to the poultry when in a wild
+state, and is called the Wild Cat in Van Diemen’s Land. A variety of
+it is the Viverrine Dasyure, which has the head and body spotted with
+white, the general colour being brown, black, or grey, tinted with
+yellow, the under parts being white. It has long hairs to its tail;
+rather large ears, the flesh of which is of a pale pink, as is that of
+the naked lips, the tip of the nose, and the soles of the feet, the
+latter being hairless, but covered with small fleshy tubercles. There
+is no trace of an inner toe to the hind foot, unless it be a slight
+swelling of the flesh, marking the situation of the rudimentary bone
+beneath. Both of these animals are to be found in New South Wales and
+Van Diemen’s Land.
+
+The rest of the Dasyures are widely spread over the continent. The
+smallest kind is the North Australian Dasyure. Geoffroy’s Dasyure,
+which has a thin tail and an inner toe to the hind foot, inhabits
+Western and Southern Australia and New South Wales, is a great killer
+of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, and they hunt and kill Mice or Rats as
+well as any Cat. They have not a pouch.
+
+
+GENUS THYLACINUS.[120]--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.[121]
+
+This is a Dog-like, slim, narrow-muzzled animal, with clean and rather
+short limbs, a foxy head, and a tail about half as long as the body,
+which in males is forty-five inches in length. It is about the size of
+a Jackal, and the fur is short, but rather woolly and greyish-brown,
+faintly suffused with yellow in colour. The fur on the back is deep
+brown near the skin, and yellowish-brown towards the tip. It has from
+twelve to fourteen black bands on the body, and the tail has long hairs
+at the tip only. The eyes are keen, large, and full, and they are black
+and have a nictitating membrane. The animal walks half on its toes and
+half on its soles or palms, and thus is a semi-plantigrade, the body
+being brought nearer the ground than that of the Wolf in running. There
+is a marsupial pouch, but the bones are mere cartilages. The Dog-headed
+Thylacinus, or the Zebra-Wolf of the colonists of Van Diemen’s Land,
+thus described, has often been taken for one of the Carnivora, and
+certainly there are great resemblances between it and the Dogs. The
+canine teeth are of large size, but they are recurved at the top, and
+in the upper jaw are separated from the incisors by a space, into which
+the point of the lower canine fits when the jaws are closed. This is
+different in the Dogs, whose lower canine passes on the outer side of
+the upper one when the mouth is closed. The premolar of the Thylacinus
+has a small cusp behind, but in the lower jaw the premolars are
+isolated, and do not form a continuous cutting and masticating ridge.
+It is also to be remembered that this animal has a peculiar lower jaw,
+as it is one of the Marsupials, and the angle is inflected. It is a
+Marsupial, with some structures which foreshadow those of the more
+highly-developed Dog.
+
+[Illustration: DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.]
+
+Mr. Harris, who was the first to make this animal known, states that
+it lives among caverns and rocks, in the deep and almost impenetrable
+glens, in the neighbourhood of the highest mountains of Van Diemen’s
+Land. The specimen from which his description was taken was caught in a
+trap baited with Kangaroo’s flesh; it remained alive but a few hours,
+having received some internal hurt whilst being secured. From time
+to time it uttered a short guttural cry, and it appeared exceedingly
+inactive and stupid, and, like the Owl, had an almost continual motion
+of the nictitant membrane of the eye. Remains of an Echidna were found
+in the stomach of the animal. Waterhouse states, on the authority
+of Mr. Gunn, that these animals are common only in the remoter parts
+of the colony, and used to be frequently caught at Woolnooth and the
+Hampshire Hills. They attack the Sheep at night, but are occasionally
+seen during the daytime, upon which occasions, perhaps from imperfect
+vision, their pace is very slow. Mr. Gunn also observes that the
+Thylacinus sometimes attains so large and formidable a size, that a
+number of Dogs will not face it. That gentleman denies that the tail
+of the animal is compressed, as has been stated by some authors, and
+his observations do not confirm the aquatic habits which have been
+attributed to it. There are cartilages in the place of the marsupial
+bones; but the pouch is well developed in the female Thylacine, and
+there are four well developed teats, each four inches long, indicating
+that it may contain four young ones at a time. The marsupium, or pouch,
+opens backwards, not, as in the Kangaroos and most others, forwards.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.]
+
+
+GENUS PHASCOGALE (POUCHED WEASELS).--THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.[122]
+
+This genus includes many species of small Weasel-or Rat-like
+Marsupials. They are small, insectivorous, and climb shrubs and trees
+in pursuit of their prey. The largest known is about the size of a
+common Rat. The brush-tailed kind inhabits New South Wales, South
+Australia, and Western Australia, and is a pretty little animal, having
+a long and soft fur, of a grey colour above and white or yellow-white
+under the body. The eyes are encircled with black, and there is a pale
+spot above and below the eye, and the hairs are blackest along the
+middle of the head. The ear is rather large and not furry; the tail
+is about equal to the body in length, or seven inches to nine inches,
+and there is a portion near its end of about two inches in length,
+which is clothed with short, stiff hairs, and the rest has long and
+glossy hairs, sometimes an inch or two long. An insectivorous little
+creature, its teeth are modified to meet its diet, and they are less
+carnivorous than the other Dasyurids. They have the two foremost
+incisors of the upper and lower jaw larger than the others. There are
+three premolars in each jaw on each side, and eight molars above and
+below, which are studded with prickly tubercles, those of the upper
+jaw having triangular crowns. There are five toes to the fore and
+hinder extremities, and the inner toe of the latter is in the form of
+a small nailless prehensile thumb. The brain-case is large and the
+skull comparatively smooth. The species just noticed is said to enter
+the stores of the settlers, and it makes a nest in the hollows of the
+trunks of trees or in the branches. The female has no pouch, but ten
+teats covered with hair. It is the Tapoa Tafa of White, according to
+Krefft.
+
+Another species, about six inches long, not including a tail of three
+inches--the Freckled Phascogale--lives in the Swan River district
+and at King George’s Sound, being generally distributed over Western
+Australia. It has the fur freckled with black and white on the head
+and fore parts of the body. Mr. Gilbert found insect remains in
+its stomach, and he obtained a female specimen having seven young
+attached. They were little more than half an inch in length, and quite
+blind and naked. Above the teats of the mother is a very small fold of
+skin, from which the long hairs of the under surface spread downwards,
+and effectually cover and protect the young. This fold is the only
+approximation to a pouch which has been found in any species of this
+genus. The young are very tenacious of life, and those just mentioned
+lived nearly two days attached to the mammæ of the dead mother.
+
+[Illustration: BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.]
+
+The Yellow-footed Phascogale is a kind which inhabits New South
+Wales and South Australia, and the White-footed Phascogale and a
+closely-allied kind live in South Australia and Van Diemen’s Land. In
+New Guinea, which constitutes a part of the Australian natural history
+province, there is a black, short-eared, and short-furred kind, about
+the size of a Rat, called _Phascogale melas_.
+
+[Illustration: ANTECHINUS.]
+
+There is a little kind, measuring only three inches in length, with
+white fur everywhere, except on the upper parts, which are ashy grey;
+and in Western and Southern Australia there is one which has great
+ears, very slender limbs, and a short and thick fat tail. It looks like
+a large-eared, fat-tailed Mouse, and is under four inches in length.
+All these kinds of Phascogale, except the brush-tailed one, belong to a
+group with very short hairs on the tail, and are sometimes classified
+under the name Antechinus, the thick-tailed one being termed Podabrus;
+and they all have shallow pouches.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: OPOSSUM AND YOUNG.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE OPOSSUMS.
+
+  Prehistoric Opossums--Description of the Animal--Their
+  Teeth--Habits--THE COMMON OPOSSUM--Appearance--Use of its
+  Tail--Food--The Young--How they are Reared--D’AZARA’S OPOSSUM--THE
+  CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM--THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM--MERIAN’S
+  OPOSSUM--Pouchless Opossums--Their Young--THE MURINA OPOSSUM--THE
+  ELEGANT OPOSSUM--THE YAPOCK--Classification of Marsupial
+  Animals--Geographical Distribution of the Sub-Order--Ancestry of
+  the Marsupials--Fossil Remains.
+
+
+VI.--THE OPOSSUM FAMILY.--DIDELPHIDÆ.
+
+The Marsupial animals included in this family are not found in
+Australia or in Van Diemen’s Land, or in any part of the natural
+history province to which those countries belong. They are numerous,
+however, and are now living on the American continent; but formerly
+some inhabited Europe during that geological period which is called the
+Eocene. The Opossums are very rat-like in form, the largest species
+being about the size of a large Cat, but they have the snout more
+elongated; and in some species in which the individuals are large the
+body is proportionately stout, and on most there is a comfortable fur,
+with short and long hair. The tail is almost always very long, nearly
+destitute of hair, excepting at the root, and is covered with a scaly
+skin, there being a few scattered hairs. It is a useful organ, for the
+Opossums hang by it, and it assists them in climbing and descending
+trees, and in holding on, when they are young, to their parent. The
+ears are rather large and round, the eyes are placed rather high up
+in the face, and the long muzzle ends in a naked snout. The legs look
+short for the body. The feet are naked beneath; there are five toes,
+and the great toe is more or less opposable to the foot, and acts like
+a grasping thumb. Each toe is furnished with moderate-sized claws,
+excepting the inner toe of the hind foot, which is clawless. The
+Opossums are remarkable for the great number of their incisor teeth,
+there being ten in the upper and eight in the lower jaw, and they are
+arranged in a semicircular manner. The upper and two foremost incisors
+are rather longer than the rest, and are generally separated from them
+by a narrow space. They are nearly cylindrical and expanded at the tip.
+The canines are well developed, the upper ones being the largest. There
+are three premolars on each side of both jaws, and they have two roots,
+and are compressed and pointed. There is a posterior talon to them. The
+molars, eight in each jaw, have three roots, and those of the upper jaw
+have the crown of a triangular form and tubercular, whilst those of the
+lower jaw are longer than broad, and each has the appearance of five
+prickly cusps on its upper surface.
+
+[Illustration: TEETH OF THE OPOSSUM.]
+
+Some of the Didelphidæ have no marsupium, or pouch, or it is very
+slightly developed, and in these particular kinds the young, after
+having left the nipples, are carried on the back of the mother,
+retaining their position by twining their tails around hers. The mammæ
+are numerous: there may be as many as thirteen, an odd one being found
+in the centre of the ring of the other nipples.
+
+The Opossums are active, sly, and very intelligent in certain things,
+and their food consists of insects, small reptiles, birds, and eggs.
+Living for the most part in trees, they secrete themselves in the
+hollows of the branches and trunks during the daytime and sally forth
+in the night. They have a moderate-sized cæcum. It must be noticed that
+the great toe of the hind foot is well developed, has no nail, and
+enables the creature to grasp, and is thus very useful; and that they
+walk plantigrade. The ankle and leg have the same movements as in the
+Wombats, and the same general anatomy. If the members of the family
+are compared with those of the families which live in the Australian
+province, it will be found that they most resemble the Perameles and
+Dasyures. The Opossums may be divided into three groups: those whose
+pouch is well developed, those in which it is a mere fold, and those
+which have webbed feet and live in the water, like Otters.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.]
+
+
+THE COMMON OPOSSUM.[123]
+
+This is a large kind, and is about the size of a common Cat, and its
+long, large, pointed head, ending in a naked snout, and having eyes
+encircled in dusky brown fur amongst the white hair and fur of the
+head, gives it a very cunning and thoughtful appearance. The ears are
+black. The tail is long and prehensile, the end being white and the
+rest black, and the legs and feet are brownish. It is a great climber,
+and uses its tail almost as much as some of its Monkey companions.
+Running along the branches, it will often suspend itself by its tail,
+and give a swing and let go, thus launching its body to a distance, and
+then it catches at the boughs with its feet and unclawed but prehensile
+hind toe-thumb. In coming down trees it uses the tail to steady itself,
+and to prevent too rapid a fall; and in climbing, the ever-ready tail
+prevents mishaps, should the clawed toes not grasp sufficiently. The
+natural food of this Opossum is probably vegetarian, but it is a great
+birds’-nester; it will eat roots and fruits, but the early settlers
+found it very destructive to their poultry, for it catches the birds
+and sucks their blood, not eating the flesh: consequently, it has
+been much hunted, and as the fur and skin are sometimes used, the
+destruction of the Opossum has been great. It is a curious creature,
+and seems to have gained experience in its struggle with man, and as
+many stories are told of its cleverness as there are about Reynard the
+Fox and the Indian Jackal. It will sham death in a most persevering
+manner, and is at the same time very tenacious of life.
+
+The skull has strong temporal ridges, which form a sagittal crest, and
+the arch of the zygoma is well grown. The animal has a longer facial
+part of the skull and a smaller brain-case than the other Dasyures, and
+the brain has large olfactory or front lobes. The cerebral hemispheres
+are small, and there are no convolutions. This is essentially a North
+American animal, and is found from Mexico to the Southern States
+inclusive.
+
+The female brings forth from twelve to sixteen young at a time, and her
+nest, which is formed of dry grass, is usually at the root of a tree or
+bush. When first born, the young are said not to be more than a grain
+in weight, and blind, naked, and shapeless. They find the teats in the
+mother’s pouch, unless she places them on to them with her mouth, and
+they cling on so as not to be separated except by violence. In about
+five days, so rapid is their growth, they have reached the size of a
+Mouse, and all their parts are developed. They then leave the pouch,
+and return to suckle and when danger appears. During this time the
+female shows great attachment to her young; and Mr. Waterhouse, from
+whose work these descriptions are taken, states that she will suffer
+any torture rather than permit the pouch to be opened.
+
+[Illustration: CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.]
+
+
+AZARA’S OPOSSUM.[124]
+
+This is a smaller animal than the common or Virginian Opossum, but
+its tail is long in proportion to its body. It is the South American
+representative of its larger fellow species, and is found over a very
+wide extent of country. It was noticed by the celebrated naturalist
+D’Azara in Paraguay; Mr. Darwin found it at Maldonado, La Plata; and
+specimens have been obtained from the Brazils, Santa Fé de Bogota,
+and Bolivia. This is because it is not entirely a forest animal, but
+is found occasionally in the open country. It may be distinguished
+from the common Opossum by three distinct black marks on its head,
+by its large tail, one-third of which is covered with fur like that
+on the body. The rest of this important member is scaly, with small
+hairs springing from between, the scales being black in the second
+third, and white at the tip in colour. The habits of this Opossum are
+nocturnal, and it lies concealed by day in burrows in the ground or in
+thickets. At night it climbs trees to feed upon fruits and birds’ eggs.
+It will chase and catch sleeping birds, and suck their blood like a
+Weasel.
+
+
+THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.[125]
+
+A small Opossum, with a long black tail tipped with white, and a
+dull-coloured fur to its body, lives in Brazil and Guiana, and has a
+very omnivorous disposition. Preferring swampy situations, it lives
+mostly on the trees, hunts small birds and insects, and even catches a
+reptile now and then, but its fondness for the Crustacea of the swamps
+is proverbial, and hence its name of Crab-eater.
+
+Another species is interesting from being found in the part of
+California which adjoins Mexico. The Short-headed Opossum also belongs
+to this group, and is from the same locality. Besides these, there are
+several smaller pouch-bearing Opossums, without the long hair of those
+just mentioned, and they are from Brazil, Guiana, and Surinam--for
+instance, the Quica, the Naked-tailed, and the Four Spotted kinds. The
+Philander Opossum is a bird-hunter, and lives in Surinam.
+
+The next group of Opossums have no pouch, but there may be folds of the
+skin protecting the mammæ.
+
+
+THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM.[126]
+
+As its name implies, this pouchless Opossum has a very thick tail.
+Moreover, it has smaller ears than the other Opossums, and has a
+short head and short legs. The fur is made up of harsh hairs, which
+are close to the body, and there is but little under fur. Its colour
+is yellow-brown, but the eye and muzzle are brownish, and the tail,
+with the terminal two-thirds, is black, with the exception of a small
+white spot at the end. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay, and extends
+southwards to the River Plate. One of the Opossums was kept by D’Azara,
+who found it quiet, tame, and stupid; but having been fed on raw meat,
+and a parrot happening to come too close, it killed the bird in a
+moment. There are folds of skin in the lower part of the abdomen, but
+no pouch, and there are six mammæ.
+
+Another of the Opossums is called Merian’s Opossum, or _Didelphys
+dorsigera_, and it inhabits Surinam. It was described by Madame Merian
+in 1717, who represented it in her great book on insects with its young
+clustered on its back and hanging on to the mother’s tail, which was
+curved over its back, with their little tails.
+
+[Illustration: MERIAN’S OPOSSUM.]
+
+It is very curious that the young of these pouchless Opossums should
+resemble those of the whole order in being comparatively little
+advanced in their development at the time of their birth. The young
+are at first strongly attached to the teats of the mother, and when
+they are sufficiently strong and grown to leave them, occasionally she
+takes them off from the nipples and places them on her back. Here they
+cling on with their tails to hers. Hence the name of back-bearing, or
+Dorsigera, which is given to this kind.
+
+[Illustration: YAPOCK.]
+
+It was at first supposed that this method of carrying the young was
+restricted to this species, but subsequent experience has shown that
+several kinds do the same thing.
+
+Two or three other species of Opossum are interesting from their small
+size and habits. Thus the Murina Opossum (_Didelphys murina_), with a
+very long tail, inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. The body is
+about five inches in length, and the tail is either slightly longer or
+about the same. Yet this little thing attacks birds and insects; it
+burrows in the ground, and climbs trees to get its insect food.
+
+The Elegant Opossum (_Didelphys elegans_), of Chili, is still smaller
+than the last, and frequents the thickets growing on the rocky hills
+near Valparaiso. They are numerous, or were so when Mr. Darwin observed
+them, and are easily caught in traps baited with cheese or meat. The
+tail appeared to be rarely, if at all, used as a prehensile organ;
+yet they could run up trees with some degree of facility. It is an
+interesting fact that some of the smallest Opossums prey upon Lizards
+and Snakes as large, and even heavier, than themselves.
+
+The last section of the Opossums contains the Water Opossum.
+
+
+THE YAPOCK.[127]
+
+This animal has a perfect pouch, and has large hind feet, the toes of
+which are united by a web. The fore feet are moderate-sized, and the
+pisiform bone is unusually long. Its habits are aquatic. The Yapock
+has large naked ears, and a long, almost naked, tail, and is altogether
+rather larger than the common Rat. Its method of life is very much
+the same as that of the Otter. It is a good diver, and feeds upon
+crustaceous and other aquatic animals. It is a native of Guiana and
+Brazil.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Marsupial animals assume the general shape and habits of many
+orders of Mammalia which have no marsupium, and which live in the other
+great natural history provinces. Thus there are Marsupial animals
+like Dogs, Rats, Squirrels, Flying Squirrels, Deer, &c. They have,
+therefore, many methods of life as a group, and, as might be expected,
+the brain and nervous system present many differences in them. In all,
+the front lobes of the brain which deal with the sense of smell are
+very large, and in some, such as in the Carnivorous Marsupials, they
+are exposed, and not covered by the main mass of the brain. In the
+Kangaroos, however, these olfactory lobes are hidden more or less.
+These last also have well-marked convolutions on the brain which are
+nearly wanting in those first mentioned.
+
+The Marsupial animals just considered have been classified to a certain
+extent during their descriptions, but it is necessary to recapitulate.
+They are arranged in groups of genera or species, or into families.
+They are as follows:--
+
+
+ORDER MARSUPIALIA.--SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.
+
+                        { Genus Macropus          Kangaroos.[128]
+  Family MACROPODIDÆ    {   „   Dendrolagus       Tree Kangaroos.
+                        {   „   Hypsiprymnus      Potoroos.
+                        {   „   Hypsiprymnodon    The Hypsiprymnodon.
+
+    „    PHASCOLOMYIDÆ      „   Phascolomys       The Wombat.
+
+                        {   „   Phascolarctus     The Koala.
+                        {                       { The Cuscus.
+    „    PHALANGISTIDÆ  {   „   Phalangista     { Dormouse Phalanger.
+                        {                       { Phalangers.
+                        {   „   Petaurus          Flying Phalangers.
+                        {   „   Tarsipes          Tarsipes.
+
+    „    PERAMELIDÆ     {   „   Perameles         Bandicoots.
+                        {   „   Chœropus       Chœropus.
+
+                        {   „   Myrmecobius       Ant-eaters.
+    „    DASYURIDÆ      {   „   Phascogale        Phascogale.
+                        {   „   Dasyurus          Dasyures.
+                        {   „   Thylacinus        Dog-headed Thylacinus.
+
+    „    DIDELPHIDÆ     {   „   Didelphys         Opossum.
+                        {   „   Chironectes       Yapock.
+
+The Macropodidæ, Phalangistidæ, Peramelidæ, and Dasyuridæ are found
+living somewhere or other in the Australian distributional province,
+which includes the mainland, Tasmania to the south, and the Molucca
+and Arru Islands to the north, bounded by the Straits of Lombok, and
+Celebes, New Guinea, New Ireland, Timor, Amboyna, Banda, and Waigeoe.
+Each family is not represented fully, however, in all the remarkably
+separated divisions of the province. Thus the genera Macropus and
+Dendrolagus of the first family, Petaurus and Phalangista of the
+third, Perameles of the fourth, and Phascogale of the Dasyuridæ have
+been found in New Guinea; but in other islands, such as Celebes, and
+in those from Lombok to Timor, the genus Cuscus alone is represented.
+In the Moluccas, Cuscus and the genus Petaurus are found. In Van
+Diemen’s Land about one-half of the species are peculiar to the
+island, and the remainder are found also on the eastern districts
+of the mainland. It has Kangaroos, Potoroos, Wombats, Phalangers,
+Bandicoots, and three out of the four genera of Dasyuridæ. Western
+Australia, which is such a remarkable botanical province, and is so
+separated by desert and sand from the east, has numerous Kangaroos,
+Potoroos, Phalangers, Bandicoots, Phascogales, Dasyures; and, in
+common with South Australia, a Chœropus, whilst the genus Tarsipes is
+peculiar to it. The Wombat is found in Van Diemen’s Land and some of
+the islands in Bass Strait. It is found in the south and east of the
+mainland of Australia, but not to the west and north. Mr. Waterhouse
+notices that the Marsupials of the eastern districts are for the most
+part distinct from those of the opposite side of the continent, there
+being, when his great work, which has been so constantly referred to
+in this description, was written, but eight species out of upwards of
+sixty inhabiting the two provinces. South Australia is the habitat of
+more common species than elsewhere. The northern part of Australia has
+more species peculiar to it than the other divisions, and some of its
+Dasyuridæ especially, and species of Cuscus also, are found in the Arru
+and other islands to the north. The metropolis of the sub-genus Cuscus
+is in the Moluccas, where two species are widely distributed, or one is
+restricted to certain islands.
+
+The other divisions of the genus are represented by the Vulpine
+Phalanger, an animal with long loose fur, which inhabits New South
+Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia; by Cook’s Phalanger,
+of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. The genus Perameles, the
+Bandicoots, has species in Van Diemen’s Land, Australia, New Guinea,
+and in the Arru Islands, and the genus Petaurus has a corresponding
+distribution. The Didelphidæ are found in the United States,
+California, Mexico, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, Banda Oriental, and
+Chili; and Brazil is the country where they abound the most in species
+and individuals, the number diminishing to the north and south.
+
+The Marsupials have a great ancestry, and some of them lived when the
+continents and oceans of the earth were in very different relative
+positions to those they now occupy. Indeed, it is most probable that
+the fossil remains of the most ancient mammal belong to this order.
+There is a small double-fanged molar tooth of a mammal which was found
+by Plieninger, in 1847, contained in a jumble of shells and of the
+remains of reptiles and fishes in strata beneath the Lias formation of
+Diegerloch, near Stuttgart. It and another which was discovered close
+by, by the same professor, belonged to animals which were dead when
+this topmost stratum of the Trias, immediately beneath the Lias, was
+being formed. They are Triassic in age, therefore, and they somewhat
+resemble the back teeth of a fossil which was found subsequently in the
+Purbeck strata of England, and which evidently belonged to a Marsupial
+more or less resembling the existing Kangaroo-Rats or Potoroos, of
+the genus Hypsiprymnus. Later on, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
+discovered a small tooth belonging to the same extinct genus as that
+which included Plieninger’s fossil, namely, Microlestes; and its
+resemblance to one of Hypsiprymnus is even greater. Its position was
+high up in the Trias of Watchet in Somersetshire. Mr. Charles Moore, of
+Bath, had previously found many specimens of teeth of the same family
+in a fissure, down which they had been washed by the Triassic sea.
+
+A lower jaw of a small Mammal was found in the Trias of North America
+by Emmons; and it has on one side three incisors, one long canine, then
+a diastema, three premolars, and seven molars with three points. It is
+therefore one of the Myrmecobius group.
+
+After the age of the Trias, when there was much continuous land
+surface, Europe was broken up into a coral island tract, during the age
+of the collection of the Jurassic deposits. The islands were tenanted
+by many small Marsupials, four species of which have been discovered in
+the deposits of Stonesfield slate at the bottom of the Great Oolite.
+They belong to the extinct genera Amphitherium, Phascolotherium,
+and Stereognathus, and the first somewhat resembled the Myrmecobius
+of recent times; but all that can be said is that they belonged to
+Marsupial animals. Piled on the Stonesfield slates are many hundred
+feet of strata, and high up amongst them, in the Swanage and Purbeck
+districts, are deposits in which Messrs. Brodie and Beckles have found
+portions of the skeletons of numerous insectivorous Marsupials, of
+which the genera Spalacotherium, Plagiaulax, Triconodon, and Galestes
+are the most important. They were small, as a rule, and there has been
+much debate regarding their affinities with modern insectivorous forms,
+and they are still surrounded with doubt.
+
+The appearance of the Mammalia without pouches took place in the
+Eocene age, and in the Old and New World, and contemporaneously with
+them lived in France a kind of Opossum, some of whose bones were
+found in the strata of Montmartre, near Paris; and in later Tertiary
+strata other relics have been found. These are the only instances of
+a fossil Didelphid occurring out of the New World; and there, where
+the Opossums are now characteristic animals, they were present in the
+last geological age, for in the Brazilian latest deposits remains of
+several species of Didelphys have been found. Remains of these fossil
+Opossums have been found in the North American Pliocene deposits.
+The more ancient deposits of Australia have not yielded the remains
+of any of the animals which are now so peculiar to the province, but
+in the bone caves of the Wellington Valley, some two hundred and ten
+miles west of Sydney, Sir Thomas Mitchell discovered a mass of bones,
+forming a breccia with limestone, which contained numerous and most
+interesting Marsupial remains. In deposits of the same late age, and
+in bogs and gravels in Queensland, other remains were found. They were
+described by Sir R. Owen in one of his greatest works, and they belong
+to the Australian families of Marsupials, and not to the American
+Didelphidæ. As was usual elsewhere before the appearance of man on the
+earth, and contemporaneously with him for awhile, many of the kinds
+which resemble more or less those now living, or would be classified
+in the same family, and perhaps in the same genus, are gigantic. Owen
+distinguished among the bones those of large fossil Marsupials which
+belong to the Macropodidæ, and which may be arranged as subdivisions
+of the genus Macropus or Kangaroos, and of a powerful creature called
+Thylacoleo, or Pouched Lion, which must be admitted as a new section of
+the Macropodidæ, and whose habits were probably carnivorous, although
+there is much diversity of opinion on the subject, some of the most
+distinguished anatomists believing the creature to have been of an
+innocent disposition, although appearances are much against it. It is
+more closely allied to Plagiaulax, of the English Purbeck beds, than to
+any other form, and they well fit in between the genera Macropus and
+Hypsiprymnus.
+
+A huge Marsupial, with a skull three feet in length, with teeth, in
+front especially, on the Kangaroo plan, and with longer fore limbs and
+shorter hind ones than the last-named animal, was described by Owen.
+The pelvis, however, has but two sacral vertebræ, and its ilio-pubic
+process would ally it with the Macropodidæ. This Diprotodon was an
+herbivorous animal, and was of the size of a Rhinoceros. This great
+Marsupial had fore limbs which possessed the power of rotation, and it
+was not without some characters which are seen amongst the Wombats.
+It appears to have had a great range, for its remains have been found
+in the caverns in the Wellington Valley, at Welcome Springs, South
+Australia, Hergolt’s Springs, 500 miles north of Adelaide, near
+Melbourne, in the valley of the Condamine River, and widely over
+Queensland. A slightly smaller animal, called the Nototherium, also
+existed with the larger one.
+
+The species of this genus have no lower incisive tusks, and a very
+short chin; the angle of the jaw is curved inwards, and there were
+only four molar teeth on each side in both jaws, and they were with
+two strong roots or fangs. It was probably one of the Macropodidæ.
+Others of this family are allied to Dendrolagus, and form the genera
+Protemnodon and Sthenurus. The Wombat was represented in the age of the
+great Marsupials; and both large and small species, one being of the
+size of the Tapir, have been described from bones and teeth which were
+found in the cave deposits of Australia. Remains of a Marsupial animal,
+probably of the Vulpine Phalanger, were found in the same caves, as
+were also some referable to the genus Perameles, or Bandicoots, and
+to the Potoroos. Several fossil species of the family Dasyuridæ have
+been found in the Australian caves, and one of them is referable to a
+section of the genus Dasyurus, which at present is restricted to Van
+Diemen’s Land, it being somewhat like _Dasyurus ursinus_; moreover,
+probably, there was a species of Thylacinus present also. So far as is
+known from the researches of Owen amongst this wonderful cave fauna, no
+members of the family Didelphidæ occur there. They were American then,
+as they are now.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SUB-ORDER--MONOTREMATA.[129]
+
+THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.[130]
+
+  Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order--The lowest of
+  the Mammalian Class--THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA--An
+  Ant-eater, but not an Edentate--Its Correct Name--Description
+  of the Animal--Habits and Disposition--Manner of Using the
+  Tongue--Where it is Found--Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain,
+  Marsupial Bones--The Young--Species of Van Diemen’s Land and
+  New Guinea--THE WATER-MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS--The
+  most Bird-like Mammal--Various Names--Description--Their
+  Appearance and Movements in Water--Their Burrows--Habits of an
+  Individual kept in Confinement--Used by Natives as Food--How
+  they are Captured--The Young--A Family in Captivity--the
+  Snout--Jaws--Teeth--Tongue--Fore and Hind Feet--Heel--Spur--The
+  Shoulder Girdle--Breastbone--Concluding Remarks on the
+  Sub-orders--Postscript on the Monotremes.
+
+
+THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA.
+
+This animal is the first example of some Marsupial beasts which are
+separated into a sub-order, because, in addition to the marsupial
+bones, there are some internal points of construction which are more
+bird-and lizard-like than those of the Kangaroo tribes. It contains
+animals which are the lowest of the Mammalian class, and are found only
+in the Australian natural history province. The Porcupine Ant-eater, as
+its name implies, has somewhat the shape of a Hedgehog or Porcupine,
+and it is fond of burrowing with its peculiar limbs, as well as of
+eating Ants with the assistance of its long tongue. But its internal
+anatomy and the construction of the skeleton differ from those of the
+true Ant-eaters, which belong to the order Edentata. It was called
+Ant-eater by its first describer (Shaw) in 1792, but a few years
+afterwards it was decided to belong to the same group as an animal
+about to be described--the Duck-billed Platypus, or Water Mole--and
+Cuvier, whilst believing that they both belonged to a peculiar order,
+separated this false Ant-eater from the Water Mole as a species and
+genus. He called this Hedgehog-like creature Echidna, from the presence
+of a spur on the heel, which is perforated, and which was erroneously
+supposed to be poisonous, like the fang of a Viper (Ἔχιδνα). The
+correct name is the Long-spined Echidna, or the Porcupine Echidna
+(_Echidna hystrix_).
+
+[Illustration: PELVIC ARCH OF THE ECHIDNA.
+
+(_a_ _a_) Marsupial Bones.]
+
+The creature greatly resembles a Hedgehog with a very long snout, at
+first sight, but a slight examination will show that it differs much
+from the insect-eating and spiny little Hystrix. The Echidna is about
+a foot in length, and the upper part of its short body is covered with
+strong spines, and the rest is hairy, the front of the head, and the
+long, slender, and tapering snout being naked. The legs are short and
+strong, and the five toes of the fore leg have large and strong claws.
+This is in order to permit the creature to bury itself in sand and soft
+earth quickly, and this operation is assisted by a broad and rounded
+nail on the inner toe of the hind foot and by large claws on the other
+toes, and especially by a long nail to the second toe. A very long
+and flexible tongue enables the creature to catch prey. There are no
+teeth. The skull, when the skin and flesh have been removed, has a very
+pear-like appearance. It is a great burrower, and manages to get out of
+the way of observers as soon as is possible, for working actively with
+its strong limbs and claws, it pokes its snout into the earth and soon
+gets out of view. Ants are its favourite food, and they are captured
+in the same way as by the Great Ant-eaters belonging to the Edentata:
+for in both there is a long slimy tongue, which can be poked far out
+of the mouth into Ants’ nests. The saliva required to make the tongue
+sticky comes from large glands under the lower jaw from the ear on to
+the fore part of the chest. When the Ants have collected on the sticky
+tongue it is taken into the mouth, and they are swallowed. The absence
+of teeth is made up by the presence of horny spines on the palate and
+tongue, which look backwards, and these crush and direct the food to
+the throat. It is an apathetic and stupid animal, and usually tries
+to get out of the light, and it will lie and roll itself up, but not
+so successfully as a Hedgehog. One of the first which was seen was
+attacked by the Dogs of two of the travellers, Bass and Flinders,
+whose names are so familiar from places having been named after them
+in Australia. The Dogs did not come off victorious, for the new animal
+burrowed in the loose sand, but not head foremost; it sank itself
+directly downwards, and left its prickly back just on a level with the
+surface.
+
+An Echidna was watched, so that the manner in which it could use its
+tongue was observed. Ants could not be had, but a diet of chopped-up
+eggs, liver, and meat was readily received, and it was noticed that the
+tongue was used in the same manner as that of the Chameleon, by simple
+protrusion and bringing in, and also as a mower moves his scythe, it
+being curved sideways, and the food swept into the mouth. The Echidna
+is fond of water and milk, which are licked up by a rapid putting out
+and drawing in of the long tongue.
+
+[Illustration: PORCUPINE ECHIDNA. (_After Gervais._)]
+
+Gerard Krefft says that they are usually found in mountain ranges,
+and among rocks in the Lower Murray district. He failed to feed them
+on Ants and their eggs. On hen’s eggs they fed for a time, and liked
+bread-and-milk. He has reason to believe that they live on grass also,
+as those whose stomachs and intestines he examined had fed on herbs and
+grasses. The spur on the heel is not used as a weapon of offence.
+
+It inhabits Australia, and has been found as far north as the Bellenden
+Plains, Queensland, about 18° south latitude. A specimen has also been
+captured at Cape York, and others at Plain Creek, Queensland. It is not
+found in Van Diemen’s Land.
+
+With regard to the anatomy of the Echidna, it may be said that the long
+muzzle and the very slender lower jaw give the skull a bird-like look
+which is increased by the swollen and ball shape of the brain-case. The
+bones of the skull remain imperfectly united for some time, and then
+they are united by plain lines of junction, and not by jagged sutures.
+The shoulder and the bones of the upper part of the chest resemble
+those of the Water Mole, and will be noticed in its description. The
+brain of the Echidna weighs about one-fiftieth of the whole body,
+and the hemispheres do not conceal the cerebellum. There are three
+convolutions behind, and in front of them is a large one bent on
+itself, and on its outside are some oblique folds. The sense of smell,
+evidently acute in the Echidna, is assisted by a large development of
+the olfactory lobes of the brain and their nerves.
+
+The Echidnas have large marsupial bones. They have not a true pouch,
+but only a rudimentary one, or rather an infolding of the skin,
+during the breeding season, in the female. The orifices of the teats
+are situated beneath the level of the skin, and inverted; and as the
+surrounding parts swell under the influence of suckling, there is a
+little cavity made, at the bottom of which are the so-called nipples.
+They are really little depressions with hair around them. The young
+Echidnas are placed in this temporary cavity by the mother, and help
+themselves by placing their snouts in the small depressions leading to
+the milk gland. Captain Armit says that some force is required to get
+the young out of the pouch, and that there is probably a muscular ring
+to it. They are at first very small. When about a month or so old, the
+hinder parts of the young may be seen sticking out of the region of the
+fold, and at three months the body may be observed, the animal still
+adhering by its snout. When the prickles of the young begin to harden,
+the old one turns them out into the world. (But see Postscript, p. 234.)
+
+A short-spined Echidna (_Echidna setosa_) inhabits Van Diemen’s Land,
+whose hair is sufficiently long to hide most of the spines, but
+little is known regarding its habits. Quoy and Gaimard, two French
+naturalists, kept one for a month, and it took no food, but after that
+time it began to lap and to eat a mixture of flour, sugar, and water.
+It burrowed very rapidly, and got to the bottom of a large can full of
+earth and plants in the course of a few minutes, and it was assisted in
+this by its snout.
+
+[Illustration: MOUTH (A) AND NOSE-SNOUT (B) OF ECHIDNA.]
+
+A species of Echidna has been found in the north of the Island of
+New Guinea, at the Mont des Karous and Mount Arfak, at an altitude
+in the first place of 1,150 yards. It likes the rocky broken ground,
+and is unknown on the sea coast. The natives call it “Nokdiak,” and
+hunt it for the flesh. As the animal burrows well, the natives dig
+down about a yard in different places, and generally cut across one of
+the underground runs. It has been described, and has been named after
+the explorer, M. Brujn. It is more robust and larger than the species
+from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, has a very long snout--three
+times the length of the head--a short tail, and is black in colour
+with white points. The fur is plentiful, and like velvet, whilst the
+spines are scanty, and about midway in strength between those of the
+two Australian kinds. The number of nails on the fore and hind feet
+is singular in this New Guinea Echidna, for there are three on each
+instead of five. The tongue of the species is longer and more spiny;
+moreover, the number of vertebræ differs in this new kind. There are
+seventeen dorsal instead of fifteen, and there is one caudal more than
+in the others. The spiny pimples on the tongue and palate, so well
+developed in this Echidna, have tempted Professor Gervais to include
+it in a new genus, Acanthoglossus; but it is as well to retain the old
+name, so that the creature is called Echidna Brujnii. Another species
+has been found in the south of New Guinea, at Port Moresby, which
+is distinguished chiefly by the long, thin, cylindrical form of the
+quills, and the stiff, flat, hair-like bristles on the face. The tint
+of the flattish bristles covering all the body and limbs, except the
+back, is brown; on the back are long cylindrical spines, some white
+and others black. There are five claws to each foot, and the second
+hind toe is said to be the largest. The fore limbs are short, stout,
+and strong. It has been named Echidna Lawesii (Ramsay), after its
+discoverer. All these animals can roll themselves up.
+
+
+THE WATER MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.[131]
+
+Like most of the other objects of natural history found in Australia
+and the neighbouring islands, the Water Mole is very singular in its
+construction, nature, and habits. It is of all animals that suckle
+their young the most like a bird, and it really deserves the title,
+from its external appearance of half beast, half bird. As its shape and
+method of life are peculiar, it has received several names, such as
+the Water Mole, the Flat-footed, Duck-billed Platypus, the Bird-beaked
+quadruped, and the Paradoxical Bird-beaked animal. It is very fond
+of the water and also of burrowing in the ground, and, of course, is
+admirably adapted for these pursuits: hence its construction relates to
+them to a certain extent, and also to that of the animals of which it
+was, as it were, a continuation in the scheme of nature.
+
+The Ornithorhynchus anatinus has a rather flat body of about eighteen
+inches in length, and the head and snout greatly resemble those of a
+Duck, whilst the tail is short, broad, and flat, and resembles that
+of a small Beaver, but is shorter. The feet are webbed and flat, and
+the greater part of the creature is covered with a short dense fur
+of a dusky brown colour, darker on the upper and paler on the under
+parts of the body. A slight examination of the habits of the animal
+will explain the necessity for observing it a little more closely.
+Mr. Bennett describes his first interview with one shortly after his
+arrival in Australia. He writes: “We soon came to a tranquil part of
+the river, such as the colonists call a ‘pond,’ on the surface of which
+numerous aquatic plants grew. It is in places of this description that
+the Water Moles are most commonly seen, seeking their food among the
+aquatic plants, whilst the steep and shaded banks afford them excellent
+situations for excavating their burrows. We remained stationary on the
+banks, waiting their appearance with some degree of impatience, and it
+was not long before my companion quietly directed my attention to one
+of these animals, paddling on the surface of the water, not far distant
+from the bank on which we were then standing. In such circumstances
+they may be readily recognised by their dark bodies, just seen level
+with the surface, above which the head is slightly raised, and by
+the circles made in the water round them by their paddling action.
+On seeing them, the spectator must remain perfectly stationary, as
+the slightest noise or movement of his body would cause their instant
+disappearance, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or perhaps both;
+and they seldom appear when they have been frightened.” On ordinary
+occasions they do not remain more than a minute or two at a time on the
+surface of the water.
+
+A burrow of an Ornithorhynchus, which Mr. Bennett opened, had its
+entrance on a steep part of a bank, situated about one foot from the
+water’s edge, and concealed among the long grass and other Plants.
+“This burrow ran up the bank in a serpentine course, approaching nearer
+to the surface of the earth towards its termination, at which part
+the nest is situated. No nest had yet been made in the termination of
+the burrow, for that appears to be formed about the time of bringing
+forth the young, and consists merely of dried grass, weeds, &c.,
+strewed over the floor of this part of the habitation.” The expanded
+termination measured one foot in length and six inches in breadth, and
+the whole length of the burrow was twenty feet. Besides the entrance
+before alluded to, it appears there is usually a second opening
+into the burrows below the surface of the water, communicating with
+the interior, just within the upper aperture. A burrow subsequently
+examined by Mr. Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet
+from the entrance; and that gentleman stated that they have been found
+fifty feet in length.
+
+From the burrow first opened by Mr. Bennett a living female was
+taken, and placed in a cask, with grass, mud, water, &c., and in this
+situation it soon became tranquil, and apparently reconciled to its
+confinement. On his return home to Sydney, Mr. Bennett determined to
+indulge it with a bathe; and with this view, when he arrived in the
+vicinity of some ponds, he tied a long cord to its leg. “When placed on
+the bank, it soon found its way into the water, and travelled up the
+stream, apparently delighting in those places which most abounded in
+aquatic weeds. When diving in deep and clear water, its motions were
+distinctly seen: it sank speedily to the bottom, swam there for a short
+distance, and then rose again to the surface. It appeared, however, to
+prefer keeping close to the bank, occasionally thrusting its beak into
+the mud, from whence it evidently procured food, as, on raising the
+head, after withdrawing the beak, the mandibles were seen in lateral
+motion, as is usual when the animal masticates. The motions of the
+mandibles were similar to those of a Duck under the same circumstances.
+After feeding, it would lie sometimes on the grassy bank, and at others
+partly in and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its coat
+with the claws of the hind feet. This process occupied a considerable
+time, and greatly improved its sleek and glossy appearance.”
+
+The Water Moles are said to have a peculiarly fishy smell, more
+especially when wet, which probably proceeds from an oily secretion.
+They are used by the aborigines for food; “but it is no particular
+recommendation of them,” Mr. Bennett remarks, “to say they are eaten by
+the native Australian, as nothing in the shape of provender comes amiss
+to him, whether it be Snakes, Rats, Frogs, Grubs, or the more delicate
+Opossum, Bandicoot, and Flying Squirrel.”
+
+The Ornithorhynchus is captured by the natives when in its burrow. They
+first examine the neighbourhood of the burrow, to ascertain, by the
+presence of recent footmarks on the soil, whether it is inhabited, and
+if the examination proves satisfactory, they proceed to dig holes with
+pieces of sticks from the surface of the ground into the burrow, at
+distances from each other, until they discover its termination, when
+the Australians consider themselves exceedingly fortunate should they
+find the young, since they are regarded as a great delicacy.
+
+The young have been found in their nests by Mr. Bennett about one inch
+and seven-eighths in length, in the early part of December, and near
+the end of the same month he found young Water Moles of ten inches
+in length. These latter were kept alive for nearly five weeks, and
+their habits whilst in captivity are described in detail in his paper,
+which is illustrated by some admirable figures, showing their various
+attitudes, &c. The young were allowed to run about the room; but an old
+Ornithorhynchus in the possession of our author was so restless, and
+damaged the walls of the room so much by her attempts at burrowing,
+that it was found necessary to confine her to the box. “During the day
+she would remain quiet, huddled up with her young ones; but at night
+she became very restless, and eager to escape. The little ones were
+as frolicsome as puppies, and apparently as fond of play; and many of
+their actions were not a little ludicrous. During the day they seemed
+to prefer a dark corner for repose, and generally resorted to the spot
+to which they had been accustomed, although they would change it on
+a sudden, apparently from mere caprice. They did not appear to like
+deep water, but enjoyed exceedingly a bathe in shallow water, with a
+turf of grass placed in one corner of the pan; they seldom remained
+longer than ten or fifteen minutes in the water at one time. Though
+apparently nocturnal, or at least preferring the cool and dusky evening
+to the glare and heat of noon, their movements in this respect were
+so irregular as to furnish no grounds for a definite conclusion. They
+slept much; and it frequently happened that one slept whilst the other
+was running about; and this occurred at almost all periods of the day.
+They climbed with great readiness to the summit of a book-case, and
+thus, by means of their strong cutaneous muscles and of their claws,
+mounting with much expedition to the top. Their food consisted of bread
+soaked in water, chopped eggs, and meat minced very small, and they did
+not seem to prefer milk to water.”
+
+Mr. Foulerton states that the natives are seldom successful in catching
+the Water Moles alive, although in some places in the rivers and creeks
+of New England they are so numerous that from fifteen to eighteen have
+been shot in an afternoon. In the dark, rocky, shady rivers they may
+be seen at any time of the day, but in more open places seldom before
+sunset. He failed to see any young ones, and believes that they keep
+them concealed until near their maturity. They are very active in the
+water, and are more frequently under than above the surface. He never
+saw one leave the water, and states that they made very poor progress
+on land. As a rule they are to be found in good fellowship with the
+Australian Water Rat (_Hydromys chrysogaster_).
+
+The young Water Moles are naked, and have a short beak with fleshy and
+smooth edges, and this conformation enables them to seize the space
+on the mother whence the milk comes, for there are no nipples. Their
+tongue is large and assists in the sucking also.
+
+[Illustration: JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.
+
+(_After Waterhouse._)
+
+  (A) Upper, (B) Lower Jaw; (_a_) Molar Teeth; (_b_) Narrow Anterior
+  Teeth; (_c_) Tongue; (_d_) Integument projecting from Jaw; (_e_)
+  Transverse Ridges on Covering of Beak.
+]
+
+The most curious feature in the Ornithorhynchus is the snout in the
+form of a beak. This is flat and broadest in front where it is rounded.
+It is hard, and is covered with a skin full of pores, and on each side
+this skin overlaps the sides to form a kind of fringe or flexible
+cheek, and this free membrane is carried round the front. Where this
+skin comes to the head, it forms a wide fold, which flaps over the
+front of the head and throat, and is a capital protection when the
+creature is grubbing in the wet banks or burrowing, and evidently
+protects the face and the eyes from injury. The nostrils are close to
+the extremity of the snout. In the lower jaw, or part of the beak-like
+snout, there are some ridges, which mark it crosswise from the mouth
+to the outside, and corresponding structures may be noticed in a Duck,
+their use being to provide grooves or spaces through which water may
+pour out of the mouth when the creature is feeding on soft mud and wet
+substances. Inside the mouth there is a pouch in the cheek, one on each
+side, and this is to retain food. It has four teeth in the upper and
+four in the lower jaw, but they are horny and made up of tubes; the
+front ones are long and narrow, and the others are oblong and oval in
+form, with a hollow crown. Moreover, the tongue, as in some reptiles,
+has horny teeth on it. The eyes of the creature are small and brown,
+and are situated close to the beak, and they look upwards. The ear is
+hidden by the fur, but it is none the less sharp of hearing. As may
+be gleaned from the notice of its habits, the animal has great power
+of swimming but not much of running, although the limbs are short.
+The fore-feet have five toes, nearly equal in length, the first being
+rather the shortest, and all have solid and rounded claws. The toes are
+webbed, and the fold of skin even extends in front of the claws when
+swimming is going on, but is folded back in digging. In the hind-feet
+the web does not extend farther than the base of the claws, and there
+is a spur on the heel, which is movable and sharp. It is found on the
+adult males in perfection, and it may be useful as well as ornamental.
+On carefully examining the under and lower part of the body, the milk
+or mammary glands are to be seen, and there is no proper nipple; but
+when suckling, the swelling of the gland produces an eminence, which
+can be grasped by the wide, open, and soft beak of the young.
+
+[Illustration: FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.
+
+(_After Waterhouse._)
+
+  (_a_) Spur on Heel of Hind Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF THE ECHIDNA.
+
+  (_a_) T-shaped interclavicle; (_b_) Manubrium; (_c_) Ensiform end of
+  sternum; (_d_) Cartilages of ribs; (_e_) Scapula; (_f_) Coracoid;
+  (_g_) Epicoracoid.
+]
+
+It was thought that this bird-like creature laid eggs, but the point
+was not easy to determine. (See Postscript, page 234.) It has a double
+uterus, leading to the common canal, called urogenital, and this
+ends in the common outlet. The Ornithorhynchus and Echidna have an
+arrangement of the bones of the shoulder and chest, which resembles to
+a certain extent that of the Lizards and of the Ichthyosaurus, and the
+annexed engraving will explain the position of the bones. Indeed, the
+most important peculiarity in the skeleton of the Monotremes is that of
+the shoulder-girdle and upper part of the chest; for a bone, the merest
+vestiges of which are noticed in some of the Mammalia, occurs, that is
+of some importance in the great groups of birds and reptiles, which
+are lower in the animal scale than the Vertebrata already described.
+In all the animals described hitherto, and including the Marsupiata,
+the large arm bone (humerus) is jointed at the shoulder with the blade
+bone, or scapula. The socket in this bone, which receives the somewhat
+ball-shaped top of the humerus, in order to permit of very general
+motion, is a part of the scapula, and is called the glenoid cavity; but
+in the Monotremes a bone called the coracoid joins with the scapula,
+and forms part of the socket; moreover, this coracoid is long enough
+to reach the breast bone, or sternum. The breast bone in the Mammalia
+hitherto noticed consists of an expanded part at its fore end (in
+the usual position of quadrupeds), or at its top in man, called the
+manubrium, and of some smaller pieces, which form the front bone of
+the chest and reach to the belly, having ribs attached to them on each
+side. This is the state of things in the Monotremes; and the coracoids
+are attached to the manubrium, one on each side. In other Mammalia it
+is the collar bone which is jointed there. In addition to these breast
+bones in the Monotremes, there are other bones in front, or between
+the neck and the top of the manubrium. Firstly, there is a bone in the
+shape of a =T=: the lower point is on the breast bone, and the
+cross-bar supports a collar bone on each side, which reaches outwards
+to the blade bone. Secondly, there is a bone on each side in front of
+the coracoid, reaching forwards towards the neck. This is called the
+epicoracoid. Some of these bones, now noticed for the first time, are
+more or less common to birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
+
+[Illustration: DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.]
+
+There are some other anatomical points which ally the Monotremes to
+the reptiles. For instance, the peg on the second, or axis vertebra of
+the neck, is not fixed to the bone by true bony matter, and some of
+the ribs which exist in the neck in the Monotremes are separate from
+the vertebræ until late in life, or altogether. And the cavity for
+jointing of the thigh bone with the pelvis (the acetabulum) is not
+perfect, there being a part of it not filled with bony matter.
+
+The ear is singularly simple in its construction in this sub-order, and
+the cochlea is not coiled into a spiral; moreover, there is no external
+ear.
+
+The hemispheres of the brain, which are convoluted in the Echidnas,
+are smooth in the Ornithorhynchus, and in both the central commissure,
+or corpus callosum, just exists, whilst the anterior one is large. The
+Ornithorhynchus inhabits Van Diemen’s Land and Australia, as far north
+as Queensland inclusive.
+
+The Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus belong to a sub-order of the
+Marsupialia which, whilst it has some structures resembling those
+of the sub-order of Marsupiata, possesses others which link it with
+the birds and reptiles. This sub-order is the lowest amongst the
+Mammalia, and the animals which are included in it have the following
+peculiarities:--The marsupial bones are present, the uterus is double,
+and the young are not nourished when within the parent by a placenta;
+there is no inflection of the lower jaw; the shoulder-girdle has
+additional bones; there are no true nipples; the teeth are either
+absent or horny; the external ear is not present, and there is not a
+true pouch. The excretion of the kidneys and the contents of the bowels
+fall into one receptacle, through which the young also pass. It is
+called a cloaca, and receives the outlets of the rectum and urogenital
+canal. The presence of the spur on the heel is also a peculiarity.
+
+A fossil Echidna has been discovered in deposits on the Darling Downs.
+
+The Echidnas form one genus and the Ornithorhynchus another, and the
+classification of the whole is as follows:--
+
+    ORDER            MARSUPIALIA.
+      SUB-ORDER      MONOTREMATA.
+        Genus        Echidna.
+        Genus        Ornithorhynchus.
+
+In concluding this Natural History of the Marsupiata and Monotremata,
+it is necessary to direct attention to the fact that they are less well
+defined than the other great groups of the Mammalia. As sub-orders,
+they are very artificial, for some of their most important structural
+peculiarities are deficient in some of the genera. The inflected lower
+jaw is not invariably found, the marsupium does not always exist, and
+the marsupial bones differ in shape and size, and are occasionally
+absent. With regard to these bones or cartilages, they are not
+connected with the pouch, but with the muscular system of the belly.
+They have been shown by Huxley to be present in Crocodiles, and in the
+amphibian called the Salamander. Hence these structures are relics
+of a remote ancestry, and have but slight functional importance. The
+authorities whence I have derived most of this Natural History are
+Waterhouse, Owen, Huxley, Bennett, Gould, and Kreeft, to whom I am
+under great obligations.
+
+    P. MARTIN DUNCAN.
+
+_Postscript._--Mr. W. H. Caldwell has discovered that the Monotremes
+lay eggs as has been suspected, and he has traced the development of
+the animal during the hatching. The eggs resemble those of a Reptile
+more than a Mammal, and the yolk is in such excess that it is not all
+subdivided during the early stages of the embryo of the Monotreme,
+but some remains over and above, upon which it is nourished in the
+early stages within the egg. The heart of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus is
+interesting because Meckel, and, subsequently, Prof. E. Ray Lankester,
+F.R.S., have shown that it differs from that of the higher Mammalia,
+and is not without considerable resemblance in some of the valvular
+structures to the hearts of Birds and Crocodiles. The last-named
+naturalist states that the reflux of blood into the right auricle
+on contraction of the ventricle, is not prevented by the presence
+of the special structure seen in Mammals, but by an arrangement
+which is observed in Reptiles and Birds. The mitral valve is with
+three divisions instead of two, as in the higher Mammalia, but the
+tendinous structures seen in this last group, to terminate the muscular
+structures, do not exist in the Monotreme. This increase of the
+muscular structure is not so palpable in Echidna. It is interesting to
+know that the special structures of the right side of the heart in the
+adult Ornithorhynchus are seen in the embryonic condition of the higher
+Mammalia.
+
+[Illustration: IMPERIAL EAGLE.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CLASS AVES.--THE BIRDS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION--WING-STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS--DISTRIBUTION.
+
+  Introduction--Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves--Power of
+  Flight--The Wing--Its Structure--The Six Zoo-geographical Regions of
+  the Earth--Birds peculiar to these Regions.
+
+
+The study of birds is almost an instinct in an Englishman: from peasant
+to noble, an innate affection for the feathered songsters seems to
+prevail; so that whether it be in a stately aviary or in a little cage
+outside a cottage door, birds are found to be the constant companions
+of man throughout the length and breadth of the land. And it is
+possible that no other country in the world possesses such a number
+of birds, in proportion to its size, as does Great Britain. Any one
+travelling on the continent of Europe cannot fail to notice how few
+birds meet his eye; and although they may be there, and may be found
+by a little searching for, they do not form such a prominent feature
+of a walk as they do in England or Scotland. Even the toiler in large
+towns has but to get a little way into the nearest fields to hear the
+cheering song of the Skylark or the Thrush, or to be amused with the
+bustling and active habits of the Starling, or those of the more sedate
+and cautious Rook. It is certain that a study of the habits of birds
+will always repay the student, who may see in the feathered favourites
+which are around him many a little bright example to be followed, if
+he read the lesson aright. Birds teach us many things--perseverance,
+fidelity, parental affection, thrift, cleanliness, and many other
+domestic virtues, which are to be seen carried out in their life in
+the greatest perfection. In the following pages the birds will be
+passed in review, and the habits of some of the most striking and
+important forms will be detailed. But, although every species and genus
+cannot be noticed here, it is necessary to assure the student that
+in every country--even in England, where so much has been done for
+Ornithology--he will find an ample reward in the study of all birds;
+and that even the commonest species cannot be neglected, for there is
+always something new to learn and to record in their life-history.
+To quote Dr. A. E. Brehm, one of the most accomplished observers of
+nature, who, carefully trained by his father, a true naturalist also,
+has studied the feathered tribes in many climes:--
+
+“He who is only half at home with nature on this earth of ours will be
+able approximately to appreciate the feelings with which the naturalist
+wanders and travels from place to place: wherever he may be he finds
+friendly forms. For years he has silently watched the interior economy
+and household arrangements of animated nature, and yet he has not seen
+all; and on this account he is never in want of employment. Every bird
+is a personal friend: the old ones he knows almost as well as he knows
+himself, and the new ones must be studied. How much more is there yet
+to observe! Rich as he may be in experiences, every fresh ramble brings
+him fresh mental treasure. The relations existing between him and the
+bird become each day more and more intimate; he knows the lives and
+habits of each: when each arrives, or takes its departure: where is
+its abode: how it is made: when it is occupied by a happy troop of
+nestlings: when deserted. The naturalist knows his friends by their
+notes, flight, and bearing. In his eye the bird never ceases to exist:
+alive or dead it is always interesting in his eyes, for in either case
+the bird is associated with a poesy of feeling in creative nature which
+he would put into words. Every new bird raises his spirits a step
+higher; every fresh discovery is a step onward in the knowledge of the
+ways and means of all things. He is indebted to his friends for many a
+happy hour; their lives are a pattern worthy of imitation.”[132]
+
+Here, then, we may ask--What is a bird? How can a bird be told from all
+other Vertebrate animals? The chief character which distinguishes the
+class of birds is undoubtedly _the clothing of the body with feathers_.
+Other characters they also possess, but not exclusively. For instance,
+they have the power of flight developed in the greatest degree: but
+there are some birds, such as the Apteryx, the Ostrich, and the
+Cassowary, which cannot fly at all; while, on the other hand, there are
+flying mammals, such as Bats, Flying Squirrels, and there are flying
+reptiles, which can progress through the air by means of flight. Again,
+birds lay the eggs from which they produce their young; but so do many
+reptiles and fish: so that this cannot be considered a prerogative of
+the class of birds. Their bill is hard and sheathed in horn; but so
+is that of the Duck-billed Platypus (page 231), an animal belonging
+to the Monotreme Mammals; and Turtles also have beaks. Most, but not
+all, birds build nests; and in this they stand almost alone among the
+higher animals; but nest-building propensities are developed in many of
+the Mammalia--in the Lemurs and Mice, for instance--while it cannot be
+assigned as a habit peculiar to birds, as the wonderful nests made by
+some fish conclusively prove.
+
+All birds, whether they fly or not, are clothed with feathers, and this
+distinguishes the class _Aves_ in the existing state of nature. The
+majority are specially adapted for flight: and as this is undoubtedly
+the most vigorous form of locomotion, the greatest muscular efforts
+being required to raise and sustain a body above the ground and to
+propel it rapidly through the air, a large development of muscular
+energy is necessary. The great strain on the circulation of the blood
+is met by a heart not only as complete as in the Mammalia, but with
+stronger and a peculiar valvular mechanism for propelling that fluid
+vigorously through the body. Moreover, in addition to their lungs,
+birds possess a singular provision of air-receptacles within the body,
+and these are connected with a series of cavities, also filled with
+air, which occupy the interior of most of the bones. These cavities
+serve not only to give lightness to the bird’s body, but they also
+assist the lungs in aërating the blood, so that birds may be said to
+enjoy a double respiration. As birds exceed mammals in the activity of
+their breathing and circulatory system, so also they possess a higher
+degree of animal heat, their temperature ranging from 106° to 112°
+Fahr. This high temperature, which exceeds that of the Mammalia by
+from 8° to 14°, is maintained by its admirable feather-clothing, which,
+being a non-conductor, effectually serves to guard against any sudden
+variations of temperature in the air to which its body is exposed,
+during its rapid and extensive flights, as well as tempering the usual
+radiation from the body.
+
+As one might expect in the fore-limb of a creature specially organised
+for suspension in, and progression through, the air, it is found that
+the muscles, as well as the bones and joints, of the bird’s wing
+become much modified as compared with the corresponding parts of other
+animals. With all our scientific knowledge and mechanical contrivances,
+no one has yet succeeded in constructing a flying machine. It is a
+significant fact that Nature has not only long ago solved this problem,
+but that she has done so in several ways. The flight of an insect, of
+a bird, of a bat, is equally perfect in its way: but in each case the
+result is attained by very different modifications in the skeletal and
+muscular apparatus. The principal resistance that a flying animal has
+to work against is its weight: that is, the force of gravity which,
+proportionately to its mass, tends to draw it down vertically towards
+the earth; hence the muscles which are largest and strongest in a bird
+are those which pull down the wing against the air, thereby raising the
+body and overcoming its weight.
+
+[Illustration: BONES OF WING OF BIRD.
+
+(_After Sundevall._)
+
+  (_a_) Humerus; (B) Cubitus; (_c_) Ulna; (_d_) Radius; (E) Manus, or
+  hand; (_f_) Carpus; (_g_, _h_, _i_) Metacarpus; (_k_) Pollex, or
+  thumb; (_l_) Second digit; (_m_) Third digit.
+]
+
+The chief muscle thus employed is the “great pectoral,” attached to
+the large keel (or ridge) on the breast-bone, and inserted into the
+“humerus,” or “arm-bone.” This “great pectoral” is generally the
+largest muscle in the bird’s body, and in fact often equals in bulk all
+the other muscles put together.
+
+The wing is _opened out_ by straightening the elbow and the
+wrist-joints. The former process is effected by the contraction of the
+_triceps_; the latter chiefly by the action of the so-called “radial
+extensors,” and by the elasticity of the long “tensor,” or ligament,
+which comes from the shoulder muscles along the front border of the
+anterior wing-membrane, and is attached to the base of the thumb, at
+the front side of the wrist.
+
+The wing is _folded_ by the bending of the elbow and the adduction of
+the wrist-joints. The elbow is bent principally by the contraction of
+the “biceps” and the “internal brachial,” the wrist-joint chiefly by
+the contraction of the “hand-adductor,” and of the “ulnar wrist-flexor.”
+
+As already stated, the possession of feathers is one of the most
+characteristic features in a bird. These beautiful structures are
+modifications of the skin, just as are the scales of the feet and
+the claws of the toes. Feathers and hairs, scales and claws, are all
+produced out of, and are modifications of, the cells of the upper
+skin, or _epidermis_, and of the under, or true skin, or _cutis_. The
+feathers differ much in their minute construction in some birds; and
+all those of a bird are of course not of the same size and shape, but
+they have the following parts in common.
+
+[Illustration: FEATHERS OF WING OF BIRD. (_After Sundevall._)
+
+  (A) Feathers of the manus, or primary quills; (B) Feathers of
+  the _cubitus_, or secondary quills; (C) Coverts of the manus, or
+  primary-coverts; (D) Lesser primary-coverts; (E) Coverts of the
+  _cubitus_, or secondary-coverts; (F) Median coverts; (G) Lesser
+  coverts; (H) Feathers of the thumb, or bastard wing.
+]
+
+A feather consists of a quill, a shaft, barbs, and barbules: moreover,
+there may be a kind of accessory part, often in the shape of a downy
+tuft, close to the junction of the shaft and the quill. The shaft
+(_scapus_) or axis of every perfect feather (_penna_) is divided into
+the quill (_calamus_), the hollow cylinder (_d_), which is partly
+embedded in a sac of the skin, and the true shaft (_rachis_, _a_),
+which bears on each side the lateral processes called barbs (_rami_
+or _radii_). The rachis and the barbs together are known as the
+vane (_vexillum_), and, in fact, form what is commonly known as the
+“feather” in contradistinction to the “quill.” The barbs (_c_, _c_,
+_c_, _c_) are narrow plates, or laminæ, “tapering to points at their
+free ends, and attached by their bases on each side of the rachis.
+The edges of these barbs are directed upwards and downwards, when the
+_vexillum_ of the feather is horizontal The interstices between the
+barbs are filled up by the _barbules_, pointed processes, which stand
+in the same relation to the barbs as the barbs do to the rachis. The
+barbules themselves may be laterally serrated and terminated by little
+hooks, which interlock with the hooks of the opposed barbules. In very
+many birds each quill bears two _vexilla_; the second, called the
+_aftershaft_ (_b_) (_hyporachis_), being attached on the under side of
+the first,”[133] close to the junction of the shaft with the quills.
+
+In all the feathers of the Ratitæ, and in the case of all but the
+contour feathers in other birds, there are no barbules to the barbs.
+The pennæ are ordinarily arranged in definite patches, or areas on
+the bird, and the shape and size of these, and their relation to one
+another, differ in many birds.
+
+The _aftershaft_ (_b_) is ordinarily a smaller _vexillum_, which is
+attached to the under side of the larger one at about the point where
+the rounded quill passes into the stem.
+
+It is not necessary to notice these important characteristic structures
+more fully now, as they will have to be considered in explaining the
+distinctions between the great groups of birds, and we pass on to
+notice that the same kinds of birds are not found everywhere, but that
+they have, as groups, a remarkable geographical distribution.
+
+In the following pages the distribution of birds is often alluded to,
+although it will naturally be impossible to discuss, within these
+limits, all the various phases of the study which the geographical
+distribution of the feathered tribes opens up to us. At the same time
+sufficient evidence will be given to show that birds are not scattered
+without order over the earth, but are more or less restricted to
+certain spots.
+
+[Illustration: PARTS OF A FEATHER. (_After Nitzsch._)]
+
+The six natural history or distributional provinces into which the
+world is ordinarily divided by modern naturalists were determined,
+first of all, from the study of the birds; and in fixing the boundaries
+of each division the wading birds and many swimming birds must be left
+out of the question, as they are creatures of such very extensive
+flight, and wander almost from pole to pole. A natural region,
+therefore, can be marked only by its resident forms of bird life, or
+at the most by the birds which breed within its limits; and the six
+regions alluded to provide us with many excellent reasons for believing
+that they possess well-defined physical boundaries. No Capercailzie,
+for instance, was ever found out of the _Palæarctic_[134] region, which
+comprises Europe and the greater part of Asia above the line of the
+Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang River in China. This region is also
+characterised by a large number of Buntings, Warblers, Grouse, &c.
+In the _Nearctic_[135] region there is a certain similarity to the
+European and Siberian Avifauna, Grouse, Ptarmigan, Waxwings, Magpies,
+Ravens, &c., being commonly found throughout the two regions. North
+America possesses, however, several forms peculiar to itself, though
+it is by no means so rich in species as is the _Neotropical_[136]
+region, which commences south of a line drawn through Northern Mexico,
+and includes the whole of Central and Southern America. Within this
+large area are contained whole families of birds, such as Toucans,
+Mot-mots, the vast majority of the Humming-birds, Trogons, besides
+innumerable genera of Tanagers and other forms, so that this region is
+by far the richest in the world as regards bird life. The _Ethiopian_
+region embraces all Africa below the Sahara Desert and Madagascar:
+Plaintain-eaters, &c., are characteristic of this region. The _Indian_
+region skirts the Palæarctic, and includes the remainder of Asia below
+the Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang; the Malayan Peninsula, the Sunda
+Islands, and the Philippines, belong to this region, which contains
+all the finest Pheasants in the world, the Impeyan Pheasant from the
+Himalayas, the Tragopans, and the Lobed Pheasant of Borneo being most
+beautiful creatures. Lastly, between the islands of Bali and Lombok
+passes a deep sea boundary called “Wallace’s line,” which divides the
+_Australian_ region from the Indian, and although these islands lie so
+close together, the great depth of the channel between them seems to
+mark them out as frontier lines of two ancient continents. Certain it
+is that the birds and animals on each side of Wallace’s line differ
+remarkably; and the Australian region, which includes all the Moluccas,
+New Guinea, and Oceania, in addition to the Australian continent and
+New Zealand, presents us with forms not found elsewhere, such as Birds
+of Paradise, Cassowaries, Lyre-birds, and a large variety of peculiar
+types. Many smaller divisions of the globe are now recognised, but the
+above are the main ones, which may occasionally be referred to in these
+pages.[137]
+
+Many birds migrate, and the student of migration alone would find
+sufficient material there for the work of a lifetime; and it seems
+almost impossible to account for the instinct or other causes which
+bring birds regularly year by year to breed in the same haunts, and
+which drive them away at the same change of season. Why is it, for
+instance, that species of similar habits and form, and both visiting
+Europe in equal abundance, should occupy such different winter
+quarters? Yet the common Red-backed Shrike, or Butcher-bird (_Lanius
+collyrio_), when he is said to leave Europe, passes by the Nile Valley
+along the east coast of Africa down to the Cape, where he brings up
+a second brood of nestlings; while the Wood-Chat Shrike (_Lanius
+auriculatus_), a bird of about the same size and of precisely similar
+habits, proceeds down the Nile Valley and invades Abyssinia in the
+winter, and also occupies Senegambia, where a Red-backed Shrike has
+never been found yet by a naturalist. Nothing whatever is known by
+which route the bird gets to the Gambia: whether he follows the same
+one as his red-backed relation as far as Abyssinia, and then skirts the
+southern edge of the Sahara, or whether he reaches north-western Africa
+by a direct flight across the Great Desert. Many other such problems
+in the economy of our most familiar species are still awaiting further
+scientific research.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.[138]
+
+  The Three Divisions of the Class Aves--ANATOMY OF A
+  BIRD--The Skeleton--Distinctive Features--Peculiar Bone
+  Character--The Skull--Difference between the Skull of
+  Birds and that of Mammals--The Jawbones--Vertebral
+  Column--Sternum--Fore-limbs--Hind-limbs--Toes--The
+  Muscular System--How a Bird remains Fixed when Asleep--The
+  Oil-gland--The Nervous System--The Brain--The Eye--The
+  Ear--The Digestive System--The Dental papillæ--The
+  Beak--Tongue--Gullet--Crop--Stomach--Uses of the
+  Gizzard--Intestine--The Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen--The Blood
+  and Circulatory System--Temperature of Blood of a Bird--Blood
+  Corpuscles--The Heart--The Respiratory System--Lungs--Air-sacs--The
+  Organs of Voice--The Egg--Classification of the Class Aves.
+
+
+Birds may be separated into three great divisions: the _Carinatæ_, or
+birds with a keeled sternum, the _Ratitæ_, or birds having a raft-like
+sternum, and the _Saururæ_, or lizard-like birds. The last of these
+orders links the birds with the reptiles, and does not concern us here,
+as it contains only one genus, and that a fossil one, the _Archæopteryx
+lithographica_, respecting which a few words will be found at the end
+of this article (Vol. IV., pp. 236-8). The other two divisions are of
+great importance, and are easily recognisable, although the characters
+which separate them are chiefly anatomical. The principal point of
+difference lies in the sternum, or breast-bone, and the name _Carinatæ_
+is given to all those which have a keel (_carina_) or sternal ridge
+largely developed, as in the common fowl; and this is present in the
+great majority of birds. The _Ratitæ_ have not got this keel, and in
+this division are found the Struthious birds--Ostriches, Cassowaries,
+&c. They are all species which cannot fly; and although the number at
+present existing is small, the fact of their being found at widely
+distant parts of the earth--in South America, in Africa, and again in
+Australia--would seem to indicate that they were once more plentifully
+distributed, and that they are remains of what was formerly a large
+and important group. To these Ratite birds belonged also the extinct
+gigantic Moas of New Zealand, and the _Æpyornis_ of Madagascar.
+
+Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to give a brief outline
+of the principal anatomical features of a bird’s body. On examining
+either the general features of the skeleton, or the minute characters
+of many of the bones of which it is made up, in such a bird as a Hawk,
+for example, we are arrested by those remarkable arrangements by which
+this part of the body is adapted to the mode of life of its possessor.
+Here, however, as in so many instances, we have to distinguish between
+what is characteristic of the bird as a flying animal, and what is
+more or less common to it and other vertebrate animals, and does not
+especially relate to peculiar habits. We may well be struck by the
+marvellous power which birds have, and which man has not, and it is
+curious to notice how man’s aspirations have ever been associated with
+it. Without pausing to observe that painters always endow spirits with
+wings, or that the imaginative genius of the French has emboldened them
+to form a “Société d’Encouragement pour la Locomotion Aérienne,” we may
+find in the words of Faust definite expression of what man feels with
+regard to the law by which he is held down to earth:--
+
+  “Ich eile fort, ihr ew’ges Licht zu trinken,
+  Vor mir den Tag und hinter mir die Nacht,
+  Den Himmel über mir, und unter mir die Wellen.
+  Ein schöner Traum, indessen sie entweicht.
+  Ach! zu des Geistes Flügeln wird so leicht
+  Kein körperlicher Flügel sich gesellen.
+  Doch ist es jedem eingeboren,
+  Dass sein Gefühl hinauf und vorwärts dringt,
+  Wenn über uns, im blauen Raum verloren,
+  Ihr schmetternd Lied die Lerche singt,
+  Wenn über schroffen Fichtenhöhen
+  Der Adler ausgebreitet schwebt,
+  Und über Flächen, über Seen
+  Der Kranich nach der Heimat strebt.”[139]
+
+Inspired by feelings such as those so powerfully expressed in Goethe’s
+lines, numerous naturalists have treated of the bird as though the
+powers of flight were confined to it, and were not shared by Bees and
+Bats in the present, and by Pterodactyles in the past. With this word
+of comment, which it is even still necessary to insist upon, attention
+should be given to the following avian characters:--The anterior limbs
+do not touch the ground, and the bones which compose them are adapted
+for carrying the feathers of the wing; the breast-bone is not only
+elongated, but has its central portion developed (except in the Ratitæ)
+into a strong keel, the better to permit insertion of the muscles
+by which the fore-limb is moved; the small bones (vertebræ) in the
+region of the back are fixed firmly together, and are not, as in man
+or in the Ostrich, movable on one another; while those which succeed
+them are often welded into one mass with the greatly-developed upper
+bones (_ilia_) of the pelvic girdle; and the hinder vertebræ develop
+an upstanding plate (ploughshare bone) which gives support to the
+_rectrices_, or so-called steering feathers of the tail. It will have
+been seen that the ordinary seizing organ of man (the hand) has in
+birds been modified to serve another purpose; but this is made up for,
+not only by the character of the beak, but by the long and flexible
+neck, and in some by the grasping toes.
+
+Before describing in detail the characters of the different parts of
+the skeleton, it is to be noted that many of the bones are not, as in
+the Mammalia, filled with marrow, but with air; a large cavity may,
+for example, be seen in the upper bone (_humerus_) of the wing of the
+common fowl. It is obvious that the specific gravity, or weight of the
+bird, is thus largely reduced, while the connection between these
+air-spaces and those which are derived from the lungs enables the
+contained air to undergo the necessary exchanges with the surrounding
+medium.
+
+It was long ago observed by the famous German anatomist, Johannes
+Müller, that “it has often been a subject for complaint that the
+anatomical characters of birds are so constant that they are of but
+slight assistance in the labours of the zoologist.” The truth of this
+will very forcibly strike any one who comes to the study of the skulls
+of birds, after having examined a series of skulls in mammals, so that
+the seemingly trivial variations to which anatomists have directed
+attention are in truth those which are, in birds, often of the most
+importance.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF EAGLE. (_Reduced. After
+Milne-Edwards._)
+
+  (_p_) Pelvis; (_c_) Coracoid; (_dr_) Dorsal ribs; (_sr_) Sternal
+  ribs; (_up_) Uncinate processes; (_co_) Coccyx; (_r_) Radius; (_u_)
+  Ulna; (_d_) first phalanx of chief digit of the wing; (_d′_) second
+  phalanx of chief digit of the wing; (_d″_) Phalanges of lower digit;
+  (_d‴_) Pollex; (_ca_) Carpus; (_f_) Femur; (_fu_) Furcula; (_h_)
+  Humerus; (_pp_) Postorbital process; (_tm_) Tarso-metatarsus; (_m_)
+  Metatarsus; (_ma_) Lower jaw; (_me_) Metacarpus; (_s_) Scapula;
+  (_pa_) Phalanges of foot; (_fi_) Fibula; (_pt_) Patella; (_st_)
+  Sternum; (_ti_) Tibia.
+]
+
+The skull, then, is, as compared with the rest of the body, small; but
+that portion which contains the brain is relatively larger to the face
+than it is in any living mammal. The orbits, or cavities in which lie
+the eyes, are very deep, in consequence of the small extent to which
+the walls of the brain-case extend forwards. The cavities of each side
+are separated by a partition (_inter-orbital septum_), which is more
+or less bony; the nasal bones are short, so that the nasal orifices
+(anterior _nares_) are placed near to where the beak joins the face. Of
+the four bones which bound the great opening at the back of the skull
+for the passage of the spinal cord, three take part in the formation
+of the single ball-like projection, or condyle, by which the skull
+is hinged on the vertebral column. In this point, the skull of birds
+offers a striking point of dissimilarity to that of mammals, in which
+there are two condyles, one on each side of the great opening (_of_).
+Another point in which birds do not resemble mammals is in the mode
+by which the lower jaw is hinged on the skull. This is in the case of
+birds effected by a bone, which, being more or less square in shape,
+has gained the name of the _quadrate_ (_q_). In mammals the skull
+proper and the lower jaw are directly connected. This quadrate bone is
+connected by a long narrow bar (_quadrato-jugal_) with the bones which
+go to form the “beak,” and also, by a narrow bone directed inwards,
+with the bones which lie in the middle line of the base of the skull,
+and form the hard palate. The connections between these bones are often
+of such a kind as to allow of the upper jaw, or upper half of the beak,
+being movable on the rest of the skull, the upper bones of which are so
+completely united together as to form a very firm point of support. In
+the Parrots this arrangement is carried to an extreme, for the slender
+bones (nasals and processes of the pre-maxillaries) which connect the
+upper jaw with the bones of the brain-case form with them a distinct
+joint, and so allow of that large amount of vertical movement which
+will have been observed in these birds. The pre-maxillary bones (_pm_),
+which are so small in mammals, are very largely developed in birds,
+giving off, as they do, three processes: one to the _frontal bone_ (or
+fore-bone of the brain-case), one along the hard palate, and another
+externally to form the margin of the beak. The parts that vary most in
+this bone-group are the bones which make up the hard palate. Of these,
+the chief are the so-called _palatines_ (_p_) and the _maxillaries_;
+the former are united by an articular surface with the bone which forms
+the anterior part of the base of the brain-case, while there is in the
+middle a narrow bone, which, from its shape in man, has received the
+name of the _vomer_ (ploughshare, _v_). The maxillary bones develop
+horizontal plates, which have the palate below and the nasal chamber
+above them.[140]
+
+The lower jaw (_ma_) is composed of six pieces of bone on each
+side--the dentary, angular, surangular, coronoid, splenial, and
+articular. The upper part of the joint is concave.
+
+The tongue is in relation, as regards its support and movements, to
+the _hyoid_ bones, which will be especially noticed in describing the
+Woodpecker.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF YOUNG OSTRICH FROM ABOVE (A) AND FROM BELOW (B).
+
+(_After Owen._)
+
+  (_of_) Occipital foramen; (_so_) Supraoccipital; (_eo_) Exoccipital;
+  (_q_) Quadrate; (_pa_) Parietal; (_pp_) Pterygoid process; (_f_)
+  Frontal; (_e_) Ethmoid; (_n_) Nasal; (_pm_) Premaxillary; (_m_)
+  Malar; (_p_) Palatine; (_v_) Vomer; (_im_) Intermaxillary; (_l_)
+  Lachrymal bones.
+]
+
+Turning to the vertebral column, we find a number of small bones,
+complicated in form, and more or less movable on one another. For
+convenience of description they may be divided into those which belong
+to the neck (_cervical vertebræ_), to the trunk (_dorsal vertebræ_), to
+the _sacrum_ (so-called because it was offered in sacrifices!), or to
+the tail (_caudal vertebræ_). As has been observed already, the first
+of these, or the region of the neck, is very long, and is always long
+enough for the beak to be able to reach to the base of the tail. In
+birds, unlike mammals, the number of these cervical vertebræ may be
+as low as nine, or as high as twenty-four. The first of them, which
+is known as the _atlas_, has on its front face a rounded cavity into
+which fits the single projecting condyle, which was spoken of as being
+found at the back of the skull; and this condyle, being well rounded,
+is easily able to turn in the cavity which it fits, and the head is
+thereby capable of a large amount of movement. In the succeeding
+vertebræ it is possible to make out a body, an upper arch, through
+which passes the spinal cord, which meets above in the middle line, and
+is produced into a more or less long spinous process set horizontally
+to the “body,” and others directed forwards and backwards, so as to
+connect each vertebra with its neighbours; and lastly, a lower arch,
+the two halves of which are not connected below, but are converted
+into the more or less long ribs. As these vertebræ are so small it is
+clear that if their spines were long the free movement of the neck
+would be greatly impeded, and they are therefore in many cases little
+more than projecting processes. This free movement is further greatly
+aided by the characters of the two faces of the body (or _centrum_)
+of each vertebra; the face of each is saddle-shaped, that is to say,
+the anterior face is concave from side to side, and convex from above
+downwards, while the reverse of this is seen on the posterior face; in
+addition to this the vertebræ are separated by a disc of cartilage from
+one another. The region of the neck is, broadly speaking, distinguished
+from that which succeeds it by the fact that the ribs connected with
+its vertebræ do not reach to the sternum, or breast-bone. In all birds
+which are capable of flight this dorsal region has its parts firmly
+united together, and the same holds for the parts which follow, till
+we reach the region of the tail, where the more anterior vertebræ are
+movable on one another, so as, perhaps, to serve in aid of the steering
+organ formed by the rectrices, or feathers (_co_). In all living birds
+the caudal vertebræ are a good deal shorter than the body, but in the
+fossil _Archæopteryx_ they are longer.
+
+The only important point to note with regard to the ribs, is the
+presence on some of them of backwardly directed hooked processes (_up_,
+fig. on p. 241), which aid in giving firmness to the thoracic region.
+The number of ribs is variable, but there is never a large number
+connected with the dorsal vertebræ, as there are in some Carnivora, in
+Hyrax, and in the Horse.
+
+[Illustration: STERNUM OF FREGILUPUS VARIUS. (_After Murie._)
+
+  (_cl_) Clavicle; (_sc_) Scapula; (_co_) Coracoid; (_cs_) Keel of
+  Sternum.
+]
+
+The fore and hind limbs are connected to the body by a series of
+bones, which form the breast and hip girdles respectively; with
+the former series is also connected that large, long bone with its
+sharply-projecting ridge (_is_), which is known as the breast-bone, or
+sternum, and in the depressions on which so much muscle is collected.
+This sharply-projecting ridge to the sternum, which is known as the
+carina, or “keel” (_cs_), is found only in the flying birds, though
+here and there, as in the Parrot of New Zealand (_Strigops_), it is
+very rudimentary. The lower edge of the bone is often imperfect, so
+that, as in the fowl, there are two deep clefts on each side, or
+there may be but a single cleft, and this again may be converted into
+a rounded space; in all cases these clefts or holes are covered, or
+filled by membrane, during the life of the animal. Projecting in front
+of the sternum, and often intimately connected with it, are the two
+clavicles (_cl_), which unite in the middle line to form the bone of
+childhood’s delight--the furcula, or “merrythought.” Above, this bone
+is connected with two bones, one of which, called the coracoid (_c_),
+descends on each side to fit into a depression on the upper edge of
+the sternum, while the other, known as the scapula, or shoulder-blade
+(_sc_), is set at an angle to the coracoid. The scapula has a backward
+and downward direction; while it may be noted that among mammals the
+coracoid is well developed only in _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_.
+These two last bones form, at their point of junction, a cavity into
+which is fitted the head of the long bone of the arm (wing). In the
+Ratitæ, it must be observed, these two bones are not set at an angle to
+one another, and they become more firmly united together.
+
+[Illustration: PELVIS OF AN ADULT FOWL, SIDE VIEW. (_Reduced._)
+
+(_After W. K. Parker._)
+
+  (_il_) Ilium; (_is_) Ischium; (_pb_) Pubes; (_dl_) Dorso-lumbar
+  vertebræ; (_cd_) Caudal vertebræ; (_am_) Acetabulum.
+]
+
+As in all the vertebrate animals except fishes, the fore-limb may be
+divided into three parts (fig. on p. 237)--upper arm, in which there
+is one bone, the humerus (_a_); fore arm, in which there are two,
+radius (_d_) and ulna (_c_); and hand (E), which can again be
+divided into three parts, which in man would be called wrist, palm,
+and fingers. Now, in some animals the wrist-bones may be ten in
+number, and the palm-bones five, while the number of small bones in
+the fingers varies a good deal, but the number of fingers is _five_.
+In most birds all these numbers are reduced. Just beyond the fore
+arm, the larger bone of which has often small projections indicating
+the points at which the secondary feathers have been attached, there
+are two small bones (_f_), then comes a longer bone (_g h i_), as it
+seems, in which there is an elongated space. Now, this bone consists
+of three metacarpals and one wrist-bone; the two outer metacarpals are
+absent, the two innermost ones have completely united with one another,
+and with the (true) middle metacarpal bone at their upper end; while
+the second and third metacarpals are also united at the other--or
+finger--end. The inner digit (_k_), or that which corresponds to man’s
+thumb, has two joints (_phalanges_), and may be clawed; the next has
+three joints, and may also be clawed; while the third finger, which
+has never more than two joints, is never known to carry a claw. In
+the _Archæopteryx_ the metacarpal bones are well developed, and are
+not, as in recent birds, united together. No idea of a bird’s flying
+powers can be fairly gathered from the length of the hand, for it is
+long in Swifts and short in Albatrosses, for example; although it is to
+be noted that in the former the single bone (_humerus_) of the arm is
+short, and in the latter long.
+
+As in the breast-girdle, the bones of the hinder or hip-girdle, by
+which the hind-limbs are connected with the body, are three in number;
+of these the upper one is greatly flattened out and projects very far
+forwards, thus aiding in the formation of the firm back of flying
+birds; the other two bones are much more slender, and are directed
+backwards and downwards. It is a curious circumstance that it is in
+one bird only, in either case, that these bones are directly connected
+at their lower ends with their fellow on the opposite side; those
+which are known as the _pubes_ (_pb_) are so in the African Ostrich,
+and those which are known as the _ischia_ (_is_) in the Rhea of South
+America. These two bones, with the large, flat _ilia_ (_il_), take
+part in forming the cavity in which the head of the thigh-bone plays;
+the outer of the two bones (_fi_) which are found in the leg is rarely
+as long as, and is always much more slender than the other (_ti_),
+which has a strong ridge on its front face. There is yet another very
+remarkable point of resemblance between birds and reptiles, in that
+the “ankle-joint” is in both cases situated between the two rows of
+bones which make up the “ankle” (_tarsus_). In birds this arrangement
+is carried to a still further extent, for the single bone of the upper
+row is early united with the shin-bone, as may be seen under those
+unfortunate circumstances in which the poulterer has provided an aged
+fowl (aged, that is, for eating); in more fortunate cases it will be
+found possible to separate a small bone from the lower end of the
+shin-bone of the leg.
+
+In no case does any bird, even _Archæopteryx_, possess a fifth toe.
+Unlike mammals, the number of joints in the toes varies greatly in
+birds. In those which possess four toes we find the following number of
+joints: in the first, two; in the second, three; in the third, four;
+and in the fourth, five. This rule holds for nearly all birds, but the
+Swifts have never more than three joints, and in the Goat-sucker and
+the Sand Grouse there are two less than ordinary on the fourth toe. In
+a number of birds the inner toe (big toe of man) disappears, and in the
+Ostrich proper the next division of the “typically” five-toed foot, or
+second toe, has no toe-joints.
+
+In dealing with the muscular system of birds, we need here concern
+ourselves with only those special muscles which are modified in
+accordance with the necessities of the bird’s habits, and those other
+muscles which have been brought into special notice by valuable
+investigations.
+
+That great fleshy mass which is found on the breast of a bird, and
+which is not unknown to those who are fond of a good “dish,” consists
+of three separate muscles, two of which depress, while the other
+elevates the wing. The presence of the elevator muscle on the lower
+side of the sternum is a curious arrangement by which the centre of
+gravity of the animal is lowered--a most necessary condition in flight;
+the tendon from this muscle passes through a pulley-like canal to
+be inserted into the upper side of the head of the bone, which, as
+has already been explained, is known as the humerus, so that when it
+contracts it draws this bone up. The ability of the wings to resist
+the pressure of the air is clearly dependent on the power possessed by
+these muscles. Borelli has calculated that the “pectoral muscles” of
+the bird exceed in weight all the other muscles taken together, whilst
+in man the pectoral muscles are but a seventieth part of the mass of
+the muscles.
+
+The large and important muscles, which in the Mammalia, constitute the
+_diaphragm_, or midriff, are ordinarily said to be absent in birds,
+and, indeed, in most cases are but feebly represented. In the Ratitæ,
+and especially in the New Zealand form (_Apteryx_) of this group, the
+diaphragm may attain to a very fair degree of completeness, though
+even here the apex of the heart is allowed to pass into the abdominal
+cavity. The muscles of the back are feebly developed, as might be
+imagined from the firm character of the spinal column; and as the fore
+limb exhibits but slight power of _varying_ its movements, its muscles
+are not well developed. Those muscles which are found in the skin are,
+on the contrary, expanded into broad pieces; and special bundles are
+sent to the larger feathers of the wings and of the tail, and to those
+folds of skin which connect the upper arm with the trunk, and with
+the fore arm, respectively. Borelli thus explains the arrangement by
+which a perching bird remains fixed when asleep: A muscle which arises
+from the _pubes_ bone of the hip-girdle passes over the knee, and then
+takes a backward direction so as to pass behind the ankle; it thus
+becomes one of the flexor muscles, by the contraction of which the
+toes are flexed, or bent. When the perching bird, which, as we know,
+has one of its toes directed _backwards_, is seated on a bough, the
+thigh has its upper end directed backwards, while the upper joint of
+the leg is turned forwards, or in other words, the two parts of the
+leg have opposite directions. This arrangement acts as a contracting
+influence on this muscle and its tendons, while the weight of the bird
+is sufficient to preserve this condition and the consequent flexion of
+the toes.
+
+To turn to those muscles the arrangement of which has, been made the
+basis of a suggested classification. In the leg of the bird there are,
+among others, four muscles, the names of which are _femoro-caudal_,
+_accessory femoro-caudal_, _semi-tendinosus_, and _accessory
+semi-tendinosus_, any of which may be absent, but in those cases where
+a single muscle only is found the first is always present; again, there
+is a muscle which, from its course, is known as the _ambiens_, and
+this, too, may be present or may be absent. As the presence or absence
+of any of these muscles is a very constant phenomenon in any given
+section of birds, it has been proposed to divide the class into those
+which do, and those which do not, possess the above-named _ambiens_
+muscle. In the latter group the second of the four above-named
+muscles--the accessory femoro-caudal--is never present.[141]
+
+Of all the muscles, those which act in aid of the vocal organs are of
+the greatest interest, but they will be considered a little later on.
+
+A valuable suggestion has been made, which, if followed out, may lead
+us to understand how it is that the brain of the bird, which is so
+simple as compared with that of man, is nevertheless capable of so much
+intelligent activity. Bearing in mind the axiom that it is quality not
+quantity that tells, and looking at the fact that the brain of the most
+highly intelligent man is, after death, supposed to be similar to that
+of the foolish and of the unwise of our race, it is obvious that the
+essential difference must lie elsewhere than in the coarser, or more
+evident, characters of that organ which is known as the brain. The
+suggestion, then, that was made, was to the effect, that the possessors
+of aviaries, in which it was possible to study the characters of birds,
+should submit the brains of their deceased favourites to that more
+thorough investigation which the microscope allows of. The brains of
+birds vary but little in their anatomy. The optic lobes are rounded,
+paired, and tubercular in the bird, and are not divided into four, as
+in mammals; they are found at the lower part and sides, and not in the
+upper part of the brain. The _cerebellum_ is not continued at the sides
+into distinct lobes; nor are the two lobes of the brain (or _cerebral
+hemispheres_) provided with those convolutions which, in mammals, seem
+to increase in complexity of character as the animal rises in the scale
+of intelligence. The cerebrum does not cover the cerebellum. Small as
+is the brain of birds, it is found that, in many, its weight is, as
+compared with that of the body, much greater than it is in man.
+
+With reference to the spinal cord, or the continuation of the central
+part of the nervous system through the vertebral column, it is
+only necessary to remark that it is much increased in width at the
+two regions, in which the nerves for the fore and hind limbs are
+respectively given off; that there is a narrow canal running along its
+centre, and that at the lower end there is a large space. In regard to
+the cerebral nerves, those for the eyes are of great size.
+
+Coming now to consider the organs of the senses, and beginning with
+the eye, it is interesting to note that there are no blind birds, and,
+indeed, the eyes are of a large size as compared with the brain. They
+are generally placed at the sides, though the nocturnal birds of prey
+(in which they are directed forwards) are an exception to this rule.
+It is in very rare cases that eyelashes are present, and although they
+seem to exist in the group just mentioned, it is probably more correct
+to look upon them as slightly modified feathers.
+
+If the eye be regarded as having on its front face, a part which would,
+if completed, form part of a smaller circle than the rest of the eye,
+it is clear that this _cornea_, or front part, would be more convex
+than the rest, and that it would consequently be a “more powerful
+glass,” inasmuch as it would exert a greater bending (refracting)
+influence on the rays of light which pass through it, while, further,
+it is clear that the more convex it is the better “glass” would it be.
+Now this is just what happens in birds: the _cornea_ is very convex;
+in addition to this, the long axis of the eye, on the length of which
+it seems that, in many cases, the condition known as that of being
+“short-sighted” depends, is very long in some birds, and notably in the
+Owls.
+
+The eye is covered in by a firm and strong membrane, which is known
+as the “sclerotic;” this, in its front part, develops a number of
+bony plates; of these there may be as many as twenty, and they are
+capable of a certain amount of free movement on one another. What
+is known as the power of accommodation depends upon the extent to
+which the front face of the somewhat lens-shaped body which helps to
+separate the eye into two chambers is capable of being rendered more
+or less flat; this front face is covered by a membrane which is found
+to be more or less taut, according to the state of contraction of the
+muscles (ciliary muscles) connected with it. A very little reflection
+is sufficient to show that a swiftly moving animal has the focus of
+its eye, or the point at which clear vision is alone possible, changed
+much more rapidly than an animal which moves more slowly. So much on
+the one side. On the other, it is to be observed that muscles vary
+in structure; they are either “smooth” or “striated,” and it is the
+latter that contract the more rapidly. Putting these two series of
+observations together, it is easy to arrive at the result that a bird
+should have striated muscular fibre in its ciliary muscles, and a more
+slowly moving animal like man, smooth muscular fibres; and this we find
+to be the case! The _iris_ is an arrangement by which the quantity of
+light admitted into the eye is enabled to be varied, and the small hole
+in the centre, through which the rays of light pass, is known as the
+_pupil_; this is always rounded in birds, and is never elongated as it
+is in some mammals--the Cats, for example.[142]
+
+But the most peculiar arrangement in the bird’s eye is the presence,
+projecting into the hinder chamber, of a membrane in which run
+blood-vessels; this, which is known as the _pecten_ (comb), or
+_marsupium_ (pouch), enters the vitreous humour, which fills up this
+hinder chamber by the same cleft as the optic nerve. It is folded, and
+is generally of a quadrangular shape; it is not found in the eye of the
+Wingless Bird of New Zealand (_Apteryx_).
+
+[Illustration: SECTION OF THE EYE OF THE COMMON BUZZARD.
+
+(_After Macgillivray._)
+
+  (_aa_) Sclerotic; (_bb_) Choroid Coat and Pigment; (_c_) Ciliary
+  Circle; (_d_) Lens; (_ee_) Iris; (_f_) Cornea; (_g_) Optic Nerve;
+  (_i_) Pecten.
+]
+
+A third eyelid is well developed in this class; it is an elastic
+membrane (_membrana nictitans_, or winking membrane), which has not,
+like the other two, a vertical movement, but is drawn obliquely over
+the eye from the inner to the outer side. This movement is effected
+by two special muscles, one of which arises on the inside, and below
+the eyeball, and has therefore to pass over to the outer side. In
+contracting, it would press on the optic nerve, were it not for the
+other one, which, however, is so disposed that by its contraction it
+draws away the tendon of the _pyramidalis_ muscle from pressing on the
+nerve. As in ourselves, there are six special muscles for moving the
+orbit or ball of the eye, but the one which in man is well enough known
+as the _trochlear_, has no pulley-arrangements in birds. Lachrymal
+glands are present.
+
+With regard to the organ of hearing, one particular part, which in man
+is in the form of a snail’s shell, and is known as the _cochlea_, is
+not coiled into this shape in birds, being very slightly bent, though
+holding in other respects the same general relations. Nor is there any
+external ear, as in mammals, for collecting the waves of sound; there
+is, however, in the nocturnal birds of prey a crescent-shaped valve on
+which are set tufts of short feathers, and it is possible that this
+may aid in hearing. Nor, again, are there in the interior of the ear
+those three small bones, which are known generally as the auditory
+ossicles; of the two that are absent, one is thought by many anatomists
+to be represented by the quadrate bone, which, as has already been
+mentioned, connects the lower jaw of the bird with the skull. The
+single bone which is present, and which is, perhaps, most generally
+known as the “columella,” is connected by two or three cartilaginous
+processes with the drum of the ear, and by the other end--at which it
+has a small oval plate--with the more internal parts of the organ of
+hearing. In man there is a curious arrangement of rods, which vary in
+so remarkable a way as to have led to the supposition that each was
+adapted to a distinct note; these rods, which constitute the organ of
+Corti, are not present in birds, affording thereby a striking example
+of the law that physiological inferences are often well examined by the
+aid of comparative anatomy, no physiologist being hardy enough to deny
+to birds the power of appreciating those delicate modulations of sound
+which go to make up the chief charm of music. With regard to the organ
+of smell, it is only necessary to note the absence of those muscles by
+which, in man and other mammals, the nostrils are contracted or dilated.
+
+The first point which attracts us on examining the digestive tract
+of birds is the absence of lips and of teeth; but with regard to
+these latter we must note that it is a character which has only
+become distinct since the time when birds were first developed. This
+statement is borne out by two series of facts, each taken from one of
+the two great aids to a correct apprehension of the real importance of
+structural characters--that is, from embryology, or the study of the
+developing individual; and from palæontology, or the natural history of
+the past. The young of certain Parrots have been observed to possess,
+at an early stage of their development, those uprisings on the mucous
+membrane of the jaw which go by the name of “dental papillæ,” and these
+papillæ have been seen to be covered with a cap of dentine. On the
+other hand, the researches of Owen and of some American palæontologists
+have brought to light bird-like forms which were provided with teeth
+(Odontornithes: _Ichthyornis_, _Hesperornis_).
+
+The _beak_, or horny covering of the jaws, varies very greatly in
+form, and in the degree of its sensibility. This tactile sense is
+dependent on the extent to which the beak is supplied by nerves (from
+the fifth cerebral nerve). In the Woodpecker, for example, there is a
+large branch extending along the inside of the lower jaw, which, as it
+approaches the extremity, breaks up into finer nerves that perforate
+the bone by a number of small canals and so give to the beak a power
+of discovering what lies hid in the crevices of the wood and under
+the bark. Being an external structure, the beak is naturally adapted
+to the habits of its possessors, so that it may be hooked, as in many
+flesh-eating forms, or trenchant, and fit to cut and break, or provided
+with transversely-set fine plates by which the water taken in with the
+food can be filtered off, or provided with bristles, the better to hold
+a living prey. Finally, in many cases the hardness of the bill is made
+up for by a patch of naked skin at the base of the upper mandibles,
+which is known by the name of the “cere” and seems to have a tactile
+function.
+
+In many birds, the tongue is either feebly developed, or is encased
+in horn, so that it can hardly be as useful an organ of taste as is
+our tongue: in the Pelicans it is obsolete. In some, however, as in
+the Woodpecker, the tongue is a very powerful seizing organ, as it is
+protruded with great rapidity by means of a special muscle, and is well
+provided with a sticky secretion, which is given off from a large gland
+(the sub-lingual), which, lying below the muscle above referred to,
+is compressed when this muscle contracts; so that in the Woodpecker,
+just as in the mammal called the Great Ant-eater (_Myrmecophaga_), the
+insect prey is easily captured.
+
+The region of the mouth is not separated from that which follows
+it (the pharynx) by an epiglottis, which in ourselves protects the
+entrance into the air-passages, nor is there any uvula to guard the
+posterior orifice of the nose by which the air reaches the throat. The
+succeeding portion of the gullet (the œsophagus) is very long, as might
+be supposed from the length of the neck in most birds, and it is very
+frequently either dilated at one side, or produced into a cæcal pouch
+(crop, _ingluvies_), which may, or may not, be separated by a narrow
+connection, from the rest of the gullet, and which may be divided into
+two compartments. This crop serves for the detention of the food, which
+cannot have undergone any complete process of mastication, and it is
+here treated to a process of maceration by the fluid secreted from the
+walls of this organ. Passing from this receptacle, the food becomes
+subject to the action of the stomach proper, which differs, however,
+from our ordinary conception of a stomach, as seen in man, by being
+divided into two distinct portions. The anterior one is known as the
+_proventriculus_, and it is in this that the gastric juice is brought
+to bear upon the food, and its walls are consequently thickened by a
+glandular layer; the hinder division, which is known as the _gizzard_,
+forms an elongated sac, with two orifices--one from the proventriculus,
+the other leading to the small intestine--in its upper portion. The
+characters of its walls are very different in those birds which live on
+animal, as compared with those that live on vegetable (grains) food;
+in the former they are membranous and thin, but in the latter they are
+enormously thick and very muscular. On examination, it is seen that the
+dark colour of the muscles is on each side of the gizzard relieved by a
+shining spot of tendinous material, and the walls of the gizzard have
+consequently been compared to a double-bellied (digastric) muscle. The
+internal cavity of the gizzard is lined with a dense and rough coat,
+and is ordinarily found to contain small stones, and occasionally other
+hard materials. These obviously take the place of the absent teeth,
+when the muscles of the gizzard set up that (grinding or compressing)
+action by which the ingested seeds are broken down. The wall of the
+gizzard may itself also act as a rasping organ, being, as it often
+is, provided with a firm glandular layer, the secretion of which is
+converted into a hard lining, the structure of which has been observed
+in some cases to be due to interlaced filaments secreted from and
+continuous with the glands in the wall of the gizzard.
+
+Notwithstanding the differences in the character of the gizzard
+in carnivorous and graminivorous birds, it has been shown by the
+ever-famous John Hunter that carnivorous birds can be brought to live
+on grains, and grain-eating birds on meat.
+
+It is interesting, further, to note, with regard to the opening into
+the small intestine, that in a number of grain-or fruit-eating birds
+there is no valvular arrangement to detain the food in the gizzard till
+it is completely triturated, for it is thus that many plants have their
+area of distribution increased, the escaped seeds passing uninjured
+from the intestine to find, perhaps, a suitable soil in a new district.
+In those that swallow large stones a valve is often to be observed.
+The difference which we have already had so frequently to notice, as
+obtaining between the carnivorous and “vegetarian” birds, is seen to be
+continued into their small intestine; just as in mammals, this portion
+of the tract is longer in the latter than in the former birds. The
+anterior, or _duodenal_ portion, is always characterised by forming
+a loop, within which lies the gland known as the _pancreas_, and the
+succeeding portion is, as compared with most mammals, short. A slight
+elevation, hardly ever of any great size, may at times be observed on
+the course of the short intestine. This represents all that remains of
+the duct by which the hatching bird was connected with the yolk. The
+short and straight large intestine is ordinarily separated from the
+preceding by a cæcum; this is generally paired (in the Herons and some
+others it is single), and varies in length; in many cases these cæcal
+tubes are hardly more than papillæ. In the Parrot, as in the Woodpecker
+and some others, these cæca are absent. In the desert-dwelling Ostrich
+(_Struthio_) they are said to be as much as two feet long; but in the
+Emu they do not exceed six inches in length.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF THE KINGFISHER.
+
+(_After Macgillivray._)
+
+  (_a_) Tongue; (_b_, _c_, _d_) Œsophogus; (_d_, _e_, _f_) Stomach;
+  (_f_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _j_, _k_) Intestine; (_j_, _k_) Cloaca.
+]
+
+The intestine ends in a cavity, which is common to it, and to the other
+organs that open to the exterior in this region. This _cloaca_ (sewer)
+is found in reptiles also, and in one division of the Mammalia, the
+Monotremata. In birds it is provided with a special glandular appendage
+on its upper (or _dorsal_) aspect, which goes by the name of the _Bursa
+Fabricii_. Neither the history nor the functions of this peculiar organ
+can be said to be thoroughly understood.
+
+Of the organs which are appended to the intestine, the lungs will be
+described elsewhere; of the rest we have to consider the liver, the
+pancreas, and the spleen. The first-named organ is large, and covers
+over the pancreas, the proventriculus, the spleen, part of the gizzard,
+and part of the small intestine. It is ordinarily divided into two
+“lobes,” between which, on the upper edge, is placed the tip of the
+heart. In the common fowl the left lobe is often divided into two; but
+this organ is never broken up into so large a number of parts as it is
+in many mammals, from which animals birds also differ in always having
+more than one duct to carry off the secretion of the liver (bile) to
+the small intestine, except in the Ostrich; in this, as in some other
+birds, there is no gall-bladder in which the bile may be collected, so
+that in such this secretion passes directly into the intestine.
+
+As has been already pointed out, the commencement of the small
+intestine forms a loop, in which is set the organ known as _pancreas_,
+which may for simplicity be described as the salivary gland of this
+region, although in truth the fluid secreted from it is a much more
+powerful aid to the digestion of food than that of any known salivary
+gland. It has always two, and in a number of cases three ducts, which
+do not unite with the bile ducts, but open separately from, though near
+them, into the end of the “duodenal loop.” The _spleen_, which is a
+small oval body, and is placed to the right of the proventriculus, has
+no ducts; in birds of prey it is more cylindrical in shape.
+
+The temperature of the blood of the bird is, in requirement with the
+conditions of its existence, hot--that is to say, it is ordinarily
+hotter than the temperature of the surrounding air, and is found to
+register between 100° (Gull) and 112° (Swallow) on Fahrenheit’s scale,
+or from two to fourteen degrees more than does that of man. Birds
+and mammals, are, speaking broadly, the only hot-blooded animals now
+existing, and it has consequently been suggested that they should be
+grouped together as such, in opposition to the rest of the Vertebrata.
+But it is obvious that this character of the temperature is merely
+dependent on physiological conditions; and were this a treatise on
+the anatomy of birds rather than one on their natural history, the
+statement of this fact would not receive the prominence here given to
+it. The high temperature of any body may be preserved from cooling
+influences by two methods: thus, tea in a well-polished silver teapot
+keeps hot because the rays of heat are but slightly radiated from
+its surface; or a less costly teapot may be kept hot by covering it
+with a loosely-fitting “cosy,” which, being made of badly-conducting
+materials, “keeps the heat in.” It is, then, clear that the heat of a
+body is best preserved when it is covered by a bad radiator and a bad
+conductor of heat; and this is just the case with birds: the polished
+feathers are bad radiators, and the air entangled among them forms a
+bad conductor.
+
+The blood corpuscles are, broadly speaking, about twice as large as in
+man; those which are coloured red are oval in shape, as they are in
+nearly all of the lower Vertebrates and in the Camels among mammals.
+Like the white ones, they are “nucleated.” The heart is, as in mammals,
+divided into four chambers. It is a condition of the circulation
+in hot-blooded and rapidly-breathing animals that the current of
+_arterial_ blood _from_ the heart, and the current of _venous_ blood
+_to_ it, should be kept as much as possible separate; no reflection is
+needed to show that the blood freshly purified by contact with the air
+in the lungs must be kept as distinct as can be from the blood which
+has lost its purity in passing through the body; in other words, it is
+required that there should be a similar result in birds and in mammals.
+
+Birds, like all warm-blooded creatures, have the heart divided into
+four cavities--two ventricles and two auricles--those of the right
+side being completely separated from those of the left. The whole is
+enclosed in a pericardium, a thin, but strong, membrane. The right
+ventricle has thin muscular walls, and almost completely envelopes
+the left. The right auricle has a remarkable valve in the shape of a
+fleshy leaflet, which appears almost to be a portion of the inside
+of the ventricle that has become detached from the partition between
+the two ventricles. The blood, under certain circumstances, passes
+between this septum, or partition, and the leaflet, into the auricle;
+but when the beat of the heart takes place (the systole), the septum,
+being convex, is forced against the leaflet on the other side of the
+auricolo-ventricular opening, and the passage of the blood, through
+this, is prevented. The valve between the stout-chambered left
+ventricle and auricle does not present this structure, but is divided
+into two or three lobes attached to tendinous processes. At the origin
+of the great vessels--the pulmonary artery and the aorta--there are
+three valves, semi-lunar in shape and by name. And this last vessel,
+often having given off the coronary artery to the heart itself, is
+curved to the right, and then passes backwards to go down the body. The
+blood from the body is collected into three large veins--two anterior
+_venæ cavæ_ and one posterior.
+
+The lymphatic system is well developed, and of the so-called “lymphatic
+hearts,” which are well known in the Frog, the posterior ones have been
+observed in some, and especially in the Ratite birds.
+
+The lungs, or organs in which the blood effects an exchange of its
+gases with the outer air, are paired, and set on either side of the
+heart. As is elsewhere mentioned, the nostrils are not provided with
+muscles, and there is no _epiglottis_ sufficiently well developed to
+cover the entrance into the long tube, or _trachea_, which runs down
+the neck. This tube, which does not always take a straight course,
+is essentially made up of a number of rings of cartilage, which are
+for the greater part perfect, and not, as in man, imperfect rings.
+The _bronchi_ which are given off from this tube, to the right and
+left, have their rings imperfect, and they do not show that two-forked
+mode of division which is so characteristic of mammals. The lungs
+are of a rosy colour, and of a comparatively small volume; they are
+marked externally by depressions corresponding to the characters of
+the vertebræ and ribs, to which latter they are firmly attached, and
+they are not divided into _lobes_; in their texture they are spongy;
+the air-tubes are given off from them at right angles to the main
+air-passage; these run nearly parallel to one another, and contain in
+their walls the true tissue of the respiratory organ. The air-tubes are
+also connected with the air-cells, which are arranged in so remarkable
+a manner as to deserve a full account.
+
+They are found in all birds with the exception of the _Apteryx_,
+according to Professor Owen. Our knowledge of their existence is
+primarily due to the illustrious William Harvey, while it is to the
+distinguished anatomist, John Hunter, that we owe our knowledge of the
+very curious fact that these air-passages and sacs communicate also
+with the cavities of some of the bones of the skeleton. Though these
+sacs are not by any means highly vascular, or supplied with vessels
+to the same rich extent as are the lungs, they are nevertheless of
+enormous importance to the bird; thus, they diminish the specific
+gravity of the animal. For example, taking a bird which weighs 1,600
+grammes, and has a volume of 1,230 cubic centimetres--or a specific
+gravity of 1·30 (1600/1230) it has been calculated (Bert) that 200
+cubic centimetres of air can be introduced; now these centimetres would
+weigh ·22 of a gramme, so that the specific gravity of the animal
+would be reduced to 1·05 ((1600+0·22)/(1230+200)) or (1600·22/1520).
+Again, the air which is taken into the lungs is, in high-flying
+birds, often of an extremely low temperature; but this air is not
+only brought into contact with that of the lungs, but also with that
+which has been warmed in the abdominal cavity. And again, the air
+is often very dry--as it is for the Ostrich on the desert plains of
+Africa--but the air from the air-sacs contains a large amount of
+moisture. Of the proper air-sacs there are nine; of these, four--the
+two anterior and the two posterior _thoracic_--lie in the thorax
+(breast) proper; three--the right and left cervical, and the sac
+between the _clavicles_--lie in front of the thorax; while the last
+two are found behind it and in the abdomen. From all of these, with
+the exception of those within the thorax, communications are, or may
+be, given off to the bones of the vertebral column, to the humerus, to
+the bones of the thigh, and to the sternum and the ribs; but there is
+no communication between these sacs and the air-spaces which are so
+constantly found in the bones of the skull, and which are in connection
+with the air-cavities of the ear and of the nose. The inter-clavicular
+sac has been observed to be covered with a thick layer of muscle in
+those birds, at any rate, which perform somersaults, and it has been
+suggested that this layer of muscle is capable of driving the air in
+the sac backwards. It is obvious that such an operation would send the
+centre of gravity of the animal nearer the head, and would, so far, be
+of assistance in the execution of the curious movement alluded to.
+
+It has been suggested that the air-sacs are of assistance in increasing
+the resonance of the bird’s voice. Be this as it may, attention must
+now be turned to the organ of voice. This organ may take one of three
+forms, or, if absence is to be counted, four. There is no organ of
+voice in the Ratitæ, or in the American Vultures (_Cathartidæ_). It is,
+when present, remarkable for being developed at the lower, and not at
+the upper, end of the _trachea_; while the true _vocal cords_, which,
+by their vibration produce the notes of the human voice, are altogether
+and always absent from the larynx; in other words, the vocal organ is
+not the _larynx_, but an organ seated at a lower level, and known as
+the _syrinx_. This instrument may, further, be formed in the trachea
+alone (as in some American Passerines), or in the bronchi alone (as in
+Steatornis), or at the point at which the tracheal and bronchial tubes
+pass into one another (as in the majority of singing birds).
+
+The last-mentioned, or _bronchio-tracheal syrinx_, consists of the
+following parts; (i.) a _tympanic_ chamber formed by the union of
+some of the lower rings of the trachea; (ii.) a membranous _septum_
+separating from one another the tracheal orifices of the two bronchi;
+(iii.) on either side a _tympaniform membrane_, formed on the inner
+side of the uppermost bronchial rings; in consequence of this these
+bronchial rings are not complete circles; their mucous membrane is
+developed into a fold which bounds one side of a cleft which is formed
+by the presence on the other side of the above-mentioned tympaniform
+membrane. The air which passes through these bronchial clefts sets in
+vibration the membranes which bound them, while the character of the
+note is affected by the position of the bronchial half-rings, and the
+length of the column of air in the trachea. These rings have their
+positions changed by five lateral muscles, which act on their ends,
+and so rotate them. The principle variations in the characters of the
+muscular supply of the organ of the voice were long ago worked out by
+Johannes Müller, the famous German anatomist and physiologist.
+
+It is also to this observer that we owe our first information with
+regard to the bronchial syrinx of Steatornis; the anatomy of this
+animal was also investigated by the late Prof. Garrod, who gave the
+following account of its vocal apparatus:--“Each semi-syrinx, as it
+may be termed, is formed on the same principle as that of the combined
+organ in most of the non-singing birds. Taking for description that
+of the left side, it is found that the thirteenth bronchial ring
+is complete, though considerably flattened from side to side; the
+fourteenth is not complete in the middle of its upper surface; it
+is a little longer from before backwards than the one above, and
+not so long as the one following it. The fifteenth is only a half
+ring, its inner portion being deficient; it is slightly convex
+upwards, and articulates, both at its anterior and posterior ends,
+with the fourteenth incomplete ring and the sixteenth half-ring. The
+sixteenth half-ring is concave upwards, and so forms an oval figure in
+combination with the one above, which is filled with a thin membrane
+to form part of the outer wall of the bronchus. There is a membrane
+also between the ends of these and the succeeding half-rings, which
+completes the tube of the bronchus internally.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  FRONT VIEW (A) AND SECTION (B) OF INFERIOR LARYNX OF PEREGRINE FALCON.
+
+(_After Macgillivray._)]
+
+The ducts from the urinary organs open to the exterior through the
+cloaca, into which, as already mentioned, the digestive tube also
+opens. The chief point with regard to the urinary secretion of birds
+is the fact that it is _semi-solid_, and that it contains a quantity
+of the substance known as _uric acid_. The kidneys are placed some way
+back and near the cloaca; they are set on either side of the spinal
+column, between the transverse processes of the sacral vertebræ, and
+are generally divided into three portions of greatly varying size. On
+their inner edge are given off the _ureters_, which pass on each side
+to enter separately into the before-mentioned cloaca.
+
+The right ovary of birds is always atrophied, and it is in rare cases
+only that rudiments of it are found (namely, in the diurnal Raptores).
+The _oviduct_ is a coiled canal, the lower portion of which has strong,
+muscular walls, while internally the characters of its surface vary
+according to the substance which the glands of different regions add to
+the descending egg. The right oviduct is not so completely atrophied as
+is the ovary of the same side. This duct opens into the cloaca through
+which the egg passes to reach the outer world; as further development
+is so largely independent of the mother, the female organs offer no
+peculiarities of arrangement, or complexities of structure.
+
+All birds lay eggs, or, in other words, the born young are not carried
+about by the mother till the time of birth. The advantage of this to a
+flying animal is so obvious that we may pass at once to describe the
+egg of a common fowl. The shell, which consists of organic matter and
+lime-salts, is found to be formed of two layers; it is in the outer
+one only that pigment is found. Both layers are traversed by canals,
+through which air can pass only when the shell is dry; that is to
+say, the outer pores of the shell are closed under the influence of
+moisture. This may be seen by removing the outer layers, when air or
+water will pass in quite easily. These canals are said to be branched
+in the Ratite birds, and to be simple in the Carinatæ. The shell is
+lined by the shell-membrane, which, again, is made up of two layers.
+At the broad end of the egg these two layers are separated from one
+another, and so give rise to that air-chamber which is found in stale
+eggs, and increases in size as the egg grows older and the yolk
+evaporates.
+
+The shell-membrane is in direct contact with the _white_ of the egg
+(_albumen_). This, in its fresh state, consists of fluid albumen,
+arranged in layers, which are separated from one another by networks
+of fibres, in the meshes of which, however, fluid albumen is also to
+be found. There are, further, two special sets of fibrous cords in the
+white of the egg; these extend somewhat along the long axis of the egg,
+though they do not reach to the shell-membrane. From their bead-like
+character they are known as _chalazæ_ (hailstones), but their more
+common English name is that of the “tread.”
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A FOWL’S EGG.
+
+  (_bl_) Blastoderm; (_wy_) White Yolk; (_yy_) Yellow Yolk; (_vt_)
+  Vitelline Membrane; (_w_) Albumen; (_ch_) Chalazæ; (_ach_)
+  Air-chamber; (_ism_) Internal Layer of Shell Membrane; (_em_)
+  External Layer of ditto; (_s_) Shell.
+]
+
+The “white” is separated from the _yolk_ by the so-called _vitelline_
+(or _yolk_) membrane; the greater part of this yolk is known as the
+_yellow yolk_, and is made up of minute albuminous granules, but its
+outermost part is formed of a thin layer of a somewhat different
+substance, which goes by the name of the _white yolk_. The spheres of
+this latter are still smaller than those of the yellow yolk, and they
+are also found to form layers at various levels in it. At one point
+the white yolk becomes a good deal thicker, and forms, as it were,
+a pad for a small white disc, which, in ordinary circumstances, is
+always found uppermost when an egg is opened. This disc is formed of
+an encircling white rim, and within it there is a rounded transparent
+region, the centre of which is more opaque.
+
+This region is known as the _blastoderm_, and is that part of the egg
+from which the chick, with its organs and complicated vessels, muscles
+and bones is soon to be developed. In the laid egg, this blastoderm
+consists of two layers of cells, as do at a certain stage the eggs of
+all but the very simplest of animals. The dissection of a laying fowl
+will probably reveal the presence of eggs at an earlier stage, and from
+their study the following history has been made out: the ellipse-shaped
+egg, when about to leave the ovary, is a yellow body enclosed in a
+fine membrane, and possessing at one pole a small (_germinal_) disc;
+this disc contains a smaller _germinal vesicle_, and a still smaller
+_germinal spot_; when this body is ripe, it escapes from its enclosing
+capsule, and the germinal vesicle disappears. As the egg passes down
+the _oviduct_ the albumen becomes deposited around it, and part of it
+is converted into the shell-membrane. The egg now becomes subjected to
+a thick, white fluid, which is gradually converted into the shell.
+
+While these additions to the substance of the egg are going on, the
+germinal disc undergoes the remarkable process known as segmentation,
+in which it becomes divided into two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two
+(and so on) masses, which arrange themselves in two distinct layers,
+the presence of which has been already noted in the laid egg.
+
+This is not the place in which it is possible to follow out the various
+future changes undergone, but the condition of the young birds on
+escaping from the egg is widely different in some of the larger groups
+of birds. Some young birds, on their exclusion from the egg, are able
+to shift for themselves, and are covered with down; while others are
+born naked and helpless, and require food from their parents for some
+time after they are hatched. Of the first section, an ordinary chicken
+is a familiar example, while a young Thrush or a Sparrow illustrates
+the second. There are, however, manifest exceptions to this rule, as
+in the Herons, for instance, where the young are densely clothed with
+feathery down, but are helpless for a long time after they are hatched.
+
+Finally, it must be stated that all birds possess an oil-gland (known
+as the uropygial), situated near the tail, with which they clean and
+dress their feathers. Attention has already been called to this gland
+in the foot note on p. 245.
+
+Before commencing the special part of the present article, it may
+be useful to give a slight sketch of the classification which it is
+proposed to follow throughout its course.
+
+
+CLASS AVES.
+
+DIVISION I. CARINATÆ: CARINATE BIRDS.
+
+
+    ORDER I.--ACCIPITRES: BIRDS OF PREY.
+
+    SUB-ORDER I.--FALCONES: FALCONS.
+
+    Family  I.--Vulturidæ             Vultures.
+       „   II.--Falconidæ             Hawks.
+
+      Sub-Family I.--Polyborinæ       Caracaras.
+           „    II.--Accipitrinæ      Long-legged Hawks.
+           „   III.--Buteoninæ        Buzzards.
+           „    IV.--Aquilinæ         Eagles.
+           „     V.--Falconinæ        Falcons.
+
+    SUB-ORDER II.--PANDIONES: OSPREYS.
+
+    SUB-ORDER III.--STRIGES: OWLS.
+
+    Family  I.--Bubonidæ              Owls proper.
+       „   II.--Strigidæ              Barn Owls.
+
+
+    ORDER II.--PICARIÆ: PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+    SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ: CLIMBING BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Psittaci              Parrots.
+
+
+    a.--_Psittaci proprii._
+
+      Sub-Family I.--Camptolophinæ    Cockatoos.
+           „    II.--Androglossinæ    Fleshy-tongued Parrots.
+           „   III.--Conurinæ         Conures.
+           „    IV.--Platycercinæ     Parrakeets.
+           „     V.--Strigopinæ       Owl Parrots.
+
+
+    b.--_Psittaci orthognathi._
+
+           „    VI.--Trichoglossinæ   Brush-tongued Parrots.
+
+    Family II.--Cuculidæ              Cuckoos.
+       „  III.--Indicatoridæ          Honey-guides.
+       „   IV.--Musophagidæ           Touracoes.
+       „    V.--Picidæ                Woodpeckers.
+       „   VI.--Rhamphastidæ          Toucans.
+       „  VII.--Capitonidæ            Barbets.
+
+    SUB-ORDER II.--FISSIROSTRES: WIDE GAPING BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Galbulidæ             Jacamars.
+       „   II.--Bucconidæ             Puff Birds.
+       „  III.--Alcedinidæ            Kingfishers.
+       „   IV.--Bucerotidæ            Hornbills.
+       „    V.--Upupidæ               Hoopoes.
+       „   VI.--Meropidæ              Bee-eaters.
+       „  VII.--Momotidæ              Motmots.
+       „ VIII.--Coraciadæ             Rollers.
+       „   IX.--Trogonidæ             Trogons.
+       „    X.--Caprimulgidæ          Goatsuckers.
+       „   XI.--Cypselidæ             Swifts.
+       „  XII.--Trochilidæ            Humming-birds.
+
+
+    ORDER III.--PASSERIFORMES: PERCHING BIRDS.
+
+    SECTION A.--ACROMYODI: SINGING BIRDS.
+
+    SUB-ORDER I.--TURDIFORMES: THRUSH LIKE BIRDS.
+
+    GROUP I.--COLIOMORPHÆ: CROW LIKE PASSERES.
+
+    Family  I.--Corvidæ               Crows.
+
+      Sub-Family I.--Corvinæ          Crows proper.
+           „    II.--Fregilinæ        Choughs.
+
+    Family II.--Paradisiidæ           Birds of Paradise.
+       „  III.--Orioliidæ             Orioles.
+       „   IV.--Dicruridæ             Drongos.
+       „    V.--Prionopidæ            Wood-shrikes.
+
+    GROUP II.--CICHLOMORPHÆ: THRUSH-LIKE PASSERES.
+
+    Family VI.--Campophagidæ  - - - - Cuckoo-shrikes.
+       „  VII.--Muscicapidæ - - - - - Flycatchers.
+       „ VIII.--Turdidæ - - - - - - - True Thrushes.
+
+      Sub-Family I.--Turdinæ  - - - - Thrushes.
+           „    II.--Sylviinæ - - - - Warblers.
+
+    Family IX.--Timeliidæ - - - - - - Babbling Thrushes.
+
+      Sub-Family I.--Troglodytinæ - - Wrens.
+           „    II.--Brachypodinæ - - Bulbuls.
+           „   III.--Timeliinæ  - - - Babblers.
+           „    IV.--Cisticolinæ  - - Grass-warblers.
+           „     V.--Miminæ - - - - - American Babblers.
+
+    Family  X.--Laniidæ - - - - - - - Butcher-birds.
+       „   XI.--Vireonidæ - - - - - - Greenlets.
+       „  XII.--Paridæ  - - - - - - - Titmice.
+
+    GROUP III.--CERTHIIMORPHÆ: CREEPERS.
+
+    GROUP IV.--CINNYRIMORPHÆ: HONEY SUCKERS.
+
+    SUB-ORDER II.--FRINGILLIFORMES: FINCH-LIKE BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Motacillidæ - - - - - Wagtails.
+       „   II.--Mniotiltidæ - - - - - American Warblers.
+       „  III.--Cærebidæ    - - - - - American Creepers.
+       „   IV.--Diceidæ - - - - - - - Flower-peckers.
+       „    V.--Ampelidæ  - - - - - - Chatterers.
+       „   VI.--Hirundinidæ - - - - - Swallows.
+       „  VII.--Tanagridæ - - - - - - Tanagers.
+       „ VIII.--Fringillidæ - - - - - Finches.
+       „   IX.--Icteridæ    - - - - - Hang-nests.
+
+    SUB-ORDER III.--STURNIFORMES: STARLING-LIKE BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Ploceidæ  - - - - - - Weavers.
+       „   II.--Sturnidæ  - - - - - - Starlings.
+       „  III.--Artamidæ  - - - - - - Wood-swallows.
+       „   IV.--Alaudidæ  - - - - - - Larks.
+
+    SECTION B.--MESOMYODI: SONGLESS BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Menuridæ  - - - - - - Lyre-birds.
+       „   II.--Pteroptochidæ - - - - Bush-wrens.
+       „  III.--Dendrocolaptidæ - - - Spine-tails.
+       „   IV.--Formicariidæ  - - - { American Ant-thrushes.
+       „    V.--Pittidæ - - - - - - { Old-World Ant-thrushes.
+       „   VI.--Tyrannidæ - - - - - - Tyrant-birds.
+       „  VII.--Cotingidæ - - - - - - American Chatterers.
+       „ VIII.--Pipridæ - - - - - - - Manakins.
+       „   IX.--Eurylæmiidæ - - - - - Broadbills.
+       „    X.--Phytotomidæ - - - - - Plant-cutters.
+
+    ORDER IV.--COLUMBÆ: PIGEONS.
+
+    ORDER V.--GALLINÆ: GAME-BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Cracidæ - - - - - - - Curassows.
+       „   II.--Opisthocomidæ - - - - Hoatzins.
+       „  III.--Phasianidæ  - - - - - Pheasants.
+       „   IV.--Meleagridæ  - - - - - Turkeys.
+       „    V.--Tetraonidæ  - - - - - Grouse.
+       „   VI.--Pteroclidæ  - - - - - Sand-grouse.
+       „  VII.--Turnicidæ - - - - - - Hemipodes.
+       „ VIII.--Megapodidæ  - - - - - Megapodes.
+
+    ORDER VI.--GRALLÆ: WADING BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Rallidæ - - - - - - - Rails.
+       „   II.--Scolopacidæ - - - - - Snipes.
+       „  III.--Charadriidæ - - - - - Plovers.
+       „   IV.--Otididæ - - - - - - - Bustards.
+       „    V.--Gruidæ  - - - - - - - Cranes.
+       „   VI.--Psophiidæ - - - - - - Trumpeters.
+
+    ORDER VII.--HERODIONES: HERONS.
+
+    Family  I.--Ardeidæ - - - - - - - Herons proper.
+       „   II.--Ciconiidæ - - - - - - Storks.
+       „  III.--Plataleidæ  - - - - - Spoonbills.
+       „   IV.--Phænicopteridæ  - - - Flamingoes.
+
+    ORDER VIII.--ANSERES: GEESE.
+
+    Family  I.--Palamedeidæ - - - - - Screamers.
+       „   II.--Anatidæ - - - - - - - Ducks.
+
+    ORDER IX.--STEGANOPODES: PELICANS.
+
+    Family  I.--Fregatidæ - - - - - - Frigate-birds.
+       „   II.--Phæthontidæ - - - - - Tropic-birds.
+       „  III.--Pelecanidæ  - - - - - Pelicans.
+
+    ORDER X.--GAVIÆ: SEA-BIRDS.
+
+    Family  I.--Laridæ  - - - - - - - Gulls.
+       „   II.--Procellariidæ - - - - Petrels.
+
+    ORDER XI.--PYGOPODES: GREBES.
+
+    ORDER XII.--IMPENNES: PENGUINS.
+
+    ORDER XIII.--CRYPTURI: TINAMOUS.
+
+    DIVISION II.--RATITÆ: STRUTHIOUS BIRDS.
+
+    DIVISION III.--SAURURÆ: LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS.
+
+It has been already stated that birds are divisible into three great
+sections, and attention is now directed to those which have a keel to
+the sternum, and which are good flyers--the Carinate Birds (CARINATÆ).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).
+
+THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.
+
+VULTURES AND CARACARAS.
+
+  The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How the
+  Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a Hawk, an Owl,
+  and an Osprey--The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres--Sub-order
+  FALCONES--Difference between the Vultures of the Old World and the
+  Vultures of the New World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as
+  to how the Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of
+  Scent--Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s Views
+  in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE GRIFFON VULTURE--Its
+  Capacity for Feeding while on the Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the
+  Largest of the Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN
+  VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE CONDOR--Its
+  Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING VULTURE--THE TURKEY
+  VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY
+  BIRD--How it attacks Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA.
+
+
+The first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey
+(_Accipitres_). They are all remarkable for strong and sharply-hooked
+bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In the Eagles
+and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree,
+although many modifications of their structure take place in the
+order--the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding birds,
+not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while
+their feet are larger and more adapted for holding their prey than for
+striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In most of the
+birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more
+powerful bird. This fact is always recognised in falconry, especially
+in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks or Goshawks, whose
+females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for
+holding ground game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &c. The difference in
+size is not very noticeable in the Vultures, but is unmistakable in
+the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the
+breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification
+of other birds, is a character of less value in the birds of prey,
+as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their
+habits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another
+character possessed by these birds is the distinct _cere_, which is
+present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls: it is a
+waxy covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy
+in substance.
+
+Birds of prey are of three kinds: Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the
+first name is included every rapacious bird which is not an Osprey or
+an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find out is--how to tell
+an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came
+out by night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into
+two great divisions, which were called diurnal birds of prey[143] and
+nocturnal birds of prey.[144] Now, however, that the habits of birds
+are getting better observed, these divisions have to be abandoned as
+not being entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home
+in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any other bird of
+prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is known, whose habit it is to feed
+on Bats in the evening. This is Andersson’s Pern,[145] a kind of Kite,
+allied to the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the Damara
+Country, in South-western Africa, and in Madagascar. A far better way
+to distinguish Hawks from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have
+the outer toe reversible--that is to say, they can turn their outer
+toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in
+the living birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological
+Gardens will see that it sits with its toes in pairs--two in front
+and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as
+in a little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in
+front and one behind. Then, again, Owls have no “after-shaft” to the
+feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The “after-shaft” is
+the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the
+main feather. In some birds it is very large, in others small. It
+occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the quills
+or tail feathers (see p. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible
+outer toe, and the absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls
+may be distinguished from all other birds of prey, save one, by the
+proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the
+three principal leg-bones are pointed out; and it is the length which
+the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia that is here insisted on.
+In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia; this
+is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different
+proportions the one to the other, according to the sub-family. Thus in
+Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers[146] the tibia and the tarsus are equal in
+length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is
+always much longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as
+it is in the Owls. The term “Hawk,” which has been employed throughout
+the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey
+excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits
+of the Osprey are noticed later on, but they may be briefly stated to
+be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting entirely of
+fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an
+Eagle, so that in many places it is popularly known as the “Fish Hawk,”
+or “Fishing Eagle;” but here the resemblance of the Osprey to the Eagle
+ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is
+more than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls; the feathers
+of the body have no after-shaft, as in the Owls, and the outer toe is
+reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of
+the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most
+striking peculiarities of the Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate
+position between these two sub-orders of birds.
+
+[Illustration: HEAD AND BILL OF SEA EAGLE. (_After Keulemans._) (_a_)
+bony eye-shelf; (_b_) cere.]
+
+The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders:--
+
+  (_a_). Outer toe _not_ reversible; tibia varying in length in
+  proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never double
+  the length of the latter; body feathers _with_ an after-shaft or
+  accessory plume. (American Vultures excepted.)
+
+  I. Hawks (_Falcones_).[147]
+
+  (_b_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
+  body feathers _without_ an after-shaft or accessory plume; plumage
+  compact, as in an Eagle; no facial disk.
+
+  II. Ospreys (_Pandiones_).[148]
+
+  (_c_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
+  body feathers _without_ an after-shaft; plumage soft and fluffy; a
+  facial disk.
+
+  III. Striges;[149] Owls.
+
+The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious
+birds than the other two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras,
+the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards, Eagles, Kites, and
+Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are
+classified as _Falcones_. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is
+found nearly all over the world; and about two hundred different kinds
+of Owls remain to represent the STRIGES.
+
+
+ORDER ACCIPITRES.--SUB-ORDER FALCONES.
+
+The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be
+noticed being the Vultures (_Vulturidæ_), which is again sub-divided
+into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (_Vulturinæ_) and the
+Vultures of the New World (_Sarcorhamphinæ_).
+
+
+THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES
+(_Vulturinæ_).
+
+These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor
+for their personal appearance. In fact, in both these respects they
+are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates,
+where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and
+decaying substances, which but for their intervention would prove most
+offensive. They are all inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm,
+countries; and it is only on rare occasions that they wander into the
+North of Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the
+New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no difficulty
+in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he is looking at
+belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World have _a hole through
+their nose_--or, in other words, want the wall of bone which divides
+one nostril from the other; in the Vultures of the Old World this bony
+wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other ordinary
+birds.
+
+[Illustration: BILL OF EGYPTIAN VULTURE, TO SHOW FORM OF NOSTRIL.
+(_After Keulemans._)]
+
+Besides their perforated nostril, the American Vultures differ from
+the Old World species in having no after-shaft to the feathers,
+therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some naturalists
+to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family,
+which bears the name of _Cathartidæ_; but although the absence of
+an after-shaft is a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds
+so closely resemble those of their Old World cousins, that it seems
+unnatural to separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The
+head of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the
+nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, or nearly
+so: sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on the head and
+neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of the other birds of
+prey. The Vultures feed on the ground, where they walk with comparative
+ease, their large feet being fitted for progression on the earth, and
+their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same
+extent as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them
+from striking down or snatching their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would
+do; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour the carcase
+or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up
+food from their crop. They are all birds of powerful flight, and are
+capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air without any apparent
+motion of the wings.
+
+[Illustration: BILL OF TURKEY VULTURE, TO SHOW THE PERFORATED NOSTRIL.]
+
+As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of
+naturalists has for a long time been divided, and controversy has waxed
+hot upon the subject, the question being whether the Vulture possesses
+a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell
+is so powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a
+greater distance than other birds can do. The experiments of various
+travellers seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are
+possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree; but the balance of
+evidence seems to prove that it is by their keen sight that they
+generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded, and
+escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring
+high in the air; another circling far away on the horizon sees the
+first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on, until a large
+company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well
+described by Longfellow:--
+
+  “Never stoops the soaring Vulture
+  On his quarry in the desert,
+  On the sick or wounded Bison,
+  But another Vulture, watching
+  From his high aërial look-out,
+  Sees the downward plunge, and follows;
+  And a third pursues the second,
+  Coming from the invisible ether,
+  First a speck, and then a Vulture,
+  Till the air is dark with pinions.”[150]
+
+The power of the Vulture’s sight was long disputed by the former
+generation of naturalists, and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article
+on the “Faculty of Scent in the Vulture,”[151] to prove that it was
+more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a
+carcase. Waterton was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in
+Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument as follows:--“After the
+repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I
+am quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its
+olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium, which rises
+from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived
+who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter
+in the tropics, where the trade-winds prevail. Often, at the very time
+that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above, there is a
+lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This
+takes place most frequently during the night-time, in or near the
+woods; and it often occurs early in the morning, from sunrise till near
+ten o’clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it
+is noticed in the evening, after sunset; and now and then during the
+best part of the day in the rainy season.... Vultures, as far as I have
+been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock when they
+are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a
+Mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of
+evergreen tropical trees; fifty Vultures, we will say, roost in a tree
+a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest
+of food. Ten fly, by mere chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and
+manage to spy it through the trees; the rest go quite in a different
+direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule? Every
+minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement; and
+instead of a Mule nearly dead, let us suppose a Mule in an offensive
+state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not only
+the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also
+that every Vulture in the adjacent forest would manage to get there
+in time to partake of the repast.” It will be seen from the above
+that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on
+some occasions, a part in their discovering food. Another observation
+on this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work
+on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable
+Vulture (_Otogyps auricularis_), he says:--“I believe naturalists are
+not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent, or by
+both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the
+one sense as well as the other in finding their prey, though I feel
+inclined to give sight the preference; and I once had a very striking
+proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion--in
+this instance, however, not so much by the actual sight of the carrion
+(though the first discovery probably originated in that way) as by
+another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up
+the ascent of a somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of
+obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and before arriving at the
+summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me: but thinking I
+had merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any
+particular notice of their appearance, as the event was one of usual
+occurrence; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were
+not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance
+on the other side. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had
+wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction towards which the
+Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The
+flight of the Vultures was low--at least five hundred to a thousand
+feet below the summit of the mountain; and on arriving near the base,
+they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course;
+and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they
+again depressed their flight. Those Vultures which I saw could not have
+themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct sight of one
+another. There was a numerous arrival; and although I could not always
+detect the next bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one,
+yet, when at length it did come into view, it never seemed uncertain
+about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended,
+and proceeded in the direction which the Vultures had pursued; and
+after about half an hour’s rapid walking, I found, as I anticipated,
+the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily
+discussing it.”[152]
+
+Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the “Birds of
+the Zambesi Region of Eastern Tropical Africa,”[153] says that to the
+inexperienced hunter the Griffon is “a great annoyance. If game be
+left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off,
+the birds will descend, and in a very short time completely devour
+it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little grass or with
+branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the
+birds discover their prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters
+not--probably owing to its being mistaken for one asleep; nor does the
+presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed
+from view.”
+
+Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram’s interesting essay on the
+“Ornithology of the Sahara:”[154] “As, happily for the traveller,
+Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the
+Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally
+gives it a passing call, though, if his meal be deposited near an
+oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hyæna (‘Dubba,’ Arab.), who
+lurks in the ‘weds.’ On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having
+become footsore had to be slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants
+selected the tenderest morsels for ‘kouskous,’ the Arab broth; and
+it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather
+descried, his prey. That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather
+than that of smell, seems to be certain from the immense height at
+which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary
+bird descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second.
+A short time elapsed, and the Nubian Vulture (_Otogyps nubicus_)
+appeared, self-invited, at the feast; and before the bones were left
+to the Hyæna no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had broken
+their fast. I should hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their
+appetites. I have observed the same regular succession of diners out on
+other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows?
+The Griffon who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation
+at once; another, sweeping the horizon at a still greater distance,
+observes his neighbour’s movements and follows his course; a third,
+still farther removed, follows the flight of the second; he is traced
+by another; and so a perpetual succession is kept up as long as a
+morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no other
+way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a
+few hours will gather over a carcase, when previously the horizon might
+have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the most two, in
+sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were
+congregated in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the
+bird was comparatively scarce before? May not this habit of watching
+the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from
+the Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance? The
+Arabs believe that the Vultures from all North Africa were gathered to
+feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that during the war
+very few ‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.”
+
+The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length,
+as exhibiting the general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to
+notice some of the most striking forms of these birds.
+
+
+THE BLACK VULTURE[155]
+
+This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both
+sides of the Mediterranean to North-western India, where it is a cold
+weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird is rather
+unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing
+into the open country, except when attracted by the presence of some
+carcase, on which it feasts in company with the Griffon Vulture. It
+breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a
+rock for its breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the
+neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a richly mottled red colour, two
+eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very
+like those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair
+of old birds of their young ones, which were in danger from the felling
+of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus related by Count
+von Tshusi Schmidthofen:--“The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in
+1860, on the top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobrabach, in the
+Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture. When the young birds were
+large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders
+were given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the
+tree some time, when the old birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and
+suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones in their
+claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who
+loudly complained of the unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of
+the astonished spectators.”
+
+[Illustration: GRIFFON VULTURE.]
+
+The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is
+entirely black, the bare places on the head and neck being of a livid
+flesh colour when the bird is alive.
+
+
+THE GRIFFON VULTURE.[156]
+
+The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found
+all over Southern Europe, and occurs occasionally at different points
+in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British islands off
+Cork Harbour; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It
+ranges all over North-eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into
+Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As it goes eastwards
+the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists
+considered to be a different species. In the British Museum is a very
+interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected by Major Denham in
+Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively
+few birds that have been brought from Central Africa, about the
+ornithology of which we do not even yet know much. Like other
+Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent
+the sea-shore in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South
+African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and small Tortoises, the
+latter of which it swallows whole.[157]
+
+This bird’s capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing
+anecdote of Canon Tristram’s:--“For some months we possessed two
+Griffons taken from the nest, who at length arrived safely in England.
+They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our
+Lämmergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched
+on the backs of the baggage-camels _en route_. They took a peculiar
+interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the whole
+operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when
+a morsel would be ready, exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement
+when they saw the skin drawn back over the head, and knew that the
+whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was
+of a desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different
+natural temperament, always contented and cheerful, a universal
+favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly
+kick for his complaints. They were able to fast for days; but, whenever
+such an opportunity as a Camel’s carcase presented itself, would be
+revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ‘Musha Pasha,’ attack the
+entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his
+breast, unable to stand, till at length, even this position being too
+much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, overpowered and
+helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined
+with the power of long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative
+wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is so uncertain, while the
+necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent.
+The strength of the Vulture’s stomach is equal to its capacity, for on
+one occasion one of our Griffons devoured a half pound pot of arsenical
+soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of vomiting.”
+
+The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in
+the same neighbourhood. Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says
+that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the Griffon sails
+through the air; the apparently effortless extension of the wing
+seems amply sufficient to sustain its huge body; no flapping motion
+is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is only on
+leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary
+impulse, after which, with primaries bent upwards by the force of the
+air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting,
+the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing
+to within a few yards, it checks its velocity by two or three heavy
+strokes of the wing.
+
+Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred
+bird, and its remains have been found embalmed. It is also figured on
+their monuments, sometimes in its natural form, sometimes with the head
+of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a
+half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills
+and tail; the under surface is creamy-brown, with a darker brown mark
+on the crop; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered
+tufts of white down; and round the neck there is a white ruff.
+
+Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which
+seem to be distinct species, the Himalayan Griffon, the South African
+Griffon, Rüppell’s Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed Griffon
+from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon
+Vultures, which have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the
+genus _Pseudogyps_.
+
+
+THE EARED VULTURE (_Otogyps[158] auricularis_[159]).
+
+This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the
+Old World, being exceeded in size only by the Great Condor of the
+Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully spread over the
+southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern
+Africa, whence it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the
+Sahara, and has even been said to occur accidentally in Europe. It has
+received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin on
+the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the
+Indian Vulture (_O. calvus_). These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear
+to play the part of the King Vulture of South America, the smaller
+Vultures, such as the _Neophrons_, always giving place to them, and
+allowing them to finish their feast before venturing to approach.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE.]
+
+The Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron[160] percnopterus_[161]) is also
+familiarly known as Pharaoh’s Chicken. It is a small bird about two
+feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great
+part of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds
+are brown. In Europe the Egyptian Vulture is a migratory bird, but
+it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has
+even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In
+winter it takes itself to the Cape of Good Hope. It is much valued in
+certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary matter, but
+Mr. Gurney states that its food also consists of carrion of various
+descriptions, and in default of such food it occasionally preys upon
+rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even earthworms.
+Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that
+lives, and that it is very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance,
+even all sorts of excrement; nothing comes amiss to it, and he has
+sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up
+by the tide. The same gentleman[162] says that on their migrations
+they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of passage, about the
+end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place,
+beginning to lay about the 1st of April. The nest is composed of a few
+dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags, or rubbish; and Colonel
+Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the
+sleeve of an old coat; while another observer says that on a foundation
+of branches Pharaoh’s Hen heaps rags, patches, old slippers, and whole
+basketfuls of camels’ hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring.
+The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments,
+but do not appear to have attached any particular significance to it.
+
+[Illustration: CONDOR.]
+
+In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian
+Scavenger Vulture (_Neophron ginginianus_), and in Africa the Pileated
+Vulture (_N. pileatus_), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly all over
+the continent.
+
+
+THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE AMERICAN VULTURES
+(_Sarcorhamphinæ_).
+
+
+THE CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus[163] gryphus_[164]).
+
+As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily
+distinguished by the perforation of their nostrils. The Condor is a
+very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures,
+and the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in
+the female. The hind toe also is extremely small, scarcely touching
+the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile than in
+any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of
+the Andes in South America, and the neighbouring countries to the
+west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains from Ecuador and
+Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the
+east coast as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears
+confinement well, examples being generally to be seen living in the
+Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the Condor
+can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on
+their perch. The expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much
+as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that when seen in a wild
+state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of
+ascending to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on
+account of the rarefaction of the air, a state of things which does
+not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the
+clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of
+this Vulture were circulated by the old authors, and it was even said
+to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations, however, of recent
+travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it,
+and it is now a well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack
+full-grown animals of any size, but will devour newly-born and helpless
+offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she
+appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed
+to these birds, of carrying off prey in their feet, is disproved by
+the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity for
+grasping anything: in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in
+the bird’s economy, the powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing
+a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about three feet and a half
+in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general
+colour of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the
+wing-coverts being externally grey. Round the neck is a ruff of soft
+white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not remarkable for
+any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour
+here and there. That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown
+by a specimen in the British Museum, which was hatched by a common
+hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are
+usually covered with white down.
+
+
+THE KING VULTURE (_Cathartes[165] papa_[166]).
+
+This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck
+being covered with caruncles, which in life are orange, purple, and
+crimson in colour; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a delicate
+fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern
+America, from Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little
+below the twentieth degree of south latitude. It appears to be rather
+a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and
+frequents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the
+Condor delights. It is rarer than the last-named bird, and from its
+forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is altogether
+a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is
+most difficult to obtain, from its habit of sitting on the tops of
+trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this account
+it is seldom shot, and D’Orbigny, from whose works much of the above
+information is derived, says that it is only captured by attracting
+it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an ambush. Another mode of
+capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de
+la Sierra,[167] is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture
+roosts, and to which it returns night after night, and then to climb
+up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer says that
+it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill,
+that the Turkey Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not
+venturing to commence their repast until he is satisfied, whereby he is
+popularly known as the “King” of the Vultures.
+
+
+THE TURKEY VULTURE (_Rhinogryphus[168] aura_).
+
+This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout
+Central America and the West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to
+the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat with locality, for
+whereas in the Southern United States they act as scavengers in the
+towns, in Guatemala and other places in Central America they are not
+seen in flocks, but occur in pairs only in the forests. As in the case
+of the other Vultures, their food consists of carrion, and they are
+found in large numbers in deserts, where they obtain an ample supply of
+food in the animals which perish. The Turkey Vulture is about two feet
+and a half in length. The plumage is black with a purplish gloss, and
+in life the bare head and neck are of a bright red colour, which soon
+fades after death.
+
+[Illustration: BRAZILIAN CARACARA.]
+
+
+FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.--THE FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.
+
+
+THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.--THE CARACARAS (_Polyborinæ_).
+
+All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their
+habits and appearance, and many of them are carrion feeders. The name
+“Caracara” with which these birds are here designated is of Brazilian
+origin, and all the species included under the present heading are
+inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the
+Secretary Bird of Africa. They all seem to be at home on the ground,
+and they differ from all other birds of prey in having a membrane which
+joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature
+which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy
+ground, which many of them frequent in quest of frogs, &c. The Southern
+Caracaras (_Ibycter australis_) are said to run with extreme quickness,
+putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their
+bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted
+with these birds during his voyage in the _Beagle_, says that their
+flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting account of
+the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where
+they were extraordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the
+neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all kinds of offal. If a beast
+were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures,
+and they did not hesitate to attack and capture wounded birds, on one
+occasion pouncing on a Dog which was lying asleep. They would also
+carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground. “A
+large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of
+heavy balls, used in catching wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced
+during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater’s compass, in a
+red morocco case, which was never recovered.” According also to Mr.
+Darwin, these birds were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it
+was curious to behold them, when impatient, tearing up the grass with
+their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as
+described by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face
+changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concerning which a somewhat amusing
+incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the Zoological
+Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the
+Brazilian species (_Polyborus tharus_), and the question which troubled
+naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds were a distinct
+species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary
+Brazilian bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow,
+whereas the white birds had this part purple, and this was looked
+upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one
+memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals,
+and to bestow on them a name, which should mark the character of the
+purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the white birds had now
+lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a
+purple visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment,
+he was not a little surprised, on looking back at his supposed new
+species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that
+the bird’s visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one
+of the Brazilian birds in the adjoining den had turned red, and hence
+it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of the bare
+face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino
+after all! Besides the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of
+prey changes colour in a somewhat similar way--the Bateleur Eagle,[169]
+which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and
+its bare face, which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or
+crimson. In the case of the latter bird the change of colour is visible
+not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a
+darker red than before.
+
+
+THE SECRETARY BIRD (_Serpentarius[170] secretarius_[171]).
+
+This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed
+birds of prey, and from its general look and from its habits, no less
+than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many good
+authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No
+one, however, who has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious
+force with which, by repeated blows of his powerful legs, sometimes
+springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment
+upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would
+consider him anything but a bird of prey. Standing before a Cobra which
+rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings out in front as
+a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he
+strikes his enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying
+venomous Serpents, they are protected with care by both the European
+and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a
+penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these
+useful birds. Sometimes the Secretary does not win in the fight with
+the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one occasion he saw
+a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where
+he fell down dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately
+pulls it out, but in the above instance the reptile had drawn blood
+from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the
+Secretary should have such striking power in his legs, as they are
+long and slender for the size of the bird, and are so brittle that it
+is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will
+snap. The Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats,
+Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &c., and Levaillant states that
+he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long
+as his arm and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight
+inches in length, and twenty-one small Tortoises of about two inches
+in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and
+other insects.
+
+[Illustration: SECRETARY BIRD.]
+
+A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was
+published in 1856 by the late M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of
+fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the natural history
+of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be
+resisted.[172] “As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she
+has given to each animal its means of preservation. Thus the Secretary
+Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life; and
+it is therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs
+and tarsi, its piercing eye is able to discover at a long distance the
+prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the
+sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the
+bird becomes now even more graceful; it now brings into action all its
+cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to attack;
+therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the
+feathers of the neck and back of the head shows when the moment for
+attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on the reptile
+that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if
+the bird does not succeed, and the enraged Snake draws itself up and
+expands, at the same time, the skin of its neck, as is the way with the
+more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a
+spring backwards, waiting to seize a favourable moment for recommencing
+the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its tongue
+with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement
+hisses, which keep back the enemy and seem to force some respect from
+it: but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same ratio that the
+difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the
+charge, assails the reptile afresh with blows from its terrible feet,
+such as no one would believe, and which are not long in putting the
+Snake _hors de combat_. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes
+launch themselves on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings,
+whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield, or by jumping
+backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of
+its antagonist, who at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length
+on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary to redouble its
+massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause
+the reptile to give up the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk
+darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on the Serpent’s neck, just
+at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by
+beginning at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with
+reptiles five or six feet in length and more than four inches in
+diameter; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes
+the skull by several blows of its bill before swallowing it.”
+
+“Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, which is always
+placed on the summit of a high dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is
+added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by the
+number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young
+birds remain for six months before leaving the nest, their legs not
+being strong enough to support the weight of the body. During the whole
+of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents.”
+
+The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown.
+The general colour of the plumage is grey, with black quills; the lower
+back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white; the tail is
+grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the
+colour is ashy-white, the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder
+part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant crest of plumes, which
+the bird can raise or depress at will; they are either entirely black,
+or grey with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird
+has got the name of the Secretary, from some fancied resemblance in the
+bird’s head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.
+
+In America, the Secretary is represented by the Çariama (_Çariama
+cristata_), a bird which looks so like a game bird that, as we have
+said, many ornithologists place both it and the Secretary among the
+Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration of
+its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall
+determined that the Çariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a
+very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit that where the
+Secretary is placed in the natural system the Çariama must also be
+located, and no one who has studied the habits of the former, either
+in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a moment that it is a
+veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard-like Çariama
+must also be included in the same order.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.
+
+  THE BANDED GYMNOGENE--Habits--Its Movable Tarsi--THE
+  HARRIERS--Distinctive Features--THE MARSH HARRIER--Habits--Its
+  Thievish Propensities--THE HARRIER-HAWKS--Colonel Greyson’s Account
+  of their Habits--THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS--Why so Called--Habits--THE
+  TRUE GOSHAWKS--Distinctive Characters--THE GOSHAWK--Distribution--In
+  Pursuit of its Prey--Appearance--THE SPARROW-HAWKS--Distinctive
+  Characters--THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK--Habits--Appearance--THE
+  BUZZARDS--Their Tarsus--THE COMMON BUZZARD--Where Found--How it might
+  be turned to Account--Food--Its Migrations--Habits--Appearance--THE
+  HARPY.
+
+
+THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.--THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS
+(_Accipitrinæ_).
+
+All the Hawks included under this heading are remarkable for their
+long legs, in which the tibial bone and the tarsus are about equal in
+length. In all the other Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Buzzards, and Falcons,
+the tibia is always longer than the tarsus.
+
+The Long-legged Hawks are not such powerful birds of prey as the Eagles
+or Falcons, and do not possess, as a rule, the same dash and courage in
+pursuing their quarry, many of them feeding on a low kind of diet, and
+being robbers of eggs and destroyers of young birds. The birds of prey
+belonging to this sub-family are--1. The Gymnogenes; 2. The Harriers;
+3. The Goshawks; 4. The Sparrow-Hawks.
+
+
+THE BANDED GYMNOGENE[173] (_Polyboroides[174] typicus_).
+
+From its general appearance, especially in its naked yellow face, this
+remarkable Hawk is considered to be a close ally of the Secretary
+Bird; but the proportions of its legs and its habits proclaim it to be
+nearly related to the Harriers. Two kinds of Gymnogenes are known, one
+inhabiting Africa, and the other being found in Madagascar. The food
+of the present species appears to consist of Frogs and Lizards, and
+at times it walks over the ground which has been recently burnt, in
+pursuit of insects and small reptiles; at other times it will sit for
+a long time on stumps by pools of water, watching for Frogs, which in
+such situations form its favourite food. The Gymnogenes are remarkable
+in the class of birds for being able to put their leg “out of joint” at
+will (that is to say, they can bend the tarsus backwards just as they
+please); and this is a fact which may be accepted as a certainty, since
+its truth has been tested by many trusty and independent observers. One
+of these, the late M. Jules Verreaux, states that the tarsi are movable
+at the “knee”-joint toward the front from behind, a provision which,
+from the facility it affords the bird for drawing up Frogs out of the
+marsh-holes by means of its talons, is of no little service to it. The
+exceedingly compressed toes of this species also enable it to introduce
+its long tarsi into the narrow crevices of the rocks. He saw it twist
+and turn its legs in all directions in capturing its prey in marshy
+places. Mr. Thomas Ayres also says that “the legs of this bird bend
+backward at the knee in an extraordinary manner, very much as if they
+were out of joint.”
+
+The Banded Gymnogene is nearly twenty-four inches in length, and is of
+a light grey colour, with black wings, the secondaries being grey like
+the back, with a black band before the tip; the lower back is white
+barred with black; the tail black with a white tip and a white bar
+across the middle; the throat and chest are grey like the back, and the
+rest of the under surface is white barred with black. The cere and bare
+space round the eye are yellow when the bird is alive.
+
+
+THE HARRIERS (_Circus_).
+
+All the Harriers have a facial disc as in the Owls, though not so
+distinct as in the latter group of birds. In both, however, the disc is
+formed by a ruff of soft, close-set plumes, which encircle the face;
+and hence in most classifications the Harriers have been considered
+as being closely allied to the Owls, on account of their having this
+“facial disc.” Their structure and habits, however, entirely do away
+with the idea of there being any real affinity between these two groups
+of accipitrine birds.
+
+Before the draining of the fens in England, Harriers were by no means
+uncommon in certain localities; but they are becoming rarer year by
+year, as each favourite haunt passes from them under the dominion of
+the agriculturist. Three kinds were found in England, of which the
+Hen Harrier (_Circus cyaneus_) was the rarest; Montagu’s Harrier (_C.
+pygargus_) was the most plentiful and the most widely distributed;
+and the Marsh Harrier, or Moor Buzzard (_C. æruginosus_), the most
+powerful. This is the species which has held its own best, as it is
+still found breeding in some few places in the United Kingdom. The
+habits of all the Harriers are very similar, and the genus Circus
+is probably--with the exception of the Peregrine Falcons--the most
+universally distributed of any Raptorial birds, for there is scarcely
+any part of the world where a Harrier is not found.
+
+
+THE MARSH HARRIER (_Circus æruginosus_).
+
+This is an inhabitant of the Old World, where it enjoys a wide range.
+It is one of the greatest robbers of eggs and young birds, being,
+in countries where it is still plentiful, a great nuisance to the
+sportsman, as, says Colonel Irby, “slowly hunting along in front, it
+puts up every Snipe and Duck that lies in its course, making them
+unsettled and wild.”[175] The same authority furnishes the following
+interesting particulars about the habits of the present species:--“In
+Andalusia, as well as in Morocco, over all low wet ground, the Marsh
+Harrier is to be seen in vast numbers, particularly in winter. Great
+quantities remain to breed, sometimes as many as twenty nests being
+within three hundred yards of one another. The latter, loosely
+constructed with dead sedges, vary very much in size and depth, and
+are usually placed amidst rushes in swamps, but sometimes on the
+ground among brambles and low brushwood, always near water, though
+occasionally far from marshes. They begin to lay about the end of
+March, and at that time fly up a great height, playing about, and
+continually uttering their wailing cry. The eggs are bluish-white, and
+usually four or five in number; they certainly vary in size and shape,
+and are often much stained. Like the eggs of all the Harriers that I
+am acquainted with, and many others of the Accipitres, when blown and
+held up to the light they show a bluish tinge. I once found a nest
+containing only one egg nearly ready to hatch, and saw another with six
+eggs (three quite fresh, and the other three hard sat on). I believe
+that if the first set of eggs be taken they lay again in a fresh nest,
+as I found sets of fresh eggs as late as the 2nd of May.
+
+[Illustration: MARSH HARRIER.]
+
+“Cowardly and ignoble, they are the terror of all the poultry which
+are in their districts, continually carrying off chickens, and, like
+other Harriers, are most terribly destructive to the eggs and young of
+all birds. On account of these propensities, I never let off a Marsh
+Harrier unless it spoiled sport to fire at one. Sometimes, when at Casa
+Vieja, and the Snipe were scarce, we used to lie up in the line of the
+Harriers’ flight to their roosting-places; for they always take the
+same course, and come evening after evening within five minutes of the
+same time. Upon one occasion a friend and myself killed eleven, and
+during the visit accounted for over twenty. I also upon every possible
+opportunity destroyed the nest and shot the old ones; but it was the
+labour of Sisyphus, for others immediately appeared. However, there was
+a visible diminution of their numbers at Casa Vieja. I never saw rats
+in their nests or crops, and believe they have not the courage to kill
+them; small snakes, frogs, wounded birds, eggs, and nestlings unable to
+fly, form the main part of their prey. I have seen the Marsh Harrier
+hawking over the sea about two hundred yards from the shore, where
+there was shallow water, but could not see what they were taking.”
+
+
+THE HARRIER-HAWKS (_Micrastur_[176]).
+
+These constitute a little genus of Hawks peculiar to the New World,
+where they form a perfect link between the Harriers and the Goshawks.
+In form they are stoutly-built birds like the latter, while they retain
+the facial ruff of the Harriers, and hence the name of Harrier-Hawk
+adopted for them here. Their habits are well described by a good
+observer, the late Colonel Greyson, of the U.S. Army, who writes
+of the largest species of the genus, the Harrier-Hawk (_Micrastur
+semitorquatus_):--“Among the great variety of Hawks to be met with
+in a single day’s excursion in the locality of Mazatlan, none are
+so easily recognised as this peculiar and interesting species. I
+have found it only in the heavy forests, or the immediate vicinity
+of a thickly-wooded country, where its slender form and lengthened
+tail attract our attention as it swiftly glides through the tangled
+woods with that remarkable ease which we have often noticed in the
+Sharp-shinned Hawk (_A. fuscus_). It appears to be strictly arboreal in
+its habits, and possessed of wonderful activity, either in springing
+from branch to branch without opening its wings, or rapidly darting
+through the intricacies of the bush with apparently but little
+difficulty. I have seldom seen one of these Hawks in an open country,
+and have never seen one flying higher than the tree tops, where they
+are met with. Its wings are rather short, and its flight is performed
+by rapidly repeated strokes, only for a short distance at a time. It
+preys upon various species of wood birds, which it captures by darting
+upon them on the ground or in the bushes; but the Chachalaca is its
+favourite game. This is a gallinaceous bird, or wild chicken, about the
+size of, or lighter than, the common hen, and is entirely arboreal,
+seldom running upon the ground, but is able by its peculiarly-formed
+feet to cling to, or spring rapidly through, the thickest branches
+with great agility; but this Hawk follows it with equal facility,
+until an opportunity offers to strike its prey, then both come to the
+ground together, the Hawk being the lighter bird. I witnessed a scene
+of this kind that took place when I was endeavouring to get a shot at
+a Chachalaca, as it was jumping about the very thick branches of an
+acacia overgrown with lianas; it appeared to be in great distress,
+uttering its harsh notes of alarm, and spreading its fan-shaped tail.
+Suddenly I saw one of these Hawks pounce upon it; when with harsh
+screams of terror and pain the Chachalaca dragged its captor to the
+ground, where they struggled for a few moments, but the unfortunate
+bird was soon overcome. The struggling and screams of the Chachalaca
+created a great commotion among the denizens of the woods; far and
+near were heard the harsh cries of other members of its family, and
+the Urraca Magpie, with streaming tail and ludicrous gesticulations,
+as well as the Blue-back Jay, and other birds in the neighbourhood,
+gathered around to witness the scene of rapine. Suddenly appeared in
+the midst of this clamour a larger Hawk (_Buteo Harrisi_, Aud.), which
+rushed at once upon the captor of the Chachalaca. Unable to withstand
+so heavy a charge, he was compelled to give up his honestly captured
+prey to a superior force, thus proving the old adage that ‘might is
+right.’ The slender but compact figure of our present subject was now
+seen perched upon a neighbouring bough, scrutinising, with a vicious
+eye, the more powerful but less active bird of prey, as he vainly
+attempted to bear off the lifeless form of the Chachalaca; but there
+was one yet mightier than he. I observed it for a few moments, then
+shot it, as also the Long-tailed Hawk, thus securing all three.
+
+“They build their nest of dry twigs and moss, which is placed in a very
+tall tree, but below the higher branches. The only nest I have seen was
+inaccessible, therefore I regret that I am unable to describe the eggs.”
+
+
+THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS (_Melierax_[177]).
+
+These birds are met with in Africa only, and they have received the
+name of “Chanting” Goshawks from their song, which has been stated by
+the French traveller, Levaillant, to be of considerable power, for he
+says he has heard the male of the Cape species (_Melierax canorus_)
+sing for hours together in the twilight of morning and evening, and
+sometimes through the night. This, however, has been questioned by
+Mr. Layard, who is well known as an authority on African birds, and
+who observed the species in some abundance in certain parts of South
+Africa. According to this observer, the bird will perch on the top of
+a high tree, utter its “mellow piping whistle,” and fly off again. He
+has also heard it call when flying. Now, although the Chanting Goshawks
+may not have such powers of song as have been credited to them, it is
+certain that they really have a more varied note than is the case with
+other Goshawks, and the Red-faced Goshawk (_Melierax gobar_) is said to
+whistle very much and better than _M. canorus_. About five different
+species of Chanting Goshawks are known, all being from Africa: hence
+the genus _Melierax_ is one of those forms characteristic of the
+_Ethiopian region_, which embraces Africa below the Sahara desert.
+One species only, the Many-banded Goshawk (_Melierax polyzonus_), a
+frequent bird in Abyssinia and Senegambia, is known to wander beyond
+the limits of the above-named region, as it occurs in Mogador, whence
+living specimens have been more than once sent to the Zoological
+Gardens.
+
+The habits of the Chanting Goshawks are very similar to those of the
+ordinary Goshawks of more northern climates, the larger species feeding
+on Quails, Francolins, and other small game, reptiles, and locusts,
+while the less powerful kinds devour small birds and reptiles. The
+colour of the plumage is a pearly-grey in the South African Chanting
+Goshawk (_M. canorus_), the belly being white with greyish cross-lines;
+the rump is white; the primary quills black; tail dusky, tipped with
+white and crossed by broad white bars; the cere and legs are red; the
+iris dark brown. It measures about three feet in length. This style of
+colouring is found in all the species, excepting one small one, which
+is entirely black all over, save some white spots on the tail, and is
+known as the Black Goshawk (_Melierax niger_).
+
+
+THE TRUE GOSHAWKS (_Astur_).
+
+These are represented nearly all over the world, every country having
+one or more species of the genus Astur, excepting the continent of
+South America, which possesses only two kinds, both of them rare and
+of limited range. More than thirty different species of the genus have
+been described, and they present great differences in size and style of
+coloration, their habits varying equally, according to the strength and
+power of the birds; but they are all remarkable for a very sturdy bill,
+and thick-set legs and sharp talons. A Goshawk may always be told by
+the latter characters, and by its short toes, which are perhaps smaller
+in proportion to the size of the bird than in any other group of the
+birds of prey.
+
+These birds, and the Sparrow-Hawks, have very short wings, and have not
+the same power of flight as in the true Falcons, which are long-winged
+birds; and hence, in the old days of falconry, they were never
+considered of such value as the Peregrine in the chase. They were also
+called Hawks of the “fist,” as they were flown at game from the hand,
+instead of soaring down on the quarry from aloft.
+
+
+THE GOSHAWK (_Astur palumbarius_).
+
+This is the largest and most powerful of all the genus, as it is also
+the best known, being found all over the northern parts of Europe and
+Asia. It used to be of more frequent occurrence in Britain formerly
+than it is now; and although it can only nest in this country on the
+rarest occasions in the present day, the author was introduced to
+an old gamekeeper on the Marquis of Huntly’s estate at Aboyne, who
+perfectly remembered the Goshawk breeding regularly at Glentanner. A
+young bird is still captured now and then in autumn, one of the last
+instances being that of a young male, who was captured in an area at
+Hampstead, on the 3rd of August, 1872, and is now in the British Museum.
+
+It will feed on nearly every kind of bird and animal that it is able
+to catch, and in falconry it is principally employed to take Hares and
+Rabbits; it will also take Pheasants and Partridges, a great number
+of these latter birds being killed by the Goshawk in its wild state.
+It is able to pursue its quarry with great dexterity through a wooded
+country, and it possesses great powers of abstinence, so that, if its
+prey escapes into cover for the time, the Hawk will often wait for its
+re-appearance, and will generally exhaust the patience of the quarry,
+and succeed in capturing it. During the daytime it remains solitary in
+dark fir-forests, and comes out to feed in the morning and evening.
+The nest is often a huge structure, being added to year by year; and
+an immense nest is figured in Professor Newton’s “Ootheca Wolleyana.”
+Some idea of the size may be gained from the story told by Mr. Wolley,
+who climbed up to one that was placed a good height up in a large
+Scottish fir, and when he stood on the same branch with the nest,
+the latter still reached several inches above his head, so that the
+building of this nest had probably been the work of several years.
+
+The old birds are alike in plumage; but the female, as is the case
+with all Goshawks, is larger than the male, measuring about two feet
+in length, while the male does not exceed twenty inches; the wing
+also, which is about twelve inches in the male, exceeds fourteen in
+the female. The colour is grey, the head black, the sides of the face
+white, streaked with black lines; below, the under surface of the body
+is white, barred across with black cross-bars of ashy-brown; the under
+tail-coverts are white; quills and tail ashy-brown, the tail feathers
+tipped with white; cere yellow; bill bluish; iris orange. The young
+birds differ considerably from the adults, being rufous below, with
+longitudinal streaks of dark brown; the upper surface is brown, all the
+feathers being margined with reddish-white.
+
+[Illustration: GOSHAWK.]
+
+In North America, a bird very similar to the Goshawk takes its place;
+and a third species of the same group is found in Madagascar only. It
+is, however, principally in the Malayan Archipelago that the greatest
+number of species occur, nearly every island possessing a Goshawk
+peculiar to itself.
+
+
+THE SPARROW-HAWKS (_Accipiter_).
+
+These may almost be called miniature Goshawks, as they are not only
+short-winged birds like the latter, but they even have the same style
+of plumage, consisting generally of a dark-grey back, a barred under
+surface, and a piercing yellow eye. They may, however, be distinguished
+from the Goshawks by their small, weak bill, and long, slender, middle
+toe. With the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands, Sparrow-Hawks
+are found all over the world, being plentiful even in South America,
+where the rarity of the Goshawks has already been alluded to.
+
+
+THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_).
+
+This is an active and plucky little bird, which still holds its own
+in England, notwithstanding the raids made upon its nest, and the
+destruction of old birds by keepers. Nor can it be denied that the
+Sparrow-Hawk, hatching its young about the time when the young chickens
+and Pheasants are also being reared, will occasionally make a swoop on
+the pheasantry, and carry off the chicks to feed its own offspring. The
+principal food of this Hawk is small birds, in the pursuit of which
+it is so eager that it has several times been known to dash through
+a glass window, and be caught in the room; while Messrs. Salvin and
+Brodrick, in their work on British Falconry, state that they have
+“known a trained Sparrow-Hawk force itself to such an extent into a
+blackthorn bush, where it had killed a bird, as to require to be cut
+out.” Like the Goshawk, it is often trained for hawking, but is a
+much more delicate bird to rear, and requires careful management when
+young. Nevertheless, a well-trained Sparrow-Hawk will account for a
+considerable number of birds; and in the work of the above-mentioned
+authors is given an instance of one Hawk having killed 327 head in
+less than two months, consisting of Sparrows, Blackbirds, Thrushes, a
+few Partridges, and Linnets, more than two-thirds of the number being
+Sparrows.
+
+In size the female Sparrow-Hawk is considerably larger than the male,
+measuring nearly sixteen inches in length, and nine inches and a half
+in the wing. She is generally paler grey, never so blue as in the male,
+nor is she so red underneath. A sign of age, by which a mature hen
+Sparrow-Hawk may be known, is the presence of a tuft of rufous plumes
+on the flanks, which is feebly developed in the young bird, but is a
+conspicuous feature in the adult.
+
+[Illustration: SPARROW-HAWK. (_After Keulemans_)]
+
+The male is bluish slate-colour above, the quills browner and barred
+across with darker brown, these bars being very distinct below; the
+tail is barred with blackish-brown, and tipped with white; cheeks and
+ear-coverts are rufous; under surface of body whitish, with narrow
+bars of bright rufous, the under tail-coverts white, as are also the
+under wing-coverts and axillaries, these two latter parts being spotted
+with brown. Young birds are brown with rufous edges to the feathers;
+underneath they are rufous, barred with brown on the flanks and breast,
+the throat and fore-neck streaked with the same colour. The bars on
+the tail are five in number in a young male, but as the bird increases
+in age the number of bars decreases, and is generally only four in a
+very old bird: the same takes place in the female. The range of the
+Common Sparrow-Hawk is very similar to that of the Goshawk, being
+extended all over Europe and Northern Asia, and into Northern China and
+North-western India. Neither of the birds go to South Africa, and range
+into the north-eastern portion of that continent only in winter.
+
+
+THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY.--THE BUZZARDS (_Buteoninæ_).
+
+These Hawks constitute a numerous assemblage of the birds of prey,
+and lead on from the long-legged Hawks of the previous sub-family to
+the Eagles, ending with the Great Harpy, which is, perhaps, the most
+powerful bird of prey in the world. All the Buzzards have the tibia
+much longer than the tarsus, but they may be distinguished from all the
+Eagles, Kites, and Falcons by having the back of the tarsus “plated,”
+and not “reticulated.” In the accompanying woodcuts is shown the hinder
+aspect of a Buzzard’s tarsus (figure on p. 274), by which it will be
+seen that the scales are arranged in plates, very differently from that
+which takes place in the tarsus of an Eagle (figure on p. 274), where
+the scales are reticulated.[178]
+
+The Buzzards are more numerous in the northern parts of the world than
+in the tropics, and a large decrease in the number of species takes
+place in Central and Southern America, whilst in Oceania and Australia
+they are altogether absent. As a rule, they are birds of plain plumage
+and sluggish habits, possessing neither the courage of the Eagles, nor
+the dash and adroitness of the Falcons, in capturing their prey. Africa
+produces some species which, as regards plumage, are an exception to
+the general rule, the Augur and Jackal Buzzards (_Buteo augur_ and
+_Buteo jackal_) being rather handsome birds, their plumage being a
+mixture of black and chestnut.
+
+[Illustration: HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF BUZZARD, SHOWING THE PLATED
+ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES (A).]
+
+
+THE COMMON BUZZARD (_Buteo[179] vulgaris_).
+
+This is a strictly European bird, although it has been stated to occur
+in Central Asia, and to sometimes wander into North-eastern Africa.
+Like all other birds of prey, it is rather rare in Great Britain, but
+it still breeds in certain localities, although the great majority of
+specimens which are killed in Britain are found in the fall of the
+year. The power of the Common Buzzards to attack large game is very
+limited, and Mr. Robert Gray[180] observes:--“To many persons it will
+seem unwise, I dare say, to call this Buzzard a useful bird in game
+preserves, yet I cannot but think that if the experiment were made of
+allowing it to fulfil the ends for which Nature designed it, our native
+game birds would benefit by the trial. So far as my own observations
+have extended, the Common Buzzard is just the kind of instrument wanted
+to clear off sickly young birds, which, on arriving at maturity, yield
+an offspring of a degenerate breed. Of somewhat sluggish habits, it
+does not care to interfere with strong-winged birds, being content with
+those that, through wounds or a naturally feeble constitution, are
+unable to save themselves. In this way only strong birds are left, and
+a healthy breed ensues. Let any of our proprietors of moors, who are
+jealous of the daring prowess of Eagles and lordly Peregrines, act upon
+this hint, and I will venture to say we should have fewer instances of
+disease amongst game birds to chronicle.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF SERPENT EAGLE, SHOWING THE RETICULATED
+  ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES.
+]
+
+Although the Buzzard does not quarter the ground like a Harrier, and
+search for its prey on the wing, it may not unfrequently be seen
+circling in the air at a considerable height, generally over the place
+which contains its nest, but as a rule it perches on some stone or
+similar resting-place, whence it watches for its prey. When flying it
+utters a clear loud cry, which has been described as “mewing.” Its
+principal food consists of Field Mice, but it also devours Moles, young
+birds, the caterpillars of Hawk Moths (_Sphingidæ_), Grasshoppers,
+and it will also occasionally feed on carrion, or on dead fish cast
+up on the sea-shore. When migrating in the autumn, which it does in
+considerable numbers together, a good many are caught for the purposes
+of food, and the manner of catching them is thus described by Nilsson
+in his work on the birds of Sweden:--“In October, when they pass
+through Skåne on their passage to the south, they remain for some
+time on the outermost point of land to await a suitable westerly
+wind to cross. Large numbers collect and roost at night in the trees
+(especially in the willows) which grow there. When the darkness sets
+in, two men go in company to catch them, one with a sack, and the other
+with a stout cudgel. The latter climbs quietly up into the tree, where
+he can just distinguish the bird, whilst the other remains below; and
+so soon as the climber has got up to where he can reach a bird, he
+catches it by the legs with the left hand, and either twists its neck
+with his right hand, or stuns it with a blow of the cudgel, and throws
+it down to his companion on the ground, who crams it into the sack.
+In this manner two men can catch thirty or forty in the evening, or,
+according to Burgomaster C., as many even as seventy or eighty; and
+Captain E. relates that twenty were obtained one evening from the same
+tree. They are easiest to catch when it is dark and blowing hard, so
+that the bird cannot easily hear the noise. In all, many hundreds are
+caught annually, some of which are cooked fresh or made into soup, but
+most are salted down and kept for use during the winter.”
+
+[Illustration: COMMON BUZZARD.]
+
+The nest of the Buzzard is generally placed on some non-evergreen
+tree at various heights from the ground, but in Scotland it builds
+on rocks. The usual number of eggs is three or four, and these are a
+bluish-white, with reddish blotches. They vary a good deal in colour,
+some being rather richly marked, while others are almost colourless.
+The time of breeding is generally the month of April, or in severe
+seasons, early in May. A Crow’s nest is occasionally taken possession
+of. When the bird makes its own nest, this is formed of large branches
+with a lining of grass, occasionally of a few feathers. No bird varies
+more than the Buzzard in plumage, and many beautiful variations in its
+dress take place before the adult plumage is gained. The old bird is
+almost entirely brown above and below, the breast and abdomen generally
+having a more or less barred appearance; the quills are brown, banded
+with darker brown, and shaded with grey on their outer aspect; the tail
+is ashy-brown, more or less inclining to rufous, and having twelve or
+thirteen bars of darker brown. Young birds have a great deal of white
+about their plumage, some of them being nearly cream-coloured. The size
+of the adults is about twenty-two inches, and the sexes vary a little
+in dimensions, the wing of the female being perhaps one inch longer
+than that of the male.
+
+The great utility of the Buzzard in destroying Mice ought to render
+it an object of protection and encouragement, for the number of small
+Mammals destroyed by these birds is immense. Brehm calculates that
+when they have young they will destroy at least one hundred Mice a day,
+and mentions that thirty Field Mice have been taken from the crop of a
+single bird.
+
+
+THE HARPY (_Thrasatus[181] harpyia_[182]).
+
+[Illustration: THE HARPY.]
+
+Although from its size and courage this bird is generally called the
+_Harpy Eagle_, it is evident from its structure that it is a Buzzard,
+as it possesses the “plated” tarsi of the latter group of birds. It is
+an inhabitant of the New World, from Mexico through Central America to
+Brazil and Bolivia. It is a very destructive bird, causing great damage
+to the flocks, and even destroying calves, whence it is an object of
+detestation to the stock-keepers in Mexico. It also feeds on deer and
+on the large Macaws which are found in the forest it frequents. It
+stands more than three feet and a half high, and has a large crest,
+which, together with its powerful talons and glittering eye, gives
+the bird an imposing aspect even in captivity. In the adult bird the
+coloration is ashy-grey, inclining in very old examples to silvery grey
+relieved by the dark ash-coloured wings and tail.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+EAGLES AND FALCONS.
+
+  THE EAGLES--THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER--A Visit to
+  their Nest--Habits--A Little Girl carried off alive--Habits
+  in Greece--Appearance--Von Tschudi’s and Captain Hutton’s
+  Descriptions of its Attacks--THE TRUE EAGLES--THE WEDGE-TAILED
+  EAGLE--Eye--Crystalline Lens--How Eagles may be Divided--THE IMPERIAL
+  EAGLE--THE GOLDEN EAGLE--In Great Britain--Macgillivray’s Description
+  of its Habits--Appearance--THE KITE EAGLE--Its Peculiar Feet--Its
+  Bird’s-nesting Habits--THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE--THE INDIAN SERPENT
+  EAGLE--THE BATELEUR EAGLE--THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE--A Sea Eagle--Story
+  of Capture of some Young--THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE--On the Wing--THE
+  COMMON KITE--THE EUROPEAN HONEY KITE--Habits--ANDERSSON’S PERN--THE
+  FALCONS--The Bill--THE CUCKOO FALCONS--THE FALCONETS--THE PEREGRINE
+  FALCON--Its Wonderful Distribution--Falconry--Names for Male,
+  Female, and Young--Hawks and Herons--THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON--THE
+  KESTRELS--THE COMMON KESTREL--Its Habits and Disposition.
+
+
+THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.--THE EAGLES (_Aquilinæ_).
+
+As already explained, the Eagles may be distinguished from the Buzzards
+by their reticulated tarsus; otherwise the proportions of the leg-bones
+are similar, the tibia being considerably longer than the tarsus.
+
+
+THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER (_Gypaëtus barbatus_).
+
+The generic name of this Eagle is derived from two Greek words (γύψ,
+a Vulture, ἀετός, an Eagle), and no name could have been better
+chosen, for with the structure of an Eagle it combines many of the
+habits of a Vulture, and has many ways in common with the Egyptian
+Vulture (_Neophron percnopterus_). In Europe it is found only in the
+mountainous parts of those countries bordering the Mediterranean basin,
+and is now nearly extinct in Switzerland. In the mountains of Spain,
+however, it is still to be met with in some quantities, and Mr. Howard
+Saunders states that one or two pairs may be found in every range of
+mountains. In Sardinia it is said by Mr. Basil Brooke to be decidedly
+common, and during one of his visits to that island he obtained a very
+curious nestling bird covered with down. “A pair of these birds,” says
+Mr. Brooke, “are in possession of every separate range of hills, which
+they appear to regard as their own territory, and from which they are
+seldom to be found far distant. They are generally to be seen singly or
+in pairs; but now and then I have observed three, and on one occasion
+four together. As a rule they are most decidedly mountain birds, but
+occasionally a single bird may be seen hunting over the plains and
+cultivated lands, not flying more than one hundred yards high. The
+nest of one found on the 18th of April was built on a broad ledge of
+a precipitous cliff, about three hundred feet high, within twenty
+feet of the top, and was completely sheltered from the severity of
+the weather by a large overhanging piece of rock. After some trouble
+I discovered a way by which, with a little care, I managed to get on
+the ledge, much to the discomfort of the solitary inmate--a young
+nestling, covered as yet with a pale yellowish-brown down. The nest
+itself was an accumulation of dried sticks, with a cup-shaped hollow
+in the middle, and had evidently been used for years. In it, and on
+the surrounding ledge, were great quantities of the leg-bones and
+feet of goats, &c., and a part of a fox’s lower jaw; these being in
+all stages of putrefaction, the smell was abominable. The old female
+on my first visit to the nest sat extremely close, and although I was
+standing over her within seven or eight yards, would not leave her
+young until I fired a shot, upon which she dashed off, dropping almost
+perpendicularly, and was out of range before I could fire. She flew
+over the valley and lit upon a high-projecting, rocky pinnacle, upon
+which I could see her through the telescope, sitting quietly watching
+all my proceedings. She returned to the nest shortly afterwards, on my
+having retired to a little distance.”
+
+In Algeria the Lämmergeier is said to feed largely on Land Tortoises,
+which it carries to a great height in the air, and drops upon a
+convenient rock, so as to break the shell. So much has been written
+upon the habits of this bird that it would be impossible to give here
+one tithe of the interesting notes which have been published in various
+works and periodicals; but no history of the species, however brief,
+would be complete without a passing mention of the little girl who
+was said to have been carried off in childhood by one of these birds.
+The history, believed by him to be well authenticated, is related by
+Naumann as follows.--“Anna Zurbuchen, of Hatchern, in Bern Oberland,
+born in 1760, was taken out by her parents, when she was nearly three
+years old, when they went to collect herbs. She fell asleep, and the
+father put his straw hat over her face and went to his work. Shortly
+after, when he returned with a bundle of hay, the child was gone; and
+the parents and peasants sought her in vain. During this time Heinrich
+Michel, of Unterseen, was going on a wild path to Wäppesbach, and
+suddenly heard a child cry. He ran towards the sound, and a Bearded
+Vulture rose, scared by him, from a mound, and soared away over the
+precipice. On the extreme edge of the latter, below which a stream
+roared, and over whose edge any moment would have precipitated it,
+Michel found the child, which was uninjured, except on the left arm and
+hand, where the bird had probably clutched it; its shoes, stockings,
+and cap were gone. This occurred on the 12th of July, 1763. The place
+where the child was found was about 1,400 paces distant from the
+tarn where it had been left asleep. The child was afterwards called
+_Lämmergeier-Anni_, and married Peter Frutiger, a tailor in Gewaldswyl,
+where she was still living in 1814.”
+
+The circumstantial way in which the above narrative runs appears to
+leave little doubt of its reality, but it is difficult to give it
+credence, as the Lämmergeier has but little power in its feet, which
+resemble those of the Vultures; and most of the stories of its prowess
+have been discredited by the researches of modern naturalists. Dr.
+Brehm observes:--“To my intense astonishment, the Spanish hunters did
+not regard this bird in the slightest degree as a bold, merciless
+robber: all asserted that it fed on carrion, especially bones, only
+attacking living animals when driven by necessity. They called it
+‘Quebranta-Huesos,’ or the ‘Bone-smasher,’ and assured me that this
+favourite food was broken in a singular manner. My later observations
+proved nothing which would justify my treating their statements as
+otherwise than correct, so I was forced to come to the conclusion that
+the Lämmergeier had been much maligned. Since my first account of this
+bird, I have read a number of communications from other observers, and
+gather from the whole that the Bearded Vulture is nought else than a
+weak, cowardly bird of prey, gifted neither in mind nor body to any
+great extent, and one that but rarely carries away small mammals. Its
+food usually consists of bones and other carrion.”
+
+Mr. Hudleston met with the Lämmergeier in Greece, where, however, it
+was not common, and he writes of its habits as observed by him:--“He
+is not a demonstrative bird like the Griffon, who may be seen sailing
+about at a great height in the air, sometimes alone, but more often
+in troops of from half a dozen to fifty, revolving in endless circles
+round each other, that no corner may remain unseen. The Lämmergeier,
+on the contrary, may be observed floating slowly, at a uniform level,
+close to the cliffs of some deep ravine, where his shadow is perhaps
+projected on the wall-like rocks. If the ravine has salient and
+re-entering angles, he does not cut across from point to point, but
+preserves the same distance from the cliff; and when he disappears
+in any natural fissure, you feel sure of the very spot where he will
+emerge on turning the corner of the precipice. Marrow-bones are the
+dainties he loves the best; and when the other Vultures have picked the
+flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows
+the bones, or breaks them and swallows the pieces, if he cannot get the
+marrow out otherwise. The bones he cracks by taking them to a great
+height and letting them fall on a stone. This is probably the bird that
+dropped a Tortoise on the bald head of poor old Æschylus. Not, however,
+that he restricts himself, or the huge black infant that he and his
+mate are bringing up, in one of the many holes with which the limestone
+precipice abounds, to marrow, turtle, bones, and similar delicacies:
+neither lamb, hare, nor kid comes amiss to him--though, his power of
+claw and beak being feeble for so large a bird, he cannot tear his
+meat like other Vultures and Eagles. I once saw a mature bird of this
+species which had evidently swallowed a bone, or something uncommonly
+indigestible, close to the _abattoir_ at Athens. He was in a very
+uncomfortable attitude, and appeared to be leaning on his long tail for
+support. After riding round in gradually decreasing circles till within
+ten yards, I dropped off horseback and made a rush at him, but he just
+managed to escape, and then rising slowly till about the height of the
+Acropolis, made off towards the gorge of Phylæ, where there is an eyry.
+
+“The Lämmergeier has an extremely ugly countenance; this becomes
+perfectly diabolical when he is irritated, and shows the bright
+red round his eyes. Altogether, what with his black beard, rufous
+breast, and long, dark tail, he is an awful-looking beast, and has the
+reputation of committing divers evil deeds--such, for instance, as
+pushing lambs and kids, and even men, off the rocks, when they are in
+ticklish situations. Nevertheless, he is a somewhat cowardly bird, has
+a feeble, querulous cry, and will submit to insults from a Falcon not a
+fourth his size or weight.”
+
+[Illustration: BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER.]
+
+Von Tschudi says that in Switzerland it will capture Hares, Martens,
+Squirrels, Crows, and Woodcocks, and he states that a stomach was found
+to contain five pieces of Bullock’s ribs two inches thick and from six
+to nine inches long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young Goat from
+the knee to the foot. The bones were perforated by the gastric juice,
+and partly reduced to powder. The stomach of another Lämmergeier,
+examined by Mr. Schinz, contained the large hip-bone of a Cow, the
+skin and fore-quarters of a Chamois, many smaller bones, some hair,
+and a Heath-cock’s claws. Should a Lämmergeier see an old Chamois or a
+Sheep or Goat grazing near a precipice, it will whirl round and round,
+trying to torment and frighten the creature till it runs to the edge of
+the cliff; and then, falling down upon it, the bird not unfrequently
+succeeds in pushing it into the abyss below with one stroke of its
+wings. Diving down after its mangled victim, it will begin by picking
+out its eyes, and then proceed to tear open and devour the body. It
+is only the smaller class of booty, such as Foxes, Lambs, or Marmots,
+which can be carried off by the Lämmergeier, as its feet and claws, as
+we have already remarked, are comparatively weak.[183]
+
+In the Himalayas, where the species is also tolerably plentiful,
+its habits vary somewhat, and it not unfrequently comes close to
+habitations for offal or bones, and behaves in a very Vulturine manner.
+Captain Hutton writes:--“Marvellous, indeed, are the stories told,
+both by natives and Europeans, of the destructive habits of this bird,
+and both accounts, I fully believe, have scarcely a grain of truth in
+them: all I can positively say on the point, however, is that I have
+known the bird well in its native haunts for thirty years and more,
+and never once, in all that time, have I seen it stoop to anything but
+a dead carcase. As to carrying off hens, dogs, lambs, or children, I
+say the feat would be utterly impossible, for the creature does not
+possess the strongly-curved, sharp-pointed claws of the Eagle, but the
+far straighter and perfectly blunt talons of the Vulture. Day after
+day I have seen them sweeping by along the face of the hill, like the
+wandering Albatross at sea, and, like it, ever in search of offal,
+which, when found, is not swept off the ground after the manner of the
+Kite, but the bird alights upon it, as it would upon a Bullock, and
+then, if the morsel is worth having, devours it on the spot, and again
+launches itself upon its wide-spread wings and sails away as before.
+There is no sudden stooping upon a living prey, as with the Falcon
+tribe, but its habits and manners in this respect are, as far as I have
+seen, entirely Vulturine.”
+
+The Lämmergeier measures about three feet and a half in length, and
+its outspread wings often extend to as much as nine feet in expanse. A
+second species is found in Africa, the Southern Lämmergeier (_Gypaëtus
+ossifragus_), which differs from the European one, in having the tarsus
+bare, instead of being feathered to the toes.
+
+
+THE TRUE EAGLES (_Aquila_).
+
+In Australia no true Eagle is found, but a very powerful bird called
+the WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE (_Uroaëtus[184] audax_[185]) inhabits that
+country, differing from all its more northern relations in its very
+long and wedge-shaped tail, which is like that of the Lämmergeier.
+
+The true Eagles have a very powerful bill, with a festoon distinctly
+marked in the edge of the upper mandible, which is, however, different
+from the toothed bill of the Falcons, to be considered presently. They
+nearly all possess a large bony shelf over the eye, which may serve
+to protect that organ from the sunlight during some of the aerial
+excursions the bird makes.
+
+[Illustration: EYE OF EAGLE, SHOWING CRYSTALLINE LENS. (_After
+Yarrell._)]
+
+The orb of the eye in the Eagles is supported by a ring of bony plates,
+numbering fifteen in the Golden Eagle. These bony plates are capable of
+slight motion upon each other. The figure represents the crystalline
+lens of the same bird, the lens being subject to great variety of form
+in different birds. In the Eagle the proportion of the axis to the
+diameter of the lens is as 3-8/10 to 5-7/10; in the Eagle Owl, which
+seeks its prey at twilight, the relative proportions of the lens are as
+6-7/10, to 7-8/10; and in the Swan, which has to select its food under
+water, the proportions of the lens are as 3 to 3-8/10. Birds have also
+the power of altering the degree of the convexity of the cornea. With
+numerous modifications of form, aided by delicate muscular arrangement,
+birds appear to have the power of obtaining such variable degrees of
+extent or intensity of vision as are most in accordance with their
+peculiar habits and necessities.[186]
+
+In these birds is found a return of that difference in the size of
+the sexes which was so noticeable in the Sparrow-Hawks, for in the
+Eagles the female is decidedly larger than the male. There are two
+convenient groups into which the Eagles may be divided, according as
+they have feathered or unfeathered legs. All the true Eagles belong
+to the first section, all the less noble and Serpent-eating kinds to
+the latter section. Although they are birds of grand physique, it is a
+question whether Eagles deserve the position they enjoy for nobility
+of disposition: they are rapacious it is true, but not always brave,
+for one Golden Eagle will give way to a Peregrine Falcon, while the
+grand-looking IMPERIAL EAGLE (_Aquila heliaca_, see figure on p. 235)
+is said by a good observer in India, Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., to be no
+better than a great hulking Kite. He adds:--“Much has been written
+about the daring and fierceness of this Eagle. I can only say that in
+India (where possibly the climate is subversive of courage), I have
+never seen the slightest indications of these qualities. I have driven
+the female off hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before the eyes of
+the pair, without either of them flapping a pinion even to defend what
+a little Shrike will swoop at once to save; and I have seen a couple
+of Crows thrash one of them soundly. As a rule, this species with us
+is an ignoble feeder. I have generally found them gorged with carrion,
+and after a good meal they will sit stupidly on a tree, or any little
+mud pillar, and permit you to walk within thirty yards of them; but
+before feeding they are somewhat wary, and can by no means always be
+secured, even when seen sitting. On more than one occasion I have seen
+Desert Rats (_Gerbillus erythrurus_) in their crops, and I once shot
+one of a pair which were busy, on the line of rail at Etawah, devouring
+a Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_), which some passing train had cut in
+two. Occasionally, but rarely, I found that they had eaten Quails and
+other birds. Once I shot a male which was dancing about on the ground
+in such an astounding fashion that I killed it to see what the matter
+was. The bird proved to have been choking. It had swallowed a whole dry
+shin-bone and foot of an Antelope. The bone apparently could not be got
+down altogether, and in trying to void it, the sharp points of the hoof
+had stuck into the back of the roof of the mouth.”[187]
+
+
+THE GOLDEN EAGLE (_Aquila chrysaëtus_[188]).
+
+The Golden Eagle is so called from the tawny or golden-brown colour
+which pervades the feathers of the neck in the old bird. Excepting in
+certain places in “Caledonia stern and wild,” where it is protected, it
+is a species which is becoming very rare in Great Britain, and but for
+the intervention of a few large-minded proprietors in Scotland would
+doubtless ere this have been extinguished. It is a much rarer bird
+now than the White-tailed Eagle, and the last-named species is often
+mistaken for it; but a little attention to one point will obviate all
+fear of a mistake in this respect, the Golden Eagle having at all ages
+the tarsus feathered to the toes, whereas the Sea Eagle belongs to the
+bare-legged section of these birds.
+
+A better description of the habits of the Golden Eagle probably does
+not exist than that given by the late Professor Macgillivray:--
+
+“See how the sunshine brightens the yellow tint of his head and neck,
+until it shines almost like gold! There he stands, nearly erect, with
+his tail depressed, his large wings half raised by his side, his neck
+stretched out and his eye glistening as he glances around. Like other
+robbers of the desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien, a
+look of proud defiance; but his nobility has a dash of clownishness,
+and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still, he is a noble bird,
+powerful, independent, proud, and ferocious, regardless of the weal
+or woe of others, and intent solely on the gratification of his own
+appetites; without generosity, without honour, bold against the
+defenceless, but ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility,
+about which men have so raved. Suddenly he raises his wings, for
+he has heard the whistle of the shepherd in the corry, and bending
+forward, he springs into the air. Oh, that this pencil of mine were a
+musket charged with buck-shot! Hardly do those vigorous flaps serve
+at first to prevent his descent; but now, curving upwards, he glides
+majestically along. As he passes the corner of that buttressed and
+battlemented crag, forth rush two ravens from their nest, croaking
+fiercely. While one flies above him, the other steals beneath, and
+they essay to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
+knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following him a little
+way they return to their home, vainly exulting in the thought of having
+driven him from their neighbourhood. Bent on a far journey, he advances
+in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular intervals, then
+shooting along without seeming to move them. In ten minutes he has
+progressed three miles, although he is in no haste, and now disappears
+behind the shoulder of the hill. But we may follow him in imagination,
+for his habits being well known to us, we may be allowed the
+ornithological licence of tracing them in continuance. Homeward bound,
+his own wants satisfied, he knows that his young must be supplied with
+food.
+
+“Over the moors he sweeps, at the height of two or three hundred feet,
+bending his course to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck
+retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing smoothly along.
+Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a moment, stoops, but recovers
+himself without touching the ground. The object of his regards, a
+Golden Plover, which he had spied on her nest, has eluded him; and
+he cares not to pursue it. Now he ascends a little, wheels in short
+curves, presently rushes down headlong, assumes the horizontal position
+when close to the ground, prevents his being dashed against it by
+expanding his wings and tail, thrusts forth his talons, and grasping
+a poor terrified Ptarmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens,
+squeezes it to death, raises his head exultingly, emits a clear, shrill
+cry, and springing from the ground pursues his journey.
+
+[Illustration: GOLDEN EAGLE.]
+
+“In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small lake, he is assailed
+by a fierce Peregrine Falcon, which darts and plunges at him as if
+determined to deprive him of his booty, or drive him headlong to the
+ground. This proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the
+Eagle screams, yelps, and throws himself into postures of defence;
+but at length the Hawk, seeing the tyrant is not bent on plundering
+his nest, leaves him to pursue his course unmolested. Over woods,
+and green fields, and scattered hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now he
+enters the long valley of the Dee, near the upper end of which is dimly
+seen through the grey mist the rock of his nest. About a mile from it
+he meets his mate, who has been abroad on a similar errand, and is
+returning with a white Hare in her talons. They congratulate each other
+with loud yelping cries, which rouse the drowsy shepherd on the strath
+below, who, mindful of the lambs carried off in spring-time, sends
+after them his malediction. Now they reach their nest and are greeted
+by their young with loud clamour.
+
+“Let us mark the spot. It is a shelf of a rock, concealed by a
+projecting angle, so that it cannot be injured from above, and is
+too distant from the base to be reached by a shot. In the crevices
+are luxuriant tufts of _Rhodiola rosea_, and scattered around are
+many alpine plants, which it would delight the botanist to enumerate.
+The mineralogist would not be less pleased could he with chisel and
+hammer reach that knob which glitters with crystals of quartz and
+felspar. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet at least in diameter,
+rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and heath; flat, unless in
+the centre, where it is a little hollowed and covered with wool and
+feathers. Slovenly creatures you would think these two young birds,
+clothed with white down, amid which the larger feathers are seen
+projecting, for their fluid dung is scattered all over the sticks,
+and you see that, had the nest been formed more compactly of softer
+materials, it would have been less comfortable. Strewn around, too, are
+fragments of Lambs, Hares, Grouse and other birds in various stages of
+decay. Alighting on the edges of the nest, the Eagles deposit their
+prey, partially pluck off the hair and feathers, and rudely tearing up
+the flesh, lay it before their ever-hungry young.”
+
+The length of a male Golden Eagle is a little more than two feet and
+a half, while the female attains at least three feet in dimensions,
+with a wing three inches longer than that of her mate. The colour of
+the plumage is dark brown, with a rich tawny hue on the back of the
+neck and nape, the feathers of these parts being streaked with darker
+brown; the tail is more or less mottled with grey at the base, and is
+whiter in younger birds. The latter are often popularly distinguished
+as the Ring-tailed Eagles. By some authors the Eagle which frequents
+the mountains is considered to be a different species from that which
+inhabits the plains, but as far as present experience goes it is the
+younger birds which are more often met with in the latter localities,
+being probably driven from their mountain homes by the older birds.
+The Golden Eagle varies his choice of an eyry in different localities,
+building in the British Islands generally on a rock, but in many other
+countries nesting on a tree. It is found all over Europe and Northern
+Asia, in mountainous districts, extending into China and even into the
+Himalayas, whence the finest specimens are obtained. In North America
+also the examples of the Golden Eagle seem to be very large, but are
+not to be otherwise distinguished from European specimens.
+
+
+THE KITE EAGLE (_Neopus[189] malayensis_).
+
+This extraordinary bird bears the above name from its resemblance
+generally to a Kite, and also from its plumage, which in the young bird
+is wonderfully Kite-like, so that a dead specimen carelessly examined
+might be taken easily for one of the latter birds. One moment’s search,
+however, would dispose of the illusion, for no one who has once heard
+of the foot of this Eagle could ever forget it or mistake it for that
+of any other raptorial bird, the talons being longer and more slender
+in proportion to the size of the foot than in any known Eagle; they
+are also nearly straight. The inner claws are the longest, and that
+excellent observer, Captain Vincent Legge, points out that they seem
+“especially adapted for the work of carrying off loose and fragile
+masses, such as the nests of small birds, as they would naturally form
+its chief means of grasp when such an object was being held by both
+feet during the process of flight.” This last sentence gives an insight
+into the habits of the bird, which are on a par with its remarkable
+structure. It might well be called the “Bird’s-nesting Eagle,” for it
+seems to be the only bird of prey which systematically lives by the
+robbery of smaller birds’ nests; only on very rare occasions, and when
+pressed by hunger, has it been known to attack larger game or worry the
+poultry-yard. It is almost always on the wing, and the Lepcha-hunters
+near Darjeeling speak of it as the bird “that never sits down.” It
+is found in the Himalayas and in other wooded districts of India,
+and occurs but more sparingly in the Malayan peninsula and islands,
+ranging to some of the Moluccas, but probably visiting the latter only
+on migration. But it is in Ceylon that it is, perhaps, more plentiful
+than in any other locality, and the best account of its habits is
+that given by Captain Legge, whose words are subjoined. “This fine,
+long-winged Eagle is, on account of the singular structure of its feet
+and its curious habits, one of the most interesting, but, at the same
+time, perhaps the most destructive of raptors to bird-life in Ceylon.
+It subsists, as far as can be observed, entirely by birds’-nesting,
+and is not content with the eggs and young birds which its keen sight
+espies among the branches of the forest-trees, but seizes the nest in
+its talons, decamps with it, and often examines the contents as it
+sails lazily along. Furthermore, Mr. S. Bligh informs me that he once
+found the best part of a bird’s nest in the stomach of one of these
+Eagles which he shot in the Central Province. Its flight is most easy
+and graceful. In the early morning it passes much of its time soaring
+round the high peaks or cliffs on which it has passed the night, and
+about nine or ten o’clock starts off on its daily foraging expedition.
+It launches itself with motionless wings from some dizzy precipice,
+and proceeding in a straight line, till over some inviting-looking
+patna-woods it quickly descends with one or two rather sharp gyrations,
+through, perhaps, a thousand feet, and is in another moment gliding
+stealthily along just above the tops of the trees. In and out among
+these, along the side of the wood, backwards and forwards over the
+top of the narrow strip, it quarters, its long wings outstretched
+and the tips of its pinions wide apart, with apparently no exertion;
+and luckless indeed is the Bulbul, Oriole, or Mountain Finch whose
+carefully-built nest is discovered by the soaring robber.”[190]
+
+The size of the Kite Eagle is about thirty inches in length, and the
+colour is entirely black, with some indistinct bars of ashy-grey on the
+tail. Besides the Eagles that have been alluded to already, there are
+the Hawk-Eagles (_Nisaëtus_), remarkable for their long legs, and the
+Crested Eagles (_Spizaëtus_), which have a beautiful long crest hanging
+from the hinder part of the head.
+
+
+THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE (_Circaëtus[191] gallicus_).
+
+This, which is also called the “Jean-le-Blanc,” is one of the
+best-known of all the bare-legged section of the Eagles. The genus
+_Circaëtus_, to which it belongs, contains five species, of which four
+are peculiar to Africa, the _C. gallicus_ being found all over Southern
+and Central Europe, and extending into India, where it is not at all
+unplentiful. In its nature this bird is rather sluggish, though in
+confinement it is very untamable, and wears a thoroughly fierce aspect,
+as could be seen by any one who examined the specimen in the Zoological
+Gardens. Its ferocious appearance was heightened by its peculiar eye,
+which is very large, of a bright yellow, with a very small black pupil,
+whereas the pupil in most birds of prey is rather large.[192]
+
+
+THE INDIAN SERPENT EAGLE (_Spilornis cheela_).
+
+This is a beautiful bird, having the under surface mottled with white
+spots or “ocelli.” All the Serpent Eagles, of which there are several
+species, are characterised by a similar style of plumage, and by a
+full, thick crest of feathers springing from the occiput and hind
+part of the head. They are found all over India and Ceylon, Southern
+China, and the Burmese countries, the Malayan Peninsula, Sunda Islands,
+Borneo, and Celebes. The Ceylonese species, which is a small race of
+the Indian bird, is stated by Layard to feed on Snakes, Lizards, and
+other reptiles and insects, and to be particularly partial to the large
+trees on the banks of tanks, from them swooping down on the frogs which
+came up to sun themselves on the floating logs or reeds. The Indian
+species of Serpent Eagle is a powerful bird, and is said to capture
+Pheasants during the breeding season and bring them to the nest. Mr.
+Hume has generally found small Snakes in their stomachs; once as many
+as fifty together were found, all scarcely bigger than large Worms; and
+an instance was brought to his knowledge of a Cobra some two feet and a
+half long having been found dead, but uninjured, in one of these birds’
+stomachs. Mr. Thompson, a frequent contributor to Mr. Hume’s “Rough
+Notes,” tells of one which he had alive, and which was kept along with
+two little Indian Owls (_Carine brama_), a Carrion Crow, and three
+large green Woodpeckers, and who killed and ate up every one of the
+latter, though well supplied with other fresh meat.
+
+THE BATELEUR EAGLE (_Helotarsus[193] ecaudatus_[194]).
+
+This is a very remarkable bird, which might also with propriety be
+called the Short-tailed Eagle, as it is the only species known in which
+the wings exceed the tail in length. It is found in Africa only, where
+it is by no means rare in the southern and north-eastern quarters of
+the continent. In Damara Land, according to Mr. Andersson, it builds
+its nest on trees, selecting generally one of such a terribly thorny
+nature that the nest is always difficult of access. Occasionally,
+however, a rock is selected for the breeding-place. When in captivity,
+this bird changes the colour of the face, exactly as the Brazilian
+Caracara already alluded to; the bare skin round the nostrils and eyes,
+which is generally brilliant coral-red, fading to pale orange-yellow.
+
+[Illustration: BATELEUR EAGLE.]
+
+The Bateleur Eagle is about two feet in length, and has an enormous
+crest of plumes. The colour is black, with a large maroon-coloured
+patch on the shoulders and on the back, the tail being also of this
+colour. Sometimes individuals with pale, cream-coloured backs are
+found; but at present it is not known whether these are a different
+species, or whether they constitute only a pale variety of the ordinary
+Bateleur.
+
+
+THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE (_Haliaëtus albicilla_[195]).
+
+Sea Eagles are absent from South America, but probably from no other
+country of the globe. Both Europe and North America are inhabited
+by large and powerful species; and throughout Africa and Madagascar
+the handsomely-marked species _H. vocifer_ occurs. One of the most
+widespread is the White-bellied Sea Eagle; it is found round the coasts
+of Australia and all the Molucca Islands, ranging as far as India and
+Ceylon, and as high as Cochin China.
+
+The White-tailed Eagle, which, from its being an inhabitant of the
+British Islands, is the species most familiarly known of all the Sea
+Eagles, is still met with in some of the northern parts of Scotland,
+and in the Hebrides; but as it is a bird which creates a good deal
+of havoc among lambs at certain periods of the year, the war of
+extermination which has been waged against it has now contributed
+considerably to the increasing rarity of the species on these coasts.
+The breeding of this Sea Eagle has been well described by Mr.
+Woolley.[196] He says:--“On the coasts, the Sea Eagle chooses a roomy
+and generally sheltered ledge of rock. The egg which Mr. Hewitson
+figures (Eggs, Br. B., ed. 3, pl. iv., fig. 2) is one of two which I
+took on the 23rd April, 1849, on one of the most northern points of our
+island. The nest was very slightly made of a little grass and fresh
+heather loosely put together, without any sticks; but two or three
+‘kek’ stalks were strewn about outside. There was a good thickness of
+guano-like soil upon the rock, which made much nest unnecessary. Two
+or three Guillemot’s beaks, the only unmanageable part of that bird,
+were not far off. The eggs were laid two days before when I went to
+reconnoitre; and I never shall forget the forbearance which a friend
+who was with me showed, at my request, as he lay, gun in hand, with
+the hen Eagle in full view upon her nest not forty yards below him.
+Her head was towards the cliff, and concealed from our sight; whilst
+her broad back and white tail, as she stood bending over her nest on
+the grassy ledge, with the beautiful sandstone rock and sea beyond,
+completed a picture rarely to be forgotten. But our ears, and the
+air we breathe, give a finish to Nature’s pictures which no art can
+imitate; and here were the effects of the sea, and the heather, and
+the rocks, the fresh warmth of the northern sun, and the excitement
+of exercise, while the musical yelping of the male Eagle came from
+some stand out of sight. Add to all this the innate feeling of delight
+connected with the pursuit of wild animals, which no philosopher has
+yet been able to explain further than as a special gift of our Great
+Maker, and then say whether it is not almost blasphemy to call such a
+scene a ‘picture!’ Upon this occasion, I made some remark to my friend,
+when the hen Eagle showed her clear eye and big, yellow beak, her head
+full of the expression of wild nature and freedom. She gave us a steady
+glance, then sprang from the rock, and with ‘slow winnowing wing’--the
+flight-feathers turning upwards at every stroke--was soon out at sea.
+Joined by her mate, she began to sail with him in circles farther and
+farther away, till quite out of sight, yelping as long as we could
+hear them, Gulls mobbing them all the time. To enjoy the beauties of
+a wild coast to perfection, let me recommend any man to seat himself
+in an Eagle’s nest. The year before this I took the young ones out
+of the same eyry late in July. It was my first attempt at an Eagle’s
+stronghold, and I shall never forget the interest of the whole affair;
+a thunderstorm coming on just before, making it necessary to cut drains
+in the peat with our knives, to divert the torrents of water; our
+councils about the best mode of attaching the ropes; the impertinence
+of a young lad who, stationed to watch for my signals, was rendered
+quite useless by his keen sense of the ridiculous on seeing me, in my
+inexperience, twisting round and round at the end of the rope; the
+extraordinary grandeur everything assumed, from the nest itself; the
+luxurious feeling of exultation; the interest of every plant about
+it--I know them all now; the heaps of young Herring-Gulls’ remains, and
+the large fish-bone; but, above all, the Eaglets fully able to fly, and
+yet crouching side by side, with their necks stretched out and chins on
+the ground, like young Fawns, their frightened eyes showing that they
+had no intention of showing fight.
+
+“Very gently, as a man ‘tickles’ trout, I passed my hand under them,
+and tied their legs together, and then tried to confine their wings.
+They actually allowed me to fasten a handkerchief round them, which,
+however, was soon shaken off when they began to be pulled up. When the
+men had raised me, the string attached to my waist lifted one Eaglet,
+and presently the second came to the length of his tether. Great was
+the flapping of wings, and clutching at rocks and grass. I had many
+fears that the string or the birds’ legs must give way; but, after much
+hard pulling, I got them safely to the top, and they are now (1853)
+alive at Matlock amongst rocks, where I hope they may breed; but,
+though five years old this season, they have not yet quite completed
+the adult plumage. Their dutiful parents never came near them in their
+difficulties; but I am happy to say that in 1850 (the year after I took
+their eggs), they carried off their young, through the interest I was
+able to exert in their favour. They had shifted their position; and
+they changed again in 1851 to a rock with an aspect quite different,
+and more than a mile away. In 1847, to please the shepherds, the young
+were shot in the nest, which was built in the spot where I visited it
+the two following years. There was no sea-weed about this nest either
+time that I saw it; but a friend writes me word, that two which he
+examined last year on the sea-cliffs of this island, and which he
+carefully described to me, were principally made of that material, as
+Mr. Hewitson also had found them in the Shetland Islands. On one of
+these two occasions, the old Eagle made a dash near my informant, with
+a ‘fearful scream,’ and such was the tremendous character of the rocks,
+that his ‘hair gets strong’ when he thinks of them. These two nests,
+both occupied, were not more than a mile and a half apart.”
+
+[Illustration: WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.]
+
+
+THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (_Elanoides furcatus_).
+
+The forked tail which is characteristic of the Kites reaches in
+the present species its greatest development, so that the name of
+Swallow-tailed Kite is by no means inappropriate. On five occasions
+the bird has been captured in England, and it is doubtless during its
+migration that the bird is driven to Britain by some adverse wind.
+Its range is extensive, as it is numerous during the summer in some
+of the southern States of North America, and it migrates to South
+America, whence it frequently appears in collections from Brazil and
+Columbia. Mr. Audubon gives the following account of the Swallow-tailed
+Kite:--“The flight of this elegant species of Hawk is singularly
+beautiful and protracted. It moves through the air with such ease and
+grace, that it is impossible for any individual, who takes the least
+pleasure in observing the manners of birds, not to be delighted by
+the sight of it whilst on the wing. Gliding along in easy flappings,
+it rises in wide circles to an immense height, inclining in various
+ways its deeply-forked tail, to assist the direction of its course;
+dives with the rapidity of lightning, and, suddenly checking itself,
+re-ascends, soars away, and is soon out of sight. At other times, a
+flock of these birds, amounting to fifteen or twenty individuals, is
+seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst
+the branches, glancing along the trunks, and seizing in their course
+the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest. Their motions
+are astonishingly rapid, and the deep curves which they describe, their
+sudden doublings and crossings, and the extreme ease with which they
+seem to cleave the air, excite the admiration of him who views them
+while thus employed in searching for food.
+
+“In the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are
+abundant, they arrive in large companies in the beginning of April, and
+are heard uttering a sharp plaintive note. At this period I generally
+remarked that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of
+a hundred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly
+course. At that season, and in the beginning of September when they
+all retire from the United States, they are easily approached when
+they have alighted, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged
+in preparing themselves for continuing their journey, by dressing and
+oiling their feathers. At all other times, however, it is extremely
+difficult to get near them, as they are generally on wing through the
+day, and at night rest on the highest pines and cypresses, bordering
+the river-bluffs, the lakes, or the swamps of that district of country.
+
+“They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather they soar to an
+immense height, pursuing the large insects called _Musquito Hawks_, and
+performing the most singular evolutions that can be conceived, using
+their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their
+principal food, however, is large Grasshoppers, Grass Caterpillars,
+small Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs. They sweep close over the fields,
+sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a Snake, and
+holding it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air.
+When searching for Grasshoppers and Caterpillars, it is not difficult
+to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then
+killed, and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead
+bird, as if intent upon carrying it off. An excellent opportunity is
+thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted; and I have killed
+several of these Hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could load
+my gun.
+
+“The Fork-tailed Hawks are also very fond of frequenting the creeks,
+which, in that country, are much encumbered with drifted logs and
+accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of the numerous
+Water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash
+along the trunks of trees, and snap off the pupæ of the Locust, or that
+insect itself. Although when on the wing they move with a grace and
+ease which it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are
+scarcely able to walk.
+
+“I kept for several days one which had been slightly wounded in the
+wing. It refused to eat, kept the feathers of the head and rump
+constantly erect, and vomited several times part of the contents of its
+stomach. It never threw itself on its back, nor attempted to strike
+with its talons, unless when taken up by the tip of the wing. It died
+from inanition, as it constantly refused the food placed before it in
+profusion, and instantly vomited what had been placed down its throat.”
+
+
+THE COMMON KITE (_Milvus ictinus_[197]).
+
+Times have changed in England since the number of Kites to be seen
+flying about London Bridge could form a subject of astonishment to a
+foreign traveller visiting that country; but less than three hundred
+years ago this was the case, though now the species has been all but
+banished from the land. It may still occasionally nest in some parts of
+Wales and of Scotland; but in the latter country places where formerly
+the species bred plentifully now know it no more. The Kite builds its
+nest of sticks on a large tree, but occasionally also on rocks, and it
+is generally composed of a mixture of materials, such as bones, &c.,
+and the lining usually contains a good many rags; so that Shakspere,
+with the knowledge of natural history which always distinguished him,
+was quite right when he said--
+
+  “When the Kite builds, look to lesser linen.”
+
+The presence of the Kite in London was useful in the old days, as its
+food consists by preference of offal, though it also devours Moles,
+Frogs, and unfledged nestlings, Rabbits, Snakes, and fish. The forked
+tail of this species--which serves as a rudder to the bird when flying,
+as it often does, in circles aloft--easily distinguishes it from all
+other British birds of prey. The length of the bird is about two feet,
+and the general colour of the upper plumage is rufous, most of the
+feathers being edged with that colour. Below, it is rufous-brown, with
+a narrow streak of blackish down the feathers; the quills are black;
+the tail rufous-brown, deeply forked, and crossed with seven or eight
+bars of black. The species is found all over Europe, but becomes
+gradually rarer in the eastern parts.
+
+
+THE EUROPEAN HONEY-KITE (_Pernis apivorus_).
+
+This bird is generally known as the Honey-Buzzard, though from the
+reticulations on the hinder aspect of the tarsus it has evidently
+nothing to do with those birds, even if its soft and kite-like plumage
+did not show its affinities to the Kites. Its nostril is also peculiar,
+and is closed in by a membrane, which doubtless forms a protection
+from the stings of insects when the bird is attacking a Bee’s or
+Wasp’s nest. Its habits have been well described by Brehm.[198] This
+bird is, perhaps, the most timid of all European birds of prey, but
+is remarkable for its good temper. Its movements are in the highest
+degree clumsy; its flight is bad, heavy, and slow, and is generally a
+short one, and the bird shows a great disinclination to rise to any
+considerable height in the air; in short, its whole bearing evinces the
+most lazy disposition. It will sit for hours on a stone boundary wall,
+on a solitary tree or sign-post, or on some other elevated spot, quite
+contented, watching its prey, which consists of the following:--Insects
+of all descriptions, Beetles, Caterpillars, Dragon-flies, Gadflies,
+Worms, Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, and destructive Rodents, which form its
+principal food; besides which it is very fond of hunting for the nests
+of the Humble-bee and Wasp, and of feeding on their larvæ. This bird
+also, unfortunately, destroys the young, and especially the eggs, of
+such of the smaller birds as it comes across while hunting for insects;
+this causes it to be looked upon as a disagreeable and hateful enemy
+by all birds. Crows and Rooks mob the Honey-Buzzard with almost the
+same eagerness as they chase the Eagle-Owl, and all small birds make
+a great noise at its appearance. In the summer it also feeds on buds,
+blossoms, bilberries, other wood-berries, and even leaves. This habit
+distinguishes it from all other German birds of prey.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON KITE.]
+
+“The Honey-Buzzard reaches us somewhat late in the year, and commences
+to build its nest when the other Raptors have hatched their broods. The
+nest is very flat, and is placed on the highest of our forest trees;
+it is principally constructed of green twigs, mixed with dead sticks,
+and is lined with moss, hair, and feathers. It generally contains three
+eggs, of a rusty yellow ground, very thickly blotched and spotted with
+dark reddish-brown. They are somewhat small and rather long in shape.
+Of these rarely more than two are hatched. The young ones are at first
+fed with Caterpillars, Flies, Beetles, Worms, &c., which the old birds
+collect in their crops, and then throw up; later they are treated to
+pieces of Wasps’ nests filled with larvæ, Frogs, Mice, young birds,
+&c. The parent birds still continue to feed their young long after the
+latter have left the nest. Both young and old birds remain in company
+almost till the moulting season comes round, when they migrate more to
+the southward.”
+
+The Honey-Kite inhabits, during the summer, the greater part of Europe,
+and flies away to Africa to pass the winter. In India it is represented
+by a species which goes through similar changes of plumage, but may
+always be recognised by its long crest. The phases through which the
+Honey-Kite passes are most remarkable, the bird being sometimes nearly
+all white, at other times all black; and this plumage seems to occur
+at any age, sometimes in youth, sometimes in old age; and hence this
+is called a melanism (μέλας, black). Many birds of prey are subject
+to this melanism, but none more so than the Honey-Buzzards, and their
+representatives in America, the Tooth-billed Kites (_Leptodon_).
+
+
+ANDERSSON’S PERN (_Machærhamphus[199] Anderssoni_).
+
+This remarkable bird bears the name of one of the most intrepid, as
+well as one of the most unassuming, of African travellers, the late
+Charles John Andersson, who discovered it during his residence in
+Damara Land in South-western Africa. So rare is it, and so difficult to
+obtain, that he only managed to procure two specimens in the space of
+ten years, though constantly on the look-out for the bird. He writes
+concerning it:--“On the 10th of March, 1865, I obtained one specimen,
+a female, of this singular bird at Objimbinque, Damara Land. It was
+shot by my servant, who observed another, probably the male. I imagine
+that I have myself observed it once or twice in the neighbourhood
+of Objimbinque just before dusk. When brought to me I instinctively
+suspected the bird to be a feeder at dusk or at night, and called
+out, ‘Why, that fellow is likely to feed on Bats!’ And truly enough
+so it turned out; for on dissection an undigested Bat was found in
+the stomach; and in another specimen, subsequently killed by Axel,
+there were several Bats in the stomach.”[200] It is probably owing to
+this habit of feeding in the evening that the bird is so difficult
+to procure, as is the case with many of the Goat-suckers, which are
+also night-feeding birds. Since Mr. Andersson’s death, two or three
+specimens of his Pern have been sent from Madagascar, but in the
+intervening portions of the African continent it is as yet unknown.
+
+The colouring of this species is plain, being of a chocolate-brown
+colour, with a long crest springing from the back of the head; above
+the eye is a white spot, and another below the eye; the throat and
+chest are white, with a streak of dark brown down the centre of the
+throat; the quills and tail are banded the bars showing paler below.
+The length of the bird is about seventeen inches.
+
+Only one other species of the genus _Machærhamphus_ is known, and this
+is Westermann’s Pern (_M. alcinus_), which is an inhabitant of Malacca,
+where it is almost as rare as Andersson’s Pern is in Africa. It has
+lately been sent from South-eastern New Guinea, and may ultimately be
+found to inhabit some of the Moluccas.
+
+
+THE FIFTH SUB-FAMILY.--THE FALCONS (_Falconinæ_).
+
+In all the true Falcons and in the allied genera the bill, which was
+simply festooned in the Eagles, Kites, and Buzzards, becomes very
+distinctly toothed, and in some genera even two teeth are present. In
+these birds, too, the cere is strongly shown, and is generally of a
+bright yellow colour.
+
+
+THE CUCKOO-FALCONS (_Baza_).
+
+These birds have the soft plumage of a Honey-Kite, and yet possess the
+toothed bill of a Falcon, so that they are placed among the Falconinæ;
+but, because of their Kite-like plumage, they follow close to the
+Perns and Honey-Kites. They not only possess the usual tooth of the
+Falcon’s bill, but a second is actually present, so that there is no
+difficulty in recognising a member of the genus _Baza_. The American
+Cuckoo-Falcons (_Harpagus_) are the only other birds of prey which have
+a double-toothed bill.
+
+The name of “Cuckoo”-Falcon has been given to these birds on account
+of their actual resemblance to a Cuckoo, in the grey colour of the
+back with the reddish bars on the under surface. They have also a very
+large yellow eye. The distribution of the genus _Baza_ is singular, and
+it is one of those forms which does not occur in Europe, but exhibits
+the affinity which is often seen between certain African and Indian
+birds. About nine different kinds are known, each having its own
+limited range. Thus Swainson’s Cuckoo-Falcon (_B. cuculoides_[201])
+is found in the forest country from Senegambia to Gaboon in West
+Africa, and is replaced by _Baza Verreauxi_ in the forests of Natal.
+In Madagascar a third species (_B. madagascariensis_) occurs, and on
+crossing the Indian Ocean a fourth kind (_B. ceylonensis_) is found
+inhabiting Ceylon. Malacca and the Sunda Islands have their own Baza
+sumatrensis, the Philippines _B. magnirostris_, the island of Celebes
+_B. erythrothorax_, the Moluccas and New Guinea _B. Reinwardti_, and
+Northern Australia, _B. subcristata_. None of these birds appear to
+be migratory, and their geographical distribution is interesting when
+traced out on a map of the world.
+
+From their shy and retiring habits, but little has been recorded of
+their life. Verreaux’s Cuckoo-Falcon is said to frequent the dense bush
+in Natal, and Captain Harford shot one in that country while engaged
+upon an ant-hill, and their food appears to consist of Grasshoppers
+and Mantidæ, while another observer took from the stomach of one of
+these birds remains of a green Mantis, of Locusts, and of a Chameleon.
+This species is one of the largest of the Cuckoo-Falcons, measuring
+seventeen inches in length, and the colour is dark ashy-grey; deeper
+ash-colour on the head and crest; the sides of the face, throat, and
+chest, are clear ashy; the breast white, banded across with pale rufous
+brown; the under tail-coverts being pure white; both the wings and tail
+are barred with dark brown. The sexes of these birds differ very little
+in size.
+
+
+THE FALCONETS (_Microhierax_[202]).
+
+This name is applied to a genus of tiny Falcons, which are peculiar
+to the Indian region. One of them, the Indian Falconet (_Microhierax
+cærulescens_), is found in the Himalayas and the Burmese countries. A
+second one is peculiar to Assam, a third to the Philippine Islands,
+and a fourth to the interior of China, while the fifth and remaining
+species is found in the Malayan Peninsula and the Sunda Islands.
+
+Not one of these little Hawks is seven inches in length, and even to
+this day there are many authors who think that they are Butcher-birds
+or Shrikes, and not Hawks at all. They are, however, true Falcons,
+though of very small size, and are said to be used by native chiefs for
+hawking insects and Button-quails, being thrown from the hand like a
+ball; but this story has been discredited of late, the Besra, a small
+Sparrow-Hawk, being probably the bird alluded to. The Falconets are
+known to sit solitary on high trees, and according to native accounts
+they feed on small birds and insects.
+
+
+THE PEREGRINE FALCON (_Falco peregrinus_[203]).
+
+This noble bird justifies his name of _peregrinus_, by his distribution
+over the earth’s surface. The ordinary Peregrine, which is still
+found in suitable places breeding on British coasts, is met with all
+over Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into South Africa and India
+in winter, extending throughout China to the Sunda Islands, and the
+Philippine Archipelago. In North America he is also widely distributed,
+and is as plentiful as in Europe. In the southern hemisphere the
+Peregrines, though strictly of the same type as the European bird,
+are always darker in colour, and have blacker faces and heads. The
+Australian Peregrine is called _Falco melanogenys_,[204] and extends
+its range from the Australian continent to New Caledonia and the New
+Hebrides, and as far north as Java. In South Africa the resident
+Peregrine is a very small, dark-coloured bird, and is called _Falco
+minor_. This species is also met with in North-eastern Africa, and even
+ranges into the Mediterranean, as it has been shot in Rhodes, Sardinia,
+and Morocco. Again, in Chili, another dark-faced form occurs, the
+_Falco nigriceps_,[205] not unlike its Australian relative.
+
+To write a history of the Peregrine Falcon would be almost to write
+a history of falconry, and although it would be beyond the limits
+of the present work to enter deeply into the subject, a few words
+must be said about it here. The art of falconry probably came from
+the East, where it is still practised, and an ancient bas-relief was
+found by Sir Austen Layard, among the ruins of Khorsabad, depicting a
+falconer with a Hawk on his wrist, thus proving the antiquity of the
+pursuit. In Great Britain it was formerly much in vogue, and in Salvin
+and Brodrick’s work on “Falconry in the British Islands” there will
+be found an interesting _résumé_ of the art, as performed in Great
+Britain, from ancient times down to the present. It is lamentable
+to think of the way in which these noble birds, once the pride and
+favourite of monarchs, are now shot down and classed as vermin. The
+strict way of preserving game which has been common of late years, and
+the general use of firearms, have, no doubt, been the chief causes of
+the destruction of the larger Falcons, and it will take some time to
+disabuse the vulgar prejudices of gamekeepers, and of some proprietors,
+as to the mistake that is made in killing off every kind of raptorial
+bird indiscriminately. A protest which was penned by Mr. G. E. Freeman,
+in his “Falconry,” is worthy of reproduction here:--“All Hawks, when
+they have a choice, invariably choose the easiest flight. This fact is
+of the last importance in the matter before us. I confess that I at
+once give it the chief place in this argument. Who has not heard of the
+Grouse disease? It has been attributed, sometimes respectively, and
+sometimes collectively, to burnt heather; to heather poisoned from the
+dressings put on Sheep; to the Sheep themselves cropping the tender
+shoots and leaves of the plant, and thus destroying the Grouse’s food;
+to the tape-worm; to shot which has wounded but not killed; and perhaps
+to other things besides. It may be, I doubt not, correctly referred to
+any or to all of these. Of this, however, there appears no question
+that from whatever cause it springs it is _propagated_. A diseased
+parent produces a diseased child. Now, I say that when every Hawk is
+killed upon a large manor, the balance of Nature is forgotten, or
+ignored; and that Nature will not overlook an insult. _She_ would have
+kept her wilds healthy; destroy her appointed instruments, and beware
+of her revenge!”
+
+[Illustration: PEREGRINE FALCON.]
+
+The Peregrine Falcon has always been celebrated with falconers for
+its superior dash and courage. The female is much the larger and
+more powerful bird, and is called the “Falcon,” the male being known
+as the “Tiercel.” The young birds reared from the nest are called
+“Eyes,” and the immature specimens, from their more rufous colour, are
+distinguished as the “Red Falcon” and the “Red Tiercel.” When a bird
+has been caught wild in the full plumage it is called “Haggard.” The
+principal flight of the “Falcon” was at the Heron, and many anecdotes
+are told of the encounters between these two antagonists in mid-air.
+The evidence of Falconers, however, goes to show that the impalement
+of the Hawk by the Heron’s bill is a rare occurrence, and it is only
+when the birds come to the ground that the presence of the man is
+required to rescue the Falcons from their dangerous foe. The Heron,
+on being pursued, endeavours to avoid his pursuer by mounting high
+into the air, the Falcon meanwhile doing his best to rise above him
+and strike the quarry to the ground. Generally, two Falcons were
+employed in the chase, and while the Heron avoided the stoop of one
+by changing his position suddenly, the other was ready to stoop from
+above, until, by a successful swoop, the Heron would be mastered and
+borne to the ground with the two Falcons in close embrace. Then was
+the time for the good falconer to be at hand to save his Hawks from
+the Heron. In a wild state the Peregrine feeds on Grouse of all kinds,
+Pheasants, Partridges, Ducks, Pigeons, Plovers, &c., but it does not
+so often visit the poultry-yard as the other Hawks, preferring the
+open country or the sea-coast. In this latter locality, the Falcon
+feeds on the various sea-birds, such as the Puffins, Auks, Guillemots,
+and as it flies back to its nest with food for its young, it will
+sometimes in very wantonness rip up a Gull or other sea-bird if it
+happens to get in the way as it rushes by. The nest is generally large,
+and composed of sticks and herbaceous plants, excepting in localities
+where none of the latter exist, when it is made of grass. The site
+chosen is some sea-cliff or high precipice inland, where there is
+sure to be some difficulty in reaching the nest, which is generally
+harried by means of a rope. They build in the same localities for years
+together, and Professor Newton gives an interesting record of such
+an occurrence,[206] when he mentions a hill in Lapland, where a pair
+of Falcons had a nest when it was visited by the French astronomical
+expedition in 1736, a nest being re-discovered in the same place in
+1799 by Captain Skjöldebrand, and again by the late Mr. Woolley, in
+1853. Near the site of its nest the Peregrine brooks no intruder,
+and will even attack an Eagle, an instance having been recorded of
+one of the latter birds being stunned and brought to the ground by a
+Peregrine, who broke its own wing in the attempt, and was liberated
+by the shepherds to mend its wing as best it could, in gratitude for
+having delivered their aquiline enemy into their hands.
+
+[Illustration: HOODED FALCON.]
+
+In Holland, where until recent years hawking was largely carried on
+under the auspices of the king, there is a well-known place, called
+Valkenswaard, where a good many Hawks are trapped every autumn during
+migration, and it is from the neighbourhood of this village that many
+of the most celebrated falconers have come. At the same time England
+has also produced many celebrated adepts at the art, which is generally
+carried on from father to son; and one of the Barr family, with a high
+reputation as a falconer, a few years ago exhibited his trained birds
+in the neighbourhood of London. The writer has also seen some fine
+sport in Huntingdonshire, with Lord Lilford’s Hawks, in a large extent
+of open country near Great Gidding.
+
+[Illustration: FALCON’S HOOD.]
+
+The male Peregrine is of a bluish-grey colour, narrowly barred with
+black, the wings darker; the cheeks, ear-coverts, and moustache, black,
+the entire sides of the head being sometimes of this dark aspect;
+underneath, the body is white, with more or less of a reddish tinge,
+and crossed with black bars; tail grey, broadly barred with black and
+tipped with white. The length is about fifteen inches, that of the
+female about seventeen; and the wing is fourteen inches and a half in
+length instead of about twelve, as in the male. In plumage the hen bird
+is very similar, but is generally of a richer rufous hue below.
+
+Besides the Peregrine Falcons there are a host of smaller species
+of the genus _Falco_, varying much from the above birds in size and
+style of colour, but of exactly the same form, and having much the
+same habits. The Hobby (_Falco subbuteo_) and the Merlin (_F. æsalon_)
+represent these smaller Falcons in the British Islands.
+
+
+THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON (_Hierofalco candicans_).[207]
+
+Besides the Peregrine, there were used in falconry, in England, the
+Noble, or Jer-Falcons, birds which were much prized, although they did
+not possess the same fire and dash in pursuit of their quarry exhibited
+by the former bird. There are five distinct kinds of these northern
+Jer-Falcons, without mentioning the Saker Falcon of South-eastern
+Europe, which also belongs to the genus _Hierofalco_. The best known
+is the Greenland Jer-Falcon, which, as its name implies, is an
+inhabitant of Greenland and North America, young birds only occurring
+in the British Islands during migration. This species is nearly pure
+white in colour when fully adult, the back and wings retaining small
+spots of black, the entire head and breast, and especially the tail,
+becoming pure white as the bird gets older and loses the spots and
+bars which characterise its immature dress. An unfailing mark by which
+a Greenland Jer-Falcon can be told at any age is the light yellowish
+bill and cere, and the absence of arrow-shaped bars on the flanks,
+which in young birds are longitudinally streaked with brown, but are
+never barred. All the other Jer-Falcons have distinct bars across the
+flanks, as well as bluish bills and regularly barred tails. They are
+four in number, the Norway Jer-Falcon (_H. gyrfalco_), the Iceland
+Jer-Falcon (_H. islandicus_), Holböll’s Jer-Falcon (_H. Holbölli_), and
+the Labrador Jer-Falcon (_H. labradorus_). They are nearly all peculiar
+to the countries whose names they bear, the Norway bird not occurring
+anywhere out of Europe and Northern Asia, one specimen having been
+known to occur in England; it seems also to emigrate to Central Asia,
+as a single bird was procured during the last Yarkand Mission. All the
+Jer-Falcons have shorter toes than the Peregrines, in which the outer
+toe is very long, while in the other birds the outer and inner toes are
+about equal in length.
+
+When in a wild state the Greenland Falcon feeds upon Ptarmigan, Geese,
+and on the sea-birds which frequent the cliffs where it takes up its
+abode. It evinces great courage in defending its nest.
+
+
+THE KESTRELS (_Cerchneis_).
+
+These form a group of short-toed Hawks, like the foregoing, but are
+much more numerous in species, and are found distributed all over the
+world, with the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands. More than
+twenty different kinds of Kestrel are recognised by naturalists, and
+they are more insect-feeding birds than the bolder and nobler Falcons
+which have just been spoken of. The commonest and best known of all is
+
+
+THE COMMON KESTREL, OR WIND-HOVER (_Cerchneis tinnunculus_).[208]
+
+This species gains its name of Wind-hover from a very pretty and
+graceful action with which it hangs suspended in the air, as if by a
+thread, keeping itself balanced by a constant winnowing of the air
+by its wings, and from this position it scans the ground below for
+a stray Mouse which may venture out of its hole, for mice and small
+birds constitute its principal food. It is frequently to be seen in
+the autumn hovering about a field of sheaved corn in the twilight,
+selecting a position about forty feet in the air, and occasionally
+stooping down on some prey in the stubble below. Should it not succeed
+in its pounce, it flies a little way in a few easy circles, and
+again commences to hover over a new part of the field. Insects also
+form a staple article of food to the Kestrel, who devours them while
+in full flight, passing its leg up to its bill, and the author has
+met with an instance of a Kestrel hawking for insects over a stream
+in the late evening. This Hawk is, unfortunately, often confounded
+through the ignorance of gamekeepers with the Sparrow-Hawk, and
+suffers consequently for the misdeeds of the latter, a fact much to be
+regretted, for it is a very useful bird, owing to the number of mice it
+destroys; indeed, a writer in Macgillivray’s “British Birds” computes
+that a single Kestrel would destroy upwards of ten thousand mice
+during its stay in Britain. It will also catch birds, but in limited
+numbers, and then generally only during the breeding season, when its
+young require constant food. Although of a less ferocious nature and
+aspect than the Falcons, the Kestrel, nevertheless, often shows forth
+his accipitrine temperament in a way that would scarcely be expected
+from his mild-looking dark eye, which has nothing of the ferocity of
+the yellow iris of the Sparrow-Hawk. Some young birds belonging to the
+writer, consisting of three females and a male, being left without
+food for a few hours by the person in whose charge they were placed,
+forgot their fraternal affection, and the larger hen birds set upon
+the male, who was not so large or strong as they were, and devoured
+him completely. When shooting in a sandy island near Heligoland also,
+the writer wounded a Dunlin, which floated on the water a considerable
+distance out at sea, and whilst waiting for the waves to bring the bird
+in to land a Kestrel hove in sight and made a swoop at the Dunlin,
+which the latter avoided by a rapid dive. Twenty-three times the Hawk
+repeated the manœuvre without success, until the poor little wader
+became exhausted, and was borne in the talons of his relentless foe
+towards the rock of Heligoland, about a mile off. This action had been
+witnessed also by Messrs Seebohm and Nicholson, from other parts of
+the same sandy island, and the latter kept pace with the Kestrel as it
+skirted the beach, in the hopes that it might cross the island when a
+shot would perhaps have caused the bird to drop his exhausted quarry.
+The Hawk, however, kept well out at sea, and regained his rocky home,
+though he was several times seen to pause in his flight and take a
+tighter grasp of his victim.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON KESTREL.]
+
+The nest of the Kestrel is often placed in towers and old buildings,
+and the bird is sometimes to be seen round the Nelson monument in
+Trafalgar Square, but a tree is more frequently the site selected, when
+an old Crow’s or Raven’s nest is often chosen. The hen bird, as is the
+case with most Hawks, sits very close, and will often require a stick
+or stone to be thrown close to the nest before it will move off, and
+the sudden drop which it gives is often the means of saving its life,
+as the chance of a successful shot is difficult. The eggs are from four
+to six in number, and are rather handsomely coloured, being blotched
+with rufous on a white ground, and are not unfrequently entirely rufous.
+
+In most of the Kestrels the sexes differ conspicuously in colour, the
+females being barred. This is the case in the common species, where
+the male has a blue head and tail. In the size of the sexes there is
+little or no difference, each measuring about twelve inches and a half.
+In winter, when there are fewer mice and beetles about, the Kestrel
+shifts his quarters, and becomes to a certain extent migratory: at this
+season of the year it visits India and Africa, not extending, however,
+so far down the latter continent as some of the European birds go. It
+is abundant at certain seasons in north-eastern Africa and Senegambia,
+but seldom goes as far as the Cape. The most easterly occurrence that
+is known of the Common Kestrel is the island of Borneo, though it is a
+common bird in China. It should be mentioned, however, that the Kestrel
+is always darker in colour from Japan and China, so much so that many
+naturalists consider it to be a distinct species from the British bird.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: OSPREY.]
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND SUB-ORDER.--PANDIONES.
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.
+
+  THE OSPREY--Distribution--Food--How it Seizes its Prey--Nesting
+  Communities--STRIGES, or OWLS--Distinctions between Hawks and
+  Owls--Owls in Bird-lore and Superstition--Families of the
+  Sub-order--THE FISH OWL--PEL’S FISH OWL--THE EAGLE OWL--Dr. Brehm’s
+  Description of its Appearance and Habits--THE SNOWY OWL--HAWK
+  OWLS--PIGMY OWLETS--THE SHORT-EARED OWL--THE LONG-EARED OWL--THE BARN
+  OWL--The Farmer’s Friend--Peculiar Characters--Distribution.
+
+
+THE OSPREY, OR FISHING EAGLE (_Pandion haliaëtus_).
+
+The Osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan of the birds of prey, being
+found all over the world, with the exception of the continent of South
+America and some of the Pacific Islands. Specimens from Australia
+and the Moluccas are generally smaller than those from Europe or
+America; but as the size of the species appears to vary in different
+localities, the Australian form cannot be considered other than a
+permanently smaller race. Everywhere the habits of the Osprey seem to
+be very similar, the bird never being found away from the vicinity
+of water, unless it be sometimes during the breeding season, when
+it makes its nest at some distance from its feeding haunts. Its food
+consists entirely of fish, and it is capable of carrying off one of
+considerable size; in the capture of its prey it is greatly aided by
+its reversible toes, and by the roughness of the sole of the foot,
+which is covered with minute spikes, and these are, of course, of great
+assistance to the bird in holding such a strong and slippery prey as a
+large fish often proves to be. Professor Newton writes of one living
+in the Zoological Gardens, that “when a fish was given to it, it was
+observed to seize it across the body, placing the inner and outer
+toes at right angles with the middle and hind toes, and, digging in
+the claws, it held the fish most firmly by four opposite points, not
+relaxing its hold or altering the position of the toes, but picking
+out the portions of flesh from between them with great dexterity.”
+Occasionally, the Osprey attacks a fish beyond its strength, and it is
+then drawn under the water, and drowned. Mr. Dresser saw this happen in
+the Bay of Fundy, when a Fish Hawk was unable to release itself from a
+heavy fish, and, after being dragged under the water time after time,
+was ultimately carried out to sea, and disappeared. Mr. Collett, of
+Christiania, tells us that in one of the Norwegian lakes a huge Pike
+was caught, with the remains of an Osprey’s skeleton still attached
+to its back. Sometimes, on landing its prey, the bird is unable to
+extricate its talons, and is captured alive. The nest of the Osprey is
+a large structure, and is variously situated, according to the nature
+of the locality. It is generally placed on a tree; but in situations
+where there are no trees the position chosen is on a large rock or
+stone, very often on the islands in the middle of the lakes which it
+frequents. The eggs are generally three in number, sometimes four, and
+are very beautiful, varying from a rich red to a buffy-white colour,
+with large reddish and brown markings. In Europe it is found nesting
+invariably in pairs, but in North America large communities are found;
+and Dr. Brewer relates that sometimes as many as “three hundred pairs
+have been observed nesting on one small island; and when a new nest is
+to be constructed, the whole community has been known to take part in
+its completion. They are remarkably tolerant towards smaller birds, and
+permit the Purple Grakle (_Quiscalus purpureus_) to construct its nests
+in the interstices of their own.”
+
+
+THE THIRD SUB-ORDER.--STRIGES, THE OWLS.
+
+The principal distinctions between Hawks and Owls (_Striges_) have
+been already pointed out (p. 255); but there are still some other
+smaller characters to which a passing allusion must be made. It would
+be difficult, for instance, for the merest novice in the study of
+ornithology to mistake an Owl, when seen alive in a cage, or even in a
+case of stuffed birds, its enormous head and short neck being unlike
+those of any of the other birds of prey. The neck of some Owls is,
+indeed, so short and contracted, that it is with difficulty that any
+intervening curve between the nape and the back, which would mark a
+perceptible neck as in most Hawks, can be detected. Again, the Owls
+have their eyes directed forwards, so that they confront the spectator;
+while most of the other birds of prey turn their head more or less
+on one side when their attention is diverted, and do not look one
+straight in the face as an Owl does. The cere is almost always hidden
+by bristles in the _Striges_, and the latter have a very distinct
+facial disc, surrounded by a curious ruff, somewhat similar to that of
+the Harriers (_Circus_, p. 268), and Harrier-Hawks (_Micrastur_, p.
+270). The external ear-opening is a complicated organ in the Owls, and
+differs considerably, the orifices often being of different form on
+either side of the head; and in one species, Tengmalm’s Owl (_Nyctala
+tengmalmi_), the ear-openings are of different shape in the skull
+itself.
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF TENGMALM’S OWL.]
+
+To those interested in bird-lore, a most entertaining study might
+be afforded by tracing the superstitions with which Owls have been
+regarded in all countries, and in the earliest times. Such a study was
+begun by the late Mr. Broderip, in his “Zoological Recreations,”[209]
+where he quotes from the ancient writers many passages, which show that
+Owls were as much regarded as birds of ill-omen by the inhabitants of
+Greece and Italy in olden times as they have been in England up to
+the present day. Nor is the infatuation confined to Europe, as later
+on are quoted instances of superstitious dread of the Owls in Morocco
+and West Africa; while they are equally held in fear in many Eastern
+countries.
+
+The Athenians alone seem to have had a regard for these birds, and an
+Owl is found on the reverse side of many of their coins, the bird being
+sacred to their guardian deity, Athené. The species figured is probably
+the Little Owl (_Carine noctua_), a bird which is common in Greece. It
+is difficult to guess why the Owl came to be regarded as the embodiment
+of wisdom, unless it was from its having been sacred to Minerva, the
+Goddess of Wisdom, who is sometimes represented as the Owl-headed
+goddess.
+
+[Illustration: LITTLE OWL.]
+
+“The Owlet’s wing,” writes Mr. Harting,[210] “was an ingredient in the
+cauldron wherein the witches prepared their ‘charm of powerful trouble’
+(_Macbeth_, Act iv., sc. 1); and with the character assigned to it by
+the ancients, Shakspere, no doubt, felt that the introduction of an Owl
+in a dreadful scene of a tragedy would help to make the subject come
+home more forcibly to the people, who had, from early times, associated
+its presence with melancholy, misfortune, and death. Accordingly, we
+find the unfortunate Owl stigmatised as the ‘obscure,’ ‘ominous,’
+‘fearful,’ and ‘fatal’ ‘bird of night.’ Its doleful cry pierces the ear
+of Lady Macbeth while the murder is being done:--
+
+    ‘Hark! Peace!
+  It was the Owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman,
+  Which gives the stern’st good-night.’
+
+  _Macbeth_, Act ii., Sc. 2.
+
+And when the murderer rushes in immediately afterwards, exclaiming--‘I
+have done the deed. Didst thou not hear a noise?’ She replies--‘I
+heard the Owl scream.’ And later on--‘The _obscure bird_ clamour’d the
+live-long night.’” (_Macbeth_, Act. ii., Sc. 3.)
+
+The awe, no doubt, with which this bird is regarded by the
+superstitious, may be attributed in some measure to the fact of its
+flying by night.
+
+  “Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  The time when Screech-Owls cry and Ban-Dogs howl.”
+
+  _Henry VI._, Part ii., Act i., Sc. 4.
+
+And yet, strange to say, the appearance of an Owl by day is by some
+considered equally ominous:--
+
+          “The Owl by day,
+  If he arise, is mocked and wondered at.”
+
+  _Henry VI._, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 4.
+
+  “For Night-Owls shriek, where mounting Larks should sing.”
+
+  _Richard II._, Act iii., Sc. 3.
+
+Should an Owl appear at a birth, it is said to forebode ill-luck to the
+infant. King Henry VI., addressing Gloster, says:--
+
+  “The Owl shrieked at thy birth, an evil sign.”
+
+  _Henry VI._, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 6.
+
+While upon any other occasion, its presence was supposed to predict a
+death, or at least some dire mishap:--
+
+  “The Screech Owl, screeching loud,
+    Puts the wretch that lies in woe
+  In remembrance of a shroud.”
+
+  _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, Act v., Sc. 2.
+
+When Richard III. is irritated by the ill-news showered thick upon him,
+he interrupts the third messenger with
+
+  “Out on ye, Owls! Nothing but songs of death?”
+
+  _Richard III._, Act iv., Sc. 4.
+
+The same author, from whom the above Shaksperian illustrations are
+quoted, alludes further to the superstitious dread of the Owl, which
+exists likewise amongst the Dyaks of Borneo, and in Ceylon a Wood-Owl,
+belonging to the same genus _Syrnium_, to which the English Wood-Owl
+belongs, is known as the “Devil-bird,” and is held in great fear.
+Colonel Irby, writing of the Barn-Owl,[211] tells the following story
+from the MS. of the late Mr. Favier, of Tangier:--“The inhabitants
+of Tangier consider this bird the clairvoyant friend of the Devil.
+The Jews believe that their cry causes the death of young children;
+so in order to prevent this, they pour a vessel of water out into
+the courtyard every time that they hear the cry of one of these Owls
+passing over their house. The Arabs believe even more than the Jews,
+for they think that they can cause all kinds of evil to old as well
+as young; but their mode of action is even more simple than that
+of their antagonists the Jews, as they rest contented with cursing
+them whenever they hear their cry. Endeavouring to find out from the
+Mahometans what foundation there is for the evil reputation of this
+species, I was told this: ‘When these birds cry they are only cursing
+in their own language; but their malediction is harmless unless they
+know the name of the individual to whom they wish evil, or unless they
+have the malignity to point out that person when passing him; as the
+Devil sleeps but little, when there is evil work to be done he would
+infallibly execute the command of his favourite if one did not, by
+cursing the Owl by name, thus guard against the power of that enemy,
+who is sworn to do evil to all living beings.’ Having learned the
+belief of the Mahometans relative to this Owl, it was more difficult
+to find out exactly that of the Jews, who, when questioned by me, knew
+not how to answer, except that the act of pouring water in the middle
+of the courtyard is a custom of long standing, in order to avert the
+evil which the Owl is capable of doing; that is to say, the water is
+poured out with the view of attracting the evil spirit’s attention to
+an object which distracts him, and so hides from him the infant which
+the Owl in its wickedness wishes to show him.”
+
+The late Mr. Waterton, in an entertaining essay on the habits of the
+Barn-Owl, says:--“Among the numberless verses which might be quoted
+against the family of the Owl, I think I only know of one little ode
+which expresses any pity for it:--
+
+  ‘Once I was a Monarch’s daughter,
+    And sat on a lady’s knee;
+  But am now a nightly rover,
+    Banish’d to the ivy tree.
+
+  Crying, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo.
+    Hoo, hoo, hoo, my feet are cold;
+  Pity me, for here you see me,
+    Persecuted, poor, and old.’”[212]
+
+The Owls are divided into two families, the first of which is called
+_Bubonidæ_, and the second _Strigidæ_. In the latter family are
+represented only two genera, _Strix_ and _Heliodilus_, which contain
+six species, all the remaining Owls, about one hundred and ninety in
+number, belonging to the _Bubonidæ_. The breast-bone in the latter
+family always shows two or more clefts or indentations, and there
+are no “serrations” on the middle claw, whereas the Barn-Owls always
+have the inner edge of the middle claw serrated, that is, with a
+small, toothed margin, like the teeth of a saw (_serra_, Lat., a saw;
+_serratus_, notched like a saw), and the breast-bone has no clefts
+in its hinder edge. The _Bubonidæ_ embrace two sub-families, the
+_Buboninæ_, which have no _operculum_, or fold of skin, closing in the
+ear, and the _Syrniinæ_, which have a very large _operculum_. It seems
+natural to commence the classification of the Nocturnal Accipitres
+with the Bare-legged or Fishing Owls, as the structure of this part
+very much resembles that of the Osprey, which was the concluding
+representative of the Diurnal Accipitres. The thigh feathers are thick,
+and fit close to the leg; the tarsus and toes are bare; the outer
+toe is reversible; and the soles of the feet are covered with tiny
+spicules, which serve to hold fast their finny prey in the same manner
+as do those of the Osprey.
+
+
+THE FISH OWL.
+
+The following account of the Indian Fish Owl (_Ketupa[213]
+ceylonensis_) is taken from the work by Captain Vincent Legge, R.A.,
+on the birds of Ceylon:--“This large Owl loves the vicinity of water,
+haunting the banks of rivers, tanks, inland salt lagoons, the borders
+of sea-bogs, and woods surrounding rice-fields. All who have visited
+the tanks in the north and east of Ceylon must be familiar with the
+fine bird, which so often is surprised napping in the lofty trees
+growing on the embankments, or so-called ‘bunds.’ Its powers of vision
+in the day are not quick, but they are tolerably clear. On hearing the
+footsteps of man, it raises its large ear-tufts, and bending down its
+head, stares steadily down from its lofty perch among the green boughs,
+and as soon as it becomes aware of the nature of the intruder on its
+retreat, launches itself out of the tree, and is not easily approached
+a second time. It is much more common in wild forest country, combined
+with water, than in cultivated districts. It sallies out in the evening
+with great regularity. As soon as the sun begins to sink behind the
+surrounding forest, it may be noticed flapping noiselessly round some
+secluded cheena, or leisurely crossing the lonely tank, resounding
+at the hour of sunset with the buzzing of innumerable frogs, to the
+nearest conspicuous tree, and there gives out its sepulchral groan.
+This gloomy salutation is usually responded to by its mate, who perches
+close at hand, and answers by a double note, the two lonesome sounds
+resembling the words _gloom--oh, gloom_. At night I have often heard
+these notes repeated by a pair without intermission for many minutes.
+Layard remarks that, when alarmed during the day, they utter a loud
+hiss, subsiding into a growl. They appear to have an accustomed place
+of roosting, for Mr. Houldsworth notices that they ‘perched day after
+day on the same branch!’ This is very often in an exposed situation,
+and it frequently falls to their lot to be mobbed by a flock of
+garrulous Bulbuls, King-Crows, and other Owl-hating small birds. Fish
+is the favourite food, and, in fact, the usual diet of this species;
+but when this is not procurable, small mammals, reptiles, and even
+insects are devoured by them. In the stomach of one, for example, I
+found a Snake (_Haplocercus ceylonensis_), and some large Beetles. As
+a proof of their miscellaneous diet, and also of their voracity, I may
+mention that a pair of Fish Owls, which were kept by Sir Charles Layard
+in the same aviary with a Brahmin Kite, fell one night upon their
+luckless companion, and, after slaughtering him, forthwith proceeded to
+devour him completely. Further, Mr. Hume records, in ‘Nests and Eggs,’
+finding the remains of Quails, Doves, and Mynahs in the nest of a pair
+on the Jumna. It has also been stated that they feed on the carcases of
+the Gavial and Crocodile.”
+
+[Illustration: EAGLE OWL.]
+
+
+PEL’S FISH-OWL (_Scotopelia peli_).[214]
+
+The African Fish-Owls are exactly like the Indian as regards their bare
+legs, but they have no tufts on their heads. Three different kinds
+are known, and they are all rare birds, frequenting the rivers and
+inland lakes of the African continent. Pel’s Fish-Owl was discovered
+on the Gold Coast by Mr. Pel, the Dutch commandant at Elmina, nearly
+forty years ago. The specimen procured by that gentleman flew across
+the river Boutry, and settled among some shady boughs on the other
+bank, when it was knocked down with the blow of a gun. The following
+account of one of these rare birds, from the Barra country, Senegambia,
+is given by Mr. John Henry Gurney, who had the specimen alive in
+his possession for a long time: it was presented to him by Colonel
+O’Connor, C.B., who is the author of the accompanying “Sketch of Nero,
+the Owl, a Fetish Bird.” The colonel writes[215]:--“During seven
+years’ exploration of Western Africa, I only met one of the species
+of the Owl ‘Nero.’ He was brought ‘a chicken,’ full of pen-feathers,
+or rather down, of a delicate straw-colour, and very thick, from a
+lagoon in the Barra country. No native would admit ‘Nero’ as a visitor;
+and when the bird was installed in Government House, the servants and
+head people came in a body to remonstrate, asserting ‘he was a Gumbi
+Owl, a Fetish!! and would destroy and kill whatever object he looked
+on.’ The chief groom (an old soldier, who had charge of the poultry)
+insisted that ‘every cock and hen would go dead.’ Strangely enough,
+an epidemic broke out, and carried off from fifty to sixty head of
+fowls; and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of
+Government House, to meet the eye of Mrs. O’Connor, seeming to exult
+in the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. ‘You see wid your own
+eye, Missus, dat debil Jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls. Governor
+tink he hab long head, but he no sabey Owl. Suppose you put him in
+de stable, he see Nelly (Mrs. O’Connor’s favourite mare), de horse
+he go tumble down dead.’ Death at last ceased to reign amongst the
+poultry population, and Nero became my principal pet; he ranged over
+the piazza, perching on the branch of a tree; he was fed regularly by
+the orderly on roasted fish, but he often came to the dinner-table,
+and flew down for scraps of meat, bread and butter, which he took
+gently from myself or from Mrs. O’Connor, permitting us to rub his
+head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. But he
+would snatch meat or bones from the Cat or Dog; and when the Eagle was
+introduced into his company, he beat him in a most unmerciful manner
+away from his peculiar and original position of the piazza, the Eagle
+being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought
+from the upper part of the Gambia river near ‘Wallie,’ and, when in
+vigour, able to carry away a kid or small lamb. Nero luxuriated in a
+tub of water, frequently washing himself, and perching on the rim until
+dry. He was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly
+an immense commotion arose among all the birds. The larger ones flew
+round the Owl, keeping a very civil distance, the smaller birds flew
+away; but Nero treated both alike with sovereign contempt. He would
+return of his own accord to the roosting-place in the piazza, and when
+put out and confined for some days, rejected all food, and pined until
+restored to his perch. With me he was as tame as any Canary, and, after
+an absence of two months, recognised my voice when I went to his cage
+at Oatlands (Devon), appearing much pleased by my taking him out for
+a walk on the grass. Many natives from the interior told me ‘they had
+never seen such a bird before; but they considered him _unlucky_.’ I
+really think Nero is nearly _sans_ any relations, and certainly devoid
+of all friends in Western Africa.”
+
+Pel’s Owl measures nearly two feet in length, and has the wing sixteen
+inches and a half. Its colour is a deep rufous bay, with black
+transverse bars; below it is light bay, with heart-shaped bars of
+black; the iris is dark-brown, whereas in the Indian Fishing Owls it is
+always yellow.
+
+
+THE EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ignavus_).[216]
+
+This and its relative, the Virginian Eared Owl of America, are the
+largest of all the family. It is found all over Europe and Siberia,
+extending even to China and the Himalayas, but the few instances of
+its capture in Great Britain have been probably those of birds escaped
+from confinement, as it is by no means an uncommon species in aviaries
+in England. As it is not, strictly speaking, a British bird, recourse
+must be had to the writings of Continental naturalists for an account
+of its habits, and the following extract is made from Dr. Brehm’s “Bird
+Life” (p. 567):--“The Eagle Owl is somewhat fantastic in appearance,
+usually sitting with its feathers so much ruffled as to make it seem
+much larger than it really is. ‘In that large, shapeless mass of
+feathers,’ says Naumann, ‘one can scarcely distinguish the limbs; the
+half-closed eyes hide their glorious rays; suddenly it opens them
+wide, bends the head and upper part of the body forwards, swaying from
+side to side, and raising first one foot and then the other, begins to
+tremble, winks slowly with the eyelids, spits like a cat, and snaps its
+bill. When angry its eyes flash fire, it bends forward with hanging
+wings, ruffles its plumage as much as possible, and snapping and
+hissing, dashes furiously at the enemy.’
+
+“This bird seems less courageous than surly and quarrelsome, and yet it
+is asserted that it will fight to the death with the Golden Eagle, when
+attacked by the latter. The Eagle Owl is a powerful bird, and as there
+are no bounds to its fury, it is but rarely that anything escapes from
+its grasp. Though strictly nocturnal in its habits, it always keeps a
+good look out for its own safety in the daytime, and is ever shy and
+cautious. Keen of sight and hearing, it takes wing while the danger is
+still far off. Like other Owls, this bird is fond of pressing itself
+against the stem of a tree, with unruffled feathers, so as to closely
+imitate the stump of a tree, and thus escape detection. Inasmuch as
+deep clefts in the rocks, or the thickest of trees, are its usual
+retreats, the Owl is often passed over, which fact is undoubtedly an
+advantage, for the day birds mob it whenever they see it. They may
+possibly have made it the savage, spiteful bird it is, inasmuch as
+their system of constant irritation would be sufficient to try the
+temper of the mildest individual. Thus nothing remains for the Owl but
+to evade its disturbers, and hide itself as long as possible; but woe
+betide it if discovered, for then the friends of daylight treat it to a
+‘charivari’ without equal.
+
+“The first to arrive on the scene is the ubiquitous Crow, conducted
+thither by some inquisitive warbler who has discovered the enemy’s
+retreat. The Crow thoroughly understands what the little fellow means,
+and hastens to convince itself of the truth of the information. Having
+satisfied itself, it retires noiselessly, but only to carry the news
+to its relatives. Now they flock in from all sides to take part in
+the fight, with an eagerness worthy of the boldest man; greeting one
+another with hoarse and scornful croaks, the sooty tribe hasten as
+fast as they can to the scene of action. The mockers surround the poor
+old ‘Grand Duke,’ at first at a respectful distance, though they are
+fully determined effectively to disturb its siesta. There sits the
+Owl, rolling its eyes, spitting, snapping its beak, and ruffling its
+feathers, now hopping from one leg to another, now raising and lowering
+its feathered horns by turns; mad with rage, bemoaning its fate, and at
+loggerheads with the whole world, it awaits the turn that matters may
+take; at the same time, be it remembered, every Crow takes good care
+not to lay hold of the irritated gentleman; nothing less than a Raven
+dares to rely on its own strength. One of these, however, will run a
+tilt at the dark knight, using its sharp beak as a lance; but before
+the latter has time to raise the terrible claw, the Raven makes good
+its retreat, prepares for another rush, and darts like an arrow, so
+as to use its weapon effectively. The Owl now loses the last remnant
+of patience, and seeks safety in flight. Oh, unlucky wight! this is
+all the black swarm have been waiting for, the Crows being far its
+superiors on the wing. Giving vent to exulting cries, they dart down
+from above with such unerring aim and force as to scatter the poor
+brute’s feathers in clouds to the wind: they rise again with a mighty
+noise that heeds no secrecy, as though they sought to proclaim to the
+world at large all the fell deeds committed by this Prince of Darkness,
+while other knights advance to battle. All Hawks and Falcons, ay, the
+proud Eagle even, answer to the call, and hasten to take part in the
+fray. Now the Owl must, perforce, either beat a hasty retreat or remain
+on the field. In any case, however, the Owl is thoroughly worried, and
+sometimes really damaged, before it finds refuge in some thick tree or
+rocky cleft, where it hides itself as closely and as silently as its
+rage will permit, until quit of the Crows.
+
+“The detestation in which the Eagle Owl is held by all diurnal birds
+is not ill-founded, for this bird preys on every living creature
+it can overcome, assassinating them in the most abominable manner
+while they are asleep. Its quarry is as follows:--Fawns of the Roe
+Deer, Hares, Rabbits, Hamsters, Rats, Moles, Mice, Capercailzie,
+Black-game, Hazel-hens, Pheasants, Partridges, Rooks, Jays, Magpies,
+Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs; Rooks seem to be its favourite morsel.
+No wonder, then, that they pay their enemy out if they can only see
+an opportunity. It assassinates them; they attack it in open day.
+The Eagle Owl generally breaks the spine of the smaller animals close
+to the head, and, cracking the remaining bones, devours its prey,
+skin and all; the heads of the larger birds it pulls in large pieces
+which it swallows. It, however, always devours a portion of the hair,
+feathers, or scales as well, and wastes away if fed on flesh alone. The
+indigestible portions of the meal are thrown up in large round pellets
+or ‘casts.’ With larger animals, it lays open the skin of the belly,
+and eats out the flesh from inside. If it finds that there is too much
+for one meal, it carefully replaces the skin, and hides the remainder
+in some dark cranny or corner until required again. This Owl drinks
+rarely, slaking its thirst generally with the blood of its victims. If
+food is plentiful, it gorges itself; but in times of dearth it can go
+without food for weeks together.
+
+[Illustration: SNOWY OWL.]
+
+“By the last fortnight in March the Eagle Owls commence preparations
+for breeding. At this season may be heard their hollow, muffled cry of
+‘poohoo, poohoo,’ which is distinguishable at a great distance through
+the woods, and it is not to be wondered that the timid are frightened
+at it. In the silent, dark recesses of the mountain forest a variety of
+noises, well calculated to make one’s flesh creep, fall upon the ear:
+the shrill, mocking laugh, a sound as of snarling hounds; the whoop of
+the hunter, the snorting of Horses; these are all calculated to impress
+the uneducated and superstitious with the truth of the legend of the
+wild huntsman. Even to the ear of the better-informed, these hideous
+cries, the loud screech of the female, or the ‘poohoo’ of the male,
+intermingled with the snapping of the beak and curious miaulings, sound
+somewhat weird; and the boldest of mortals can scarcely repress a cold
+shudder when a company of these forest spirits favour him with one of
+their demoniacal nocturnal concerts. Doubtless these sounds represent
+the battle-cries of the males when fighting for the females, and take
+the place of the song of the Nightingale when telling its tale of love.
+
+“After the Owls have paired these cries are heard less frequently,
+both birds being now fully occupied with their nursery operations. The
+large nest is composed outwardly of branches and sticks, and is lined
+with dry leaves and small twigs. It is built, and generally placed in
+either the cleft of a rock or in a hole in some ruined tower; the nest
+is never built in a tree but from necessity. The two or three eggs are
+also often found lying on the bare surface of the rock, without any
+nest whatever. They are round, cross-grained, and white, and somewhat
+larger than a hen’s egg. The young are hatched in about three weeks.
+They are usually two in number, rarely three; they look, on their first
+appearance, like balls of cotton-wool, and keep up a constant hissing
+or shrill whistle. They remain a long time in the nest, and are so
+abundantly provided with food by the parent birds, that one is sure to
+find a large heap of provisions at the nest. The Owlets often betray
+their presence to their innumerable enemies by their cries, and suffer
+much persecution in consequence. When about eight weeks old they are
+able to fly, though they still remain for some time longer under the
+care of the old birds. These latter rarely wander far from a particular
+neighbourhood, and usually build in the very same place the following
+year.”
+
+[Illustration: SHORT-EARED OWL.]
+
+Besides the Eagle Owls, the sub-family _Buboninæ_ contains the Snowy
+Owl (_Nyctea[217] scandiaca_[218]), all the Hawk Owls (_Surnia[219]
+Ninox_[220]), and the Pigmy Owlets (_Glaucidium_[221]). Many of the
+birds belonging to this latter genus are not much bigger than a
+Sparrow. They are found nearly all over the world, with the exception
+of Australia and Oceania, and one species, the European Pigmy Owlet
+(_G. passerinum_[222]), is by no means uncommon in many parts of the
+Continent, though it has not yet been met with for certain in the
+British Islands.
+
+The sub-family _Syrniinæ_ contains only three genera, the Horned Owls
+(_Asio_[223]), the Wood Owls (_Syrnium_[224]), and the Tengmalm’s Owl
+(_Nyctala_[225] _tengmalmi_), the latter having been already noticed
+(p. 297) as possessing the curious difference in the ear-opening on
+each side of the skull. Of the Horned Owls two species are found in the
+British Islands, viz., the Short-eared Owl (_Asio accipitrinus_[226]),
+and the Long-eared Owl (_A. otus_[227]). The former of these birds is
+often seen in the daytime, and is said to hunt for its prey on dull
+days, when it will fly at small birds as well as mice; and Mr. Low,
+writing on the birds of the Orkneys, where the Short-eared Owl breeds,
+says that he has found in the nest the remains of a Moor-fowl (Red
+Grouse), two Plovers, besides the feet of several others; and the
+same writer states that during the breeding season it becomes very
+impudent, and will even seize and catch up chickens from the doors, and
+also chase pigeons in open daylight. Although resident in the British
+Islands, a large migration of the species takes place in autumn, and
+it is not unfrequently shot by sportsmen in the turnip-fields; while
+Bewick mentions the recurrence of twenty-eight individuals being
+flushed in a turnip-field in November, being probably attracted to
+the locality by an abundance of food. It may also be occasionally
+found in marshes near the sea-shore, as occurred once to the writer,
+who started a Short-eared Owl from the sedgy bank on the west side
+of Pagham Harbour, in the early part of September. When winged, it
+boldly faced its pursuer, erecting the little tufts on its head and
+fiercely snapping its bill, as is the manner with all Owls in defending
+themselves.
+
+[Illustration: FACE OF THE BARN OWL.]
+
+Its relation, the Long-eared Owl, is a bird of different habits, and,
+instead of breeding on the ground as the foregoing species does,
+it selects a dark wood or clump of firs, appropriating a deserted
+Squirrel’s “dray,” or adapting the nest of another bird to its own
+requirements. Macgillivray gives the following account of a young
+specimen which he had in confinement:--“An individual of this species,
+which was sent to me in winter by the Rev. Mr. Adam, having been left
+at night perched on the back of a chair in my drawing-room, tore to
+tatters six valuable skins of birds from the Rocky Mountains, and an
+equal number of nearly equally rare specimens from India. A young bird
+which I kept for some time, on perching, stood at first with the body
+inclined, afterwards nearly erect, and slept in the latter posture,
+with its neck rather extended, its feathers drawn close, and its tufts
+recumbent. When irritated, it raised its plumage, threw its body
+forward, and uttered a sharp cry. It seized its food with its bill; if
+large, transferred it to one of its feet, but if otherwise, retained
+it in its bill. In flying, it carried a small object in its bill, but
+a larger in its foot. It could close one eye while the other remained
+open, and when placed in a strong light, frequently drew the membrane
+over the lighted eye, while the other remained unsheathed, though for
+the most part it winked with both simultaneously. The irides contracted
+unequally, according to the degree of light. When perched at night, it
+sometimes emitted a clicking noise, like that of a spring, with its
+bill; but when provoked, it neither hissed nor snapped, but uttered
+a shrill, tremulous, plaintive cry, or succession of short notes,
+erecting its tufts at the same time.”
+
+
+THE BARN OWL (_Strix[228] flammea_[229]).
+
+This is essentially the friend of man, frequenting villages and
+homesteads where he is protected, and extending his range where
+civilisation precedes him, being attracted doubtless by the Mice and
+Rats, which are also the accompaniments of civilisation. The number
+of small mammals which one of these birds will devour ought to be his
+passport to the protecting care of the farmer and agriculturist, but
+it is seldom that an Owl of any kind meets with approval on taking up
+his residence on an estate. Facts, however, are stubborn things, and in
+the hope that a more generous reception may be afforded to these useful
+birds, the following quotation is made from Professor Newton:--“Owls,
+like other birds of prey, as already mentioned, return by the mouth
+the indigestible parts of the food swallowed in the form of elongated
+pellets. These are found in considerable numbers about the usual haunts
+of the birds, and examination of them reveals the nature of the food,
+and shows in nearly every case the great services they render to man
+by the destruction of Rats and Mice.”[230] The infallibility of the
+evidence thus afforded as to the food of the Owls is as complete as
+the way of obtaining it, by those who have the opportunity, is simple.
+Several German naturalists have made some very precise researches on
+this subject. The following results, with regard to the three commonest
+species of Owls, are those afforded by the investigations of Dr. Altam,
+as communicated by him to the German Ornithologists’ Society during its
+meeting in 1862:--
+
+  +--------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
+  |              |                    REMAINS FOUND.                   |
+  |              +---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+
+  |              |         |    |    |     |     |      |    |    | B  |
+  |              |         |    |    |     |     | S    |    |    | e  |
+  |              |No. of   |    |    |     | V   | h    | M  | B  | e  |
+  |              |Pellets  | B  | R  | M   | o   | r    | o  | i  | t  |
+  |              |examined.| a  | a  | i   | l   | e    | l  | r  | l  |
+  |              |         | t  | t  | c   | e   | w    | e  | d  | e  |
+  |              |         | s. | s. | e.  | s.  | s.   | s. | s. | s. |
+  +--------------+---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+
+  |Tawny Owl     |     210 | -- |  6 |  42 | 296 |   33 | 48 | 18 | 48 |
+  |Long-eared Owl|      25 | -- | -- |   6 |  35 |   -- | -- |  2 | -- |
+  |Barn Owl      |     706 | 16 |  3 | 237 | 693 |1,590 | -- | 22 | -- |
+  +--------------+---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+
+
+Colonel Irby, in the work which has already been alluded to, says of
+the Barn Owl:--“Almost exclusively feeding on Rats and Mice, they
+deserve every encouragement and support that can be afforded them;
+but from being in all countries regarded with superstitious awe and
+dislike, they are more or less persecuted on that account; and in
+England, through the ignorance and stupidity of gamekeepers, who
+fancy that they kill game (_i.e._, feathered game), they suffer most
+severely. This excuse is ridiculous, for old birds they have not the
+power to kill, and young Pheasants and Partridges, at the time the Owls
+are on the feed, are safely being brooded by the parent bird.” Those
+who wish to encourage and increase Owls, and have not hollow trees or
+buildings where they nest, may always gratify their wishes by fixing
+an empty barrel (about an 18-gallon size) horizontally in the fork of
+any large tree, cutting a hole in one end large enough for the birds
+to enter; but the hoops of the cask should be screwed on, or it will
+soon fall to pieces. Not only the Barn Owl, but the Tawny Owl (_Syrnium
+aluco_) also will use barrels, or “Owl-tubs.” The difficulty, however,
+is to keep out the Jackdaws, but when once the Owls have established
+themselves, there is no fear of that intrusion. The late Mr. Waterton
+was a well-known admirer of the present species, and he devotes one
+of his “Essays on Natural History” to the Barn Owl, from which a few
+passages are extracted:--“Up to the year 1813 the Barn Owl had a sad
+time of it at Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes alarmed the
+aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had brought into
+other houses when she was a young woman, and there was enough of
+mischief in the midnight wintry blast, without having it increased
+by the dismal screams of something which people knew very little
+about, and which everybody said was far too busy in the churchyard at
+night-time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were sick
+in the neighbourhood it would be for ever looking in at the window,
+and holding a conversation outside with somebody, they did not know
+whom. The gamekeeper agreed with her in everything she said on this
+important subject, and he always stood better in her books when he had
+managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous family. However, in
+1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana, having suffered myself,
+and learned mercy, I broke in pieces the code of penal laws which the
+knavery of the gamekeeper and the lamentable ignorance of the other
+servants had hitherto put in force, far too successfully, to thin the
+numbers of this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the
+old gateway, against which tradition says the waves of the lake have
+dashed for the greater part of a thousand years, I made a place with
+stone and mortar, about four feet square, and fixed a thick oaken stick
+firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy now quite cover it. In about a month
+or so after it was finished a pair of Barn Owls came and took up their
+abode in it. I threatened to strangle the keeper if ever, after this,
+he molested either the old birds or their young ones; and I assured the
+housekeeper that I would take upon myself the whole responsibility of
+all the sickness, woe, and sorrow that the new tenants might bring to
+the Hall. She made a low courtesy, as much as to say, ‘Sir, I fall into
+your will and pleasure,’ but I saw in her eye that she had made up her
+mind to have to do with things of fearful and portentous shape, and to
+hear many a midnight wailing in the neighbouring woods. I do not think
+that up to the day of this old lady’s death, which took place in her
+eighty-fourth year, she ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the
+Barn Owl, as it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the
+ruined gateway.
+
+“When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had succeeded
+so well, I set about forming other establishments. This year I have had
+four broods, and I trust that next season I can calculate on having
+nine. This will be a pretty increase, and it will help to supply the
+place of those which in this neighbourhood are still unfortunately
+doomed to death by the hand of cruelty or superstition. We can now
+always have a peep at the Owls in their habitation on the old ruined
+gateway whenever we choose. Confident of protection, these pretty birds
+betray no fear when the stranger mounts up to their place of abode.
+I would here venture a surmise that the Barn Owl sleeps standing.
+Whenever we go to look at it we invariably see it upon the perch, bolt
+upright, and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon
+and Bewick err, no doubt unintentionally, when they say that the Barn
+Owl snores during its repose. What they took for snoring was the cry of
+the young birds for food. I had fully satisfied myself on this score
+some years ago. However, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to
+hear this same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the
+month of July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of young Owls in
+the apartment.
+
+[Illustration: BREAST-BONE OF THE BARN OWL.]
+
+“Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the hole at which
+the Owls enter. Sometimes, at mid-day, when the weather is gloomy, you
+may see an Owl upon it, apparently enjoying the refreshing diurnal
+breeze. This year (1831) a pair of Barn Owls hatched their young, on
+the 7th of September, in a sycamore tree, near the old ruined gateway.
+
+“If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting for it
+by night, mankind would have ocular demonstration of its utility in
+thinning the country of Mice; and it would be protected and encouraged
+everywhere. It would be with us what the Ibis was to the Egyptians.
+When it has young, it will bring a Mouse to the nest about every twelve
+or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a proper idea of the enormous
+quantity of Mice which this bird destroys, we must examine the pellets
+which it ejects from its stomach in the place of its retreat. Every
+pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of Mice. In sixteen months
+from the time that the apartment of the Owl on the old gateway was
+cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets. The
+Barn Owl sometimes carries off Rats. One evening I was sitting under a
+shed, and killed a very large Rat as it was coming out of a hole about
+ten yards from where I was watching it. I did not go to take it up,
+hoping to get another shot. As it lay there, a Barn Owl pounced upon
+it, and flew away with it. This bird has been known to catch fish.
+Some years ago, on a fine evening in the month of July, long before it
+was dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and minuting
+the Owl by my watch as she brought Mice into her nest, all on a sudden
+she dropped perpendicularly into the water. Thinking she had fallen
+down in epilepsy, my first thoughts were to go and fetch the boat; but
+before I had well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the Owl rise out
+of the water with a fish in her claws, and take it to the nest. When
+farmers complain that the Barn Owl destroys the eggs of their Pigeons,
+they lay the saddle on the wrong horse; they ought to put it on the
+Rat. Formerly, I could get very few young Pigeons, till the Rats were
+excluded effectually from the dovecot. Since that took place it has
+produced a great abundance every year, though the Barn Owls frequent
+it, and are encouraged all around it. The Barn Owl merely resorts to
+it for the purpose of concealment. If it were really an enemy to the
+dovecot, we should see the Pigeons in commotion as soon as it begins
+its evening flight; but the Pigeons heed it not. Whereas, if the
+Sparrow-Hawk or Hobby should make its appearance, the whole community
+would be up at once; proof sufficient that the Barn Owl is not looked
+upon as a bad, or even a suspicious character, by the inhabitants of
+the dovecot.”
+
+The colour of the Barn Owl, which is a bright orange buff, mottled
+with ashy-grey on the upper surface, and white below, distinguishes
+it from any other Owl. The oval form of the disc is also to a great
+extent peculiar, as is also the serrated edge to the middle claw, which
+has been referred to before (p. 300). The breast bone is likewise
+remarkable, as it has no clefts in the hinder margin.
+
+The range of the present species is very considerable, as it is found
+all over the New World, from the northern and middle United States
+down to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. In the Old World it occurs
+in equal plenty, but does not extend very high north, being a rare
+visitant to Denmark and Sweden. Although common in Poland, it is
+only sparingly distributed throughout Russia, and even appears to be
+entirely absent in many Central and Southern parts. The same may be
+said of Turkey. It is not known at present from Siberia or China, but
+is found throughout Africa, India, Australia, and the majority of the
+Oceanic Islands. Nearly all Owls have two distinct phases of plumage--a
+grey one, and a red one. This is especially the case in the little
+Scops Owls, which have tufts of feathers on the head like the Eagle
+Owls, of which they may be said to be representations in miniature.
+The Barn Owls are no exception to this general rule of the family; but
+owing to the light colouring of the bird, it is not so perceptible
+as in some of the other species of Owls. Even in England, however, a
+short study of the species will show the student that some individuals
+are much redder underneath, instead of being white, and are profusely
+freckled with grey above; and this dark coloration does not depend upon
+the age of the bird, nor is it a difference of sex. In some islands,
+such as the Cape Verde group, San Domingo in the West Indies, the
+Falkland Islands, and the Galapagos, the Barn Owls are almost always
+dark-coloured, and light ones are very seldom found. On the other
+hand, in Australia and Oceania the species becomes peculiarly light in
+plumage, and dark individuals are the exception.
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS (_Picariæ_).[231]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE PARROTS.
+
+  Characteristics of the Order--The Sub-orders--ZYGODACTYLÆ--THE
+  PARROTS--Their Talking Powers--Sections of the Family--THE
+  GREAT PALM COCKATOO--THE PYGMY PARROTS--THE AMAZON PARROTS--THE
+  AMAZONS--THE GREY PARROT--Court Favourites--Historical Specimens--In
+  a state of Nature--Mr. Keulemans’ Observations--THE CONURES--THE
+  ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET--Known to the Ancients--Habitat--Habits--THE
+  CAROLINA CONURE--Destructive Propensities--THE PARRAKEETS--THE
+  OWL PARROT--Chiefly Nocturnal--Incapable of Flight--How this Fact
+  may be accounted for--Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits--THE
+  STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS--THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS--THE NESTORS--THE
+  KAKA PARROT--Skull of a Parrot--The Bill.
+
+The birds which are contained in this order are of very different
+forms, but they possess one character which, although an osteological
+one, is found throughout nearly the whole group, and that is, the
+double notch in the hinder margin of the sternum or breast bone.
+In all the true _Passeres_, or perching birds, only a single notch
+is observed. The hind toe, which in the true perching birds is an
+essential character, and is separately movable, possessing its own
+distinct flexor muscle, is in the Picarians not of so much account, its
+flexor muscle being joined to the common flexor of all the toes; it is
+sometimes absent altogether. If the Parrots have certain characters
+in common with the _Accipitres_, the Cuckoos and the Plantain-eaters
+undoubtedly show affinity to the Game-birds, while most of the other
+families have peculiar structures which render them quite distinct
+from the ordinary mass of true perching birds or Passeres. It may be
+remarked that the eggs of most of the _Picariæ_, so far as we are
+acquainted with them, are glossy white, and that the majority of them
+breed in the holes of trees or of rocks, and that they are as a rule
+bad nest-builders. The greatest exception to the above description of
+the nesting of these birds is met with in the family of Goatsuckers
+(_Caprimulgidæ_), some of whom lay their eggs on the ground, the eggs
+being beautifully marbled with streaks and spots.
+
+[Illustration: COCKATOOS.]
+
+Within this great Picarian order there are two large sub-orders, called
+respectively the Scansorial and the Fissirostral[232] _Picariæ_. The
+Scansorial birds are also sometimes known as the Zygodactylæ,[233] or
+yoke-footed birds, because they have their toes arranged in pairs,
+two in front and two behind, and their name of Scansores is given to
+them because most of them are climbing birds, and run up trees and
+rocks with great facility, though in different ways. Parrots, for
+instance, use their bills in climbing from branch to branch, while
+Woodpeckers have very powerful feet and stiffened tail-feathers,
+which support them as they cling to the bark of the trees, the bill
+being chiefly employed to prise off the bark in order to get at the
+insects underneath. Cuckoos do not climb trees in the same manner as
+the Woodpeckers, though they have true zygodactyle feet: the present
+writer has, however, seen a common Cuckoo (_Cuculus canorus_) cling
+with both feet to the trunk of a huge elm while it picked off insects
+from the bark. It must not be supposed, however, that the above are the
+only birds which climb trees, for among the true Passeres, or perching
+birds, there occur such birds as the _Dendrocolaptidæ_ in South
+America, who have stiffened tails exactly as the Woodpeckers, while
+the Tree-creepers are just as expert as the last-named birds, and yet
+cannot be placed in the same order as the Scansorial (_Picariæ_), for
+they possess a simple passerine foot, with three toes in front and one
+behind.
+
+The Fissirostres, or wide-gaping birds, are also called Gressorial
+Picariæ, as their toes are more or less connected together, which gives
+them a very flat sole to the foot. They generally hunt for their food
+from some selected spot, ordinarily a post or a dead bough, whence
+they take flights after their prey, usually returning to the same spot
+to devour it. Their flight is active and swift, their gape extremely
+large, and the head correspondingly big, and in many instances clumsy
+and ungainly. The feet are generally small and weak.
+
+
+SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.
+
+
+FAMILY I.--THE PARROTS (_Psittaci_).
+
+Just as the Monkeys have been placed at the head of the Mammalia on
+account of their high development, so the Parrots, from their general
+cleverness, and especially on account of the facility with which
+they can talk, have been considered the highest order of birds, and
+placed at the beginning of the class. It is impossible for some people
+to avoid the conclusion that these birds think and reason, and the
+_à propos_ or sometimes _mal à propos_ way in which they introduce
+speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which they assume while being
+spoken to, seems to show that the brain is being employed in thinking.
+A friend in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show in the North of
+England, where the talking powers of each bird were made the subject
+of a prize competition. Several of the birds had exhibited their
+prowess, and at last the cover was removed from the cage of a Grey
+Parrot, who at once exclaimed, on seeing the company to which he was
+suddenly introduced, “By Jove! what a lot of Parrots!” an observation
+which gained him the prize at once. Instances of famous talking birds
+might be multiplied by the hundred, and it is wonderful to read some
+of the stories which have been related of Parrots, whose fame has been
+recorded in many popular works, leaving no doubt that these birds often
+possess the power of reason of a very high order; at the same time,
+it must be confessed that many of the Corvine birds, such as Ravens,
+Jackdaws, and Magpies, do not fall far short of their Scansorial
+friends.
+
+The Parrots are divided into two large sections, firstly the Parrots
+proper (_Psittaci proprii_), and secondly the straight-billed Parrots
+(_Psittaci orthognathi_[234]). These two sections together contain six
+families, of which five belong to the first and one to the second. The
+true Parrots have a powerful and swollen bill, especially as regards
+the lower mandible, which is much inflated, curved, and flattened in
+front, the cutting edges (_tomium_) indented just behind their tip. The
+sub-family which has to be noticed first are the _Camptolophinæ_[235]
+or Cockatoos, which are birds entirely of the Australian region, being
+confined to Australia and the Molucca Islands. The bill is higher
+than it is broad, with a very distinct indentation of each side of
+the cutting edge of the mandible, the tip of the bill short, rather
+strong and perpendicular, the head crested in all except the Pygmy
+Parrots (_Nasiterna_). This family contains at once the largest and the
+smallest of the Parrots.
+
+
+THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO (_Microglossus[236] aterrimus_[237]).
+
+This is one of the most powerful of all the Parrot tribe, measuring
+about twenty-four inches in length, and having a bill of unusual
+thickness and power. Its black plumage also renders it a conspicuous
+species, the only relief to this sombre colouring being the greyish
+crest and the dull crimson cheeks. Its home is New Guinea, but it
+is also found in the Cape York Peninsula in Australia, where it was
+discovered by John Macgillivray during the voyage of the _Rattlesnake_.
+He writes as follows respecting it:--“This very fine bird, which is
+not uncommon in the vicinity of Cape York, was usually found in the
+densest scrub among the tops of the tallest trees, but was occasionally
+seen in the open forest land perched on the largest of the _Eucalypti_,
+apparently resting on its passage from one belt of trees or patch of
+scrub to another. Like the Black Cockatoos, or _Calyptorhynchi_, it
+flies slowly and usually but a short distance. In November, 1849, the
+period of our last visit to Cape York, it was always found in pairs,
+very shy, and difficult of approach. Its cry is merely a low short
+whistle of a single note, which may be represented by the letters
+‘_Hweet-Hweet_.’ The stomach of the first one killed contained a few
+small pieces of quartz and triturated fragments of palm-cabbage, with
+which the crop of another specimen was completely filled; and the idea
+immediately suggests itself, that the powerful bill of this bird is a
+most fitting instrument for stripping off the leaves near the summits
+of the _Seaforthia elegans_ and other palms to enable it to arrive at
+the central tender shoot.”
+
+
+THE PYGMY PARROTS (_Nasiternæ_).
+
+These Parrots are represented by seven little manikins which are
+found in New Guinea and the adjacent islands, each particular island
+possessing its own peculiar species. Not one of these little birds
+exceeds a Sparrow in size, the largest being a little over three inches
+and a half in length. Owing to their small size and the resemblance of
+the green colouring to the forests they inhabit, they are not easily
+seen, and until recent years were very hard to procure. In the island
+of Mafoor in the Bay of Geelvink, N.W., New Guinea, Baron von Rosenberg
+says that he found it common near Roemsaro, and several specimens, both
+alive and dead, were brought to him by the natives. They bred there in
+January and February, nesting in hollow trees and laying two eggs, the
+size of those of the English Bottle Titmouse. Their food consists of
+fruit.
+
+
+THE AMAZON PARROTS (_Androglossinæ_).[238]
+
+This, the second sub-family, consists of the true Parrots, of which
+the ordinary Grey Parrot (_Psittacus erythacus_) is the type. It also
+includes all the Green Parrots of America, which are called Amazons,
+as well as the Lories (_Eclectus_) and Love-birds (_Agapornis_). The
+head is moderately smooth, without any highly-developed crest, as in
+the Cockatoos, and the tail is short, or of only moderate length. The
+tail-feathers are generally broad and obtuse, in a few widening at the
+tip, or sharp at the end. In the genus _Prioniturus_, which inhabits
+the Philippine Islands, and some of the Moluccas, the two centre
+feathers have the shafts produced, and ending in a small spatule, or
+racket.
+
+
+THE AMAZONS (_Chrysotis_).[239]
+
+[Illustration: AMAZON PARROT.]
+
+These Parrots are entirely American, and are the only birds of the
+New World which can compete in talking powers with the African Grey
+Parrots, who, however, far surpass their American relatives. About
+thirty species of Amazon are known, all of them confined within the
+limits of the Neotropical region, which comprises the whole of Central
+and Southern America, south of an imaginary line drawn through Northern
+Mexico. The West India islands are also included in this area, and
+most of them are inhabited by a species of Amazon. The habits of
+all these Parrots seem to be very similar, and a good account of
+the Active Amazon of Jamaica (_Chrysotis agilis_) is given by Mr.
+Gosse[240]:--“All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
+mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the Yellow-billed
+Parrot [Mr. Gosse’s name for _C. agilis_ is the Black-billed Parrot]
+are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that a description
+of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from half a dozen
+to twenty or thirty fly hither and thither over the forest, screeching
+as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered with berries.
+Here they feast, but with caution. On a slight alarm one screams,
+and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not musical, and
+brilliant if not beautiful, particularly when the sun shines on their
+green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer lofty trees,
+except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts them to descend,
+or when the blackberry shines upon the pimento. Of the latter the
+flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former they destroy by
+cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at the small
+seeds. One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
+Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
+and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills, and a few Parrakeets,
+flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the
+hot, aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
+neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
+carelessness of one’s proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
+gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I shot
+on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons of the
+seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the fleshy
+part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and rejected.
+When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their emerald hue
+is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner; but in a tree
+of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent concealment. They
+seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts them to rely on it for
+security. Often we hear their voices proceeding from a certain tree, or
+else have marked the descent of a flock upon it, but on proceeding to
+the spot, though the eye has not wandered from it, and we are therefore
+sure that they are there, we cannot discover an individual. We go
+close to the tree, but all is silent, and still as death; we institute
+a careful survey of every part with the eye, to detect the slightest
+motion, or the form of a bird among the leaves, but in vain; we begin
+to think that they have stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a
+stone into the tree, a dozen throats burst forth into cry, and as many
+green birds rush forth upon the wing. The screaming of this and the
+following species differs from that of the Parrakeet, so far as to be
+easily distinguished. That of the latter consists of a series of harsh
+screeches, of comparative length; that of the Parrots is less shrill,
+more broken into short and rapid articulations, forming a series of
+varying length, separated by momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much
+more like a hurried chattering.”
+
+
+THE GREY PARROT (_Psittacus erythacus_).
+
+This familiar cage-bird is a native of Africa, and it would appear
+to have been a favourite in England for a longer period than can be
+traced. They were held in great estimation at the court of the “Merry
+Monarch” Charles II., for his Queen Catharine of Braganza had a
+parrot-keeper, at a salary of £36 per annum, while the maids of honour
+received only £10 a year each, and the “mother of the maids” £20 per
+annum. Therefore, the custodian of the Parrots was better paid by £16
+than the lady who held the very responsible post of care-taker of
+the maids of honour.[241] A Grey Parrot which lived for forty years
+with the Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, who died in 1702, and who
+was a celebrated beauty at the court of Charles II., is preserved in
+Westminster Abbey along with the effigy of that lady, having survived
+its mistress only a few days.
+
+It is strange that for a bird which has so long been one of the chief
+pets in Europe, so little is known of its habits in a wild state,
+and at the present time not a single authentic egg of this species,
+taken in its native haunts, is known to exist. Occasionally it lays in
+confinement a white egg, like other Picarian birds, but it is probably
+from the care with which the species selects its breeding-place
+that it has been so difficult to find their nest and eggs. The only
+naturalist who appears to have discovered the latter appears to be the
+celebrated natural history artist, Mr. Keulemans, who spent nearly
+two years in West Africa, and has written the best account of the
+Grey Parrot in a state of nature,[242] as observed by him on Ilha
+do Principe, or Prince’s Island, in the Bight of Biafra. Here it is
+very common, and breeds in the month of December in the very thickest
+forests. Only one pair breed in each tree, laying five eggs in a hole
+thereof, but a large number nest in close proximity to each other,
+many hundreds breeding in the same area, according to the above-named
+author. Both parents take a share in the rearing of the young birds,
+sitting by turns, the one who is thus relieved bringing food to its
+mate and feeding it out of its crop, which method is also adopted in
+the care of the young birds. The food of the Grey Parrot is stated to
+consist of palm-nuts, the arocat (_Laurus persea_), the banana (_Musa
+paradisea_), goyare, mango, and many other fruits of a smaller size;
+but it always gives the preference to palm-nuts. On Prince’s Island,
+writes Mr. Keulemans, there is “a very lofty mountain, reaching some
+1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and called by the natives ‘Pico
+de Papagaio,’ or Peak of the Parrots. On the slope of this mountain,
+and extending far up its side, is a magnificent forest. The trees are
+of great size and height, and their trunks and branches give support
+to the lianas and other climbing plants, which hang about them in
+luxurious folds. The density of the forest is so great that it is only
+with the greatest difficulty and toil that the explorer can force his
+way through it; while to the Parrots who come up there every night it
+presents no obstacle, but gives them, under the shelter of its thick
+foliage, a secure and pleasant resting-place.”
+
+Another observer in West Africa, Dr. Reichenow, found the Grey Parrot
+breeding in West Africa in the low-lands along the streams and groves
+of mangrove, and the great difficulty of traversing these swamps is,
+according to him, the reason why their breeding habits are not better
+known. They are very destructive to the crops of Indian corn, which
+they visit in large flocks, wasting as much as they consume. They
+proceed to roost in flocks, selecting the same route each night; and
+Governor Ussher says that, whilst up the river Addo, near Lagos, he
+has seen them crossing at sunset from their feeding-grounds to their
+roosting-places, when they presented the appearance of one continuous
+flock passing at a great distance overhead, their screams and
+chattering being heard long after darkness has set in. They are said
+by some travellers to be very good eating, but by others to be only
+good for soup.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT MACAWS.]
+
+The Grey Parrot in his native haunts is an unsociable bird, and a
+curious story is told by Dr. Dohrn, and confirmed by Mr. Keulemans,
+respecting the species in Prince’s Island. As has already been stated,
+the Parrots are extremely common there, but not a single Kite is met
+with on the island. On the neighbouring island of St. Thomas there
+is an abundance of Black Kites but not a single Parrot, between whom
+and the Kites a constant warfare is waged, so that, should one of the
+latter get driven over to Prince’s Island he is almost immediately set
+upon by the Parrots and slaughtered; and the compliment is returned if
+a Parrot is so unfortunate as to land uninvited on St. Thomas’s. On
+the coast the chief enemy of the Parrots is the Vulturine Sea-Eagle
+(_Gypohierax angolensis_).
+
+[Illustration: GREY PARROT.]
+
+The colouring of the Grey Parrot is simple, being of a clear
+bluish-grey, with a red tail. About the face the skin is white, and
+covered with a soft, velvety feathering, amongst which there is a
+plentiful supply of white powder, as any one knows who scratches the
+head of “Polly.” This powder is present in most of the family, but not
+to the same degree as in the grey species. The young bird in the nest
+is stated to have the tail dark-grey instead of red, and it is more of
+a brownish-grey colour, not so clear as in the old bird, while the iris
+is grey instead of yellow.
+
+The CONURES (_Conurinæ_) are the third sub-family of Parrots,
+and are represented largely in America, only one genus, _Palæornis_,
+being found in India and Africa. They have the head devoid of a crest,
+with a very long graduated tail, and short and weak tarsi. Amongst the
+best-known species of this sub-family may be mentioned the Great Macaw.
+
+
+THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET (_Palæornis torquatus_).
+
+[Illustration: ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET.]
+
+This Parrot is probably the species of which we have the earliest known
+record, as Onesicritus, who was admiral of the fleet of Alexander
+the Great, is said to have brought from Ceylon a specimen of a green
+Parrot with a red neck. Many authors have supposed that the large
+Alexandrine Parrakeet (_Palæornis eupatrius_, or _Alexandri_) was the
+species referred to, but the habitat of this bird is now known to be
+the island of Java, and the Rose-ringed Parrakeet is more probably the
+bird intended. Professor Sundevall, the great authority on Aristotle,
+believes that the present bird was the only Parrot known to the
+ancients, being brought into Europe probably from Nubia. Other species
+were not seen in Europe before the end of the Middle Ages, and the
+West African species, such as the Senegal Parrot (_P. senegalus_), in
+1455, and the Grey Parrot even later; the latter not being described
+before Aldrovandus, about the year 1600. American species were brought
+already in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and many Indian species after
+the circumnavigation of Africa about the year 1500. The present bird is
+common in India and Ceylon, and is, moreover, one of the few species
+of birds which are common to the Indian Peninsula and the continent of
+Africa, as it is a well-known bird in Nubia and Abyssinia, and on one
+occasion a flock has been seen in the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth
+in the extreme south of the continent. According to Dr. Jerdon, it
+is one of the most common and familiar birds in India, frequenting
+cultivated ground and gardens, even in the barest and least wooded
+parts of the country, and it is habitually found about towns and
+villages, constantly perching on the house-top. It is very destructive
+to most kinds of grain, as well as to fruit-gardens. Burgess says
+that they carry off the ears of corn to trees to devour at leisure,
+and Jerdon has observed the same sometimes. When the grains are cut
+and housed it feeds on the ground in the stubble cornfields, also in
+meadows, picking up what seeds it can; and now and then takes long
+flights, hunting for any tree that may be in fruit, skimming close and
+examining every tree; and when it has made a discovery of one in fruit,
+circling round, and sailing with outspread and down-pointing wings
+till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size,
+sometimes in vast numbers, and generally many hundreds roost together
+in some garden or grove. At Saugor all the Parrakeets, Mynahs, Crows,
+Bee-eaters, &c., of the neighbourhood, for some miles around, roost
+in company in a large grove of bamboos; and the deafening noise heard
+there from before sunset till dark, and from the first dawn of day
+till long after sunrise, gives to the listener the idea of numberless
+noisy steam machines at work. Many of the flocks of Parrots are very
+late in returning, and fly along quite low, skimming the ground, and
+just rising over a tree, house, or any obstacle in the way, and, for
+several nights in succession, several Parrakeets flew against the wall
+of a house, on the top of a hill in Saugor, and were killed. The
+Rose-ringed Parrakeet breeds both in holes in trees, and very commonly
+in the south of India about houses, in holes in old buildings, pagodas,
+tombs, &c. It lays four white eggs. Its breeding season is from January
+to March. Adams states that he has seen this Parrakeet pillage the
+nests of the Sand Martin; but with what intent he does not guess at.
+Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated strokes of the wings,
+somewhat wavy laterally, or arrowy. It has a harsh cry, which it always
+repeats when in flight, as well as at other times. Mr. Philipps remarks
+that the Kite will sometimes swoop down on them when perched on a tree,
+and carry one off in its talons; also that Owls attack these birds by
+night.[243]
+
+The length of this species is about sixteen inches and a half. It is
+green with a black band extending from under the chin backwards nearly
+to the nape, and having a rose-coloured collar round the hind neck. The
+bill is cherry-red, the feet greyish, and the iris pale yellow. The
+female does not possess the rose-coloured collar, but has instead a
+narrower one of emerald green.
+
+
+THE CAROLINA CONURE (_Conurus carolinensis_).
+
+The Conures are inhabitants of the New World, and are very abundant
+in South America, but one species, the Carolina Conure, penetrating
+into the Nearctic region above the line of North Mexico. It is a very
+handsome bird, but is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and becoming
+restricted in its range, so much so, that in places where it was once
+plentiful it is now no longer to be found at all. Even in 1842, when
+Audubon wrote, they were then fast diminishing, and are now confined
+to the Southern and South-western States, as far west as the Missouri
+river. The food of the Carolina Conure is stated to consist chiefly
+of the seeds of the Cockle-burr (_Xanthirum strumarium_), but it is
+also very partial to fruit of all kinds, and it is owing to the way in
+which it has been shot down that it is now so rare, for Mr. Audubon
+describes the immense damage done by a flock of Conures to stacks of
+grain, which they covered in such numbers that they presented to the
+eye the same effect as if a brilliant-coloured carpet had been thrown
+over them. The farmers resented the attacks on their property to such
+an extent that the same naturalist states that he has seen hundreds
+killed in the course of a few hours, the survivors, after each shot,
+flying round for a few minutes, and then settling again in a place of
+most imminent danger. Even in confinement the birds seem to develop
+their destructive propensities, destroying wood, books, and, in short,
+everything that comes in their way, while from their incapability of
+talk, and their harsh, disagreeable voices, they are not much esteemed
+as pets. As Audubon observes, the woods are the habitation best fitted
+for them, and there the richness of their plumage, their beautiful
+mode of flight, and even their screams, afford welcome intimation that
+the darkest forests and most sequestered swamps are not destitute
+of charms. According to the same observer, they deposit their eggs,
+without making a nest, in the bottoms of such cavities in trees as
+those to which they usually retire at night. Many females deposit their
+eggs together, and he believed that the number laid by each hen bird
+was two; the eggs were greenish-white, and nearly round, and the young
+are at first covered with soft down, such as is seen in nestling Owls.
+The colour of this Parrot is green, the head and neck bright-yellow,
+and the forehead and region of the eye scarlet; the bill is white, the
+feet pale flesh-colour, and the iris hazel; the length of the bird
+being about fourteen inches. The female is like the male, but the young
+bird has the head green instead of yellow.
+
+
+THE PARRAKEETS (_Platycercinæ_).
+
+These form the fourth sub-family, and are remarkable for their slender,
+smooth tarsus, which is formed as in most birds; and the voice is
+more agreeable than in the other genera, the members of which, almost
+without exception, have a harsh and unpleasant cry. They are mostly
+inhabitants of Australia, whence come several of them well known as
+cage-birds, such as the King Parrakeet (_Platycercus scapulatus_), the
+Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet (_P. eximius_), and in America they are
+represented by the single genus _Bolborhynchus_.
+
+[Illustration: ROSELLA.]
+
+
+THE OWL PARROT (_Strigops_[244] _habroptilus_[245]).
+
+The genus _Strigops_ is the sole representative of the fifth
+sub-family, the _Strigopinæ_. It is one of the most remarkable of all
+the Parrots, and is met with only in New Zealand. The face shows a disc
+exactly as in the Owls, whence the name, and the wing is very short,
+convex, and rounded. In its habits this bird is chiefly nocturnal, but
+not entirely so; the most remarkable fact connected with it being,
+perhaps, its unwillingness to fly. Thus Dr. Buller, F.R.S., in his
+excellent work on the “Birds of New Zealand,” writes:--“All who have
+studied the bird in its natural state agree on this point, that the
+wings, although sufficiently large and strong, are perfectly useless
+for purposes of flight, and that the bird merely spreads them to
+break the force of its fall in descending from a higher point to a
+lower, when suddenly surprised; in some instances even this use of
+them is neglected, the bird falling to the ground like a stone. We
+are naturally led to ask how it is that a bird possessing large and
+well-formed wings should be found utterly incapable of flight. On
+removing the skin from the body it is seen that the muscles by means
+of which the movements of these anterior limbs are regulated are very
+well developed, but are largely overlaid with fat. The bird is known to
+be a ground-feeder, with a voracious appetite, and to subsist chiefly
+on vegetable mosses, which, possessing but little nutriment, require
+to be eaten in large quantities; and Dr. Haast informs us that he has
+sometimes seen them with their crops so distended and heavy, that the
+birds were scarcely able to move. These mosses cover the ground and the
+roots or trunks of prostrate trees, requiring to be sought for on foot;
+and the bird’s habit of feeding at night, in a country where there are
+no indigenous predatory quadrupeds, would render flight a superfluous
+exertion, and a faculty of no especial advantage in the struggle for
+existence. Thus it may be reasonably inferred that _disuse_, under the
+usual operations of the laws of nature, has occasioned this disability
+of wing; for there is no physiological reason why the Kakapo should not
+be as good a flier as any other Parrot.”
+
+[Illustration: OWL PARROT. (_After Keulemans_)]
+
+The Kakapo, as it is called in New Zealand, meaning a “Night Parrot,”
+is becoming rarer every year, as the places which it affects become
+more and more accessible to the colonists. From the long accounts
+of its habits given in Dr. Buller’s work, the following note of Dr.
+Haast is selected, as it gives a good idea of the habits of this
+singular species:--“So little is known of this solitary inhabitant
+of our primæval forests, that the following short narrative of
+observations, which I was fortunate enough to make during my recent
+West Coast journey, may interest you. Although I was travelling almost
+continuously for several years in the interior of these islands, it was
+only during my last journey that I was enabled to study its natural
+history. I was well acquainted with its call, and had often observed
+its tracks in the sands of the river-beds and in the fresh-fallen snow,
+but I had not actually seen it. The principal reason for this was, that
+formerly I had no dog with me; and consequently it would only be by the
+greatest accident that this bird, not at all rare in those untrodden
+regions, could be obtained. The true habitat of the Kakapo is the mossy
+_Fagus_ forest, near mountain streams, with occasional grassy plots;
+but it also lives both on the hill-sides, amongst enormous blocks of
+rock, mostly overgrown with roots of trees and a deep covering of moss,
+and on wooded flats along the banks of the larger rivers, liable to be
+inundated by heavy rainfalls or by the sudden melting of the snow....
+It is a striking fact, that--with the exception only of the valley of
+the river Makarora, forming Lake Wanaka--I never found the Kakapo on
+the eastern side of the Alps, although extensive _Fagus_ forests exist
+there also. It appears to have crossed the main chain at the low wooded
+pass which leads from the source of the Haast to that of the Makarora,
+and reached the mouth of this river at Lake Wanaka, where probably
+the absence of forest put a stop to its farther advance. It is very
+abundant in the valley of the last-mentioned river, and is found even
+in the Makarora bush, notwithstanding that numerous sawyers are at work
+there. When camped on the borders of that forest we continually heard
+its call near our tents; but none of the sawyers had any idea of the
+existence of such a large bird in their neighbourhood, although the
+irregular shrill call had sometimes attracted their attention. It also
+occurs in the valley of the Wilkin, but is less numerous there, which
+may be accounted for by the existence of wild dogs in this locality. We
+may therefore safely assume that from the junction of this river with
+the Makarora the Kakapo ascended toward the sources of the former. In
+the valley of the Hunter, only divided by a mountain-range of great
+altitude but with some low saddles, no sign of it was to be observed,
+although large _Fagus_ forests would appear to offer a propitious
+abode. This bird has hitherto been pronounced to be of true nocturnal
+habits; but I think, from observations I was able to make, that this
+opinion ought to be somewhat modified. It is true that generally an
+hour after sunset, the dense foliage of the forest giving additional
+darkness to the country, its call began to be heard all around us.
+It then commenced to rove about, and, attracted by the glare of our
+camp-fire, frequently came close to our tent, when the heedless bird
+was immediately caught by our dog. But as we met with it on two
+occasions in the daytime, occupied in feeding, and as I observed that
+it knew and understood perfectly well the danger which approached, we
+may assume that it has, at least in this respect, some relation to
+diurnal birds. In order to show why I come to this conclusion, I will
+particularise the two occurrences I have mentioned, as they appear
+to bear directly upon some other important points in the structure
+of this bird. When returning from the West Coast, we observed in the
+afternoon (the sky being clouded) a Kakapo sitting on the prostrate
+trunk of a tree in the open forest. When about ten yards from it, the
+bird observed us, and disappeared instantly in its hole, whence, with
+the aid of the dog, we afterwards took it. It is clear that in this
+case the bird was not overtaken by the coming day when far from its
+abode, but that it left its retreat voluntarily during daylight. The
+second instance I shall mention is more striking, and shows that the
+Kakapo feeds also during the day. It was towards evening, but still
+broad daylight, when we passed along the hill-side near a deep rocky
+gorge, and saw a large Kakapo sitting on a low fuchsia-tree, about ten
+feet from the ground, feeding on the berries. When close to it, the
+bird saw us, and instantly dropped down as if shot, and disappeared
+amongst the huge fragments of rocks strewed along the hill-side. But
+the most remarkable circumstance was, that the frightened bird did not
+open its wings to break its fall, but dropped as if it did not possess
+any wings at all. In order to see whether they would fly, or even
+flutter, when pursued by an enemy, I placed on the ground a full-grown
+specimen, which had been caught by the dog without being hurt. It was
+on a large shingle-bed, so that the bird had ample room for running
+or rising on the wing, if for this purpose it wanted space. I was not
+a little astonished to observe that it only started running towards
+the nearest point of the forest, where a dark shadow was apparent, and
+it went quicker than I had anticipated, considering the position of
+its toes and its clumsy figure, its gait resembling closely that of
+a Gallinaceous bird in its movements. As I was standing sideways to
+it, I thought that it kept its wings closed upon its body, so little
+were they opened; but my companion, who was equally anxious to see
+how our prisoner would try to escape, and who stood a little behind
+it, observed that it opened its wings slightly, but without flapping
+them in any degree, using them apparently more for keeping its balance
+than for accelerating its movements. This would almost lead to the
+conclusion that the Kakapo does not travel far, especially as I have
+already shown that its whole structure is ill adapted for running.
+But having myself frequently followed its tracks, and found them to
+extend a great distance over the sandy reaches along the river, such
+a conclusion as that suggested above would be erroneous. It must be
+exceedingly fond of water, because in many localities its tracks were
+observed for half a mile over shingle and sand to the banks of the
+river; and I am unable to explain the curious fact, unless the object
+be to mix river water with the enormous mass of pulpy vegetable matter
+which is to be found in its crop. With the exception of two specimens,
+the crops of which were filled with the large berries of a small-leaved
+_Coriaria_, by which their flesh was flavoured, all the birds examined
+by me had their crops widely distended by a mass of finely-comminuted
+vegetable mosses, weighing many ounces.
+
+“I carefully examined the subterranean abode of this bird. From the
+account given by the natives, I thought that it would be found living
+in well-excavated holes, resembling in their construction those of
+the Fox or Badger; that the entrance would be so small as to enable
+only the inhabitants to enter, and thus to exclude larger animals from
+persecuting it. This, however, is not the case; because, with one
+exception, all the specimens obtained were either in fissures amongst
+rocks, or in cavities formed by huge blocks tumbled one over another,
+and overgrown with moss, or in holes formed by the roots of decayed
+trees. The cavities in the rocks were generally sufficiently large
+to allow of my dog, a good-sized Retriever, freely entering them.
+The openings to the other holes were smaller, and it was sometimes
+necessary to cut away a few roots at the entrance. Inside, the cavity
+was invariably of very large size, because we could plainly hear the
+dog advancing several yards before commencing his scuffle with the
+occupant; and on returning with the bird in his mouth, he always
+emerged head foremost, thus proving that the chamber was large enough
+to enable him to turn himself round. Before he had become accustomed to
+the work, the dog was often punished severely by the bird’s powerful
+beak and claws; but he ultimately became quite an expert, always
+seizing his prey by the head and crushing the skull.
+
+“The holes or abodes of the Kakapo were not only on the mountain sides,
+but also on the flats near the river banks which are liable to be
+overflowed. There can be no doubt that when a sudden inundation takes
+place the bird can save itself upon a bush or neighbouring tree. I do
+not think, however, that it can climb the boles of standing trees,
+because it never resorted to them during the night or when persecuted
+by the dog--except in one single case, when the bird ascended a leaning
+tree close to our camp, and remained till the dog had given up the
+attempt to obtain it. But, notwithstanding that almost all the abodes
+that came under examination were natural cavities, I met with one hole
+that seemed to have been regularly mined. On the northern bank of the
+river Haast, just below the junction of the river Clarke, a large
+flat occurs, formed by deposits of sand, over which a thin layer of
+vegetable mould is spread, and on which a luxuriant vegetation has
+sprung up. The river, in washing against these deposits, has in some
+cases formed nearly perpendicular banks, about six to eight feet high.
+At one spot, about two feet below the surface, several rounded holes
+were observed, and the dog tried in vain to enter them. After carefully
+scenting the ground, he began to scratch the surface with his paws, and
+soon succeeded in widening the entrance sufficiently to admit his body,
+and he immediately afterwards emerged with the bird in his mouth. There
+is no doubt in my own mind that this hole at least had been excavated;
+and the burrowing faculty of the bird may be considered so far
+established. On a flat in the valley of the Makarora, the dog brought
+one from the interior of a hollow drift-tree, which was lying amongst
+sedges and grasses in an old river channel. There never was more than
+one individual in the hole, although very often, within twenty or
+thirty yards of it, another specimen would be scented out by the dog,
+the two being generally of opposite sexes. At night-time, in visiting
+our camp fire, they generally came in pairs, the two being successively
+caught by my dog, a single or sometimes a repeated angry growl from
+the bird informing us that he had hold of it. These circumstances lead
+me to conclude that during the day each inhabits separately its own
+hole, and that only after dark do they meet for feeding and for social
+intercourse.”
+
+In size, the Owl Parrot is about twenty-six inches in length, and is of
+a dark sap-green colour, varied and mottled with dark brown and yellow;
+the face is lighter, being darker brown, the ear-coverts mixed with
+yellow; the belly and under tail-coverts, as well as the wing-lining,
+are rather brighter yellow than the rest of the under surface. The tint
+of green varies a good deal: from light yellowish to dark sap-green.
+
+
+THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS (_Psittaci orthognathi_).[246]
+
+In this second section of the Parrots only one family is known, all the
+members of which are easily recognisable by their straightened bills,
+the lower mandible being gently compressed, and not bulged out, with a
+nearly straight tip, the cutting edges with scarcely any indentation.
+With the exception of the Lorikeets (_Loriculus_), members of which
+are found in India and the Indo-Malayan region, the whole family is
+Australian, being confined to that continent and the adjacent Molucca
+Islands, New Zealand, and the islands of Polynesia.
+
+[Illustration: LORIKEET.]
+
+
+THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS.[247]
+
+The Brush-tongued Lorikeets are all birds of very beautiful colouring,
+and are mostly found in Australia, the Moluccas, some few species
+extending through the Oceanic Islands. All seem to be very similar
+in their habits, an account of which is given by Mr. Gould. He
+says:--“This arboreal group of honey-eating Lorikeets, if not so
+numerous in species as the seed-feeding Parrakeets, is individually as
+abundant, and more universally dispersed, being found in every part
+of Australia yet visited. In their structure, habits, food, and mode
+of nidification, no two groups of the same family can be more widely
+different than these forms: the pencilled tongue, the diminutive
+stomach, thick skin, tough flesh, and fœtid odour of the _Trichoglossi_
+presenting a decided contrast to the simple tongue, capacious crop
+and stomach, thin skin, delicate flesh, and freedom from odour of the
+_Platycerci_; besides which, the _Trichoglossi_ possess a strong _os
+furcatorium_, which bone is wanting in the _Platycerci_. Hence, while
+the _Trichoglossi_ are powerful, swift, and arrow-like in their flight,
+the _Platycerci_ are feeble, pass through the air in a succession of
+undulations near the ground, and never fly to any great distance.
+The mode in which the two groups approach, alight upon, and quit the
+trees is also remarkably different--the _Trichoglossi_ dashing among
+and alighting upon the branches simultaneously and with the utmost
+rapidity, and quitting them in like manner, leaving the deafening
+sound of their thousand voices echoing through the woods; while the
+_Platycerci_ rise to the branch after their undulating flight, and
+leave them again in a quiet manner, no sound being heard but their
+inward piping note. The eggs of the _Trichoglossi_ are from two to four
+in number; those of the others are more numerous.”
+
+
+THE NESTORS (_Nestor_).
+
+These Parrots, which are only found in New Zealand, are generally
+placed with the other Brush-tongued Parrots. “In all Parrots the fleshy
+tongue ends anteriorly in a dilated portion, supported by a narrower
+neck. This tip is much like the end of a human finger, as mentioned by
+most observers; and its function is similar also, for it is employed
+by the bird as a third prehensile organ in connection with the upper
+and lower beak, any solid substance being held by the tongue and upper
+beak, while the mandible is freed to give another bite. Continuing the
+simile of the finger, the tip is directed forwards with the nail-like
+portion downwards, the part corresponding to the free edge of the nail
+appearing along the lower margin of the anterior rounded surface.[248]
+In the _Trichoglossi_, this ‘nail,’ or horny plate, is stated to be
+present; but on the superior surface of the tongue, between the lateral
+edges of the unguis, or nail, there is an arrangement of retroverted
+papillæ, forming a spinous covering, and their mechanism is such that
+when the tongue is protruded beyond the mouth to grasp any object,
+the papillæ stand upright, or are even directed somewhat forward. In
+Nestor,” continues Professor Garrod, “there are no papillæ of this
+description; but the tongue is here, as Dr. Buller says, ‘soft, rounded
+on the edges, with a broad central groove,’ and it is as smooth as in
+other Parrots. Therefore, the Kaka Parrot cannot in this point be said
+to approach the _Trichoglossini_ (badly so called). The peculiarity of
+the tongue of _Nestor_ consists in the fact that the interior edge of
+the unguis, or nail, always free (though for a very short distance)
+and jagged in the other birds of the class, is here prolonged forwards
+beyond the tips of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch, as a
+delicate fringe of hairs with a crescentic contour. In the living bird
+the mouth is moist, as in the Lories, and not, as in the Cockatoos and
+others, dry and scaly.”
+
+[Illustration: TONGUE OF NESTOR.
+
+(_After Garrod._)]
+
+The members of the genus _Nestor_ are entirely confined to New Zealand,
+the species of Philip Island (_Nestor productus_) being now extinct.
+Their habits, like those of all New Zealand birds, are sufficiently
+curious, one of them, known as the “Kea” (_N. notabilis_), actually
+feeding on raw flesh, as is noticed by Dr. Buller:--“Those that
+frequent the sheep stations appear to live almost exclusively on
+flesh. They claim the sheep’s heads that are thrown out from the
+slaughter-shed, and pick them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but
+the bones.” An eye-witness described this operation to Dr. Hector as
+follows:--“Perching itself on the sheep’s head or other offal, the bird
+proceeds to tear off the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after
+the manner of a Hawk; or at other times holding the object down with
+one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after
+the ordinary fashion of Parrots.” Dr. Buller also mentions instances of
+tame Parrots devouring their comrades in captivity; but the Kea is the
+only Parrot known to eat flesh when flying wild.
+
+
+THE KAKA PARROT (_Nestor meridionalis_).
+
+This Parrot is best described by the above-named ornithologist in the
+work on the Birds of New Zealand, to which frequent reference has been
+made in these pages:--“Sprightly in its actions, eminently social, and
+more noisy than any other inhabitant of the woods, the Kaka holds a
+prominent place among our native birds. Being semi-nocturnal in its
+habits, it generally remains quiet and concealed during the heat of the
+day. If, however, the sportsman should happen to find a stray one, and
+to wound instead of killing it, its cries of distress will immediately
+rouse the whole fraternity from their slumbers, and all the Kakas
+within hearing will come to the rescue, and make the forest echo with
+their discordant screams. Unless, however, disturbed by some exciting
+cause of this sort, they remain in close cover till the approach of
+the cooler hours. Then they come forth with noisy clamour, and may be
+seen, far above the tree-tops, winging their way to some favourite
+feeding-place; or they may be observed climbing up the rough vine-clad
+boles of the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles, and assuming
+every variety of attitude, or diligently tearing open the dead roots of
+the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and
+their larvæ. In the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild
+blossom and berry, these birds have a prodigality of food, and may be
+seen alternately filling their crops with a variety of juicy berries,
+or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata (_Metrosideros
+robusta_) by means of their brush-fringed tongues. With the earliest
+streaks of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped in
+darkness, the wild cry of this bird breaks upon the ear with a strange
+effect. It is the sound that wakes the weary traveller encamped in the
+bush; and the announcement of his ever active Maori attendant--‘Kua
+tangi te Kaka’--is an intimation that it is time to be active. But
+although habitually recluse during the day, it is not always so.
+
+[Illustration: KAKA PARROT.]
+
+“During gloomy weather it is often very active; and sometimes even in
+the bright sunshine a score of them may be seen together, flying and
+circling about high above the tree-tops, uttering their loud screams,
+and apparently bent on convivial amusement. When the shades of evening
+bring a deeper gloom into the depths of the forest, and all sounds are
+hushed, save the low hoot of the waking Morepork, or the occasional
+_cheep-cheep_ of the startled Robin, the Kaka becomes more animated.
+It may then be heard calling to its fellows in a harsh rasping note,
+something like the syllables ‘_t-chrut, t-chrut_,’ or indulging in a
+clear musical whistle with a short refrain. It is strictly arboreal
+in its habits, and subsists to a large extent on insects and their
+larvæ, so that it is probably one of our most useful species. Where
+they exist in large numbers they must act very beneficially on the
+timber forests; for in the domain of Nature important results are often
+produced by apparently trivial agencies. Like all the honey-eaters,
+while supplying their own wants, they do good service with their
+brush tongues by fertilising the blossoms of various trees, and thus
+assisting in their propagation; while, on the other hand, the diligent
+search they prosecute for insects and grubs, and the countless numbers
+daily consumed by each individual, must materially affect the economy
+of the native woods. On this latter point Mr. Potts has furnished
+the following valuable note:--‘Although so often accused of injuring
+trees by stripping down the bark, from careful observation we do
+not believe a flourishing tree is ever damaged by its beak. It is
+the apparently vigorous, but really unsound, tree that is attacked,
+already doomed by the presence of countless multitudes of insects of
+many varieties, of which it is at once the food and refuge, either
+in their perfect or larval state. In the persevering and laborious
+pursuit of this favourite food, the Kaka doubtless lends his assistance
+in hastening the fall of decaying trees; the loosened strips of bark
+dissevered admit to the exposed wood rain and moisture collected from
+dews and mists, to be dried by evaporation by the heat of the sun,
+by the desiccating winds, only to become saturated again. Under this
+alternation the insidious fungi take root, decay rapidly sets in, the
+close-grained timber gives place to a soft spongy texture, branches
+drop off, and gradually the once noble-looking tree succumbs to its
+fate; but its gradual decay and fall, the work of years, has proved
+beneficial to the surrounding plants: the dropping of the branches
+admits light and air to the aspiring saplings, assists in checking the
+undue spread of lichens and epiphytes; and when the old stem falls,
+tottering down from its very rottenness, its place is supplied by
+vigorous successors.’
+
+“In estimating the value of the labours of the Kaka as an insect-eater,
+it should not be forgotten that the family of Woodpeckers is entirely
+absent from our bird-fauna, and that upon this indefatigable climber
+devolves some share of the duty of representing that peculiar group of
+forest birds. How diligently the insects are sought for by the Kaka may
+be judged from the heaps of bark chips that lie beneath the decaying
+trees. Often it may be noticed on the ground tearing away the mossy
+clothing of the huge gnarled roots that spread around; even the soft
+rotten boughs are gnawed to obtain the larvæ of some of the larger bush
+insects.”
+
+The Nestors vary immensely in colour, so that many of the plumages
+now known to be only occasional varieties have been supposed to be
+specifically distinct. They are birds of large size, and have the cere,
+or fleshy portion at the base of the bill, rather strongly developed,
+the bill being large and powerful. The colour is of an olivaceous
+brown, with a dash of dark red, the crown grey, and the ear-coverts
+shaded with orange, the cheeks with dark red, as also are the lower
+back, rump, and upper tail-coverts and abdomen.
+
+The structure of the bill of the Parrots is so remarkable as to be
+worthy of a more extended description than could be given to it when it
+was incidentally referred to in our account of the osteology of birds
+in general. The way, however, in which the upper and lower jaws are
+connected with the skull was there explained, and a reference to the
+description on pp. 241-2 will save the necessity of much repetition
+now. That account embraced all members of the class of birds; here we
+are dealing only with certain peculiar modifications.
+
+If the skull of an adult bird of any familiar type, such as a Crow,
+be examined, it will be seen that the bones of the upper jaw are
+apparently continuous, and form one piece, with those of the forehead
+and sides of the head. There is nothing that looks like a joint, or
+“articulation,” between the bill where it is attached to the forehead
+above, or to the long jugal arch (“quadrato-jugal”) that runs each
+side to reach the quadrate bone, or to the flattened bones that help
+to form the palate below. But if the skull of this same bird had been
+carefully examined in an earlier stage of its existence, it would
+have been found that the bones were at first distinctly separate at
+the three points here indicated, and were merely connected by a soft
+membranous substance. In many birds this “inter-osseous” membrane
+connecting the bones of the upper mandible with the skull proper never
+becomes true bone at all, but remains throughout life more or less soft
+and flexible. And by this means a sort of elastic joint is established,
+conferring upon the beak a certain range of up and down motion.
+
+Now in Parrots, more conspicuously than in any other birds, each
+of these joints, not alone that of the beak with the forehead, is
+converted into a true hinge-like articulation, so that the upper
+jaw can be raised to a very considerable extent; and to effect this
+motion the muscles of the palate are developed into a somewhat complex
+apparatus.
+
+If the figure be examined, the actual relations of the bones can be
+readily made out. At _a_ is seen the line where the bill is articulated
+to the frontal bones. At _b_ is the joint which the bill makes with the
+long jugal bone (_j_). And at _c_ is its articulation with the palatine
+bone (_pl_).
+
+[Illustration: SKULL OF THE GREY PARROT.]
+
+But it is not this mobility of the upper mandible alone that gives
+the characteristic aspect to the Parrot’s face. There are several
+other points in which Parrots agree, with a wonderful uniformity,
+among themselves, and differ from most other birds. Besides the
+absence of certain important processes, called “basi-pterygoid,”
+the ploughshare-like bone, or “vomer,” is altogether wanting. The
+maxillo-palatines are very largely developed and spongy; they unite
+with one another in the middle line, and with the thick wall of bone
+into which the _septum nasi_ is in Parrots strongly ossified, and thus
+fill up almost the whole base of the beak. The long palatine bones
+proper are remarkably flattened from side to side for most of their
+length; their hinder edges are more or less notched, and quite free
+from any bony attachment; and they are united at about the hinder third
+of their length by a plate-like extension from each. The scoop-like
+lower mandible, with its tip that seems to have been cut off “square,”
+to be out of the way of the strongly-hooked upper jaw, is too familiar
+to call for any particular description.
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CUCKOOS--HONEY GUIDES--PLANTAIN-EATERS--WOODPECKERS--TOUCANS--BARBETS.
+
+  THE CUCKOOS--THE BUSH CUCKOOS--THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR
+  COUCALS--THE COMMON CUCKOO--Its Characteristics--Mrs. Blackburn’s
+  Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant--Breeding Habits--The
+  Eggs--The Call-notes of Male and Female--Food--Its Winter Home--Its
+  Appearance and Plumage--THE HONEY GUIDES--Kirk’s Account of
+  their Habits--Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against the
+  Bird--THE PLANTAIN-EATERS--THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER--THE
+  GREY PLANTAIN-EATER--THE COLIES--THE WHITE-BACKED COLY--THE
+  WOODPECKERS--How they Climb and Descend Trees--Their Bill--Do they
+  Damage Sound Trees?--THE WRYNECKS--THE YAFFLE--THE RED-HEADED
+  WOODPECKER--THE SPOTTED WOODPECKER--THE TOUCANS--Mr. Gould’s Account
+  of their Habits--Mr. Waterton’s Account--The Enormous Bill--Azara’s
+  Description of the Bird--Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame Toucan--THE
+  BARBETS--Messrs. Marshall’s Account of the Family--Mr. Layard on
+  their Habits.
+
+
+THE SECOND ORDER OF ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE CUCKOOS
+(_Cuculidæ_).
+
+Within the limits of this family are comprised birds of very different
+habits and of very different structure, some being inhabitants of the
+ground and of the thick bush, whilst others are lovers of the open,
+and are birds of very strong flight. Without being able to climb up
+the trunks of trees, like our Woodpeckers, the Cuckoos possess the
+zygodactyle foot of the climbing bird in a very perfect degree. They
+differ from others of the Scansorial group by the position of the
+nostrils, which are placed rather low in the upper mandible, not far
+from the cutting edge of it. There are three sub-families of Cuckoos,
+distinguished by the form of the wing: the first of these has the
+wings short, rounded, and with from two to six, or even seven, of the
+primaries slightly indented in the middle. They have the feathers of
+the thigh close-set, and not over-hanging like those of a Hawk, as is
+the case with the true Cuckoos.
+
+
+THE BUSH CUCKOOS (_Phænicophæinæ_).
+
+These birds have representatives in India, Australia, and Africa, and
+even South America. Some of them are of very varied and beautiful
+plumages, and many of them reach the size of a moderate game-bird. The
+first genus of these Bush Cuckoos contains
+
+
+THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR COUCALS (_Centropus_).
+
+These are remarkable for the form of the hind toe, which is furnished
+with a straight nail or claw, very strong, always equalling and often
+surpassing the length of the hind toe itself. These Lark-heeled Cuckoos
+do not occur in Europe, but are found all over Africa, India, and
+Burmah, to China, and throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia.
+They frequent the thick bush, and have a very similar call-note, which
+has been rendered by some observers as resembling the syllables “_bop
+bop_,” while on the West Coast of Africa, from their cry “_hoot,
+hoot_,” they have been nicknamed by the colonists the “Scotchman.”
+Writing of the Eyebrowed Lark-heel, Mr. Thomas Ayres says:--“This bird
+frequents the dense bush, and principally lives amongst impenetrable
+creepers, where it hunts about in search of the insects which it feeds
+upon; if disturbed, it flies but a short distance. The note is a loud,
+melancholy, cooing noise; they call most in wet weather. They are fond
+of getting up into trees that are covered with creeping plants, and
+sunning themselves; they generally fly on to the lower part, and then
+gradually hop upwards till they gain the top, but they can fly a very
+short distance at a time, and are easily caught if chased out into the
+open grass, though they lie very close, and it requires a good dog to
+find them. If disturbed, they immediately fly to the thickest cover
+near at hand, and commence running, like the Rails.” Mr. Ayres says
+that they feed on Grasshoppers, Caterpillars, and other insects; but
+Mr. Rickard, another excellent field naturalist, in South Africa has
+found a small Snake and Locusts in their stomachs, one having a small
+bird--a White-eye (_Zosterops_)--inside him. The Lark-heeled Cuckoos
+are not parasitic, like the true Cuckoos and many others: that is to
+say, they build their own nests, and do not employ the nests of other
+birds to place their eggs in. When hatched, the young birds are very
+curious, being covered with long hairs and bristles. In colour the
+Lark-heels are for the most part rufous, with black heads, but some
+of them are almost entirely rufous, the shafts of all the feathers
+much stiffened, so that the plumage lies very close, which must be of
+advantage to birds who have to climb a great deal amongst the lianas
+and creepers of tropical forests.
+
+Of the Indian Coucal (_Centropus bengalensis_) an interesting account
+is given by Mr. Gammie, which affords a very good idea of the habits
+of these Bush Cuckoos. He says:--“This species has increased largely
+of late. Among grassy scrub, up to 3,500 feet, it is now abundant,
+where, only a few years ago, it was rarely to be found. In the earlier
+part of the rainy season its odd, monotonous notes are to be heard
+in every direction. I am not sure that the male calls, but have shot
+the female--as I found by dissection--when calling. It has a call of
+a double series of notes: ‘_whoot, whoot, whoot, whoot_;’ then, after
+a pause of four or five seconds, ‘_kurook, kurook, kurook, kurook_.’
+The ‘whoot’ is quite ventriloquistic, sounding as if it came from a
+distance of six or seven yards from the bird. Before calling, it seats
+itself about five feet from the ground; then you see it draw its neck
+and body together, slightly puffing out its body-feathers, raising its
+back, and depressing its tail, and for every ‘whoot’ there is a violent
+throb of the body, as if the bird was in great pain; at the same time
+the motion of the throat is scarcely perceptible, and its bill is
+closed. Then, as if greatly relieved, it stretches itself out, the
+feathers fall smooth, and with open mouth and throbbing throat comes
+the ‘kurook,’ without the slightest attempt at ventriloquism. When
+searching for the caller, one must take no notice of the ‘whoot,’ but
+wait for the ‘kurook.’ It feeds almost entirely on Grasshoppers, and
+frequents the open, scrubby tracts only. I have never once seen it in
+larger forests.”[249]
+
+The Malkohas are another remarkable group of the Bush Cuckoos, and are
+found throughout India, Ceylon, the Indo-Malayan region and islands, as
+far as the Celebes. The genera differ principally in the shape of the
+nostril; and although differences of structure are usually considered
+sufficient characters on which to found distinctions of genus, some
+ornithologists are of opinion that the variation in the form of the
+nostril only separates them as species. One of the most remarkable of
+these Bush Cuckoos is the _Carpococcyx radiatus_ of Borneo, which,
+when alive, is stated by Mr. Wallace to resemble a Pheasant in
+appearance and gait. It lives much on the ground, and is often caught
+by the Malays in the snares which they set for Argus Pheasants and
+other game-birds. In Madagascar they are represented by the Couas
+(_Sericosomus_), of which there are no less than ten species found
+in that island. They are the inhabitants of the Palestrina forests,
+where their monotonous notes are often heard. The cry of the Blue
+Cuckoo is said by Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam to resemble the syllables
+_cir-cir-cir_, while that of the Crested Coua (_S. cristatus_) is
+_toc-toc-toc_. When calling, the latter bird raises its crest and flaps
+its tail and wings. Its flight is difficult and generally descending,
+and the bird never flaps its wings when it flies. It is ordinarily seen
+on the lower branches of the trees, and loves to repose during the
+great heat of the day in the sheltered parts of the trees, resting on
+the branches and puffing out its feathers.
+
+In America there are several allied forms of Bush Cuckoos, many of
+which frequent the ground, one of the most interesting being the
+_Geococcyx californianus_, which is called the “Road-runner,” and is a
+bird of such powers of running that it is sometimes hunted on horseback
+and pursued with hounds, a test of fleetness in which it is said often
+to make a longer race than its pursuers anticipated.
+
+
+THE COMMON CUCKOO (_Cuculus canorus_).
+
+The true Cuckoos, of which the English bird is the type, differ from
+the Bush Cuckoos in being more _Accipitrine_, or Hawk-like, in their
+appearance, and having long thigh-feathers, like the majority of the
+birds of prey. The nostril is swollen and rounded. It would be easy to
+write a complete book on this mysterious bird, whose habits and cry
+have rendered it an object of interest in all countries and from very
+early times. The popular superstition concerning the nestling--that the
+young Cuckoo, when sufficiently grown, and having no further use for
+the little foster-parent to whose care it owed its life and well-being,
+used to devour the latter--has often been held up as an “awful example”
+to ungrateful children who become a burden and a shame to their parents
+when they are unable to provide for them any longer. The idea of the
+young Cuckoo devouring its protector is no doubt erroneous, and,
+as Brehm puts it, has arisen from the oft-recurring spectacle of a
+little Wren or a diminutive Gold-crest placing food in the wide-gaping
+mouth of the young Cuckoo, which, indeed, without much stretch of the
+imagination, might swallow it. In Mr. Gould’s “Birds of Great Britain”
+there is a picture showing the _dénouement_ of the young Cuckoo’s
+story, when, still callow and blind, it is represented as disposing of
+some unfortunate little Tree Pipits which were hatched along with it
+in the same nest. This incident was sketched by Mrs. Hugh Blackburn,
+who thus describes the occurrence:--“The nest (which we watched last
+June, after finding the Cuckoo’s egg in it) was that of the common
+Meadow Pipit (Titlark, Mosscheeper), and had two Pipit’s eggs besides
+that of the Cuckoo. It was below a heather bush on the declivity of a
+low abrupt bank or highland hill-side, in Moidart. At one visit the
+Pipits were found to be hatched, but not the Cuckoo. At the next visit,
+which was after an interval of forty-eight hours, we found the young
+Cuckoo alone in the nest, and both the young Pipits lying down the
+bank, about ten inches from the margin of the nest, but quite lively
+after being warmed in the hand. They were replaced in the nest beside
+the Cuckoo, which struggled about till it got its back under one of
+them, when it climbed backwards directly up the open side of the nest,
+and hitched the Pipit from its back on to the edge. It then stood quite
+upright on its legs, which were straddled wide apart, with the claws
+firmly fixed half-way down the inside of the nest among the interlacing
+fibres of which the nest was woven, and stretching its wings apart and
+backwards, it elbowed the Pipit fairly over the margin so far that its
+struggles took it down the bank instead of back into the nest. After
+this the Cuckoo stood a minute or two, feeling back with its wings, as
+if to make sure that the Pipit was fairly overboard, and then subsided
+into the bottom of the nest. As it was getting late, and the Cuckoo
+did not immediately set to work on the other nestling, I replaced the
+ejected one and went home. On returning next day, both nestlings were
+found dead and cold out of the nest. I replaced one of them, but the
+Cuckoo made no effort to get under it and eject it, but seated itself
+contentedly on the top of it. All this I find accords accurately with
+Jenner’s description of what he saw. But what struck me most was this:
+the Cuckoo was perfectly naked, without the vestige of a feather, or
+even a hint of future feathers; its eyes were not yet opened, and its
+neck seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The Pipits
+had well-developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright eyes,
+partially open; yet they seemed quite helpless under the manipulations
+of the Cuckoo, which looked a much less developed creature. The
+Cuckoo’s legs, however, seemed very muscular, and it appeared to feel
+about with its wings, which were absolutely featherless, as with
+hands; the spurious wing (unusually large in proportion) looked like a
+spread-out thumb. The most singular thing of all was the direct purpose
+with which the blind little monster made for the open side of the nest,
+the only part where it could throw its burden down the bank. I think
+all the spectators felt the sort of horror and awe at the apparent
+inadequacy of the creature’s intelligence to its acts that one might
+have felt at seeing a toothless hag raise a ghost by an incantation. It
+was horribly ‘uncanny’ and ‘gruesome!’”
+
+[Illustration: COMMON CUCKOO.]
+
+The above account of Mrs. Blackburn’s graphically describes the
+ejection of its foster-brothers and sisters by the nestling Cuckoo;
+and this brings us to the next part of the subject, viz., the breeding
+habits of this curious bird. As is well known of the hen bird, it
+never makes its own nest, but it is believed that during its stay in
+Europe it lays altogether about eight eggs, all of which are deposited
+in the nest of some other bird. The variation in the colour of the
+Cuckoo’s eggs is very great, from a white speckled egg, like that of
+the Water Wagtail, or the dark brown mottled egg of a Lark or Pipit,
+to the blue egg of the Hedge Sparrow; while Mr. Dresser states that he
+has seen even green eggs, and is of opinion that the same female will
+lay similarly coloured eggs. The researches of ornithologists during
+recent years sufficiently prove that the female Cuckoo lays her egg
+upon the ground, and then deposits it in the nest of a bird whose egg
+resembles the one she has just laid; hence it is probable that a hen
+Cuckoo killed with a broken egg in its mouth is the rightful owner of
+the latter, and has not been sucking the eggs of some other bird, as
+the species is often supposed to do. The writer has on many occasions
+found Cuckoos’ eggs in the nest of the Water Wagtail in Berkshire, the
+latter bird being frequently selected by the Cuckoo as her victim; and
+he can affirm that the eggs were in all cases similar to those of the
+Wagtail, but were a little larger in size. In due time the young Cuckoo
+is hatched, the rightful owners of the nest ejected, and for weeks the
+powers of the unhappy foster-parents are exercised to the utmost in
+feeding the gaping and constantly-complaining occupant of their domain.
+Even when the young Cuckoo has outgrown the nest, and is strong enough
+to fly about, he is still attended by his foster-parents. So great is
+the instinct of the young Cuckoo to receive food from other birds, that
+a specimen in the Zoological Gardens which managed to live through
+the winter and put on his full plumage in the following spring, on
+the appearance of a Hedge Sparrow in the same aviary, fluttered down,
+and with drooping wings and open bill solicited food from his small
+companion.
+
+The reason for the parasitic habits of the Cuckoo is hard to discover,
+but it appears probable that the number of males greatly exceeds that
+of the females, and one observer has calculated that the preponderance
+of the former sex over the latter is as much as twenty-five to one.
+This would seem to be too large an estimate, but the proportion is
+probably about five males to one female. The latter may not only be
+distinguished by its somewhat darker plumage, and a certain red colour
+on the chest (which is more apparent when the bird is alive), but has
+a somewhat different note from that of her mate, and calls _cuckoo_
+in a much sharper and less emphasised way than the male bird. Thus,
+if the call of the female be represented by the syllables _cŭck-oo_,
+the responsive utterance of the male would be _coo-coo_. The female
+has also another call-note, which may be described as “whittling,”
+and is well expressed by Brehm as _kwikwikwik_, the sound of which is
+quite sufficient to set all the male Cuckoos within hearing cuckoo-ing
+with might and main. Thus it happened to the writer, on a still,
+quiet evening in spring a few years ago, to be fishing beneath a
+large elm-tree on the river Thames, when a female Cuckoo flew into
+the topmost boughs and uttered her peculiar note. From four different
+points of the compass she was answered by male birds, who one and
+all directed their flight toward the tree where she was perched. A
+tremendous scrimmage ensued, and apparently a fight took place, but,
+being suddenly alarmed, they all took flight in different directions.
+It is certain that during the breeding season the Cuckoo is a very
+passionate bird, and loves to call until, from sheer hoarseness, he
+is obliged to stop; sometimes his cry comes from the middle of a
+thickly-wooded tree, at other times he will sit on a bare dead branch,
+or swing in the breeze from the top of a fir-tree. The female bird
+is more retiring and keeps nearer the ground, so that it is possible
+to shoot her by hiding behind a tree as she hunts after insects
+near one of their favourite haunts. The same plurality of males has
+been observed by the author during the spring at Avington Park, in
+Hampshire; and on one occasion, when the female was shot, the note of
+the males was scarcely heard again, as if they had disappeared from the
+vicinity.
+
+Brehm remarks:[250] “The note itself, and the manner in which it is
+emitted, are typical of the bird’s habits and character. The same
+abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the same rage, are noticeable in
+its whole conduct. The Cuckoo is a greedy feeder, and a discontented,
+ill-conditioned, passionate fellow: in short, a decidedly unamiable
+bird. Its food consists entirely of insects and their larvæ; young
+Cuckoos, alone, will sometimes eat berries; Cockchafers, Fern-beetles,
+Moths, and Dragon-flies are favourite morsels, and Caterpillars
+(especially the hairy species, which no other birds ever devour)
+being preferred. The hairs of these creatures cling so close to the
+inner membranes of the stomach that the use of the magnifying glass
+is necessary to convince one that they do not form part and parcel of
+that organ. Its keen sight enables the Cuckoo to see Caterpillars from
+a great distance, when it flies quickly to the spot, seizes them, and
+returns to its perch, without spending much time over the operation
+or climbing about after them. The bird is so constantly on the move
+that it always manages to obtain sufficient food--which is saying a
+great deal, for its stomach is large and its powers of digestion almost
+unlimited. Thus it would be a most useful bird, did it not cause so
+much damage while breeding.”
+
+The Cuckoo resembles a Hawk so much in flight that even a practised eye
+sometimes fails to distinguish it from a Kestrel at first sight. There
+is, however, a certain pointed look about the body of the bird which
+distinguishes it from a Hawk; if near enough, the flat, obtuse head of
+the latter making the bird appear as if it had no head at all.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.]
+
+Lastly, one word as to the winter home of the Cuckoo. It is always
+known in England as the “harbinger of spring,” and with the exception
+of the Swift, who very rarely makes a mistake in the period of his
+advent, there is no bird whose arrival may be considered so certain a
+sign of that genial season of the year. Just as the Swifts, however,
+sometimes come in for some cold weather, which proves fatal to many
+of them, so the Cuckoos have been known to have been detained by cold
+winds in the south of England, where they have remained in flocks until
+the weather was more seasonable and they could distribute themselves
+over the country. They are seldom heard of in the height of summer;
+and, as the old rhyme says, “in June he changes his tune, in August
+go he must.” And it seems certain that this bird leaves England early
+in that month, but not entirely, as young birds--perhaps the later
+offspring--are seen as late as September. The old ones arrive in Egypt
+on their way south before the young birds, which are somewhat later;
+and in Berkshire the writer shot three young Cuckoos during the first
+week in August, a few years ago, out of a flock of birds on migration,
+which, like himself, had apparently taken shelter under a wood from
+an approaching thunderstorm. These specimens are now in the British
+Museum, and are of slightly different ages. The Cuckoo is a well-known
+bird at the Cape of Good Hope during the English winter, and specimens
+are in the national collection. It is much rarer on the west coast
+of Africa, but was shot by Governor Ussher near Cape Coast Castle,
+evidently on migration. The main route of the birds visiting the Cape
+in winter is, however, evidently down the Nile Valley and along the
+east coast to the Cape Colony and South Africa generally. A second line
+of migration extends to India, and it probably goes further, and has
+been found in the island of Celebes. In Asia, however, and Australia,
+there are several species of Cuckoo, very like the English bird, but
+smaller and differing in voice, which have not been sufficiently
+studied to enable one to say whether they are actually distinct or not.
+
+The Cuckoo when adult is ashy-grey, with a white breast, barred across
+with narrow lines of greyish-black; the tail is long, barred with white
+on the outer feathers, and spotted with white on the centre ones; the
+bill is black, with a little yellow at the gape and at the base of the
+lower mandible; the feet and the eye are yellow; the length of the bird
+is about thirteen inches. The female is a trifle smaller, and has the
+chest slightly tinged with rufous. The young bird is quite different,
+being blackish, mottled with yellow and grey, and having a good deal
+of white about the hind neck. Rarely in England, but more often on the
+Continent, the Cuckoo is red instead of grey, and this is called the
+“hepatic” plumage. It is found also in Owls, Goatsuckers, and a few
+other birds, and exists in almost all the true Cuckoos.
+
+
+THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+THE HONEY GUIDES (_Indicatoridæ_).
+
+[Illustration: HONEY GUIDE. (_After Keulemans._)]
+
+These constitute a small family of Scansorial birds allied to the
+Cuckoos, and, like the latter, they are parasitic, and lay their eggs
+in other birds’ nests. Eleven species are known, of which eight are
+peculiar to Africa, one is found in the Himalaya Mountains, one in the
+Malayan Peninsula, and one in Borneo. The Asiatic members of the group
+are extremely rare, and our knowledge of the habits of these birds is
+derived from a study of the African species: so that it is not yet
+known whether the Asiatic Honey Guides deserve the name of _Indicator_,
+which is applied to the birds on account of their being “indicators,”
+or “pointers out,” of Bees’ nests containing honey. Dr. Kirk thus
+described their habits in the Zambesi district:--“The Honey Guide is
+found in forests, and often far from water, even during the dry season.
+On observing a man, it comes fluttering from branch to branch in the
+neighbouring trees, calling attention. If this be responded to--as the
+natives do by whistling and starting to their feet--the bird will go
+in a certain direction, and remain at a little distance, hopping from
+one tree to another. On being followed, it goes farther; and so it will
+guide the way to a nest of Bees. When this is reached, it flies about,
+but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is required to discover
+the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known
+this bird, if the man, after taking up the direction for a little,
+then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a
+different part. But if it does not know of two nests, it will remain
+behind. The difficulty is that it will point to tame Bees in a bark
+hive as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the Bee
+is the same; the bark hive--‘Musinga,’ as it is named--being simply
+fastened up in a tree, and left for the Bees to come to. The object
+the bird has in view is clearly the young Bees. It will guide to nests
+having no honey, and seems equally delighted if the comb containing
+the grubs be torn out, when it is seen pecking at it.” Many of the
+natives of South Africa believe that the bird will occasionally guide
+the traveller, through sheer malice, to a Leopard or an Elephant; but
+on this point there seems some little doubt, to judge from a letter
+of Mrs. Barber, an accomplished lady and good observer in South
+Africa:--“What I wrote to you in a former letter is the opinion of many
+old bee-hunters in this part of the country, who have no faith in the
+popular belief that leading to the Leopard is done on purpose. My nine
+brothers, who were all brought up in this country, were all of them
+great hunters, as well as sportsmen; and during all the years of their
+experience, while they were living at Tharfield, where Bees’ nests were
+exceedingly plentiful, and where they were constantly in the habit of
+following these birds, never once did the Honey Guide ever lead them
+_purposely_ to any noxious animal. Many times, in following the bird
+through dense woods, have they started various kinds of creatures;
+but if they did not neglect the bird for the purpose of hunting, she
+would continue her flight towards the Bees’ nest, regardless of the
+startled animals. One of my brothers once, while following a Honey
+Guide through a dense forest near the Kowie, passed directly through
+a drove of wild Pigs. They were, of course, more frightened than he
+was, and rushed about in every direction; but my brother knowing the
+popular belief, and wishing to test it, took not the slightest notice
+of the wild Pigs, but passed on, keeping his eye on the bird, who went
+steadily on her way, until she arrived at the nest she intended to
+show, regardless of the Pigs. I have other reasons for not believing
+the story. Why should the Honey Guide waste her time in leading people
+to Leopards, Jackals, Wolves, and so forth? These creatures are not
+her natural enemies; she would gain nothing by doing it--no advantage
+whatever; and I have ever found that in nature there is nothing done in
+vain, or in an empty, purposeless manner. There is always a reason for
+the peculiar habits and actions of birds and animals of all kinds; and
+therefore, why should a bird which does not even rear her own young,
+and has not the care of a nest, fear or care about these animals? Why
+should the Honey Guide, unlike all animals, do this thing without any
+reason for doing it? And again, when the bird has arrived at the nest
+she intends to show, there is an alteration in the notes of her voice.
+An old bee-hunter knows this in an instant, and knows when he ought
+to commence searching for the nest. Now, this alteration never takes
+place when animals of various kinds are startled in passing through
+the forest while following the bird. Hence I conclude that she does
+not intend to show where these creatures are, or the alteration in her
+voice would take place.” Some of the Indicators are not of the same use
+in guiding to Bees’ nests, and are consequently held in less repute.
+They are all birds of similar coloration, being generally of a dull
+grey, tinged with yellow or olive, and they vary considerably in size,
+the larger species, such as _I. major_ and _I. sparrmanni_, measuring
+about eight inches in length; while the smallest species, _I. exilis_,
+from the Gaboon, does not exceed four inches. Although coming very
+close to the Cuckoos in the natural classification, the small bill,
+the thick-set, stout plumage, and the nine primaries in the wing, in
+addition to their peculiar habits, easily distinguish the Honey Guides
+as a separate family.
+
+
+THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+THE PLANTAIN-EATERS (_Musophagidæ_).
+
+These may be called a strictly Ethiopian family of birds, every single
+member being found in Africa, and nowhere else. They have very much the
+appearance of game-birds, and are all remarkable for their beautiful
+crests, which they are able to elevate or depress at will. Although
+belonging to the Scansorial, or climbing birds, they do not always
+keep their toes in pairs, but being of a lively disposition they hop
+continually from bough to bough, and the outer toe is seen as often
+placed in front with the others as it is directed backwards along with
+the hind toe. With the exception of the Grey Plantain-eaters, all the
+other species have beautiful red primaries; and the writer was informed
+by the late African traveller, Jules Verreaux, that the bird often gets
+caught in violent showers during the rainy season, when the whole of
+this brilliant red colour in the wing-feathers gets washed out, and the
+quills become pinky-white, and after two or three days the colour is
+renewed, and the wing resumes its former beauty.
+
+
+THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGIDÆ.--THE MUSOPHAGINÆ, OR TRUE
+PLANTAIN-EATERS.
+
+
+THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER (_Corythaix musophaga_).
+
+[Illustration: WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER.]
+
+This is perhaps the best known of the whole family of these curious
+birds, being the commonest species in South Africa, where it is
+plentiful in the forest districts of the Knysna, and the south coast
+as far as Natal, and the wooded districts of the Eastern Transvaal. It
+is known by the name of the Louri, or Lory, and the following brief
+account of its habits is given by Mr. Layard:[251]--“The Plantain-eater
+feeds on fruits, and frequents the highest trees, rarely, if ever,
+descending to the ground, over which it can, however, travel with great
+rapidity if brought down by a shot. The motions of this species are
+very graceful and light, and performed with an ease and rapidity that
+delight the eye of the beholder. Strange to say, though we inquired
+carefully, we never could obtain any information respecting the
+nidification of this beautiful and common bird. Mr. Atmore, however,
+states that the eggs are white; but this must be from hearsay, as he
+writes: ‘How difficult it is to find these forest birds’ nests! The
+Lories are breeding now, but for the life of me I cannot find a nest.
+The young ones go in troops, and are delicious eating; the old ones in
+pairs. We never shoot specimens out of a troop except for the pot.’
+An old forester told him that the eggs were white, both the latter
+and the nests being like those of Pigeons. Mr. Rickard says: ‘I once
+found an egg in a bird I shot at East London (January 27th); it was
+pure white, and the size of a tame Pigeon’s.’ Mr. Bowker writes: ‘I
+once found a Louri’s nest. It was just like a Dove’s, built of sticks
+laid horizontally, and about the size of a large dinner-plate, placed
+about ten feet from the ground in the centre of a round bush. The old
+bird flew out as I walked up. I found five young birds in the nest;
+they were almost full-grown, but their tails rather short and stumpy,
+crest just showing, but I cannot remember whether the red on the wing
+was showing or not. On my getting up to the nest they all flew out,
+and were killed by my Dogs before I could come to the rescue. The
+bush was twenty or thirty yards from the edge of a large forest, and
+I was rather surprised at this nest, as I had been told they built in
+hollow trees.’” In size this species is about nineteen inches long; the
+general colour is green, with a broad white tip to the feathers of the
+crest, the abdomen and vent are blackish, the quills brilliant carmine.
+
+The false Touracoes, as Dr. Sclater calls them, do not possess the red
+colouring of the wings, but are for the most part of a uniform grey
+colour. The best known species is
+
+
+THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER (_Schizorhis concolor_).
+
+This is also found in South Africa, but in different districts to the
+White-crested Plantain-eater. Where the range of the latter ceases
+that of the present bird begins, and it is found throughout the
+Matabele country and the Transvaal as far as the Zambesi, and westwards
+through Damara Land to Angola. Mr. Andersson writes:--“It is partial
+to localities abounding in large trees; and when prominently perched,
+with crest erect, it is not unlike a gigantic Coly. It also climbs
+and flies like the Colies, which it strongly resembles in its general
+habits. It is usually found in small flocks, and feeds on berries and
+seeds, especially those of mistletoe and of other parasitical plants,
+and also on fruits, young shoots, and insects. The Damaras call this
+species ‘Ongoro-oroquena,’ from the extraordinary and almost human
+cry with which it frequently startles the traveller who is passing
+near its perch. It is sometimes very easy to approach these birds,
+whilst at other times they are so shy that they will defy the utmost
+exertions which may be made to obtain them. On January 5th, 1867, I
+obtained three eggs of this species, of a dull bluish-white colour,
+at Omapja, from a boy, who told me that the nest which contained them
+was composed of sticks roughly put together, and situated in a tree
+at some distance from the ground; and on March 1st I met with a nest
+in Ondonga placed in a tree, but at no great elevation, which also
+contained three eggs, much incubated.” Dr. Exton, also, who has been
+through the Matabele country, writes as follows:--“In travelling
+through the Bechuana country one often comes upon a party of five or
+six of these birds, hiding from the mid-day heats under the sheltered
+portions of dense foliage near the centre of a large tree. Whilst yet
+undisturbed, the crest lies flat on the head, and can only be seen as a
+tuft projecting from the occiput. But their first act on becoming aware
+of an intruder is to run along the branches, either to the summit of
+the tree or to the extremity of a branch commanding a good look-out,
+where, with crest fully erected and well thrown forward, they keep up
+a constant reiteration of their note. If but little alarmed they move
+rapidly from branch to branch, frequently jerking up the crest, and
+assuming an attitude of attention. Again, after flight from one tree
+to another, on alighting, they first rest on a branch, with the body
+somewhat horizontal and the tail drawn nearly to the perpendicular,
+as if assuring themselves of their equilibrium, and then raising
+the body, elongating their neck, and at the same time elevating
+the crest, they seem to take an observation as to the security of
+their new position. So much is this a habit of the bird, that during
+the conversational difficulties of my earlier intercourse with the
+Bechuanas, when inquiring for the nest of Schizorhis (the native name
+of which is ‘Ma-quaai’), as soon as it dawned upon the mind of a native
+what bird I meant he has imitated its note, accompanied by a sudden
+jerking up of the hand, with his fingers extended to the utmost, as
+if at the same time to mimic the elevation of the crest. Dr. Sclater
+mentions that ‘Mr. J. J. Monteiro, speaking of the Grey False Touraco
+(_S. concolor_), as observed in Benguella, expressly states that the
+crest-feathers are always carried erect.’ In my own experience, the
+observation of Schizorhis was an every-day occurrence; and, as I have
+stated, when undisturbed (also when in flight) very little of the
+crest is to be seen, but is invariably carried erect on the least
+alarm. I may here mention a peculiar scream of _S. concolor_. I was
+one day walking along a low ridge of rocks, from which I flushed an
+Owl--the common _Bubo maculosus_--that flew to some distance to a clump
+of trees. Presently I heard an agonised scream, such as is made by a
+young Antelope when seized by a Dog; and so exact a repetition of the
+sound was it that even my Dogs were deceived by it, and rushed off in
+the direction whence it came. I also sent a Kaffir boy, and presently
+followed myself, when I discovered it was the frightful scream of
+_Schizorhis_, of which a party were collected round the Owl I had
+previously disturbed, and whose presence appeared to be the exciting
+cause. At a later period I had a second opportunity of verifying this
+observation.”
+
+[Illustration: COLIES.]
+
+
+THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGIDÆ.--THE COLIINÆ, OR COLIES.
+
+Like the foregoing sub-family, the Colies are confined to Africa.
+They have decided affinities with the true Plantain-eaters, but are
+distinguished at a glance by their long tails, the feathers of which
+are much pointed, and become smaller and narrower towards the outside
+of the tail. They are most dexterous climbers, as was well seen in the
+captive specimens of the Chestnut-backed Coly, which were brought by
+Cameron from Angola, and lived for some time in the London Zoological
+Gardens.
+
+
+THE WHITE-BACKED COLY (_Colius capensis_).
+
+The Colies are known in the Cape Colony by the name of _Muisvogel_,
+or Mouse-bird, and they are not uncommon, ranging about in small
+families of from six to eight individuals. Mr. Layard says that they
+fly with a rapid, though laboured flight, generally at a lower level
+than the object at which they aim, and on nearing the latter they rise
+upwards with a sudden, abrupt curve. They creep among the branches like
+Parrots, and hang suspended head downwards, without inconvenience; and
+it is said that they invariably sleep in this position, many of them
+congregated in a ball. The nest was found by Mr. Andersson in Damara
+Land, between September and December. It was placed in a small bush,
+and was composed externally of grass and twigs, lined internally with
+softer grass, and the eggs were dull white, and, according to his
+observations, always three in number. Mr. Andersson states that the
+bird “is gregarious in its habits, being found in flocks by day, and
+also when roosting at night. Its flight is short and feeble, seldom
+extending beyond the nearest bush or tree, on reaching which it usually
+perches on one of the lower branches, and then gradually glides and
+creeps upwards through the foliage, using both bill and feet for that
+purpose. It is essentially a fruit-eating bird, but I believe when
+hard pressed for its regular food it does not despise insects and the
+young shoots of plants. Its flesh is palatable.” The Colies as a rule
+are dull-coloured brown birds, but they have a long crest. The present
+species is perhaps the handsomest, being ash-coloured, and having
+the lower back and rump purple glossed with red, while a white line,
+bordered on each side by a broad black one, extends from beneath the
+shoulders to the rump. The bill is bluish-white, and the feet bright
+red. The length of the bird is thirteen or fourteen inches.
+
+
+THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE WOODPECKERS
+(_Picidæ_).
+
+These are perhaps the most typical of all the yoke-footed or climbing
+birds, as they are most expert climbers, being aided in the latter
+operation not only by their long toes, which are arranged as usual
+in this order in pairs, but by their stiffened tail, which enables
+them to climb with great rapidity up the perpendicular trunks of
+trees. If they wish to descend a little way they do not turn and come
+down head-foremost, as a Nuthatch would do, but they let themselves
+down by a few jerks, still keeping an oblique position, with the
+tail downwards. The bill in almost every member of the family is
+wedge-shaped, and very powerful, and with this organ a Woodpecker taps
+vigorously at the bark, which he sometimes also prises off to get at
+the grubs or insects underneath. These latter, as they endeavour to
+escape, have little chance against the intruder, who, in addition to
+the stout bill which discloses their place of concealment, possesses
+a peculiar tongue, which is capable of being protruded to a long
+distance, is furnished with minute barbs at the end, and is covered
+with a glutinous fluid from which the insects are unable to free
+themselves. The Woodpeckers nearly all procure their food in the above
+manner, but occasionally frequent the ground, and the Green Woodpecker
+(_Gecinus[252] viridis_) commits great ravages among ant-hills. The
+resting-place is generally a hole excavated by the bird itself in a
+hollow tree, and the eggs are white. Among the most aberrant of the
+Woodpecker family are the Wrynecks (_Iÿnx_[253]), of which one species
+is well known in England under the name of the “Cuckoo’s mate.” The
+Wrynecks are all birds of beautiful mottled plumage, and do not have
+a stiffened tail like a true Woodpecker. They are found in Europe, in
+India, North-Eastern and Southern Africa. Woodpeckers, on the other
+hand, are extremely plentiful in the New World, and are distributed
+all over Africa, Europe, and Asia, but are not found in the Australian
+region, no Woodpecker occurring beyond the Island of Celebes in the
+Moluccas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--“HYOID” BONE OF ADULT FOWL.
+
+(_After W. K. Parker._)
+
+  (_ch_) Cerato-hyals; (_bh_) the so-called Basi-hyal; (_b.br_)
+  Basi-branchial, or Uro-hyal; (_c.br_, _e.br_) together form the
+  thyro-hyal.
+]
+
+One great peculiarity in the anatomy of the Woodpeckers is the
+structure of the tongue, and its relation to the hyoid bone and its
+horns, or cornua. (For a description of this part in the Mammalia,
+see Vol. I., p. 168.) In Birds the hyoid bone is a much more complex
+structure than in the Mammalia. Besides forming the basis of the
+otherwise mainly muscular substance of the tongue, it is continued
+backwards in most birds as a double chain of bones, each pair of which
+bears a separate name significant of its importance; and the whole is
+apparently quite distinct from the skull above and from the larynx
+below. Its composition in the common fowl is best rendered intelligible
+by reference to the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1). It represents the
+entire hyoid apparatus divested of all muscular and other surrounding
+tissues. The upper part of the figure is that nearest to the tip of the
+tongue, and the references to the lettering become clear in the course
+of the subsequent description.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--SIDE VIEW OF DISSECTION OF HEAD OF COMMON
+GREEN WOODPECKER.
+
+(_Half natural size. After Macgillivray._)
+
+  (_u_, _l_) Upper and Lower Mandibles; (_t_) Barbed Tip of Tongue;
+  (_th.h._) Thyro-hyal Bone of Right Side, with its Muscle and Sheath;
+  (_o_) Right Orbit; (_n_) Right Nostril; (_s.g._) Right Salivary
+  Gland; (_m_, _m_) Muscles of Neck; (_œ_) Œsophagus; (_tr_) Trachea;
+  (_r.m._) Rectractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea.
+]
+
+Another woodcut (Fig. 2) shows a side view of a dissection of the head
+of the common Green Woodpecker (_Gecinus viridis_), and a reference to
+the explanation of the lettering on it will give a general idea of the
+whole.
+
+The tip of the tongue (_t_) is a slender, flattened, horny point,
+bearing on its sides and upper surface a number of very delicate
+bristles, or prickles, directed backwards, an arrangement eminently
+useful to the bird for enabling it to extract its insect food from the
+recesses to which its beak, by reason of its size and hardness, could
+not readily, nor with sufficient quickness, gain access. This tip is
+further rendered a more efficient instrument for this purpose by its
+being constantly moistened by a very viscid saliva secreted by two
+particularly large salivary glands (Figs. 2, 3, and 4, _s.g._); and it
+was long ago remarked by Sir Charles Bell, in his essay on “The Hand”
+(Bridgewater Treatise, 1837), that the same muscles that effected the
+protrusion of the tongue exerted a simultaneous pressure upon these
+glands, so that the first result of the muscular contraction is to
+lubricate the tongue, while the rest of its force is spent in shooting
+it out with marvellous rapidity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--UPPER VIEW OF SKULL OF GREEN
+WOODPECKER.
+
+(_After Macgillivray._)
+
+  (_th.h_, _th.h._) Thyro-hyal Bones; (_i_) Point of their insertion;
+  (_s.g._, _s.g._) Salivary Glands.
+]
+
+Behind this barbed and horny tip, the tongue is a slender worm-like
+body, of which the core is the anterior prolongation of the hyoid bone.
+The fore-part of this core, more like a bristle than a bone, is known
+to anatomists as the “glosso-hyal,” and it is immediately succeeded
+posteriorly by the “cerato-hyal.”[254] Behind this is the “basi-hyal
+” (Fig. 1, _b.h._), the last bone to enter into the formation of the
+tongue proper. From this basi-hyal springs the pair of bones--the
+“thyro-hyals”--which attain the remarkable degree of development for
+which the birds now under consideration are distinguished. From each
+side of the hinder portion, then, of this basi-hyal bone diverge these
+important “thyro-hyals” (Fig. 1, _c.br._, _e.br._). They, in the
+Woodpeckers (compare Fig. 3, _th.h._), extend outwards and backwards to
+pass one on each side of the neck until they curl upwards and forwards,
+converging to meet one another on the upper part of the back of the
+head; thence they run along together, ploughing themselves a furrow
+in the skull-top till they reach almost to the right nostril. Each
+of these curved and highly elastic bones is surrounded by a delicate
+sheath, whose inner surface is kept constantly moist and lubricated
+by its own secretion; and this sheath is attached to the bone of the
+skull at its junction with the upper mandible, as is shown in the
+accompanying woodcut (Fig. 3, _i_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--DISSECTION OF HEAD OF GREEN WOODPECKER
+VIEWED FROM BELOW.
+
+(_After Macgillivray._)
+
+  (_l_) Lower Mandible; (_f_) Base of Tongue; (_th.h._,
+  _th.h._)Thyro-hyals; (_s.g._, _s.g._) Salivary Glands; (_m_, _m_)
+  Muscles of Neck; (_œ_, _œ_) Œsophagus; (_tr_) Trachea; (_e.m._,
+  _e.m._) Extrusor Muscles, which thrust out the Tongue; (_r.m._)
+  Retractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea; (_c.tr._, _c.tr._)
+  Cleido-tracheal Muscles, binding Trachea to Shoulder-girdle.
+]
+
+Enclosed in the sheath here spoken of, and along the concavity of each
+bone, is a muscle which has a fixed attachment to the crura of the
+lower mandible on each side (Fig. 4, _e.m._, _e.m._). The contraction
+of this muscle shoots the tongue out in two different ways. In the
+Green Woodpecker the extremities of the thyro-hyal bones are themselves
+attached to the mandible, while the curvature of the bones makes a loop
+that hangs low down on each side of the neck (see Fig. 2, _th.h._).
+As the muscle is shortened this loop is raised up, and the free tip
+of the tongue is consequently projected; and since the muscle is on
+the inner, or concave, side of the curve, a very small shortening on
+its part makes a great addition to the apparent length of the tongue.
+Sir Charles Bell elucidates this action by comparing the great effect
+on the curve of a fishing-rod’s flexible top that a small tightening
+of the line has. But while this is the case in many species, there
+are others in which the sheath alone is attached to the bones of the
+forehead, and the bones themselves slide along inside together with the
+contracting fibres of the muscle, thus producing the same result as was
+obtained in the other case by the loops hanging low down in the neck.
+
+The tongue, whose length is thus so extraordinarily increased, is
+drawn back to its original position within the bill by another pair
+of muscles, one on each side, which are attached to the basi-hyal.
+These take their origin from the trachea, around which (as shown in
+Figs. 2 and 4, _r.m._), in many species, they are curiously wound in
+their course. And, since the bones are at the point of their greatest
+curvature when at rest, it is obvious that this action of withdrawal
+is materially assisted by the elasticity of the prolongations of the
+hyoid bones themselves; for it is a well-known law that Nature never
+lets power run to waste, but always utilises forces of mere elasticity
+or rigidity when by their means the expenditure of nervous energy and
+muscular contractility can be saved.
+
+[Illustration: WRYNECK.]
+
+It may be observed that this curious development of the bones of
+the tongue is not confined to the Woodpeckers; in the Sun Birds
+(_Nectariniidæ_) of the Old World, and the Humming-Birds (_Trochilidæ_)
+of the New, this same adaptation of means to ends obtains. Even in the
+Picidæ themselves many variations have been noticed, in addition to
+those above alluded to; for instance, in the Yellow-billed Woodpecker
+(_Sphyrapicus[255] varius_) of North America the horns of the hyoid do
+not reach so far as the eye, so that the tongue, with its bushy tip in
+this case, is only extensible in a very slight degree; while in the
+Hairy Woodpecker (_Picus villosus_) the thyro-hyals curve spirally over
+the right orbit so as to reach entirely around the eye, to be inserted
+at its lower posterior margin.
+
+[Illustration: GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER AND GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.]
+
+Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the damage done by
+Woodpeckers in tapping sound trees, and many a poor bird pays the
+penalty of his life for his supposed destructive propensities. Mr.
+Waterton argues strongly on the side of the bird, and alleges that
+only rotten and unsound trees are attacked for the sake of a nesting
+habitation, or for the purpose of getting insects; but that this is not
+always the case was proved by the writer himself in the spring of 1878,
+when a boy was sent up to a hole in a beech-tree in Avington Park, in
+Hampshire. The tree was still perfectly sound, so sound, indeed,
+that the bird had evidently given up the idea of inhabiting it for
+that year, and had betaken himself elsewhere, after having excavated
+a round hole to the depth of two or three inches. In the same tree,
+a little lower down, was a similar hole, evidently made the previous
+year, when the bird had “tapped” the tree, and it was clear that he
+had returned again in the succeeding season, and had tried a little
+higher up in the trunk, to see if there were any chance of procuring a
+domicile. This proceeding must have injured the tree, and was the work
+of a Green Woodpecker, or Yaffle, whose laughing note was heard from
+another quarter of the park, even as the above examination was being
+conducted. In this part of Hampshire, though the bird is not persecuted
+by the owner of Avington, Mr. Edward Shelley, or by his keepers, the
+Green Woodpecker is rare; but in certain parts of Huntingdonshire the
+writer can remember to have found it very plentiful in his school-days,
+and it was a never-failing object in a country walk, flitting from
+tree to tree in front of the observer, and always keeping a sharp
+look-out from the opposite side of the trunk on which he settled. This
+species appears in old pieces of poetry under the various names of
+Yaffle, Woodwele, or Woodwale, Whetile, and it is in some places called
+“Hewhole,” Woodhacker, &c.[256]:--
+
+[Illustration: GREEN WOODPECKER.]
+
+  “The Skylark in ecstasy sang from a cloud,
+  And Chanticleer crowed, and the Yaffil laughed loud.”
+
+  _The Peacock at Home._
+
+  “The Woodwele sang, and would not cease,
+    Sitting upon the spray;
+  So loud he wakened Robin Hood
+    In the greenwood where he lay.”
+
+  Ritson’s Edition of _Robin Hood_, vol. i., p. 115.
+
+  “There the Jay and the Throstell
+    The Mavis menyd in her song,
+  The Woodwale fard or beryd as a bell
+    That wode about me rung.”
+
+  _True Thomas._
+
+Some Woodpeckers seem to make storehouses against the winter, by
+pecking holes in a tree, and an interesting example of a piece of bark,
+in which a Red-headed Woodpecker (_Melanerpes formicivorus_)[257] had
+placed a store of acorns, is to be seen in the British Museum.
+
+Another British species, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (_Picus[258]
+minor_), is a bird of different habits, frequenting fruit-gardens
+in the autumn, and doing very little damage to trees in the nesting
+season. It generally selects the rotten branch of an old poplar-tree,
+and hollows out a hole in so perilous a situation that it is difficult
+to climb to, and, indeed, the whole bough is often brought down by
+the first gale in the ensuing winter. Here its small wedge-shaped
+bill speedily makes an excavation, and at some little distance down
+in the hollow interior it lays its glossy white eggs on the touchwood
+and decaying wood. Both sexes assist in the preparation of the nest;
+and in mild winters they sometimes begin with the commencement of the
+year to look out for their future home. The selection of this appears
+to be a matter of no small anxiety, for several trees are examined
+in turn, and often at long distances apart. The birds at the time of
+incubation keep up a continual signalling one to the other, which is
+produced by a rapid whining noise caused by tapping on the thinner
+branches of the dead trees. This call-note, if it may be called such,
+is generally heard in the early morning, and ceases as soon as the
+nesting operations have finally commenced. Besides this note, they have
+also one like the “laugh” of the Green Woodpecker, but, of course,
+much reduced in accordance with the difference in the size of the two
+birds. The little Spotted Woodpecker may often be seen hanging on to,
+and climbing round, the slender twigs of the outer branches of a tree,
+and looks much like a Creeper or a Nuthatch, which it does not greatly
+exceed in dimensions.
+
+
+THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE TOUCANS (_Rhamphastidæ_).[259]
+
+The Toucans, with their clumsy bills, have much the aspect of
+Hornbills, which they may be said to represent in South America, to
+which continent they are entirely confined, but by this time the
+student knows that they have really little to do with each other,
+beyond a certain outward similarity, as the Toucans belong to the
+Scansorial, the Hornbills to the Fissirostral, section of the
+_Picariæ_. It is not possible to give a long account of the habits of
+individual species of Toucans, and a general sketch of their manners
+and customs is extracted from the monograph of the Toucans written by
+Mr. John Gould.[260] To him the late Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied, an
+excellent observer, during his travels in South America writes:--“The
+_Rhamphastidæ_ are very common in all parts of the extensive forests of
+the Brazils, and are killed in great numbers at the cooler portion of
+the year, for the purposes of the table. To the stranger they are of
+even greater interest than to the natives, from their remarkable form,
+and from the rich and strongly-contrasted style of their colouring,
+their black or green bodies being adorned with markings of the most
+brilliant hues--red, orange, blue and white--the naked parts of the
+body dyed with brilliant colours, the legs blue or green, the irides
+blue, yellow, &c., and the large bill of a different colour in every
+species, and in many instances very gaily marked. The colouring of the
+soft parts is, however, so evanescent, that, to determine the species
+with accuracy, they must be depicted during life or immediately after
+the birds are killed. Common as these birds are in their native wilds,
+it is exceedingly difficult to detect their breeding-places; it is
+certain that they deposit their eggs in the hollow limbs and holes of
+the colossal trees so abundant in the tropical forests, but I never
+was so fortunate as to discover them. The stomachs of the specimens I
+examined contained nothing but the remains of fruits, principally of
+the softer kinds, for which, indeed, they have such a liking that they
+resort in great numbers to the plantations in the vicinity of their
+native haunts, and commit sad havoc among their favourite delicacies.
+I was informed that they frequently steal and eat young birds, but no
+instance of their doing so came under my own observation, and I never
+detected the remains of animal food in their stomachs. Mr. Waterton’s
+opinion agrees with mine, that they feed solely upon fruits; but Azara,
+among others, states that they also feed upon animal substances. The
+specimens we saw in a state of domestication were very voracious and
+perfectly omnivorous, but they seem to be purely frugivorous in a state
+of nature, a fact which was, indeed, confirmed by the Brazilian natives
+whom we questioned on the subject. In their manners the _Rhamphastidæ_
+offer some resemblance to the Crows, and especially to the Magpies;
+like them they are very troublesome to the birds of prey, particularly
+to the Owls, whom they surround and annoy by making a great noise, all
+the while jerking their tails upwards and downwards. The flight of
+these birds is easy and graceful, and they sweep with facility over
+the loftiest trees of their native forests, their strangely-developed
+bills, contrary to expectation, being no encumbrance to them. The voice
+of the Toucans is short and unmelodious, and is somewhat different
+in every species. The feathers are used by the Indians for personal
+decoration, especially the yellow breasts of the birds, which they
+affix to their heads on each side near the temple, and also to the ends
+of their bows.”
+
+[Illustration: TOUCAN.]
+
+Mr. Waterton, in one of his Essays, has the following remarks:--“There
+are three species of Toucan in Demerara, and three diminutives, which
+may be called Toucanets. The largest of the former frequents the
+mangrove-trees on the sea-coast. It is never seen in the interior
+until you reach Macoushia, where it is found in the neighbourhood
+of the river Tacatou; the other two species are very common. They
+feed entirely on the fruits of the forest, and, though of the Pie
+kind, never kill the young of other birds or eat carrion. The larger
+is called _Bouradi_ by the Indians (which means _nose_), the other
+_Scirou_. They seem partial to each other’s company, and often resort
+to the same feeding tree, and retire to the same shady noon-day
+retreat. They are very noisy in rainy weather at all hours of the
+day, and in fair weather at morn and eve. The sound the _Bouradi_
+makes is like the clear yelping of a puppy-dog, and you fancy he
+says ‘_Pia-po-o-co_,’ and thus the South American Spaniards call him
+_Piapoco_. All the Toucanets feed on the same trees on which the Toucan
+feeds, and every species of this family of enormous bill lays its eggs
+in the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregarious. You may
+sometimes see eight or ten in company, and from this you may suppose
+they are gregarious, but upon a closer examination you find it is only
+a dinner party, which breaks up and disperses towards roosting-time.
+You will be at a loss to conjecture for what end Nature has overloaded
+the head of this bird with such an enormous bill. It cannot be for
+the offensive, as it has no need to wage war with any of the tribes
+of animated nature, for its food is fruits and seed, and those are
+in superabundance throughout the whole year in the regions where the
+Toucan is found. It cannot be for the defensive, as the Toucan is
+preyed upon by no bird in South America, and, were it obliged to be
+at war, the texture of the bill is ill-adapted to give or receive
+blows, as you will see by dissecting it. The flight of the Toucan is
+by jerks. In the action of flying it seems incommoded by this huge,
+disproportionate feature, and the head seems as if bowed down to the
+earth by it against its will. If the extraordinary size and form of
+the bill expose the Toucan to ridicule, its colours make it amends.
+Were a specimen of each species of Toucan presented to you, you would
+pronounce the bill of the _Bouradi_ the most rich and beautiful one.
+It is worthy of remark that all these brilliant colours of the bill
+are to be found in the plumage of the body and the bare skin around
+the eye.” Space will not permit of a long extract from the works of
+d’Azara (the only field naturalist of any fame that Portugal has yet
+produced), but a few notes of this traveller, made in Paraguay, differ
+from the foregoing accounts, and show that in the southern portion
+of their range the habits of some of the Toucans vary to a great
+extent. So voracious does d’Azara consider them, that on this account
+he places them among the birds of prey, and writes:--“The Toucans,
+contrary to all appearances, destroy a great number of birds, and,
+on account of their long and strong beak, are respected and feared
+by all species. They attack and drive them from their nests, and in
+their very presence eat their eggs and young; these they draw from
+the holes with the long beak, or throw down nest and all together. It
+is credibly reported that the Toucans do not even respect the eggs or
+young of the ‘Aras’ (Macaws) and Caracaras, and if the fledglings are
+too large or too strong to be lifted from the nest, they dash them
+to the ground, as if it were their nature not only to devour, but to
+uselessly destroy. The bird, in flying, presents the point of his bill
+against the wind, so that it does not offer more resistance than that
+of other birds in which the head and superficies are equal in extent;
+besides which, the conformation and specific lightness of this long
+beak cannot impede flight, because the highest points of the bird
+being the bill itself and the anterior portion of the body, they form
+no obstacle, the wind first taking effect upon the point of the bill.
+When in a state of repose, the Toucan carries its bill rather more
+elevated than a horizontal line that would pass through the eyes, and
+when closely looked at, it looks like a false bill, because its base
+exceeds the breadth of the head, which presents the appearance of being
+enclosed in a case. In addition to these singularities, the nostrils
+are placed behind the aforesaid base. The tongue is very narrow and of
+an equal thickness throughout. It is entirely osseous, and resembles
+somewhat a feather two lines in width, furnished with an osseous
+fringe, which is directed from behind forwards, so that the tongue,
+stiff and unyielding, takes no part in the direction of the food nor in
+the formation of the note, which, in the first two Paraguayan species,
+is confined to the single syllable ‘_rae_.’ The mandibles are very
+distinctly dentated at their edges, these dentations not corresponding
+at all above and below, nor are they even relatively symmetrical. The
+beak itself is a thin osseous sheath, filled with a number of empty
+cellules. The eye is large, and surrounded by a triangular naked
+space, puffed up, and very pretty. The foot is very short and stout,
+and covered nearly to the heel with long scales, harsh to the touch.
+The outer toe, as well before as behind, is the longest. The claws
+are much flattened and curved, as in the Woodpeckers. The tail is
+composed of ten feathers. The Toucan flies at a moderate height, and
+in a straight horizontal line, flapping its wings occasionally with
+some noise. The flight is quicker than the smallness of the wings
+would lead one to believe. It perches towards the top of the highest
+trees, and though unable to climb after the manner of Woodpeckers, it
+still progresses with speed, hopping from branch to branch. It pays
+great attention to all that takes place in its vicinity, advancing
+with fear and diffidence, like the ‘Uruca’ and the ‘Acahes.’ There is
+no perceptible difference between the two sexes, nor do I believe that
+the species exists towards the south beyond 28°, nor that it drinks.
+It rarely settles on the ground. The Toucan hops obliquely and very
+awkwardly, with the legs separated about a hand’s breadth. When it
+takes young birds from the nest, pieces of meat or fruit, it throws
+them in the air, as a juggler his balls, and by a quick movement of the
+beak repeats this action until the food is in a favourable position for
+being swallowed, and then by another movement gulps it down its large
+throat. If the mouthful be larger than the orifice of the gullet, the
+Toucan abandons it without seeking to divide it.”
+
+[Illustration: BILL OF TOUCAN.]
+
+Mr. Bates, in his “Naturalist on the River Amazon,” makes some further
+allusions to the Toucans and their bill, which will be found well worth
+the reading. He also gives the following history of a tame bird (Vol.
+ii., p. 341):--“One day, whilst walking along the principal pathway
+in the woods near Ega, I saw one of these Toucans seated gravely on
+a low branch close to the road, and had no difficulty in seizing it
+with my hand. It turned out to be a runaway pet bird; no one, however,
+came to own it, although I kept it in my house for several months. The
+bird was in a half-starved and sickly condition, but after a few days
+of good living it recovered health and spirits, and became one of the
+most amusing pets imaginable. Many excellent accounts of the habits of
+tame Toucans have been published, and therefore I need not describe
+them in detail; but I do not recollect to have seen any notice of
+their intelligence and confiding disposition under domestication, in
+which qualities my pet seemed to be almost equal to Parrots. I allowed
+Tocáno to go free about the house, contrary to my usual practice with
+pet animals. He never, however, mounted my working-table after a
+smart correction, which he received the first time he did so. He used
+to sleep on the top of a box in a corner of the room, in the usual
+position of these birds--namely, with the long tail laid right over on
+the back and the beak thrust underneath the wing. He ate of everything
+that we eat (beef, turtle, fish, farina, fruit), and was a constant
+attendant at our table--a cloth spread on a mat. His appetite was most
+ravenous, and his powers of digestion quite wonderful. He got to know
+the meal-hours to a nicety, and we found it very difficult, after the
+first week or two, to keep him away from the dining-room, where he
+had become very impudent and troublesome. We tried to shut him out by
+enclosing him in the back yard, which was separated by a high fence
+from the street on which our front door opened; but he used to climb
+the fence and hop round by a long circuit to the dining-room, making
+his appearance with the greatest punctuality as the meal was placed
+on the table. He acquired the habit afterwards of rambling about the
+street near our house, and one day he was stolen, so we gave him up for
+lost. But two days afterwards he stepped through the open doorway at
+dinner-hour, with his old gait, and sly, magpie-like expression, having
+escaped from the house where he had been guarded by the person who had
+stolen him, which was situated at the farther end of the village.”
+
+
+THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE BARBETS (_Capitonidæ_).[261]
+
+[Illustration: PEARL-SPOTTED BARBET.]
+
+These are climbing birds of somewhat brilliant coloration, distributed
+over the tropical portions of both hemispheres, but absent in Europe,
+Northern Asia, Australia, and the Moluccas southwards from the Sunda
+Islands. “Though strictly arboreal in their habits,” write Messrs.
+Marshall, in their exhaustive work on the family,[262] “and living
+only in forest districts or open countries interspersed with groves
+of trees, they are neither shy nor difficult to approach. When
+the districts in which they are found happen to be at all thickly
+populated, the Barbets show no disposition to retreat to more secluded
+quarters, but take up their abode in gardens, and frequently breed
+in trees close to the houses. They usually keep to the tops of the
+trees, but may occasionally be seen creeping among the branches of
+small bushes and underwood. Their food is fruit, seeds, buds, and
+occasionally insects; these latter are very seldom resorted to in Asia,
+more frequently in Africa, and with some American species they form
+the staple food. They are not gregarious, though a great number may
+sometimes be seen together in a fig-tree at the fruit season. They
+live in pairs during the breeding season, which is in the spring, and
+commence moulting in September. They rarely, if ever, descend to the
+ground, and appear to move from tree to tree only when compelled to do
+so in search of food, or when disturbed by an intruder. Their flight
+is powerful, but heavy and undulating, like that of a Woodpecker. A
+curious instance of their disinclination to travel is seen in the fact
+of the Himalayan Lineated Barbet (_Megalæma hodgsoni_) and the Hoary
+Jungle Barbet (_M. caniceps_) never crossing the narrow valley of the
+Deyra Doon, though both are abundant in their respective boundaries;
+also that the Blue-faced Barbet (_M. asiatica_) is confined to the
+valley of the Jumna, in the district between Mussooree and Simla,
+though there are many other valleys apparently equally suitable. When
+not in pursuit of food, the Barbets sit motionless among the foliage
+near the tops of the trees, and exhibit none of that vivacity which
+is so marked a characteristic of the Passerine birds, amongst which
+they have been sometimes erroneously classed. Their voice is loud and
+ringing, consisting almost always of one, two, or three syllables,
+given out with extraordinary power, and may be heard at midday or
+on a moonlight night when all other sounds are hushed. Some of the
+American species have, in common with the Toucans, the habit of jerking
+their tail up over their back when they utter their call. The male
+and female sometimes keep up what appears to be a ‘calling-match’
+for about ten minutes, and then suddenly cease. As far as is known,
+they all build in holes of trees, which they make for themselves in
+soft or decayed branches. No lining is needed for the nest, a few of
+the broken chips being left at the bottom of a hole. The entrance is
+circular and neatly bevelled, resembling that of a Woodpecker. The
+hole is generally about eight or ten inches deep, varying, of course,
+with the size of the bird. They lay three or four shining white eggs,
+with rather thin shells, and rather elongated, blunt, oval in shape,
+both ends being nearly similar. They are laid in the latter end of
+April and beginning of May in Northern India. Barbets are occasionally
+caged, but they are very seldom brought to England, and do not bear
+confinement very well; consequently, little is known of them in this
+country, except to ornithologists. An interesting account of one of
+them (_Megalæma zeylanica_) in captivity, by Mr. Layard, will be found
+quoted below. Their plumage, though very brilliant, is tasteless and
+too gaudy, and their shape is heavy and ugly, which will account for
+their skins not yet having been promoted to the positions with which
+pretty birds’ feathers are generally associated in the minds of the
+non-ornithological public.” Mr. Layard’s account is as follows:--“The
+Brown-headed Barbet is common in Ceylon, and universally distributed.
+It feeds on fruits and berries of all kinds, which it swallows entire.
+It does not, that I know of, devour small birds when in a state of
+nature, but one kept in a large aviary at Colombo destroyed all the
+little _Amadinæ_ placed with it. Not content with snapping them up when
+within his reach, he would lie in wait for them behind a thick bush or
+the feeding-trough, pounce upon them unawares, and, after beating them
+a little on the ground or perch, swallow them whole. When this cannibal
+came into my possession he was confined in a smaller cage than that
+in which he had at first been secured. This seemed to displease him,
+and he went to work to find some means of escape. He narrowly examined
+every side and corner to discover a weak spot, and having detected one,
+applied himself vigorously to bore a hole through it, as a Woodpecker
+would have done. Grasping the bars with his feet, he swung himself
+round, bringing his whole weight to bear upon his bill, which he used
+as a pickaxe, till the house resounded with his rapid and well-aimed
+blows. On being checked from exercising his ingenuity in this manner,
+he became sulky, and refused to eat or offer his call of recognition
+when I approached him. In a day or two, however, he apparently thought
+better of the matter, resumed his labours upon another spot, and fed as
+voraciously as ever, devouring huge slices of bananas, jungle fruits,
+the bodies of any small birds I skinned, &c.”
+
+
+
+
+THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER II.--FISSIROSTRES.
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.
+
+  THE JACAMARS--THE PUFF BIRDS--THE KINGFISHERS--Characters--THE
+  COMMON KINGFISHER--Distribution--Its Cry--Habits--After
+  its Prey--Its own Nest-builder--Mr. Rowley’s Note on the
+  Subject--Nest in the British Museum--Superstitions concerning the
+  Kingfisher--Colour--Various Species--CRESTED KINGFISHER--PIED
+  KINGFISHER--Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account of its Habits--New
+  World Representatives--OMNIVOROUS KINGFISHERS--THE AUSTRALIAN
+  CINNAMON-BREASTED KINGFISHER--Macgillivray’s Account of its
+  Habits--THE LAUGHING JACKASS of Australia--Its Discordant Laugh--The
+  “Bushman’s Clock”--Colour--Habits--THE HORNBILLS--Character--Their
+  Heavy Flight--Noise produced when on the Wing--Food--Extraordinary
+  Habit of Imprisoning the Female--Native Testimony--Exception--Fed by
+  the Male Bird--Dr. Livingstone’s Observations on the point, and Mr.
+  Bartlett’s Remarks--Strange Gizzard Sacs--Dr. Murie’s Remarks--Mr.
+  Wallace’s Description of the Habits of the Hornbills--Capture
+  of a Young One in Sumatra--THE GROUND HORNBILLS--South African
+  Species--Kaffir Superstition regarding it--Habits--Mr. Ayres’ Account
+  of the Natal Species--How it Kills Snakes--The Call--Habits--Mr.
+  Monteiro’s Description of the Angola Form--Turkey-like
+  Manner--Wariness--Food--THE HOOPOES--Appearance--Distribution--THE
+  COMMON HOOPOE--Habits--The Name--How does it Produce its Note?--THE
+  WOOD HOOPOES--Habits.
+
+
+THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE JACAMARS (_Galbulidæ_).[263]
+
+These birds are usually of metallic green plumage, with long beaks and
+wedge-shaped tails, and are found only in Central and Southern America,
+where they seem to represent the Bee-eaters of the Old World. Not many
+notices have appeared of their habits, the best being that given by Mr.
+Waterton, in his “Wanderings” in Demerara:--“A bird called Jacamar is
+often taken for a Kingfisher, but it has no relationship to that tribe:
+it frequently sits in the trees over the water, and as its beak bears
+some resemblance to that of the Kingfisher, this may probably account
+for its being taken for one. It feeds entirely upon insects. It sits on
+a branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a Fly, Butterfly, or
+Moth passes by, it darts at it, and returns to the branch it had just
+left. It seems an indolent, sedentary bird, shunning the society of all
+others in the forest. It never visits the plantations, but is found at
+all times of the year in the woods. There are four species of Jacamar
+in Demerara; they are all beautiful, the largest rich and superb in the
+extreme. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue and golden green,
+that it may be ranked with the choicest of the Humming Birds. Nature
+has denied it a song, but given a costly garment in lieu of it. The
+smallest species of Jacamar is very common in the dry savannas. The
+second size, all golden green in the back, must be looked for in the
+Wallaba Forest; the third is found throughout the whole extent of these
+wilds; and the fourth, which is the largest, frequents the interior,
+where you begin to perceive stones in the ground.”
+
+
+THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE PUFF BIRDS (_Bucconidæ_).
+
+In general form the Puff Birds are not unlike Kingfishers, some of
+which they resemble in their habits, feeding chiefly on insects,
+which they catch in the air. In many respects also they resemble the
+Bee-eaters (_Meropidæ_), and may be considered as representing the
+last-named family in South and Central America, to which countries they
+are entirely confined. Of the Long-winged Puff Birds (_Chelidoptera
+tenebrosa_) the late Prince Maximilian of Neuwied gives the following
+account:--“It is not rare in most provinces of South Brazil, and very
+common in many of them. It is found in certain spots sitting still and
+immovable upon the high isolated branches of the forest trees. From
+time to time it flies after an insect in the air, and falls back again
+to its place like a true Fly-catcher. It is a stupid, still, melancholy
+bird, but likes to sit high, and not low and near the ground, like
+other Puff Birds. As in form and colour it rather resembles a Swallow,
+the Brazilians call it _Andurinha do mato_ (Wood Swallow). The
+resemblance is greatest when the bird sits upon the ground, for its
+feet are little adapted for walking, and it consequently shuffles along
+as a Swallow does. Its flight is light and undulating. Sitting upon a
+high point, whence it can overlook the neighbourhood, it often emits
+a short call-note. It is anything but timid, and very easy to shoot.
+It is usually found where the woods are varied with open country, on
+the edges of the woods, but likewise in the interior of them. The
+food of these birds consists of insects, of which I have found the
+remains in their stomachs. On the Rio Grande del Belmonte I observed
+how these birds nest. In the month of August I saw them enter a round
+hole in a perpendicular sand-bank on the river, like a Kingfisher’s.
+After digging about two feet in a horizontal direction, we found two
+milk-white eggs upon a bad lining of a few feathers.”[264]
+
+
+THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE KINGFISHERS (_Alcedinidæ_).
+
+The Kingfishers are a very varied family, including within their limits
+birds of very different form and habits. The bill is always long and
+powerful for the size of the bird, producing, in some of the smaller
+species, a top-heavy and ungainly aspect; but this organ is modified
+according to the habits of the birds, and is strictly in accordance
+with the functions which it has to perform. The foot is similar in all
+Kingfishers, the sole being very flat, and the toes joined together for
+the greater part of their length, so that the birds always have a very
+firm support to their bodies. The legs are very short and weak, the
+wings powerful, and the gape very wide. The Kingfishers may be divided
+into two sub-families, distinguished by the form of the bill, which is
+long and compressed in the fish-eating Kingfishers (_Alcedininæ_), of
+which the European bird is a type, with a distinct ridge or keel along
+the upper mandible; while in the _Daceloninæ_, which have a stouter and
+flatter bill, with a smooth and rounded culmen, the food is varied,
+consisting more of insects than of fish.
+
+
+THE COMMON KINGFISHER (_Alcedo[265] ispida_).
+
+[Illustration: COMMON KINGFISHER.]
+
+This is, perhaps, the most brilliantly-coloured bird there is in
+England, but by reason of its shy habits and wonderfully quick flight
+it is not often observed, excepting as a flash of bright blue on
+the river side, appearing for an instant and gone the next. It is,
+however, by no means uncommon in many of the rivers in the south of
+England, particularly during the month of October, when a partial
+migration of the species evidently takes place. At this season of
+the year, the writer once observed a Kingfisher on the ornamental
+water in St. James’s Park. Beyond the British Islands it is found in
+most parts of the European continent, being replaced in the East by
+the little Indian Kingfisher (_A. bengalensis_), a miniature of the
+English bird, but with a much longer bill. The following account of the
+habits of this bird, the result of several years’ close acquaintance
+with the species on the river Thames, is taken from the author’s work
+on this subject[266]:--“When in a wild state, flying along the banks
+of a stream, or sitting patiently at watch for its finny prey, the
+Kingfisher is a beautiful sight. Often has it been our good fortune to
+witness the bird at close quarters, but this is by no means easy to
+accomplish, owing to the extreme wariness of the bird from repeated
+persecution. The presence of the Kingfisher in one’s neighbourhood
+can be detected from some distance by the faint cry which falls upon
+the ear from afar. This note, which is a shrill, but not unmusical,
+scream, generally consists of two syllables, but is very difficult
+to render in language. Naumann gives it as _ti-ti_, which is by no
+means a bad representation of the cry; and these syllables are quickly
+repeated as the bird leaves its perch and skims over the stream. The
+flight is rapid and very direct, the bird speeding like a bullet a
+little height above the surface of the water. When suddenly disturbed,
+it utters its cry shortly after leaving its perch, and then flies
+for some distance in silence; but when passing unmolested from one
+resting-place to another, its shrill note may be heard at frequent
+intervals. Just before perching, the cry is uttered three or four
+times successively--_ti-ti-ti_. When resting, it sits uprightly,
+with the glance directed downwards, motionlessly scanning the stream
+beneath, intent on the capture of any fish or water insect which may
+come within its reach. Its unerring dive seldom proves fruitless; and
+when secured, a few smart raps on its perch, to which the bird always
+returns, deprive the victim of life, after which it is immediately
+swallowed. Except in the early morning, it seldom chooses a very open
+position for its resting-place; but in the autumn, when the migration
+is in progress, at break of day it is not unusual to see two, or even
+three, birds in company on a rail or on the side of a punt; in the
+day-time, however, it loves solitude, and seldom more than one can
+be seen at once, and then it affects more shady and secluded haunts.
+In general it is a lonely bird, jealous of intrusion, especially
+from individuals of its own species. Each pair appears to choose and
+maintain a particular hunting-ground, and should one Kingfisher enter
+upon the domain of another, it is speedily and effectually ousted by
+the rightful owner with cries of rage. So fierce is the animosity
+displayed by these birds, that when excited in combat they fly heedless
+of obstacles, and thus occasionally meet their death in their headlong
+career.” An instance is on record of two Kingfishers flying with such
+violence against a window that both pursuer and pursued met their death
+on the spot. The present species does not always pounce on its prey
+from a perch, but will occasionally fly out over the mid-stream, and
+hover in the air like a Kestrel Hawk; and after making an unsuccessful
+plunge, will repeat its hovering position over the same spot, until its
+efforts are rewarded with success. It has been seen also to dash into
+the water several times in succession, which movement has been supposed
+to be for the purpose of attracting fish to the spot by disturbing the
+water; it is, however, more probable that in this exercise the bird is
+taking a bath. The young have exactly the same cry as their parents,
+but the note is less shrill. On leaving the nest, they often congregate
+in some well-shaded locality by the side of the stream, where food is
+brought to them by their parents, and the presence of the nestlings is
+often betrayed by their shrill pipings. The bill in the young birds is
+very short, and has a little white tip to it; in the adult male it is
+entirely black; but the female may always be distinguished by the base
+of the lower mandible being red.
+
+That the Kingfisher makes its own hole is now an ascertained fact,
+and the following note on the subject was published in 1866 by Mr. G.
+Dawson Rowley:--“Though the subject of the Kingfisher (_Alcedo ispida_)
+is somewhat stale, yet, in consequence of the remarks which I have
+just read in the October _Quarterly_ on ‘Homes without Hands,’ I send
+you the following notes, made this spring, in order to set at rest, if
+possible, a mistake regarding the breeding of this bird. Modern writers
+on the Kingfisher are hardly more free from error than even Ovid or
+Pliny. The bird is a true miner, and makes a nest of fish-bones; but,
+as no rule is without an exception, when it cannot find a suitable bank
+to bore in, it has been known to nidificate in abnormal situations; and
+when abundance of proper fish are not to be caught it is obliged to do
+without bones.
+
+“From many years’ constant watching, I can exactly tell the probable
+position of the hole, and the day it will be begun. Accordingly, on
+Thursday, March 29, I sent two witnesses to a particular spot on the
+River Ouse, St. Neots, Huntingdonshire. They observed that there was
+on that day positively no hole of any kind, no vestige of hole, in
+that bank. On Easter Monday, April 2, I sent a keeper to the place.
+He reported the hole as begun. On the same day I went in a boat,
+and, putting a reed up, found it by actual measurement about fifteen
+inches deep, the moulds being quite fresh outside. Droppings of the
+bird (which was seen constantly leaving the hole) were visible in two
+places. There was also a shallow hole a little to the left of the
+above-mentioned one. This was a failure--either from caprice or some
+other cause abandoned. We observe the same in Woodpeckers, which will
+sometimes bore in three or four places before they get one to their
+liking, a circumstance I particularly remarked in a pair of the Greater
+Spotted Woodpeckers (_P. major_) last spring. Between March 29 and
+April 2 the Kingfisher had made two holes. I thought it best now to
+leave the place, only receiving from the keeper each morning a report,
+as he went by in his boat, how the bird was going on.
+
+“Saturday, April 7, I made a memorandum: ‘I again observe fresh moulds,
+but not, as we consider, to-day’s, but yesterday’s: hence I suppose
+the hole to be nearly finished, if not quite.’ Here, I should say,
+after taking these nests constantly for nearly thirty years, I find
+twenty-one days is the correct time, from the commencement of the
+excavation to the end of laying seven eggs. I never had the luck to
+find eight; Mr. Gould, however, informs me he once did. ‘Saturday,
+April 21. Opened the hole situated in the perpendicular bank to keep
+off Water-rats. Found by measurement the entrance was twelve inches
+from the surface of the ground, and about five feet from the water. The
+length of the ascending gallery was eight inches and a half, and the
+oval chamber six inches in diameter more. The top of the chamber was
+nine inches from the surface of the ground. It contained the usual nest
+of fish-bones, which was one inch and a half deep; and the same, with
+the seven fresh eggs, are now before me, with two other nests from the
+same locality. The bird flew off after the first dig, which I commonly
+made so as to cover up the hole again without disturbance if the
+full number of eggs had not been laid. There was no excrement in the
+chamber, but much just outside in the gallery.’ The size of the chamber
+is just sufficient for the owners to turn round pleasantly. When the
+young birds, which I have seen in every stage, have been some time in
+the nest, of course the hole gets very foul. Here, then, is a case,
+capable of being attested by two or three witnesses step by step--and
+concerning which there can be no doubt--where the Kingfisher is proved
+to have made its own hole. I have known it when driven from one bank by
+floods to revert to an old hole of its own making in the previous year;
+but never has there been an instance of its taking up with the abode of
+its most deadly enemy, the Water-rat. It is hard to prove a negative,
+but it is certainly a most unlikely thing for a Kingfisher to enter a
+rat-hole. No one who has seen the eggs of this species _in situ_ as
+often as I have can deny that the fish-bones are placed with the design
+of making a nest.”
+
+In the British Museum may be seen a nest of the Kingfisher, which was
+taken by Mr. Gould under the following circumstances:--“On the 18th
+of April, 1859, during one of my fishing excursions on the Thames,
+I saw a hole in a precipitous bank, which I felt assured was the
+nesting-place of a Kingfisher; and on passing a spare top of my fly
+rod to the extremity, a distance of nearly three feet, I brought out
+some freshly-cast bones of fish, convincing me that I was right in
+my surmise. The day following I again visited the spot with a spade,
+and, after removing nearly two feet square of the turf, dug down to
+the nest without disturbing the passage which led to it. Here I found
+four eggs placed on the usual layer of fish-bones. These I removed with
+care, and then replaced the earth, beating it down as hard as the bank
+itself, and restored the turfy sod. A fortnight after the bird was seen
+to leave the hole again, and my suspicions were aroused that she had
+taken to her old breeding quarters a second time. I again visited the
+place on the twenty-first day from the date of my former exploration,
+and upon passing the top of my fly rod up the hole, found, not only
+that it was of the former length, but that the female was within. I
+then took a large mass of cotton-wool from my collecting-box, and
+stuffed it to the extremity, in order to preserve the eggs from damage
+during my again laying it open from above. On removing the sod and
+digging down as before, I came to the cotton-wool, and beneath it was
+formed a nest of fish-bones the size of a small saucer, the walls of
+which were fully half an inch thick, together with eight translucent
+pinky-white eggs, and the old female herself. This nest I removed with
+the greatest care; and it is now deposited in the proper place for so
+interesting an object--the British Museum. This mass of bones, then
+weighing 700 grains, had been cast up and deposited by the bird and
+its mate in the short space of twenty-one days. Ornithologists are
+divided in opinion as to whether the fish-bones are to be considered
+in the light of a nest. Some are disposed to believe them to be the
+castings and fæces of the young brood of the year, and that the same
+hole being frequented for a succession of years, a great mass is at
+length formed; while others suppose that they are deposited by the
+parents as a platform for the eggs, constituting, in fact, a nest;
+and I think, from what I have adduced, we may fairly conclude this is
+the case: in fact, nothing could be better adapted to defend the eggs
+from the damp earth.” In ancient times there was a legend that when
+the Kingfishers made their nests--which were supposed to float upon
+the top of the sea--fine weather was always allowed to prevail.[267] A
+custom used formerly to be in vogue in England of turning a Kingfisher
+into a weathercock; and, according to the late M. Jules Verreaux,
+this practice is pursued in France even in the present day, where the
+bird is mummified and suspended by a thread with extended wings in
+order to show the direction of the wind. Mr. Harting alludes to these
+superstitions in his “Ornithology of Shakespeare” (p. 275). It was
+formerly believed that during the time the Halcyon, or Kingfisher, was
+engaged in hatching her eggs, the water, in kindness to her, remained
+so smooth and calm that the mariner might venture on the sea with the
+happy certainty of not being exposed to storms or tempests; this period
+was therefore called, by Pliny and Aristotle, “the halcyon days.”
+
+  “Expect Saint Martin’s summer, _halcyon_ days.”
+
+  _Henry VI._, Part i., Act i., sc. 2.
+
+It was also supposed that the dead bird, carefully balanced and
+suspended by a single thread, would always turn its beak towards that
+point of the compass from which the wind blew. Kent, in _King Lear_
+(Act ii. sc. 2), speaks of rogues who--
+
+            “Turn their _halcyon_ beaks
+  With every gale and vary of their masters.”
+
+And, after Shakspere, Marlowe, in his _Jew of Malta_, says:--
+
+  “But how now stands the wind?
+  Into what corner peers my _halcyon’s_ bill?”
+
+The Common Kingfisher measures about seven inches from the tip of his
+bill to the end of his tail. The colour of the upper parts is blue,
+greener on the mantle and scapulars, and beautiful rich cobalt on the
+back, rump, and upper tail-coverts; the head is blue, barred with
+black, the wings blue, with spots of brighter cobalt on the coverts; in
+front of the eye is a spot of rufous, this being also the colour of the
+eye-coverts and under parts; the throat is white, and there is a patch
+of white on each side of the neck; the cheeks and sides of the breast
+are blue, the bill is black, the feet red. The female is coloured
+like the male, but can always be told by the red colour at the base of
+the under mandible. This is also present in young birds of both sexes,
+but the latter can readily be distinguished by their shorter bills.
+
+[Illustration: PIED KINGFISHER.]
+
+Species of the genus _Alcedo_ are distributed over the greater part
+of the Old World, extending even into the Molucca Islands, but in
+Australia and the Papuan group they are represented by the genus
+_Alcyone_, comprising Kingfishers of similar form to the English bird,
+but distinguished by the absence of the inner toe. In Africa and
+Madagascar some beautiful little crested Kingfishers (_Corythornis_)
+are met with, the largest of which scarcely exceeds five inches in
+length. A very familiar species on the banks of the Nile is the Pied
+Kingfisher (_Ceryle[268] rudis_), one of the commonest birds in Africa
+and India, and of this species Dr. von Heuglin writes[269]:--“It
+lives in pairs, is sociable, and, except during the breeding season,
+more friendly with members of its own species than other Kingfishers,
+and often several pairs dwell in the same neighbourhood. It sits and
+watches along the shore on overhanging branches, on roofs, walls,
+brickets, rocks, and even on the ground, but seldom pounces from the
+latter on its prey. From time to time it takes a flight over shallow
+clear water, also right across the river or from one island to another,
+sometimes very low, generally, however, several fathoms above the
+surface. Its flight is not very swift, but straight, and steadied
+by quick, fluttering motions of the wing--not rushing, like that of
+_Alcedo ispida_--and it rises and falls according to will and with
+great agility. One often sees it, after taking a start by several
+quick flaps of the wing, and gliding on for a distance, suddenly, with
+one quick movement, alter the direction of the flight and suddenly
+stop and hover. When hovering, the bill is held straight down, and
+the hind part of the body and tail also rather lowered. Directly it
+catches sight of its scaly prey it turns up, lays its feathers close
+to the body, and drops like a stone into the water, remaining often
+over ten seconds below the surface. It seldom misses its mark, and
+devours the fish it has captured either on the wing or at one of its
+resting-places. The voice is a shrill whistle, at the same time chirpy,
+or at times snickery. During the pairing time the males often fight on
+the wing, and roll together, calling loudly, nearly to the surface of
+the water. In Egypt the breeding season is our spring; according to
+Adams, as early as December. The nest, consisting of a small heap of
+clean dry grass, is placed in a horizontal hole about arm’s depth in
+a steep bank, and contains four to six pure white roundish eggs, the
+shell of which is rather rough compared with that of _Alcedo ispida_.
+Often several nest-holes are close together. The plumage of the young
+much resembles that of the adult. There is scarcely any bird on the
+Nile tamer than the Black and White Kingfisher.” The genus _Ceryle_,
+to which the foregoing species belongs, is largely represented in the
+New World, one of the best known being the Belted Kingfisher of North
+America, and an unusual circumstance in fish-eating Kingfishers is
+characteristic of the genus, viz., a difference in the colouring of the
+sexes. The Stork-billed Kingfishers (_Pelargopsis_[270]) are the most
+powerful members of the sub-family, some of them measuring nearly a
+foot and a half in length.
+
+More difference in form and size is perceptible in the omnivorous
+Kingfishers (_Daceloninæ_), where some of the little three-toed species
+of _Ceyx_ do not exceed five inches in length, whereas the Great
+Laughing Jackasses of Australia (_Dacelo_) attain the dimensions of
+more than a foot and a half. The smaller birds of this section feed
+almost entirely on insects, and the Rose-cheeked Kingfisher of Africa
+(_Ispidina[271] picta_) feeds principally on Grasshoppers and small
+Locusts, while its representative in Natal (_I. natalensis_) is said to
+feed entirely on Butterflies and insects caught on the wing. They are
+often found along the banks of rivers, but never catch fish. The large
+genus _Halcyon_ is distributed all over Africa, and ranges throughout
+Southern Asia, through China, to Japan, inhabiting also the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago and the entire Continent of Australia. These
+birds prefer a mixed diet, and, in addition to an occasional fish, they
+will also eat crustacea, small reptiles, and insects. Perhaps the most
+beautiful of all the Kingfisher family are the _Tanysipteræ_,[272]
+which are found only in New Guinea, the adjacent Moluccas, and
+the north-east peninsula of Australia. These birds have only ten
+tail-feathers, the middle pair being very much longer than the rest,
+and ending in a spatule or racket. They live entirely in the forests,
+feeding on insects, and they are said to roost in the holes of rocks by
+the side of small streams. The best known species of _Tanysiptera_ is
+the Australian Cinnamon-breasted Kingfisher (_T. sylvia_), which was
+discovered by the late Mr. John Macgillivray, who gives the following
+account of its habits:--“This pretty _Tanysiptera_ is rather plentiful
+in the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense bushes,
+and is especially fond of resorting to the sunny openings in the
+woods, attracted, probably, by the greater abundance of insect food
+found in such places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and
+usually was first made aware of its presence by the glancing of its
+bright colours as it darted past with a rapid arrow-like flight, and
+disappeared in an instant amongst the dense foliage. Its cry, which
+may be represented by _whee-whe-whee_ and _wheet-wheet-wheet_, is
+usually uttered when the bird is perched on a bare, transverse branch,
+or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out station, and
+whence it makes short dashes at any passing insect or small Lizard,
+generally returning to the same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird,
+and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter, who
+may follow it for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as
+keen an eye as a native, to whom I was indebted for first pointing
+it out to me. According to the natives, who know it by the name of
+_Quatawur_, it lays three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of
+the large ant-hills of red clay which form so remarkable a feature in
+the neighbourhood, some of them being as much as ten feet in height,
+with numerous buttresses and pinnacles. I believe that the bird also
+inhabits New Guinea; for at Redscar Bay, on the south-east of that
+great island, in long. 146° 15′ E., a head strung upon a necklace was
+procured from the natives.”
+
+[Illustration: LAUGHING JACKASS.]
+
+The largest of all the Kingfishers are the Laughing Jackasses of
+Australia, this curious name being given to the bird from its strange
+note and peculiar look, both of which can be appreciated by any
+visitor to the London Zoological Gardens, where there is generally one,
+if not two, out of the seven species known. Of the bird in its native
+haunts a very good idea is given us by the “Old Bushman,” the late Mr.
+Henry Wheelwright, which is here taken from a little work called the
+“Bush Wanderings of a Naturalist.” “About an hour before sunrise the
+bushman is awakened by the most discordant sounds, as if a troop of
+fiends were shouting, whooping, and laughing around him in one wild
+chorus: this is the morning song of the ‘Laughing Jackass,’ warning his
+feathered mates that daybreak is at hand. At noon the same wild laugh
+is heard, and as the sun sinks into the west it again rings through the
+forest. I shall never forget the first night I slept in the open bush
+in this country. It was in the Black Forest. I woke about daybreak,
+after a confused sleep, and for some minutes I could not remember
+where I was, such were the extraordinary sounds that greeted my ears;
+the fiendish laugh of the Jackass, the clear, flute-like note of the
+Magpie, the hoarse cackle of the Wattle-birds, the jargon of flocks
+of Leatherheads, and the screaming of thousands of Parrots as they
+dashed through the forest, all joining chorus, formed one of the most
+extraordinary concerts I have ever heard, and seemed at the moment to
+have been got up for the purpose of welcoming the stranger to this land
+of wonders on that eventful morning. I have heard it hundreds of times
+since, but never with the same feelings that I listened to it then. The
+Laughing Jackass is the bushman’s clock, and being by no means shy,
+of a companionable nature, a constant attendant about the bush-tent,
+and a destroyer of Snakes, is regarded, like the Robin at home, as a
+sacred bird in the Australian forests. It is an uncouth-looking bird, a
+huge species of land Kingfisher, nearly the size of a Crow, of a rich
+chestnut brown and dirty white colour; the wings slightly chequered
+with light blue, after the manner of the British Jay; the tail-feathers
+long, rather pointed, and barred with brown. It has the foot of a
+Kingfisher; a very formidable, long, pointed beak, and a large mouth;
+it has also a kind of crest, which it erects when angry or frightened,
+and this gives it a very ferocious appearance. It is a common bird in
+all the forest throughout the year; breeds in a hole of a tree, and the
+eggs are white; generally seen in pairs, and by no means shy. Their
+principal food appears to be small reptiles, grubs, and caterpillars.
+As I said before, it destroys Snakes. I never but once saw them at
+this game: a pair of Jackasses had disabled a Carpet-Snake under an
+old gum-tree, and they sat on a dead branch above it, every now and
+then darting down and pecking it, and by their antics and chattering
+seemed to consider it a capital joke. I can’t say whether they ate the
+Snake--I fancy not; at least the only reptiles I have ever found in
+their stomachs have been small Lizards. The first sight that struck me
+on landing in London was a poor old Laughing Jackass moped up in a cage
+in Ratcliffe Highway. I never saw a more miserable, woe-begone object.
+I quite pitied my poor old friend, as he sat dejected on his perch;
+and the thought struck me at the time that we were probably neither of
+us benefited in changing the quiet freedom of the bush for the noise
+and bustle of the modern Babylon.” The Common Laughing Jackass has the
+sexes alike, but in all the other species the male has a blue tail and
+the female a red one.
+
+
+THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE HORNBILLS (_Bucerotidæ_).
+
+These birds are found in Africa, India, and throughout the Malayan
+region and Molucca Islands, as far as New Guinea. They are birds of
+rather ungainly appearance, nearly every species having a casque, or
+helmet, which is developed in every variety of shape, and in some of
+them reaches an extraordinary size. The flat soles which were alluded
+to in the Kingfishers are here developed in a greater degree, and the
+toes are united together in exactly the same way. The flight, however,
+of the Hornbills is very different from that of the Kingfishers,
+being heavy and performed with an abundance of noise: so much so that
+some explorers in South-eastern New Guinea have been led to speak
+of a bird whose wings, when flying, produced a noise “resembling
+a locomotive,” but which was doubtless made by the large Hornbill
+(_Buceros[273] ruficollis_), which frequents that part of the world.
+They are generally found on very lofty trees and at a great height,
+which makes them difficult to shoot; and Governor Ussher says that
+in ascending the lonely forest-clad rivers of North-western Borneo
+the only sign of life is often a solitary Hornbill flying across at a
+great height in the air. Wallace states that the Rhinoceros Hornbill
+(_Buceros rhinoceros_), a native of the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo,
+finds the exertion of flying so great that it is compelled to rest at
+intervals of about a mile; and the same author says that he heard the
+Great Hornbill (_Dichoceros bicornis_) more than a mile off, so that
+the amazement caused by one of these large birds to the travellers in
+New Guinea, as mentioned above, does not seem so very inexplicable. The
+voice of the last-named species is said to be very harsh and grating,
+and the noise it makes is compared by Wallace to something between the
+bray of a Jackass and the shriek of a locomotive, and is not to be
+surpassed, probably, in power by any sound that an animal is capable
+of making. Tickell says that its roar re-echoes through the hills to
+such a degree that it is difficult to assign the noise to a bird;
+and Wallace observes that this is kept up so continuously as to be
+absolutely unbearable. The flight is heavy, and performed by repeated
+flappings of its huge wings. It usually flies in a straight line, and
+sails only when about to alight upon some tree.[274]
+
+[Illustration: GREAT HORNBILL.]
+
+The food of the Hornbills consists principally of fruits, but under
+certain circumstances they become to a great extent omnivorous, and
+will devour anything, some of the species searching the ground for
+Lizards, which they devour readily, both when wild and in confinement;
+and the Pied Hornbill (_Anthracoceros malabaricus_) is stated by Mr.
+Inglis to be very fond of live fish, which it catches in shallow pools.
+The way he discovered this predilection for an abnormal diet was as
+follows: he possessed a tame Otter and three tame Hornbills; at feeding
+time the Otter was placed in a tub containing live fish, and these,
+when closely pressed, would jump out to escape from their pursuer,
+and were immediately swallowed by the Hornbills. Mr. Inglis has also
+found bones of fish in the stomachs of birds which he had shot; and the
+natives of the Naga Hills affirm that when these Hornbills are intent
+on fishing they can be approached sufficiently close to be killed by a
+stick.
+
+By far the most curious habit belonging to these birds is that which
+takes place during the breeding season, when the male bird plasters
+the female into a hollow tree, there to hatch her eggs, nor does he
+release her until the young ones are nearly full grown. It is scarcely
+possible to conceive a practice more detrimental to the well-being of
+any bird than this. The exertion of feeding himself as well as his
+wife and nestlings must entail a serious strain upon the male, while
+the destruction of the latter must inevitably ensure the starvation of
+the female and of the young birds. This curious habit has been well
+attested by observers in Asia as well as in Africa; and the writer once
+received from an old negro collector on the West Coast of Africa, who
+rejoiced in the name of St. Thomas David Aubinn, and styled himself
+“Royal Hunter to the King of Denkera,” an adult female of the Black
+Hornbill (_Sphagolobus atratus_), together with a nearly full-grown
+young one, which, he said, had been taken by him together out of the
+hole of a tree; and the habits of the Hornbill in this respect were
+given by him in the following words: “When the female go to sit, the
+male he her shut in tree. If he no bring food, then she angry. If he no
+then bring food, then she more angry--swear. If he no then bring food,
+then she curse him for die. Man--beef--beefy--beef!”
+
+If the last sentence is intended to represent the enraged Hornbill,
+it is evident that the noises produced by the bird are not of that
+startling character ascribed to the Eastern species by Wallace, as
+mentioned above. All accounts seem to agree that the female is shut
+in the hollow of a tree; but Dr. Kirk noted an exception, on native
+authority, and therefore one which must be confirmed by future
+research. This is the Crested Hornbill (_Bycanistes cristatus_), which
+is a common bird on the river Shiré, where it goes in large flocks, and
+roosts regularly in the same places. “The natives say that the female
+hatches her eggs in a hole underground, in which she is fastened by
+the male.” Our astonishment at the imprisonment of the female Hornbill
+is not lessened when it is found that the male bird keeps her supplied
+with food by a most curious process, which accounts for the statement
+of Dr. Livingstone[275]:--“The first time I saw this bird was at
+Kolobeng, where I had gone to the forest for some timber. Standing by
+a tree, a native looked behind me and exclaimed, ‘There is the nest of
+Korwe.’ I saw a slit only, about half an inch wide and three or four
+inches long, in a slight hollow of a tree. Thinking the word Korwe
+denoted some small animal, I waited with interest to see what he would
+extract. He broke the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into
+the hole, and brought out a Tockus, or Red-beaked Hornbill, which he
+killed. He informed me that when the female enters her nest she submits
+to a real confinement. The male plasters up the entrance, leaving
+only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate, and which exactly suits
+the form of his beak. The female makes a nest, of her own feathers,
+lays her eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till they are
+fully fledged. During all this time, which is stated to be two or
+three months, the male continues to feed her and the young family. The
+prisoner generally becomes quite fat, and is esteemed a very dainty
+morsel by the natives; while the poor slave of a husband gets so lean
+that on the sudden lowering of the temperature, which sometimes happens
+after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls down, and dies.” At a
+meeting of the Zoological Society on the 25th February, 1869, Mr. A.
+D. Bartlett produced a curious envelope, which had been thrown by a
+Wrinkled Hornbill (_Anorrhinus corrugatus_) in the Zoological Gardens
+of London, which was found to contain plums or grapes well packed
+together; and Mr. Bartlett came to the conclusion that it was by means
+of fruit packed together in such a wrapper that the male fed the female
+during her confinement in the hollow tree. In 1874, Dr. Murie exhibited
+to the same society some similar envelopes, or, as he more properly
+called them, gizzard sacs, which had been thrown up by a specimen of
+Sclater’s Hornbill (_Bycanistes subcylindricus_) in the same way as by
+the previous bird. On examination, these gizzard sacs proved to be the
+interior lining of the bird’s stomach; and it was evident, from the
+short time that elapsed between the throwing up of the envelopes, that,
+as Dr. Murie observed, the bird in the interval had made a new one, and
+got rid of it also, without apparently being any the worse. One can
+readily imagine, however, that this process, being continued during the
+long period that the female is shut up in the bole of the tree, must
+tend greatly to weaken the bird. The habit of feeding his mate seems
+to be inherent in every Hornbill, even in captivity, for Mr. Bartlett
+observes:--“The tame male Hornbill is particularly distinguished at all
+seasons by this habit of throwing up his food, which he not only offers
+to the female, but to the keepers and others who are known to him.
+The male Concave Hornbill (_Buceros cavatus_) now in the Gardens will
+frequently throw up grapes, and, holding them in the point of the bill,
+thrust them into the mouth of the keeper, if he is not on the alert to
+prevent or avoid this distinguished mark of his kindness.”
+
+Mr. Wallace thus describes the habits of the Hornbills, as observed
+by him during his travels in the East, and he points out certain
+peculiarities, proving that the old systematic position of these birds
+near the Toucans of America is erroneous:--“From an examination of
+the structure of the feet and toes, and from a consideration of their
+habits, we are led to conclude that the Hornbills are Fissirostral
+birds, though of a very abnormal form. Their very short legs and united
+toes, with a broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the
+Kingfishers. They have powerful wings, but their heavy bodies oblige
+them to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid,
+though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in the
+Indian Archipelago, at least) entirely frugivorous, and it is curious
+to observe how their structure modifies their mode of feeding. They are
+far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the manner of the Trogons;
+they cannot even fly quickly from branch to branch, picking up a fruit
+here and a fruit there; neither have they strength or agility enough to
+venture on the more slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets; but
+they alight heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then,
+looking cautiously round them, pick off any fruits that may be within
+reach, and jerk them down their throats by a motion similar to that
+used by the Toucans, which has been erroneously described as throwing
+the fruit up in the air before swallowing it. When they have gathered
+all within their reach they move sideways along the branch by short
+jumps, or, rather, a kind of shuffle, and the smaller species even hop
+across to other branches, when they again gather what is within their
+reach. When in this way they have progressed as far as the bough will
+safely carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree,
+where they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon
+exhaust all the fruit within their reach; and long after they have
+left a tree the Barbets and _Eurylaimi_ find abundance of food on the
+slender branches and extreme twigs. We see, therefore, that their very
+short legs and syndactyle feet remove them completely from the vicinity
+of the Toucans, in which the legs are actively employed in moving about
+after their food. Their wings, too, are as powerful as those of the
+Toucans are weak; and it is only the great weight of their bodies that
+prevents them from being capable of rapid and extensive flight. As it
+is, their strength of wing is shown by the great force with which they
+beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can be
+distinctly heard a mile off, and is even louder than that made by the
+flight of the great Muscovy Duck.” Mr. Wallace[276] also describes the
+capture of a young Hornbill in Sumatra:--“I returned to Palembang by
+water, and while staying a day at a village while a boat was being made
+water-tight, I had the good fortune to obtain a male, female, and young
+bird of one of the large Hornbills. I had sent my hunters to shoot,
+and while I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me a fine large
+male of the _Buceros bicornis_, which one of them assured me he had
+shot while feeding the female, which was shut up in a hole in a tree. I
+had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to the
+place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream
+and a bog, we found a large tree leaning over some water, and on its
+lower side, at a height of about twenty feet, appeared a small hole,
+and what looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been
+used in stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh
+cry of a bird inside, and could see the white extremity of its beak put
+out. I offered a rupee to any one who would go up and get out the bird,
+with the egg or young one, but they all declared it was too difficult,
+and they were afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away.
+In about an hour afterwards, much to my surprise, a tremendous loud,
+hoarse screaming was heard, and the bird was brought me, together
+with a young one, which had been found in the hole. This was a most
+curious object, as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage
+on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a
+semi-transparent skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with
+head and feet stuck on, than like a real bird.”
+
+One genus of these Hornbills is so remarkable as to demand a special
+notice.
+
+
+THE GROUND HORNBILLS (_Bucorax_).
+
+[Illustration: GROUND HORNBILLS OF ABYSSINIA.]
+
+These are an African form, of which there are two or three kinds,
+distinguished by the casque, which is open in the birds from Abyssinia,
+compressed and shut in the South African species (_B. cafer_). Of the
+habits of the latter bird several accounts have been written, from
+which a few extracts are made; and the first is from a letter sent by
+Mr. Henry Bowker to Mr. Layard, after the publication of the latter’s
+“Birds of South Africa”[277]:--“There are many superstitions connected
+with the ‘Bromvogel.’ The bird is held sacred by the Kaffirs, and is
+killed only in times of severe drought, when one is killed by order
+of the ‘rain-doctor,’ and its body thrown into a pool in a river. The
+idea is that the bird has so offensive a smell that it will ‘make
+the water sick,’ and that the only way of getting rid of this is to
+wash it away to the sea, which can only be done by heavy rains and
+flooding of the river. The ground where they feed is considered good
+for cattle, and in settling in a new country, spots frequented by these
+birds are chosen by the wealthy people. Should the birds, however, by
+some chance, fly over a cattle kraal, the kraal is moved to some other
+place. They are mostly found in groups of from three to six or seven,
+and build their nests in hollow trees, or in the hollow formed by three
+or four branches striking off from the same spot. They roost in tall
+yellow-wood trees, and commence calling about daylight. I never saw one
+eating carrion, as stated in your book, though I have frequently seen
+them near the bones of dead cattle, picking up beetles and worms. They
+will eat meat, mice, and small birds, and swallow them by throwing them
+suddenly in the air, and letting them drop down the throat in falling.
+I once had a tame one, and noticed this particularly. It is very weak
+on the wing, and when required by the ‘doctor,’ the bird is caught
+by the men of a number of kraals turning out at the same time, and a
+particular bird is followed from one hill to another by those on the
+look-out. After three or four flights it can be run down and caught by
+a good runner.”
+
+Mr. Ayres’ account of the species in Natal, though often referred
+to by other writers, is so excellent that no work treating of South
+African birds can omit it, and is therefore reproduced here in its
+entirety:--“In the stomach of the male were snakes, beetles, and other
+insects. These birds are gregarious, and to be found here all the year
+round, but are not very plentiful, generally three or four, sometimes
+more, being found together. They are very fond of hunting for their
+food on ground from which the grass has been burnt; with their strong
+bills they peck up the hard ground and turn over lumps in search of
+insects, making the dust fly again. Having found an insect or other
+food they take it up, and giving their head a toss, the bill pointing
+upward, appear to let the food roll down their throat. They also kill
+large snakes in the following manner, viz.:--On discovering a snake,
+three or four of the birds advance sideways towards it with their
+wings stretched out, and with their quills flap at and irritate the
+snake till he seizes them by the wing-feathers, when they immediately
+all close round and give him violent pecks with their long and sharp
+bills, quickly withdrawing again when the snake leaves his hold. This
+they repeat till the snake is dead. If the reptile advances on them
+they place both wings in front of them, completely covering the heads
+and most vulnerable parts. Their call, which consists of but one note
+repeated--a deep and sonorous _coo-coo_--may be heard at a great
+distance. I have myself heard it, under favourable circumstances, at
+a distance of nearly two miles. The call of the female is exactly the
+same _coo-coo_, only pitched one note higher than the male. The latter
+invariably calls first, the female immediately answering, and they
+continue this perhaps for five or ten minutes, every now and then, as
+they are feeding. Their flight is heavy, and when disturbed, although
+very shy, they seldom fly more than half a mile before they alight
+again. At a distance they would easily be mistaken for Turkeys, their
+body being deep and rather compressed, similarly to those birds, with
+the wings carried well on the back. The little pouch on the throat
+they are able to fill with air at pleasure, the male bird sent to me
+to London doing this before he died. I think their principal range of
+country is on the coast and from twenty to thirty miles inland. They
+roost on trees at night, but always feed on the ground.”
+
+In Angola, where the bird is called by the natives _Engungoashito_,
+Mr. Monteiro had great difficulty in procuring specimens, on account
+of the superstitious dread in which they are held by the natives. He
+says:--“They are found sparingly nearly everywhere in Angola, becoming
+abundant, however, only towards the interior. In the mountain range in
+which Pungo Andongo is situated, and running nearly north and south,
+they are common, and it was near the base of these mountains that I
+shot these two specimens. They are seen in flocks of six or eight (the
+natives say always in equal numbers of males and females). Farther in
+the interior I was credibly informed that they are found in flocks of
+from one to two hundred individuals. The males raise up and open and
+close their tails exactly in the manner of a Turkey, and filling out
+their bright cockscomb-red, bladder-like wattle on their necks, and
+with wings dropping on the ground, make quite a grand appearance. They
+do not present a less extraordinary appearance as they walk slowly
+with an awkward gait, and peer from side to side with their great eyes
+in quest of food in the short grass, poking their large bills at any
+frog, snake, &c., that may come in their way. Their flight is feeble
+and not long sustained. When alarmed, they generally fly up to the
+nearest large tree, preferring such as have thick branches with but
+little foliage, as the _Adansonia_, ‘Muenzo’ (a wild fig). Here they
+squat close on the branches, and, if further alarmed, raise themselves
+quite upright on their legs in an attitude of listening, with wide open
+bills. The first to notice a person at once utters the customary cry,
+and all fly off to the next tree. They are very wary, and the grass
+near the mountains being comparatively short, with but little scrub
+or birch, it is very difficult to approach without being observed by
+them from the high trees. I followed a flock of six for upwards of two
+hours, crawling flat on my stomach, negro fashion, before I obtained
+a chance of a shot, when I was so fortunate as to break the wing of
+a male without otherwise injuring it. It was quickly captured by the
+blacks. They are omnivorous in their food; reptiles, birds, eggs,
+beetles, and all other insects, mandioca roots, ginguba or ground-nuts,
+constitute their food in the wild state. In confinement I have fed this
+bird upon the same food, also upon fresh fish, which it showed itself
+very fond of, as well as on entrails of fowls, &c. On letting it loose
+in Loanda in a yard where there were several fowls with chickens, it
+immediately gulped down its throat six of the latter, and finished
+its breakfast with several eggs! The note or cry of the male is like
+the hoarse blast of a horn, repeated short three times, and answered
+by the female in a lower note. It is very loud, and can be heard at a
+considerable distance, particularly at night. They are said to build
+their nests on the very highest _Adansonias_, in the hollow or cavity
+formed at the base or junction of the branches with the trunk.”
+
+The present species is of a very large size, measuring about forty
+inches in length, and about nineteen inches in the wing. It is entirely
+black, with the exception of the primary quills, which are white; the
+bill and legs are black, but the bare skin on the neck and round the
+eye is bright red in the male, but blue in the female.
+
+
+THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE HOOPOES (_Upupidæ_).
+
+Different as these birds are in appearance and habits, ornithologists
+now agree that from their structure they must be placed in close
+alliance with the Hornbills, with which they are more particularly
+connected by the Wood Hoopoes. Instead of the ungainly figures and
+top-heavy-looking casques of the Hornbills, the Hoopoes are remarkable
+for their graceful carriage and elegant figure, in which the beautiful
+crest plays an important part. They are particularly at home in the
+desert countries, where their sandy-coloured plumage is no doubt a
+great protection to them; and a story is told that the Hoopoe, if it
+sees a Hawk approaching, will throw itself flat on the ground, and by
+twisting its wings round in front and remaining motionless, with its
+bill pointing upwards, it will look like a piece of old rag, and thus
+escape detection.
+
+Not more than five species of Hoopoe are known, all inhabitants of
+the Old World, and the most widely distributed is the Common Hoopoe
+(_Upupa epops_) of Europe, which visits England during the spring and
+autumn migration, and at least one instance of its breeding in that
+country is known. Mr. Howard Saunders states[278]:--“In the year 1847
+a pair of Hoopoes nested in a hole of an old yew-tree in a shrubbery
+of an old-fashioned garden at Leatherhead, Surrey. The proprietor was
+very anxious that the birds should not be disturbed, and a strict veto
+was placed upon any bird’s-nesting in the shrubbery--a severe trial
+to our boyish propensities; but we were afterwards rewarded by seeing
+the parent birds with their young strutting about upon the lawn. As
+well as I remember, there were five young ones besides the two old
+birds.” The species is found all over central and southern Europe in
+summer, being in some places very plentiful; but it is a rare visitor
+to the northern parts, and has disappeared from some countries, like
+Denmark, for instance, where the felling of the old and hollow forest
+trees has deprived it of its accustomed breeding-places. In some places
+the bird is disliked, and in Scandinavia, where it occurs only in the
+southern and central portions, it bears a bad name among the peasantry,
+who suppose it to be a foreboder of war and hard times, and from this
+circumstance its name of Härfugel or “army bird,” is derived. The
+Chinese also have an objection to them, branding them by the name of
+“Coffin-bird,” as they often breed in the holes of exposed Chinese
+coffins. On the other hand, according to Canon Tristram, in the Sahara
+the Arabs have a superstitious veneration for the Hoopoe, and its
+magical properties enter largely into the arcana of the Arab “hakeem.”
+He says that great numbers of Hoopoes resort to the M’zab cities and
+frequent oases in winter, where they strut about the courtyards and
+round the tents with the familiarity of barn-door fowls. Mons. Favier
+says, that in Tangier the superstitious Jews and Mahomedans both
+believe that the heart and feathers of the Hoopoe are charms against
+the machinations of evil spirits.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON HOOPOE.]
+
+The ordinary name of Hoopoe is derived from the note of the bird, and
+in most European languages the latter suggests the vernacular names.
+Thus, in Bulgaria it is called _Poo-poo_, in Valentia _Put-Put_,
+_Bubbula_, &c., in Italy, _Poupa_ in Portugal, and so on. Mr. Swinhoe
+writes of the bird and its note as follows:--“I have already described
+the peculiar way in which the Hoopoe produces its notes--by puffing out
+the sides of its neck, and hammering on the ground at the production
+of each note, thereby exhausting the air at the end of the series of
+three, which makes up its song. Before it repeats its call, it repeats
+the puffing of the neck with a slight gurgling noise. When it is able
+to strike its bill, the sound is the correct _hoo-hoo-hoo_; but when
+perched on a rope, and only jerking out the song with nods of the
+head, the notes more resemble the syllables _hoh-hoh-hoh_. Mr. Darwin
+makes use of this last fact to show that some birds have instrumental
+means to produce their music. It is not to this point, however, that
+I wish to call attention, but to the fact of the bird’s puffing out
+the sides of its neck. It is generally supposed that the song of a
+bird is produced by actions of the lower larynx on air passing up the
+bronchial tubes onwards and outwards through the main tube, or trachea.
+The trachea of the Hoopoe is not dilatable, but its œsophagus is; and
+the puffing of the neck is caused by the bulging of the œsophagus with
+swallowed air. There is no connection between the œsophagus and the
+trachea, and apparently no organ at the entrance to the former that
+could modify sound. What action, then, can this swallowed air be made
+to take in the production of the bird’s notes? Pigeons have strikingly
+large air-crops, which they empty with each _coo_, and refill before
+they _coo_ again. Many birds swell out the throat when calling or
+singing, and others move it up and down. These actions must also be
+caused by the swallowed air in the œsophagus, and must modify the
+sounds in some way, as variously used, adding power and richness in
+some cases, or giving ventriloquistic effect in others. This question
+seems never to have been enquired into before, and I throw out the
+hint in hopes that others may help to elucidate the matter with their
+investigations.”
+
+The length of the Common Hoopoe is about one foot; the upper surface
+is greyish-brown, the wings and shoulders black barred with white, the
+rump being pure white; on the head, which is tawny-coloured, is an
+enormous crest, the feathers of which have a black tip, before which
+is a narrow white bar; the tail is black; with a white band at about a
+third of its length from the end; underneath the body is pale cinnamon,
+white on the abdomen and under tail coverts, the flanks striped with
+brown. The sexes are alike in colour, excepting that the female is a
+little paler.
+
+
+THE WOOD HOOPOES (_Irrisor_).
+
+All the birds belonging to this section of the Hoopoes are remarkable
+for their very long and strongly graduated tails, for their brilliant
+metallic plumage, which is always dark, and inclining more or less to
+black--instead of a sandy colour, as in the true Hoopoes--and most
+of them for their very curved, scimitar-like bills. They are all
+natives of Africa, and have a remarkably loud, chattering note; and
+from its harsh and resounding voice the Red-billed Wood Hoopoe (_I.
+erythrorhynchus_) is known among the Dutch at the Cape as “Cackala,”
+or the “Chatterer.” The late M. Jules Verreaux told the writer that
+the noise made by these birds is tremendous, and that on one occasion
+he was attracted by an uproar, which seemed to indicate that something
+unusual was the matter. On proceeding to the place whence the noise
+came, he was astonished to find on the low branch of a tree three of
+these birds, perched one on the back of the other, betokening by their
+drooping wings and repeated chatterings the utmost consternation and
+fright. The cause of this was not far to seek, for just below the birds
+was a cobra, balancing himself in an erect attitude, and perfectly
+motionless, the only indication of life being the incessant flicking
+of the animal’s tongue. The cacklings of the birds became feebler and
+feebler, until at last the bottom one fell off the perch and dropped
+into the extended jaws of the snake, which were ready to receive it;
+while the other two birds, apparently freed from the spell of the
+reptile’s eye, took to instant flight. Having his gun in his hand,
+M. Verreaux shot the snake immediately; but on going to rescue the
+bird, found that the latter was quite dead. Mr. Thomas Ayres, who has
+studied the species in Natal, says:--“The food of these birds consists
+almost entirely of a species of cockroach, which they take from the
+crevices of rough-barked trees, and in search of which they creep
+about the trunk and branches somewhat similarly to the Woodpeckers.
+In this manner their tail-feathers frequently become much worn. From
+four to eight of these birds are generally together, and frequent busby
+country. They have a loud chattering note, and are extremely restless
+in their habits. They have a peculiarly powerful and disagreeable
+smell.” Mr. Andersson’s account of the species is as follows:--“It
+lives in small flocks--probably consisting of entire families--which
+frequent trees, chiefly of the larger kinds, and examine them most
+assiduously in search of insects and their larvæ, which they extract
+from crevices in the wood and from beneath the bark. These birds climb
+like Woodpeckers; and their long tails come into constant contact with
+the rough surface of the trees, by which the tail-feathers are much
+injured. When they have finished their examination of one tree they
+move to the next convenient one, but not all together, as a short
+interval generally elapses after the departure of each individual.
+The moment flight is decided on, they utter harsh discordant cries or
+chatterings, which are continued until they are all safely lodged in
+their new quarters. These harsh notes are also heard when they conceive
+themselves in danger from either man, beast, or bird; and they thus
+often betray their presence.”
+
+The present species measures about seventeen inches, the tail being
+about ten out of that number, and being thus three inches longer than
+the body of the bird. The colour is black, glossed with green on the
+head, back, and under surface, with blue on the throat, purple on the
+wings and tail, and having a bronzy gloss on the shoulders. All the
+tail feathers, except the two centre ones, have a white spot near the
+tip and across the wings a white bar. The bill and legs are bright
+coral red.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE BEE-EATERS--MOTMOTS--ROLLERS--TROGONS--NIGHTJARS, OR
+GOATSUCKERS--SWIFTS--HUMMING BIRDS.
+
+  THE BEE-EATERS--Their Brilliant Plumage--Colonel Irby’s
+  Account of the Bird in Spain--Shot for Fashion’s sake--THE
+  MOTMOTS--Appearance--Mr. Waterton on the Houtou--Curious Habit of
+  Trimming its Tail--Mr. O. Salvin’s Observations on this point--Mr.
+  Bartlett’s Evidence--THE ROLLERS--Why so called--Canon Tristram’s
+  Account of their Habits--Colour--Other Species--THE TROGONS--Where
+  found--Peculiar Foot--Tender Skin--Inability to Climb--Their
+  Food--THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL--Mr. Salvin’s Account
+  of its Habits--Its Magnificent Colour--How they are Hunted--THE
+  NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS--Appearance--Distribution--The Guacharo,
+  or Oil-bird--“Frog-mouths”--Mr. Gould’s Account of the Habits of the
+  Tawny-shouldered Podargus--How it Builds its Nest--Mr. Waterton’s
+  Vindication of the Goatsucker--What Services the Bird does really
+  render Cattle, Goats, and Sheep--Its Cry--The Common Goatsucker--THE
+  SWIFTS--THE COMMON SWIFT--Migration--Their Home in the Air--Where
+  they Breed--Nest--Tree-Swifts--The Edible-Nest Swiftlets--Mr.
+  E. L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet--THE
+  HUMMING BIRDS--Number of Species--Distribution--Professor Newton’s
+  Description of the Bird--Mr. Wallace on their Habits--Wilson on the
+  North American Species.
+
+
+THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE BEE-EATERS (_Meropidæ_).
+
+The Bee-eaters are among the most brightly plumaged of the Picarian
+birds, and are distributed over the whole of Africa, India, the
+Moluccas, and Australia. One species (_Merops apiaster_) visits Europe
+in the summer, being, however, nowhere so common as in the countries of
+the Mediterranean basin, though they occasionally wander to England.
+Colonel Irby[279] gives the following account of the Bee-eater in
+Southern Spain:--“The bird did not appear to me to be quite so common
+in Morocco at the end of April as on the Spanish side of the Strait,
+where, during April, May, June, and July, it is one of the most
+conspicuous birds in the country; at that season, Andalusia without
+Bee-eaters would be like London without Sparrows. Everywhere they are
+to be seen; and their single note, _teerp_, heard continually repeated,
+magnifies their numbers in imagination. Occasionally, they venture into
+the centre of towns when on passage, hovering round the orange-trees
+and flowers in some patio or garden. Crossing the Strait for the most
+part in the early part of the day, flight follows flight for hours in
+succession. When passing at Gibraltar, they sometimes skim low down to
+settle for a moment on a bush or a tree, but generally go straight on,
+often almost out of sight; but their cry always betrays their presence
+in the air. In some places they nest in large colonies; in others there
+are, perhaps, only two or three holes. When there are no river-banks
+or barrancos in which to bore holes, they tunnel down into the ground,
+where the soil is suitable, in a vertical direction, generally on some
+slight elevated mound. The shafts to these nests are not usually so
+long as those in banks of rivers, which sometimes reach to a distance
+of eight or nine feet in all; the end is enlarged into a round sort
+of chamber, on the bare soil of which the usual four or five shining
+white eggs are placed. After a little they become discoloured from the
+castings of the old birds, the nest being, as it were, lined with the
+wings and undigested parts of Bees and Wasps. Vast numbers of eggs and
+young must be annually destroyed by Snakes and Lizards. The latter are
+often seen sunning themselves at the entrance of a hole among a colony
+of Bee-eaters; and frequently have I avenged the birds by treating the
+yellow reptile to a charge of shot. The bills of Bee-eaters, after
+boring out their habitations, are sometimes worn away to less than half
+their usual length; but as newly-arrived birds never have these stumpy
+bills, it is evident that they grow again to their ordinary length. It
+has often been a source of wonder to me how they have the exertion to
+make these long tunnels: the amount of exertion must be enormous; but
+when one considers the boles of the Sand-Martin, it is perhaps not so
+surprising after all. During my stay at Gibraltar, Bee-eaters decreased
+very much in the neighbourhood, being continually shot on account
+of their bright plumage, to put in ladies’ hats. Owing to this sad
+fashion, I saw no less than seven hundred skins, all shot at Tangier
+in the spring of 1874, which were consigned by Olcese to some dealer in
+London. However, the enormous injury these birds do to the peasants who
+keep Bees fully merits any amount of punishment, but, at the same time,
+they destroy quantities of Wasps. After being fired at once or twice,
+they become very wary and shy at the breeding-places; and the best way
+to shoot them is to hide near the _colmenares_, or groups of _corchos_,
+or cork bee-hives, which in Spain are placed in rows, sometimes to
+the number of seventy or eighty together; and it is no unusual thing
+to see as many Bee-eaters whirling round and swooping down, even
+seizing the bees at the very entrance of their hives. The reason of
+their early departure in August is to be accounted for by the simple
+fact that bees cease to work when there are no flowers, and by that
+time all vegetation is scorched up.” The Bee-eater suffers probably
+less from the fashionable rage after its plumes than do some of the
+bright-coloured birds, as it goes in winter to South Africa, where it
+rears another brood of young ones.
+
+[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN BEE-EATER.]
+
+
+THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE MOTMOTS (_Momotidæ_).
+
+[Illustration: BILL OF MOTMOT.]
+
+These birds are peculiar to the New World, being found from Mexico
+southwards through the whole of Central America and the South American
+continent. Their general plumage is green, and the majority of the
+species have a large racket at the end of the centre tail-feathers,
+formed by the bird itself, as detailed below. Mr. Waterton gives an
+account of the Motmots in Demerara, and he was the first to point out
+that the racket in the tail was produced by the bird’s own action.
+He writes:--“The Houtou ranks high in beauty amongst the birds of
+Demerara. His body is green, with a bluish cast in the wings and tail;
+his crown, which he erects at pleasure, consists of black in the
+centre, surrounded with lovely blue of two different shades; he has a
+triangular black spot, edged with blue, behind the eye, extending to
+the ear; and on his breast a sable tuft, consisting of nine feathers,
+edged also with blue. This bird seems to suppose that its beauty can
+be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same operation
+as one’s hair in a barber’s shop, only with this difference, that it
+uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors.
+As soon as his tail is full-grown, he begins about an inch from the
+extremity of the two longest feathers in it, and cuts away the web on
+both sides of the shaft, making a gap about an inch long. Both male
+and female adonise their tails in this manner, which gives them a
+remarkable appearance amongst all other birds. While we consider the
+tail of the Houtou blemished and defective, were he to come amongst us,
+he would probably consider our heads, cropped and bald, in no better
+light. He who wishes to observe this handsome bird in his native
+haunts must be in the forest at the morning’s dawn. The Houtou shuns
+the society of man; the plantations and cultivated parts are too much
+disturbed to engage it to settle there. The thick and gloomy forests
+are the places preferred by the solitary Houtou. In those far-extending
+wilds, about day-break, you hear him articulate, in a distinct and
+mournful tone, ‘Houtou, houtou.’ Move cautiously on to where the sound
+proceeds from, and you will see him sitting in the underwood, about
+a couple of yards from the ground, his tail moving up and down every
+time he articulates ‘houtou.’ He lives on insects and the berries among
+the underwood; and very rarely is seen in the lofty trees, except the
+bastard Siloabali-tree, the fruit of which is grateful to him. He makes
+no nest, but rears his young in a hole in the sand, generally on the
+side of a hill.”
+
+[Illustration: MOTMOT.]
+
+In confirmation of Mr. Waterton’s remarks, a paper was published by Mr.
+Osbert Salvin in the “Proceedings of the Zoological Society” for 1873
+(p. 429):--“Some years ago (1860) this Society possessed a specimen of
+_Momotus subrufescens_, which lived in one of the large cages of the
+parrot-house all by itself. I have a very distinct recollection of the
+bird; for I used every time I saw it to cheer it up a bit by whistling
+such of its notes as I had picked up in the forests of America. The
+bird always seemed to appreciate this attention; for though it never
+replied, it became at once animated, hopped about the cage, and swung
+its tail from side to side like the pendulum of a clock. For a long
+time its tail had perfect spatules; but towards the end of its life
+I noticed that the median feathers were no longer trimmed with such
+precision; and on looking at its beak I noticed that from some cause or
+other it did not _close properly_, but gaped slightly at the tip, and
+had thus become unfitted for removing the vanes of the feathers. Since
+the subject has been revived by Dr. Murie, it occurred to me that Mr.
+Bartlett could hardly have failed to watch this bird during its moults,
+and whilst the tail-feathers were growing. I accordingly wrote to him,
+and received the following reply:--
+
+‘DEAR SIR,--During the several years the Motmot lived here I
+had many opportunities of watching its habits; and _I have seen the
+bird in the act of picking off the webs of the central feathers of its
+tail_, and have taken from the bottom of the cage the fragments of web
+that fell from the bird’s bill. As the bird lived here for some years,
+its bill got rather out of order, that is, it did not close properly
+at the point; and consequently the picking off the web at last was
+imperfectly performed, and the two sides of the tail-feather presented
+an unequal and unfinished appearance. I noticed also that the Motmot
+frequently threw up castings, after the manner of the Kingfishers and
+other birds that swallow indigestible substances.--Yours faithfully,
+A. D. BARTLETT.’
+
+[Illustration: TAIL-FEATHERS OF MOTMOT. (_From the Proceedings of the
+Zoological Society._)
+
+(A) Tail of _M. lessoni_: two Central Rectrices shaded; (B) Tail of
+_M. mexicanus_: the Central Rectrices, not fully grown, are shaded;
+(C) Tail of _M. lessoni_, with stems of Central Rectrices partially
+denuded; (D) Tail of _P. platyrhynchus_, with Central Rectrices not
+symmetrical.]
+
+“The point is further elucidated by the examination of skins in our
+collection. We have a number of specimens of various species in which
+the central tail-feathers were growing when the birds were shot. The
+drawings now exhibited show some of them. Figure A represents the
+tail of a young _Momotus lessoni_ in its first plumage. The central
+tail-feathers are here untouched; they merely show the reduction in
+the breadth of the web in the part which is subsequently denuded. Of
+this more anon. Figure B shows the growing feathers of the tail of a
+specimen of _Momotus mexicanus_; in this a few vanes have been removed
+from the left-hand feather. Figure C shows the process of denudation
+still further advanced. In all these three birds it will be noticed
+that the feathers in question have grown symmetrically, both being of
+nearly equal length. Figure D represents the tail of a _Prionirhynchus
+platyrhynchus_, where these feathers have not grown symmetrically, but
+the left-hand one has been developed sooner than the right-hand one.
+What has happened? The bird expecting to find two feathers upon which
+to operate has commenced to nibble not only the left central rectrix,
+but also the next rectrix on the right-hand side! But it seems to
+have not felt very certain about the state of its tail, for it has
+wandered off to one of the others, and commenced nibbling it also.
+When, however, the proper right-hand feather appeared, these mistakes
+have been discovered, and the work recommenced in the usual way. I
+can interpret in no other way the state in which the feathers on the
+right-hand side of the tail of this bird appear.”
+
+
+THE EIGHTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE ROLLERS (_Coraciadæ_).
+
+These birds constitute a family of birds which are strictly denizens
+of the Old World, and are remarkable for their bright plumage. The
+vernacular name of Roller is given to them from their habit of mounting
+or “rolling” in the air. Canon Tristram, in describing the habits of
+the European species (_Coracias garrula_) in Palestine, writes as
+follows:--“On the 12th of April I reached Ain Sultan (Jericho) alone,
+and remained there in solitude for several days, during which I had
+many opportunities of observing the grotesque habits of the Roller. For
+several successive evenings, great flocks of Rollers mustered shortly
+before sunset on some _dôm_ trees near the fountain, with all the noise
+but without the decorum of the Rooks. After a volley of discordant
+screams, from the sound of which it derives its Arabic trivial name of
+‘Schurkrak,’ a few birds would start from their perch, and commence a
+series of somersaults overhead, somewhat after the fashion of Tumbler
+Pigeons. In a moment or two they would be followed by the whole flock,
+and these gambols would be repeated for a dozen times or more. Every
+where it takes its perch on some conspicuous branch or on the top of
+a rock, where it can see and be seen. The bare tops of the fig-trees,
+before they put forth their leaves, are, in the cultivated terraces,
+a particularly favourite resort. In the barren Ghor I have often
+watched it perched unconcernedly on a knot of gravel or marl in the
+plain, watching apparently for the emergence of beetles from the sand.
+Elsewhere I have not seen it settle on the ground. Like Europeans in
+the East, it can make itself happy without chairs and tables in the
+desert, but prefers a comfortable easy-chair when it is to be found.
+Its nest I have seen in ruins, in holes in rocks, in burrows, in steep
+sand-cliffs, but far more generally in hollow trees. The colony in
+the Wady Kelt used burrows excavated by themselves; and many a hole
+did they relinquish, owing to the difficulty of working it. But so
+cunningly were the nests placed under a crumbling treacherous ledge,
+overhanging a chasm of perhaps one or two hundred feet, that we were
+completely foiled in our siege. We obtained a nest of six eggs, quite
+fresh, in a hollow tree in Bashan, near Gadara, on the 6th of May.
+It is noticed by Russell among the birds of Aleppo.” The colour of
+the Common Roller is very beautiful, and we can well understand the
+significance of the Turkish name “Alla Carga,” or Beautiful Crow. The
+back is pale cinnamon-brown; the wing-coverts pale blue, excepting
+those on the edge of the wing, which are rich ultramarine; the quills
+brownish-black, deep ultramarine underneath; the secondaries with more
+blue on the outer web; the forehead white; the crown of the head and
+back of the neck pale blue; the lower back and rump ultramarine; the
+upper tail-coverts greenish-blue; the tail blackish-brown, the feathers
+blue at the base, the two centre feathers dull green; cheeks and throat
+pale blue, streaked with silvery blue; the under surface of the body
+pale greenish-blue. The total length is twelve inches. One curious
+feature about the European bird is that the outer tail-feather tends
+towards a point at the tip, as if there was an inclination to become
+elongated; and in Africa there is a species which actually differs from
+the European Roller only in having the outer tail-feathers elongated to
+an extent of several inches.
+
+In Madagascar, that wonderful island which produces so many peculiar
+forms of bird life, there are found the Ground Rollers (_Atelornis_),
+extraordinary birds which live entirely on the ground, and only come
+out at dusk. Their flight is said by M. Grandidier to be very weak,
+so that the birds are never found above the lowest branches. They are
+rather local in their habitat, but where they do occur seem not to be
+uncommon. The Cyrombo Roller (_Leptosoma discolor_) is also a native
+of Madagascar, and has at first sight much the appearance of a Cuckoo,
+of which family of birds it was for many years considered to be a
+member. The head is extremely large in this bird, and the region of
+the nostrils densely plumed; but the latter, instead of being placed
+near the base of the bill, as in most Rollers, are situated nearly
+in the middle of the upper mandible. Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam give
+an interesting account of this bird in their notes on the “Birds of
+Madagascar”:--“The natives of the north-west of Madagascar give this
+bird the name of Cyrombo. It has the curious habit of hovering in the
+air, and uttering a very loud note, striking its wings against its body
+as it calls. This cry, resembling the syllables _tu-hou_, _tu-hou_,
+_tu-hou_, goes on increasing in force. Nowhere have we found this bird
+in greater numbers than in the forests in the neighbourhood of the
+bays of Boény and Jongony, in the south-western portion of the island
+of Mayotte. The racket that they make during the whole journey is
+truly wearisome. Although very active as criers, these birds are lazy
+and stupid. As soon as they are perched on the branch of a tree, they
+remain, so to speak, immovable, and in perpendicular position, so that
+it is easy to see them and knock them over. When seen in this position,
+they look like birds impaled. We suppose that they live in polyandry,
+because one always sees three times as many males as females; often
+we have seen three males in company with one single female, and all
+allowed themselves to be killed one after the other. In fact, when one
+is killed, the others do not fly away, but content themselves with
+merely moving from one branch to another. These birds live principally
+on Grasshoppers, but they devour also Chameleons and Lizards, which
+gives to their flesh a disagreeable odour, like that we observe in the
+Common Cuckoo. In preparing these birds we often found them with a
+species of large parasite of the family of the Ornithomyiæ, of a dirty
+green colour. We were never able to study the propagation of this bird;
+but while in Mayotte we saw an individual make a nest of rushes in the
+hole of a great ‘Badamier’ (_Terminalia Catappa_). These birds when
+they cry puff out the throat, so that this portion of the body has the
+appearance of a pendent bag. When wounded, they erect the feathers of
+the forehead and ears as well as those of the throat, all the while
+distributing well-aimed blows with the beak. The Cyrombo plays a great
+part in the chants and religious recitations of the Malagasy natives.
+The French colonists of Mayotte call this bird the ‘Parrot.’ It is
+common at Madagascar and Mayotte, and has, according to Mr. Sclater,
+been found in the island of Anjounan.”
+
+[Illustration: BLUE ROLLER.]
+
+
+THE NINTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE TROGONS
+(_Trogonidæ_).
+
+These beautiful birds are found both in the Old World and the New, but
+are inhabitants of the tropical latitudes only. In Africa two species
+only are known, nor does another species occur until the coast of
+India is reached, and then in the forests of the peninsula and of the
+Himalayas there are some beautiful red-breasted representatives of the
+family, whence throughout the Malayan peninsula and the Sunda Islands
+some of the handsomest Trogons occur. But it is in America, from Mexico
+southwards, that the larger number of species is met with, no less
+than thirty-three out of a total of forty-six Trogons being peculiar
+to the New World. Their habits vary somewhat, as all the Old World
+members are insectivorous, while the American species principally feed
+on fruit, and only devour insects in a secondary manner. The Trogons
+may be distinguished not only by their broadened bill, but by the foot,
+where the first and second toes are turned permanently, two in front
+and two behind. This is a different arrangement to that of the Cuckoos
+and other climbing _Picariæ_, where the fourth toe is permanently or
+temporarily turned backwards as well as the first. The skin of these
+birds is remarkably thin and tender, so that their preparation is by
+no means an easy matter, and their appearance is also detracted from
+by a scantiness of plumage on the nape, where a great want of feathers
+takes place. Mr. Wallace, writing of the birds of this present family,
+remarks:--“As an instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use
+their feet for anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons
+of South America feed principally on fruit, which one would think they
+would get by climbing or walking after, if they could. But no; they
+take their station on a bare branch about the middle of the tree, and
+having fixed their attention on some particularly tempting fruit, they
+dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing, and return to their
+original seat. Often, while waiting under a fruit-tree for Chatterers
+or Pigeons, have we received the first intimation of the presence of a
+Trogon by the _whir-r-r_ of its wings as it darted after a fruit. It is
+curious that this habit seems confined to the Trogons of America. In
+the East I have never yet observed it, and in the numerous specimens I
+have opened, nothing has been found but insects. The African Trogons
+also appear to be wholly insectivorous.”
+
+Again, in his “Naturalist in Nicaragua” (p. 122) Mr. Belt writes:--“The
+Trogons are general feeders. I have taken from their crops the remains
+of fruits, grasshoppers, beetles, termites, and even small crabs
+and land shells. The largest species, the Massena Trogon (_Trogon
+massena_), is one foot in length, dark bronze-green above, with the
+smaller wing-feathers speckled white and black, and the belly of a
+beautiful carmine. Sometimes it sits on a branch above where the army
+of ants are foraging below, and when a grasshopper or other large
+insect flies up and alights on a leaf it darts after it, picks it up,
+and returns to its perch. I sometimes found them breaking into the,
+nests of the termites with their strong bills, and eating the large
+soft-bodied workers, and it was from the crop of this species that I
+took the remains of a small crab and land shell (_Helicina_). They take
+short, quick, jerking flights, and are often met with along with flocks
+of other birds--Flycatchers, Tanagers, Creepers, Woodpeckers, &c., that
+hunt together, traversing the forests in flocks of hundreds, belonging
+to more than a score of different species, so that while they are
+passing over the trees seem alive with them. Mr. Bates has mentioned
+similar gregarious flocks met with by him in Brazil; and I never went
+any distance into the woods around St. Domingo without seeing them.
+The reason of their association together may be partly for protection,
+as no rapacious bird or mammal could approach the flock without being
+discovered by one or other of them; but the principal reason appears
+to be that they play into each other’s hands in their search for
+food. Creepers and Woodpeckers and others drive the insects out of
+their hiding-places under bark, amongst moss and withered leaves. The
+Flycatchers sit on branches and fly after the larger insects, the
+Flycatchers taking them on the wing, the Trogons from the leaves on
+which they have settled.”
+
+
+THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL (_Pharomacrus[280] mocinno_).
+
+This beautiful species is mentioned in Willughby’s Ornithology, which
+was published some two hundred years ago, in which book an appendix is
+devoted to such birds as the author suspected to be “fabulous;” and
+the Quetzaltototl of Hernandez was placed in this category, nor was it
+till the French traveller Delattre visited Guatemala, and published
+his account of the habits of the bird in 1843, that it was restored
+to its proper position as one of the most beautiful of the feathered
+tribe: it is now by no means rare in collections. The best account
+of the habits of this species--and, indeed, of any Trogon--is that
+given by Mr. Osbert Salvin, in his paper entitled “Quesal-shooting in
+Vera Paz,”[281] in Guatemala. He writes from his diary:--“Off to the
+mountains at last, with a fine day and a fair prospect of success.
+The road, after crossing the river, strikes off to the northward--a
+mountain track winding among the hills. Soon after entering the forest,
+a river crosses the path--a foaming torrent--a fall into which gives
+no hope of escape. A felled tree, one of the largest of the forest,
+forms the bridge, over which, slippery with moss and foam, we have
+to pass. For ourselves it is nothing; but I must say I tremble for
+the Indians, each of whom carries his 75 lbs. of cargo. In the worst
+and most slippery part, the foothold is somewhat improved by the tree
+being notched with a ‘machete;’ but still it is as dangerous a pass
+as I ever crossed. After half-an-hour’s delay, we reach the other
+bank. One ‘mozo’ only turned faint-hearted, and another carried his
+pack across. From the river the path becomes very precipitous, and
+we continue to climb till we reach the foot of a rock, where we find
+a deserted rancho, and take possession. A fire having been made to
+heat the pixtones, we dine, and afterwards start for the forest close
+by to look for Quesals. On entering, the path takes the unpleasant
+form of a succession of felled trees, which are slippery from recent
+rains, and render progress slow. My companions are ahead, and I am
+just balancing myself along the last trunk, when Filipe comes back
+to say that they have heard a Quesal. Of course, being especially
+anxious to watch as well as to shoot one of these birds myself, I
+immediately hurry to the spot. I sit down upon my wide-awake in most
+approved style close to Cipriano, who is calling the bird, and wait,
+all eyes and ears, for the result. I have not to wait long. A distant
+clattering note indicates that the bird is on the wing. He settles--a
+splendid male--on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from where we
+are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, but I keep him
+back, wishing to risk the chance of losing a specimen rather than miss
+such an opportunity of seeing the bird in its living state, and of
+watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the
+body remaining in the same position, the head only moving slowly from
+side to side. The tail does not hang quite perpendicularly, the angle
+between the true tail and the vertical being perhaps as much as fifteen
+or twenty degrees. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed
+again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the long tail-coverts
+to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the
+Quesal’s eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, plucks
+the berry, and returns to his former position. This is done with a
+degree of elegance that defies description. The remark has often been
+made by persons looking at stuffed Humming-birds, ‘What lovely little
+things these must look in life, when they are flying about!’ But they
+do not. Place a Humming-bird twenty yards from you, and what do you see
+of its colours, except in the most favourable position and light? This
+is not the case with the Quesal. The rich metallic green of the head,
+back, and tail-coverts reflects its colour in every position, whilst
+the deep scarlet of the breast and the white of the tail show vividly
+at a distance, and contrast with the principal colour of the body.
+The living Quesal strikes the eye by its colour at once. It stands
+unequalled for splendour among birds of the New World, and is hardly
+surpassed among those of the Old. Such are my reflections, when a low
+whistle from Cipriano calls the bird nearer, and a moment afterwards it
+is in my hand--the first Quesal I have seen and shot.
+
+[Illustration: LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL.]
+
+“The cries of the Quesal are various. They consist principally of a low
+double note, ‘_whe-oo_, _whe-oo_,’ which the bird repeats, whistling
+it softly at first, and then gradually swelling it into a loud but not
+unmelodious cry. This is often succeeded by a long note, which begins
+low, and after swelling, dies away as it began. Both these notes can be
+easily imitated by the human voice. The bird’s other cries are harsh
+and discordant. They are best imitated by doubling a pliant leaf over
+the first fingers, which must be held about two inches apart. The two
+edges of the leaf being then placed in the mouth, and the breath drawn
+in, the required sound is produced. Cipriano was an adept at imitating
+these cries, but I failed in producing them for want of practice.
+When searching for Quesals, the hunter whistles as he walks along,
+here and there sitting down and repeating the other notes. As soon as
+he hears a bird answering at a distance he stops, and imitates the
+bird’s cries until it has approached near enough to enable him either
+to shoot it from where he stands, or to creep up to within shot. The
+female generally flies up first, and perches on a tree near the hunter,
+who takes no notice of her, but continues calling till the male, who
+usually quickly follows the female, appears. Should the male not show
+himself, the hunter will sometimes shoot the female. Thus it is that
+so large a proportion of males are shot. The flight of the Quesal is
+rapid and straight; the long tail-feathers, which never seem to be in
+his way, stream after him. The bird is never found except in forests
+composed of the highest trees, the lower branches of which (_i.e._,
+those at about two-thirds of the height of the tree from the ground)
+seem to be its favourite resort. Its food consists principally of
+fruit, but occasionally a caterpillar may be found in its stomach.”
+
+The distinguishing character of this fine Trogon is the long tail of
+the male bird, which measures about three feet in length. The colour of
+the upper parts is golden green, as well as the throat and fore neck;
+the breast is bright scarlet, and is overshadowed by some beautiful
+drooping plumes, which spring from the shoulders, and hang gracefully
+over the wings; the outer tail-feathers are white, with black bases,
+and the bill is yellow. The female has a black bill, and is much
+smaller, and she does not possess the long tail and decorative plumes
+of the male.
+
+
+THE TENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE NIGHTJARS, OR
+GOATSUCKERS (_Caprimulgidæ_).
+
+[Illustration: MOUTH OF GOATSUCKER.]
+
+From the adjoining woodcut it will be seen that a Nightjar is
+indeed a Fissirostral, or wide-gaping bird, and this large mouth is
+characteristic of the whole family. Their soft mottled plumage, their
+large eyes, and their habit of flying by night, have induced many
+naturalists to place them in close proximity to the Owls, with which
+family of birds, however, they have nothing further in common. Members
+of the family of Goatsuckers are distributed nearly all over the world,
+with the exception of the islands of Oceania, and a great difference
+is observable in their size and form, and to some extent in their
+habits. Thus the Guacharo, or Oil-bird (_Steatornis[282] caripensis_),
+is met with only in the island of Trinidad, where it is also called
+_Diablotin_, and where it inhabits the inmost recesses of caverns,
+either by the sea or inland. The birds spend the entire day in these
+dark recesses, and come out only at night to procure their food, which
+consists of the fruits of different palms, the seeds of which are
+rejected, and form, with the droppings of the birds, a thick flooring
+of guano in some of the caves. Sometimes the bird forms a huge cradle
+of this deposit, apparently for the greater security of its young
+ones; and one of these singular nests, if such they may be called, is
+exhibited in the British Museum. The nestlings become very fat, and
+are sometimes eaten, but according to M. Léotand, in his work on the
+Birds of Trinidad, there is a certain odour about them which makes them
+unpalatable to the appetite of most people.
+
+[Illustration: OIL-BIRD.]
+
+In India and in the Malayan Archipelago is found a group of Nightjars
+belonging to the genus _Batrachostomus_[283] popularly known as
+“Frog-mouths;” their place is taken in Australia and New Guinea by the
+giants of the family--the _Podargi_, examples of which are generally
+to be seen in the London Zoological Gardens. Of the Tawny-shouldered
+_Podargus_ (_P. strigoides_[284]) Mr. Gould gives the following
+account:--“Like the rest of this genus, this species is strictly
+nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in
+an upright position across, and never parallel to, the branch, which
+it so nearly resembles as scarcely to be distinguished from it. I have
+occasionally seen it beneath the thick foliage of the _Casuarinæ_, and
+I have been informed that it sometimes shelters itself in the hollow
+trunks of the _Eucalypti_, but I could never detect one in such a
+situation; I mostly found them in pairs, perched near each other on
+the branches of the gums, in situations not at all sheltered from the
+beams of the midday sun. So lethargic are its slumbers, that it is
+almost impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently shot one without
+disturbing its mate, sitting close by; it may also be knocked off
+with sticks or stones, and sometimes it is even taken with the hand.
+When aroused, it flies lazily off, with heavy flapping wings, to a
+neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the approach
+of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been
+previously dull and stupid. The stomach of one I dissected induced
+me to believe that it does not usually capture its prey while on the
+wing, or subsist on nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the
+habit of creeping among the branches in search of such as are in a
+state of repose. The power it possesses of shifting the position of the
+outer toe backwards, as circumstances may require, is a very singular
+feature, and may also tend to assist them in their progress among the
+branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, in the middle of the night, had
+the stomach filled with fresh-captured Mantis and Locusts (_Phasmidæ_
+and _Cicadæ_), which seldom move at night, and the latter of which are
+generally resting against the upright boles of the trees. In other
+specimens I found the remains of small Coleoptera, intermingled with
+the fibres of the roots of what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such
+as would be found in decayed and hollow trees. The whole contour of the
+bird shows that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing
+those rapid evolutions that are necessary for the capture of its prey
+in the air: the wing being short and concave in comparison with those
+of the true aërial Nightjars, and particularly with the Australian
+form, to which I have given the name of _Eurostopodus_.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON GOATSUCKER.]
+
+“Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, having
+seen many pairs breeding during my rambles in the woods. It makes
+a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks, carelessly interwoven
+together, and placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient
+size to ensure its safety; the trees most frequently chosen are the
+_Eucalypti_, but I have occasionally seen the nest on an appletree
+(_Angophora_) or a swamp-oak (_Casuarina_). In every instance one
+of the birds was sitting on the eggs, and the other perched on a
+neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep. That the male participates
+in the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the
+nest, which, on dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally
+two in number, of a beautiful immaculate white, and of a long oval
+form, one inch and ten lines in length by one inch and three lines in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: WHIP-POOR-WILL.]
+
+“Like the other species of the genus, it is subject to considerable
+variation in its colouring, the young, which assume the adult livery at
+an early age, being somewhat darker in all their markings. In some a
+rich tawny colour predominates, while others are more grey. The night
+call of this species is a hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct
+sounds, which cannot correctly be described. The stomach is thick and
+muscular, and is lined with a hair-like substance, like that of the
+common Cuckoo.”
+
+Mr. Waterton gives the following notes on Goatsuckers in his
+“Wanderings” (p. 139):--“When the sun has sunk in the western woods,
+no longer agitated by the breeze, when you can only see a straggler or
+two of the feathered tribe hastening to join its mate, already at its
+roosting-place, then it is that the Goatsucker comes out of the forest,
+where it has sat all day long in slumbering ease, unmindful of the gay
+and busy scenes around it. Its eyes are too delicately formed to bear
+the light, and thus it is forced to shun the flaming face of day, and
+wait in patience till night invites him to partake of the pleasures her
+dusky presence brings. The harmless, unoffending Goatsucker, from the
+time of Aristotle down to the present day, has been in disgrace with
+man. Father has handed it down to son, and author to author, that this
+nocturnal thief subsists by milking the flocks. Poor injured little
+bird of night, how sadly hast thou suffered, and how foul a stain has
+inattention to facts put upon thy character! Thou hast never robbed man
+of any part of his property, nor deprived the kid of a drop of milk.
+
+“When the moon shines bright you may have a fair opportunity of
+examining the Goatsucker. You will see it close by the Cows, Goats,
+and Sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies. Approach
+a little nearer--he is not shy: ‘he fears no danger, for he knows no
+sin.’ See how the nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd, and with
+what dexterity he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight on
+the bellies, legs, and udders of the animals. Observe how quiet they
+stand, and how sensible they seem of his good offices, for they neither
+strike at him nor hit him with their tails, nor tread on him, nor try
+to drive him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect him and
+inspect his stomach, you would find no milk there. It is full of the
+flies which have been annoying the herd.
+
+[Illustration: LYRE-TAILED NIGHTJAR.]
+
+“The pretty mottled plumage of the Goatsucker, like that of the Owl,
+wants the lustre which is observed in the feathers of the birds of day.
+This at once marks him as a lover of the pale moon’s nightly beams.
+There are nine species here (Demerara); the largest appears nearly the
+size of the English Wood Owl. Its cry is so remarkable that, having
+once heard it, you will never forget it. When night reigns over these
+immeasurable wilds, whilst lying in your hammock, you will hear this
+Goatsucker lamenting like one in deep distress. A stranger would never
+conceive it to be the cry of a bird; he would say it was the departing
+voice of a midnight murdered victim, or the last wailing of Niobe for
+her poor children before she was turned into stone. Suppose yourself
+in hopeless sorrow, begin with a high loud note, and pronounce ‘Ha,
+ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha!’ each note lower and lower, till the last
+is scarcely heard, pausing a moment or two betwixt every note, and
+you will have some idea of the moaning of the largest Goatsucker in
+Demerara. Four other species of the Goatsucker articulate some words
+so distinctly that they have received their names from the sentences
+they utter, and absolutely bewilder the stranger on his arrival in
+these parts. The most common one sits down close by your door, and
+flies, and alights three or four yards before you as you walk along
+the road, crying ‘Who are you, who-who-who-are-you.’ Another bids
+you ‘Work away, work-work-work-away.’ A third cries mournfully,
+‘Willy-come-go, willy-willy-willy-come-go.’ And high up in the country
+a fourth tells you to ‘Whip-poor-will, whip-whip-whip-poor-will.’ You
+will never persuade the negro to destroy these birds, or get the Indian
+to let fly his arrows at them. They are birds of omen and reverential
+dread. Jumbo, the demon of Africa, has them under his command, and
+they equally obey the Yabahou, or Demeraran Indian Devil. They are
+receptacles for departed souls who come back again to earth, unable to
+rest for crimes done in their days of nature; or they are expressly
+sent by Jumbo or Yabahou to haunt cruel or hard-hearted monsters, and
+retaliate injuries received from them. If the largest Goatsucker chance
+to cry near the white man’s door, sorrow and grief will soon be inside;
+and they expect to see the master waste away with a slow consuming
+sickness. If it be heard close to the negro’s or Indian’s hut, from
+that night misfortune sits brooding over it, and they await the event
+in terrible suspense.”
+
+The common Goatsucker, which is also popularly known as the “Fern Owl,”
+or “Nightjar,” visits England only in the spring, when it arrives from
+Southern Africa, and distributes itself over the country. It is by
+no means an uncommon bird, but is rarely seen, owing to its habit of
+coming out only at night, or at least in the twilight. They may then
+often be disturbed from the ground in a country road, when they take
+to flight in a heavy manner, often making a flapping noise, which
+appears to be caused by bringing the wings sharply together above the
+body of the bird. The call-note may be described as “churring,” and
+is disagreeable in sound; it is generally uttered by the Goatsucker
+when sitting on a low branch of a tree or on a railing. It should be
+mentioned that the Caprimulgidæ do not, as a rule, sit crosswise on a
+branch, but always along the latter; their favourite haunt, however,
+is generally the ground, and it is supposed by some naturalists that
+the curious pectinated claw is used by the Goatsucker for scratching
+the ground. Dr. Günther, F.R.S., who kept one of these birds alive,
+says that it frequently used its comb-like claw for this purpose. Other
+people have thought that its claw was intended for clearing away the
+_débris_ of moths and other insects, which would clog the bristles on
+the bill. The true use of this comb-like appendage on the foot has not
+yet, however, been thoroughly determined.
+
+[Illustration: FOOT OF THE COMMON GOATSUCKER.]
+
+
+THE ELEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
+
+
+THE SWIFTS (_Cypselidæ_).
+
+These birds, with the Humming-birds, are separated from the other
+Fissirostral _Picariæ_ by many anatomical characters, the chief being
+the arrangement of the feather-tracts on the body, which are quite
+peculiar; the muscles are also unlike those of the other families, and
+hence these two groups are often divided off by modern naturalists
+under the name of _Macrochires_.[285]
+
+
+THE COMMON SWIFT (_Cypselus apus_).[286]
+
+In the beginning of May the Common Swift comes to Great Britain and
+the rest of Europe, after passing his winter sojourn in South Africa.
+He is one of the latest arrivals, as he comes only when summer has
+fairly begun and fine weather is pretty well assured; again, in autumn,
+he is almost the first of the summer migrants to take his departure,
+and the absence of the Swifts from their accustomed haunts is a sure
+sign of the approach of the fall of the year. So incumbent does this
+early migration seem to be upon the species, that the Swifts have been
+known to leave their young to perish of starvation rather than delay
+their departure if cold weather suddenly approaches. All birds appear
+to have at times a failure of instinct, and the Swift is no exception
+to the rule, for sometimes they are caught in some cold weather on
+their arrival, and it is not uncommon to find them benumbed with cold,
+and fluttering helplessly or even lying dead on the ground. In this
+latter position they are peculiarly helpless, their little legs being
+unable to raise them so as to give them the proper momentum to rise
+into the air again, while their long wings are much in the way, and
+only assist in their entire discomfiture. The home of the Swift, then,
+is in the air, and here his evolutions are most rapid, and performed
+with extreme quickness and yet with consummate ease. For his breeding
+home he often selects water-spouts on lofty buildings, such as the
+English cathedrals, or else places his nest under the roofs of houses,
+to the edge of which he is able to shuffle, and then to launch himself
+suddenly down, after which his course is easy. In the evening there
+is generally a little gathering of Swifts together, when they fly
+screaming round and round the buildings in which their nests have been
+placed, separating again for a few moments to rejoin in an excited
+flock, which passes with incredible swiftness and much noise round the
+edges of the towers or homesteads. When about to migrate, however, they
+are silent, and the flocks which may be seen coursing along the sides
+of the downs in the southern counties of England in August utter no
+sound, as if impressed with the gravity of the long journey they are
+about to undertake.
+
+[Illustration: COMMON SWIFT.]
+
+Macgillivray describes the nest of the Common Swift as follows:--“It is
+very rudely constructed, flattened, about six inches in diameter and
+half an inch thick; composed of particles of Aira cæspitosa, straws
+of oats, wheat, and grasses, intermixed with fibrous roots, moss,
+wool, cotton, hair, and feathers of the domestic fowl, partridge, and
+rook. These materials are confusedly felted and agglutinated, the
+glueing matter being of a gelatinous, not of a resinous, nature, and
+in extremely thin shreds, which crackle, but do not readily burn,
+when flame is applied to them. There is, however, a small quantity of
+the membranous scales of the Scotch fir, together with some resinous
+matter, in one of these nests.” The eggs are generally two in number,
+of a long oval shape, and entirely white.
+
+[Illustration: TREE SWIFT.]
+
+[Illustration: EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTLETS.]
+
+Swifts appear to be found all over the world, the most graceful being
+perhaps the Tree Swifts (_Dendrochelidon_), which inhabit India and
+the Malayan region. In this same part of the world are also found the
+Edible-nest Swiftlets (_Collocalia_), which breed in caves, their
+nests being eaten by the Chinese and other Asiatic people. Dr. Jerdon
+says:--“The nest, when pure and of the first make, is composed entirely
+of inspissated mucus from the large salivary glands of the bird.
+It is very small, bluntly triangular in form, and slightly concave
+within; of a semi-transparent, fibrous sort of texture, bluish-white
+in colour, and with the fibres, as it were, crossed and interlaced.
+When the nests of the first make are taken away, the second nests are
+mixed with feathers, and occasionally other foreign substances. The
+eggs are two in number, and pure white.” Mr. E. L. Layard gives the
+following account of a visit to a cave inhabited by the Indian Swiftlet
+in Ceylon:--“I have at last visited the cave in which _Collocalia
+nidifica_[287] builds, and will now, with the aid of my journal, give
+all the information I can, sending you birds skinned and in spirit,
+and a young nestling taken from the nest with my own hand. The cave is
+situated at a place called Havissay, about thirty-five miles from the
+sea and twenty from the river, and about 500 feet up a fine wood-clad
+hill, called Diagallagoolawa, or Hoonoomooloocota. Its dimensions are
+as follows:--Length between fifty and sixty feet, about twenty-six
+broad, and twenty high. It is a mass of limestone rock, which has
+cracked off the hill-side, and slipped down on to some boulders below
+its original position, forming a hollow triangle. There are three
+entrances to the cave; one at each end, and one very small one in the
+centre. The floor consists of large boulders, covered to the depth of
+two or three inches with the droppings of the birds, old and young,
+and the bits of grass they bring in to fabricate their nests. The only
+light which penetrates the cavern from the entrances above mentioned is
+very dim. When my eyes, however, got accustomed to the light, I could
+see many hundreds of nests glued to the side of the fallen rock, but
+none to the other side, or hill itself. This I attribute to the fact
+of the face of the main rock being evidently subject to the influence
+of the weather, and perhaps to the heavy dews off the trees; but for
+this, the side in question would have been far more convenient for
+the birds to have built on, as it sloped gently outward, whereas the
+other was much overhung, and caused the birds to build their nests of
+an awkward shape, besides taking up more substance. I was at the spot
+a few days before Christmas, and fancy that must be about the time
+to see the nests in perfection. This is corroborated by the fact of
+my finding young birds in all the nests taken by me, and by what the
+old Chinaman said, that the ‘take’ came on in October. I find that
+they have three different qualities of nests, and send two for your
+inspection. The best is very clean, white as snow, and thin, and is
+also very expensive. The most inferior are composed of dry grasses,
+hair, &c., but I could not detect anything like the bloody secretion,
+as described (‘though only under peculiar circumstances of exhaustion’)
+by Mr. Barbe, even in a fresh nest. I was in the cave late (after 5
+P.M.) in the evening of a day which threatened rain, but the
+old birds were still flying round the summit of the mountain at a vast
+altitude, occasionally dashing down into the cave with food for their
+nestlings. By daylight next morning I was on foot, but the birds were
+before me, hawking on the plain below and all about the hills. I have
+found the birds here, in Colombo, in Kandy, and all along the road we
+went. I could learn nothing of the number of eggs laid, nor of their
+colour. I found one bird in each nest. The Chinese who live on the
+spot pretend not to understand anything asked them, and the apathetic
+Cingalese have never taken the trouble to see for themselves, so they
+could give me no information. The aspect of the country, broken and
+rugged, coupled with the numerous flocks of birds I saw flying round
+the various hills, leads me to think there must be many breeding-places
+yet undiscovered. One, however, was pointed out, but we had not time to
+visit it. I could not hear of any other kind of _Swift_ breeding there,
+but have just received such information as leads me to suppose that _C.
+fuciphaga_ builds near Jaffna on some rocks overhanging the sea. I may
+further add that there were no Bats in the cave with _C. nidifica_, nor
+did I see any bird of prey, save a fine _Hæmatornis_, which I shot. The
+Cingalese name for _C. nidifica_ is _Wahlæna_.”
+
+[Illustration: WHITE-THROATED SPINE-TAILED SWIFT.]
+
+
+THE TWELFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE HUMMING
+BIRDS (_Trochilidæ_).
+
+These exquisite little creatures are perhaps the largest family of
+birds known, numbering, at the present day, nearly five hundred
+species. It is simply impossible in a work like the present to do
+more than allude to a family, the full description of which by Mr.
+Gould has occupied five large folio volumes. An immense variety of form
+and colour is presented to us. All the birds are of small size, some
+of them being no larger than Hawk-moths, to which in their manner of
+flight they bear considerable resemblance.
+
+[Illustration: SWORD-BILL HUMMING BIRD.]
+
+In some countries Humming-birds are tolerably common, but some
+species are of extreme rarity, such, for instance, as the _Loddigesia
+mirabilis_, which was discovered forty years ago, and still remains
+represented by a single specimen in the collection of the late Mr.
+George Loddiges, and of which a reward of fifty pounds, offered by Mr.
+Gould, has not succeeded in obtaining a second example. As a rule,
+Humming-birds are a Neotropical family, that is to say, the vast
+majority of the species occur in South America, and do not wander
+above the line of Northern Mexico; but a few species are found in
+the Southern United States, while one occurs in summer even in North
+America, ranging as far as, and even breeding in, Canada. Professor
+Newton writes:--“Wilson, Audubon, Mr. Gosse, and several others gifted
+with the ‘pen of a ready writer,’ have so fully described, as far
+as words will admit, the habits of different members of the family
+_Trochilidæ_, that it is unnecessary to say much on this score.
+Their appearance is so entirely unlike that of any other birds that
+it is hopeless to attempt in any way to bring a just conception
+of it to the ideas of those who have not crossed the Atlantic; and
+even the comparison so often made between them and the _Sphingidæ_,
+though doubtless in the main true, is much to the advantage of the
+latter. One is admiring the clustering stars of a scarlet _Cordia_,
+the snowy cornucopias of a _Portlandia_, or some other brilliant and
+beautiful flower, when between the blossoms and one’s eye suddenly
+appears a small dark object, suspended as it were between four short
+black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows
+in front of the flower; an instant more it steadies itself, and one
+perceives the space between each pair of threads occupied by a grey
+film; again another instant, and, emitting a momentary flash of emerald
+and sapphire light, it is vanishing, lessening in the distance as it
+shoots away, to a speck that the eye cannot take note of--and all this
+so rapidly that the word on one’s lips is still unspoken, scarcely the
+thought in one’s mind changed. It was a bold man or an ignorant one
+who first ventured to depict Humming birds flying; but it cannot be
+denied that representations of them are often of special use to the
+ornithologist. The peculiar action of one, and probably of many or all
+other species of the family, is such, that at times in flying it makes
+the wings almost meet, both in front and behind, at each vibration.
+Thus, when a bird chances to enter a room it will generally go buzzing
+along the cornice. Standing beneath where it is, one will find that
+the axis of the body is vertical, and each wing is describing a nearly
+perfect semicircle. As might be expected, the pectoral muscles are
+very large; indeed, the sternum of this bird is a good deal bigger
+than that of the common Chimney Swallow (_Hirundo rustica_). But the
+extraordinary rapidity with which the vibrations are effected seems to
+be chiefly caused by these powerful muscles acting on the very short
+wingbones, which are not half the length of the same parts in the
+Swallow; and accordingly, great as this alar action is, and in spite
+of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr. Gosse, it is yet sometimes
+wanting in power, owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage
+thus obtained; and the old authors must be credited who speak of
+cobwebs catching Humming birds. On the 3rd of May, 1857, a bird of this
+species flew into the room where I was sitting, and after fluttering
+for some minutes against the ceiling, came in contact with a deserted
+spider’s web, in which it got entangled, and remained suspended and
+perfectly helpless for more than a minute, when by a violent effort it
+freed itself. I soon after caught it, still having fragments of the web
+on its head, neck, and wings; and I feel pretty sure, that had this
+web been inhabited and in good repair, instead of being deserted and
+dilapidated, the bird would never have escaped.”
+
+[Illustration: WHITE-BOOTED RACKET TAIL.]
+
+[Illustration: COMMON TOPAZ HUMMING BIRD.]
+
+Mr. A. R. Wallace has written the following account of the habits of
+Humming birds on the River Amazon:--“The greater number of species
+that frequent flowers do so, I am convinced, for the small insects
+found there, and not for the nectar. In dozens, and perhaps hundreds,
+of common flower-frequenting species which I have examined, the crop,
+stomach, and intestines have been filled with minute beetles, ants, and
+spiders, which abound in most flowers in South America. Very rarely
+indeed have I found a trace of honey or of any liquid in the crop or
+stomach. The flowers they most frequent are the various species of
+_Inga_ and the papilionaceous flowers of many large forest trees. I
+have never seen them at the bignonias, or any flowers but those which
+grow in large masses, covering a whole tree or shrub, as they visit
+perhaps a hundred flowers in a minute and never stop at a single one.
+The little Emerald Hummer I have seen in gardens and at the common
+orange (_Asclepias_), which often covers large spaces of waste ground
+in the tropics. But there are many, such as _Phaëthornis eremita_ and
+some larger allied species, which I have never seen at flowers. These
+inhabit the gloomy forest-shades, where they dart about among the
+foliage; and I have distinctly observed them visit in rapid succession
+every leaf on a branch, balancing themselves vertically in the air,
+passing their beak closely over the under surface of each leaf, and
+thus capturing, no doubt, any small insects that may be upon them.
+While doing this, the two long feathers of the tail have a vibrating
+motion, apparently serving as a rudder to assist them in performing
+the delicate operation. I have seen others searching up and down stems
+and dead sticks in the same manner, every now and then picking off
+something, exactly as a Bush Shrike or Tree Creeper does, with this
+exception, that the Humming-bird is continually on the wing. They also
+capture insects in the true Fissirostral fashion. How often may they
+be seen perched on the dead twig of a lofty tree--the station that is
+chosen by the tyrant Flycatchers and the Jacamars--from which, like
+those birds, they dart off a short distance, and after a few whirls and
+balancings return to the identical twig they had left. In the evening,
+too, just after sunset, when the Goatsuckers are beginning their search
+after insects over the rivers, I have seen Humming birds come out of
+the forest and remain a long time on the wing--now stationary, now
+darting about with the greatest rapidity, imitating in a limited space
+the evolutions of their companions the Goatsuckers, and evidently for
+the same end and purpose.”
+
+Wilson, the poet-naturalist, observes of the North American species as
+follows:--“Nature in every department of her works seems to delight
+in variety, and the present subject is almost as singular for its
+minuteness, beauty, want of song, and manner of feeding, as the Mocking
+Bird is for unrivalled excellence of note and plainness of plumage.
+This is one of the few birds that are universally beloved, and amidst
+the sweet dewy serenity of a summer’s morning his appearance amongst
+the arbours of honeysuckles and beds of flowers is truly interesting.
+
+  “‘When morning dawns, and the blest sun again
+  Lifts his red glories from the Eastern main,
+  Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews,
+  The flower-fed Humming bird his round pursues;
+  Sips with inserted tube the honied blooms,
+  And chirps his gratitude as round he roams;
+  While richest roses, though in crimson drest,
+  Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast,
+  What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly!
+  Each rapid movement gives a different dye:
+  Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,
+  Now sink to shade, now to a furnace glow.’”
+
+[Illustration: CRESTED HUMMING BIRD.]
+
+
+PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON,
+E.C.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The genus _Ovis_.
+
+[2] _Ovis Poli._
+
+[3] The genus _Capra_.
+
+[4] “Falling from a height, it protects its whole body, between its
+horns, from shock, and receives upon its horns the concussion of the
+huge stones.”
+
+[5] The genus _Gazella_.
+
+[6] _Saïga tartarica._
+
+[7] _Panthalops Hodgsoni._
+
+[8] _Æpyceros melampus._
+
+[9] _Antilope bezoartica._
+
+[10] The genus _Cephalophus_.
+
+[11] The genus _Tetraceros_.
+
+[12] The genus _Eleotragus_ and its allies.
+
+[13] _Oreas canna._
+
+[14] _Strepsiceros kudu._
+
+[15] _Euryceros Angasii._
+
+[16] The genus _Tragelaphus._
+
+[17] The _Damalidæ_.
+
+[18] The genus _Catoblepas_.
+
+[19] _Rupicapra tragus._
+
+[20] The genus _Oryx_.
+
+[21] _Portax picta._
+
+[22] _Ovibos moschatus._
+
+[23] _Bos taurus._
+
+[24] The genus _Bison_.
+
+[25] The genus _Bubalus_.
+
+[26] _Antilocapra americana._
+
+[27] _Moschus moschiferus._
+
+[28] _Camelopardalis giraffa._
+
+[29] _Alces machlis._
+
+[30] The restricted genus _Cervus_.
+
+[31] _Cervus elaphus._
+
+[32] The genera _Pseudaxis_ and _Dama_.
+
+[33] _Dama mesopotamica._
+
+[34] The genus _Rusa_ and its allies.
+
+[35] _Rusa Alfredi._
+
+[36] _Rucervus Duvaucelli._
+
+[37] _Rucervus Eldi._
+
+[38] The genus _Cervulus_.
+
+[39] _Capreolus caprea._
+
+[40] _Hydropotes inermis._
+
+[41] _Elaphurus Davidianus._
+
+[42] _Transactions of the Zoological Society_, Vol. VII. p. 333.
+
+[43] _Rangifer tarandus._
+
+[44] _Tragulidæ._
+
+[45] _Camelus dromedarius._
+
+[46] _Camelus bactrianus._
+
+[47] _Auchenia._
+
+[48] In the young there are four of these small additional teeth, but
+the outer pair disappear after a short time.
+
+[49] The upper teeth always constitute a larger segment of a smaller
+circle than the lower ones.
+
+[50] The genus _Heliophobius_ among the Mole Rats is described as
+having six molars on each side in both jaws; but the number in this
+genus appears to be variable, the sixth molar being often undeveloped.
+
+[51] See Note on p. 83.
+
+[52] Having the hind feet hand-like.
+
+[53] See _Arvicola rutilus_, p. 117.
+
+[54] Dr. Coues has proposed this generic name for the American Jumping
+Mouse, as the names _Jaculus_ and _Meriones_, given to the genus by
+various authors, had been previously used for other groups.
+
+[55] Described almost at the same time by M. Bravard under the name of
+_Typotherium_. We here employ M. Serres’ name.
+
+[56] Waterton’s “Wanderings,” pp. 161, 284.
+
+[57] _Arctopithecus castaniceps._
+
+[58] _Bradypus torquatus_, or _Bradypus crinitus_.
+
+[59] _Arctopithecus flaccidus._--_Arctopithecus Ai._
+
+[60] _Cholœpus didactylus._
+
+[61] _Cholœpus Hoffmanni._
+
+[62] _Orycteropus capensis_ (Geoffroy).
+
+[63] The uterus is double, and the placenta is disc-shaped, and is cast
+off (deciduate). There are chest and inguinal. teats. The vertebræ
+are--seven cervical, thirteen dorsal, eight lumbar, six sacral,
+twenty-five caudal.
+
+[64] The muscle called pronator quadratus is a fleshy band, four-sided
+in shape more or less. One side is attached to one of the bones of
+the fore-arm, the ulna in front above the wrist; and the other and
+opposite side adheres to the radius. The ulna being motionless, the
+muscle contracts and pulls the radius over, so as to turn the back of
+the wrist forwards, or upwards. The prone position is thus produced,
+and hence the name of the muscle. The other muscle which produces this
+movement is fixed to the fore-arm in front, near the inner elbow, and
+it is long, having a tendon which is implanted on the radius. As this
+muscle contracts, it pulls the radius over the ulna, and makes the
+wrist take up a prone position. It is called the pronator teres.
+
+[65] Genus _Manis_.
+
+[66] _Manis tetradactyla_ (Linn.).
+
+[67] _Manis gigantea_ (Illiger).
+
+[68] _Manis brachyura._--_Manis pentadactyla_ (Linn.).
+
+[69] _Myrmecophaga jubata._
+
+[70] It is certainly remarkable that the brain of this animal should
+present numerous convolutions, whilst the brain of the Sloth has
+barely any. The commissures of the brain are large, especially that of
+the centre, or corpus callosum, and also the anterior. The uterus is
+simple, the os is double, and the placenta is said to be discoidal.
+
+[71] _Tamandua tetradactyla._
+
+[72] _Cyclothurus didactylus._
+
+[73] _Dasypus gigas_ (Cuvier).
+
+[74] _Dasypus Tatouay_ (Desmarest).
+
+[75] _Dasypus sexcintus_ (Linn.).
+
+[76] _Dasypus villosus_ (Desmarest).
+
+[77] _Dasypus minutus_ (Desmarest).
+
+[78] _Dasypus Peba_ (Desmarest).
+
+[79] _Dasypus (Tolypeutes) apar_ (Geoffroy).
+
+[80] _Chlamydophorus truncatus_ (Harlan).
+
+[81] The _Macropodidæ_.
+
+[82] _Macropus giganteus_ (Shaw).
+
+[83] The presence of the pouch, or marsupium, containing the teats,
+involves many structural and physiological peculiarities which separate
+the Marsupialia, in a classificatory sense, from the rest of the
+Mammalia. The Great Kangaroo, which may be considered a fair example
+of the Marsupials, has in the female a set of skin muscles, around the
+pouch, beneath the skin, which close it. The milk, or mammary gland,
+has four long, slender teats in the pouch, and beneath the skin of
+it is a muscle called the cremaster, which is largely developed. It
+spreads over the surface of the gland, and its action is to squeeze it
+and to force out the milk through the teat. There is thus protection
+for the young, and milk is given forth, without the effort of the young
+in sucking. The reason for this is obvious. The Great Kangaroo, which
+is often as tall as a man, is pregnant for about thirty-nine days
+only, and then a little one, not bigger than a thumb, is born; it is
+not completely formed, and is blind and cannot move itself. The mother
+places it in her pouch, and it fixes on to a teat, where it hangs for
+about eight months, and then it begins to look out of the pouch. The
+duration of the life of the young in the womb is thus very small, and
+it has no placenta there, which in the other and non-marsupial Mammalia
+forms the life-union between the mother and the offspring before its
+birth. Thus, the Marsupials form one great group of Mammalia which
+are “implacentalia,” without placentas or “after-births,” and all the
+other Mammalia are “placentalia,” and have this link between mother
+and young. In all the Mammalia hitherto described the young come into
+the world by a single passage. In those now under consideration (the
+Marsupialia) there is a double passage, and the womb is separated
+into two portions, being double; so they are termed Didelphia. The
+marsupium has two remarkable bones more or less in relation to it,
+and all animals thus furnished are termed Marsupialia, and they form
+two sections or sub-orders--(1) The Marsupiata proper, with marsupial
+bones, mostly with pouches, and with inflected lower jaws. (2) The
+Monotremata, which have marsupial bones, depressions in the skin, when
+suckling, like ill-developed pouches, and beak-like jaws in front,
+which are not inflected.
+
+[84] See Footnote 83 on previous page.
+
+[85] Waterhouse’s “Natural History of the Mammalia,” order Marsupiata,
+from which much of this description of the order has been taken.
+
+[86] R. Owen, “Marsupialia;” “Todd’s Cyclopædia of Anatomy and
+Physiology.”
+
+[87] See also Vol. I., page 58, Note.
+
+[88] Mr. Gould’s works on Australian animals, occasionally quoted by me.
+
+[89] _Macropus leporoides_ (Gould).
+
+[90] _Macropus rufus_ (Desm.).
+
+[91] _Macropus agilis_ (Gould, sp.).
+
+[92] _Dendrolagus ursinus_ (Müll.).
+
+[93] Sub-genus _Hypsiprymnus_.
+
+[94] _Hypsiprymnus rufescens._
+
+[95] _Hypsiprymnus penicillatus._
+
+[96] _Hypsiprymnus murinus._
+
+[97] Description by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., and communication from Sir R.
+Owen to Linnean Society, London.
+
+[98] _Phascolomys wombat_ (Peron and Lesson). φάσκωλος, a pouch, and
+μῦς, a mouse.
+
+[99] _Phascolarctus_ (pouched-bear) _cinereus_.
+
+[100] _Phalangista ursina._
+
+[101] _Phalangista (Cuscus) maculatus._
+
+[102] _Phalangista vulpina._
+
+[103] _Phalangista fuliginosa._
+
+[104] _Phalangista Nana._
+
+[105] _Petaurus sciureus_ (Shaw).
+
+[106] _Petaurus ariel._
+
+[107] _Petaurus breviceps._
+
+[108] _Petaurus pygmæus._
+
+[109] _Tarsipes rostratus._
+
+[110] _Perameles lagotis._
+
+[111] _Perameles Gunnii._
+
+[112] _Perameles fasciata._
+
+[113] _Perameles doreyanus._
+
+[114] _Perameles moresbyensis_ (Rams.).
+
+[115] _Chœropus castanotis_--χοῖρος, a hog; and πούς, a foot.
+
+[116] _Myrmecobius fasciatus_--μύρμηξ, ant; βίος, life.
+
+[117] _Dasyurus ursinus._
+
+[118] _Dasyurus macrurus_, or _maculatus_.
+
+[119] _Dasyurus Maugei_ (Geoffroy).
+
+[120] θύλακος, a pouch.
+
+[121] _Thylacinus cynocephalus._
+
+[122] _Phascogale penicillata._
+
+[123] _Didelphys virginianum._
+
+[124] _Didelphys D’Azaræ._
+
+[125] _Didelphys cancrivora._
+
+[126] _Didelphys crassicaudatus._
+
+[127] _Chironectes variegatus._
+
+[128] The sub-genera Halmaturus and Heteropus, Osphranter,
+Lagorchestes, and Petrogale, are included in Macropus, and many other
+sub-genera relating to the other families merely complicate the
+classification. Bettongia, Potoroiis, are sub-genera or artificial
+groups of the genus Hypsiprymnus; Cuscus, Trichosurus, Pseudochirus,
+and Dromicia, are groups of Phalangistidæ; Petaurista, Belideus, and
+Acrobata are divisions of the genus Petaurus; Macrotis is a sub-genus
+of Perameles; Antechinus is a division of the genus Phascogale;
+Sarcophilus is a sub-genus of Dasyurus. These are unnecessary
+sub-divisions.
+
+[129] μόνος, one; τρῆμα, opening.
+
+[130] _Echidna hystrix_ (Cuvier). Much confusion has been produced by
+Illiger, who changed the generic title to Tachyglossus, ταχύς, quick,
+and γλῶσσα, tongue; but the name given by Cuvier must stand, except in
+the minds of those zoologists who delight in novelties, and believe
+that the use of long words carries wisdom. Lately more confusion has
+been produced by the introduction of the generic term _Acanthoglossus_,
+which we do not admit or use.
+
+[131] _Ornithorhynchus anatinus._
+
+[132] Dr. Brehm: “Bird-life,” pp. 503, 504.
+
+[133] Huxley, “Anatomy of Vertebrates,” p. 274.
+
+[134] παλαιός, old; ἄρκτος, north: _i.e._, the northern division of the
+_Old_ World.
+
+[135] νέος, new; ἄρκτος, north: _i.e._, the northern division of the
+_New_ World.
+
+[136] νέος, new; τροπικός, tropical: _i.e._, the tropical division of
+the _New_ World.
+
+[137] Dr. Sclater, F.R.S., originated, in 1858, this scheme of the six
+zoogeographical divisions of the globe.
+
+[138] In the preparation of this chapter, the author begs to
+acknowledge the assistance he has received from his friend Professor F.
+Jeffrey Bell, B.A.
+
+[139] These lines are thus translated by Mr. Hayward:--“I hurry on
+to drink his everlasting light--the day before me and the night
+behind--the heavens above, and under me the waves. A glorious dream!
+as it is passing, he is gone. Alas! no bodily wing will so easily keep
+pace with the wings of the mind! Yet it is the inborn tendency of our
+being for feeling to strive upwards and onwards; when, over us, lost in
+the blue expanse the lark sings its thrilling lay; when, over rugged
+pine-covered heights, the out-spread eagle soars; and, over marsh and
+sea, the crane struggles onward to her home.”
+
+[140] These plates may become united with one another in the middle
+line, and the birds that possess this arrangement have been called
+_Desmognathæ_ (δεσμός, “a bond;” γνάθος, “jaw”); or they may be
+separated by a more or less narrow cleft, in which case the birds in
+which this is found are called _Schizognathæ_ (σχίζω, “I cleave”). As a
+matter of fact, the term Schizognathous is confined to those birds in
+which the above-mentioned vomer is pointed in front, while where it is
+truncated the birds are called _Ægithognathæ_ (αἴγιθος, “a sparrow,” as
+the character is seen in these birds). In these groups, however, the
+Ostriches, or running birds, which are distinguished by having no keel
+to their sternum, are not included; nor in them is the vomer narrow
+behind. This broad character of the hinder end of the vomer is seen
+also in one group of birds with a keeled sternum--the Tinamous--which
+are consequently distinguished from other “Carinate” birds by the term
+_Dromæognathæ_ (_Dromæus_, the Emu).
+
+[141] The presence or absence of it, or of the other muscles, is used
+as a means for arranging the smaller divisions of the larger groups
+into which the two first-named sub-classes are, by the aid of other
+anatomical facts, divided. One striking advantage of this system, as
+suggested by the late Prof. A. H. Garrod, is that the characters of
+the _ambiens_ have been observed to go hand in hand with certain other
+characters. Thus, the cæca found at the end of the small intestine
+are always present in the Homalogonatæ, or birds having the normal
+arrangement of knee-muscles; but in this connection there is another
+structure to be mentioned, namely, the so-called oil-gland, or gland
+by the secretion of which the bird “preens” its feathers, and which is
+always set in the skin in the region of the tail. Now this “uropygial,”
+or oil-gland, may or may not be provided with a tuft of feathers, and
+as there may or may not be cæca to the intestine, it follows that--(1)
+the gland may be tufted and there may be cæca, or (2) the gland may
+have no feathers and cæca may be present, or (3) there may be no
+cæca and a tufted gland, or (4) there may be no cæca and no tufts
+(the possible arrangement of neither being present is found in a few
+Pigeons). But this is not the place to follow out the details of this
+classification.
+
+With regard to the proposition made by a French observer, M. Alix,
+that birds should be divided into the Homœomyarii, Entomyarii, and
+Ectomyarii, according to the character of certain of the flexor muscles
+at the back of the leg, it seems only necessary to remark that so far
+anatomical investigations have not supported his views, while his
+system would separate birds which seem to be closely allied.
+
+[142] Compare Vol. I., p. 213
+
+[143] _Accipitres diurni_ of authors.
+
+[144] _Accipitres nocturni_ of authors.
+
+[145] _Machærhamphus Anderssoni._
+
+[146] _Accipitrinæ._
+
+[147] _Falco_, a Falcon.
+
+[148] Πανδίων, a Greek mythological name.
+
+[149] στρίγξ, an Owl.
+
+[150] “Song of Hiawatha,” Book XIX.
+
+[151] “Essays on Natural History,” 1866, p. 17.
+
+[152] “Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and the adjacent countries of
+South-west Africa,” 1872, p. 3.
+
+[153] 1864, p. 307.
+
+[154] 1859, p. 277.
+
+[155] _Vultur monachus._
+
+[156] _Gyps fulvus._
+
+[157] J. H. Gurney: “Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Birds in
+the Norfolk and Norwich Museum.”
+
+[158] οὖς, ὠτός, an ear; γύψ, a vulture.
+
+[159] _Auricularis_, having ears.
+
+[160] A mythological name.
+
+[161] περκνός, dark-coloured; πτερόν, a wing; so called from the colour
+of its wings.
+
+[162] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 31.
+
+[163] σάρξ, flesh; ῤάμφος, a bill; so called on account of the fleshy
+wattles on the base of the bill.
+
+[164] _Gryphus_, a mythological name, a Griffon.
+
+[165] καθαρτής, a scavenger.
+
+[166] _Papa_, a pope.
+
+[167] D’Orbigny, “Voyage dans l’Amérique Meridionale,” p. 30.
+
+[168] ῤίν (ῤίς), ῤινός, a nose; _gryphus_, as before, a Griffon, or
+Vulture; so called on account of its peculiar perforated nose.
+
+[169] _Helotarsus ecaudatus._
+
+[170] _Serpentarius_, a devourer of Serpents.
+
+[171] _Secretarius_, a secretary.
+
+[172] _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, 1856, p. 348.
+
+[173] Gymnogene: from two Greek words (γυμνός, bare, naked; γένυς, a
+cheek).
+
+[174] _Polyboroides_: like a _Polyborus_ or Caracara.
+
+[175] Col. Irby, “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 34.
+
+[176] μικρός, small; _astur_, a Goshawk. See “Lawrence’s Birds of
+Western and North-Western Mexico.” “Memoirs of the Boston Soc. of Nat.
+Hist.,” Vol. ii., p. 299.
+
+[177] μέλι honey; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.
+
+[178] _Rete_, Lat., a net, so called on account of the network pattern.
+
+[179] _Buteo_, Lat., a Buzzard.
+
+[180] “Birds of the West of Scotland,” p. 46.
+
+[181] θράσος, daring; ἀετός, an Eagle.
+
+[182] ἄρπη, a bird of prey.
+
+[183] “Sketches of Nature in the Alps.”
+
+[184] οὐρά, a tail; ἀετός, an Eagle.
+
+[185] _Audax_, bold.
+
+[186] Newton Ed., Yarrell’s “British Birds,” i., p. 19.
+
+[187] “Rough Notes on Indian Ornithology,” p. 145.
+
+[188] χρυσός, gold; ἀετός, an Eagle.
+
+[189] νέος, new; πούς, a foot: meaning that there was something novel
+and extraordinary about its foot.
+
+[190] “Birds of Ceylon,” p. 49.
+
+[191] κίρκος, a Harrier; ἀετός, an Eagle.
+
+[192] Ibis, 1865, p. 253.
+
+[193] ἕλω (αἱρέω), to lift; ταρσός, a tarsus.
+
+[194] Ecaudatus, Latin, meaning “without tail,” on account of its
+shortness.
+
+[195] ἁλιάετος, a Sea Eagle.
+
+[196] “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 47.
+
+[197] ἰκτῖνος, a Kite.
+
+[198] “Bird-life,” p. 543.
+
+[199] μάχαιρα, a sharp knife; ῥάμφος, a bill.
+
+[200] Andersson’s “Birds of Damara Land.” Edited by J. H. Gurney, 1872,
+p. 22.
+
+[201] Lit., like a Cuckoo.
+
+[202] μικρός, small, tiny; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.
+
+[203] A wanderer.
+
+[204] μέλας, black; γένυς, a cheek.
+
+[205] _Nigriceps_, black-headed.
+
+[206] “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 93.
+
+[207] ἱερός, sacred; _falco_, a Falcon; _candicans_, white.
+
+[208] κερχνηίς, or κέρχνη, Gr., a Kestrel; _tinnunculus_, Lat., a Hawk.
+
+[209] pp. 82, 95.
+
+[210] Ornithology of Shakspere.
+
+[211] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” &c., p. 56.
+
+[212] “Essays on Natural History,” p. 8.
+
+[213] _Ketupa_, a “barbarous” name, with no meaning.
+
+[214] σκότος, darkness; πέλεια, a Dove, with a covert allusion to the
+name of the discoverer (Sclater).
+
+[215] Ibis, 1859, p. 447.
+
+[216] _Bubo_, a Horned Owl (Vergil); _ignavus_, dastardly--an
+inappropriate title for so fine a bird.
+
+[217] νύκτιος, nightly, _i.e._, a bird of night--a most inappropriate
+title for the Snowy Owl, which is a day-flier.
+
+[218] _Scandiaca_, Scandinavian.
+
+[219] A proper name.
+
+[220] A “barbarous” name, of no meaning.
+
+[221] From γλαυκός, blue or grey.
+
+[222] Passerine, or Sparrow-like: _i.e._, of the size of a Sparrow.
+
+[223] A proper name.
+
+[224] Σύρνιον, a proper name.
+
+[225] νυκταλός, nocturnal.
+
+[226] Like a Hawk.
+
+[227] ὦτος, long-eared Owl.
+
+[228] στρίγξ, an Owl.
+
+[229] Fiery; flame-coloured.
+
+[230] Newton’s edition of Yarrell’s “British Birds,” Vol. I., p. 147.
+
+[231] From _Picus_, a Woodpecker.
+
+[232] _Fissus_, cleft; _rostrum_, a beak.
+
+[233] ζυγόν, a yoke; δάκτυλος, a toe.
+
+[234] ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, a jaw.
+
+[235] κάμπτω, to bend; λόφος, a crest.
+
+[236] μικρός, small; γλῶσσα, a tongue.
+
+[237] Very black.
+
+[238] ἀνήρ, a man; γλῶσσα, a tongue.
+
+[239] χρυσός, gold; οὖς, an ear.
+
+[240] “Birds of Jamaica,” p. 266.
+
+[241] G. D. Rowley, “Ornithological Miscellany,” Vol. I, p. 175.
+
+[242] “Natural History of Cage-birds,” Part I.
+
+[243] Jerdon, “Birds of India,” I., p. 258.
+
+[244] στρίγξ, an Owl; ὤψ, a face, _i.e._, having the appearance of an
+Owl.
+
+[245] ἁβρός, soft; πτίλον, feather.
+
+[246] ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, jaw.
+
+[247] _Trichoglossi._
+
+[248] Professor Garrod in _Proceedings of the Zoological Society for
+1872_, p. 787.
+
+[249] “Stray Feathers,” 1877, p. 385.
+
+[250] “Bird-life,” p. 595.
+
+[251] Sharpe’s edition of Layard’s “Birds of South Africa,” p. 141.
+
+[252] γῆ, earth, and κινέω, I shake; _viridis_, green.
+
+[253] The classical Greek name, from its double note sounding like the
+exclamation ἰΰ, hence the verb ἰΰζω, I cry out.
+
+[254] Compare Fig. 1, _ch._; this bone usually exists in a paired
+condition, but in Woodpeckers and some other birds it appears single
+by the confluence of its members. In many birds the “basi-hyal” is
+succeeded by the “uro-hyal” (Fig. 1, _b. br._), a bone altogether
+absent whenever the tongue is capable of extraordinary protrusion.
+
+[255] σφῦρα, a hammer; _picus_, a woodpecker.
+
+[256] Yarrell, “British Birds,” vol. ii., p. 137.
+
+[257] μέλας, black; ἕρπω, I creep; _formicivorus_, ant-eating.
+
+[258] Linnæus. A proper name.
+
+[259] From ῥάμφος, a bill.
+
+[260] “Monograph of the _Rhamphastidæ_, or Family of Toucans,” by John
+Gould, F.R.S. Introduction.
+
+[261] From _Capito_, the principal genus: a proper name.
+
+[262] “A Monograph of the Capitonidæ, or Scansorial Barbets,” by C. H.
+T. Marshall and G. F. L. Marshall (1871).
+
+[263] _Galbula_, a proper name.
+
+[264] Sclater, “Synopsis of the Fissirostral Family Bucconidæ,” 8vo,
+1854.
+
+[265] _Alcedo_, a Kingfisher.
+
+[266] Sharpe’s “Monograph of the Alcedinidæ, or Kingfishers.”
+
+[267]
+
+  “Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore septem
+  Incubat alcyone pendentibus æquore nidis.”--Ovid, _Met._ xi. 745.
+
+
+[268] κηρύλος, a sea-bird of the halcyon kind.
+
+[269] “Ornithologie Nord Ost Afrikas,” p. 185.
+
+[270] πελαργός, a stork; ὤψ, a face.
+
+[271] Diminutive of _Ispida_, a Kingfisher.
+
+[272] τανύω, to stretch; πτερόν, a wing.
+
+[273] βούκερως, having the horn (κέρας) of a cow (βοῦς).
+
+[274] Elliot: “Monograph of the Bucerotidæ, or family of the
+Hornbills,” Part IV.
+
+[275] “Missionary Travels in South Africa.”
+
+[276] “Malay Archipelago,” Vol. I., p. 212.
+
+[277] See Sharpe’s Edition of Layard’s “Birds of South Africa,” p. 122.
+
+[278] Sharpe and Dresser, “Birds of Europe,” Part VII., 1871.
+
+[279] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 66.
+
+[280] φᾶρος, a mantle; μακρός, large.
+
+[281] Ibis, 1861, p. 138.
+
+[282] στέαρ, στέατος, fat; ὄρνις, a bird.
+
+[283] βάτραχος, a frog; στόμα, a mouth.
+
+[284] Owl-like.
+
+[285] μακρός, long; χείρ, a hand, in the sense of a wing of a bird.
+
+[286] Cypselus, a swift; α, not; πούς, a foot.
+
+[287] Nest-building.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of
+6), by P. Martin Duncan and A. H. Garrod and W. S. Dallas and R. Bowdler Sharpe
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY ***
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6), by 
+P. Martin Duncan and A. H. Garrod and W. S. Dallas and R. Bowdler Sharpe
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
+and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not
+located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+Title: Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)
+
+Author: P. Martin Duncan
+        A. H. Garrod
+        W. S. Dallas
+        R. Bowdler Sharpe
+
+Release Date: November 1, 2020 [EBook #63592]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jane Robins, Reiner Ruf, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="transnote mbot3">
+
+<p class="s3 center"><b>Transcriber’s Notes</b></p>
+
+<p class="p0">This e-text is based on ‘Cassell’s Natural History, Vol. III,’ from
+1893. Inconsistent and uncommon spelling and hyphenation have been
+retained; punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected.</p>
+
+<p class="p0">The spelling of toponyms might differ slightly from today’s
+orthographical conventions.</p>
+
+<p class="p0 nohtml">The cover image was created by the transcriber and
+is placed in the public domain.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_000a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_000a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="capright">CASSELL &amp; COMPANY, LIMITED, LITH. LONDON.</div>
+
+  <div class="caption"><b>DEER FAMILY.</b></div>
+
+  <div class="caption">1. Indian Muntjac (<i>Cervulus muntjac</i>).<br />
+  2. Reindeer (<i>Rangifer tarandus</i>).<br />
+  3. Javan Deerlet (<i>Tragulus napu</i>).<br />
+  4. Fallow Deer (<i>Dama vulgaris</i>).<br />
+  5. Wapiti Deer (<i>Cervus strongyloceros</i>).<br />
+  6. Porcine Deer (<i>Hyelaphus porcinus</i>).<br />
+  7. Roebuck (<i>Capreolus caprea</i>).<br />
+  8. Elk (<i>Alces machlis</i>).<br />
+  9. Chinese Water Deer (<i>Hydropotes inermis</i>).<br />
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_000a_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="front">
+
+<h1><span class="s5">CASSELL’S</span><br />
+NATURAL HISTORY</h1>
+
+<p class="s6 center">EDITED BY</p>
+
+<p class="s2 center">P. MARTIN DUNCAN M.B. (L<span class="smaller">OND.</span>) F.R.S.,
+F.G.S.</p>
+
+<p class="s6 center">PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN AND HONORARY FELLOW OF KING’S
+COLLEGE, LONDON<br /> CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
+PHILADELPHIA</p>
+
+<p class="s4 center padtop3">V<span class="smaller">OL</span>. III.</p>
+
+<p class="center padtop3"><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></p>
+
+<p class="s2 center padtop3">CASSELL <span class="s6">AND</span> COMPANY
+L<span class="smaller">IMITED</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>LONDON PARIS &amp; MELBOURNE</i></p>
+
+<p class="s5 center">1893</p>
+
+<p class="s6 center padtop1">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p>
+
+<p class="s4 center padtop3  mtop3 break-before">UNGULATA:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center mleft3">RUMINANTIA.</p>
+
+<p class="center">A. H. GARROD, M.A., F.R.S.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="s4 center">RODENTIA.</p>
+
+<p class="center">W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="s4 center">EDENTATA.</p>
+
+<p class="center">P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (L<span class="smaller">OND.</span>),
+F.R.S., F.G.S.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="s4 center">MARSUPIALIA.</p>
+
+<p class="center">P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (L<span class="smaller">OND.</span>),
+F.R.S., F.G.S.</p>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="s4 center">AVES.</p>
+
+<p class="center">R. BOWDLER SHARPE, F.L.S., F.Z.S.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[Pg v]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="table of contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <div class="s6 right">PAGE</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <div class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <div class="s5 center">ARTIODACTYLA&mdash;RUMINANTIA:</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <div class="s5 center">BOVIDÆ&mdash;SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Ruminantia&mdash;Chewing the Cud&mdash;Metaphorical Expression&mdash;The Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
+      Reed&mdash;Order of Events in Rumination&mdash;Feet and Dentition of Ruminants&mdash;Brain&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#HORNED_RUMINANTS">H<span class="smaller">ORNED</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">UMINANTS</span></a>&mdash;Divided into two Groups&mdash;Difference between them&mdash;<a href="#bovidae">B<span class="smaller">OVIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Horns&mdash;Aberrant Members&mdash;<a href="#sheep_goats">S<span class="smaller">HEEP</span>
+      <span class="smaller">AND</span> G<span class="smaller">OATS</span></a>&mdash;General Characteristics&mdash;Sheep of South-Western Asia&mdash;Merino Sheep&mdash;Breeds of Great Britain&mdash;Dishley,
+      or Improved Leicesters&mdash;Mr. Bakewell’s Description&mdash;Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other British
+      Breeds&mdash;Table of the Importation of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom&mdash;<a href="#Marco_Polo_sheep">M<span class="smaller">ARCO</span> P<span class="smaller">OLO</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">HEEP</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#oorial_shapoo">O<span class="smaller">ORIAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#oorial_shapoo">S<span class="smaller">HAPOO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mouflon">M<span class="smaller">OUFLON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ammon">A<span class="smaller">MMON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#burhel">B<span class="smaller">URHEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#american_argali">A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> A<span class="smaller">RGALI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#wild_sheep_barbary">W<span class="smaller">ILD</span> S<span class="smaller">HEEP OF</span> B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#goats">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">OAT</span></a>&mdash;Compared with the Sheep&mdash;Descent&mdash;Cashmere Goat&mdash;<a href="#ibex">I<span class="smaller">BEXES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#paseng">P<span class="smaller">ASENG</span></a>&mdash;Their remarkable Horns&mdash;Old
+      Theories as to the Use of the Horns&mdash;<a href="#markhoor">M<span class="smaller">ARKHOOR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tahr">T<span class="smaller">AHR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gazelles">G<span class="smaller">AZELLES</span></a>&mdash;General Characteristics&mdash;Sir Victor Brooke’s
+      Classification&mdash;<a href="#the_gazelle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#Arabian_gazelle">A<span class="smaller">RABIAN</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Persian_gazelle">P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Soemmerings_gazelle">S<span class="smaller">OEMMERRING</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Grants_gazelle">G<span class="smaller">RANT</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spring_bok">S<span class="smaller">PRINGBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#saiga_chiru">S<span class="smaller">AÏGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#saiga_chiru">C<span class="smaller">HIRU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pallah">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ALLAH</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> I<span class="smaller">MPALLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Indian_antelope">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span>,
+      <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s5 center">ARTIODACTYLA&mdash;RUMINANTIA:</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">BOVIDÆ: (<i>continued</i>)&mdash;ANTELOPES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_STEINBOKS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TEINBOKS</span></a>: <a href="#klipspringer">K<span class="smaller">LIPSPRINGER</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">O<span class="smaller">UREBI</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">S<span class="smaller">TEINBOK</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">G<span class="smaller">RYSBOK</span></a>, <a href="#madoqua">M<span class="smaller">ADOQUA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_BUSH_BUCKS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USH</span>-<span class="smaller">BUCKS</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distinctive
+      Marks&mdash;<a href="#THE_FOUR_HORNED_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">OUR</span>-<span class="smaller">HORNED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity in the Chikarah&mdash;<a href="#THE_WATER_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>: <a href="#nagor">N<span class="smaller">AGOR</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">R<span class="smaller">EITBOK</span></a>,
+      <a href="#nagor">L<span class="smaller">ECHÈ</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">A<span class="smaller">EQUITOON</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">S<span class="smaller">ING</span>-<span class="smaller">SING</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">W<span class="smaller">ATER</span>-<span class="smaller">BUCK</span></a>, <a href="#poku">P<span class="smaller">OKU</span></a>, <a href="#reh_bok">R<span class="smaller">EH</span>-<span class="smaller">BOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#eland">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">LAND</span></a>&mdash;Beef&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Captain
+      Cornwallis Harris’ Description&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Scarcity&mdash;<a href="#koodoo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">OODOO</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;King of Antelopes&mdash;<a href="#angas_harnessed_antelope">A<span class="smaller">NGAS</span>’
+      H<span class="smaller">ARNESSED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_HARNESSED_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARNESSED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>: <a href="#guib">G<span class="smaller">UIB</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bush_buck">B<span class="smaller">USH</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> U<span class="smaller">KOUKA</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Pluck&mdash;<a href="#THE_BOVINE_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">OVINE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bubaline">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UBALINE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bubaline">H<span class="smaller">ARTEBEEST</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">B<span class="smaller">LESBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">B<span class="smaller">ONTEBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">S<span class="smaller">ASSABY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gnu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">NU</span></a>&mdash;Grotesque
+      Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#brindled_gnu">B<span class="smaller">RINDLED</span> G<span class="smaller">NU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CAPRINE_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APRINE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#serow">S<span class="smaller">EROW</span></a>&mdash;Ungainly Habits&mdash;<a href="#goral">G<span class="smaller">ORAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cambing_outan">C<span class="smaller">AMBING</span>-<span class="smaller">OUTAN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#takin">T<span class="smaller">AKIN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mazama">M<span class="smaller">AZAMA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chamois">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">HAMOIS</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Voice&mdash;Hunted&mdash;<a href="#oryxes">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      O<span class="smaller">RYXES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">LAUBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">S<span class="smaller">ABLE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">AKER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">O<span class="smaller">RYX</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">EISA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">EATRIX</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">G<span class="smaller">EMSBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">A<span class="smaller">DDAX</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s5 center">ARTIODACTYLA&mdash;RUMINANTIA:</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">BOVIDÆ (<i>concluded</i>)&mdash;OXEN, PRONGHORN ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER], AND GIRAFFE.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#nyl_ghau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">YL</span>-G<span class="smaller">HAU</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#musk_ox">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USK</span> O<span class="smaller">X</span></a>&mdash;Difficulties in associating it&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_OX">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      O<span class="smaller">X</span></a>&mdash;Chillingham Wild Cattle&mdash;Their Habits&mdash;Domestic Cattle&mdash;The Collings, Booth, and Bates Strains&mdash;American
+      Breeding&mdash;Shorthorns, and other Breeds&mdash;Hungarian Oxen&mdash;Zebu&mdash;Gour&mdash;Gayal&mdash;Curious mode
+      of Capturing Gayals&mdash;Banting&mdash;<a href="#THE_BISONS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ISONS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;European Bison, or Aurochs&mdash;Almost extinct&mdash;Cæsar’s
+      Description of it&mdash;American Bison&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Mythical Notions regarding it&mdash;Their Ferocity and Stupidity&mdash;“Buffalo”
+      Flesh&mdash;<a href="#yak">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">AK</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_BUFFALOES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UFFALOES</span></a>&mdash;Varieties&mdash;Description&mdash;Fight between two Bulls&mdash;<a href="#anoa">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      A<span class="smaller">NOA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pronghorn_antelope">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">RONGHORN</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull&mdash;Professor Baird’s and Mr.
+      Bartlett’s Independent Discovery of the Annual Shedding of the Horns&mdash;Habits&mdash;Peculiarity about its Feet&mdash;Colour&mdash;Difficulties
+      as to its Position&mdash;<a href="#THE_MUSK_DEER">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USK</span> [D<span class="smaller">EER</span>]</a>&mdash;Its Perfume&mdash;Where is it to be placed?&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunters
+      for the Perfume&mdash;Their Sufferings&mdash;<a href="#THE_GIRAFFE">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">IRAFFE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;Skull processes&mdash;Its Neck&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Running
+      power&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">29</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s5 center">THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS:</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE ELK, ELAPHINE, SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The Deer Tribe&mdash;Distinguishing Characters&mdash;Exceptions to the rule&mdash;The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer&mdash;Other
+      Characters of the Cervidæ&mdash;Antlers, their Nature, Growth, and Shedding&mdash;The Knob&mdash;“Velvet”&mdash;Getting
+      rid of the “Velvet”&mdash;Full equipment&mdash;Contests&mdash;Interlocking Antlers&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#red_deer_antlers">Development
+      of Antlers in the Common R<span class="smaller">ED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Explanation of the various stages&mdash;Splendid “Heads”&mdash;Simple
+      and Complex Antlers&mdash;Types of Antlers&mdash;<a href="#elk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">LK</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">OOSE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Antlers&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#elaphine_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      E<span class="smaller">LAPHINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#wapiti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">APITI</span></a>&mdash;Acting of the
+      Fawns&mdash;<a href="#maral">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">ARAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barasingha">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">ASHMERIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">ARASINGHA</span></a>&mdash;Habits and General
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[Pg vi]</span>
+      Appearance&mdash;<a href="#barbary_deer">B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#sub_elaphine_deer">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-E<span class="smaller">LAPHINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#japanese_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> J<span class="smaller">APANESE</span>, F<span class="smaller">ORMOSAN</span>, <span class="smaller">AND</span> M<span class="smaller">ANTCHURIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fallow_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity of its Antlers&mdash;<a href="#persian_fallow">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rusine_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">USINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#sambur">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">AMBUR</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">EROW</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and The Philippines&mdash;<a href="#hog_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">OG</span>
+      D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#axis">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">XIS</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#prince_alfreds_deer">P<span class="smaller">RINCE</span> A<span class="smaller">LFRED</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#swamp_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">WAMP</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#schomburgks_deer">S<span class="smaller">CHOMBURGK</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#elds_deer">E<span class="smaller">LD</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR THE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">HAMYN</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Shameful havoc
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">46</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE MUNTJACS&mdash;THE ROEBUCK&mdash;CHINESE
+      DEER&mdash;REINDEER&mdash;AMERICAN DEER&mdash;DEERLETS&mdash;CAMEL
+      TRIBE&mdash;LLAMAS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_MUNTJACS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJACS</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#indian_muntjac">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> K<span class="smaller">IDANG</span></a>&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#chinese_muntjac">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span>
+      M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#davids_muntjac">D<span class="smaller">AVID</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span></a>&mdash;“Shanyang”&mdash;<a href="#roebuck">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OEBUCK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chinese_water_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity&mdash;Chinese
+      Superstition regarding it&mdash;<a href="#chinese_elaphure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span> E<span class="smaller">LAPHURE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity of its Antlers&mdash;<a href="#reindeer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">EINDEER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Character&mdash;Colouration&mdash;Antlers&mdash;Canadian
+      Breeds&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#american_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#virginian_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">IRGINIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      M<span class="smaller">ULE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#guzau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">UAZUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brocket">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROCKETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#venada">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ENADA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> P<span class="smaller">UDU</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CHEVROTAINS_OR_DEERLETS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">HEVROTAINS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLETS</span></a>&mdash;Antlerless&mdash;Their Position&mdash;Bones of their Feet&mdash;General Form and
+      Proportions&mdash;Species&mdash;<a href="#meminna">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">EMINNA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#javan_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> J<span class="smaller">AVAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kanchil">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANCHIL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#stanleyan_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">TANLEYAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#water_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CAMEL_TRIBE_OR_TYLOPODA">THE CAMEL TRIBE</a>&mdash;Their Feet&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Its Peculiarity&mdash;The
+      Water Cells&mdash;<a href="#the_true_camel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> (T<span class="smaller">RUE</span>) C<span class="smaller">AMEL</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;The Pads of Hardened Skin&mdash;Its Endurance&mdash;Its Disposition&mdash;Anecdote
+      of its Revengeful Nature&mdash;<a href="#bactrian_camel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ACTRIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AMEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#llamas">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">LAMAS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Used as
+      Beasts of Burden&mdash;Wild and Domesticated Species&mdash;<a href="#huanaco">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UANACO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#llama">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">LAMA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#vicuna">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ICUNA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#alpaca">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPACA</span></a>&mdash;The
+      Alpaca Industry&mdash;<a href="#FOSSIL_RUMINANTIA">FOSSIL RUMINANTIA</a>&mdash;Strata in which they are found&mdash;<i>Chœropotamus</i>&mdash;<i>Hyopotamus</i>&mdash;<i>Dichobune</i>&mdash;<i>Xiphodon</i>&mdash;<i>Cainotherium</i>&mdash;<i>Oreodon</i>&mdash;<i>Sivatherium</i>&mdash;Fossil
+      Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels,
+      Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes&mdash;The Irish Elk&mdash;Its huge Antlers&mdash;Its Skeleton&mdash;Ally&mdash;Distribution
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">61</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center s4"><a href="#ORDER_RODENTIA">ORDER RODENTIA.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_I">CHAPTER I.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">INTRODUCTION&mdash;THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE,
+      HAPLODONT, AND BEAVER FAMILIES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">Character of the Order&mdash;A well-defined Group&mdash;Teeth Evidence&mdash;Kinds and Number of Teeth&mdash;The Incisors: their
+      Growth, Renewal, and Composition&mdash;The Molars&mdash;The Gnawing Process&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Brain&mdash;Senses&mdash;Body&mdash;Insectivora
+      and Rodentia&mdash;Food of Rodents&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#SUB_ORDER_I_SIMPLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS">THE SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#squirrel_like_rodents">THE
+      SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#sciuridae">S<span class="smaller">CIURIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#common_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;Form&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;Bad
+      Qualities&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#grey_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REY</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">OX</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;Flying Squirrels&mdash;Their
+      Parachute Membrane&mdash;<a href="#taguan">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">AGUAN</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;Other Species&mdash;<a href="#polatouche">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OLATOUCHE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#assapan">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      A<span class="smaller">SSAPAN</span></a>&mdash;The Genus <i>Xerus</i>&mdash;<a href="#ground_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ground_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">HIPMUNK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span></a>&mdash;Distinguishing
+      Features&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PERMOPHILES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">ISEL</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> S<span class="smaller">USLIK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barking_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ARKING</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barking_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">RAIRIE</span>
+      D<span class="smaller">OG</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Species&mdash;Habits&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Fellow-inmates in their “Villages”&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">OBAC</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OODCHUCK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">OARY</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> W<span class="smaller">HISTLER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#anomaluridae">ANOMALURIDÆ</a>&mdash;Tail
+      Peculiarity&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#haplodontidae">HAPLODONTIDÆ</a>&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#sewellel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">EWELLEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#castoridae">CASTORIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#beaver">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">EAVER</span></a>&mdash;Skeletal Peculiarities&mdash;General Form&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The Beavers of the Old and New
+      World&mdash;Habits&mdash;Wonderful Sagacity&mdash;The Building Instinct&mdash;Their Method of Working&mdash;The various Stages&mdash;Their
+      Lodges&mdash;Their Dams&mdash;Activity by Night&mdash;Flesh&mdash;Hunted&mdash;The <i>Castoreum</i>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_I">81</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_I">CHAPTER II.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#mouse_like_rodents">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span> R<span class="smaller">ODENTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#myoxidae">M<span class="smaller">YOXIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#dormouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Activity&mdash;Food&mdash;Winter
+      Condition&mdash;<a href="#loir">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">OIR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#garden_dormouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ARDEN</span> D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#lophiomydae">L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;How the Family came to be Founded&mdash;<a href="#lophiomys">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYS</span></a>&mdash;Milne-Edwards’ Opinion&mdash;Skull&mdash;General Form&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#muridae">M<span class="smaller">URIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Number of Species&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Variety
+      of Forms&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The Murine Sub-Family&mdash;<a href="#brown_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;History&mdash;Fecundity
+      and Ferocity&mdash;Diet&mdash;At the Horse Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon&mdash;Shipwrecked on Islands&mdash;Story
+      of their Killing a Man in a Coal-pit&mdash;In the Sewers of Paris and London&mdash;<a href="#black_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#black_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">GYPTIAN</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Destructiveness&mdash;Colours&mdash;<a href="#long_tailed_field_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#harvest_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;In Winter&mdash;Agility&mdash;Their Nest&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDICOOT</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">REE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRIPED</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Allied Genera&mdash;<a href="#white_footed_halapote">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> H<span class="smaller">APALOTE</span></a>&mdash;The American Murines&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OLDEN</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ICE</span>-<span class="smaller">FIELD</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span>
+      H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">LORIDA</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Their Nest&mdash;Food&mdash;Mother and Young&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USHY</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>
+      W<span class="smaller">OOD</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OTTON</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rabbit_like_reithrodon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span> R<span class="smaller">EITHRODON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#hamsters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">AMSTERS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#tree_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">REE</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tree_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">STREAKED</span> T<span class="smaller">REE</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gerbilles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">ERBILLES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Habits&mdash;Other Genera&mdash;<a href="#water_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Species&mdash;<a href="#sminthus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">MINTHUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#voles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">OLES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#water_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span>
+      V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANK</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">NOW</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OOT</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#meadow_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">EADOW</span>
+      M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#meadow_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">INE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#musquash">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USQUASH</span>, M<span class="smaller">USK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> O<span class="smaller">NDATRA</span></a>&mdash;Distinguishing Features&mdash;Habits&mdash;His
+      House&mdash;<a href="#lemming">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">EMMING</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Their Extraordinary Migrations&mdash;Other
+      Lemmings&mdash;<a href="#zokor">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Z<span class="smaller">OKOR</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_I">101</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a><span class="s5">[Pg vii]</span></span>
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_I">CHAPTER III.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND OCTODONTIDÆ.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#spalacidae">SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS</a>&mdash;Characteristics of the Family&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#chestnut_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">HESTNUT</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chestnut_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">AKED</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#strand_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRAND</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#cape_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">APE</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#geomyidae">GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS</a>&mdash;Characteristics of the Family&mdash;The
+      Cheek-pouches&mdash;<a href="#common_pocket_gopher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;Burrowing&mdash;Runs&mdash;Subterranean
+      Dwelling&mdash;<a href="#northern_pocket_gopher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">ORTHERN</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#heteronyminae">H<span class="smaller">ETEROMYINÆ</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> P<span class="smaller">OUCHED</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;Difficulties as to Position&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#phillips_pocket_mouse">P<span class="smaller">HILLIPS</span>’
+      P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#yellow_pocket_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">ELLOW</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yellow_pocket_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      L<span class="smaller">EAST</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dipodidae">DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS</a>&mdash;Organisation for Jumping&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#american_jumping_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Characters peculiar to itself&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#true_jerboas">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> J<span class="smaller">ERBOAS</span></a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#the_jerboa">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      J<span class="smaller">ERBOA</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mode of Locomotion&mdash;<a href="#alactaga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LACTAGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cape_jumping_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APE</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span>
+      H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#porcupine_like_rodents">THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#octodontidae">OCTODONTIDÆ</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Sub-Family <a href="#ctenodactylinae">C<span class="smaller">TENODACTYLINÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ctenodactylinae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">UNDI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#degu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">EGU</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#brown_schizodon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> S<span class="smaller">CHIZODON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tukotuko">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">UKOTUKO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cururo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">URURO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rock_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Sub-Family, <a href="#echinominae">E<span class="smaller">CHINOMYINÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#coypu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OYPU</span></a>&mdash;One of the Largest Rodents&mdash;Description&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mother
+      and Young&mdash;<a href="#hutia_conga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ONGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#hutia_conga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ARABALI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ground_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_I">120</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_I">CHAPTER IV.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">PORCUPINES&mdash;CHINCHILLAS&mdash;AGOUTIS&mdash;CAVIES&mdash;HARES
+      AND RABBITS&mdash;PIKAS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#hystricidae">HYSTRICIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINES</span></a>&mdash;Conversion of Hairs into Spines&mdash;Skull&mdash;Dentition&mdash;Tail&mdash;Sub-families&mdash;The True
+      Porcupines&mdash;The Tree Porcupines&mdash;<a href="#common_porcupine">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;The Crest of Bristles&mdash;Nature
+      of the Spines&mdash;Habits&mdash;Young&mdash;Flesh&mdash;On the Defensive&mdash;Other Species&mdash;Species of Tree Porcupines&mdash;<a href="#couendou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">OUENDOU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#couendou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OUIY</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#urson">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> U<span class="smaller">RSON</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> C<span class="smaller">ANADA</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#chinchillidae">CHINCHILLIDÆ,
+      <span class="smaller">THE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLAS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#viscacha">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ISCACHA</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Life on the
+      Pampas&mdash;Their Burrows&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Chinchillas of the Andes&mdash;<a href="#common_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cuviers_chinchilla">C<span class="smaller">UVIER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cuviers_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ALE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#DASYPROCTIDAE">DASYPROCTIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> A<span class="smaller">GOUTIS</span></a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#agouti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#azaras_agouti">A<span class="smaller">ZARA</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#azaras_agouti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">COUCHY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#paca">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ACA</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#DINOMYDAE">DINOMYIDÆ</a>&mdash;Founded
+      for a Single Species&mdash;Description&mdash;Rarity&mdash;<a href="#CAVIIDAE">CAVIIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">AVIES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#restless_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ESTLESS</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Guinea-Pig Controversy&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">OLIVIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mara">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ATAGONIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">ARA</span></a>&mdash;Peculiar Features&mdash;Its
+      Burrows&mdash;Mode of Running&mdash;<a href="#capybara">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APYBARA</span></a>&mdash;Its Teeth&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#SUB_ORDER_II_DOUBLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS">THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED
+      RODENTS</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#LEPORIDAE">LEPORIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARES</span> <span class="smaller">AND</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBITS</span></a>&mdash;Structural Peculiarities&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Disposition&mdash;<a href="#common_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;Hind Legs&mdash;Speed&mdash;Its “Doubles”&mdash;Other Artifices&mdash;Its
+      “Form”&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;Pet Hares&mdash;<a href="#rabbit">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;Domesticated&mdash;<a href="#mountain_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#LAGOMYDAE">LAGOMYIDÆ,
+      <span class="smaller">THE</span> P<span class="smaller">IKAS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#alpine_pika">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rocky_mountain_pika">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OCKY</span> M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_I">133</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V_I">CHAPTER V.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">FOSSIL RODENTIA.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Families of Rodents represented by Fossil Remains&mdash;State of the “Record of the Rocks”&mdash;<a href="#fossil_sciuridae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">CIURIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Sciurine
+      Genera now Extinct&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_anomaluridae">No Fossil A<span class="smaller">NOMALURIDÆ</span> and H<span class="smaller">APLODONTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_anomaluridae">I<span class="smaller">SCHYROMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<i>Pseudotomus hians</i>&mdash;<i>Gymnoptychus</i>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_castoridae">C<span class="smaller">ASTORIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#allens_castoroididae">Mr.
+      Allen’s C<span class="smaller">ASTOROIDIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_myoxidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">YOXIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_lophiomyidae">No Fossil L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_lophiomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      M<span class="smaller">URIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_spalacidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PALACIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_spalacidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">EOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_dipodidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">IPODIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_theridomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">HERIDOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_octodontidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">CTODONTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_hystricidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      H<span class="smaller">YSTRICIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_chinchillidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_dasyproctidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">ASYPROCTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_caviidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">AVIIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_leporidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">EPORIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_lagomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">AGOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<i>Mesotherium</i>
+      <i>cristatum</i>&mdash;Difficulties concerning it&mdash;Mr. Alston’s Suggestion&mdash;<a href="#fossil_hebentidentata">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">EBETIDENTATA</span></a>&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Conclusions
+      regarding it&mdash;Table of Rodent Families&mdash;Concluding Remarks
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V_I">151</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center s4"><a href="#ORDER_EDENTATA_OR_BRUTA_ANIMALS_WITHOUT_FRONT_TEETH">ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_II">CHAPTER I.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">SLOTHS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The South American Forests&mdash;Discovery of the Sloth&mdash;How it derived its Name&mdash;Peculiarities of Dentition&mdash;Food&mdash;Fore
+      Limbs and Fingers&mdash;Hind Limbs and Heel&mdash;Other Modifications of Structure&mdash;Kinds of Sloth&mdash;Waterton’s
+      Captive Sloth&mdash;Habits of the Animal&mdash;Burchell’s Tame Sloths&mdash;Manner of Climbing Trees&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Activity
+      among Trees&mdash;Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy&mdash;Probable Conclusion regarding it&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Vertebræ&mdash;the
+      Rudimentary Tail&mdash;Most Distinctive Skeletal Characters&mdash;Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers, Claws&mdash;Mode of
+      Walking&mdash;Great Utility of the Claws&mdash;Face of Sloth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#TARDIGRADA"><i>TARDIGRADA</i></a>&mdash;<a href="#BRADYPODIDAE">BRADIPODIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#bradypus">Genus
+      B<span class="smaller">RADYPUS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#arctopithecus">Genus A<span class="smaller">RCTOPITHECUS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#choloepodidae">CHOLŒPODIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#collared_sloth">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">OLLARED</span> S<span class="smaller">LOTH</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Skull Bones&mdash;Habits&mdash;Circulation of the Blood&mdash;<i>Rete Mirabile</i>&mdash;<a href="#ai">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">I</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#unau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      U<span class="smaller">NAU</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Skull and Teeth&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Interesting Anatomical Features&mdash;Stomach&mdash;<a href="#hoffmanns_sloth">H<span class="smaller">OFFMANN</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">LOTH</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_II">158</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_II">CHAPTER II.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE ANT-EATERS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#cape_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APE</span> <span class="smaller">ANT</span>-E<span class="smaller">ATER</span></a>&mdash;The Cage at “the Zoo”&mdash;Appearance of the Animal&mdash;Its Prey&mdash;The Ant-hills-How the
+      Orycteropus obtains its Food&mdash;Place in the Order&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Interesting Questions concerning
+      the Ant-eater&mdash;<a href="#THE_PANGOLINS_OR_SCALY_ANT_EATERS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ANGOLINS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#african_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">FRICAN</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;Differences between
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[Pg viii]</span>
+      the Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters&mdash;Their Habitat&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#african_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">EMMINCK</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;How
+      it Feeds&mdash;Superstitious Regard for it shown by the Natives&mdash;Scarcity&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#long_tailed_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> F<span class="smaller">OUR</span>-<span class="smaller">FINGERED</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#great_manis">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> M<span class="smaller">ANIS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#asiatic_scaly_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">SIATIC</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_tailed_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> F<span class="smaller">IVE</span>-<span class="smaller">FINGERED</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;The Species of <i>Manis</i>&mdash;Skull&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Claws fitted for Digging&mdash;Other Skeletal
+      Peculiarities&mdash;<a href="#american_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;General Appearance&mdash;Genera&mdash;<a href="#great_ant_bear">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-B<span class="smaller">EAR</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Diet&mdash;How
+      it Procures its Food&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Mode and Rate of Locomotion&mdash;Stupidity&mdash;Manner of Assault and
+      Defence&mdash;Stories of its Contests with other Animals&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#tamandua">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">AMANDUA</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Habits&mdash;Odour&mdash;<a href="#two_toed_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">WO</span>-<span class="smaller">TOED</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Two-clawed Hand&mdash;Habits&mdash;Von Sach’s Account of
+      his Specimen
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_II">169</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_II">CHAPTER III.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The Armour-plates&mdash;How the Shields are formed&mdash;Their connection with the Body&mdash;Description of the Animals&mdash;Mode
+      of Walking&mdash;Diet&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Adaptation of their Limbs for Burrowing&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#great_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Great
+      Burrower&mdash;<a href="#tatouay">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">ATOUAY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#poyou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OYOU</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> Y<span class="smaller">ELLOW</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peludo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ELUDO</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span>
+      H<span class="smaller">AIRY</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pichiy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ICHIY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peba">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">EBA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> T<span class="smaller">ATOU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ULE</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ball_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ALL</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;Dr.
+      Murie’s Account of its Habits&mdash;Description&mdash;The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and Unrolls itself&mdash;<a href="#pichiciago">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ICHICIAGO</span></a>&mdash;Concluding Remarks: Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of <i>Manis</i> in
+      South Africa and Hindostan
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_II">181</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center s4"><a href="#ORDER_MARSUPIALIA_MARSUPIAL_OR_POUCHED_ANIMALS">ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.<br />
+      <span class="s5">SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.</span></a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_IV">CHAPTER I.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#I_THE_KANGAROO_FAMILY">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;Captain Cook and the Great Kangaroo&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Appearance of the Animal&mdash;Marsupials
+      separated from the other Mammalian Orders, and why (Footnote)&mdash;Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)&mdash;Mode
+      of Running&mdash;The Short Fore Limbs&mdash;The <i>Marsupium</i>, or Pouch&mdash;Head&mdash;Dentition&mdash;Peculiarities in the
+      Teeth&mdash;Hind Extremities&mdash;Foot&mdash;Great Claw&mdash;How the Erect Position is maintained&mdash;Whence their Jumping
+      Power is derived&mdash;Other Skeletal Peculiarities&mdash;Kangaroo Hunts&mdash;Becoming Rarer&mdash;Mode of Attack and
+      Defence&mdash;Hands&mdash;Bones of the Fore Limbs&mdash;Skull&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Circulation of Blood&mdash;Peculiarity in Young&mdash;Nervous
+      System not fully developed&mdash;Brain&mdash;The Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch&mdash;<a href="#hare_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#great_rock_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_tailed_rock_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_tree_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> T<span class="smaller">REE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kangaroo_rats">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span>-R<span class="smaller">ATS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#rat_tailed_hypsiprymnus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> H<span class="smaller">YPSIPRYMNUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#II_THE_WOMBAT_FAMILY">THE
+      WOMBAT FAMILY</a>&mdash;<a href="#wombat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OMBAT</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skeleton
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_IV">191</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_IV">CHAPTER II.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#III_THE_PHALANGER_FAMILY">THE PHALANGER FAMILY</a>&mdash;<a href="#koala">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">OALA</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#cuscus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">USCUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#vulpine_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ULPINE</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dormouse_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGER</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Remarkable Characters&mdash;<a href="#flying_phalangers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">LYING</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGERS</span></a>&mdash;Its Flying Machine&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#squirrel_flying_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span> F<span class="smaller">LYING</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGERS</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Parachute-like Membrane&mdash;Exciting Scene on board
+      a Vessel&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#opossum_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#noolbenger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">OOLBENGER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> T<span class="smaller">AIT</span></a>&mdash;A Curiosity among Marsupials&mdash;Distinctive
+      Features&mdash;<a href="#IV_FAMILY_PERAMELIDAE">THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#rabbit_eared_parameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">ANDICOOT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#banded_perameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pig_footed_perameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">IG</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;Discussion regarding it&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#V_THE_DASYURUS_FAMILY">THE
+      DASYURUS FAMILY</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#pouched_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OUCHED</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pouched_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span>
+      M<span class="smaller">YRMECOBIUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Great number of Teeth&mdash;History&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;Range&mdash;<a href="#ursine_dasyure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> U<span class="smaller">RSINE</span> D<span class="smaller">ASYURE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;“Native
+      Devil”&mdash;Ferocity&mdash;Havoc among the Sheep of the Settlers&mdash;Trap to Catch them&mdash;Its
+      Teeth&mdash;A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the Carnivora&mdash;Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself&mdash;<a href="#mauges_dasyure">M<span class="smaller">AUGE</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      D<span class="smaller">ASYURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dog_headed_thylacinus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">OG</span>-<span class="smaller">HEADED</span> T<span class="smaller">HYLACINUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Resemblance to the Dog&mdash;Habits&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;<a href="#brush_tailed_phascogale">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> P<span class="smaller">HASCOGALE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Other Varieties
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_IV">203</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_IV">CHAPTER III.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE OPOSSUMS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Prehistoric Opossums&mdash;Description of the Animal&mdash;Their Teeth&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#common_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Use of
+      its Tail&mdash;Food&mdash;The Young&mdash;How they are Reared&mdash;<a href="#azaras_opossum">D’A<span class="smaller">ZARA</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#crab_eating_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">RAB</span>-<span class="smaller">EATING</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#thick_tailed_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">HICK</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#merians_opossum">M<span class="smaller">ERIAN</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;Pouchless Opossums&mdash;Their Young&mdash;<a href="#murina_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">URINA</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#elegant_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      E<span class="smaller">LEGANT</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yapock">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">APOCK</span></a>&mdash;Classification of Marsupial Animals&mdash;Geographical Distribution of the Sub-Order&mdash;Ancestry
+      of the Marsupials&mdash;Fossil Remains
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_IV">219</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center s4"><span class="s5"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_IV">SUB-ORDER&mdash;MONOTREMATA.</a></span></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order&mdash;The lowest of the Mammalian Class&mdash;<a href="#THE_PORCUPINE_OR_LONG_SPINED_ECHIDNA">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span> <span class="smaller">OR</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">SPINED</span>
+      E<span class="smaller">CHIDNA</span></a>&mdash;An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate&mdash;Its Correct Name&mdash;Description of the Animal&mdash;Habits and
+      Disposition&mdash;Manner of Using the Tongue&mdash;Where it is Found&mdash;Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial
+      Bones&mdash;The Young&mdash;Species of Van Diemen’s Land and New Guinea&mdash;<a href="#THE_WATER_MOLE_OR_DUCK_BILLED_PLATYPUS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span>-M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">UCK</span>-<span class="smaller">BILLED</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">LATYPUS</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[Pg ix]</span>&mdash;The most Bird-like Mammal&mdash;Various Names&mdash;Description&mdash;Their Appearance and Movements in
+      Water&mdash;Their Burrows&mdash;Habits of an Individual kept in Confinement&mdash;Used by Natives as Food&mdash;How they
+      are Captured&mdash;The Young&mdash;A Family in Captivity&mdash;The Snout&mdash;Jaws&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Fore and Hind Feet&mdash;Heel&mdash;Spur&mdash;The
+      Shoulder Girdle&mdash;Breastbone&mdash;Concluding Remarks on the Sub-orders&mdash;Postscript
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_IV">227</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center s4"><a href="#THE_CLASS_AVES_THE_BIRDS">THE CLASS AVES.&mdash;THE BIRDS.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_V">CHAPTER I.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">INTRODUCTION&mdash;WING STRUCTURE AND
+      FEATHERS&mdash;DISTRIBUTION.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Introduction&mdash;Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves&mdash;Power of Flight&mdash;The Wing&mdash;Its Structure&mdash;The Six Zoo-geographical
+      Regions of the Earth&mdash;Birds peculiar to these Regions
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I_V">235</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_V">CHAPTER II.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The Three Divisions of the Class Aves&mdash;<a href="#bird_anatomy">A<span class="smaller">NATOMY</span> <span class="smaller">OF A</span> B<span class="smaller">IRD</span></a>&mdash;The Skeleton&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;Peculiar Bone
+      Character&mdash;The Skull&mdash;Difference between the Skull of Birds and that of Mammals&mdash;The Jawbones&mdash;Vertebral
+      Column&mdash;Sternum&mdash;Fore-limbs&mdash;Hind-limbs&mdash;Toes&mdash;The Muscular System&mdash;How a Bird remains Fixed when
+      Asleep&mdash;The Oil-gland&mdash;The Nervous System&mdash;The Brain&mdash;The Eye&mdash;The Ear&mdash;The Digestive System&mdash;The
+      Dental papillæ&mdash;The Beak&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Gullet&mdash;Crop&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Uses of the Gizzard&mdash;Intestine&mdash;The Liver,
+      Pancreas, and Spleen&mdash;The Blood and Circulatory System&mdash;Temperature of Blood of a Bird&mdash;Blood Corpuscles&mdash;The
+      Heart&mdash;The Respiratory System&mdash;Lungs&mdash;Air-sacs&mdash;The Organs of Voice&mdash;The Egg&mdash;Classification of the
+      Class Aves
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II_V">239</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_V">CHAPTER III.<br />
+      <span class="s4">DIVISION I.&mdash;THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).</span></a><br />
+      <span class="s5"><a href="#THE_ACCIPITRINE_ORDER">THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER&mdash;BIRDS OF PREY.</a></span></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">VULTURES AND CARACARAS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The Birds of Prey&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;The Cere&mdash;How the Birds of Prey are Divided&mdash;Difference between a Hawk,
+      an Owl, and an Osprey&mdash;The Three Sub-orders of the Accipitres&mdash;<a href="#ORDER_ACCIPITRES">Sub-order F<span class="smaller">ALCONES</span></a>&mdash;Difference between the
+      Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New World&mdash;<a href="#old_world_vultures">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">LD</span> W<span class="smaller">ORLD</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURES</span></a>&mdash;Controversy as to
+      how the Vultures reach their Prey&mdash;Waterton on the Faculty of Scent&mdash;Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon
+      Tristram’s Views in Favour of Sight&mdash;<a href="#black_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#griffon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">RIFFON</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;Its Capacity for Feeding
+      while on the Wing&mdash;<a href="#eared_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">ARED</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;One of the Largest of the Birds of Prey&mdash;Whence it gets its Name&mdash;<a href="#egyptian_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      E<span class="smaller">GYPTIAN</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;A Foul Feeder&mdash;<a href="#american_vultures">THE NEW WORLD VULTURES</a>&mdash;<a href="#condor">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">ONDOR</span></a>&mdash;Its Appearance&mdash;Power
+      of Flight&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#king_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ING</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#turkey_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">URKEY</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#FAMILY_FALCONIDAE">THE CARACARAS</a>&mdash;Distinctive
+      Characters&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#secretary_bird">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">ECRETARY</span> B<span class="smaller">IRD</span></a>&mdash;How it attacks Snakes&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#cariama">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Ç<span class="smaller">ARIAMA</span></a>.
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III_V">254</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_V">CHAPTER IV.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#banded_gymnogene">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span> G<span class="smaller">YMNOGENE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Its Movable Tarsi&mdash;<a href="#harriers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIERS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#marsh_harrier">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARSH</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Its
+      Thievish Propensities&mdash;<a href="#harrier_hawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWKS</span></a>&mdash;Colonel Greyson’s Account of their Habits&mdash;<a href="#chanting_goshawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">HANTING</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWKS</span></a>&mdash;Why so Called&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#true_goshawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWKS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;<a href="#goshawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWK</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;In
+      Pursuit of its Prey&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#sparrow_hawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PARROW</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWKS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;<a href="#common_sparrow_hawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> S<span class="smaller">PARROW</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWK</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#THE_THIRD_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UZZARDS</span></a>&mdash;Their Tarsus&mdash;<a href="#common_buzzard">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> B<span class="smaller">UZZARD</span></a>&mdash;Where
+      Found&mdash;How it might be turned to Account&mdash;Food&mdash;Its Migrations&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#harpy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARPY</span></a>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV_V">267</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V_V">CHAPTER V.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">EAGLES AND FALCONS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_FOURTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">THE EAGLES</a>&mdash;<a href="#laemmergeier">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">EARDED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> L<span class="smaller">ÄMMERGEIER</span></a>&mdash;A Visit to their Nest&mdash;Habits&mdash;A Little Girl carried off
+      Alive&mdash;Habits in Greece&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Von Tschudi’s and Captain Hutton’s Descriptions of its Attacks&mdash;<a href="#true_eagles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#wedge_tailed_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">EDGE</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;Eye&mdash;Crystalline Lens&mdash;How Eagles may be Divided&mdash;<a href="#imperial_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      I<span class="smaller">MPERIAL</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#golden_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OLDEN</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;In Great Britain&mdash;Macgillivray’s Description of its Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#kite_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      K<span class="smaller">ITE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;Its Peculiar Feet&mdash;Its Bird’s-nesting Habits&mdash;<a href="#common_harrier_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#indian_serpent_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">ERPENT</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bateleur_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ATELEUR</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#white_tailed_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;A Sea Eagle&mdash;Story of Capture of some
+      Young&mdash;<a href="#swallow_tailed_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">WALLOW</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;On the Wing&mdash;<a href="#common_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#european_honey_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">UROPEAN</span> H<span class="smaller">ONEY</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#anderssons_pern">A<span class="smaller">NDERSSON</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ERN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_FIFTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">THE FALCONS</a>&mdash;The Bill&mdash;<a href="#cuckoo_falcons">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOO</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCONS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#falconets">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCONETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peregrine_falcon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">EREGRINE</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCON</span></a>&mdash;Its Wonderful Distribution&mdash;Falconry&mdash;Names for Male, Female, and Young&mdash;Hawks and
+      Herons&mdash;<a href="#greenland_jer_falcon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REENLAND</span> J<span class="smaller">ER</span>-F<span class="smaller">ALCON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kestrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ESTRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_kestrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">ESTREL</span></a>&mdash;Its Habits and Disposition
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V_V">277</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI_V">CHAPTER VI.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#osprey">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">SPREY</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;How it Seizes its Prey&mdash;Nesting Communities&mdash;<a href="#THE_THIRD_SUB_ORDER_OWLS">STRIGES, or OWLS</a>&mdash;Distinctions
+      between Hawks and Owls&mdash;Owls in Bird-lore and Superstition&mdash;Families of the Sub-order&mdash;<a href="#fish_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">ISH</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pels_fish_owl">P<span class="smaller">EL</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      F<span class="smaller">ISH</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[Pg x]</span>&mdash;<a href="#eagle_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;Dr. Brehm’s Description of its Appearance and Habits&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">NOWY</span>
+      O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">H<span class="smaller">AWK</span> O<span class="smaller">WLS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">P<span class="smaller">IGMY</span> O<span class="smaller">WLETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_eared_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_eared_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barn_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ARN</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;The
+      Farmer’s Friend&mdash;Peculiar Characters&mdash;Distribution
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI_V">296</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s4 center"><a href="#SECOND_ORDER_PICARIAN_BIRDS">THE SECOND
+      ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN BIRDS.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII_V">CHAPTER VII.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE PARROTS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      Characteristics of the Order&mdash;The Sub-orders&mdash;<a href="#SUB_ORDER_I_ZYGODACTYLAE">ZYGODACTYLÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;Their Talking Powers&mdash;Sections of
+      the Family&mdash;<a href="#great_palm_cockatoo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> P<span class="smaller">ALM</span> C<span class="smaller">OCKATOO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pygmy_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">YGMY</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#amazon_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MAZON</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#amazons">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MAZONS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">REY</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Court Favourites&mdash;Historical Specimens&mdash;In a State of Nature&mdash;Mr. Keulemans’ Observations&mdash;<a href="#conures">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">ONURES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rose_ringed_parrakeet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OSE</span>-<span class="smaller">RINGED</span> P<span class="smaller">ARRAKEET</span></a>&mdash;Known to the Ancients&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#carolina_conure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      C<span class="smaller">AROLINA</span> C<span class="smaller">ONURE</span></a>&mdash;Destructive Propensities&mdash;<a href="#parrakeets">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ARRAKEETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#owl_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Chiefly Nocturnal&mdash;Incapable
+      of Flight&mdash;How this Fact may be accounted for&mdash;Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits&mdash;<a href="#straight_billed_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRAIGHT</span>-<span class="smaller">BILLED</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_tongued_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TONGUED</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#nestors">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">ESTORS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kaka_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">AKA</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Skull of a Parrot&mdash;The
+      Bill
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII_V">308</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s4 center"><a href="#ZYGODACTYLAE">THE SECOND ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN
+      BIRDS.<br />
+      <span class="s5">SUB-ORDER I.&mdash;ZYGODACTYLÆ.</span></a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII_V">CHAPTER VIII.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">CUCKOOS&mdash;HONEY
+      GUIDES&mdash;PLANTAIN-EATERS&mdash;WOODPECKERS&mdash;TOUCANS&mdash;BARBETS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_SECOND_ORDER_OF_ZYGODACTYLAE_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_CUCKOOS">THE CUCKOOS</a>&mdash;<a href="#bush_cuckoos">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USH</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOOS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#lark_heeled_cuckoos">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ARK</span>-<span class="smaller">HEELED</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOOS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> C<span class="smaller">OUCALS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_cuckoo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOO</span></a>&mdash;Its
+      Characteristics&mdash;Mrs. Blackburn’s Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant&mdash;Breeding Habits&mdash;The Eggs&mdash;The
+      Call-notes of Male and Female&mdash;Food&mdash;Its Winter Home&mdash;Its Appearance and Plumage&mdash;<a href="#THE_HONEY_GUIDES">THE HONEY
+      GUIDES</a>&mdash;Kirk’s Account of their Habits&mdash;Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against the Bird&mdash;<a href="#THE_PLANTAIN_EATERS">THE
+      PLANTAIN-EATERS</a>&mdash;<a href="#white_crested_plantain_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">CRESTED</span> P<span class="smaller">LANTAIN</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_plantain_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REY</span> P<span class="smaller">LANTAIN</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#colies">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OLIES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#white_backed_coly">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">BACKED</span> C<span class="smaller">OLY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">THE WOODPECKERS</a>&mdash;How they Climb and Descend Trees&mdash;Their Bill&mdash;Do they
+      Damage Sound Trees?&mdash;<a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">RYNECKS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yaffle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">AFFLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_headed_woodpecker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span>-<span class="smaller">HEADED</span> W<span class="smaller">OODPECKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spotted_woodpecker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">POTTED</span>
+      W<span class="smaller">OODPECKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_TOUCANS">THE TOUCANS</a>&mdash;Mr. Gould’s Account of their Habits&mdash;Mr. Waterton’s Account&mdash;The
+      Enormous Bill&mdash;Azara’s Description of the Bird&mdash;Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame Toucan&mdash;<a href="#THE_BARBETS">THE BARBETS</a>&mdash;Messrs.
+      Marshall’s Account of the Family&mdash;Mr. Layard on their Habits
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII_V">323</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop2" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s4 center"><a href="#FISSIROSTRES">THE SECOND ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN
+      BIRDS.<br />
+      <span class="s5">SUB-ORDER II.&mdash;FISSIROSTRES.</span></a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX_V">CHAPTER IX.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS,
+      AND HOOPOES.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_JACAMARS">THE JACAMARS</a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_SECOND_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_PUFF_BIRDS">THE PUFF BIRDS</a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_THIRD_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_KINGFISHERS">THE KINGFISHERS</a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#common_kingfisher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Its
+      Cry&mdash;Habits&mdash;After its Prey&mdash;Its own Nest-builder&mdash;Mr. Rowley’s Note on the Subject&mdash;Nest in the
+      British Museum&mdash;Superstitions concerning the Kingfisher&mdash;Colour&mdash;Various Species&mdash;<a href="#crested_kingfisher">C<span class="smaller">RESTED</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#crested_kingfisher">P<span class="smaller">IED</span>
+      K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account of its Habits&mdash;New World Representatives&mdash;<a href="#omnivorous_kingfishers">O<span class="smaller">MNIVOROUS</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#omnivorous_kingfishers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      A<span class="smaller">USTRALIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">INNAMON</span>-<span class="smaller">BREASTED</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Macgillivray’s Account of its Habits&mdash;<a href="#laughing_jackass">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">AUGHING</span>
+      J<span class="smaller">ACKASS</span></a> of Australia&mdash;Its Discordant Laugh&mdash;The “Bushman’s Clock”&mdash;Colour&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_FOURTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HORNBILLS">THE HORNBILLS</a>&mdash;Character&mdash;Their
+      Heavy Flight&mdash;Noise produced when on the Wing&mdash;Food&mdash;Extraordinary Habit of
+      Imprisoning the Female&mdash;Native Testimony&mdash;Exception&mdash;Fed by the Male Bird&mdash;Dr. Livingstone’s Observations
+      on the point, and Mr. Bartlett’s Remarks&mdash;Strange Gizzard Sacs&mdash;Dr. Murie’s Remarks&mdash;Mr. Wallace’s Description
+      of the Habits of the Hornbills&mdash;Capture of a Young One in Sumatra&mdash;<a href="#ground_hornbills">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> H<span class="smaller">ORNBILLS</span></a>&mdash;South
+      African Species&mdash;Kaffir Superstition regarding it&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mr. Ayres’ Account of the Natal Species&mdash;How it Kills
+      Snakes&mdash;The Call&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mr. Monteiro’s Description of the Angola Form&mdash;Turkey-like Manner&mdash;Wariness&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#THE_FIFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HOOPOES">THE
+      HOOPOES</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#common_hoopoe">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">OOPOE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Name&mdash;How does it
+      produce its Note?&mdash;<a href="#wood_hoopoes">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OOD</span> H<span class="smaller">OOPOES</span></a>&mdash;Habits
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX_V">343</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="s4 tdc padtop1" colspan="2">
+      <span class="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X_V">CHAPTER X.</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">
+      <span class="s6 center">THE BEE-EATERS&mdash;MOTMOTS&mdash;ROLLERS&mdash;TROGONS&mdash;NIGHTJARS,
+      OR GOATSUCKERS&mdash;SWIFTS&mdash;HUMMING-BIRDS.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      <a href="#THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_BEE_EATERS">THE BEE-EATERS</a>&mdash;Their Brilliant Plumage&mdash;Colonel Irby’s Account of the Bird in Spain&mdash;Shot for Fashion’s sake&mdash;<a href="#THE_SEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_MOTMOTS">THE
+      MOTMOTS</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Mr. Waterton on the Houtou&mdash;Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail&mdash;Mr. O.
+      Salvin’s Observations on this point&mdash;Mr. Bartlett’s Evidence&mdash;<a href="#THE_EIGHTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_ROLLERS">THE ROLLERS</a>&mdash;Why so called&mdash;Canon Tristram’s
+      Account of their Habits&mdash;Colour&mdash;Other Species&mdash;<a href="#THE_NINTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_TROGONS">THE TROGONS</a>&mdash;Where found&mdash;Peculiar Foot&mdash;Tender Skin&mdash;Inability
+      to Climb&mdash;Their Food&mdash;<a href="#quesal">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> T<span class="smaller">ROGON</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> Q<span class="smaller">UESAL</span></a>&mdash;Mr. Salvin’s Account of its Habits&mdash;Its
+      Magnificent Colour&mdash;How they are Hunted&mdash;<a href="#THE_TENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_NIGHTJARS">THE NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The
+      Guacharo, or Oil Bird&mdash;“Frog-mouths”&mdash;Mr. Gould’s Account of the Habits of the Tawny-shouldered
+      Podargus&mdash;How it Builds its Nest&mdash;Mr. Waterton’s Vindication of the Goatsucker&mdash;What Services the Bird does
+      really render Cattle, Goats, and Sheep&mdash;Its Cry&mdash;<a href="#common_goatsucker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> G<span class="smaller">OATSUCKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_ELEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_SWIFTS">THE SWIFTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#common_swift">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">WIFT</span></a>&mdash;Migration&mdash;Their Home in the Air&mdash;When they Breed&mdash;Nest&mdash;T<span class="smaller">REE</span> S<span class="smaller">WIFTS</span>&mdash;The Edible-Nest Swiftlets&mdash;Mr.
+      E. L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet&mdash;<a href="#THE_TWELFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HUMMING_BIRDS">THE HUMMING BIRDS</a>&mdash;Number of Species&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Professor
+      Newton’s Description of the Bird&mdash;Mr. Wallace on their Habits&mdash;Wilson on the North
+      American Species
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <p class="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X_V">360</a></p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[Pg xi]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table class="loi" summary="list of illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vat">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="s6 right">PAGE</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+      The Chamois
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr" colspan="2">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_000b"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat" colspan="2">
+     The Water Deerlet, or Chevrotain
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_001">1</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Stomach of a Ruminating Animal: exterior and interior
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_002">2</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Brain of a Sheep
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_003">3</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Merino Sheep
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_005">5</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ammon
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_008">8</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ammon
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_009">9</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Barbary Wild Sheep
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_010">10</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ibex
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_011">11</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Markhoor
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_012">12</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Dorcas Gazelle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_014">14</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Saïga
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_015">15</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Indian Antelope
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_016">16</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of Female Bush-buck
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_018">18</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Water-buck
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_019">19</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Eland
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_020">20</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Koodoo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_022">22</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Bubaline Antelope
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_024">24</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Gnu
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_025">25</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Goral
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_026">26</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of the Chamois
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_027">27</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Oryx
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_028">28</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Nyl-ghau
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_030">30</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Musk Oxen
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_031">31</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Chillingham Cattle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_032">32</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Hungarian Bull
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_033">33</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The European Bison
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_036">36</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The American Bison
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_037">37</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Yak
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_038">38</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Anoa
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_039">39</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Pronghorn Antelope
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_040">40</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Pronghorn Antelope
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_041">41</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Musk [Deer]
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_042">42</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Musk [Deer]
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_043">43</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Giraffe
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_044">44</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Giraffes
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_045">45</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of Red Deer, in which the growing Antlers are seen covered with
+      “velvet”
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_046">46</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of Red Deer, in which the Antler is fully developed and the “velvet”
+      has disappeared
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_047">47</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Various Types of Antlers
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_049">49</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Elk Hunt
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_050">50</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Young Elk
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_051">51</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Red Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_053">53</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Red Deer and Fallow Deer in Winter
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_054">54</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Red Deer Fighting
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_055">55</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Fallow Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_056">56</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Sambur Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_057">57</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Borneo Rusine Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_058">58</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Axis Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_059">59</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Schomburgk’s Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_060">60</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Indian Muntjac
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_062">62</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Roebuck: Male, Female, and Young
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_063">63</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Chinese Water Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_064">64</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Chinese Elaphure
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_065">65</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Reindeer at a Lapp Encampment
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_066">66</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Reindeer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_067">67</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Guazuti Deer
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_069">69</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Javan Deerlet
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_070">70</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Stanleyan Deerlet&mdash;Foot of Camel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_071">71</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Stomach of the Llama&mdash;Water Cells of the Camel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_072a">72</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of the (true) Camel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_073">73</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The (true) Camel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_074">74</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Bactrian Camel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_075">75</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Huanaco attacked by a Puma
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_076">76</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Alpaca
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_077">77</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Llama
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_077a">77</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Irish Elk
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_079">79</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Irish Elk (<i>Restored</i>)
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_080">80</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Prairie Dog
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_081">81</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Taguan, a Flying Squirrel&mdash;Dentition of the Hare
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_082a">82</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Rabbit
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_083">83</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Brain of Beaver, from above and in profile
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_084a">84</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Teeth of the Taguan
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_085">85</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Squirrel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_086">86</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Black Fox Squirrel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_088">88</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Taguan
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_089">89</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Polatouche
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_090">90</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Chipmunk
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_091">91</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Marmot&mdash;The Striped Spermophile, or Gopher
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_092a">92</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Burrows of the Prairie Dog
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_093">93</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Alpine Marmot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_095">95</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Fulgent Anomalure&mdash;Molar Teeth of the Anomalure
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_096a">96</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Beaver
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_097">97</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Beaver
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_098">98</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Dormouse&mdash;The Dormouse
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_102a">102</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Garden Dormouse
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_103">103</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Lophiomys&mdash;The Lophiomys
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_104a">104</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Black Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_105">105</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Brown Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_106">106</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Black Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_107">107</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Harvest Mice
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_109">109</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Hapalote
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_111">111</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head of the Rabbit-like Reithrodon
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_112">112</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     Hamster
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_113">113</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Hamster
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_113a">113</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Gerbille&mdash;Skull of the Water Mouse&mdash;Teeth
+      of Sminthus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_114a">114</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Water Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_115">115</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Southern Field Vole
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_116">116</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Musquash
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_118">118</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Lemming
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_119">119</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Mole-Rat&mdash;The Mole-Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_121a">121</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Mexican Pouched Rat&mdash;Under Surface of the Head
+      of Heteromys
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_122a">122</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Mexican Pouched Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_123">123</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Cape Jumping Hare
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_124">124</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The American Jumping Mouse&mdash;Molar Teeth of the Jerboa
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_125a">125</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Jerboa
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_126">126</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Alactaga&mdash;Molar Teeth of the Jumping Hare
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_127a">127</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Cape Jumping Hare
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_128">128</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Degu
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_129">129</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Dentition of the Rock Rat&mdash;Teeth of the Spiny Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_130a">130</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Coypu
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_131">131</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Hutia Conga&mdash;Teeth of Plagiodon&mdash;Molar Teeth of Loncheres
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_132a">132</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Loncheres
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_133">133</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Porcupine&mdash;The Common Porcupine
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_134a">134</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Tree Porcupine
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_136">136</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Mexican Tree Porcupines
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_137">137</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     Viscachas
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_139">139</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Chinchilla&mdash;The Chinchilla
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_139a">139</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molar Teeth of the Agouti&mdash;Azara’s Agouti
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_140a">140</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Paca&mdash;The Paca
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_141a">141</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Dinomys
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_142">142</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Patagonian Cavy
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_144">144</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Molars of the Capybara
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_145">145</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Capybara
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_146">146</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Hare
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_148">148</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Alpine Pika
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_150">150</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Side View of Skull and Lower Jaw of Mesotherium Cristatum&mdash;Dentition
+      of Mesotherium Cristatum
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_155a">155</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Group of Sloths
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_158">158</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_161">161</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Bones of Hand of Three-toed Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_162">162</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_163">163</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Collared Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_164">164</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ai
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_165">165</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Ai
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_166">166</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[Pg xii]</span>
+      Stomach of Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_167">167</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Hoffmann’s Sloth
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_168">168</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Cape Ant-eater
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_170">170</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Cape Ant-eater
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_171">171</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Temminck’s Pangolin
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_172">172</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Four-fingered Pangolin
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_173">173</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Five-fingered Pangolin
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_175">175</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Great Ant-Bear
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_177">177</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Two-toed Ant-eater
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_180">180</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Bones of Claw of Great Armadillo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_181">181</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Armadillo&mdash;Skull of the Armadillo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_182a">182</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Great Armadillo&mdash;Brain of the Armadillo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_183a">183</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Poyou
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_185">185</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ball Armadillo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_188">188</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Pichiciago
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_189">189</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Great Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_191">191</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Great Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_192">192</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Teeth of the Great Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_193">193</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Stomach of the Great Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_195">195</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Brain of the Great Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_196">196</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_197">197</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Tree Kangaroo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_198">198</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Kangaroo Rat&mdash;Teeth of the Kangaroo Rat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_199a">199</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Fore and Hind Foot of Hypsiprymnus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_200">200</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Wombat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_201">201</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Wombat&mdash;Lower Jaw of the Wombat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_202a">202</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Teeth of the Wombat
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_203">203</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Koala
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_204">204</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Cuscus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_205">205</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Vulpine Phalanger
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_206">206</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Squirrel Flying Phalanger
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_208">208</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Banded Perameles
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_210">210</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Dasyure
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_213">213</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Teeth of the Dasyure&mdash;Brain of the Dasyure
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_214a">214</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Upper and Under View of Skull of Dasyure
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_215">215</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Dog-headed Thylacinus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_216">216</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Dog-headed Thylacinus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_217">217</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Brush-tailed Phascogale&mdash;The Antechinus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_218a">218</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     Opossum and Young
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_219">219</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Teeth of the Opossum
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_219a">219</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of the Crab-eating Opossum
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_220">220</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Crab-eating Opossum
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_221">221</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Merian’s Opossum
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_222">222</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Yapock
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_223">223</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Pelvic Arch of the Echidna
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_227">227</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Porcupine Echidna
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_228">228</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Mouth and Nose-snout of Echidna
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_229">229</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Jaws of the Duck-billed Platypus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_231">231</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Fore and Hind Foot of the Duck-billed Platypus&mdash;Shoulder-girdle
+      and Sternum of the Echidna
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_232a">232</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Duck-billed Platypus
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_233">233</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Imperial Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_235">235</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Bones of Wing of Bird&mdash;Feathers of Wing of Bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_237a">237</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Parts of a Feather
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_238">238</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skeleton of Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_241">241</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Young Ostrich from above and from below
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_242">242</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Sternum of Fregilupus varius&mdash;Pelvis of an Adult Fowl, side view
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_243a">243</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Section of the Eye of the Common Buzzard
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_246">246</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Digestive Organs of the Kingfisher
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_248">248</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Front View and Section of Inferior Larynx of Peregrine Falcon
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_251">251</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Diagrammatic Section of a Fowl’s Egg
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_252">252</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Head and Bill of Sea Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_255">255</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Bill of Egyptian Vulture, to show form of Nostril&mdash;Bill of Turkey
+      Vulture, to show the perforated Nostril
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_256a">256</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Griffon Vulture
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_259">259</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Egyptian Vulture
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_261">261</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Condor
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_262">262</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Brazilian Caracara
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_264">264</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Secretary Bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_266">266</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Marsh Harrier
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_269">269</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Goshawk
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_272">272</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Sparrow-Hawk
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_273">273</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Hind View of Tarsus of Buzzard, showing the plated arrangement of
+      Scales&mdash;Hind View of Tarsus of Serpent Eagle, showing the reticulated
+      arrangement of Scales
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_274a">274</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Buzzard
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_275">275</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Harpy
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_276">276</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Bearded Eagle, or Lämmergeier
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_279">279</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Eye of Eagle, showing Crystalline Lens
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_280">280</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Golden Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_282">282</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Bateleur Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_285">285</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The White-tailed Eagle
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_287">287</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Kite
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_289">289</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Peregrine Falcon
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_292">292</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      A Hooded Falcon&mdash;Falcon’s Hood
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_293a">293</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Kestrel
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_295">295</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Osprey
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_296">296</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of Tengmalm’s Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_297">297</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Little Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_298">298</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Eagle Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_301">301</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Snowy Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_303">303</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Short-eared Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_304">304</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Face of the Barn Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_305">305</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Breast-bone of the Barn Owl
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_307">307</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     Cockatoos
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_309">309</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Amazon Parrot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_311">311</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     Great Macaws
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_313a">313</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Grey Parrot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_313b">313</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Rose-ringed Parrakeet
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_314">314</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Rosella
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_316">316</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Owl Parrot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_317">317</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Lorikeet
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_319">319</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Tongue of Nestor
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_320">320</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Kaka Parrot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_321">321</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Skull of the Grey Parrot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_323">323</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Cuckoo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_326">326</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Great Spotted Cuckoo
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_328">328</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Honey Guide
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_329">329</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The White-crested Plantain-eater
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_331">331</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Colies
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_333">333</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      “Hyoid” Bone of Adult Fowl&mdash;Side View of Dissection of Head of
+      Common Green Woodpecker
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_334a">334</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Upper View of Skull of Green Woodpecker&mdash;Dissection of Head of Green
+      Woodpecker, viewed from below
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_335a">335</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Wryneck
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_336">336</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Great Black Woodpecker and Great Spotted Woodpecker
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_337">337</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Green Woodpecker
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_337a">337</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Toucan
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_340">340</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Bill of Toucan
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_341">341</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Pearl-spotted Barbet
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_342">342</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Kingfisher
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_345">345</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Pied Kingfisher
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_348">348</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Laughing Jackass
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_350">350</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Great Hornbill
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_352">352</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Ground Hornbills of Abyssinia
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_355">355</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Hoopoe
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_358">358</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Australian Bee-eater&mdash;Bill of Motmot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_361a">361</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Motmot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_362">362</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Tail-feathers of Motmot
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_363">363</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Blue Roller
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_365">365</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2">
+     The Long-tailed Trogon, or Quesal
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+     <div class="right"><i>To face page</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_367">367</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Mouth of Goatsucker&mdash;The Oil-bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_368a">368</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Goatsucker
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_369">369</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Whip-poor-will
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_370">370</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Lyre-tailed Nightjar
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_371">371</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      Foot of the Common Goatsucker
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_372">372</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Swift
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_373">373</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Tree Swift
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_374">374</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Edible-nest Swiftlets
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_375">375</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The White-throated Spine-tailed Swift
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_376">376</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Sword-bill Humming Bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_377">377</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The White-booted Racket Tail
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_378">378</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Common Topaz Humming Bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_379">379</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vat hang2" colspan="2">
+      The Crested Humming Bird
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab tdr">
+      <div class="right"><a href="#i_380">380</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35_5" id="i_000b">
+  <img class="w100 mtop3" src="images/i_000b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CHAMOIS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_000b_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+
+<p class="s1 center mtop3">CASSELL’S NATURAL HISTORY.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_001">
+  <img class="w100 mtop2" src="images/i_001.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WATER DEERLET, OR CHEVROTAIN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br />
+<span class="s5">ARTIODACTYLA&mdash;RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ&mdash;<span class="smaller">SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES</span>.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Ruminantia&mdash;Chewing the Cud&mdash;Metaphorical Expression&mdash;The Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
+      Reed&mdash;Order of Events in Rumination&mdash;Feet and Dentition of Ruminants&mdash;Brain&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#HORNED_RUMINANTS">H<span class="smaller">ORNED</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">UMINANTS</span></a>&mdash;Divided into two Groups&mdash;Difference between them&mdash;<a href="#bovidae">B<span class="smaller">OVIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Horns&mdash;Aberrant Members&mdash;<a href="#sheep_goats">S<span class="smaller">HEEP</span>
+      <span class="smaller">AND</span> G<span class="smaller">OATS</span></a>&mdash;General Characteristics&mdash;Sheep of South-Western Asia&mdash;Merino Sheep&mdash;Breeds of Great Britain&mdash;Dishley,
+      or Improved Leicesters&mdash;Mr. Bakewell’s Description&mdash;Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other British
+      Breeds&mdash;Table of the Importation of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom&mdash;<a href="#Marco_Polo_sheep">M<span class="smaller">ARCO</span> P<span class="smaller">OLO</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">HEEP</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#oorial_shapoo">O<span class="smaller">ORIAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#oorial_shapoo">S<span class="smaller">HAPOO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mouflon">M<span class="smaller">OUFLON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ammon">A<span class="smaller">MMON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#burhel">B<span class="smaller">URHEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#american_argali">A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> A<span class="smaller">RGALI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#wild_sheep_barbary">W<span class="smaller">ILD</span> S<span class="smaller">HEEP OF</span> B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#goats">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">OAT</span></a>&mdash;Compared with the Sheep&mdash;Descent&mdash;Cashmere Goat&mdash;<a href="#ibex">I<span class="smaller">BEXES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#paseng">P<span class="smaller">ASENG</span></a>&mdash;Their remarkable Horns&mdash;Old
+      Theories as to the Use of the Horns&mdash;<a href="#markhoor">M<span class="smaller">ARKHOOR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tahr">T<span class="smaller">AHR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gazelles">G<span class="smaller">AZELLES</span></a>&mdash;General Characteristics&mdash;Sir Victor Brooke’s
+      Classification&mdash;<a href="#the_gazelle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#Arabian_gazelle">A<span class="smaller">RABIAN</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Persian_gazelle">P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Soemmerings_gazelle">S<span class="smaller">OEMMERRING</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+      G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Grants_gazelle">G<span class="smaller">RANT</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spring_bok">S<span class="smaller">PRINGBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#saiga_chiru">S<span class="smaller">AÏGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#saiga_chiru">C<span class="smaller">HIRU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pallah">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ALLAH</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> I<span class="smaller">MPALLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#Indian_antelope">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span>,
+      <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span>.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0"><span class="initial">T</span>HE Swine, together with those animals which most nearly approach them,
+namely, the Peccaries and Hippopotami, form but a small division of the
+cloven-hoofed order of the Mammalian animals; by far the greater number
+of the species of the Artiodactyla being included in a group known
+familiarly as that of the Ruminantia, because, as part of the digestive
+process, they chew the cud.</p>
+
+<p>This chewing the cud is a phenomenon restricted to the group of animals
+now under consideration, although it may be mentioned that some
+naturalists have thought that the Kangaroos among the Marsupials do the
+same to a certain extent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[Pg 2]</span></p>
+
+<p>As to the details of the process, the individual, a Cow, for instance,
+whilst grazing, nips off the grass between the large cutting teeth
+in the front of the lower jaw, and the tough pad which replaces in
+these creatures the similarly situated teeth of the upper jaw. After
+each mouthful it does not proceed to masticate the food, but swallows
+it forthwith, and continues thus to graze until it has satisfied its
+appetite. Seeking a quiet and shaded spot, it then seats itself that
+it may ruminate, or chew the cud, at leisure. If watched it will be
+seen that it commences shortly to perform a slight hiccough action, in
+which some contraction of the flanks is to be noticed. Its mouth, which
+was previously empty, is found to be full of what it is not difficult
+to recognise to be coarsely-masticated grass, which has been forced up
+into it; and this it immediately proceeds to chew between its back or
+grinding teeth, in a slow and continuous manner, moving its lower jaw
+uniformly from one side to the other&mdash;from right to left. When this
+chewing process has lasted for a time sufficient to convert the food
+into a pulpy state, it is again swallowed, after which another bolus
+is brought up to undergo a similar operation. And this is repeated at
+frequent intervals until most of the food swallowed has been masticated.</p>
+
+<p>A complicated stomach is necessary for the operation of this elaborate
+chewing process, the undisturbed duration of which has led to the word
+by which it is designated being applied metaphorically to a brooding
+condition of mind. Thus the poet of the “Night Thoughts” says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_002">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_002.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STOMACH OF A RUMINATING ANIMAL: (A) EXTERIOR, (B)
+INTERIOR.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“As when the traveller, a long day past</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">In painful search of what he cannot find,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">At night’s approach, content with the next cot,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">There ruminates awhile his labour lost.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This complicated stomach is not identical in all the Ruminantia. In the
+Camels and the Llamas it presents many points of difference from that
+of all the other members of the group, and in the Chevrotains it has
+slight peculiarities of its own.</p>
+
+<p>This organ, as found in the Ox&mdash;and it is almost identically the same
+in the Giraffes, the Antelopes, the Sheep, and Deer&mdash;is seen to be
+divided into four well-defined compartments, as represented in the
+accompanying figures. These are known as&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+  <li>The Rumen, or Paunch (<i>b</i>).</li>
+  <li>The Reticulum, or Honey-comb Bag (<i>c</i>).</li>
+  <li>The Psalterium, or Manyplies (<i>d</i>).</li>
+  <li>The Abomasum, or Reed (<i>e</i>).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>The paunch (<i>b</i>) is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a
+blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base opens the
+œsophagus, or gullet (<i>a</i>), at a spot not far removed from its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span> wide
+orifice of communication with the second stomach, or honey-comb bag
+(<i>c</i>). Its inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a pale skin
+(known as mucous membrane), which is beset with innumerable close-set,
+short, and slender processes (known as villi), resembling very much
+the “pile” on velvet. It is this organ, together with its villi, which
+constitutes the well-known article of food termed “tripe.”</p>
+
+<p>The honey-comb bag (<i>c</i>) is very much smaller than the paunch. It
+is nearly globose in shape, and receives its name on account of the
+peculiar arrangement of the ridges on the mucous membrane which lines
+it, these being distributed so as to form shallow hexagonal cells all
+over its inner surface, as seen in the figure on the previous page.</p>
+
+<p>It is situated to the right of the paunch, with which, as well as with
+the manyplies (<i>d</i>), it communicates. Running along its upper wall
+there is a deep groove coursing from the first to the third stomach.
+This groove plays an important part in the mechanism of rumination; its
+nature must therefore be fully understood.</p>
+
+<p>Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with which it is
+associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes it
+completely closes round so as to become converted into a tube by the
+apposition of its edges. At others it forms an open canal.</p>
+
+<p>The manyplies (<i>d</i>) is a very peculiar organ. It is globular, but most
+of its interior is filled up with folds, or laminæ, running between its
+orifices of communication with the second and fourth stomachs. These
+folds are arranged very much like the leaves of a book, and very close
+together. They are, however, not of equal depth, but form series of
+greater or less breadth. Their surfaces are roughened by the presence
+of small projections or papillæ.</p>
+
+<p>The reed (<i>e</i>) is the stomach proper, corresponding with the same
+organ in man. Its shape is somewhat conical. The valve which partially
+obstructs its communication with the intestine is at the left of the
+foregoing figure. Its walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane,
+which secretes gastric juice, and it is this stomach that, in the
+manufacture of cheese, is employed to curdle the milk.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst grazing, the possessor of this complicated stomach fills its
+paunch with the imperfectly masticated food, and it is not until it
+commences to chew the cud that any of the other parts are brought into
+play.</p>
+
+<p>In the act of rumination, the following is the probable order of
+events:&mdash;The paunch contracts, and in so doing forces some of the
+food into the honey-comb bag, where it is formed into a bolus by the
+movement of its walls, and then forced into the gullet, from which,
+by a reverse action, it reaches the mouth, where it is chewed and
+mixed with the saliva until it becomes quite pulpy, whereupon it
+is again swallowed. But now, because it is soft and semi-fluid, it
+does not divaricate the walls of the groove communicating with the
+manyplies, and so, continuing on along its tubular interior, it finds
+its way direct into the third stomach, most of it filtering between
+the numerous laminæ on its way to the fourth stomach, where it becomes
+acted on by the gastric juice. After the remasticated food has reached
+the manyplies, the groove in the reticulum is pushed open by a fresh
+bolus; and so the process is repeated until the food consumed has all
+passed on towards the abomasum, or true digestive stomach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_003">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_003.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF A SHEEP.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are other features also which are characteristic of the
+ruminating animals. Their symmetrical four-toed feet (in which the
+thumb on the fore and the great toe on the hind are entirely absent)
+have the toes so proportioned that the axis of the limb runs down
+between the two middle toes at the same time that both the inside and
+outside toes are much reduced in size, and lost entirely in the Camel
+tribe, the Giraffe, and the Cabrit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span></p>
+
+<p>Another peculiarity which exists in all ruminating animals is the
+absence of cutting-teeth in the middle of the upper jaw; and it is only
+in the Camels and their intimate allies, the Llamas, that there are any
+upper cutting-teeth at all, they being replaced in all the others by a
+callous pad, on which the lower cutting-teeth impinge in mastication.</p>
+
+<p>The canine teeth, which correspond to the tusks of the Lion and Dog,
+also deserve attention. Those of the lower jaw are always present, and
+are modified so as to appear like lateral cutting-teeth. In the upper
+jaw they are most often absent, but are enormous, projecting far down
+outside the lip, in the Musk, the Chinese Water Deer, and the Muntjacs.
+In some other Deer they are present, but small, and generally they are
+wanting.</p>
+
+<p>The grinders are six on each side of each jaw, and are so formed that
+their surfaces wear down unevenly by the lateral movement to which
+they are subject during mastication. As in the Elephant, this depends
+upon each tooth being made up of alternate layers of enamel, dentine,
+and cementum, which, being of different degrees of hardness, are
+differently affected by the grinding action.</p>
+
+<p>The ruminating animals exhibit a fair amount of intelligence, never,
+however, attaining that power of perception and memory exhibited by
+the Carnivora and other higher forms. The figure of the surface of the
+brain of the Sheep indicates that the convolutions of the brain are far
+from inconsiderable in number, and its allies of the same size agree
+with it in this respect, whilst larger species have more, and smaller
+less elaborate brain-markings, as is nearly always found to be the case
+in every group.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying table gives an outline sketch of the classification of
+the ruminating animals which has been adopted by zoologists:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="s5" summary="classification of the ruminating animals">
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"><i>Sub-order.</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"><i>Section.</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"><i>Division.</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"><i>Group.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h7em" src="images/i_156a2.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">Ox-tribe<br />
+      (<i>Bovidæ</i>)</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h7em" src="images/i_156a2.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">H<span class="smaller">ORNED</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">UMINANTS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h7em" src="images/i_156a2.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">T<span class="smaller">RUE</span>
+      R<span class="smaller">UMINANTS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">Deer-tribe<br />
+      (<i>Cervidæ</i>)</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      RUMINANTIA.
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">C<span class="smaller">HEVROTAINS OR</span><br />
+      D<span class="smaller">EERLETS</span><br />
+      (<i>Tragulidæ</i>).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">C<span class="smaller">AMEL</span>
+      T<span class="smaller">RIBE</span><br />
+      (<i>Tylopoda</i>).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The large sub-order of the Ruminantia is seen to be primarily divided
+into two sections, namely, the typical Ruminants and the aberrant
+Ruminants (the <i>Tylopoda</i>). The typical Ruminants, in which the stomach
+is formed upon the plan of that described above in the Oxen, fall
+into two divisions, the smaller of which&mdash;that of the Chevrotains
+or Deerlets&mdash;possesses no psalterium, or third stomach, except in
+a rudimentary condition. The Horned Ruminants, including the Deer,
+Muntjacs, Elk, Oxen, and Antelopes, compose by far the largest number
+of the whole sub-order, and will be first described.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="HORNED_RUMINANTS">HORNED RUMINANTS.</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Horned Ruminants&mdash;with which, anomalous as it may at first
+seem, have to be included one or two hornless species, on account
+of their so closely resembling them in other respects&mdash;have their
+<i>cranial appendages developed after one or other of two principles</i>.
+In one group, which, from the fact that the Oxen are included with
+them, are named the <i>Bovidæ</i>, the horns are hollow, straight, or
+variously-twisted cones, supported upon bony prolongations from the
+forehead, resembling them in shape upon a smaller scale. These horns
+are permanent, except in the American Antelope, increasing in size each
+year, at the same time that they often exhibit transverse markings,
+which indicate the annual increase. In the other group&mdash;the <i>Cervidæ</i>,
+or Deer Tribe&mdash;the horns or antlers are deciduous, being cast off each
+year, to be shortly replaced by others, which share the fate of their
+predecessors. These antlers are entirely made of bone, and when fully
+grown are not covered with any less dense investment.</p>
+
+<p>To commence, then, with the <i>Bovidæ</i>, or Oxen, and their allies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="bovidae">THE BOVIDÆ, OR HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.</p>
+
+<p>In these ruminating animals the permanent bone-cones on the forehead
+are covered with a black horny coating, which is not shed during the
+whole life of their owners, and in which, as they continue to grow
+until adult life at least, the tips are the oldest parts. The females
+in some species have horns like their mates, but smaller, as in the
+Ox and Eland; while in others&mdash;the Koodoo and the Sing-Sing Antelope,
+for example&mdash;the males alone are horned. The most aberrant members of
+this group are the Giraffe, the Cabrit, and the Musk, which will be
+considered after the less peculiar genera have been discussed. These
+include the Oxen, Bush-Bucks, Antelopes, Koodoos, Goats, Sheep, &amp;c.,
+which will be referred to more in detail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_005">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_005.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MERINO SHEEP.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="sheep_goats">THE SHEEP AND GOATS.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>Between the bearded Goat and the beardless Sheep there exist
+intermediate species, which so completely fill up the gaps that it
+is almost impossible to separate the two into different genera. With
+triangular, curved, and transversely-ridged horns in both sexes,
+a characteristic general appearance, and feet formed for mountain
+climbing, the species present differences which are recognised with
+facility.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the domestic Sheep, it is the opinion of most
+naturalists that it has descended from several distinct species. “Abel
+was a keeper of Sheep,” is a Biblical statement from which the immense
+antiquity of a domestic breed may be inferred, whose origin cannot
+be better studied than by a comparison of the different forms found
+wild in Asia, the head-quarters of the genus. That no Sheep existed
+in Australia when that continent was first discovered is a well-known
+fact.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span></p>
+
+<p>“Endowed by nature,” as Mr. Spooner, in his work on the Sheep aptly
+puts it, “with a peaceable and patient disposition, and a constitution
+capable of enduring the extremes of temperature, adapting itself
+readily to different climates, thriving on a variety of pastures,
+economising nutriment where pasturage is scarce, and advantageously
+availing itself of opportunities where food is abundant,” it is not to
+be wondered at that the animal has become the companion of man from the
+earliest times.</p>
+
+<p>The fleece of the wild species of Sheep is composed of hair with wool
+at its roots, in the same way that in the Duck there is a covering of
+feathers and down. In the domesticated species the hair, by selection,
+has been reduced to a minimum, so that the wool forms the only coat.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern parts of Western Asia many of the Sheep have a curious
+tendency to the deposition of fat on the tail rather than under the
+skin of the body generally, and this may occur to such an extent that
+the thus loaded caudal appendage may contain a large part of the entire
+weight of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The Astracan breed, of small size, has a fine spiral black and white
+wool, sometimes entirely black, which is obtained from the lamb when
+the finest furs are required.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the breeds of Sheep the Merino of Spain is one of the most
+important, on account of the excellence of its wool. In England the
+breed can hardly be said to exist, because the dampness of the climate
+does not suit its constitution. It is extensively found in Germany,
+and is <i>the</i> Sheep of Australia. The animal is small, flat-sided, and
+long-legged. The males have long horns, these appendages being absent
+in the females. The face, ears, and legs are dark, and the forehead is
+woolly, at the same time that the skin about the throat is lax. The
+body-wool is close-set, soft, twisted in a spiral, and short.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the breeds of Sheep are very numerous, some of the
+best being of quite recent origin. First among the heavy breeds are
+the Dishley, or Improved Leicesters, which, from their early maturity,
+aptness to fatten, smallness of bone, and gentle disposition, well
+deserve the high repute in which they stand. It is to the persevering
+energy and acuteness of Mr. Bakewell that we are indebted for the
+present animal, which in origin is far from pure bred. His aim was
+entirely in the direction of the carcass, and in his object he and
+his followers have quite succeeded, notwithstanding an inherent
+delicacy in constitution and an inferiority of the wool. “The head of
+this breed,” we are told, “should be hornless, long, small, tapering
+towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards; the eyes
+prominent, and with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long,
+and directed backwards; the neck full and broad at its base, where it
+proceeds from the chest, but gradually tapering towards the head, and
+being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck; the neck
+seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the
+slightest possible deviation, one continuous horizontal line from the
+rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad
+and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join
+either the neck or the back, particularly no rising of the withers or
+hollow behind the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy through its
+whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small,
+standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively
+bare of wool; the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs
+forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases&mdash;and
+especially when the animal is in good condition&mdash;to make the apparent
+width of the chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed
+well home; no irregularity of line on the back or the belly, but on
+the sides, the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards
+the rump; the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the
+muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full;
+the legs of a moderate length; the pelt moderately thin, but soft and
+elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as
+in some breeds, but considerably finer.”</p>
+
+<p>The large-sized Lincoln Sheep, with lengthy fleece, those of the
+Cotswold Hills, the Teeswater, and Romney Marsh, are also heavy breeds,
+not equal in the totality of their points to the Improved Leicesters,
+although excelling them either in quantity of wool or hardiness of
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>The Short-woolled Southdowns, with close-set fleece of fine wool, face
+and legs dusky brown, curved neck, short limbs, and broad body, is one
+of the oldest and most valuable unmixed breeds that we possess. Their
+mutton greatly excels that of the Improved Leicesters, which, taken
+in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span> association with their other good qualities, has caused them to
+extend to nearly every county. In parts of Hampshire, Shropshire, and
+Dorsetshire there are local breeds of Short-woolled Sheep which replace
+the Southdowns.</p>
+
+<p>The Cheviot and the Black-faced, or Heath breed of our northern
+counties are mountain Sheep, of small size and hardy constitution, the
+former horned, the latter hornless and with a white face.</p>
+
+<p>Welsh mutton is obtained from the small, soft-woolled Sheep with a
+white nose and face. The rams alone have horns, wherein the breed
+differs from that of the higher mountains, in which the ewes also are
+horned, at the same time that a ridge of hair is present along the top
+of the neck.</p>
+
+<p>As wool forms so important an element of the mercantile transactions
+of Great Britain, and as Sheep-farming has so rapidly increased in
+Australia and New Zealand, a few words with reference to the statistics
+of the subject will not be out of place.</p>
+
+<p>In 1788, when Governor Phillip landed at Port Jackson, there was not a
+Sheep in all Australia, and it was not until 1793 that about thirty of
+the Indian breed reached Sydney, their number being shortly augmented
+by the importation of breeding-stock from England and the Cape of
+Good Hope, principally Merinos. The progeny soon spread towards the
+interior, where the growing of wool became a lucrative pursuit. Sheep
+were first imported into New Zealand in 1840. It is estimated there are
+now one hundred million sheep in Australia, and nearly thirty million
+in New Zealand.</p>
+
+<p>The following table of the number of bales of wool imported into Great
+Britain at twenty-year intervals, that is, in 1836, 1856, and 1876,
+gives a better idea than can be otherwise obtained as to the changes
+in the sources of wool as well as to the richness of each colonial
+district:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop1">I<span class="smaller">MPORTATION OF</span> C<span class="smaller">OLONIAL
+AND</span> F<span class="smaller">OREIGN</span> W<span class="smaller">OOL INTO
+THE</span> U<span class="smaller">NITED</span> K<span class="smaller">INGDOM</span>
+(<span class="smaller">IN</span> B<span class="smaller">ALES</span>).</p>
+
+<table class="s5 collapse" summary="importation of wool">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bt bb vam padtb">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam padtb">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam padtb">
+      <div class="s4 center sans"><b>1836.</b></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam padtb">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam padtb">
+      <div class="s4 center sans"><b>1856.</b></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam padtb">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam padtb">
+      <div class="s4 center sans"><b>1876.</b></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bt br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1">New South Wales and Queensland</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;19,066</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam mtop1">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;59,342</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam mtop1">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam mtop1">
+      <div class="center mtop1">169,874</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Victoria</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">None</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;64,843</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">306,803</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Tasmania</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;15,449</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;17,951</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;20,480</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">South Australia</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">None</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;16,618</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">102,067</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">West Australia</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">None</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;1,267</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;7,510</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">New Zealand</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">None</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;6,840</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">162,154</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1 mleft1"><i>Total Australasian</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;34,515</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">166,861</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">768,888</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Cape of Good Hope</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;1,740</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;50,607</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">169,908</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1 mbot1 mleft1"><i>Total Colonial</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">&#8199;36,255</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">217,468</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">938,796</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1">German</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;90,426</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;22,272</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1">&#8199;29,580</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Spanish and Portuguese</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;20,451</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;8,106</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;7,906</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">East Indian and Persian</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;1,981</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;45,236</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;86,678</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Russian</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;15,072</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;4,181</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;34,511</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">River Plate</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam" rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h3em" src="images/i_007_3.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;5,151</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb vam" rowspan="6">
+      <img class="h7em" src="images/i_007_6.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam" rowspan="6">
+      <div class="center">118,593</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">Peru, Lima, and Chili</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;16,653</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam" rowspan="2">
+      <img class="h2em" src="images/i_007_2.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;52,477</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">Alpaca</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">Mediterranean and Africa</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;14,714</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;13,665</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">Mohair</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">No returns</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;13,515</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam">
+      <div class="left">Sundry</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br vam">
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;12,784</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb br vam">
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bb vam">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;10,735</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1 mbot1 mleft1"><i>Total Foreign</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">172,081</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">175,338</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1">277,268</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="br bb vam" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left mtop1 mbot1 mleft2">T<span class="smaller">OTAL</span>
+      I<span class="smaller">MPORTATION</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bl bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1 sans"><b>208,336</b></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1 sans"><b>392,806</b></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb vam">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt bb vam">
+      <div class="center mtop1 mbot1 sans"><b>1,216,064</b></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1" id="Marco_Polo_sheep">So much for the domestic Sheep; of other species of the genus <i>Ovis</i>
+we have Marco Polo’s Sheep.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> This splendid Sheep, one of the finest
+species of the genus, has horns, describing a spiral of about a circle
+and a quarter when viewed from the side, pointing directly outwards,
+and sometimes measuring as many as sixty-three inches from base to tip
+along their curve, and as much as four and a half feet from tip to tip.
+At the shoulder the animal measures just under four feet. It inhabits
+the high lands in the neighbourhood of the lofty Thian Shan mountains,
+north of Kashgar and Yarkand, not descending below an elevation of
+9,000 feet above the sea level, often ascending much higher. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span> on
+account of the rarefaction of the air in these regions that there is
+considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens which have been wounded,
+because Horses at these heights are much distressed in their breathing,
+whilst the Sheep are not so. Mr. N. A. Severtzoff, an eminent Russian
+naturalist, has described three or four other species closely allied to
+Marco Polo’s Sheep, which are smaller than it, from Turkestan and the
+district east of it. In this Sheep, during the winter, the sides of the
+body are of a light greyish-brown, changing to white below. There is a
+white mane all round the neck and a white disc round the tail. A dark
+line runs the whole length of the middle of the back. In summer the
+grey changes to dark brown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_008">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_008.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AMMON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="oorial_shapoo">The O<span class="smaller">ORIAL</span> and the S<span class="smaller">HAPOO</span> are bearded Sheep, from
+Ladakh and the Suliman range of the Punjab respectively, with large
+horns, which form not more than half a circle in the Shapoo and
+nearly a complete one in the Oorial. The colour of the Oorial is
+a reddish-brown above, paler beneath, the abdomen being white. A
+lengthy dark beard, reaching to the knees, fringes the whole length
+of the neck from the chin to the chest. The points of the horns are
+directed inwards. It is found at altitudes of 2,000 feet. The Shapoo is
+brownish-grey, white below, with a short brown beard. Its horns turn
+outwards at the tips. It is never found at altitudes lower than 12,000
+feet.</p>
+
+<p id="mouflon">The M<span class="smaller">OUFLON</span> at one time abounded in Spain, but is now
+restricted to the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The species is a
+small one, of a brownish-grey colour, with a dark streak along the
+middle of the back, at the same time that there is a varying amount of
+white about the face and legs. The horns, present in the males only,
+are proportionately not large, curve backwards and then inwards at the
+tips. The tail is very short, in which respect they differ strikingly
+from the domestic Sheep, to which otherwise they are intimately
+related. The Mouflon frequents the summits of its native hills<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span> in
+small herds, headed by an old ram. Its skin is used by the mountaineers
+for making jackets. It breeds freely with the domestic species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_009">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_009.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AMMON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="ammon">The A<span class="smaller">MMON</span> of Tibet has been known to measure as much as four
+feet and an inch at the shoulder, and has a most imposing appearance
+on account of the erect attitude in which it holds its head. Its horns
+attain a great size, being sometimes as much as four feet long and
+twenty-two inches in circumference at their bases, forming a single
+sweep of about four-fifths of a circle, their points being turned
+slightly outwards and ending bluntly. Its body colour is dark brown
+above, paler posteriorly and below. A mane surrounds its neck, white
+in the male, dark brown in the female. The tail measures only an inch
+in length. In the female the horns do not exceed twenty-two inches in
+length.</p>
+
+<p id="burhel">The B<span class="smaller">URHEL</span>, or Himalayan “blue wild Sheep,” stands three feet
+at the shoulder, and has horns which, commencing very close together
+on the forehead, describe a half circle of two feet or so, and are
+directed very much outwards and backwards. In the female the horns
+do not exceed eight inches in length, and stand backward instead of
+diverging. The coarse fleece of winter is of an ashy-blue colour,
+which, in summer, is replaced by one that is much darker. The abdomen
+is white, and a black stripe runs along each side of the body, the
+front of the legs and the chest being also black. It has no beard.</p>
+
+<p id="american_argali">The A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> A<span class="smaller">RGALI</span>, or B<span class="smaller">IG</span>-H<span class="smaller">ORN</span>, inhabits the range
+of the Rocky Mountains. Its height is three and a half feet at the
+shoulder. The horns form a complete circle, and are nearly three feet
+long in the male. They are said to come so far forward and downward
+that old rams find it impossible to feed on level ground. Its flesh is
+peculiarly well flavoured.</p>
+
+<p id="wild_sheep_barbary">The W<span class="smaller">ILD</span> S<span class="smaller">HEEP OF</span> B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span>, known also as the
+T<span class="smaller">RAGELAPHUS</span>, is a large and handsome species, with a
+comparatively lengthy tail, tufted at its end. The hair on the chin
+is short, whilst that along the lower margin of the neck, as well as
+on the front of the knees, attains a great length. The horns are not
+massive, and hardly exceed two feet in length. They are black, and are
+directed outward as well as backward.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="goats">THE GOATS.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Modern naturalists, as intermediate forms become more numerous, find
+much difficulty in separating off the Goats (which constitute the genus
+<i>Capra</i> of earlier authors) from the Sheep (<i>Ovis</i>). In the Goats the
+horns are flattened from side to side, and rough in front and arched
+backwards, whilst in the Sheep they are more uniformly cylindrical,
+turned laterally, curling downwards, and often cork-screwed. A beard is
+a common addition to the former animal, and a most unpleasant odour is
+emitted by them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_010">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_010.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BARBARY WILD SHEEP.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The domestic Goat is almost certainly descended from the Paseng, or
+Ibex, of the mountains of Asia, with little or no admixture of other
+blood. In it, however, the female is bearded as well as the male, which
+is not the case with the Paseng. It has been subjugated from time
+immemorial, when the flesh of the kid was considered a delicacy. Its
+sure-footedness and its boldness are proverbial, as is its unpleasant
+odour. The power possessed by the species of ascending precipitate
+heights is marvellous. On more than one occasion it has been
+recorded&mdash;contrary to the teaching of Æsop&mdash;that whilst two individuals
+have met on a path too narrow for both to pass, one has lain down in
+order that the other might go over its back. With no great bulk of
+body; coarse hair of different lengths and tints, springing from out
+of a mass of much shorter wool; horns of varying size, but always
+out-turned at the tips; narrow ears, an almost entirely hair-covered
+nose; sight, hearing, and smell all acute; powerful thick-set legs, and
+a short tail naked below, it stands its own in mountainous and less
+civilised<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span> districts. Varieties occur with large pendulous instead
+of upright ears; others with extra horns, occasionally spiral as in
+Nepaul, or none at all. In the Angora and Cashmere breeds the hair is
+white.</p>
+
+<p>The Goat of Cashmere is famous on account of the long and very fine
+wool with which it is covered, which is employed in the manufacture
+of Cashmere shawls. It is said that the wool of ten of these Goats is
+required for the material of a single shawl.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_011">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_011.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">IBEX.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="ibex">The I<span class="smaller">BEX</span> is found in the Alpine heights of Europe and of
+Western Asia, including the Himalayas. The large scythe-blade-shaped
+horns of the male curve boldly upwards and backwards, diverging all
+the way. Along the front of their convex surfaces there is a series
+of protuberances or partial rings, which are only just indicated
+laterally. The largest specimens reach three feet and a half in height
+at the shoulder, which is a little less than the length their horns
+sometimes attain. The body colour is a yellowish-grey, white below,
+with a dark brown line along the middle of the back. The soft and
+close-set hair hides an under-fur still finer. The beard is black.
+European specimens are smaller than those from Asia, rarely exceeding
+two feet and a half in height, with horns three feet in length. The
+species inhabits the most precipitous and dangerous parts of mountain
+regions, and is wonderfully sure-footed.</p>
+
+<p id="paseng">The P<span class="smaller">ASENG</span> is the wild Goat of Western Asia; it is also found
+on the northern side of the Caucasus and in some of the islands of
+the Ægean. In height the male measures two feet and three-quarters at
+the withers, the female being nearly six inches less. In the male the
+horns may measure as much as four feet in length. They are flattened,
+slender, curved backwards as part of a large circle, having their
+points turned sometimes inwards, so much so as now and again to cross,
+whilst at others they are directed outwards. Along their anterior edges
+are protuberances, separated by a greater distance as they approach the
+tips, indicative of the age of the animal, as after the third year a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span>
+fresh knob is formed in each succeeding one. Mr. Danford, who has made
+a special study of the species, remarks, with reference to the reputed
+use to which their owners turn their immense cranial appendages, that
+“regarding the use of the great horns carried by the Ibex family,
+the general idea among the older authors was that they were employed
+to break the animal’s fall in leaping from a height. Pennant relates
+that Monardes was witness to the wild Goat saving itself in this way;
+and Gesner says: ‘Cadens ab alto totum corpus inter cornua protegit a
+collisione et ictus lapidum magnorum excipit cornibus!’<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> This view
+is confirmed by Mr. Hutton, whose tame Aegagrus [Paseng] repeatedly
+used his horns for this purpose. I made many inquiries among the
+native hunters, and they all agreed in saying that the horns were
+never so used, or for any purpose except fighting; and the result of
+my own observations is, that during the leap the head is carried as
+far back as possible, though it may be that the situations in which I
+observed the animals did not necessitate the employment of the horns
+in the way referred to.” The horns of the female are not more than a
+foot long, the knobs being almost obsolete. Unlike its consort, also,
+it has no beard. The general colour of the species is grey, shaded
+with reddish-brown. A blackish-brown line extends from the similarly
+coloured forehead along the spine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_012">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_012.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MARKHOOR.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="markhoor">The M<span class="smaller">ARKHOOR</span>, or “Serpent Eater,” of North-east India
+and Cashmere, is a fine Goat of larger size than the Ibex, with
+much-flattened triangular horns, which, while running upwards from the
+head, are spiral and attain an immense size, sometimes as much as five
+feet along their curve. The spiral twist is much more open in some
+specimens than in others, depending on the locality in which they are
+found. The body colour is a dirty light blue-grey, the lengthy beard
+being of a darker colour. It inhabits very similar localities to the
+Ibexes and is very shy.</p>
+
+<p id="tahr">The T<span class="smaller">AHR</span> of the Himalayas is a not common Goat, with small
+horns curved directly backwards,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span> not much more than a foot in length,
+flattened from side to side, with a notched anterior margin. The body
+colour is a fawn-brown; the hair of the neck, chest, and shoulders
+being of great length and reaching to the knees. In the female the
+horns are much smaller and of lighter colour. According to Captain
+Kinloch, “the Tahr is, like the Markhoor, a forest-loving animal,
+and although it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills,
+it generally prefers the steep slopes which are more or less clothed
+with trees. Female Tahr may be frequently found on open ground, but
+old males hide a great deal in the thickest jungle, lying during the
+heat of the day under the shade of trees or overhanging rocks. Nearly
+perpendicular hills, with dangerous precipices, where the forest
+consists of oak and ringall cane, are the favourite haunts of the old
+Tahr, who climb with ease over ground where one would hardly imagine
+that any animal could find a footing. Tahr ground, indeed, is about
+the worst walking I know, almost rivalling Markhoor ground; the only
+advantage being that, bad as it is, there are generally some bushes or
+grass to hold on to.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="gazelles">THE GAZELLES.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p>Under the title of Gazelles are included several strikingly elegant,
+small, slender, sandy-coloured species of ruminating animals, in which
+the males always, and the females in most cases, carry horns, which
+are transversely ringed, and vary considerably in the direction which
+they take, many having them curved in such a way that the two together
+form a lyre-shaped figure, at the same time that in others they are
+nearly straight, turned slightly backwards or forwards, and diverging
+or converging at the tips. Where present, the horns of the females are
+more slender than in the corresponding males.</p>
+
+<p>The Gazelles inhabit Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and Central Asia
+only. They rarely exceed thirty inches in height at the shoulder; the
+largest, the Swift Antelope of Pennant (<i>Gazella mohr</i>), reaching
+nearly three feet. In all the Gazelles the face is marked with a white
+band running from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down
+to the upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central
+patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line. The under
+surface of the abdomen is white, and there is a dark line traversing
+the flank which bounds this. The rump is also white, which in many
+cases encroaches more or less upon the haunches.</p>
+
+<p class="mbot1">Of the twenty species of Gazelles known to naturalists, only a few
+of the best known will be specially mentioned here. By Sir Victor
+Brooke they have been thus arranged, in accordance with certain easily
+ascertained distinctive features in coloration and shape of horn:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="s5" summary="The species of gazelles">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s4 center">I.&mdash;BACK UNSTRIPED.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">A. <i>The white colour of the rump not encroaching
+      on the fawn colour of the haunches.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center"><i>a. Both sexes bearing horns.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">1. H<span class="smaller">ORNS</span>
+      L<span class="smaller">YRATE</span> <span class="smaller">OR</span>
+      S<span class="smaller">EMI</span>-L<span class="smaller">YRATE.</span></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">The Gazelle (Arabia and N.E. Africa).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Sundevall’s Gazelle (Sennaar).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Isabelline Gazelle (Kordofan).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Black-tailed Gazelle (Bogosland).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Korin (Senegal).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">1. H<span class="smaller">ORNS NOT</span>
+      L<span class="smaller">YRATE</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Cuvier’s Gazelle (Morocco).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Arabian Gazelle (S. Arabia).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Small-horned Gazelle (Sennaar).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Bennett’s Gazelle (India).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Speke’s Gazelle (Somali Country).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dusky-faced Gazelle (Persia).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Muscat Gazelle (Muscat).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center"><i>b. Females hornless.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Persian Gazelle.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Ladakh Gazelle.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Mongolian Gazelle.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">B. <i>The white colour of the rump projects forward
+      in an angle into the fawn colour of the haunches.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dama Antelope (S. Nubia).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Soemmerring’s Antelope (E. Africa).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Swift Antelope (Senegal).</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Grant’s Gazelle (Ugogo).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s4 center mtop0_5">II.&mdash;BACK WITH A MEDIAN WHITE STRIPE.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">Spring-bok (S. Africa).</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1" id="the_gazelle">The G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span> <i>par excellence</i>, from Syria, Egypt, and Arabia,
+stands scarcely two feet high. The elegance of its proportions are
+too well known to need description. The beauty of its eyes is not to
+be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span> compared with that of some of the other ruminating animals, the
+whole face being far too sheep-like, and this remark equally applies
+to all its near allies. The Dorcas Gazelle is a name by which it is
+also known. Like many other members of the genus, it has a tuft of hair
+upon each knee. The tail is long and tapering; the body hair rather
+coarse and of a pale fawn colour. The hips, as well as the breast and
+the abdomen, are white. As to their habits, Mr. Blanford, in his work
+on Abyssinia, tells us that, so far as his observation went, “neither
+the Dorcas nor Bennett’s Gazelle is ever seen in large flocks, like
+the animals of the Spring-bok group. Usually both are seen solitary,
+or from two to five together, inhabiting thin bushes generally on
+broken ground. They feed much upon the leaves of bushes. The male has a
+peculiar habit, when surprised, of standing still and uttering a short,
+sharp cry. Like most Antelopes, they keep much to the neighbourhood
+of some particular spot. After long observation, I am convinced that
+Bennett’s Gazelle never drinks; and all that I could ascertain of the
+Dorcas Gazelle leads to the same conclusion in its case.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_014">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_014.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DORCAS GAZELLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Captain Baldwin says that, “like other Antelopes, the little Ravine
+Deer [by which is meant Bennett’s Gazelle] has many enemies besides
+man. One day, when out with my rifle, I noticed an old female Gazelle
+stamping her feet, and every now and then making that ‘hiss’ which
+is the alarm-note of the animal. It was not I that was the cause of
+her terror, for I had passed close to her only a few minutes before,
+and she seemed to understand by my manner that I meant no harm. No;
+there was something else. I turned back, and on looking down a ravine
+close by, saw a crafty Wolf attempting a stalk on the mother and young
+one. Another day, at Agra, a pair of Jackals joined in the chase of a
+wounded Buck.</p>
+
+<p>“The Chikarah [again another name for Bennett’s Gazelle] is as easily
+tamed as the common Antelope; they are favourite pets, and become
+strongly attached to those who rear and feed them. I have seen tame
+ones driven out with a herd of Goats to graze, and never attempt to
+make their escape. It is not at all unusual to find the wild Gazelles
+feeding close to, sometimes almost mingling with, herds of Goats, when
+the latter have been driven out to pasture.... Like all Antelopes, the
+eyesight of the Chikarah is very acute, and the animal is perpetually
+on the watch against danger. It, however, appears to be gifted with
+only a moderate sense of hearing, and still less so of smell.”</p>
+
+<p id="Arabian_gazelle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">RABIAN</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> A<span class="smaller">RID</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span>, is the same size as the
+preceding, differing, as may be gathered from the table given on page
+13, in the shape of its horns, which, from being directed upwards
+and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span> outwards, turn at their tips more outward and also forward.
+The speed of the Gazelle, like that of most of its allies, is very
+great; its eyes are large and lustrous, and its general colour a rich
+yellowish-brown.</p>
+
+<p id="Persian_gazelle">The P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span> stands twenty-six inches. Its body colour
+is grey fawn colour, the breast and abdomen being white. Of its habits,
+Major St. John says that, “like the wild Ass, it especially affects the
+neighbourhood of the salt deserts. It appears to retire generally to
+the valleys at the base of hills to breed, and is most commonly seen in
+small parties of three to half a dozen. The fleetest Greyhound cannot
+come up with the Gazelle when it gets a fair start; but when suddenly
+roused from a hollow, or when the ground is heavy after rain, good Dogs
+will often pull down males. The does are more difficult to catch.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_015">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_015.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SAÏGA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="Soemmerings_gazelle">S<span class="smaller">OEMMERRING</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span> stands two feet and a half high. The
+body colour is sandy fawn above; the horns are massive and lyrate, more
+slender in the female. It lives in pairs, and is a powerful species.</p>
+
+<p id="Grants_gazelle">The horns of G<span class="smaller">RANT</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> G<span class="smaller">AZELLE</span> are larger than in any other of
+the species.</p>
+
+<p id="spring_bok">The S<span class="smaller">PRING</span>-<span class="smaller">BOK</span> derives its name from the habit it has of
+leaping straight up in the air for several feet when alarmed or whilst
+running. Its height is two feet and a half. The horns are lyrate, being
+very small in the females. Its colour is yellow dun, with the under
+parts, as usual, white. A peculiar white line along the middle of the
+back can be varied in extent within certain limits by the animal at
+pleasure. Major C. Hamilton Smith, when writing of this species, tells
+us that it assembles in South Africa in vast herds, “migrating from
+north to south and back with the monsoons. These migrations, which
+are said to take place in the most numerous form only at the interval
+of several years, appear to come from the north-east, and in masses
+of many thousands, devouring, like locusts, every green herb. The
+Lion has been seen to migrate and walk in the midst of the compressed
+phalanx, with only as much room between him and his victims as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span> the
+fears of those immediately around could procure by pressing outwards.
+The foremost of these vast columns are fat, and the rear exceedingly
+lean while the direction continues one way; but with the change of
+the monsoon, when they return towards the north, the rear become the
+leaders, fattening in their turn.”</p>
+
+<p id="saiga_chiru">The S<span class="smaller">AÏGA</span><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and C<span class="smaller">HIRU</span><a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> differ from the Gazelles
+but slightly, and approach the Sheep; the former belonging to Eastern
+Europe and Western Asia, the latter to Tibet.</p>
+
+<p>The Saïga is as large as a Fallow Deer, tawny yellow in summer, light
+grey in winter; being specially peculiar about the nose which is much
+lengthened, at the same time that the nostrils are expanded to such a
+degree that in feeding they have to walk backwards. The horns, found
+only in the males, are not a foot long, slightly lyrate, and annulated.
+In its native haunts&mdash;which are barren, sandy, and salt&mdash;it assembles
+frequently in vast herds. It runs rapidly when pursued, but is soon
+exhausted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_016">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_016.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">INDIAN ANTELOPE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The C<span class="smaller">HIRU</span> is slightly smaller, of a reddish fawn colour,
+with the face and front of the limbs black. The slender jet-black
+horns, very small in the female, are ringed nearly to the tips, curved
+forward, and about two feet long. From Captain Kinloch’s account we
+learn that “in the early part of the summer the Antelope appears to
+keep on the higher and more exposed plains and slopes where snow does
+not lie; as the season becomes warmer, the snow which has accumulated
+on the grassy banks of the streams in the sheltered valleys begins
+to dissolve, and the Antelope then comes down to feed on the grass
+which grows abundantly in such places, and then is the time that they
+may most easily be stalked and shot. They usually feed only in the
+mornings and evenings, and in the day-time seek more open and elevated
+situations, frequently excavating deep holes in the stony plains in
+which they live, with only their heads and horns visible above the
+surface of the ground.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pallah">THE PALLAH.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ALLAH</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> I<span class="smaller">MPALLA</span>, of South and South-east Africa, is
+another closely-allied form of large size, being more than three feet
+high at the shoulder. Its colour is dark red above, yellow dun on the
+sides, and white below. There are no false hoofs in the usual situation
+on the lengthy legs: a peculiarity which it shares with the Cabrit and
+the Giraffe. The eyes are very large and liquid. The horns, wanting in
+the female, are twenty inches long in the male, and lyrate; they are
+ringed nearly to their tips. They are abundant on or near to hills,
+and collect in herds of from twenty to thirty. Mr. Drummond, vividly
+describing his South African experience, on an occasion whilst hunting
+Buffalo, “saw something red moving among the trees, and stopped to
+watch it. It turned out to be a troop of Impalla coming back from water
+and making for some of the grassy glades. There might have been seventy
+or eighty of them, picking their way along in Indian file, nibbling
+here and there, but always moving, and seeming like a troop of ghosts
+in the dim twilight and silence.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="Indian_antelope">THE INDIAN ANTELOPE.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span>.&mdash;This species differs but
+little from the Gazelles in many respects, whilst its peculiarities are
+striking. Like the Nylghau, the male differs greatly from the female in
+its colour. The female has no horns; those in the male are black and of
+great size, spirally twisted for three or four turns like a corkscrew,
+slightly divergent, and often reaching thirty inches in length. It
+stands a little over two feet and a half at the shoulder. The colour of
+the males is deep brown-black above, with an abrupt line of separation
+from the pure white of the belly. This dark colour extends down the
+outer surface of each limb. The face is also black, with a white circle
+round the eyes and nose. In the females and young of both sexes the
+black and brown are replaced by a light fawn colour. The tail is very
+short and white below. At certain seasons of the year the glands below
+the eyes are much enlarged and form a prominent feature in the face of
+the male.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Buck is one of the swiftest of the Antelopes, no Greyhound
+having any chance against it. Its flesh, being dry and unsavoury, is
+rarely eaten. The species falls a frequent prey to the Tiger, and is
+generally found in herds, fifty does, or so, accompanied by a single
+buck. The height to which they can bound is very great. According to
+Major C. Hamilton Smith, the native Indians “have raised the common
+Antelope among the constellations, harnessed it to the chariot of the
+moon, and represented it as the quarry of the gods. In the opinion of
+Hindoos the animal is sacred to Chandra, female devotees and minstrels
+lead it, domesticated, by the harmony of their instruments, or the
+power of their prayers, and holy Brahmins are directed to feed upon
+their flesh, under certain circumstances prescribed by the <i>Institutes
+of Menu</i>.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br />
+<span class="s5">RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ (<i>continued</i>)&mdash;<span class="smaller">ANTELOPES</span>.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_STEINBOKS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TEINBOKS</span></a>: <a href="#klipspringer">K<span class="smaller">LIPSPRINGER</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">O<span class="smaller">UREBI</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">S<span class="smaller">TEINBOK</span></a>, <a href="#klipspringer">G<span class="smaller">RYSBOK</span></a>, <a href="#madoqua">M<span class="smaller">ADOQUA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_BUSH_BUCKS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USH</span>-<span class="smaller">BUCKS</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distinctive
+Marks&mdash;<a href="#THE_FOUR_HORNED_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">OUR</span>-<span class="smaller">HORNED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity in the Chikarah&mdash;<a href="#THE_WATER_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>: <a href="#nagor">N<span class="smaller">AGOR</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">R<span class="smaller">EITBOK</span></a>,
+<a href="#nagor">L<span class="smaller">ECHÈ</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">A<span class="smaller">EQUITOON</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">S<span class="smaller">ING</span>-<span class="smaller">SING</span></a>, <a href="#nagor">W<span class="smaller">ATER</span>-<span class="smaller">BUCK</span></a>, <a href="#poku">P<span class="smaller">OKU</span></a>, <a href="#reh_bok">R<span class="smaller">EH</span>-<span class="smaller">BOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#eland">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">LAND</span></a>&mdash;Beef&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Captain
+Cornwallis Harris’ Description&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Scarcity&mdash;<a href="#koodoo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">OODOO</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;King of Antelopes&mdash;<a href="#angas_harnessed_antelope">A<span class="smaller">NGAS</span>’
+H<span class="smaller">ARNESSED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_HARNESSED_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARNESSED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>: <a href="#guib">G<span class="smaller">UIB</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bush_buck">B<span class="smaller">USH</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> U<span class="smaller">KOUKA</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Pluck&mdash;<a href="#THE_BOVINE_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">OVINE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bubaline">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UBALINE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bubaline">H<span class="smaller">ARTEBEEST</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">B<span class="smaller">LESBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">B<span class="smaller">ONTEBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blesbok">S<span class="smaller">ASSABY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gnu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">NU</span></a>&mdash;Grotesque
+Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#brindled_gnu">B<span class="smaller">RINDLED</span> G<span class="smaller">NU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CAPRINE_ANTELOPES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APRINE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#serow">S<span class="smaller">EROW</span></a>&mdash;Ungainly Habits&mdash;<a href="#goral">G<span class="smaller">ORAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cambing_outan">C<span class="smaller">AMBING</span>-<span class="smaller">OUTAN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#takin">T<span class="smaller">AKIN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mazama">M<span class="smaller">AZAMA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chamois">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HAMOIS</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Voice&mdash;Hunted&mdash;<a href="#oryxes">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+O<span class="smaller">RYXES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">LAUBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">S<span class="smaller">ABLE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">AKER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">O<span class="smaller">RYX</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">EISA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">B<span class="smaller">EATRIX</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">G<span class="smaller">EMSBOK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#blaubok">A<span class="smaller">DDAX</span></a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_STEINBOKS">THE STEINBOKS.</h4>
+
+<p class="p0" id="klipspringer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">LIPSPRINGER</span>, the O<span class="smaller">UREBI</span>, the S<span class="smaller">TEINBOK</span>,
+and the G<span class="smaller">RYSBOK</span> form a small section of the African Antelopes,
+elegant and small, with horns only in the males, these being straight,
+or nearly so. Their body hair is harsh. The Klipspringer stands a
+little under two feet high; it is the heaviest in build<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span> of the four;
+its horns are four inches long and curved a little forward. Its colour
+is olive. It lives singly or in pairs, in mountainous districts, and it
+was at one time so abundant in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good
+Hope that its hair was employed to stuff saddles with.</p>
+
+<p>The Ourebi, in height and length of horn, resembles the last-mentioned
+species. Its build is very delicate, its general colour being a
+tawny yellow, white below. Its speed is very great. According to Mr.
+Drummond, “its peculiar colour so much resembles the soil on which
+it lies that, trusting to remain unobserved, it often allows you to
+get within fifteen or twenty yards of where it is squatting. It is a
+handsome and peculiarly graceful Antelope, extremely good eating, and
+well worth the hunter’s attention. One thing he should bear in mind is,
+that however slightly they may be wounded, they will go and lie down
+within a few hundred yards, if not chased by a Dog, and will in such
+cases very generally allow him to get within shot again.” The Steinbok
+is twenty inches high, with straight horns four inches long, large
+ears, and a mere stump of a tail. Its colour is red-brown, white below.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe29" id="i_018">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_018.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF FEMALE BUSH-BUCK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Grysbok, with the same measurement, is chocolate-red.</p>
+
+<p id="madoqua">The M<span class="smaller">ADOQUA</span> of Abyssinia is not bigger than a Hare, standing
+fourteen inches high, the slender legs being comparatively long. The
+horns, present only in the males, are not more than half the length of
+the head, being nearly straight, and curved a little forward. The tail
+is a mere stump. The back is reddish-brown, the sides grey; the face,
+together with a peculiar tuft between the horns, is red, as are the
+legs. The under parts are white.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_BUSH_BUCKS" title="THE BUSH-BUCKS.">THE BUSH-BUCKS.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Bush-bucks form a clearly-defined group of small Antelopes peculiar
+to tropical and Southern Africa. They are also known by sportsmen as
+Duykers, or Bush-goats. They are characterised by the possession of
+horns in the male sex, which are short, straight, and simple cones,
+very much depressed, or slanting backwards, and rising some distance
+behind the eyes; at the same time that there is a tuft of lengthy
+hair, directed backwards, which is arranged in a kind of horseshoe
+shape between the ears. The crumen or gland in front of each eye is
+also peculiar. Instead of it being a sac with a circular opening, it
+is spread out in the form of a curved line, and not contracted to form
+an orifice at all. This feature, which is not observed in any other
+animal, may be seen in the drawing of the head of the female Bush-buck.
+The muffle, or extremity of the nose, is much like that of the Ox,
+comparatively large and always moist. The tail is very short, whilst
+the ears are of a fair size and oval in form. The legs are particularly
+slender and delicate, terminated by minute hoofs. In most the forehead
+is strongly convex. The coloration of the many species is not striking,
+being a uniform red-brown, dark bluish-grey, or sooty-black. The
+smallest of the species, the Pigmy Bush-buck, is not bigger than a
+Rabbit, and might at first sight, especially the female, be mistaken
+for a Deerlet. According to Mr. Drummond, “it feeds principally on
+certain berries and shrubs found growing in the jungles, and seems to
+be on the move, more or less, the whole day, though, in common with
+the rest of the animal creation, it is most often to be seen at early
+morning and evening.”</p>
+
+<p>Of the Bush-bucks, the Philantomba, of West Africa, is grey-brown; the
+Blau-bok, of Southern Africa, a bluish-grey; the Duyker-bok, of South
+Africa, a yellowish-brown; the Coquetoon, a deep<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span> reddish-bay; the Bay
+Antelope, of West Africa, a dark bay, whilst there are other species
+black, brown, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_019">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_019.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WATER-BUCK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_FOUR_HORNED_ANTELOPES" title="THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES.">THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In India and Tibet there are two peculiar species of small Antelopes,
+the true Four-horned and the Brown Indian Antelope. In the former of
+these, known also as the Chikarah, different from what is found as a
+natural condition in any other living animal, there are two pairs of
+well-developed horns; the hinder, which are the larger, being five
+inches long, in the usual situation; the smaller, an inch and a half
+long, are close together not far behind the eyes. In the Brown Indian
+Antelope the anterior pair of horns are rudimentary, and nothing more
+than knobs. All these horns are straight and conical. Neither species
+is common. Their size is about that of the Arabian Gazelle; their
+colour a reddish-brown, becoming lighter below; the hair is coarse;
+the female is hornless. Captain Kinloch says of them that “four-horned
+Antelopes are generally found alone, or frequently in pairs; they
+conceal themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and somewhat
+resemble hares in their habits. They are seldom to be seen out feeding,
+but usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away at a great
+pace.”</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_WATER_ANTELOPES" title="THE WATER ANTELOPES.">THE WATER ANTELOPES.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p id="nagor">The N<span class="smaller">AGOR</span>, the R<span class="smaller">EITBOK</span>, the L<span class="smaller">ECHÈ</span>, the
+A<span class="smaller">EQUITOON</span>, the S<span class="smaller">ING</span>-S<span class="smaller">ING</span>, and the W<span class="smaller">ATER</span>-<span class="smaller">BUCK</span>
+are closely allied African Antelopes, with good-sized horns (only
+present in the males), which are transversely wrinkled, curved
+forwards, and a little inwards at the tips. Most of them are
+water-loving animals, and abound in marshy districts on the banks of
+rivers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span></p>
+
+<p id="poku">The Nagor is a little more than two feet and a half in height at the
+shoulder, the horns being six inches long, and the tail ten inches. The
+colour of the long, loose hair is fulvous-brown above, white below. The
+Reitbok is of a grizzly ochreate colour. Its height is nearly three
+feet, the horns being twelve inches long. According to Dr. Kirk, the
+species is “commonly found feeding in small herds; in the heat of the
+day it rests in long grass, and may be approached within fifty yards
+before starting. It seldom runs far without stopping to look round.
+Before again making off it gives a shrill whistle, as it does often
+when first started. Should the female have young unable to run far, and
+danger near, she places her foot on the shoulder and presses it to the
+ground; after which it never moves until almost trodden upon, and is
+expected to remain in the same spot until the return of the mother.”
+The Lechè is of a pale brown colour above and white below. Sir John
+Kirk says it “is a water Antelope, frequenting damp, marshy places,
+and taking to impassable swamps, among reeds and papyrus. It goes in
+considerable herds, accompanied by several males, mingling often with
+the ‘Poku,’ another Antelope peculiar to that region (the valley of
+the Zambesi). In the distance the Lechè may be known by the peculiar
+way in which it allows its horns to recline back, almost touching the
+withers.” The P<span class="smaller">OKU</span>, Vardon’s Antelope of Livingstone, is
+smaller than the Lechè, and thicker in the neck; otherwise it closely
+resembles it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_020">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_020.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ELAND.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Sing-sing Antelope and Water-buck are much alike, the former
+wanting a white elliptical patch, which is found near the base of the
+tail in the latter. The body colour is a greyish-brown. Long hair on
+the neck produces a mane. At the shoulder they stand four feet six
+inches, and the pale horns are two feet and a half long. “The Water
+Antelope,” says Mr. Drummond, “is an extremely fine animal, and so
+plentiful that there are, perhaps, more of them shot than of any of
+the other large Antelopes. The large ringed horns which, in the male,
+crown its brow, bear a strong resemblance to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span> those of the Reedbuck
+[Reitbok], while the habits and general appearance of both species are
+almost identical. Both frequent thickets and reedy places near water,
+and are principally found in pairs or small groups. The hair of the
+species [of Water-buck] inhabiting Eastern Africa is very long and
+coarse, though that of the one found in Central Africa [the Sing-Sing]
+is remarkably soft, and is highly prized by the natives as being so.”</p>
+
+<p id="reh_bok">The R<span class="smaller">EH</span>-<span class="smaller">BOK</span> of South Africa, “though almost approaching a
+Fallow Deer in size, more nearly,” says Mr. Drummond, “resembles
+a Chamois in other particulars; indeed, it has been called the
+African Chamois, and so far deserves the title, that it certainly
+possesses many of the characteristics and habits of the European
+species&mdash;decidedly more so than any other of the Antelope genus
+found in South Africa, with the exception of the Klipspringer. Their
+colour is light grey, the hair being somewhat long and coarse, and
+the horns are straight [bent forwards at the tips], and by no means
+unusually large for the animal’s size. They are never found but on
+the bare hills, among rocks and stones, and their powers of springing
+are wonderful. It seems extraordinary how their delicate limbs escape
+injury, when they take bound after bound like an indiarubber ball, in
+places that a Cat would shudder at.” According to Major C. H. Smith,
+“it is an animal of great swiftness, moving with wonderful rapidity
+by lengthened stretches, close to the ground, so as to seem to glide
+over the desert like a mist driven by the winds, and, favoured by the
+indistinct colours of the fur, is immediately out of sight. The Bushmen
+and western tribes [of South Africa] make lance-heads, awls, and other
+tools of the horns, and occasionally cloaks of their skins for the
+women.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="eland">THE ELAND.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>This fine species attains to the size of an Ox, the bull standing six
+feet and a half at the withers. Attempts have within the last few years
+been made to breed it in England for the sake of its flesh, which is
+as good as the best beef. It is, however, found to be impossible to
+get the price sufficiently low for market purposes. Two varieties are
+known, one of a pale fawn colour from Central Africa, the other, from
+South Africa, of a bright yellow tan colour, marked transversely with
+narrow white lines, about fifteen in number, running from a black
+line which goes along the back, to the belly. These marks are present
+in all young individuals, and disappear or fade considerably in the
+adults. The full-grown bull has a broad tuft of lengthy slight brown
+hair on the forehead, between and in front of the horns, which are
+situated some distance behind the eyes, being straight, a foot and a
+half in length, and at their bases carrying a thick and conspicuous
+screw-like ridge which extends in some cases nearly to their ends. In
+the females the horns are never quite so large as in the males. A large
+dewlap hangs from the throats of the bulls, whilst a dark, short mane
+continues from the forehead backwards. The tail is about two feet and a
+quarter in length, with a large tuft of brown hair at its end.</p>
+
+<p>According to Captain W. Cornwallis Harris, “in size and shape the body
+of the male Eland resembles that of a well-conditioned Guzerat Ox,
+not unfrequently attaining the height of nineteen hands, and weighing
+two thousand pounds. The head is strictly that of an Antelope, light,
+graceful, and bony, with a pair of magnificent straight horns, about
+two feet in length, spirally ringed, and pointed backwards. A broad and
+deep dewlap fringed with brown hair reaches to the knee. The colour
+varies considerably with the age, being dun in some, in others an ashy
+blue with a tinge of ochre; and in many also sandy-grey approaching
+to white. The flesh is esteemed by all classes in Africa above that
+of any other animal; in grain and colour it resembles beef, but is
+better tasted and more delicate, possessing a pure game flavour, and
+the quantity of fat with which it is interlarded is surprising, greatly
+exceeding that of any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted.
+The female is smaller and of slighter form, with less ponderous horns.”</p>
+
+<p>When writing on the hunting of these creatures, known in South Africa
+as the <i>Impoofo</i>, the same author remarks that, “notwithstanding the
+unwieldy shape of these animals, they had at first greatly exceeded the
+speed of our jaded horses, but being pushed they soon separated; their
+sleek coats turned first blue and then white with froth; the foam fell
+from their mouths and nostrils, and the perspiration from their sides.
+Their pace gradually slackened, and with their full brilliant eyes
+turned imploring towards us, at the end of a mile, each was laid low by
+a single bullet.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span></p>
+
+<p>With reference to these animals, the Hon. W. H. Drummond tells us
+that “more Eland are killed from horseback than on foot; for as it is
+utterly out of the question to make a practice of running them down,
+and as they generally inhabit the treeless flats, where they cannot,
+except by chance, be stalked, while the uncertainty of their movements
+and their keeping out of cover render it impossible to find them, like
+the large animals, by the aid of their spoor, some more certain method
+is needed than the chance meetings which occur to the hunter when in
+pursuit of other game, more especially as their hide is held in great
+repute by the Dutch colonists, who make trek-tows for their wagons, and
+reins for their oxen from it, even preferring it to that of a Buffalo.
+The demand thus induced has so diminished their numbers as to have
+restricted this noble Antelope to a few favoured localities, even in
+which it is becoming more scarce every day, while not many years ago it
+formed a component part of almost every landscape in the southern and
+eastern portions of Africa.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="koodoo">THE KOODOO.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_022">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_022.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">KOODOO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is one of the handsomest of all the Antelopes. It is more slender
+in build and smaller than the Eland, which it somewhat resembles. The
+horns are about four feet long, and form most graceful open spirals
+like corkscrews, there being a ridge along their whole length. The
+females are hornless. The ear is large and trumpet-shaped, moved at
+the slightest noise towards its source. The eyes are large and liquid.
+The body colour is slaty-grey, with transverse white markings, like
+those on the striped variety of the Eland. A small mane extends along
+the neck and withers, and another from the chin to the throat and
+breast. The tail is of moderate length, and hairy. This species is most
+abundant in Southern Africa, but it extends as high as Abyssinia. It is
+able to travel with very great speed, and makes prodigious bounds. It
+stands about five feet in height at the shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>“Majestic in its carriage,” writes Captain Harris, with all the
+enthusiasm of a true sportsman, “and brilliant in its colour, this
+species may with propriety be styled the king of the tribe. Other
+Antelopes are stately, elegant, or curious, but the solitude-seeking
+Koodoo is absolutely regal! The ground colour is a lively French grey
+approaching to blue, with several transverse white bands passing over
+the back and loins: a copious mane, and deeply fringed, tricoloured
+dewlap, setting off a pair of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span> ponderous yet symmetrical horns,
+spirally twisted, and exceeding three feet in length. These are thrown
+along the back as the stately wearer dashes through the mazes of the
+forest or clambers the mountain-side. The old bulls are invariably
+found apart from the females, which herd together in small troops, and
+are destitute of horns.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="angas_harnessed_antelope">ANGAS’ HARNESSED ANTELOPE.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>This elegant animal, much like the Koodoo in its proportions, stands
+three feet four inches high at the shoulders. In the male, which alone
+bears horns, these appendages are nearly two feet long, twisted and
+sub-lyrate, having sharply-pointed tips of a pale straw colour, their
+other parts being of a brownish-black, deeply ridged for half their
+length from their bases. The colour of the body is greyish-black,
+tinged with purplish-brown and ochre, white transverse stripes, like
+those of the Koodoo, being present on the neck, flanks, and cheeks.
+A black mane courses down the neck, whilst from the neck and belly
+depends long shaggy hair in abundance, reaching to the knees. The ears
+are large, and the face is of a bright sienna-brown. The tail is one
+foot eight inches long, black above, with under side and tip white. The
+female is small, and of a bright rufous colour, with transverse stripes
+more numerous than in the male.</p>
+
+<p>This species is found in troops of eight or ten together, feeding on
+the mimosa bushes in the Zulu country. Closely allied to it is a second
+from Central Africa, which is of a dull bay, nearly uniform, colour,
+the horns reaching thirty inches in length. It is known as Speke’s
+Antelope.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_HARNESSED_ANTELOPES" title="THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES.">THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p id="guib">The H<span class="smaller">ARNESSED</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPES</span> proper are all of small size, the
+elegant G<span class="smaller">UIB</span> not being larger than a Goat, its proportions
+being infinitely more delicate. It is of a pale bay colour, and the
+distinct transverse white streaks, running down from the middle of its
+back with connecting bands, have given the origin to its name.</p>
+
+<p id="bush_buck">The B<span class="smaller">USH</span> B<span class="smaller">UCK</span> differs in wanting any body stripes. It is
+also African. Writing of it, Mr. Drummond remarks that the Bush Buck,
+“the male of whom is known as the ‘Ukouka,’ and the female as the
+‘Umbabala,’ and which differ so greatly that experience is necessary
+to teach one that they are of the same species, is undoubtedly the
+finest in every way of all the Antelopes, whether found in the [Cape]
+Colonies or interior, that are known to the hunter as ‘small game.’
+In size it resembles a full-grown Fallow Buck, weighing, according
+to age and condition, from nine to thirteen stone; its colour is a
+dark reddish-brown, often verging into black, and with indistinct
+markings on the sides, haunches, and legs; it has a great deal of hair,
+and a considerable mane, while the neck, which is thick out of all
+proportion, is nearly bare. The last mentioned peculiarity detracts
+from the otherwise graceful outlines of its body, the more so, perhaps,
+from the head being so finely shaped and small. The horns are nearly
+straight, rough, and ringed for about three inches from their base,
+and then taper away, smooth and polished, to an almost invisible
+point; they vary from nine inches to a foot long, and from the way
+in which they are set on the skull, the immense strength in the neck
+and shoulders of the animal, and their extreme sharpness, form about
+as formidable weapons as could well be imagined, especially as their
+owner is the most plucky Antelope, without exception or consideration
+of size, with which I have become acquainted in Africa. I do not think
+that in all my experience ... I remember a single instance in which a
+Ukouka has not tried to charge when wounded and brought to bay; and no
+one, even after a very moderate experience, would ever allow any Dog on
+which he placed any value to attack them.”</p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_BOVINE_ANTELOPES" title="THE BOVINE ANTELOPES.">THE BOVINE ANTELOPES.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></h4>
+
+<p id="bubaline">The B<span class="smaller">UBALINE</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span>, together with the H<span class="smaller">ARTEBEEST</span>,
+has a peculiarly elongated and narrow head, at the same time that the
+body is not elegant in its proportions, being triangular in form,
+heavy in the shoulders, and falling away behind. The horns, which are
+smaller in the females, are turned abruptly backwards at their tips
+after having been directed forwards and upwards in a lyrate manner.
+The Bubaline of North Africa is of a uniform bay colour, and the much
+more recently discovered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span> T<span class="smaller">ORA</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span> of Eastern Africa
+resembles it in this respect, whilst its horns differ slightly in their
+direction and size, being more divergent and slender. The Hartebeest
+is grey-brown, and black on the outer sides of the limbs, with large,
+triangular white spots on the haunches; a black line also runs down the
+middle of the face from between the horns.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Pringle, when writing on the Hartebeest, says of it that it “is one
+of the largest and handsomest of the Antelope family.... In the nooks
+of the narrow ravines, through which the game are wont to descend from
+the steep and stony mountains, for change of pasturage, or to drink at
+the fountains that ooze from their declivities, I have frequently found
+fresh skulls and horns of the Hartebeest, those slight relics being all
+that remained to indicate that there the Lion had surprised and rent
+his prey, and that the ferocious Hyæna had followed and feasted on the
+fragments, devouring even the bones, except the skull and a few other
+unmanageable portions.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_024">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_024.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BUBALINE ANTELOPE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="blesbok">The B<span class="smaller">LESBOK</span>, B<span class="smaller">ONTE</span>-<span class="smaller">BOK</span>, and S<span class="smaller">ASSABY</span> are
+about the size of a calf three months old. Their horns are lyrate and
+ringed at their bases. The two former are of a purple-red colour, white
+faces and white rumps. Of the Blesbok, Mr. C. J. Andersson remarks&mdash;“It
+is of a beautiful violet colour, and is found in company with black
+wilde-beests and Spring-boks in countless thousands, on the vast
+green plains of short, crisp, sour grass occupying a central position
+in South Africa. Cattle and Horses refuse to pasture on the grassy
+products of these plains, which afford sustenance to myriads of this
+Antelope, whose skin emits a most delicious and powerful perfume of
+flowers and sweet-smelling herbs.”</p>
+
+<p>The Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest of the Cape colonists, stands four
+feet and a half in height. It has strong horns a foot in length,
+crescentic, with the points directed inwards. Its body colour is a
+dark purple-brown above, which changes into dusky-yellow underneath, a
+slate-coloured patch extending from the shoulder and the hip down to
+the knee and hock, at the same time that the rump is fawn-coloured. The
+tail is nearly two feet long.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="gnu">THE GNUS.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p>The G<span class="smaller">NU</span> and the B<span class="smaller">RINDLED</span> G<span class="smaller">NU</span> are two of the most
+grotesque of creatures. With the head not unlike that of a small Cape
+Buffalo, it has the limbs and hind-quarters not unlike those of a pony,
+in proportions as well as size. The nose is broad and flattened, with
+a bristly muzzle. The horns are broad at the base, where they nearly
+meet, and after turning downward as well as forward, they again turn up
+abruptly in a hook-like manner. They are found abundantly in Southern
+Africa, where, as their flesh is worthless, they are not much hunted.
+They are extremely wild and fearless, and remarkably tenacious of life.
+Their speed is great, and they have a habit of prancing about and
+kicking out furiously when suspecting danger. Both species have a mane
+along the neck, and lengthy hair between the forelegs. In both the tail
+is long, covered with a mass of hair not unlike that of the Horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_025">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_025.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GNU.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Common Gnu is of a deep brown-black, the tail and mane being white,
+whilst the bushy beard, running back to the chest and between the
+forelegs, is black. Lengthy black hairs, diverging and ascending from
+a median line, cover the upper part of the nose, at the same time that
+other smaller tufts under the eyes help to give a most ferocious aspect
+to the face. From Captain Harris’s description of the animals of South
+Africa, an excellent idea of the peculiarities of the creature may
+be gained. “Of all quadrupeds,” he writes, “the Gnoo is probably the
+most awkward and grotesque. Nature doubtless formed him in one of her
+freaks, and it is scarcely possible to contemplate his ungainly figure
+without laughter. Wheeling and prancing in every direction, his shaggy
+and bearded head arched between his slender and muscular legs, and his
+long white tail streaming in the wind, this ever-wary animal has at
+once a ferocious and ludicrous appearance. Suddenly stopping, showing
+an imposing front, and tossing his head in mock defiance, his wild red
+sinister eyes flash fire, and his snort, resembling the roar of a Lion,
+is repeated with energy and effect. Then lashing his sides with his
+floating tail, he plunges, bounds, kicks up his heels with a fantastic
+flourish, and in a moment is off at speed, making the dust fly behind
+him as he sweeps across the plain.”</p>
+
+<p id="brindled_gnu">In the Brindled Gnu the front of the face lacks the lengthy hair of its
+ally; the tail is also black instead of white. Its body colour is a
+dirty dun, variegated with obscure pale streaks. This species, as well
+as the Common Gnu, is the constant companion of the equally abundant
+Quaggas of the same region.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span></p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_CAPRINE_ANTELOPES">THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES.</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p id="serow">The S<span class="smaller">EROW</span> (sometimes written Surrow) of India, the
+C<span class="smaller">AMBING</span>-<span class="smaller">OUTAN</span> of Sumatra, with the G<span class="smaller">ORAL</span> of North
+India, form a small group of strongly-built Goat-like Antelopes, with
+short, conical, upright horns, ringed at the base, and of nearly equal
+size in both sexes. The feet are large, and the tapering tail short.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Kinloch gives us the following account of the Serow. He says
+it “is an ungainly-looking animal, combining the characteristics of
+the Cow, the Donkey, the Pig, and the Goat! It is a large and powerful
+beast.... The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes
+the form of a bristly mane on the neck and shoulders, and gives the
+beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition.
+The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and
+white underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very
+large; the muzzle is coarse.... The Serow has an awkward gait; but
+in spite of this can go over the worst ground; and it has, perhaps,
+no superior in going down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and
+is nowhere numerous; two or three may be found on one hill, four or
+five on another, and so on. It delights in the steepest and most rocky
+hillsides, and its favourite resting-places are in caves, under the
+shelter of overhanging rocks, or at the foot of shady trees.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_026">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_026.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GORAL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="goral">Of the Goral, the same author remarks that it “is an active little
+beast, and much resembles a small Goat, but the back is more arched.
+The prevailing colour is a brownish-grey, with a dark stripe along the
+back, and dark markings on the legs. Underneath the throat is a large
+white spot, which is very conspicuous when the animal is standing
+above one, and often betrays its presence when it would otherwise have
+escaped observation. The hair is soft but rather coarse, and about two
+inches long.” In the male the horns reach nine inches in length.</p>
+
+<p id="cambing_outan">The Cambing-outan stands about two feet and a quarter at the shoulder.
+Its long, coarse hair is brown-black in colour, the mane and throat
+alone being white. The horns are not more than six inches in length,
+cylindrical, slightly annulated and curved backwards at their lips.
+Mountain forests, where it leads a particularly active life, are its
+haunts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span></p>
+
+<p id="takin">Dr. J. Anderson remarks of the T<span class="smaller">AKIN</span>, or B<span class="smaller">UDORCAS</span>,
+another allied species, “Major Stewart informs me that it is found in
+all the high ranges of the north-east of Debrooghur, and is far from
+uncommon. The Mishnees, with their very inferior appliances to shoot
+and catch them, are, nevertheless, frequently dressed in their skins,
+or have a part of a skin with the hair on as an ornament, which would
+seem to indicate that they are numerous.... They are seen in pairs, and
+sometimes in herds of twenty or more. They are swift of foot and good
+climbers.”</p>
+
+<p>In Formosa and Japan there are also Goat-like Antelopes, that from
+the former locality being named after Mr. Swinhoe, who discovered it.
+Its horns are short and conical, its brown fur harsh and crisp. Both
+closely resemble the Cambing-outan. There is still another with a long
+tail inhabiting Northern China.</p>
+
+<p id="mazama">The M<span class="smaller">AZAMA</span>, or Mountain Goat of California and the Rocky
+Mountains, is an allied species, with short, thick, conical, recurved
+horns, and long, straight, soft hair of a white colour, specially
+abundant in the region of the throat, shoulders, sides, and tail. Its
+size is that of a large Sheep, which it much resembles in physiognomy.
+The flesh has an unpleasant musky flavour, the skin is thick and
+spongy, at the same time that the hair is considered of but little
+value.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="chamois">THE CHAMOIS.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>This well-known Goat-like Antelope inhabits the snow-clad mountains
+of Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, ascending during the
+summer, and in winter going below the line of snow in search of food.
+Both sexes possess horns&mdash;black, short, and cylindrical&mdash;rising
+perpendicularly and parallel from the forehead for some distance, then
+forming a small hook directed backwards to their pointed tips. These
+rarely exceed seven inches in length. The female is slightly smaller
+than the male, which stands a little over two feet at the shoulder.
+In winter the colour of the lengthy, hairy coat is dark brown, which
+becomes a brownish-yellow in the summer, a darker streak along the
+back alone remaining. The head is pale yellow, darker from the nose
+upwards to between the ears and around the eyes. Behind the horns and
+between the ears is a pair of peculiar glands, opening externally, the
+function of which is unknown. The voice of the species is a rough bleat
+under all ordinary circumstances; but when the one which watches whilst
+the others feed&mdash;and there is always found to be one such in every
+herd&mdash;finds cause to fear, it gives a shrill whistle as a danger signal
+to its companions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25" id="i_027">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_027.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF THE CHAMOIS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The senses of sight, hearing, and smell of the Chamois are developed
+to a maximum, and this fact, taken in association with the animal’s
+great sure-footedness among the lofty, snow-covered Alps, in which it
+has its home, makes hunting it a task of no mean difficulty and danger.
+Dogs are of no service on the rocky eminences to which the Chamois
+will retreat when it is pursued, and the sportsman has to rely upon
+his own sure-footedness and courage in climbing the steep and slippery
+precipices, whither he is tempted by the sight of game. If so hard
+pressed that it is driven to some height beyond which it cannot go, it
+is said that it will precipitate itself upon its pursuer, sending him
+down into the depths below. Besides man, the eagle is an enemy whose
+constant endeavour is to obtain the kids from their watchful mothers.
+Its skin is much valued for its toughness combined with its pliability.
+Its flesh is also greatly esteemed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="oryxes">THE ORYXES.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of the Antelopes there is a fairly well-marked section, distinguished
+by the possession of horns in both sexes, at the same time that
+the body is peculiarly deep at the shoulder, whilst the lengthy
+tail is cylindrical and tufted at the extremity. Among these there
+is a mane along the neck in three closely-allied species, the
+B<span class="smaller">LAUBOK</span>, or Equine Antelope of South Africa, the S<span class="smaller">ABLE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span> of the Transvaal and the eastern coast of Africa, and
+<span class="smaller">BAKER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span>, or the Maarif of Upper Nubia, as well as
+in the O<span class="smaller">RYX</span>, which is found in many parts of Africa, the
+B<span class="smaller">EISA</span> of Abyssinia, the B<span class="smaller">EATRIX</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span> of Arabia,
+and the G<span class="smaller">EMSBOK</span> of South Africa; whilst in the not distant
+A<span class="smaller">DDAX</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span> of North Africa there is no nape-mane, but a
+slight one on the throat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_028">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_028.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ORYX.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="blaubok">In the Blaubok, which stands more than four feet and a half at the
+shoulder, with a glaucous, grey coat upon a black skin; in the Sable
+Antelope, which stands four feet and a half, being black except upon
+the abdomen, as well as in streaks upon the face, which are white;
+and in Baker’s Antelope, which stands four feet eight inches, being
+of a pale fulvous liver colour, the horns are two feet and more in
+length, and curved gently backwards, being ringed transversely except
+at the tips, where they are smooth. In the Oryx, the Beisa, the
+Beatrix Antelope, and the Gemsbok, the lengthy conical horns, although
+similarly ringed, are much more slender, starting backwards in a line
+with the face, whilst in those previously mentioned they rise at an
+angle from it, being straight in the Gemsbok and Beisa, very slightly
+curved backwards in the Beatrix, and more so in the Oryx. In the nearly
+allied Addax the similarly-constructed horns are gently twisted in
+a corkscrew manner. All these last-mentioned Antelopes are pale in
+colour, being almost white, with the throat protected by long black
+hair.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst speaking of the Beisa Antelope, Mr. Blanford remarks that “the
+appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the
+most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the motions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span> being those of
+a Wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. Their favourite pace appears
+to be either a steady quick walk or a trot; they rarely break into a
+gallop unless greatly alarmed. When frightened they dash off, sometimes
+snorting and putting their heads down, as if charging, raising their
+long tails, and looking very formidable. They are wary animals, though
+far less so than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently
+attack when wounded, and their long, straight horns are most deadly
+weapons.”</p>
+
+<p>Of the Gemsbok, Captain Harris tells us that it “is about the size of
+an Ass, and nearly of the same ground colour, with a black list stripe
+down the back and on each flank, white legs variegated with black
+bands, and a white face, marked with the figure of a black nose-band
+and head-stall, imparting altogether to the animal the appearance of
+being clad in half-mourning. Its copious black tail literally sweeps
+the ground; a mane reversed, and a tuft of flowing black hair on the
+breast, with a pair of straight, slender horns (common to both sexes)
+three feet in length, and ringed at the base, completing the portrait.”
+The resemblance between the Gemsbok, when seen from the side view, and
+the Unicorn of heraldry, is sufficiently striking to make it more than
+probable that the conception of the latter originated in the former.</p>
+
+<p>The author just quoted says of the Blaubok, or Roan Antelope, by which
+name it is also known, that it “is an inhabitant of the elevated
+downs and ridges about the source of the river Limpopo [four degrees
+to the west of Delagoa Bay, and a little north of it], and being
+utterly destitute of speed, may be ridden to a standstill without
+difficulty.... It is heavily built, and has an upright mane, long
+asinine ears, and robust scimitar-shaped horns.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br />
+<span class="s5">ARTIODACTYLA: RUMINANTIA&mdash;BOVIDÆ (<i>Concluded</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">OXEN,
+PRONGHORN ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER], AND GIRAFFE.</span></span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#nyl_ghau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">YL</span>-G<span class="smaller">HAU</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#musk_ox">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USK</span> O<span class="smaller">X</span></a>&mdash;Difficulties in associating it&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_OX">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+O<span class="smaller">X</span></a>&mdash;Chillingham Wild Cattle&mdash;Their Habits&mdash;Domestic Cattle&mdash;The Collings, Booth, and Bates Strains&mdash;American
+Breeding&mdash;Shorthorns, and other Breeds&mdash;Hungarian Oxen&mdash;Zebu&mdash;Gour&mdash;Gayal&mdash;Curious mode
+of Capturing Gayals&mdash;Banting&mdash;<a href="#THE_BISONS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ISONS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;European Bison, or Aurochs&mdash;Almost extinct&mdash;Cæsar’s
+Description of it&mdash;American Bison&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Mythical Notions regarding it&mdash;Their Ferocity and Stupidity&mdash;“Buffalo”
+Flesh&mdash;<a href="#yak">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">AK</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_BUFFALOES">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UFFALOES</span></a>&mdash;Varieties&mdash;Description&mdash;Fight between two Bulls&mdash;<a href="#anoa">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">NOA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pronghorn_antelope">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">RONGHORN</span> A<span class="smaller">NTELOPE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull&mdash;Professor Baird’s and Mr.
+Bartlett’s Independent Discovery of the Annual Shedding of the Horns&mdash;Habits&mdash;Peculiarity about its Feet&mdash;Colour&mdash;Difficulties
+as to its Position&mdash;<a href="#THE_MUSK_DEER">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USK</span> [D<span class="smaller">EER</span>]</a>&mdash;Its Perfume&mdash;Where is it to be placed?&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunters
+for the Perfume&mdash;Their Sufferings&mdash;<a href="#THE_GIRAFFE">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">IRAFFE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;Skull processes&mdash;Its Neck&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Running
+power&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="nyl_ghau">THE NYL-GHAU, OR BLUE OX.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HIS</span> is the largest of the Antelopine animals found in India, the adult
+male standing over four feet in height at the shoulders, which are at
+a considerably higher level than the haunches. The female is about
+one-third smaller than her consort, and without horns, which in the
+male are but short, rarely exceeding nine inches in length, and rising
+perpendicularly from the head. Each horn is black, smooth, angular, and
+turned slightly forward, ending in a sharp point.</p>
+
+<p>The body colour of the male is a slate blue, darker about the head
+and under parts of the body, whilst the legs are black; the female
+is tawny-red; the aged bull is nearly black. A short mane runs along
+the neck and over the highest part of the shoulder, in which latter
+situation it is of greater length. There is a considerable tuft of
+dark hair hanging from the middle of the front of the neck, over six
+inches in length, which is situated just below a conspicuous white,
+anchor-shaped throat-patch, the shank of which runs up between the two
+halves of the lower jaw almost to the lip. On each cheek also there is
+a circular white spot below and behind the eye. A transverse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span> white
+line above and below each fetlock stands out conspicuously also. The
+inner sides of the thighs are white, this colour extending for some
+distance upwards and inwards. There is a white patch also in front
+of each pastern joint. The tail is lengthy, and tufted at the end.
+The ears are nearly of the same length as the horns. The limbs are
+elegantly shaped, though rather heavy, and their proportions show a
+tendency towards those of the Giraffe, which animal it also resembles
+in the employment of its tongue for seizing food, and not its lips.</p>
+
+<p>The Nyl-Ghau is found only in continental India, where it abounds in
+parts, not being a favourite with sportsmen, because its small horns
+are so insignificant a trophy, but more so with the larger members of
+the Cat tribe&mdash;the Tiger and the Leopard&mdash;as well as the wild Dog, with
+whom it is a frequent meal. Its temper is uncertain, which fact, when
+taken in connection with its powerful build, makes it a dangerous pet.
+It lives well in confinement. When attacking, it drops on its knees,
+and thus advances until it feels itself within a sufficient distance
+of its foe to make a sudden leap upon it, which it can do with great
+velocity and force. The leather manufactured from its skin is valuable,
+but its flesh is never eaten by the Hindoos, on account of their belief
+that it belongs to the Ox tribe, which it is not lawful to slay. With
+a good Horse in open country, the Blue bull may be hunted successfully
+with spears. It is very tenacious of life. The first specimens
+introduced into England were brought from Bombay by Lord Clive in 1767.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe33" id="i_030">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_030.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">NYL-GHAU.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="musk_ox">THE MUSK OX<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p class="p0">is an animal whose exact affinities it is not easy to determine. By
+some naturalists it has been thought to be intermediate between the
+Sheep and the Ox, whence its scientific generic name, <i>Ovibos</i>. It
+is found only in Arctic America north of latitude 60°, and exhales a
+strong musky odour at certain seasons of the year, an approach to which
+is recognisable in several of the Bovidæ. It is a heavy-built, but not
+large creature, with short legs, and a very lengthy brown hairy coat,
+which almost reaches to the ground. Its horns are very similar in form
+to those of the Cape Buffalo, and in the bulls they meet in the middle
+line of the forehead. The tail is very short, being entirely hidden
+by the fur of the haunches. The nose is not naked, as in the Oxen,
+but is almost entirely covered with hair, as in the Elk and Reindeer,
+both Arctic ruminants also. The spread of their feet is considerable,
+and they can cover the ground at no little speed. Captain Franklin
+describes their habits as follows:&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span>“The Musk Oxen, like the Buffalo,
+herd together in bands, and generally frequent barren grounds during
+the summer months, keeping near the rivers, but retire to the woods in
+winter. They seem to be less watchful than most other wild animals, and
+when grazing are not difficult to approach, provided the hunters go
+against the wind. When two or three men get so near a herd as to fire
+at them from different points, these animals, instead of separating or
+running away, huddle closer together, and several are generally killed;
+but if the wound is not mortal they become enraged, and dart in the
+most furious manner at the hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade
+them. They can defend themselves with their powerful horns against
+Wolves and Bears, which, as the Indians say, they not infrequently
+kill. The Musk Oxen feed on the same substances as the Reindeer; and
+the prints of the feet of these two animals are so much alike, that
+it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them. The
+largest killed by us did not exceed in weight three hundred pounds.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_031">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_031.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MUSK OXEN.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_031_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_OX" title="THE OX.">THE OX.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>It being quite unnecessary to describe the general form and proportions
+of this animal, as seen among us in a domesticated state&mdash;Shorthorns,
+Alderney, Highland, &amp;c.&mdash;we will at once proceed to notice the famous
+cattle of Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, which are known to have
+been in existence in the thirteenth century. The wild cattle there are
+all cream white, with a brown muzzle, with the insides and tips of the
+ears reddish-brown, at the same time that the horns are white tipped
+with black, of which latter colour are the hoofs. Calves more or less
+coloured are occasionally born, but these are promptly destroyed by
+the keepers. Some of the bulls have a thin, short mane. Their habit,
+on strangers approaching them, is to “set off in a full gallop, and
+at a distance of about two hundred yards make a wheel round and come
+boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner. On a sudden
+they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking
+wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being
+made, they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not
+to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and again returning
+with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach
+much nearer, probably within thirty yards, when they again make another
+stand, and then fly off. This they do several times, shortening their
+distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such
+a short distance that most people think it proper to leave them, not
+choosing to provoke them further.” They differ from domestic cattle in
+that they feed at night, and generally sleep during the day. They also
+hide their calves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_032">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_032.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CHILLINGHAM CATTLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all the so-called wild cattle of Great Britain the forehead is flat
+or slightly concave, the head is small, the back is straight, and the
+legs are short.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is now almost universally agreed that domestic cattle are descended
+from two or three species of the genus Bos, which existed in late
+geologic or prehistoric times, the remains being found in Switzerland,
+Ireland, and other parts of Europe. The Zebu, Yak, Gayal, and Arni, to
+be referred to immediately, have also been domesticated.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle have been so distributed and mixed in breeding that any precise
+arrangement of the breeds according to their ancestral affinities
+can scarcely be tabulated. Most important of the heavy breeds are
+the well-known Shorthorns of the north of England, so carefully and
+successfully developed by Charles and Robert Colling between 1780
+and 1818, at Ketton and Barmpton, close to Darlington, in Durham, by
+a process of in-and-in breeding&mdash;“Hubback,” <i>the</i> “Duchess,” “Lady
+Maynard,” “Young Strawberry,” “Foljambe,” and “Comet,” the last bull of
+which, at Charles Colling’s sale in 1810, fetched a thousand guineas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_033">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_033.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HUNGARIAN BULL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Following close upon the Collings came the Booths&mdash;Richard, Thomas, and
+J. Booth&mdash;between 1814 and 1864, at Studley, Killerby, and Warlaby,
+where “Isabella,” the twin sisters “Necklace” and “Bracelet,” were
+parents of goodly herds, “Commander-in-Chief” being one of the latest
+gems. On one occasion, it is stated, Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby,
+refused the unique offer of fifteen hundred guineas for a cow named
+“Queen of the May.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1810 Thomas Bates, of Ridley Hall, and afterwards of Kirkleavington,
+then a well-known breeder of cattle, purchased at Charles Colling’s
+sale “Young Duchess,” daughter of “Comet,” a granddaughter of
+“Duchess” by “Daisy” bull, and she became the founder of the famous
+“Duchess” tribe. In 1831, with the accession of the bull “Belvidere,”
+a descendant of Robert Colling’s “Princess” tribe, the “Duchess” breed
+produced “Short Tail” and the renowned “Duke of Northumberland.” The
+“Matchem” cow, purchased at the same date, did much to improve the
+stock. Mr. Bates died in 1849.</p>
+
+<p>Several enterprising American breeders have, since 1817, introduced
+Shorthorns into the United<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span> States and Canada, Colonel Lewis Sanders,
+of Kentucky, being the first who did so on anything like thorough
+principles. Others followed his example with success, especially about
+the year 1852, when a fresh impulse was given to their production
+because of the rise of price in meat, as well as the foreign demand for
+it. The Booth and Bates bloods predominate in these animals, and form
+the basis of much of the beef now re-shipped to England.</p>
+
+<p>The great advantage of the Shorthorn breed is that they, together
+with a good temper, combine the advantages of great size and aptitude
+to fatten, rapidly reaching maturity. For dairy purposes they are
+excelled by the Suffolk Duns and Ayrshire cattle, the latter, with
+their enormous udders, broad hips, and deep flanks, being the best
+as milkers. Hereford, North Devon, and Scottish black Shorthorns
+are inferior to those of the northern counties in their slowness of
+growth and power of filling out. Those of North Devon are particularly
+symmetrical in form. The mountain cattle of the western Highlands,
+otherwise known as the Kyloe breed, are best known from the hardiness
+of their constitutions, protected as they are by their thick hides
+and shaggy coats. The Welsh and Shetland cattle resemble them in many
+respects.</p>
+
+<p>In Hungary, Turkey, and Western Asia there is a breed of large cattle
+with peculiarly long and slender outward-spreading horns, black-tipped,
+and greyish throughout the rest of their length.</p>
+
+<p>In India, the Sacred Cattle, or Z<span class="smaller">EBUS</span>, with convex forehead,
+short horns, large drooping ears, and a short head, possess a high hump
+upon the withers, as well as an ample dewlap falling in undulating
+folds along the whole length of the neck. Their disposition is mild, as
+is indicated by their expression, and the liberty they are allowed in
+India is wonderful. They vary greatly in size, some being not bigger
+than an average month-old calf. The breed has extended in times gone by
+through Persia into Eastern Africa, where it is found with a narrower
+and flatter face, at the same time that the hump is smaller.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of steam, as well as the extension in the employment
+of the Horse, has almost entirely superseded the use of cattle as
+beasts of burden or draught in highly civilised nations.</p>
+
+<p>The G<span class="smaller">OUR</span>, the G<span class="smaller">AYAL</span>, and the B<span class="smaller">ANTING</span> are
+three species of wild cattle found in the Oriental world from India
+to Java, peculiar in possessing a ridge running along the middle of
+the back, and horns which, after running outwards from the head, are
+directed upwards and not backwards. Of these the Gour of Central India
+is the largest, measuring six feet at the withers, having also a
+convex profile, very high withers, and an arched back, which makes the
+line from the nose to the root of the tail, along the spine, a fairly
+continuous curve. Its colour is a deep brown glossy black, excepting
+a ring of white encircling the base of each hoof, and a white tuft on
+the forehead. There is not any trace of a dewlap in either sex. The
+horns are not more than two feet in length, strong, and curved boldly
+upwards at their tips. The Gour is found abundantly in herds of twenty
+or so around the tablelands, especially of South Bahar, feeding on the
+young leaves of the trees and shrubs. It appears to have resisted all
+attempts at domestication. The Gayal is found in the hill-region east
+of the Brahmaputra. It is much the size of English cattle. The bull is
+bold, and the cow easily domesticated. Its home is the deep jungle,
+where it can obtain the young leaves and shoots of the brushwood.
+According to Mr. Macrae the following is the method employed by the
+Kookies of the Chittagong hill-region to catch the animal:&mdash;“On
+discovering a herd of wild Gayals in the jungle, they prepare a number
+of balls, of the size of a man’s head, composed of a particular kind
+of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their tame Gayals towards
+the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet and assimilate into one;
+the males of the one attaching themselves to the females of the other,
+and <i>vice versâ</i>. The Kookies now scatter their balls over such parts
+of the jungle as they think the herd most likely to pass, and watch its
+motions. The Gayals, on meeting these balls as they pass along, are
+attracted by their appearance and smell, and begin to lick them with
+their tongues; and relishing the taste of the salt, and the particular
+earth composing them, they never quit the place until all the balls
+are consumed. The Kookies, having observed the Gayals to have once
+tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply of them to answer the
+intended purpose, and as the Gayals lick them up they throw down more;
+and it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that the cotton
+is mixed with the earth and the salt. This process generally goes on
+for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during which
+time the tame and the wild Gayals are always together, licking the
+decoy balls, and the Kookie, after the first day or two of their being
+so, makes his appearance at such a distance as not to alarm the wild<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span>
+ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the
+sight of him has become so familiar that he can advance to stroke his
+tame Gayals on the back and neck without frightening the wild ones. He
+next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the same time
+giving them plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the short space
+of time mentioned, he is able to drive them, along with the tame ones,
+to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of force; and
+so attached do the Gayals become to the parrah, that when the Kookies
+migrate from one place to another, they always find it necessary to
+set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gayals should
+return to them from the new grounds.”</p>
+
+<p>The Gayal carries its nose forwards, as a rule, like a Buffalo. Its
+ears are longer than those of the Ox. It possesses a dewlap smaller
+than in the Zebu. The tail is short, not descending below the hock.
+Its general colour is a varying and generally dark brown, the abdomen
+and the legs being white in parts. Its cry is a shrill, insignificant
+lowing. Its horns are conical, turned directly outwards, and a little
+upwards at their tips, not exceeding one foot and a half in length.</p>
+
+<p>The Banting extends from Cochin China, through the Indo-Malay
+archipelago, to the islands of Bali and Lombok. Its colour and
+proportions are almost exactly those of the Gour.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_BISONS" title="THE BISONS.">THE BISONS.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Closely related to the Oxen are the Bisons of Europe and of North
+America, together with the Tibetan Yak. The two species of Bison agree
+closely with one another in general appearance, the American form
+being shorter and weaker in the hind-quarters, and a little smaller
+altogether.</p>
+
+<p>The hair of the head and neck is very abundant and long, forming a
+mane of very dark colour, at the same time that it nearly conceals the
+eyes and ears as well as the base of the short conical horns, which
+are directed outwards and upwards. Under the chin there is a lengthy
+beard. A line of lengthy hair also extends along the back nearly to the
+tail, which is itself only covered with short soft hair, except at the
+end where there is a lengthy tuft. There is a hump developed on the
+shoulders, at which spot the adult male is nearly six feet in height,
+the female being smaller.</p>
+
+<p>The European Bison, or Aurochs, is on the verge of extinction,
+surviving only in the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
+the Caucasus, on account of the severe laws against its destruction.
+The horns are longer and more curved than in the American species. The
+females are less hairy and smaller than their mates. Its strength is
+very great, and an old bull is said to be a match for at least four
+Wolves. Its speed is considerable, and it raises its hoofs above the
+level of its lowered head whilst galloping.</p>
+
+<p>In his description of the Black Forest (<i>Sylva Hercynia</i>) Cæsar
+describes the species (the Urus) thus:&mdash;“They are but little less than
+Elephants in size, and are of the appearance, colour, and form of a
+Bull. Their strength as well as their speed is very great. They spare
+neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
+the sight of men, nor can they be tamed, even when taken young. The
+people, who take them in pitfalls, assiduously destroy them; and young
+men harden themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this
+kind of chase; and those who have killed a great number, the horns
+being publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact, obtain great honour.
+The horns, in magnitude, shape, and quality, differ much from the horns
+of our Oxen. They are much sought for, and after having been edged
+with silver at their open ends, are used for drinking vessels at great
+feasts.”</p>
+
+<p>According to some authorities, however, it is a mistake to identify the
+European Bison with the Aurochs.</p>
+
+<p>To all intents and purposes the American Bison is an extinct animal,
+killed off by the rifle and the rail and the encroachment of man upon
+its haunts. A few specimens are preserved with what may be described as
+laudably jealous care in the Yellowstone Park, and small herds may be
+found in Montana, Texas, and Canada.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_036">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_036.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">EUROPEAN BISON.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_036_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Huge herds, numbering millions of individuals, “so numerous as to
+blacken the plains as far as they can reach,” were once a common sight
+on the prairies, and repeatedly stopped the Kansas Pacific Railway
+when first formed. Hunters spread false notions as to the organisation
+of these herds,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span> which was of a most simple character, excellently
+explained by Mr. Allen, who says that the timidity and watchfulness of
+the cows, accustomed as they were to the care of their offspring, led
+them to take the initiative in the movements of the herd, and this kept
+them near the front, especially when the herd was moving. The popular
+belief that the bulls kept the cows and the young in the middle of the
+herd, and formed themselves, as it were, into a protecting phalanx,
+had some apparent basis; but the theory that the old bulls, the least
+watchful of all the members of the herd, were sentinels posted on the
+outskirts to give notice of an approaching enemy, was wholly a myth, as
+was also the supposition that the herd consisted of small harems.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_037">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_037.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AMERICAN BISON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These “Buffaloes,” as they were generally called, were much like
+domestic cattle in their habits. They were, however, fond of wallowing
+in the mud, and so coating themselves with a protection from their
+insect pests. Their ferocity of appearance was not evident in their
+true natures, for their disposition was sluggish and fearful. Colonel
+Dodge remarked of them that, “endowed with the smallest possible
+amount of instinct, the little he has seems adapted rather for getting
+him into difficulties than out of them. If not alarmed at sight or
+smell of a foe, he will stand stupidly gazing at his companions
+in their death-throes, until the whole herd is shot down. He will
+walk unconsciously into a quicksand or quagmire already choked with
+struggling dying victims. Having made up his mind to go a certain way
+it is almost impossible to swerve him from his purpose.”</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the “Buffalo” was thought equal to the best beef if from
+the young animal, but dry and insipid when from the adult. The tongue
+and hump were esteemed great delicacies. Pemmican was made mostly from
+the dried flesh, pounded fine and mixed with an equal weight of tallow.</p>
+
+<p id="yak">The Y<span class="smaller">AK</span> differs from the Bisons mostly in the distribution of
+its long hair, which, instead of being situated on its hump and neck,
+forms a lengthy fringe along the shoulders, flanks, and thighs, and
+completely invests the tail, which latter is much prized in India,
+where it is known as “Chowry,” and is employed as a fly-switch in great
+ceremonials.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Yak is a native of the high ground of Tibet, where it is rigorously
+protected by the native government against the foreign sportsman. Its
+colour is black, except some spots upon the face, which are white or
+grey. Its tail is often white, as is frequently the long hair tuft on
+the top of the withers. Its horns reach nearly a yard in length, and
+are directed outwards, forwards, and then upwards. Its voice is much
+like that of a Pig, whence the name Grunting Ox, by which it sometimes
+goes.</p>
+
+<p>As to the habits of the creature, Captain Kinloch tells us that “the
+Yak inhabits the wildest and most desolate mountains; it delights in
+extreme cold; and is found, as a rule, at a greater elevation than any
+other animal. Although so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest
+pasturage, and its usual food consists of a rough, wiry grass, which
+grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet, up to an elevation of nearly
+20,000 feet.... Yak seem to wander about a good deal. In summer, the
+cows are generally to be found in herds varying in number from ten
+to one hundred, while the old bulls are for the most part solitary
+or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night or early in
+the morning, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren
+hillside during the day, lying sometimes for hours in the same spot.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42_5" id="i_038">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_038.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">YAK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_BUFFALOES" title="THE BUFFALOES.">THE BUFFALOES.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The B<span class="smaller">UFFALOES</span> have the horns flattened and triangular in
+section, inclined outwards and backwards, turning up at the tips. The
+Common Buffalo is found in Southern Europe, North Africa, and the
+Indian region. The huge Indian variety, with most lengthy horns, is
+also known as the Arni. Its horns are elongated and narrow, sometimes
+reaching six feet and a half in length. It stands nearly or quite six
+feet at the shoulder, its proportions are bulky, and its general colour
+dusky-black. It lives in small herds numbering not more than twenty,
+and solitary bulls are often met with which attack sportsmen in a
+most vicious manner without provocation. The Cape Buffalo has shorter
+horns, expanded at their bases, so that they almost meet in the middle
+line of the forehead. It is found all over Central and South Africa,
+and is a formidable animal when wounded, as, quite regardless of the
+cloud of smoke which follows the shot aimed at it, it charges right
+through it, and so does<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span> frequent injury to the experienced hunter.
+Its general colour is blue-black, but in some cases it has a reddish
+tinge. The Hon. W. H. Drummond gives the following account of a fight
+between two bulls of which he was an eye-witness. After having had
+his attention attracted by a loud clattering noise, he remarks that,
+“on looking through the edge of the last thicket which had concealed
+them, I saw two Buffalo bulls standing facing each other with lowered
+heads, and, as I sat down to watch, they rushed together with all their
+force, producing the loud crash I had before heard. Once the horns were
+interlocked they kept them so, their straining quarters telling that
+each was doing his best to force the other backwards. Several long
+white marks on their necks showed where they had received scratches,
+and blood dripping over the withers of the one next me proved that he
+had received a more severe wound. It was a magnificent sight to see
+the enormous animals, every muscle at its fullest tension, striving
+for the mastery. Soon one, a very large and old bull, began to yield
+a little, going backwards step by step; but at last, as if determined
+to conquer or die, it dropped on to its knees. The other, disengaging
+its horns for a second, so as to give an impetus, again rushed at him,
+but, whether purposely or not I could not tell, it did not strike him
+on the forehead, but on the neck, under the hump, and I could see that
+with a twist of his horns he inflicted a severe wound. However, instead
+of following up his seeming advantage, he at once recoiled, and stood
+half facing his antagonist, who, getting on his legs again, remained
+in the same position for several minutes, and then with a low grunt of
+rage, rushed at him. This time he was not met, and his broad forehead
+struck full on his rival’s shoulder, almost knocking it over. The
+old bull then went a few yards off and stood watching the other for
+fully a quarter of an hour, when he walked slowly away in the opposite
+direction.”</p>
+
+<p>The Cape Buffalo, which is found all over Africa south of the equator,
+is replaced in the north-eastern portion of the continent by a smaller
+variety, of a browner colour, and with much shorter horns, which
+are not closely approximated at their bases, at the same time that
+they spread out almost horizontally instead of curving downwards and
+backwards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_039">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_039.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ANOA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In western and the western-equatorial parts of Africa there is again
+another still smaller variety<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span> in which the hair is yellowish-red
+instead of nearly black or brown, the short horns being, as well,
+directed considerably upwards instead of directly outwards.</p>
+
+<p id="anoa">In the Island of Celebes the smallest species of Buffalo is found,
+which differs but little in appearance from the young of the Cape
+species. It is known as the A<span class="smaller">NOA</span>; is black, with short, wavy
+hair, and has short, parallel prismatic horns directed upwards from the
+forehead.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pronghorn_antelope">THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>This Antelope of North America, one of the few forms of the
+Hollow-horned Ruminants which inhabit the New World, is different from
+all the other members of the group in two respects at least, namely,
+that its horns are branched, as implied in the name, and that they are
+annually shed.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying figure is a side view of the skull of the animal,
+whose size is nearly that of a Fallow Deer, although its build is not
+so heavy. It is there seen that each horn-core forms a blade-shaped
+projection six inches long, with the pointed end behind, situated above
+the eyes perpendicular to the line of the face, rounded posteriorly and
+sharpened in front. Each horn itself is a foot or so in its greatest
+length, is pointed and gently curved backwards, at the same time that
+from the front of it, very slightly above the middle of its height,
+a short branch arises which is directed forwards, the whole there
+dividing into two. Each horn is flattened from side to side, is not
+annulated, and in its structure scarcely differs from that of a Sheep
+or Goat.</p>
+
+<p>For some years before it was certainly known to be the case, it had
+been rumoured by the hunters of Fort Union that the Pronghorn Antelope
+shed its horns each year; and in the year 1858 Dr. C. A. Canfield,
+of Monterey, California, in writing to Professor Baird, of the
+Smithsonian Institution, Washington, informed him that in specimens in
+his possession “their horns drop off annually.” This letter remained
+unprinted until in England Mr. A. D. Bartlett, Superintendent of the
+Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, London, in 1865 drew attention to
+the same fact, which was observed by him in a male animal living in the
+Gardens at the time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_040">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_040.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The horns&mdash;not antlers, be it noticed&mdash;are, it is now certain, detached
+each year from their supporting cores, and subsequently dropped, to be
+replaced by others which at the time of shedding have already advanced
+some way in growth, although at first they are very pale and soft. In
+this respect the Pronghorn is not resembled by any other Antelope, and
+differs entirely from the Deer.</p>
+
+<p>Of the species Dr. Canfield, in the letter above referred to, gives
+several interesting details as to its habits, from which we may infer
+that they are not so cunning or so fleet as their allies in Africa and
+India:&mdash;“From the 1st of September to the 1st of March they run in
+bands, the bucks, does, and kids all together,” shortly after which
+time the young are born, upon which the bucks separate and wander about
+alone until the following season.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span> “A band of Pronghorn Antelopes, when
+frightened, never run directly away from you, but cross over in front
+of you, running across your path from one side to the other repeatedly,
+and keeping about a hundred yards ahead. On this account it is
+sometimes easy, on a smart Horse, to run into a drove of them and catch
+one of them with a noose. When one is alone, and is watched by a person
+or animal and becomes frightened, it makes a sort of shrill blowing
+noise like a whistle, and then commences bounding off. On the neck it
+has a heavy, thick, chestnut-coloured mane, five or six inches long,
+and on the rump a white patch of coarse hair; and when the animal is
+frightened it always erects the mane and the hair and this white spot,
+thus giving it a very singular and characteristic appearance as it runs
+bounding away from you. The Antelope has a very peculiar odour, strong
+and, to some people, offensive.... On the whole, I consider the meat of
+the Pronghorn to be very excellent.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_041">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_041.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_041_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a peculiarity in the feet of the Pronghorn in which it
+resembles the Giraffe, a few Antelopes, and the different members
+of the Camel tribe, namely, that the false hoofs, as well as their
+supporting bones, are entirely absent, from which it may be inferred,
+as is the case, that the number of digits in each foot is only two.</p>
+
+<p>In the females of the species the horns are present, but they are much
+reduced in size, and almost hidden in the hairy covering of the head.
+The end of the nose&mdash;in other words, the muffle&mdash;is hairy, and not,
+therefore, damp at all times in any part, as is that of the Ox and most
+ruminants. The tail is very short; the fur is very short and close set,
+being stiff and wavy. Its colour is a pale fawn above and on the limbs,
+whilst the breast as well as the abdomen are a yellowish-white, at the
+same time that the tail and round about it are pure white, as is the
+inside of the ear.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Pronghorn is here described after all the more ordinary
+hollow-horned Ruminantia, it is far from impossible that it is much
+more intimately related to some one of the above-mentioned families
+than to the others. It must either have originated direct from the
+earliest type of Bovine Ruminant, and from that time continued
+isolated until the present day, or it may have been a straggler from
+some already differentiated group, like the Gazelles, for instance,
+that, arriving in a land so unlike the haunts of its progenitors,
+took on itself from altered circumstances peculiar modifications in
+its horn-growth and foot-form which have resulted in its present
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_MUSK_DEER" title="THE MUSK [DEER].">THE MUSK [DEER].<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This interesting animal, from the male of which is obtained a powder
+contained in a pouch about the size of an orange, on the surface of
+the abdomen, and which is one of the most fragrant of perfumes, is
+generally included among the Cervidæ. Nevertheless, there are many
+reasons in favour of its being considered an Antelopine animal. Apart
+from the fact that it has a gall-bladder, which is not found in any
+Deer, but in almost all Antelopes, its pale grey hair is peculiarly
+coarse and Goat-like, and the absence of antlers or horns in both sexes
+tells in neither direction, for, as in the Brockets of South America
+and the Chinese Muntjac, the antlers are rudimentary, so are the horns
+in the Bush-bucks of Africa, and in some domestic Sheep as well as Oxen.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of enormous canine tusks, three inches long, would at
+first sight seem to be in favour of its relations with the Deer,
+because in the Muntjacs they are also found. Nevertheless there is no
+<i>à priori</i> reason why these formidable weapons should not be developed
+in a hollow-horned ruminant; for, cropping up independently in genera
+so distant as the Deerlets, the Muntjacs, and the Water Deer, why
+should they not do so in the Antelopes as well?</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17_5" id="i_042">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_042.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE MUSK [DEER].</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Musk is twenty inches in height, its ears large, and its tail
+rudimentary. Its hoofs are small, but their spread is large, because
+of the yielding attachment of the false hoofs, as in the Reindeer. The
+coarse and brittle hair is grey and slightly brindled. Its habitat is
+Central Asia, from the Himalaya Mountains to Pekin, at elevations above
+8,000 feet.</p>
+
+<p>“The Musk Deer,” according to Captain Kinloch, “is a solitary and
+retiring animal; it is nearly nocturnal in its habits, remaining
+concealed in some thick bush during the daytime, and only coming out
+to feed in the mornings and evenings. It frequents the highest parts
+of the forest, preferring the birch, rhododendron, and juniper, and is
+almost always found alone, rarely in pairs, and never in flocks. No
+animal seems more indifferent to cold, from which it is well protected
+by its thick coat of hollow hair, which forms as it were a sort of
+cushion, which acts as an insulator, and enables the Deer to lie even
+on snow without much loss of animal heat. It is amazingly active and
+sure-footed, bounding along without hesitation over the steepest and
+most dangerous ground. Its usual food seems to be leaves and flowers,
+but the natives say that it will kill and eat Snakes.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span></p>
+
+<p>The value of the Musk perfume causes the animal to be persecuted beyond
+measure. From Chardin we learn that the hunters are obliged to cover
+the nose and mouth with linen when removing the scent-sac, to prevent
+pulmonary hæmorrhage. “I have,” says he, “gained accurate information
+respecting this circumstance, and as I have heard the same thing talked
+of by some Armenians who had been to Boutan, I think that it is true.
+The odour is so powerful in the East Indies that I could never support
+it, and when I trafficked for musk I always kept in the open air, with
+a handkerchief over my face, and at a distance from those who handled
+the sacs; and hence I know by experience that this musk is very apt to
+give headaches, and is altogether insupportable when quite recent. I
+add that no drug is so easily adulterated, or more apt to be so.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_043">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_043.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MUSK [DEER.]</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_GIRAFFE" title="THE GIRAFFE.">THE GIRAFFE.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Apart from its unique proportions and its size, the Giraffe presents
+peculiarities in its organisation which compel us to separate it from
+the Deer on the one hand, and the hollow-horned ruminants on the other.
+In both these groups the appendages on the head, whether developed
+as antlers or as horns, are distinct prolongations from the forehead
+bones themselves. In the Giraffe, however, the three bony appendages,
+one median and two lateral, all covered with skin, instead of being
+produced as outgrowths from any portion of the skull, are separate
+and independent conical bony “processes” which stand upon the skull,
+capping roughened conical prominences destined to support them. Neither
+are horns, like those of Sheep or Oxen, nor antlers like those of the
+Deer, ever found upon these processes, a tuft of hair alone surmounting
+the lateral pair.</p>
+
+<p>The neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of any other living animal,
+notwithstanding which it conforms to what, on account of its almost
+constant applicability, may be termed a law, namely, that there are but
+seven vertebræ which go to form the neck of a mammalian animal. In this
+animal, such being the case, each vertebra is very long, which makes
+the neck correspondingly awkward and inflexible; so that when the head
+is much carried to the side, the conformation and enumeration of the
+bones in the cervical region is not a matter of any difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The Giraffe is a native of Africa south of the Sahara. Most of the
+specimens which reach Europe in a living state are brought from Nubia
+and the north-east of the continent generally. The adult male attains
+a height of sixteen feet, the female rarely exceeding fourteen feet.
+They live and have bred well in captivity, although, as may be readily
+imagined, they are most delicate, and require much special care,
+particularly to prevent the joints of their lengthy limbs from being
+injured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span></p>
+
+<p>M. Thibaut, who, in 1836, obtained the first specimen of the Giraffe
+alive for the Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, tells us that “the
+first run of the Giraffe is exceedingly rapid. The swiftest Horse,
+if unaccustomed to the desert, could not come up with it unless with
+extreme difficulty. The Arabs accustom their coursers to hunger and to
+fatigue; milk generally serves them for food, and gives them power to
+continue their exertions during a very long run. If a Giraffe reaches
+a mountain, it passes the height with rapidity; its feet, which are
+like [not exactly in structure] those of the Goat, endow it with the
+dexterity of that animal; it bounds over ravines with incredible power;
+Horses cannot, in such situations, compete with it.”</p>
+
+<p>“The Giraffe eats with great delicacy, and takes its food leaf by
+leaf, collecting them from the trees by means of its long tongue. It
+rejects the thorns, and in this respect differs from the Camel.... It
+is extremely fond of society, and is very sensible. I have observed one
+of them shed tears when it no longer saw its companions or the persons
+who were in the habit of attending it.”</p>
+
+<p>By Le Valliant and other sportsmen most graphic accounts have been
+given of the hunting of the Giraffe. Quoting from Captain Harris, we
+learn that “the rapidity with which the awkwardly-formed animals can
+move is beyond all things surprising, our best Horses being unable
+to close with them under two miles. Their gallop is a succession of
+jumping strides, the fore and hind leg on the same side moving together
+instead of diagonally, as in most other quadrupeds; the former being
+kept close together, and the latter so wide apart, that in riding by
+the animal’s side the hoof may be seen striking on the outside of
+the Horse, threatening momentarily to overthrow him. Their motion,
+altogether, reminded me rather of the pitching of a ship or rolling
+of a rocking-horse, than of anything living; and the remarkable gait
+is rendered still more automaton-like by the switching, at regular
+intervals, of the long black tail, which is invariably curled above the
+back, and by the corresponding action of the neck, swinging as it does
+like a pendulum, and literally imparting to the animal the appearance
+of a piece of machinery in motion. Naturally gentle, timid, and
+peaceable, the unfortunate Giraffe has no means of protecting itself
+but with its heels; but even when hemmed into a corner, it seldom
+resorts to this mode of defence.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32_5" id="i_044">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_044.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE GIRAFFE.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_044_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_045">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_045.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GIRAFFES.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_045_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS: <span class="smaller">THE ELK, ELAPHINE,
+SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER</span>.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">The Deer Tribe&mdash;Distinguishing Characters&mdash;Exceptions to the rule&mdash;The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer&mdash;Other
+Characters of the Cervidæ&mdash;Antlers, their Nature, Growth, and Shedding&mdash;The Knob&mdash;“Velvet”&mdash;Getting
+rid of the “Velvet”&mdash;Full equipment&mdash;Contests&mdash;Interlocking Antlers&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#red_deer_antlers">Development
+of Antlers in the Common R<span class="smaller">ED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Explanation of the various stages&mdash;Splendid “Heads”&mdash;Simple
+and Complex Antlers&mdash;Types of Antlers&mdash;<a href="#elk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">LK</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">OOSE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Antlers&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#elaphine_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+E<span class="smaller">LAPHINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#wapiti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">APITI</span></a>&mdash;Acting of the
+Fawns&mdash;<a href="#maral">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">ARAL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barasingha">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">ASHMERIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">ARASINGHA</span></a>&mdash;Habits and General
+Appearance&mdash;<a href="#barbary_deer">B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#sub_elaphine_deer">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-E<span class="smaller">LAPHINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#japanese_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> J<span class="smaller">APANESE</span>, F<span class="smaller">ORMOSAN</span>, <span class="smaller">AND</span> M<span class="smaller">ANTCHURIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fallow_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity of its Antlers&mdash;<a href="#persian_fallow">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rusine_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">USINE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#sambur">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">AMBUR</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span>
+G<span class="smaller">EROW</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and The Philippines&mdash;<a href="#hog_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">OG</span>
+D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#axis">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">XIS</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#prince_alfreds_deer">P<span class="smaller">RINCE</span> A<span class="smaller">LFRED</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#swamp_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">WAMP</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#schomburgks_deer">S<span class="smaller">CHOMBURGK</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#elds_deer">E<span class="smaller">LD</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR THE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">HAMYN</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Shameful havoc</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Deer tribe, known scientifically as that of the C<span class="smaller">ERVIDÆ</span>,
+is more circumscribed, and therefore better defined, than are the
+B<span class="smaller">OVIDÆ</span>, or hollow-horned ruminants. Their best distinguishing
+character is that in the males there is each year developed a pair of
+antlers which is shed at the end of the season to be reproduced in
+the following spring. The females do not carry antlers, except in the
+case of the Reindeer, in which, although these elegant appendages are
+of the same form as in their mates, they are constructed upon a much
+smaller scale. There are, however, one or two Deer in which not even
+the males carry antlers, and these are the only members of the family
+with reference to which there is any serious doubt on the subject of
+affinity. The Musk (<i>Moschus moschiferus</i>) may be taken as an example.
+In this pretty creature, which is more fully described on pages 42&ndash;3,
+there are no antlers and no horns. Nevertheless, other peculiarities
+in its organisation have led most naturalists to include it among the
+Cervidæ, a position which is, however, so doubtful that it is quite
+possible that it may be an aberrant member of the bovine section, as we
+have for several reasons thought best to consider it.</p>
+
+<p>A more certain Deer without antlers is the Water Deer of China, the
+flesh of which has formed an article of food among the natives of
+Shanghai for years. This small Deer has lengthy tusks, as has the Musk
+Deer, and nearly every member of the family in which the antlers are
+diminutive. Its very existence was not known in Great Britain until the
+year 1862, when Mr. Swinhoe, then our consul at Shanghai, described it,
+which shows how ignorant we still may be of the creatures which inhabit
+the mighty Celestial Empire.</p>
+
+<p>In most other respects the Deer closely resemble the hollow-horned
+ruminants. Their complicated stomach does not differ from that of the
+Ox, and their other organs are constructed upon the same plan, except
+the liver, which, like that of the Giraffe, lacks a gall-bladder,
+this reservoir being present in nearly all the Bovidæ. Their general
+proportions are also much the same. The Red Deer and the Fallow Deer
+are those best known to most of us, as both are to be found living in
+Great Britain, as is the Roebuck in the north of Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_046">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_046.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE GROWING ANTLERS ARE SEEN
+COVERED WITH “VELVET.”</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="red_deer_antlers">The nature, growth, and shedding of the antlers deserve special
+consideration. In the commencement of the spring a pair of knobs is to
+be seen upon the forehead of the adult male animal. This is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span> covered
+with a nearly smooth dark skin; and a scar can be detected in the
+middle of each, which is that left by the antler of the year before,
+where it fell off.</p>
+
+<p>As the weather becomes more propitious these knobs commence to
+grow, feel warm to the touch, and are evidently filled with
+actively-circulating blood, supplied by special vessels which
+are developed at the time. They do not increase regularly in all
+directions, for if they did the antler would be a sphere, but they
+sprout out, as it may be termed, around the above-mentioned scar; in
+most cases there being one branch which takes a direction forward,
+whilst a second larger one makes its way backward. These become, in
+the fully-formed antler, the brow antler and the main beam; and it is
+by other branches growing upon the beam, according to definite laws,
+different in different species, that the elaborate complications of the
+fully-developed structure are produced.</p>
+
+<p>As long as the antler, which is composed of genuine bone of very dense
+texture, is increasing in size, it will be found to be covered with
+the same warm black skin as is the knob from which it sprang; and as
+this skin is covered with short, fine, close-set hair, it has received
+the name of the “velvet.” It is this “velvet” which secretes the bony
+texture of the antler from its inner surface, just in the same way
+that the outer covering (the periosteum) of any long bone of the body
+is mainly concerned in the formation of the bone itself. As, also, in
+the same way, if we seriously graze our shins, and scrape off this
+covering, the bone exposed is very apt to die, so in the Deer any
+mishap to the “velvet” injures the growth of the antler in the part
+affected. The animals, therefore, during the time they are “in velvet”
+are more than usually careful to protect their cranial appendages, and
+are inoffensive even to strangers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_047">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_047.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE ANTLER IS FULLY DEVELOPED
+AND THE “VELVET” HAS DISAPPEARED.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When their antler-growth has ceased their natures change. The “velvet”
+has performed its function and dries into a parchment-looking membrane,
+to get rid of which the Deer adopt a very simple method. They rub their
+antlers against any neighbouring trees, and force them into the soft
+earth until there is none left, and the bare bone, with scarcely any
+trace of hollow in the middle of it, is completely exposed. Now, in the
+glory of their full equipment, they go in search of others of their
+kind, having previously maintained a comparative solitude. They try
+their strength by butting at imaginary enemies, and choose their wives,
+unless prevented by others of their species mightier than themselves,
+with whom, if fairly matched, they enter into the most formidable
+contests, to win or to be driven from the herd with ignominy. During
+these contests the sound of their battering antlers may be heard
+for considerable distances, whilst now and then, by accident, they
+interlock themselves inextricably, and perish both, as is attested by
+skulls so found, and to be seen in more than one museum.</p>
+
+<p>Looking upon the Deer generally, we find them inhabiting many parts of
+the world&mdash;Europe,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span> Asia, and America. In Africa none occur south of
+the Sahara, they being there replaced by members of the Bovine section
+of the order. None are found in Australia, and in America they are far
+less common than in Great Britain. To understand the peculiar features
+and the distribution of the various species, it is necessary to
+classify them in groups of kindred genera, most falling into sections
+which are distinguishable without difficulty.</p>
+
+<p class="mbot1">In arranging the different members of the Deer-tribe for description,
+there are peculiarities in their outward conformation which agree
+with those internal differences upon which all correct notions of
+relationship alone can be established. In classifying animals,
+naturalists must always be guided by the totality of the structure of
+each member of each group; but, as in describing them to those who
+have not made the minute details of their organisation their special
+study it is impossible to lay stress on all the various parts which
+have to be included by the student in arriving at the desired result,
+those outward features only can be mentioned which are found to tally
+with their total structure, namely, their osteology, their visceral
+anatomy, and their muscular arrangement. As an example of the relative
+importance of different external structures, we may mention that the
+late Dr. J. E. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Ruminant Mammalia in the
+British Museum, gives the following arrangement of the genera, in which
+the length of the tail suggests one distribution of them, whilst the
+shape of the antlers is in favour of another, which is very different:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="s5" summary="genera of the deer tribe">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vab" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">1.&mdash;<i>Tail very short or clubbed.</i></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab">
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vab" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">2.&mdash;<i>Tail elongate, with longer<br /> hair at the end.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3" colspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Red Deer and its near allies.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3">
+      <div class="left">Antlers elaphine.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h3_5em" src="images/i_048_3l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Mantchurian Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Japanese Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Fallow Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Eld’s Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <img class="h5em" src="images/i_048_4r.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <div class="left">Antlers rusine.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Barasingha Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <img class="h2_5em" src="images/i_048_2l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Hog Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Schomburgk’s Deer.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Spotted Axis.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Sambur and its near allies.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Roebuck.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <img class="h2_5em" src="images/i_048_2r.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="left">Antlers capreoline.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Chinese Elaphure.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1">This table is useful as a means of comparing the tails of the different
+genera; but other points of structure do not in the least support the
+classification suggested by that appendage, as a result of which it has
+to be ignored in the consideration of distant affinities, although,
+where questions of specific proximity are concerned, it is found to be
+of considerable value.</p>
+
+<p>The antlers render much more trustworthy information in the
+determination and expression of relationships; and their characterising
+features can be most readily grasped by having an ideal type in the
+mind wherewith to compare all aberrant and complicated specimens. This
+ideal type may be derived in one or other of two ways. The first of
+these is from the study of the antlers as they are each year developed
+in any given kind of Deer, commencing with its earliest age. For
+example, in the Common Red Deer: in the spring of the year following
+its birth the antlers are nothing more than straight, conical, and
+unbranched “beams,” the animal being then known as a “Brocket.” In
+the following spring the antler has, besides the “beam,” a small
+branch from its base, directed forwards, known as the “brow antler;”
+it is then termed “Spayad.” In the third year an extra front branch
+is formed, known as the “tres,” and the whole antler is larger. This
+“tres” is sometimes seen in the smaller antler of the Spayad. In
+the fourth year the brow-antler is doubled, to form the “brow” and
+“bez-tyne,” at the same time that the top of the main beam divides
+into the “sur-royals” of the “Staggard,” or four-year male. In the
+fifth year the sur-royals become more numerous, the whole antler of the
+“Stag” being heavier than previously, only to be exceeded in weight
+by those of the fully adult “Great Hart,” with ten or more “points,”
+each being larger and longer than the year before. In Great Britain
+the conditions of life and the food are not of the quality which
+develops first-rate antlers, at the same time that it is&mdash;in Scotland,
+at least&mdash;the habit to shoot those with the finest heads, and so leave
+the indifferent specimens to perpetuate their species. In some of the
+ancient forests of Germany superb heads of the Red Deer are to be
+obtained, whilst in several of the old castles of that country antler
+trophies are preserved as memorials of sport in times gone by, with as
+many as six-and-sixty points. Lord Powerscourt has in his possession a
+pair with five-and-forty tynes.</p>
+
+<p>The second way is from the study of the antlers of the species in
+which they are simple, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span> comparison with those in which they are
+particularly complex, both methods as they ought to do, leading to the
+same result. There are Deer&mdash;as, for example, the American Brockets,
+David’s Deer, and Reeves’ Muntjac&mdash;in which the antler is never more
+than a simple dag, like that of the “Brocket” stage in the Red Deer.
+There are others with never more than a single tyne besides the beam,
+as instances of which may be mentioned the Indian Muntjac and the
+Huamel. Others, again&mdash;and these form an important section of the
+family&mdash;are triply branched, as in the Spayad, the beam bifurcating
+some distance above the brow-antler. As instances of these we find
+the Sambur Deer of India, with its large and thus simple antlers; the
+closely-allied Javan and Swinhoe’s Deer; the Spotted Axis; the Hog
+Deer, and the Roebuck.</p>
+
+<p>We have now arrived at the stage in which the beam has bifurcated,
+and almost all the more elaborate forms result from an excess in the
+development of both, or one or other, of the limbs of this bifurcation.
+In the Deer known as Elaphine&mdash;because they more or less resemble the
+Red Deer (<i>Cervus elaphus</i>)&mdash;the front of these two branches (the
+“tres”) does not increase or become complicated, whilst from the
+much-enlarged hind one the numerous sur-royals spring in the biggest
+species, such as the Wapiti, Cashmere, Red, and Barbary Deer, as well
+as the Maral, of Persia. In the smaller species which follow this type
+of structure the sur-royals are less developed, at the same time that
+the brow-antler does not split in two to form a “bez” as well, examples
+of which are to be seen in the Mantchurian, Formosan, and Japanese
+Deer, as well as in the Fallow Deer and its newly-discovered ally
+from Mesopotamia. These two last-named differ also in the “palmation”
+of their antlers&mdash;a peculiarity referred to further in the special
+description of the species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_049">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_049.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">VARIOUS TYPES OF ANTLERS.</div>
+  <div class="caption">(From the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="mbot1">The accompanying outline diagram represents the most important types
+of antlers, to one or other of which those of almost every known Deer
+can be referred. To facilitate future description, they may be named as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="s5" summary="types of antlers">
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Fig.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">1.&mdash;Rusine type.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Fig.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">4.&mdash;Extreme Rucervine type.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">2.&mdash;Normal Rucervine type.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">5.&mdash;Sub-elaphine type.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">3.&mdash;Intermediate Rucervine type.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">6.&mdash;Elaphine type.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="4">
+      <div class="center">(<span class="smaller">A</span>) Brow-tyne.
+      <span class="mleft2">(<span class="smaller">B</span>) Tres-tyne.</span>
+      <span class="mleft2">(<span class="smaller">C</span>) Royal-tyne.</span></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1">The Rusine type (1), in which the brow-tyne (<span class="smaller">A</span>) is simple, at
+the same time that the beam ends in a simple bifurcation, is found in
+the Sambur Deer (<i>Rusa Aristotelis</i>) of India. The Rucervine type, in
+which the bifurcate beam is further subdivided, tends to be prolonged
+in the direction of the tres-tyne (<span class="smaller">B</span>), at the same time
+that there is a corresponding reduction of the royal (<span class="smaller">C</span>).
+In Schomburgk’s Deer (<i>Rucervus Schomburgki</i>) of Siam, both branches
+of the beam are equally developed (2); in the Swamp Deer (<i>Rucervus
+Duvaucelli</i>) of India (3), the tres (<span class="smaller">B</span>) is larger than the
+royal (<span class="smaller">C</span>); whilst in Eld’s Deer (<i>Rucervus Eldi</i>) (4), of
+Burmah, there is but a small snag (<span class="smaller">C</span>) at the back of the
+enormous tres-tyne (<span class="smaller">B</span>) to represent the royal. The Red Deer
+(<i>Cervus elaphus</i>) (6), besides having the brow-tyne (<span class="smaller">A</span>)
+re-duplicated, has the royal (<span class="smaller">C</span>) developed at the expense
+of the tres (<span class="smaller">B</span>), and much divided up in well-grown animals.
+In the Japanese Deer (<i>Cervus sika</i>) (5) and its allies the relative
+proportions of the tynes are much the same, although the brow-tyne
+(<span class="smaller">A</span>) is simple.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="elk">THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Elk, the largest of the family of the <i>Cervidæ</i>, is found in
+North America, Northern Europe, and the coldest parts of Asia, thinly
+scattered in all but the first-named locality. At the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span> shoulder it
+may attain so great a height as eight feet when adult. The female is
+antler-less. In the male these appendages possess quite a peculiar
+shape, the two together forming a kind of basin, on account of their
+being developed into huge palmated concave sheets of bony tissue, which
+diverge laterally from the skull.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_050">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_050.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ELK HUNT.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_050_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_051">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_051.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">YOUNG ELK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At nine months old the antlers first appear, not being more than
+straight and rounded dags in the first year. They reach their full
+length in the fifth year, from which period for many more years they
+increase in breadth and weight, and add, it is said, a fresh point
+to their palmated margins until the fourteenth, when the creature is
+considered quite adult.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span></p>
+
+<p>The colour of the animal is a deep blackish-brown; the neck is short
+and thick, with a peculiar bob-shaped, pendulous, and hair-covered
+lap of skin hanging down from its middle, just behind the angles of
+the jaw. The limbs, especially the front ones, are long; the tail is
+rudimentary. The coat is formed of close-set harsh angular hair, which
+breaks when bent, produced into a mane upon the neck and shoulders.
+Sir John Richardson gives the following account of the habits and food
+of the Elk, with the mode of hunting it:&mdash;“In the more northern parts
+the Moose Deer is quite a solitary animal, more than one being very
+seldom seen at a time, unless during the rutting season or when the
+female is accompanied by her fawns. It has the sense of hearing in very
+great perfection, and is the most shy and wary of all the Deer species,
+and on this account the art of Moose-hunting is looked upon as the
+greatest of an Indian’s acquirements, particularly by the Crees, who
+take to themselves the credit of being able to instruct the hunters of
+every other tribe. The skill of a Moose hunter is most tried in the
+early part of the winter; for during the summer the Moose, as well as
+other animals, are so much tormented by Mosquitoes that they become
+regardless of the approach of man. In the winter the hunter tracks the
+Moose by its footmarks in the snow, and it is necessary that he should
+keep constantly to leeward of the chase, and make his advance with the
+utmost caution, for the rustling of a withered leaf or the cracking of
+a rotten twig is sufficient to alarm the watchful beast. The difficulty
+of approach is increased by a habit which the Moose Deer has of making
+daily a sharp turn in its route, and choosing a place of repose so near
+some part of its path that it can hear the least noise made by one that
+attempts to track it. To avoid this, the judicious hunter, instead
+of walking in the animal’s footsteps, forms his judgment from the
+appearance of the country of the direction it is likely to have taken,
+and makes a circuit to leeward until he again finds the track. This
+manœuvre is repeated until he discovers by the softness of the snow, in
+the footmarks and other signs, that he is very near the chase. He then
+disencumbers himself of everything that might embarrass his motions,
+and makes his approach in the most cautious manner. If he gets close
+to the animal’s lair without being seen, it is usual for him to break
+a small twig, which, alarming the Moose, it instantly starts up, but
+not fully aware of the danger, squats on its hams and waits a minute
+before setting off. In this posture it presents the fairest mark, and
+the hunter’s shot seldom fails to take effect in a mortal part. In the
+rutting season the bucks lay aside their timidity, and attack every
+animal that comes in their way, and even conquer their fear of man
+himself. The hunter then brings them within gunshot by scraping on the
+blade-bone of a Deer, and by whistling, which, deceiving the male, he
+blindly hastens to the spot to assail his supposed rival. If the hunter
+fails in giving it a mortal wound as it approaches, he shelters himself
+from its fury behind a tree, and I have heard of several instances in
+which the enraged animal has completely stripped the bark from the
+trunk of a large tree by striking with its fore-feet. In the spring
+time, when the snow is very deep, the hunters frequently run down the
+Moose on snow-shoes, which give them immense advantage, because the
+slender legs of the animal sink into the snow for their whole length
+each step they take, which makes their progress very slow.”</p>
+
+<p>The usual pace of the Moose is a high shambling trot, and its strides
+are immense. On account of their necks being short at the same time
+that their legs are long, they browse upon the bushes rather than on
+the ground, which they find difficulty in reaching with their mouths.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="elaphine_deer">THE ELAPHINE DEER.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>This group is characterised by the presence of a bez-tyne in all its
+members&mdash;except that under the influence of protracted bad nutrition
+individuals resident in barren parts may lose it&mdash;whilst the tres-tyne
+is small, and the third main branch of the antler splits up into
+several snags, sometimes arranged in the form of a cup. The deep brown
+coat is varied by a conspicuous light, almost white patch upon the
+rump, in which the uncovered rudiment of a tail is included. All the
+species are large, the best known to us being</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="red_deer">THE RED DEER.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>This species is a native of the British Isles and many parts of Europe.
+Northern specimens<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span> are much the smaller, and carry far inferior
+antlers, those of South Germany and Hungary possessing heads worthy,
+of the species. In England they are still to be found wild in Exmoor
+Forest, in Scotland north of the Forth and Clyde; and in Ireland about
+Killarney, Connemara, and Erris.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_053">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_053.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">RED DEER.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_053_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A well-grown Stag stands over four feet at the withers, with a
+thickly-coated neck of a greyish tint, a rich red-brown body-colour,
+uniformly curved symmetrical antlers, and head held high. The Stag in
+summer is a lordly creature. In winter its coat is longer and of a
+greyer tint. As is the case in allied species, and all but a few of the
+Rusine Deer, the new-born calves are brilliantly spotted with white.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_054">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_054.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">RED DEER AND FALLOW DEER IN WINTER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pairing season occupies the early part of October. The calves are
+born at the end of May or the beginning of June; whilst the Stags
+drop their antlers between the end of February and the earlier days
+of April, the youngest latest. Up till the age of twelve the animal
+continues to increase in bulk and strength, and it is highly probable
+that they do not ever much outlive twenty years, although superstition
+credits them with very many more.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is towards the end of August or the beginning of September that the
+well-nourished Stags, having already cleared their antlers of their
+“velvet,” leave their retirement, and with swollen necks as well as
+restless mien, seek out the hinds. During the rutting season, which
+lasts about three weeks, they eat but little, and lose weight rapidly,
+to be regained in the subsequent repose upon the summer-developed
+foliage. In the southern counties of Great Britain the hunting of the
+Stag has degenerated into the repeated chase of a few individuals,
+deprived of their antlers, and let out of boxes shortly before the
+sportsmen put in an appearance; whilst long-ranged rifles have reduced
+the difficulties of what not many years ago&mdash;more especially in
+Scotland&mdash;was a form of sport which very severely taxed the physical
+capacities of the most determined and courageous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_055">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_055.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">RED DEER FIGHTING.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The W<span class="smaller">APITI</span>, the P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span>, the C<span class="smaller">ASHMERIAN</span>, and
+the B<span class="smaller">ARBARY</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> resemble the Red Deer in almost every detail
+except size, the first and second being considerably larger. Their
+antlers all branch in the same manner, except that the proportionate
+sizes of some of the snags are apt to vary. Superb heads of Wapiti are
+numerous in Great Britain, with their brown beams and white burnished
+tips.</p>
+
+<p id="wapiti">The Wapiti is kept in confinement without difficulty, although in
+autumn the stags become savage. Its home is the woodlands and the
+mountains of North America, where it is generally incorrectly called
+the “Elk.” Stalking the species is a common sport, but there is not so
+much interest associated with it as with Moose-stalking, because it
+is a more stupid creature, and its senses are less acutely developed.
+When started, a herd will make off for a short distance, and stop
+to recognise the source of danger before continuing its flight. Its
+food is mostly leaves of trees and shrubs, though it frequently eats
+grass and weeds. Dr. J. D. Caton, of Ottawa, Illinois, who has had
+much experience in the preserving of American Deer, has published
+many interesting details with regard to this species. Among others
+he mentions, with reference to the young, that “the most prominent
+instinct of the young fawn is that of deception. I have several times
+come across fawns evidently but a few hours old, left by the mother in
+supposed security. They affect death to perfection, only they forget
+to shut their eyes. They lie without a motion, and if you pick them up
+they are as limp as a wet rag, the head and limbs hanging down without
+the least muscular action, the bright eye fairly sparkling all the
+time.” The venison is excellent; it is said to be more nutritious than
+any other meat.</p>
+
+<p id="maral">The Persian Deer, or Marāl, differs from the Cashmerian Deer but
+little. Its head, however, is longer and more pointed.</p>
+
+<p id="barasingha">The Cashmerian Deer, or Barasingha, again, is hardly distinguishable
+from the Wapiti. Professor Leith Adams remarks, with reference to it,
+that “the Cashmere forests seem the head-quarters of this species
+on the western ranges, for it is seldom, if ever, met with between
+Mussouree and the Vale of Cashmere. The dense forests and fertile
+valleys of the latter country are particularly inviting to this
+species. In habits and general appearance the Cashmere Stag bears a
+striking resemblance to the Red Deer. Although it is seldom, nowadays,
+that individuals of the latter species escape<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span> the hunter so long as to
+attain the size and magnitude of the Barasingha [twelve points], yet I
+think it will be found that the horns of those killed in the forests of
+Scotland in former years are equal in size to any at present met with
+in Cashmere. It is in the dense pine forests on the Northern Pinjal,
+and in the many beautiful valleys among these ranges, that we find
+the species most abundant. There are very few on the southern ranges.
+In the secluded depths of these solitudes they lie all day, to issue
+forth at dusk and feed on the grassy hill-sides, or descend even into
+the Valley of Cashmere when forced by the snows of winter. An adult
+Stag averages thirteen hands in height. The colour of the coat varies
+but little in the sexes or the seasons of the year; dark liver-colour,
+with reddish patches on the inner sides of the hips; belly and lower
+parts white, or a dirty white. The male has the hair on the lower part
+of the neck long and shaggy (wanting in the female); the horns large,
+and usually very massive, with from ten to fifteen or more points,
+according to age (the largest pair of horns I have measured were four
+feet round the curves, with six and seven points). They are shed in
+March; and the new horn is not completely formed until the end of
+October, when the rutting season commences, and the loud bellowings of
+the Stags are heard all over the mountains. During vigorous winters
+they are frequently driven to seek for shelter and food around the
+villages in the valleys, when many are destroyed by natives, who hunt
+them with Dogs. The Cheetahs, Wild Dogs, and Bears are said to kill the
+young.”</p>
+
+<p id="barbary_deer">The very similar Barbary Deer is most interesting, in that it is the
+only member of the Cervine group which is found in Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_056">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_056.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FALLOW DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="sub_elaphine_deer">THE SUB-ELAPHINE DEER.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p id="japanese_deer">The J<span class="smaller">APANESE</span>, F<span class="smaller">ORMOSAN</span>, and M<span class="smaller">ANTCHURIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>
+are all species allied to those just described, but differing in
+being smaller in size, at the same time that the antlers conform
+to the sub-elaphine type, in which the bez-tyne is never present,
+and the sur-royals are but inconsiderably branched. They are all
+strongly spotted in their summer dress, which, especially in the
+Mantchurian&mdash;the largest of the species&mdash;is most brilliant. In the
+winter their coats are nearly uniform, and of a dark brown colour.
+A fawn-red is the groundwork of the summer coat, the spots being
+yellowish-white, whilst a black streak, in perfect contrast, runs the
+whole length of the middle of the back, continuing down the tail and
+expanding slightly at its base. The throat is white. The sombre winter
+coat is a nearly uniform dark red-brown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_057">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_057.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SAMBUR DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="fallow_deer">The F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> (<i>Dama vulgaris</i>), so well known on account
+of its being preserved in a semi-domesticated state in so many
+English parks, has antlers constructed upon the same plan as those
+of the Mantchurian Deer (sub-elaphine). These, however, present
+special peculiarities found in none of the allied species, for they
+are palmated in their upper parts, in the region of the sur-royals,
+the digitations or terminal points being developed along the convex
+posterior margins of the palmated surface. The buck is about three feet
+high at the shoulder. The head is short and broad, the tail between
+seven and eight inches long. The colour of the wild animal, both buck
+and doe, is a rich yellowish-brown in summer, spotted with white
+all over. In winter the tints are more sombre and greyish. Domestic
+varieties vary immensely, both in the distinctness of the spotting
+and the general colouration. Until six years of age the buck receives
+a separate name each year from sportsmen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span>&mdash;fawn, pricket, sorrel,
+soare, buck of the first lead, and buck complete, being the terms
+employed&mdash;the antlers not being developed at all in the fawn, being
+simple snags in the pricket, with two front branches in the sorrel,
+with slight palmation of the extremity of the beam in the soare, and
+the whole antler larger and larger until the sixth year. The venison of
+the Fallow Deer is fatter than that of the Red Deer, and is preferred
+by most.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_058">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_058.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BORNEO RUSINE DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The species is not a native of Britain, having most certainly been
+introduced, although exactly when is not known. The dark-coloured and
+more hardy breed was brought from Norway by James I. Its true wild
+habitat was probably the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, both north
+and south.</p>
+
+<p id="persian_fallow">The P<span class="smaller">ERSIAN</span> F<span class="smaller">ALLOW</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> so closely related to the species
+just referred to that they breed together, was made known to us in 1875
+by Sir Victor Brooke, who described it from specimens sent to England
+by Mr. Robertson, the British Vice-Consul at Busrah. It resembles the
+Common Fallow Deer in almost every detail, except that it is slightly
+larger, and that the antlers are not the same. As stated above, in the
+Common Fallow Deer the antlers, whilst developed on the sub-elaphine
+type, are palmated in the region of the royals, with several snags
+projecting from the upper margin, at the same time that the lower
+portion of the beam, the tres, and the brow-tynes are cylindrical, as
+usually is the case in other species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_059">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_059.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AXIS DEER.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_059_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Persian Fallow the palmation at the extremity of the antlers is
+much less conspicuous, and scarcely exists, although many snags are
+present there, directed upwards. The palmation is at the bases of the
+antlers instead, including the brow-tyne and the beam, so that the
+general appearance of the antlers is quite peculiar to the species.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="rusine_deer">THE RUSINE DEER.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p id="sambur">The S<span class="smaller">AMBUR</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> G<span class="smaller">EROW</span> (<i>Rusa Aristotelis</i>), of India, is
+found abundantly in all the hill-districts of that country. It is
+nearly five feet high, of a deep brown colour, with the hair of the
+neck developed almost into a mane. The tail is of fair length. Its
+build is massive, as are its antlers, which present three powerful
+points, and reach over three feet in length. Above the considerable
+brow-tyne the beam bifurcates high up into two fairly equal snags,
+and no more in well-grown antlers. The hind is much less massive, and
+of a yellowish tint. Captain Kinloch says of the species that “Sambur
+delight in stony hills, where there is plenty of cover, and where they
+can have easy access to water. They browse more than graze, and are
+nearly nocturnal in their habits. During the daytime they seek the most
+shady retreats, and old Stags especially are most difficult to find,
+frequently betaking themselves to almost inaccessible places, where
+the uninitiated would never dream of looking for them. The experienced
+hunter, indeed, has frequently to depend more upon fortune than his
+own knowledge of woodcraft.” In Java an almost identical species
+differs mostly in having the hinder of the two branches of the beam of
+the antler longer than the one in front. Swinhoe’s Deer from Formosa
+is also almost indistinguishable, at the same time that Sumatran and
+Bornean specimens agree with it in being particularly dark in colour.</p>
+
+<p>Three smaller species, with antlers branched in exactly the same
+manner, are found in the islands of Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and the
+Philippines.</p>
+
+<p id="hog_deer">The H<span class="smaller">OG</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> of India and Ceylon is not bigger than the
+Roebuck although the legs are shorter and the body heavier. Its antlers
+consist of a brow-tyne and bifurcate beam, of which the posterior
+tyne is short, and turned inwards; they rarely exceed a foot and a
+half in length. It is of a uniform dark brown colour, rarely spotted
+indistinctly with white. Their name is derived from the pig-like way in
+which they run, with their heads low, when pursued.</p>
+
+<p id="spotted_hog_deer">The S<span class="smaller">POTTED</span> H<span class="smaller">OG</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> is a rare species, of a slightly lighter
+colour, and with pale yellow spots.</p>
+
+<p id="axis">The A<span class="smaller">XIS</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> of India, sometimes called the Cheetal,
+resembles the Fallow Deer in size and colouration most closely,
+although its antlers serve to show that its true relations are quite
+different. These latter are not palmated at all, and are quite rusine
+in type, presenting the three points characteristic of them, the front
+tyne of the bifurcate beam being of great length. There is a beauty
+in the intensity of the spotting of the coat of this species which is
+unequalled by any other member of the Cervidæ, and it is interesting
+to know that according to the universal testimony of sportsmen, the
+effect of sunlight through foliage so much resembles it that it is
+almost impossible to recognise the animal in the woods. They have a
+reputation for being indolent, as they feed during the night, and sleep
+throughout the day, frequenting the heavy grass jungles along the banks
+of rivers. Their cry is a shrill bark at the approach of danger. The
+accompanying figure (see Plate 26), drawn from a specimen in captivity,
+gives an excellent idea of the immense length attained by the antlers,
+which in this particular case are blunt-tipped, because not quite fully
+grown. The hinder tyne on the right side, it will be noticed, is almost
+entirely hidden in the hair of the flank.</p>
+
+<p id="prince_alfreds_deer">P<span class="smaller">RINCE</span> <span class="smaller">ALFRED</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> about the size of the Fallow Deer,
+was first described by Dr. Sclater from a specimen brought from the
+Philippine Islands by the Duke of Edinburgh in 1870. Its glossy coat
+is of a rich chocolate colour, covered with pale yellow spots; a broad
+line along the back, as in all spotted Deer, being uninterrupted; the
+under parts are of a pale yellow. The antlers are only nine inches in
+length, but comparatively thick, and simply branched upon the rusine
+type, with three points. The legs are rather short, at the same time
+that the body is heavy.</p>
+
+<p id="swamp_deer">The S<span class="smaller">WAMP</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> The name Barasingha, signifying “twelve
+points,” is applied to two very different species of Indian Deer, the
+Cashmerian Deer, previously mentioned, and the Swamp Deer.</p>
+
+<p>The Swamp Deer of India and Assam is slightly smaller than the Sambur,
+not exceeding four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span> feet in height. Its colour is a rich light
+yellow. As its name signifies it delights in moist situations, where
+it congregates in herds of great numbers. Its antlers are large, and
+of the intermediate rucervine type. The brow-tynes reach a foot in
+length, and are directed forwards with an upward turn at their tips.
+The beam is long, and branches into an anterior, massive, and branched
+continuation of itself, as well as a posterior smaller bifurcate tyne.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_060">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_060.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SCHOMBURGK’S DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="schomburgks_deer">In Siam this species is replaced by the closely-allied S<span class="smaller">CHOMBURGK</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, a little-known species, in which the antlers are extremely
+elegant, the long brow-tyne being followed by a short beam which
+bifurcates into two equal branches, these again, each of them,
+bifurcating in a similar manner.</p>
+
+<p id="elds_deer">E<span class="smaller">LD</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR THE</span> T<span class="smaller">HAMYN</span>.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This Deer, which differs from
+the Swamp Deer only in its antlers, was discovered by Captain Eld, in
+1838. It abounds in the swamp lands of Burmah, and extends as far east
+as the Island of Hainan. Its form is slimmer than that of the Red Deer,
+at the same time that it is somewhat smaller, attaining a height of
+over four feet. During the summer months its body-colour is a light
+rufous brown, with a few faint indications of white spots. Its under
+parts are nearly white, as are the insides of the hairy ears. Its tail
+is short, and black above. In winter its lengthy hair takes on a darker
+tint.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant R. C. Beavan has given an excellent account of the habits
+of Eld’s Deer, from which we learn that their food must consist almost
+entirely of grass and paddy, which grow both cultivated and wild, in
+the swamps in which they dwell. “In habits they are very wary and
+difficult of approach, especially the males. They are also very timid,
+and easily startled; the males, however, when wounded and brought
+to bay with Dogs, get very savage and charge vigorously. On being
+disturbed they invariably make for the open, instead of resorting
+to the heavy jungle like Hog Deer and Sambur. In fact the Thamyn is
+essentially a plain-loving species; and, although it will frequent
+tolerably open tree-jungle for the sake of its shade, it will never
+venture into dense or matted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span> underwood.... When first started the
+pace of the Thamyn is great. It commences by giving three or four
+large bounds like the Axis or Spotted Deer, and afterwards settles
+down into a long trot, which it will keep up for six or seven miles on
+end when frequently disturbed.” As to the means employed to hunt them,
+the same author informs us that “a large number of men would assemble
+from the neighbouring villages, and gradually encircle three or four
+moderate-sized herds with long strings, upon which plantain-leaves were
+tied so as to flutter in the wind. The circle, originally formed at
+some distance, was gradually lessened as the Deer, afraid to pass the
+scarecrows, got gradually driven together, until they were completely
+surrounded and at the mercy of the hunters. The object was to get them
+into a corner near the heavy jungle, into which, if they attempted
+to run, they either became entangled, or allowed their pursuers to
+get up quite close. As many as a hundred and fifty to two hundred,
+my informant tells me, he has himself seen killed in one battue in
+former years. To such a length was this [shameful] system carried, and
+such enormous havoc was thereby created, that the Burmese Government,
+fearing the species would be utterly exterminated, wisely put a stop to
+the practice.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE MUNTJACS&mdash;THE ROEBUCK&mdash;CHINESE DEER&mdash;REINDEER&mdash;AMERICAN
+DEER&mdash;DEERLETS&mdash;CAMEL TRIBE&mdash;LLAMAS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_MUNTJACS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJACS</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#indian_muntjac">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> K<span class="smaller">IDANG</span></a>&mdash;Hunting&mdash;<a href="#chinese_muntjac">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span>
+M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#davids_muntjac">D<span class="smaller">AVID</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span></a>&mdash;“Shanyang”&mdash;<a href="#roebuck">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OEBUCK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chinese_water_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity&mdash;Chinese
+Superstition regarding it&mdash;<a href="#chinese_elaphure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINESE</span> E<span class="smaller">LAPHURE</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarity of its Antlers&mdash;<a href="#reindeer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">EINDEER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Character&mdash;Colouration&mdash;Antlers&mdash;Canadian
+Breeds&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#american_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#virginian_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">IRGINIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+M<span class="smaller">ULE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_deer">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#guzau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">UAZUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brocket">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROCKETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#venada">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ENADA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> P<span class="smaller">UDU</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CHEVROTAINS_OR_DEERLETS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HEVROTAINS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLETS</span></a>&mdash;Antlerless&mdash;Their Position&mdash;Bones of their Feet&mdash;General Form and
+Proportions&mdash;Species&mdash;<a href="#meminna">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">EMINNA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#javan_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> J<span class="smaller">AVAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kanchil">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANCHIL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#stanleyan_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+S<span class="smaller">TANLEYAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#water_deerlet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_CAMEL_TRIBE_OR_TYLOPODA">THE CAMEL TRIBE</a>&mdash;Their Feet&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Its Peculiarity&mdash;The
+Water Cells&mdash;<a href="#the_true_camel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> (T<span class="smaller">RUE</span>) C<span class="smaller">AMEL</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;The Pads of Hardened Skin&mdash;Its Endurance&mdash;Its Disposition&mdash;Anecdote
+of its Revengeful Nature&mdash;<a href="#bactrian_camel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ACTRIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AMEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#llamas">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">LAMAS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Used as
+Beasts of Burden&mdash;Wild and Domesticated Species&mdash;<a href="#huanaco">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UANACO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#llama">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">LAMA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#vicuna">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ICUNA</span></a>&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPACA</span>&mdash;The
+Alpaca Industry&mdash;FOSSIL RUMINANTIA&mdash;Strata in which they are Found&mdash;<i>Chœropotamus</i>&mdash;<i>Hyopotamus</i>&mdash;<i>Dichobune</i>&mdash;<i>Xiphodon</i>&mdash;<i>Cainotherium</i>&mdash;<i>Oreodon</i>&mdash;<i>Sivatherium</i>&mdash;Fossil
+Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels,
+Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes&mdash;The Irish Elk&mdash;Its huge Antlers&mdash;Its Skeleton&mdash;Ally&mdash;Distribution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_MUNTJACS" title="THE MUNTJACS.">THE MUNTJACS.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></h4>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Muntjacs form a group of small and elegant Deer found in India,
+Burmah, China, the Malay Peninsula, and the large islands of the
+Indo-Malay Archipelago. They differ from all other members of the
+family in that their diminutive antlers are supported on lengthy bony
+pedestals, covered with a hairy skin much like the horn-processes of
+the Giraffe. Most, also, have a pair of elongated longitudinal ridges
+between the eyes, within the folds of which small glands are situated,
+at the same time that there is a dark crest of retroverted hair,
+tending to the shape of a horseshoe, upon the forehead. In the males
+the upper canine teeth develop into tusks, which project externally
+some way below the lip, though not so far as in the Musk, forming
+efficient instruments of attack.</p>
+
+<p id="indian_muntjac">The I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span> <span class="smaller">MUNTJAC</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> K<span class="smaller">IDANG</span>, is the best known species. Its
+antlers attain a larger size than those of any of the others, although
+they are not more than four inches long, composed of an undivided
+beam, at the base of which there is a diminutive brow-tyne. Its size
+is slightly less than that of the Roebuck, its colour uniformly foxy
+red-brown, with the throat, hind part of abdomen, and under surface of
+tail white. A black line runs up the inner side of each antler-pedestal
+of the male, instead of forming the frontal horseshoe of the female.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Horsfield tells us that in Java, where it is much hunted, “the
+Muntjac selects for its retreat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span> certain districts, to which it forms
+a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many
+of these are known as the favourite resort of the animal for several
+generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, diversified
+by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities of the more
+considerable mountains, or approaching the confines of extensive
+forests.... The Muntjac has a strong scent, and is easily tracked by
+Dogs. When pursued it does not go off, like the Stag, in any accidental
+direction; its flight, indeed, is very swift at first, but it soon
+relaxes, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which
+it was started. After several circular returns, if the pursuit be
+continued, the Kidang thrusts its head into a thicket, and in this
+situation remains fixed and motionless, as if in a place of security,
+and regardless of the approach of the sportsman.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_062">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_062.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">INDIAN MUNTJAC.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="chinese_muntjac">In China the Muntjacs are smaller than those of India and Java; their
+antlers are less developed at the same time that the tint of their
+coats is less rufous, and the neck is not white. They were first
+described by Mr. Ogilby under the name of Reeves’ Muntjac, a larger
+form having been more recently discovered by M. A. Milne-Edwards and
+Mr. Swinhoe. With reference to its habits the last-named naturalist
+tells us that “this species affects the low ranges of hills which
+are covered with long, coarse grass and tangled thicket. It is there
+usually found in small herds, basking in the sun, or lying in hidden
+lairs. They are very seldom approached near, except by stealth. The
+least noise startles them, and they dash away with bounds through the
+yielding grass, occasionally showing their rounded backs above the
+herbage. They have, however, their regular creeps and passes through
+the covert, near which the natives lie when stalking them, while others
+drive them. The little startled creatures hurry from danger along
+these beaten tracks, and are then picked off with the matchlock.” In
+captivity they soon become very docile, even when taken in the adult
+state. The flesh of this animal is very tender and palatable.</p>
+
+<p id="davids_muntjac">The enterprising missionary Père David, among his numerous discoveries
+in Chinese zoology, sent from Moupin, in Western China, to Paris,
+skins of a peculiar Muntjac, which is of special interest. Having
+canine tusks, a black frontal hairy horseshoe, and the proportions of a
+Muntjac generally, its antlers are not more than an inch long, at the
+same time that their pedestals are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span> correspondingly reduced in length
+as well as thickness. Its body-colour is mouse-brown, verging on grey,
+whilst the hairy covering is coarse. It may be called D<span class="smaller">AVID</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+M<span class="smaller">UNTJAC</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Very shortly after the above-mentioned skins arrived at Paris, Mr.
+Michie, of Shanghai, forwarded to Mr. Swinhoe in England another
+specimen from Ningpo, which, although derived so far east of Moupin, is
+almost indistinguishable from that belonging to the latter district.
+The animal is there known as the “Shanyang,” or Wild Goat. It is an
+undoubted Muntjac, although peculiar in not possessing the glands on
+the forehead found in the more common species.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="roebuck">THE ROEBUCK.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>This elegant, small, and almost tailless Deer is, like the Red Deer,
+a native of Great Britain, as well as of all Northern Europe and Asia
+below the line of perpetual snow. In Asia the individuals attain a
+greater size than in Europe. The adult Roebuck stands a little over
+two feet high at the shoulder. Its colour is a dark reddish-brown in
+summer, becoming yellowish-grey in the cold weather. There is a large
+patch of white on the rump. The antlers, which are peculiarly near
+together at their bases, rarely exceed a foot in length, possessing
+three points, the rugose unbranched beam continuing from the
+considerable burr for half a foot unbranched; then bifurcating fore
+and aft, the posterior branch again bifurcating. The destruction of
+the forests throughout Britain has driven the Roebuck farther north,
+till now it is most common in the north of Scotland, although it still
+survives in the woods of Westmoreland and Cumberland. Its disposition
+is wild, shy, and cautious. Its favourite resort is the thick underwood
+of forests, living singly or in small companies of a pair with their
+young, which latter&mdash;contrary to what we find in the case of most other
+Deer&mdash;are two or three in number. Its venison makes very indifferent
+food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_063">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_063.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ROEBUCK: MALE, FEMALE, AND YOUNG.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="chinese_water_deer">THE CHINESE WATER DEER.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is an entirely isolated small species, not bigger than an Indian
+Muntjac, discovered by Mr. Swinhoe, <i>in which there are no antlers</i>,
+the canine teeth of the upper jaw being developed into immense tusks
+which project downwards, as in the Musk and Muntjacs. The legs are
+short, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span> the body lengthy. The body-colour is a light red-brown
+all over. There is no tuft of hair on the head as in the Muntjacs, to
+which by some it might be imagined to be allied. From Mr. Swinhoe’s
+account of the species we learn that “In the large riverine islands of
+the Yangtsze, above Chinkiang, these animals occur in large numbers,
+living among the tall rushes that are there grown for thatching and
+other purposes. The rushes are cut down in the spring; and the Deer
+then swim away to the main shore and retire to the cover of the
+hills.... Fortunately for the Deer, the Chinese have an extraordinary
+dislike for their flesh. I could not ascertain why; but it must be
+from some strange superstition, as the Celestials are otherwise
+pretty omnivorous. The Deer are killed only for the European markets
+[of Shanghai], and sold at a low price. Their venison is coarse, and
+without much taste.... The Chinese at Shanghai call this animal the
+<i>Ke</i>, but at Chinkiang they are named <i>Chang</i>&mdash;the classical term for
+the Muntjac.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_064">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_064.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CHINESE WATER DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="chinese_elaphure">THE CHINESE ELAPHURE.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>This most interesting Deer was discovered in 1865 by the indefatigable
+French naturalist, M. Armand David. In his account of the animal, Dr.
+Sclater<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> tells us that M. David first observed it whilst looking
+over the wall of the Imperial Hunting-park at Pekin, to which no
+European is allowed admission. There it is found in a semi-domesticated
+state, its native place probably being Eastern Mantchuria. In 1869, Sir
+Rutherford Alcock succeeded in sending a living pair to England, which
+were exhibited for some time in the London Zoological Gardens, and
+from which much information has been obtained with reference to their
+habits. It resembles the Swamp Deer of India (<i>Rucervus Duvaucelli</i>) in
+its proportions and size, standing nearly four feet at the shoulder.
+The legs are somewhat heavy and the feet expanded, but it is in its
+antlers that the Elaphure is quite different from any other Deer. They
+are represented in the accompanying engraving, from which the abrupt
+ascent of the beam, with an enormous back-tyne arising from the lower
+end, and no brow-tyne, may be most clearly seen. The beam branches
+higher up, but its furcations follow none of the ordinary rules of
+cervine antler-growth.</p>
+
+<p>The body-colour of the animal is light and rufous, paler on the under
+parts. A black line runs some way down the back, being most conspicuous
+at the shoulders. The tail is not longer than in the Fallow Deer, and
+is hairy at the tip. Mr. Swinhoe tells us that the Chinese name is
+Sze-poo-seang, which signifies “like none of the four”&mdash;to wit, the
+Horse, the Cow, the Deer, or the Goat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_065">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_065.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CHINESE ELAPHURE.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_065_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="reindeer">THE REINDEER.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Reindeer, which differs from all its allies in that the females
+carry antlers as well as the males, forms so important an element in
+the social economy of the Laplanders that more has been written on its
+habits than of any other species of the family. It is found distributed
+throughout the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, extending
+farther south in the last-named of these in the same way as the
+isothermal line of 32° Fahr., as might be expected from the relation
+borne by its economy to its temperature. In Spitzbergen, Finland, and
+Lapland it attains the greatest size, being inferior in strength and
+stature in Norway and Sweden. In Iceland it has been introduced and
+thrives. The Caribou is the name by which it goes in the New World,
+where it extends through Greenland, Canada, and Newfoundland. The horns
+of the American variety differ from those of the Old World so much that
+it is not difficult to recognise their origin; nevertheless, attempts
+which have been made to establish the specific difference of the two
+forms have not found much favour with naturalists generally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49_5" id="i_066">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_066.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">REINDEER AT A LAPP ENCAMPMENT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The animal, with a characteristic deer-like form, is powerfully
+built, with short limbs and heavy neck. The feet have the false hoofs
+well developed, while the fissure between the median toes is so much
+extended upwards, and the ligaments which bind them together are so
+loose, that their hoofs spread out considerably when pressed upon the
+ground, and so increase the surface for support upon the yielding
+snow&mdash;their most frequent foothold. Upon raising the limbs in rapid
+action these hoofs make a sharp snap at the moment when they close
+together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe38" id="i_067">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_067.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">REINDEER.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_067_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span></p>
+
+<p>Individuals vary much in tint as well as with the season. Some are
+entirely white, whilst in winter the coat is always lighter than in
+summer. Deep brown is the prevailing tint, and there is generally a
+band of white above each hoof. As in the Elk&mdash;another Arctic ruminating
+animal&mdash;the muffle of the nose is covered with hair, and is not moist.
+The fur is of two sorts&mdash;an outer covering of longer, harsh, brittle
+hair, and an under-coat of closely-matted and much finer, wool-like
+texture, which serves as an excellent protection against the inclement
+temperature, and makes the skins so valuable for articles of clothing
+in the Arctic regions.</p>
+
+<p>The antlers are strikingly large for the size of their owners.
+Although they vary considerably in detail, the general plan of
+their construction is always the same, agreeing with that of the
+Virginian Deer and the Barasingha. As in the Wapiti and Red Deer,
+the brow-antlers on each side are, however, re-duplicated, so that
+a bez is present. This, as well as the brow-tyne, is branched, or
+palmated, wherein it is peculiar; and further, in the Caribous one
+of the brow-tynes is generally aborted, in order to allow of the
+great development of its fellow of the opposite side into a palmated
+triangle, flattened from side to side, directed straight forward in
+the middle line of the head, and attached by its apex to the beam. The
+function of this share-like expansion in the economy of the animal can
+hardly be other than to remove the snow which covers its favourite
+food, each movement of the lowered head from side to side effecting
+this result. The beam is lengthy, curved boldly upwards and forwards,
+with a small snag at the back, about half-way from each end. Its
+extremity is branched and often palmated, much like the horns of the
+Fallow Deer. The beam may reach a length not more than three inches
+less than five feet. In the females the same plan of structure of the
+antlers exists as in the males. They are considerably smaller in every
+respect, more slender, and scarcely palmated, if at all so.</p>
+
+<p>The Woodland Caribou and the Barren-ground Caribou are the names
+given to a larger and a smaller breed in Canada. Both are hunted by
+the Indians for their flesh as well as for their hides, the venison
+obtained from the latter being held in high estimation. The pounded
+meat, when mixed with melted fat, is known as pemmican. The tongue is
+esteemed a great delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>The Reindeer, from the nature of the country it inhabits, is compelled
+to lead a migratory life, in which the natives of Lapland, who have
+to depend entirely for their sustenance on the animal, have to
+participate. Troops of them during the winter months reside in the
+woods, feeding on the lichens that depend from boughs of the trees, as
+well as on those that grow upon the ground beneath. In the spring they
+repair to the mountains in order to escape the swarms of stinging Gnats
+and Gad-flies which infest the air, and inflict wounds in the skin of
+most serious severity.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="american_deer">THE AMERICAN DEER.</p>
+
+<p>In America there are several species of Deer which differ considerably
+from those of the Old World. In our remarks on these animals we will
+not include among them the Wapiti and the Elk: the Wapiti, because it
+is nothing but a large representative of the Red Deer of Great Britain;
+the Elk, because it stands very much by itself, at the same time that
+it is found in the Arctic Old World as well as in America. We ourselves
+think that the Reindeer conforms to the American type of structure,
+and have therefore described it in relation with the New World Deer,
+although most authors class it not far from the Elk.</p>
+
+<p id="virginian_deer">None of the typical Deer of America attain any considerable size, and
+their antlers are decidedly small when contrasted with those of the Old
+World. The species which will be first described is the V<span class="smaller">IRGINIAN</span>
+D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, which is the “Common” Deer of North America, and is
+slightly smaller than the Fallow Deer. Its colour is uniform, being of
+a reddish-yellow in summer and light grey in winter. The individual
+members of the species are small in Mexico, and get larger as they live
+more north. The antlers belong to the extreme rucervine type, their
+beams turning outwards and forwards in a very characteristic manner,
+with several points directed upwards from their convex border. The
+brow-tyne is short and pointed upwards instead of forwards. The tail
+is nearly a foot and a half in length. In disposition it is timid and
+wild, and is therefore domesticated with difficulty. Its flesh was in
+times gone by one of the staple articles of food of the aborigines.
+Audubon and other authors have described in detail the various modes
+employed in capturing these Deer, including the “still hunt,” “jack
+hunt,” “fire hunt,” &amp;c., according to the nature of the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span></p>
+
+<p id="mule_deer">The M<span class="smaller">ULE</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> and the B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> are not
+far distantly related North American species. The former is slightly
+larger than the Virginian and of a heavier build. Its tail is short,
+tufted, and white; its colour a dark grey in winter, dull yellow in
+summer. Its name was suggested from its lengthy ears. The latter is
+smaller, and has shorter legs. Its colour is tawny grey, the short
+tail black above and white below. Of both these species the antlers
+differ from the Virginian Deer in detail, only the brow tyne of the
+Black-tailed species being rudimentary, at the same time that the snags
+on the convex margin of the beam spring from a single stem instead of
+independently. In the Mule Deer they are smaller and less branched.
+Lord Walsingham, in writing of them, remarks, “They appear to frequent
+the thick willow clumps and other brushwood bordering the streams
+and swamps. They were extremely difficult to distinguish among the
+foliage, and remarkably quick when alarmed. As they bound off over
+logs and fallen trees, or dash through the thicket, they have a habit
+of swinging their broad white tails with a conspicuous flourish, which
+becomes annoying to a sportsman, to whom they never afford anything but
+a snap shot, which is very apt to fail.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_069">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_069.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GUAZUTI DEER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="guzau">The G<span class="smaller">UAZUS</span> are small South American Deer with large ears and
+short tails, in which the antlers want the brow tyne, and have the beam
+branched in almost exactly the same way as Schomburgk’s Deer when not
+quite full grown. The Guazuti, one of them, is not more than two feet
+six inches in height.</p>
+
+<p id="brocket">The B<span class="smaller">ROCKETS</span> are equally small, with minute antlers of a
+most simple form&mdash;whence the name&mdash;they being unbranched and shelving
+backwards. The colour of the fur in the Guava Viva and Brazilian
+Brocket is pale brown, and shining red-brown in the Red Brocket and the
+Eyebrowed Brocket.</p>
+
+<p id="venada">The V<span class="smaller">ENADA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> P<span class="smaller">UDU</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span>, is not bigger than Reeves’ Muntjac
+or a Hare. Its colour is red-brown, and it has minute antlers, not far
+separated from one another. It inhabits the western coast of South
+America.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_CHEVROTAINS_OR_DEERLETS" title="THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS.">THE
+CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not until within the last few years that naturalists have
+separated off from the true Deer a group of diminutive animals which
+look like them in miniature, but are entirely destitute of antlers.
+These little creatures, known as Chevrotains, for which we take the
+liberty of coining the name Deerlets, were placed together with the
+Musk into a single section, characterised by the fact that the males
+possess large tusks situated in the upper jaw, which project downwards,
+and are conspicuous even when the mouth is fully closed, grooving the
+lower lip on each side. Now,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span> however, they are entirely separated
+off from the Deer and Ox tribes, to constitute an independent family,
+because of the peculiarities of many of their parts. They have a
+complex stomach composed of paunch, honeycomb-bag, and reed, the
+manyplies being so much reduced in size, that it may practically be
+said not to be present.</p>
+
+<p>From the bones of their feet it is evident, too, that they cannot be
+correctly classed with the more ordinary Ruminants, and that they
+tend towards the other family of the Cloven-hoofed Ungulata, namely,
+the Swine. Each foot of the common Pig possesses four toes, that
+corresponding to our thumb in the fore-limb, and to our great toe in
+the hind being absent, as has been previously explained. The bones of
+all these toes are quite separate from one another, as in those of
+man, at the same time that those of the outer and inner digits in each
+limb are smaller than those which bear the larger hoofs. In the true
+Ruminants and in the Camel tribe these larger toes are partly fused
+together, the bones of digit three and digit four corresponding to
+those situated in the human palm and sole, being joined from end to end
+to form the “cannon-bone;” whilst those of digit two and digit five are
+reduced to mere imperfect splinters, or are sometimes altogether lost,
+as in the Giraffe and in the Camel. Now, in the Deerlets, these bones
+are not blended at all in the fore-limbs of the Water Deerlet of West
+Africa, in which, as in all the other species, digit two and digit five
+are perfect from end to end. They therefore stand, in this respect, as
+in others easily explained, intermediate between the Swine and the true
+Ruminants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42" id="i_070">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_070.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">JAVAN DEERLET.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the Deerlets are particularly delicate, diminutive, and graceful
+animals, the slenderness and clear-cut outline of their limbs being
+exceedingly striking. With bodies as big as that of a Hare or Rabbit,
+their legs are not so thick as a cedar pen-holder or a clay pipe-stem.
+Their proportions are very much those of the small Water Bucks of
+Africa, and of many of the kinds of Deer, especially the Hog Deer of
+India, in which the body, as in them, is not carried very high above
+the ground. The want of antlers in both sexes makes them resemble Hinds
+rather than Stags at first sight, whilst their elegantly-pointed noses,
+and large dark eyes, add to their general interesting appearance.</p>
+
+<p id="meminna">Of the Deerlets there are five species&mdash;the Meminna, the Kanchil,
+the Javan, the Stanleyan, and the Water Deerlets. The first four are
+confined to India, Ceylon, Malacca, Java, and Sumatra, the last being
+found in Sierra Leone and the Gambia district. These differ slightly
+in their size and markings, the M<span class="smaller">EMINNA</span>, or I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span>
+D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span>, being nearly eighteen inches long, and about eight inches
+high at the shoulder, the tail being very short. As in its allies, the
+white spotting of the surface is disturbed by two or more streaks of
+the same which run along the flanks.</p>
+
+<p id="javan_deerlet">The J<span class="smaller">AVAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span>, known sometimes as the Napu, is smaller
+than the preceding. It is of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span> a rust-brown colour above and white
+beneath, three white stripes radiating backwards, one along the middle
+line, and the other two laterally from the front of the neck. The
+short tail is white-tipped. The naked and moist muzzle is black. The
+Javan Deerlet is gentle in disposition, and somewhat uninteresting in
+captivity. Specimens are frequently brought to Great Britain, and live
+if carefully protected from the cold.</p>
+
+<p id="kanchil">The K<span class="smaller">ANCHIL</span> is still smaller in size, at the same time that
+it is darker in colour, especially along the back. Its activity and
+cunning are remarkable, so much so that Sir Stamford Raffles, in his
+original description of the creature, tells us that it is a common
+Malay expression, with reference to a great rogue, that he is “as
+cunning as a Kanchil.” Feigning to be dead when caught, its captor
+incautiously releases his hold, when the animal is immediately up and
+away before any means can be employed for its recapture. It is also
+said that when pursued by Dogs it will jump up towards a bough, and
+there hook itself by means of its lengthy tusks until its tormentors
+have passed under it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_071">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_071.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STANLEYAN DEERLET.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="stanleyan_deerlet">The S<span class="smaller">TANLEYAN</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span> was named after the grandfather of the
+present Earl of Derby, in whose menagerie at Knowsley the species was
+first recognised.</p>
+
+<p id="water_deerlet">The W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> D<span class="smaller">EERLET</span> of West Africa is slightly larger than the
+Meminna. Its deep glossy brown coat is also streaked with white lines,
+and is irregularly spotted.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_CAMEL_TRIBE_OR_TYLOPODA">THE CAMEL TRIBE, OR
+TYLOPODA.</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The name <i>Tylopoda</i>, by which the Camels, together with the Llamas,
+are known to naturalists, is derived from two Greek words (τύλος, a
+knot or callus, and πούς, a foot), signifying that the feet, instead of
+being protected by hoofs, are covered with a hardened skin, enclosing
+the cushion-like soles of the feet, which are so constructed that
+they spread out laterally when brought in contact with the ground, an
+arrangement of evident advantage to desert-ranging animals. The tips
+of each of the two toes are protected by nails, as can be seen in the
+accompanying drawing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_071a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_071a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FOOT OF CAMEL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are also other points in which these creatures differ from the
+more ordinary Ruminantia. In the front of the upper jaw there are two
+teeth&mdash;one on each side, placed laterally&mdash;which correspond to the side
+cutting teeth in man, and to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span> the similarly-situated “nippers” of the
+Horse. In the Deer, Ox, Sheep, and their allies there is not a trace of
+these, as has been previously explained (page 4). As to the limbs, it
+may also be mentioned that the true knee-joints&mdash;which in animals like
+the Horse are almost entirely hidden within the general skin-covering
+of the body&mdash;are much more conspicuous and free.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach is peculiar; it wants the “manyplies,” or third
+compartment, but possesses the “paunch,” “honeycomb-bag,” and
+“abomasum,” the last-named of which is of great length. In the
+walls of the paunch there are present two extensive collections of
+“water-cells,” which serve their owners in good stead whilst traversing
+the desert or residing in regions where fresh water is not to be
+procured except with difficulty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_072a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_072a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">Fig. <span class="smaller">A</span>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">STOMACH
+OF THE LLAMA.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_072b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_072b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">Fig. <span class="smaller">B</span>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">WATER
+CELLS OF THE CAMEL’S STOMACH.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. <span class="smaller">A</span> is a view of the stomach from below (or, in other
+words, from the side farthest from the backbone), in which it is seen
+that the clusters of water-cells (<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>) are arranged, one (<i>a</i>)
+the larger, along part of the right border of the viscus, whilst the
+second (<i>b</i>) is transverse, the remainder of the walls being smooth.
+These water-cells, seen from within in Fig. <span class="smaller">B</span>, are formed by
+the development of septa, both transverse and longitudinal, in the
+substance of the paunch-wall. They are deep and narrow, much like the
+cells of a honeycomb, and have a muscular membrane covering their
+mouths, in which there is an oval orifice opposite to each compartment
+capable of being further dilated or completely closed, probably at the
+will of the animal. When fully distended, these paunch-cells in the
+Arabian Camel are capable of storing a gallon and a half of water. The
+second stomach, or reticulum, is also modified in the same direction,
+the usually extremely shallow cells being deep, at the same time that
+food is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span> never found in them after death. Of the last compartment, or
+“abomasum,” it may be noted that it is nearly cylindrical in shape, its
+walls being very muscular. It is in this stomach that true digestion is
+carried on.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Camels two species are known, differing in the number of the
+humps upon their backs. Nothing is known of either variety in the wild
+state. We will commence with the description of</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="the_true_camel">THE (TRUE) CAMEL.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>The One-humped Camel of Arabia is frequently termed the Dromedary, but
+this latter name is correctly applicable only to the swift variety of
+the species which is employed for riding, the heavier-built One-humped
+Pack-Camel not being included under the designation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_073">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_073.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF THE (TRUE) CAMEL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is the Arabian Camel&mdash;the <i>Ship of the Desert</i>&mdash;which is much
+more serviceable to man than its Bactrian ally. Its distribution has
+extended westwards along North Africa, from which attempts have been
+made to introduce it into Spain. Eastwards it is found as far as India.</p>
+
+<p>In the Camel the limbs and neck are lengthy. A single bulky hump
+is present on the middle of the back, composed of fatty cells held
+together by strong bands of fibrous tissue which cross in all
+directions. Like all similar accumulations, it varies much in size
+according to the condition of the animal, dwindling almost to nothing
+after protracted hard work and bad feeding, being firm and full in
+times of ease and plenty. When on the point of commencing a long
+journey, there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span> is nothing on which an Arab lays so much stress as on
+the condition of his Camel’s hump, which, from what we have just said,
+must be considered to be nothing more or less than a reserved store of
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the chest, the elbows, the fore-knees (true wrists), knees, and
+hocks, callous pads of hardened skin are found, upon which the creature
+supports its weight whilst kneeling down, a position in which it
+always rests, and one which it assumes when being loaded. These pads
+are present in the new-born Camel-calf, proving, contrary to the view
+maintained by some, that they are not the direct result of pressure,
+but are special provisions in accordance with the requirements of
+the species, arrived at by a process of natural selection, those
+individuals alone surviving in which there is the power of resisting
+the injurious effects of protracted strain upon a few spots of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The coat is, in the summer, scanty; in the winter, of considerable
+length, and matted into lumps. The two-toed feet are very much
+expanded, and tipped with a pair of small hoofs. The lips are
+covered with hair, the upper one being split up for some distance
+in the middle line. The nostrils, when closed, are linear, and from
+their construction prevent sand from entering the air-passages when
+the animal desires it. The tail is of fair length, reaching to the
+ankle-joint. There is a fixity about its attitudes, and a formality
+about its paces, which is quite characteristic. Its power of enduring
+fatigue upon its scanty fare, whilst carrying a weight as great as 600
+lbs., together with its endurance, makes it invaluable in its desert
+home.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_074">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_074.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">(TRUE) CAMEL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A stolid obstinacy is its usual disposition. Mr. Palgrave, criticising
+the reputation that the animal has for docility, remarks:&mdash;“If docile
+means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is the very model
+of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal that
+takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can; that in some way
+understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate fashion;
+that obeys from a sort of submissive or half fellow-feeling with his
+master,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span> like the Horse or Elephant: then I say that the Camel is by no
+means docile&mdash;very much the contrary. He takes no heed of his rider,
+pays no attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on
+when once set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside;
+and then, should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of
+the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply because he
+is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a word, he is from
+first to last an undomesticated and savage animal rendered serviceable
+by stupidity alone, without much skill on his master’s part, and any
+co-operation on his own, save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither
+attachment nor even habit impresses him; never tame, though not wide
+awake enough to be exactly wild.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_075">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_075.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BACTRIAN CAMEL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the animal gives indications of intelligence when badly
+treated, if we may judge from its revengeful nature, well illustrated
+in the following account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“A valuable Camel, working in an oil-mill, was severely beaten by its
+driver. Perceiving that the Camel had treasured up the injury, and was
+only waiting a favourable opportunity for revenge, he kept a strict
+watch upon the animal. Time passed away; the Camel, perceiving that it
+was watched, was quiet and obedient, and the driver began to think that
+the beating was forgotten, when one night, after the lapse of several
+months, the man was sleeping on a raised platform in the mill, whilst,
+as is customary, the Camel was stabled in a corner. Happening to awake,
+the driver observed by the bright moonlight that, when all was quiet,
+the animal looked cautiously around, rose softly, and stealing towards
+a spot where a bundle of clothes and a bernous, thrown carelessly on
+the ground, resembled a sleeping figure, cast itself with violence upon
+them, rolling with all its weight, and tearing them most viciously
+with its teeth. Satisfied that its revenge was complete, the Camel was
+returning to its corner, when the driver sat up and spoke. At the sound
+of his voice, and perceiving the mistake<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span> it had made, the animal was
+so mortified at the failure and discovery of its scheme, that it dashed
+its head against the wall and died on the spot.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="bactrian_camel">THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Two-humped Camel is found in the regions to the east and north of
+the home of its One-humped ally, extending as far as Pekin and Lake
+Baikal. It it a heavier, shorter-legged, and thicker-coated species, at
+the same time that the feet are more adapted to a less yielding soil
+from their greater callousness. The hair is specially abundant upon the
+top of the head, the arm, wrist, throat, and humps. There is no variety
+of this species corresponding to the Dromedary One-humped Camel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_076">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_076.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HUANACO ATTACKED BY A PUMA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="llamas">THE LLAMAS.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Llamas, when the term is employed in its wider sense, include the
+American representatives of the Camel tribe, none of which have any
+trace of the dorsal hump or humps found in their Old World allies. They
+are mountain animals, found in the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili, in
+this respect also differing from the desert-loving Camels, with which
+they agree in all important structural peculiarities, including the
+stomach, lips, nostrils, and coat. The feet are somewhat modified in
+accordance with the rocky nature of the mountain regions which they
+inhabit, the sole-pads being less considerable, and almost completely
+divided into two hard cushions, with a long and hooked nail in the
+front of each.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_077">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_077.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ALPACA.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_077_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Llamas were found domesticated when South America was first discovered
+by the Spaniards,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span> and as there were then no Mules or Horses there,
+these creatures were employed exclusively as beasts of burden, as well
+as for their flesh, their wool, and hides. Their disposition and their
+habits also resemble those of the Camel. They have their own peculiar
+gait and speed, from which they cannot well be made to vary. When
+irritated they foam at the mouth and spit, sulking and lying down when
+overloaded. As beasts of draught their most important use is to convey
+the ores from the mines of Potosi and elsewhere in the Andean range.
+From the account of Augustin de Zerate, who was a Peruvian Spanish
+Government official in the middle of the sixteenth century, we learn
+that “in places where there is no snow the natives want water, and
+to supply this deficiency they fill the skins of Sheep [Llamas being
+meant] with water, and make other living <i>Sheep</i> carry them, for it
+must be remarked that these <i>Sheep</i> of Peru are large enough to serve
+as beasts of burden. They can carry about one hundred pounds or more,
+and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would go four or five
+leagues a day. When they are weary they lie down upon the ground,
+and as there is no means of making them get up, either by beating or
+assailing them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is
+a man on one of them, if the beast is tired he turns his head round and
+discharges his saliva, which has an offensive odour, into the rider’s
+face. These animals are of great use and service to their masters, for
+their wool is very good and fine, particularly that of the breed called
+Pacas, which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is
+trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four
+or five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat
+Sheep of Castile.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_077a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_077a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LLAMA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is somewhat difficult to decide exactly the relations of the wild
+to the domesticated species of the Llamas. It seems most probable that
+there are two true species, known as the Huanacos (<i>Lama huanacos</i>) and
+the Vicuna (<i>Lama vicugna</i>), of the former of which the true Llama is a
+domesticated variety, as the Alpaca is of the latter.</p>
+
+<p id="huanaco">The H<span class="smaller">UANACO</span>&mdash;or Guanaco, as it is sometimes written&mdash;has a
+more elongated head and more slender legs than the Vicuna, at the same
+time that there are elongated warty tubercles upon the hinder limbs
+not found in the latter species. Its height at the shoulder is three
+feet and a half. The fur is uniformly brown, at the same time that it
+is rough and short. It can be domesticated without difficulty. Its
+tail is short and hairy. Its native haunts are the highlands of Peru
+and Chili, as well as farther south, where it lives in herds, which
+descend to the valleys in the winter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span> months. When hunted they have a
+habit of now and again facing their pursuers, after which they gallop
+off afresh. When attacked at close quarters they defend themselves by
+striking with their fore-feet. From Mr. Darwin’s account of the animal
+in the “Voyage of the <i>Beagle</i>,” we learn that it “abounds over the
+whole of the temperate parts of South America, from the wooded islands
+of Tierra del Fuego, the rough Patagonia, the hilly parts of the La
+Plata, Chili, even to the Cordillera of Peru. Although preferring an
+elevated site, it yields in this respect to its near relative the
+Vicuna; on the plains of Southern Patagonia we saw them in greater
+numbers than in any other part. Generally they go in small herds, from
+half a dozen to thirty together, but on the banks of the St. Cruz we
+saw one herd which must have contained at least five hundred. On the
+northern shores of the Strait of Magellan they are also very numerous.
+Generally the Guanacoes are wild and extremely wary. The sportsman
+frequently receives the first intimation of their presence by hearing
+from a distance the peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then
+looks attentively, he will perhaps see the herd standing in a line on
+some distant hill. On approaching them, a few more squeals are given,
+and then off they set at an apparently slow&mdash;but really quick&mdash;canter
+along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If, however, by
+chance he should abruptly meet a single animal, or several together,
+they will generally stand motionless, and intently gaze at him; then,
+perhaps, move on a few yards, turn round, and look again. What is the
+cause of this difference in their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the
+distance for their chief enemy, the Puma, or does curiosity overcome
+their timidity? That they are curious is certain; for if a person lies
+on the ground and plays strange antics, such as throwing up his feet
+in the air, they will almost always approach by degrees to reconnoitre
+him.... On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, and in other places, I
+have more than once seen a Guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh
+and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner,
+apparently in defiance as a challenge.... The Guanacoes readily take to
+the water; several times at Port Valdez they were seen swimming from
+island to island. Byron, in his ‘Voyage,’ says he saw them drinking
+salt water. Some of our officers likewise saw a herd drinking the briny
+fluid from Salina, near Cape Blanca. I imagine, in several parts of the
+country, if they do not drink salt water they drink none at all. In the
+middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust in saucer-shaped
+hollows.... The Guanacoes appear to have favourite spots for dying
+in. On the banks of the St. Cruz the ground was actually white with
+bones in certain circumscribed places, which were generally bushy, and
+all near the river. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty
+heads, some gnawed, as if by beasts of prey.”</p>
+
+<p id="llama">The Domestic Llama resembles its wild ancestor in most respects. Its
+colour may, however, be variegated, or even white. Its woolly coat is
+longer, but not so fine, and when it is removed by shearing the animal
+is conspicuously spotted.</p>
+
+<p id="vicuna">The V<span class="smaller">ICUNA</span> is a smaller animal of a light lion-brown colour,
+with a short and hairy face; its neck is lengthy, as in its allies;
+its height about two feet six inches. Its wool is particularly fine,
+and has been much employed, undyed, as a material for clothing. It is
+active and spiteful, inhabiting a region higher and therefore colder
+than the Huanaco.</p>
+
+<p id="alpaca">The Alpaca is its domestic form, with thicker and much darker wool,
+as well as shorter limbs. Its colour is often nearly black, or black
+varied with white or brown.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of alpaca stuffs dates from the year 1836, when Mr.
+(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt commenced weaving the unusually long-haired
+wool, which at the time found no sale in the markets on account of
+its not being suited to the existing combing apparatus. Since that
+period alpaca has been much employed as a fabric, possibly to be again
+replaced in great measure by the sheep wool of the Australian and other
+British colonies.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="FOSSIL_RUMINANTIA">FOSSIL RUMINANTIA.</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The study of fossil forms throws as much light upon the development
+of existing types of Ruminantia as it does in the case of the
+Perissodactyla. Until the last of the three great geologic epochs none
+have been found; whilst in the Tertiary strata from Eocene, Miocene,
+and Pliocene formations, numerous species are known, resembling
+existing types more closely as they are discovered in the more recently
+deposited strata.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span></p>
+
+<p>As might be anticipated from what has been said above, and as is
+indicated in the table of classification of the Artiodactyla on page
+336, Vol. II., the oldest forms of cloven-hoofed Mammalia must have
+been intermediate in structure between the Pigs and Ruminants. Such a
+creature existed at the close of the Eocene period in <i>Chœropotamus</i>,
+discovered first by the illustrious Cuvier in the palæontologically
+most interesting gypsum beds at Montmartre. Another specimen has also
+been found near Ryde, in the Isle of Wight. The creature was pig-like
+in size, and in the tuberculated structure of its grinders, the parts,
+together with the lower jaw, alone discovered as yet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_079">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_079.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE IRISH ELK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hyopotamus</i>, <i>Dichobune</i>, <i>Xiphodon</i>, and <i>Cainotherium</i> were
+four-toed Upper Eocene transitional forms approaching the Ruminants,
+but all possessing upper cutting-teeth, the last-named differing but
+little from the Deerlets. <i>Oreodon</i> is a genus of small pig-like
+animals, appearing first in the Miocene of North America, and evidently
+closely related to the Ruminantia. <i>Sivatherium</i> was a gigantic
+Ruminant with four horns in pairs, and evidently a trunk. Its remains
+are found in the Miocene deposits of the Sewalik hills of India. Deer,
+Oxen, Goats, and Sheep first appeared in the Pliocene period, as did
+Camels and Llamas. Antelopes and Giraffes existed earlier, namely, in
+the Late Miocene. It is a fact of interest that Camels are abundant in
+the Miocene and Pliocene of North America, whilst they are only very
+scantily distributed in the same strata of the Old World, Arabia and
+Asia being their sole living habitat.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most interesting of the Pleistocene species which has been
+discovered in Great Britain is the gigantic Irish deer, a species
+originally included with the Elk, on account of the palmation and
+outward inclination of its huge antlers, in some specimens only a few
+inches less than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span> eleven feet in span, and each more than five feet
+long in a straight line from burr to tip. In general form the antlers
+do not strikingly differ from those of the Common Fallow Deer. The
+brow-tyne is quite simple at its base, and generally slightly bifid at
+its extremity, there being no true “bez.” The beam is cylindroid as far
+as the insignificant “trez,” beyond which it is flattened out into a
+gigantic triangular expansion, or “palm,” with the free base developed
+into snags, usually about seven in number, and a fairly independent
+posterior tyne.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_080">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_080.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">IRISH ELK. (<i>Restored.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the withers the skeleton, which is quite cervine in every detail,
+measures as much as six feet; its great peculiarity in the male being
+the large size of the cervical or neck vertebræ, necessarily extra
+strong that they may support the massive antlers, about seventy pounds
+in weight. In the females, which had no cranial appendages, the
+vertebræ of the neck were one-third smaller.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying figure is an attempt to represent the species under
+consideration, as it must have appeared when living. It is worthy of
+note, however, that as the coat of the Fallow Deer, which may be its
+nearest ally, is brilliantly spotted, the great Irish Deer may have
+resembled it in that respect.</p>
+
+<p>The first fairly complete skeleton of the species was found in the
+Isle of Man. Others have been obtained from Waterford and elsewhere in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p class="right mtop2 mright2">A. H. G<span class="smaller">ARROD.</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_081">
+  <img class="w100 padtop1 mtop3" src="images/i_081.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PRAIRIE DOG.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="nopad" id="ORDER_RODENTIA">ORDER RODENTIA.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_I_I">CHAPTER I.<br />
+<span class="s5">INTRODUCTION&mdash;THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT,
+AND BEAVER FAMILIES.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Character of the Order&mdash;A well-defined Group&mdash;Teeth Evidence&mdash;Kinds and Number of Teeth&mdash;The Incisors: their
+Growth, Renewal, and Composition&mdash;The Molars&mdash;The Gnawing Process&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Brain&mdash;Senses&mdash;Body&mdash;Insectivora
+and Rodentia&mdash;Food of Rodents&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#SUB_ORDER_I_SIMPLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS">THE SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#squirrel_like_rodents">THE
+SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#sciuridae">S<span class="smaller">CIURIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#common_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;Form&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;Bad
+Qualities&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#grey_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REY</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_squirrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">OX</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span></a>&mdash;Flying Squirrels&mdash;Their
+Parachute Membrane&mdash;<a href="#taguan">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">AGUAN</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;Other Species&mdash;<a href="#polatouche">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OLATOUCHE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#assapan">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">SSAPAN</span></a>&mdash;The Genus <i>Xerus</i>&mdash;<a href="#ground_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ground_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">HIPMUNK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span></a>&mdash;Distinguishing
+Features&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PERMOPHILES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spermophiles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">ISEL</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> S<span class="smaller">USLIK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barking_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ARKING</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barking_squirrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">RAIRIE</span>
+D<span class="smaller">OG</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Species&mdash;Habits&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Fellow-inmates in their “Villages”&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">OBAC</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OODCHUCK</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#true_marmots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">OARY</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> W<span class="smaller">HISTLER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#anomaluridae">ANOMALURIDÆ</a>&mdash;Tail
+Peculiarity&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#haplodontidae">HAPLODONTIDÆ</a>&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#sewellel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">EWELLEL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#castoridae">CASTORIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#beaver">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">EAVER</span></a>&mdash;Skeletal Peculiarities&mdash;General Form&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The Beavers of the Old and New
+World&mdash;Habits&mdash;Wonderful Sagacity&mdash;The Building Instinct&mdash;Their Method of Working&mdash;The various Stages&mdash;Their
+Lodges&mdash;Their Dams&mdash;Activity by Night&mdash;Flesh&mdash;Hunted&mdash;The <i>Castoreum</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">W<span class="smaller">HILE</span> the last few chapters have been devoted to orders which contain
+the largest and most powerful of terrestrial mammalia, we have now to
+treat of a group, all the members of which are of comparatively small
+size. “Mice, rats, and such small deer,” to use Shakspere’s phrase,
+make up a great proportion of the order Rodentia. The biggest of them
+is only about the size of a small Pig; and perhaps the common House
+Rat, or, at any rate, the common Squirrel, may be taken as showing the
+average dimensions of a Rodent. But, although from this point of view
+they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span> may be looked upon as “a feeble folk,” their numerous species
+render them a most important section of the mammalian fauna of nearly
+all countries, and this importance is greatly increased, practically,
+by the immense number of individuals by which each species is usually
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>The Rodentia, or gnawing mammals&mdash;G<span class="smaller">LIRES</span>, as Linnæus and
+some modern zoologists call them&mdash;notwithstanding the great number
+of the species and the immense variety of forms which they display,
+constitute, perhaps, the most definitely circumscribed order of the
+Mammalia. In most other groups of the same value, we find that some
+types exhibit divergent characters, which render it difficult to frame
+a general description of the order which shall include them; or else
+some species present a marked tendency towards some other order; but
+in the case of the Rodents, we never have any difficulty, a cursory
+inspection of the dentition is always sufficient to decide whether a
+quadruped belongs to the Rodentia or not; and in spite of an almost
+infinite variety of form, the structure of the rest of the organism is
+most clearly in accordance with the evidence derived from the teeth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_082a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_082a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE TAGUAN, A FLYING SQUIRREL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The teeth are only of two kinds&mdash;incisors and grinders (<i>see</i> the
+above figure of the skull of the Taguan)&mdash;and the number of efficient
+teeth of the former kind is never more than two in each jaw. Almost
+throughout the order, indeed, there are actually, even from the first,
+only two incisors present; but in the Hares and Rabbits, and some
+allied forms, there are in the upper jaw, in addition to the working
+teeth, a pair of rudimentary incisors,<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> placed immediately behind
+the large ones, but quite incapable of taking any part in the business
+of gnawing, for which the latter are so admirably fitted. Their
+presence is, however, of interest, as indicating the direction in which
+an alliance with other forms of Mammalia more abundantly supplied with
+teeth is to be sought.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_082b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_082b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DENTITION OF THE HARE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The great incisors, which are characteristic of the Rodents, exhibit
+the following peculiarities:&mdash;They possess no roots, but spring from
+a permanent pulp, so that they continue growing during the whole
+life of the animal; and their form, and that of the cavity which
+constitutes their socket, is always that of a segment of a circle,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+in consequence of which, they always protrude from the front of the
+jaws in the same direction, and meet at the same angle. By this means,
+as the teeth are worn away at their summits by use in gnawing, a fresh
+supply of tooth is continually being pushed forward to take the place
+of the portion thus removed, and, in fact, so intimately are the two
+functions of use and growth correlated in the teeth of these animals,
+that if by chance one of the incisors should get broken, or the natural
+opposition of these teeth should be disturbed in consequence of injury
+to the jaw, the teeth, thus deprived of their natural check, continue
+growing, and, following the curve of their sockets, gradually form
+circular tusks, which must always be greatly in the way of the animal
+when feeding, and sometimes, by actually penetrating again into the
+mouth, cause its death by absolute starvation. The teeth themselves are
+composed of dentine, coated along the front surface with a layer of
+hard enamel, which substance is wanting on the other surfaces of the
+teeth, except in the Hares, Rabbits, and other forms with additional
+rudimentary incisors in the upper jaw, in which, as further evidence
+of their relationship to the other Mammalia, the whole surface of the
+incisors is encased in enamel, although this coat is excessively thin
+except on the front or outer face. The purpose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span> of this structure
+of the incisors is easily understood. In the action of gnawing, the
+dentine, which forms the greater part of the tooth, is more easily
+abraded than the harder enamel, which is thus left as a sharp front
+edge, to which the mass of dentine behind it, being worn away into
+a bevelled surface, gives the necessary firmness and support, the
+whole forming a chisel-like instrument, constructed precisely on the
+principle of those tools in which a thin plate of hard steel forms the
+cutting edge, and is stiffened by a thicker bevelled plate of softer
+iron.</p>
+
+<p>The canine teeth are entirely deficient, and behind the incisors
+we find on each side a toothless gap of considerable extent (<i>see</i>
+figures p. 82), beyond which come the grinding teeth. In these it is
+difficult to recognise any distinction of molars and pre-molars; the
+whole series presents nearly the same structural characters, and for
+all practical purposes we may speak of them as molars, although some
+zoologists prefer to regard the three hindmost teeth on each side as
+true molars, and any others that may be present as premolars. In one
+genus (<i>Hydromys</i>) the number of grinding teeth is reduced to two on
+each side in each jaw; in a great proportion of the species the number
+is three; others have four or five grinders on each side, either in one
+or both jaws (usually one more in the upper series); and the largest
+number is possessed by the Hares and Rabbits, in which the upper jaw
+has six and the lower five grinders.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> The grinders are sometimes
+furnished with true roots, but are more commonly open below, and
+provided, like the incisors, with a permanent pulp. They are sometimes
+tubercular, at least in youth, but generally show a flat, worn surface
+with transverse bands, or re-entering folds, and sometimes cylinders of
+enamel, which display a great variety of patterns. Sometimes the enamel
+is confined to the surface of the tooth; in other cases each tooth is,
+as it were, made up of two or more variously-shaped tubular portions
+of enamel, filled up with dentine. Curiously enough, this structure
+of the grinders, especially the arrangement of the transverse ridges
+and plates of enamel in these little animals, reminds us strongly of
+the characters of the molars of the gigantic Proboscidea, in which,
+moreover, the incisors also are represented by the permanently-growing
+tusks.</p>
+
+<p>The articulation of the lower jaw with the skull is peculiar, and in
+special relation to the armature of teeth which we have described.
+Instead of articulating freely, as in man and many herbivorous mammals,
+by which provision is made for a sort of rotatory action of the molars,
+or by a regular transverse hinge-joint, as in the Carnivora, the
+articulating surfaces are elongated in a direction parallel to the
+middle line of the skull, an arrangement which, like that occurring in
+Carnivora, has the effect of preventing much lateral movement of the
+jaw; but, at the same time, the pits with which the jaw articulates are
+open in front, so that the jaw is allowed a certain amount of play,
+backwards and forwards. This motion greatly increases the gnawing power
+of the large incisor teeth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_083">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_083.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE RABBIT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The head in the Rodents is generally of small or moderate size in
+proportion to the body, and the skull is usually rather elongated,
+and flattened on the upper surface. The tympanic bullæ are generally
+of considerable size; the zygomatic arch is in nearly all cases well
+developed; but the orbits of the eyes are never closed behind, and only
+in certain families is there even a small process of the zygomatic
+arch behind the orbits, as an indication of possible closure. Of
+the vertebral column we need only say that the lumbar vertebræ are
+remarkable for possessing large transverse processes directed forwards,
+and that the tail varies<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span> greatly in length, being sometimes longer
+than the body, sometimes reduced to very small proportions, whilst
+between these two extremes almost every grade of development may be met
+with.</p>
+
+<p>The sternum, or breast-bone, is usually long and narrow. Collar-bones
+are nearly always present, but in a few forms they become rudimentary,
+or even disappear altogether. The pelvis is long and narrow. The limbs
+exhibit a very great variety in their development; in many, the two
+pairs are nearly equal in length, but in the majority the hind limbs
+are distinctly longer and more powerful than their fellows, and in some
+groups they attain a most disproportionate length, and serve almost
+exclusively as the organs of locomotion. On the other hand, in the
+great majority of the order, the fore limbs serve in a certain degree
+as hands, and are used for holding the food to the mouth; and in these
+the radius and ulna, which are always distinct bones, retain the power
+of rotation. The corresponding bones in the hind limbs (tibia and
+fibula) are, on the contrary, firmly anchylosed together in two great
+groups of the order. The feet have usually five toes, but sometimes
+this number is reduced to four, or even to three, in the hind feet.
+These toes are armed with claws, which, however, in one family, acquire
+more or less of the appearance of hoofs.</p>
+
+<p>In point of intelligence the Rodentia do not stand high. The brain is
+comparatively small, and the cerebral hemispheres show no traces of
+those convolutions of the surface which are characteristic of most
+Mammals (<i>see</i> figures). The Capybara alone is known to have a few
+convolutions. The cerebellum is entirely uncovered by the hemispheres.
+The organs of the senses are generally well developed, and the eyes
+and external ears, especially, are often of large size. In the Mole
+Rats and some other burrowing forms, however, the external ears are
+entirely wanting, and the eyes are very much reduced in size, and in
+some instances even concealed beneath the skin. The intestinal canal is
+long, and in all but one family furnished with a distinct cæcum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_084a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_084a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF BEAVER (<i>from above</i>).</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe20" id="i_084b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_084b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF BEAVER. (<i>Profile.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The body in the Rodents is generally plump and short, and the head is
+borne upon a short neck. The limbs also are usually short, so that the
+belly is close to the ground; but in some cases all four legs are of
+moderate length, or, as already stated, the hind legs are enormously
+developed, forming powerful leaping organs. In general structure, as
+to a certain extent in habits, there is, in fact, a most striking
+parallelism between the Rodentia and the Insectivora (<i>see</i> Vol. I.,
+p. 343); in both we find arboreal and terrestrial forms, and among the
+latter some specially organised for burrowing in the earth, and others
+equally adapted for springing lightly over its surface; a few, also, in
+both orders, are aquatic. But here the parallel ceases. The dentition
+in the two groups is widely divergent, and, as might be anticipated
+from this circumstance, the food is very different; for, although some
+Rodents, such as the common Mouse and Rat, are omnivorous, there is no
+doubt that, as a whole, the Rodents must be regarded as vegetarians.
+Grass and the leaves of plants and trees furnish some of them with
+nourishment; whilst others feed upon fruits, seeds, and nuts, in the
+consumption of which last the powerful incisor teeth come into play.
+Many species lay up stores of food for the winter season, of which
+they pass more or less in a state of torpidity; and some of these are
+provided with cheek-pouches, often of considerable size, in which to
+convey their harvest into their store-houses.</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected from the great number of species belonging to this
+order, and their general uniformity of structure, their classification
+is a matter of some difficulty, and very different views as to their
+relationships have prevailed at different times. Nowadays, however,
+zoologists have arrived at something like uniformity of opinion in
+this matter, and except in some minor points they may be said to be
+pretty nearly agreed. In the following sketch of the natural history
+of the Rodents we shall follow the classification proposed by the
+late Mr. E. R. Alston in the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>.
+Mr. Alston accepted the division of the order into two primary groups
+(sub-orders),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span> proposed fifty years ago by Professor Gervais, and
+characterised by the number of incisor teeth. The first of these
+sub-orders, which includes by far the majority of the Rodents, is
+formed by those species which never at any period of their lives
+possess more than two incisors in the upper jaw, and have the enamel
+on these strictly confined to the front surface of the teeth. These
+are denominated S<span class="smaller">IMPLICIDENTATA</span>, or S<span class="smaller">IMPLE</span>-<span class="smaller">TOOTHED</span>
+R<span class="smaller">ODENTS</span>. In the second group, which includes only the Hares,
+Rabbits, and Calling Hares, we have those species which in the adult
+state possess four incisors in the upper jaw, namely, two large and
+efficient teeth, and behind these two small, almost rudimentary
+incisors (<i>see</i> figure of the dentition of the Hare on p. 82). These
+are called D<span class="smaller">OUBLE</span>-<span class="smaller">TOOTHED</span> R<span class="smaller">ODENTS</span>, or D<span class="smaller">UPLICIDENTATA</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="SUB_ORDER_I_SIMPLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS"><span class="s4">SUB-ORDER I.&mdash;SIMPLE-TOOTHED
+RODENTS.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the characters derived from the number of incisor teeth above
+mentioned, several other peculiarities of structure seem to show the
+existence of a decided difference between the Simple-toothed and
+Double-toothed Rodents; but most of these are of a rather abstruse
+nature, and need not be noticed here, the most important additional
+distinctive characters of the former being that the bony palate is well
+developed, and that the fibula does not articulate with the calcaneum,
+or heel-bone; whereas in the Double-toothed Rodents the palate is
+reduced to a mere bridge between the portions of the upper jaw in
+which the teeth are inserted, and the fibula does articulate with the
+heel-bone.</p>
+
+<p>The Simplicidentata include a great number of families, and various
+attempts have been made to group these under larger heads; but it must
+be confessed that, owing to the way in which the families approach one
+another, it is difficult to bring them together in sections capable of
+being very strictly defined. Certain broad principles of relationship
+are, however, generally recognised, and Mr. Alston represented these
+by placing the Simple-toothed families under three great sections, the
+first indicated by Mr. Waterhouse&mdash;the Squirrel-like, Mouse-like, and
+Porcupine-like Rodents.</p>
+
+<p>The Squirrel-like Rodents have four molars on each side in the lower
+jaw, and either four or five in the upper. When the latter number
+is present, the foremost tooth is smaller than the rest. The fibula
+remains as a distinct bone through life, and is usually quite free,
+although sometimes attached to the tibia at the extremity. The upper
+lip is usually cleft, the muffle is small and naked, and the nostrils
+are comma-shaped, with the rounded part above. The zygomatic arch is
+formed chiefly by the process of the malar bone, which is not supported
+below by a continuation of the zygomatic process of the maxillary. The
+collar-bones are perfect. The tail is usually cylindrical and hairy.</p>
+
+<p>The Mouse-like Rodents agree with the preceding in the characters of
+the upper lip, muffle, and nostrils, but they have the tibia and fibula
+completely united for at least the last third of their length. The
+zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely extends so far
+forward as in the preceding group and is generally supported below by
+a continuation of the maxillary process. The collar-bones are perfect,
+except in one very small family; and the tail is cylindrical, and
+although sometimes hairy, more commonly covered with scales arranged in
+rings. The number of molar teeth in this section varies from three to
+six<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> on each side in each jaw, but three is the most usual number.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_085">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_085.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE TAGUAN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Porcupine-like Rodents, with one exception, have four molars on
+each side in both jaws; the fibula distinct throughout life; the upper
+lip rarely cleft; the muffle clad with a velvety coat of fine hairs;
+and the nostrils either S-shaped or straight. The zygomatic arch is
+stout, and the malar process does not advance far forward, nor is it
+supported below by the maxillary process.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span></p>
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop2 mbot1" id="squirrel_like_rodents">SECTION I.&mdash;(<i>SCIUROMORPHA.</i>)
+SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS.</p>
+
+<p class="center mbot2" id="sciuridae">FAMILY I.&mdash;SCIURIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>This first family, which includes the true Squirrels and the Marmots,
+is distinguished from the rest of the section by the possession of five
+rooted molars on each side of the upper jaw (<i>see</i> figure of the teeth
+on p. 85), the first being very small and sometimes deciduous, and
+four molars on each side of the lower jaw, and by the presence on the
+skull and zygomatic arch of small processes, indicating the posterior
+boundary of the orbits (<i>see</i> figure of the skull on p. 82). The molars
+are tubercular, at least at first; but the summits of the tubercles are
+generally more or less worn down as the animal increases in age.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_086">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_086.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON SQUIRREL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span></p>
+
+<p id="common_squirrel">The true Squirrels, which may be regarded as the types of this family,
+are distinguished by their slender and graceful forms, and their long
+and generally bushy tails, the latter character having originated
+their classical name of <i>Sciurus</i>, as a compound of two Greek words,
+indicating their habit of carrying their tails thrown up, so as to
+shade the back. Our C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span> (<i>Sciurus vulgaris</i>) may
+serve as a good example of this division of the family. It is too well
+known as a pet to need any detailed description; its elegant form and
+graceful movements, the rich brownish-red colour of its upper surface,
+contrasting with the white of the belly, and the beautifully-pencilled
+or tufted ears, which, combined with its bright black eye, give it such
+a lively appearance, must be familiar to every one. When full-grown,
+the Squirrel measures from eight to ten inches in length of body, and
+has a tail seven or eight inches long. British specimens are generally
+smaller than those from the Continent of Europe. It varies considerably
+in colour with the seasons, especially in northern regions; but even
+in Central Europe and in Britain the fur of the sides and back becomes
+mixed with a certain quantity of greyish-white hairs in the winter,
+whilst in Lapland and Siberia the whole upper surface acquires a grey
+tint at that season. In the summer also the ear-tufts diminish, or
+altogether disappear. In the Alps and Pyrenees, there is a variety
+having the back of a dark brown colour, speckled with yellowish-white.
+This has been described as a distinct species, under the name of
+<i>Sciurus alpinus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Squirrel is a widely-distributed species. It is abundant all
+over Europe, except, according to Pallas, in the Crimea, and extends
+beyond the Ural Mountains through the whole length of Southern Siberia
+to the Altai and the Amoor region. It occurs in the Caucasus, and
+probably in Persia. Everywhere it haunts the woods and forests, living
+chiefly upon the trees, among the branches of which it displays the
+most astonishing agility. On the ground&mdash;to which, however, it does
+not often descend&mdash;it is equally quick in its movements. If alarmed
+under these circumstances, it dashes off to the nearest tree with
+lightning-like rapidity, and by the aid of its sharp claws rushes up
+the trunk till it has reached what it considers a safe elevation,
+when the little sharp face and bright eyes may be seen peeping at the
+intruder, apparently in triumph over his supposed disappointment.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Squirrel consists chiefly of nuts, beech-mast, acorns,
+and the young bark, shoots, and buds of trees. In eating the former
+articles, they are held in the fore-paws, which thus supply the place
+of hands, and the strong incisors soon make a way through the outer
+shells into the contained kernels, which alone are eaten; for in all
+cases in which the kernel is coated with a coarse brown skin (as in
+the common hazel-nuts), the Squirrel carefully removes every particle
+of this from the portions on which he feeds. The bark, buds, and young
+shoots of trees seem generally to be attacked by the Squirrel when he
+finds a deficiency of other and more congenial nourishment; but this
+is so regularly the case in the spring of the year, that these animals
+actually cause a great amount of damage to the trees in forest regions.
+Hence, not unnaturally, the Squirrel is regarded in forest countries
+as a most mischievous little animal, whose depredations are not to be
+condoned on account of its elegant appearance and lively habits. As
+another unamiable quality, may be mentioned its habit of plundering
+birds’ nests and eating the eggs, which appears to be established upon
+unquestionable evidence. In some northern regions the inhabitants
+turn their Squirrels to a more profitable use than putting them, as
+we so often do, into a sort of treadmill. In Lapland and some parts
+of Siberia, especially on the banks of the Lena, these animals are
+killed in great numbers for the sake of their grey winter-coats, which,
+however, are not equal in beauty to those of the north American Grey
+Squirrel.</p>
+
+<p>The Squirrel passes the greater part of the winter in a torpid state,
+lying coiled up in some hole of a tree, where its long bushy tail is
+of service in keeping it warm and comfortable. On fine and warm days,
+however, it rouses itself from its slumbers; and, as if foreseeing
+the occurrence of such days, it lays up in the autumn stores of nuts,
+acorns, and beech-mast, upon which it can feed when it wakes during
+the winter. This winter provision is not laid up all in one place, but
+stored away in several different holes in trees surrounding the place
+of its own retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Squirrels appear to be strictly monogamous, pairing for life, and
+constantly inhabiting the same dwelling. The young, three or four in
+number, are produced in June, and for their reception the parents
+prepare a very beautifully constructed nest, formed of interlaced moss,
+leaves, and vegetable fibres, which is placed either in the hole of a
+tree, or in the fork between two branches. The young<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span> Squirrels are
+very carefully attended by both parents, and the family remains united
+until the following spring, when the young go out to find partners, and
+settle themselves in the world.</p>
+
+<p id="grey_squirrel">The Common Squirrel may serve as an example of the whole genus
+<i>Sciurus</i>, which includes the ordinary Tree Squirrels, the species
+of which are very numerous, probably more than one hundred, and
+distributed over nearly all parts of the world. The species are most
+numerous in the warm Oriental regions, in India, and the countries and
+islands lying to the east of it, from which nearly fifty species have
+been recorded. The northern parts of the Old World only possess half
+a dozen species, but North America has about eighteen, many of which
+are considerably larger than the European Squirrel. The most striking
+of the North American species are the G<span class="smaller">REY</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span> (<i>Sciurus
+carolinensis</i>) and the F<span class="smaller">OX</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span> (<i>Sciurus niger</i>), both
+of which are abundant in the Atlantic States, and vary considerably in
+colour, presenting both grey and black individuals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_088">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_088.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BLACK FOX SQUIRREL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the ordinary Squirrels, a considerable number of other species
+are arboreal in their habits, and, indeed, even more strictly so than
+the true Squirrels. These are the Flying Squirrels, as they are called,
+which may be at once distinguished from the others by the presence
+of a large fold of skin, extending along the sides of the body, and
+including the limbs as far as the wrists and heels (<i>see</i> figure on
+next page). In the case of the Common Squirrels, it is observed that
+in performing leaps of any considerable extent the limbs are stretched
+out, and the long, bushy tail extended, so as to give the animal as
+large a surface as possible; but in the Flying Squirrels, as in the
+Flying Lemur (Vol. I., p. 344), when the limbs are extended laterally
+the folds of skin (<i>patagia</i>) become tightly stretched, and form a
+regular parachute, which seems to give the animal essential support in
+its most extensive leaps. The extent of this membrane is increased by
+means of a sort of bony spur, which articulates with the wrist.</p>
+
+<p id="taguan">The T<span class="smaller">AGUAN</span> (<i>Pteromys petaurista</i>) is a large species,
+indeed, the largest of the whole family Sciuridæ. It measures about
+two feet long, and has a bushy tail of nearly equal length. Its ears
+are pointed, but not tufted, and its eyes are large and prominent.
+Its colour above is greyish-black, produced by a mixture of entirely
+black hairs with others having the tips greyish-white; beneath it is
+greyish-white. About the head and on the limbs the fur is tinged with
+brown or chestnut brown, and the lateral folds are sometimes of the
+latter colour, sometimes blackish-brown above and grey beneath. The
+tail is rounded in its form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span></p>
+
+<p>This species inhabits the peninsula of India and Ceylon, Malacca and
+Siam, where it is found only in the forests, living in trees, either
+singly or in pairs. Its activity is chiefly nocturnal, in which respect
+it differs from the ordinary Squirrels. During the day it sleeps in
+the holes of trees, but at night it comes forth, climbing and leaping
+with the greatest rapidity about the trees on which it lives. While
+thus engaged the lateral membranes are loosely folded at the sides of
+the body; but from time to time the Squirrel wishes to pass from one
+tree to another at some distance, and then it ascends to a considerable
+elevation and springs off, at the same time extending all four limbs
+as much as possible, when the tightly-stretched folds of skin lend
+the body a support, which enables it to glide through the air to some
+distance, although it seems always to alight at a lower level than that
+from which it started. During these aerial excursions the long bushy
+tail serves as a sort of rudder, and enables the animal even to change
+its course during flight. Of the habits of the Taguan very little is
+known. It appears to feed upon fruits, and is exceedingly shy and
+fearful. Of a nearly-allied species which he observed in China, Mr.
+Swinhoe says that the nest, which was placed high up in a large tree,
+measured about three feet in diameter, and was composed of interlaced
+twigs, and lined with dry grass. It contained only a single young
+Squirrel; but this might be exceptional.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_089">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_089.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TAGUAN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="polatouche">Some nine or ten additional species of the genus <i>Pteromys</i>, which
+includes the Flying Squirrels with cylindrical tails, are found in
+the forest regions of India and of the countries to the east of that
+peninsula, including China, Formosa, and Japan. The same region also
+harbours three or four species of another kind of Flying Squirrel,
+in which the long hairs of the tail are arranged in two rows, and
+the tail is flat instead of cylindrical. These animals, to which the
+name of <i>Sciuropterus</i> has been given, are, however, more numerous
+in the north, where their distribution extends from Lapland and
+Finland, through Siberia, to Northern China and Japan. Squirrels of
+this genus also occur over the whole continent of North America and
+as far south as Guatemala. The best known of the Old World species is
+the P<span class="smaller">OLATOUCHE</span> (<i>Sciuropterus volans</i>), which inhabits the
+north-eastern parts of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span> Europe and nearly the whole of Siberia. It
+is an elegant little creature, about six inches in length, and with
+a broad, flat tail, rather shorter than the body: as, indeed, is the
+case in all the <i>Sciuropteri</i>. Its silky coat is in summer of a tawny
+brown on the upper surface, darker on the flying membrane and the
+outsides of the limbs, beneath pure white; whilst the tail is greyish
+above and light rusty red beneath. In winter the fur becomes longer
+and thicker, and appears of a silver grey colour on the upper surface.
+The Polatouche lives in the birch woods, or in places where pines,
+firs, and birches grow intermingled; but the presence of the birch
+seems to be a necessity of its existence. It is met with singly or in
+pairs, but always on the trees, sleeping during the day in its nest
+or in the hole of a tree, and coming forth at dusk to climb and leap
+about the branches with great agility. In going from tree to tree by
+the aid of its lateral membranes, it is said to cover distances of
+twenty or thirty yards with ease, always, however, taking its leap from
+the highest branches of the tree it starts from, and alighting at a
+considerably lower level. Its food consists of nuts, seeds, berries,
+the buds, young shoots, and catkins of the birch, and the young shoots
+of pines and firs. The nest is made in the hole of a tree, carefully
+lined with soft moss and herbage. Like the Common Squirrel, the
+Polatouche sleeps through the cold weather, but wakes up from time to
+time and goes out in search of food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42_5" id="i_090">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_090.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">POLATOUCHE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="assapan">This group of Flying Squirrels is also represented on the North
+American continent. The number of species seems rather uncertain, some
+authors making it two, others four; while Mr. J. A. Allen regards all
+the North American Flying Squirrels as belonging to a single species,
+which varies greatly in size in different localities. This species is
+the A<span class="smaller">SSAPAN</span> (<i>Sciuropterus volucella</i>), one of the smallest
+of its family, the length of its head and body being only from four
+and three-quarters to seven and a half inches; the smaller specimens
+(var. <i>volucella</i>) being found in the more southern States, and even
+as far south as Guatemala; and the larger ones (var. <i>hudsonius</i>) in
+more northern localities. In its habits this elegant little Squirrel
+resembles the Polatouche, but appears to be more sociable. It thrives
+well in confinement.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these Tree Squirrels, a few species of the Sciurine sub-family
+live upon the ground. In Abyssinia and in other parts of Africa some
+curious animals, forming the genus <i>Xerus</i>, are found, distinguished
+by their very small ears, longish limbs, and the singular texture of
+their hair, which scantily clothes the skin and generally takes the
+form of flattened spines. They have a slender body, a pointed head,
+and a longish tail. These animals live in elevated forest regions,
+and even upon comparatively barren steppes, where they burrow in the
+ground under rocks, or among the roots of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span> trees and bushes. They are
+diurnal, and feed chiefly upon buds and herbage, but also devour small
+birds, eggs, and insects. The best known species (<i>Xerus rutilans</i>) is
+about twenty inches long, of which the tail makes about nine inches.
+Its colour is reddish-yellow above, becoming paler on the sides, and
+whitish below.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_091">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_091.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON CHIPMUNK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="ground_squirrels">The true G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span> (<i>Tamias</i>) are distinguished from
+the rest of the Squirrels (<i>Sciurinæ</i>), and approach the Marmots, which
+form a second sub-family of Sciuridæ. Like some of the latter, they
+possess large cheek-pouches opening into the mouth. The ears in this
+genus are short; the fourth toe of the fore feet is longer than the
+rest, as in all the Sciurinæ; the limbs are short, and nearly equal in
+length; and the tail is shorter than in the true Squirrels. In general
+form and appearance, however, the Ground Squirrels greatly resemble the
+latter, except that they are rather stouter in the body. Four species
+of this group inhabit the continent of North America, where they are
+known as Chipmunks; and one of these, according to Mr. J. A. Allen, is
+identical with the only known Old World species (<i>Tamias asiaticus</i>),
+which is found in North-eastern Europe and across Northern Asia, as
+far as the mouth of the Amoor, North China, and Japan. This species,
+which goes by different names in the different localities which it
+inhabits, and the C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">HIPMUNK</span> (<i>Tamias striatus</i>) of the
+United States, agree very closely in all respects, and are exceedingly
+pretty little animals, with light-coloured fur adorned with darker
+stripes, varied in the case of the Chipmunk with streaks of white. They
+are from eight to ten inches long, including the tail. These animals
+live in burrows in the ground, and feed upon nuts, acorns, grain, and
+other seeds of various kinds, of which they lay up great stores in the
+autumn, carrying home their provisions in their cheek-pouches, which
+they stuff as full as they can hold. In this way they do no small
+damage to cultivated grounds near their haunts, plundering the corn
+and maize fields very freely; over eight pounds of corn in the ear
+are often found in the granaries of the Siberian form. The burrow is
+made deep enough to protect the animals from frost in winter, and the
+sleeping chamber contains a large nest of leaves and grass, in which
+several individuals, probably the parents with their grown-up family,
+sleep through the cold weather; but it must be remarked that their
+torpidity is very imperfect, and that they have frequent recourse to
+the supplies of food which they have stored up during the summer and
+autumn in separate chambers at the ends of lateral passages. These
+stores are so large that they generally greatly exceed the wants of the
+provident little animals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span> and in the spring the residue is greedily
+devoured by Wild Pigs and Bears. Even the poorer human inhabitants of
+the countries frequented by the Ground Squirrels do not disdain to
+eke out their scanty means of subsistence by plundering the hoards of
+these animals. Many of them perish in severe winters, great numbers
+are destroyed by man, by the smaller Carnivora, and by birds of prey,
+but, nevertheless, they manage to hold their own, in consequence of the
+great fertility of the females, which produce several young twice in
+the year, namely, in May and August. At pairing time the males fight
+violently.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe13" id="i_092a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_092a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE MARMOT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="marmots">From the Ground Squirrels we pass, by a perfectly natural transition,
+to the M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span> (<i>Arctomyinæ</i>), the second sub-family of
+Sciuridæ. These animals differ from the preceding forms by their
+broader incisors, shorter tail, and stouter form of body, and by having
+the third finger longer than the rest. The first upper molar, also, is
+larger and more persistent than in the Squirrels, and the other molars
+differ in structure (<i>see</i> figure). The Marmots are all terrestrial
+animals, living and storing provisions in burrows, which they dig in
+the ground, and they are strictly confined to the northern parts of the
+two hemispheres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_092b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_092b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, OR GOPHER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_093">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_093.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BURROWS OF THE PRAIRIE DOG.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="spermophiles">The nearest approach to the Squirrels is made by the
+S<span class="smaller">PERMOPHILES</span> (<i>Spermophilus</i>), several species of which occur
+in North America from Mexico to the Arctic regions, but never to the
+east of the great central prairie region; whilst in the Old World their
+domain extends from Silesia, through Russia, and across Asia, to the
+Amoor and Kamstchatka. The Spermophiles are Squirrel-like in form and
+have rather short tails, but in the American species this organ is
+generally longer than in those of the Eastern continent. On the thumb
+the claw is either very small or altogether wanting; the two series
+of molars are nearly parallel, and the mouth is furnished with large
+cheek-pouches. The ears are very small. These animals live in society,
+and prefer a dry, sandy, or loamy soil, in which they can easily make
+their burrows, which terminate in a chamber lined with grass and
+herbage, and have, besides, side-chambers, in which provisions can
+be stored for winter use. Like the other species of the family, the
+Spermophiles pass the winter in a state of partial torpidity. In the
+summer they are exceedingly lively and playful. Their food consists
+of roots, berries, and seeds of various kinds, and their winter
+stores of these articles are carried into the burrows in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span> their large
+cheek-pouches. The females are very prolific, producing from four to
+eight young at a birth, and in some cases even as many as ten have been
+found. The commonest and most widely distributed of the North American
+species is the S<span class="smaller">TRIPED</span> S<span class="smaller">PERMOPHILE</span>, or G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span>
+(<i>Spermophilus tredecimlineatus</i>), a pretty little creature of from six
+to eight inches long, usually of a chestnut brown colour with seven
+yellowish-white lines running along the back and between these six rows
+of small squarish spots of the same colour. This species extends its
+range from the Red River in Canada southwards as far as Texas, and is
+common on the prairies east of the Mississippi. This and some other
+species of the genus are said to be very carnivorous in their habits,
+preying upon small birds and mammals; and the Gopher was even described
+as feeding upon the flesh of Bisons, which it found lying dead on
+the prairies. The other American species are more local in their
+distribution; four of them occur in Mexico, and one of these is only
+known from that country. Of the Old World species the best known is the
+S<span class="smaller">ISEL</span>, or S<span class="smaller">USLIK</span> (<i>Spermophilus citillus</i>), which is
+abundant in Central and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span> Eastern Europe and in Siberia. Several other
+species are known from Asia Minor, Siberia, and Central Asia.</p>
+
+<p id="barking_squirrels">The B<span class="smaller">ARKING</span> S<span class="smaller">QUIRRELS</span>, or P<span class="smaller">RAIRIE</span> D<span class="smaller">OGS</span>, of which two
+species (<i>Cynomys ludovicianus</i>, <i>see</i> figure on p. 81, and <i>C.
+columbianus</i>) are found in the United States of America, are of
+a stouter form than the Spermophiles, and have the ears and tail
+short. The claws are well developed on all the toes of the fore feet,
+the cheek-pouches are shallow, and the two rows of grinding teeth
+converge towards the back of the mouth. These animals are peculiar
+to North America, where the former inhabits the prairies east of the
+Rocky Mountains, and the latter is found on the plains of the Columbia
+river, and in other parts of the western territories as far south
+as New Mexico. The best known of the two species is the <i>Cynomys
+ludovicianus</i>, to which the name of the P<span class="smaller">RAIRIE</span> D<span class="smaller">OG</span> was first
+applied: this name being given to it from a fancied resemblance of
+its voice to the barking of a small Dog. It measures about a foot in
+length, and its tail is about four inches long. Its colour on the
+upper surface is reddish-brown, variegated with grey, and with a few
+scattered black hairs; the tail is flattened, and brownish-black
+towards the end, and the lower surface is brownish or yellowish-white.
+These animals live together in great societies, especially upon those
+portions of the prairies where the so-called buffalo-grass (<i>Sesleria
+dactyloides</i>) grows most luxuriantly, this grass and succulent roots
+constituting their chief food. They live in burrows, which they dig in
+the ground at a distance of twelve or fifteen feet apart; a hard-beaten
+path runs from burrow to burrow, and would seem to give evidence of the
+sociable disposition of the animals; and at the mouth of every burrow
+there is a little hillock, formed by the earth thrown out of it, which
+serves the occupant as a watch-tower. These burrows are usually so
+numerous upon favourable pieces of ground that the space occupied by
+them is quite populous, and presents a scene of considerable animation
+when the inhabitants are out in the pursuit of their business or their
+pleasure, and hence they are in common parlance spoken of as “towns”
+or “villages.” Their curious appearance is heightened by the almost
+constant presence in them of numerous small Owls, of the species known
+as the Burrowing Owl (<i>Athene cunicularia</i>), a widely-spread species,
+which in some places digs its own subterranean habitation, but on
+these prairies saves itself the trouble by taking possession of the
+deserted abodes of the Prairie Dogs. These birds are diurnal in their
+habits, and are to be seen mixed up with the Prairie Dogs in their
+settlements. Another inhabitant of the burrows is the Rattlesnake;
+and some of the earlier observers thought that the Prairie Dogs,
+Owls, Rattlesnakes, and some other animals, such as Horned Frogs and
+an occasional Tortoise, occupied the same burrow, and lived there on
+the most amicable footing. Unfortunately, this paradisaic picture is
+an imaginary one. It is true that the Rattlesnake does take up his
+abode in the Prairie Dog’s burrows, but he either selects a deserted
+one, or dispossesses, and perhaps devours, the rightful owner; and his
+object in his residence among the lively little Marmots is anything
+rather than peaceful, as they constitute his favourite food. The little
+Burrowing Owl has also been said by some writers to feed on the young
+Prairie Dogs; but this is not proved, and the food of the Owls is known
+to consist chiefly of Grasshoppers and Crayfish. According to the
+latitude in which they live, the Prairie Dogs seem to be more or less
+subject to torpidity during the winter.</p>
+
+<p id="true_marmots">The true M<span class="smaller">ARMOTS</span> (<i>Arctomys</i>) are nearly related to the
+Prairie Dogs. They are stout in the body, have a short tail, and a
+rudimentary thumb with a flat nail; and are either entirely destitute
+of cheek-pouches or have mere indications of those organs. The rows of
+molar teeth are placed nearly parallel to each other in each jaw. The
+skull is broad and flat above, with a depression between the orbits;
+and the post-orbital processes are larger than in any other Sciuridæ.
+The Marmots are confined to the Northern hemisphere, but over it they
+are widely distributed in both continents. Of the Old World species,
+the best known are the B<span class="smaller">OBAC</span> (<i>Arctomys Bobac</i>) and the
+A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span> (<i>A. Marmota</i>), of which the former extends
+from the south of Poland and Galicia over the whole of Southern Russia
+and Siberia to the Amoor region and Kamstchatka, whilst it is found
+in elevated situations as far southward as Cashmere, Tibet, and the
+Himalayas; and the latter inhabits only the higher regions of the
+Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians. In North America the common species
+is the W<span class="smaller">OODCHUCK</span> (<i>Arctomys Monax</i>), the distribution of
+which is from the Carolinas northward to Hudson’s Bay, and westward
+from the Atlantic coast to Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota; the Rocky
+Mountain region is inhabited by a distinct species (<i>A. flaviventer</i>);
+and a third very large species, the H<span class="smaller">OARY</span> M<span class="smaller">ARMOT</span>, or
+W<span class="smaller">HISTLER</span><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span> (<i>A. pruinosus</i>), which measures from twenty-three
+to twenty-five inches in length of body, appears to be most abundant
+in the north-western parts of the continent, and is said to range
+northward as far as the Arctic Circle. The Marmots live usually in
+large societies in extensive burrows, which they form underground;
+and in some localities, as on the great plains of Russia and Siberia,
+their dwelling-places are described as producing a remarkable effect,
+owing to the multitude of little hillocks formed by the earth thrown
+out of their burrows. During the summer they are in a state of
+constant activity, playing and running about in search of food in the
+neighbourhood of their dwellings. The winter they pass in a state
+of torpidity, in a comfortable chamber lined with soft herbage, and
+protected from the outside cold by the closure of the main passage
+leading into their abode. For a time after their retirement for the
+winter they continue active in their domicile, and feed upon the stores
+of food which they have laid up during the summer; and as a preparation
+for their winter sleep, they become exceedingly fat during the autumn.
+The Marmots are the largest members of their family, and, indeed, some
+of them may be reckoned among the larger Rodents. The Alpine Marmot
+measures more than twenty inches in length, and the Bobac about fifteen
+inches, exclusive of the tail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_095">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_095.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ALPINE MARMOT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop1 mbot1" id="anomaluridae">FAMILY II.&mdash;ANOMALURIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>Some curious African animals, closely resembling the Flying Squirrels,
+and at first regarded as belonging to that group, were formed by Mr.
+Waterhouse into a distinct genus, which he called <i>Anomalurus</i>, in
+allusion to the peculiar characters presented by their tail. This
+organ, which is long and well clothed with hair, although not so bushy
+as in the true Squirrels, has on the lower surface of its basal portion
+a double series of horny scales, which project from the skin, and
+probably serve to assist the animal in climbing upon the branches of
+trees.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this peculiarity, these animals exhibit certain other
+characters which have induced modern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span> zoologists to separate them from
+the Squirrels as a distinct family. Thus, the post-orbital processes
+are wanting, or nearly so; the infra-orbital openings are large; the
+molar teeth are four in number on each side, above and below, nearly
+equal in size, and not tubercular, but with a flat surface, crossed by
+transverse loops of enamel; and the palate is contracted in front and
+deeply notched behind. In the skeleton we find sixteen pairs of ribs,
+whereas in the Squirrels there are only twelve or thirteen pairs; and
+the internal anatomy, first described by Mr. Alston, is very peculiar.
+The flying membrane is quite as largely developed as in the Flying
+Squirrels, and is in the same manner extended from the wrists to the
+heels, and further supported by cartilaginous spurs starting from the
+fore limbs; but, whilst in the Flying Squirrels this spur springs from
+the wrist itself, in the Anomalures it projects from the elbow, and
+thus produces a still greater extension of the membrane. The ears are
+well developed, the eyes large, and the general aspect both of head and
+body completely squirrel-like. Six species of this family have been
+described, all from the West Coast of Africa. One of them occurs in the
+island of Fernando Po. The species figured (<i>Anomalurus fulgens</i>) is
+from the Gaboon. It is a handsome little creature, of a bright reddish
+colour, paler below, and having a small white spot between the ears.
+Its length is fourteen inches, and its tail is seven inches long. In
+some of the other species the tail is as long as the body. Of the
+habits of these animals little is positively known, but they are said
+to feed upon fruits. They probably resemble the Flying Squirrels in
+their general mode of life.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_096a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_096a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FULGENT ANOMALURE (From the <i>Proceedings of the
+Zoological Society</i>).</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe23" id="i_096b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_096b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE ANOMALURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop1 mbot1" id="haplodontidae">FAMILY III.&mdash;HAPLODONTIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>This is another small family, smaller even than the preceding one, for
+it includes only a single known species, limited in its range to the
+western coast of North America. This is the Sewellel, a little Rodent,
+first observed by the American travellers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1805
+or 1806, described in 1814 by Rafinesque under the name of <i>Anisonyx
+rufa</i>, and afterwards, in 1829, by Sir John Richardson, as the type
+of a new genus, as <i>Aplodontia leporina</i>. This generic name has been
+corrected, in accordance with its derivation, by more recent writers,
+to <i>Haplodon</i>, from which the name of the family has been formed.</p>
+
+<p>In this animal there are five molars in the upper and four in the
+lower jaw; the first upper molar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span> is very small, and all these teeth
+are rootless, simple, and prismatic, the surface of each tooth being
+surrounded by a mere border of enamel. The skull is very flat, very
+wide behind, and furnished with large zygomatic arches; between
+the orbits and in front it is much contracted, and there are no
+post-orbital processes. In the lower jaw the angular portion is twisted
+so as to form a horizontal ridge. The body is stout and clumsy, the
+tail very short, and the claws of the fore feet (which are five-toed,
+as well as the hind ones) are very powerful; in fact, as Dr. Coues
+says, “The whole organisation, viewed externally, indicates terrestrial
+and highly fossorial habits.”</p>
+
+<p id="sewellel">The S<span class="smaller">EWELLEL</span> (<i>Haplodon rufus</i>) is about a foot long, with
+a tail of an inch or an inch and a half; its colour is brownish,
+with an intermixture of black hairs, lighter and more greyish below.
+The whiskers, claws, and upper surface of the feet are whitish, and
+the incisor teeth yellow. It inhabits the Washington and Oregon
+territories, from the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific, and
+extends also into the southern portions of British Columbia and the
+upper parts of California.</p>
+
+<p>The Sewellel is described as having very much the same habits as
+the Prairie Dog, living in society, burrowing very readily in the
+ground, and feeding on roots and berries. Their companies, however,
+seem to be much smaller than those of the Prairie Dog, and they are
+said chiefly to frequent spring-heads in rich, moist places. They are
+described as having the curious habit of neatly cutting off some herb
+or plant, which, when packed in bundles, they lay out and expose to
+the sun to dry; this is probably for the purpose of storing for winter
+consumption. It seems to be uncertain whether the Sewellel is torpid
+during the winter, but probably in this respect it varies according to
+local conditions or the coldness of the seasons. Dr. Suchley believes
+that the Sewellel has several litters of young during the season. The
+Indians trap them, and esteem them very highly as food. Cloaks or
+blankets are made of their skins, which are sewn together with fibres
+derived from the sinews of the Elk and Deer. A robe described by Sir
+John Richardson was composed of twenty-seven skins.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="castoridae">FAMILY IV.&mdash;CASTORIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p id="beaver">Unlike as the Beaver may be to a Squirrel, it yet presents many
+characters which prove that its nearest affinity is to the animals
+which compose the group Sciuromorpha. This relationship has indeed
+been overlooked by many zoologists, but Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen have
+clearly shown that Professor Gervais was right in placing the Castoridæ
+in close juxtaposition with the Squirrels. The peculiarities which make
+the apparent discrepancy so striking are indeed chiefly those by which
+the Beaver is adapted to an aquatic life.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe23" id="i_097">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_097.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE BEAVER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Beaver, which is the sole living representative of this family, is
+a more powerful animal than any of the preceding, and his incisor teeth
+and the means of working them are especially well developed. The head
+is large and the skull massive, and furnished with a distinct median
+(sagittal) crest for the insertion of the strong muscles which move the
+lower jaw. There are no post-orbital processes. There are four molars
+on each side in each jaw, and these are nearly similar in size and
+structure; but, contrary to what we have seen in the preceding groups,
+the first molar is the largest, and the others diminish in size towards
+the hinder end of the row. The series of teeth in the two sides of the
+mouth converge toward the front; and the teeth themselves, which are
+for a long time rootless, and only close up to form a simple root when
+the animal grows old, show three folds or loops of enamel on one side,
+and a single fold on the other: the three folds entering from the outer
+surface of the tooth in the upper jaw, and from its inner surface in
+the lower.</p>
+
+<p>The general form is stout and heavy, especially in the hinder parts;
+the tail is of moderate length, broad, flattened, and covered with a
+scaly skin; the feet are all five-toed, the fore pair considerably
+smaller than the hinder, but all well furnished with claws, and the
+hinder pair fully webbed to the extremities of the toes. The wrist has
+a large ossicle, in addition to those usually<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span> composing that part
+of the body. The eyes are small, have the pupil vertical, and are
+furnished with a nictitating membrane; the ears are small and short,
+and their antitragus can be so applied to the head as almost entirely
+to close the auditory aperture; and the nostrils are also so arranged
+as to be capable of closing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_098">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_098.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BEAVER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Beaver is usually about two feet and a half long, and is,
+therefore, one of the largest of the Rodentia, except the Capybara.
+The tail, which is flattened above and below, and of an elongated
+oval form, measures about ten inches. The muffle is naked; the ears
+scaly; the soles of all the feet are naked, and their upper surfaces
+clothed with hairs; and the second toe of the hind feet is usually
+furnished with a double claw, the additional one being placed beneath
+the other. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown on the upper
+surface, lighter and greyish below. The colour varies a little in
+different individuals, and appears to become darker, or even blackish,
+in northern localities. White or pied individuals are not uncommon.
+The Beaver appears to increase in size for some years after it has
+attained maturity. Mr. Allen says that in America “two-year-old Beavers
+generally weigh about thirty-five to forty pounds, while very old ones
+occasionally attain a weight of upwards of sixty.” The size of the
+skull seems to increase throughout life; the thickness and density
+of the bones also increase, and the ridges for the attachment of the
+muscles become stronger in old individuals.</p>
+
+<p>The Beaver is, or has been, distributed generally over all the northern
+parts of the Northern hemisphere, especially in the forest regions.
+Formerly it ranged over the whole of Europe, including<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span> the British
+islands, where there is historical evidence of its former existence,
+besides the skulls and bones which have been found in various places,
+but especially in the Fen lands. At present the animal appears to be
+completely exterminated in the southern parts of Europe from France
+southwards, with the exception of a small colony on the Rhone, which we
+believe is still in existence; and only a very few individuals survive
+in Germany, where they are found on a tributary of the Elbe, and in one
+or two other places. In some parts of Poland, Russia, and Austria, and
+in the Scandinavian peninsula, they still, to a greater or less extent,
+hold their ground; and in Asia they abound about the rivers of Siberia,
+and in the streams which flow into the Caspian Sea. In North America
+Beavers formerly abounded from Texas, and, according to manuscript
+evidence cited by Mr. Allen, even from Mexico, northward to the extreme
+limit of forest growth, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. The
+constant pursuit to which the animals were subjected, in consequence of
+the demand for their skins, greatly diminished their numbers, and in
+many localities altogether exterminated them; but they still occur over
+a very large extent of the North American continent, especially in the
+western territories, where they are even abundant in some of the wilder
+parts.</p>
+
+<p>In the preceding statements we have spoken of the Beaver as forming a
+single species; but it has long been a moot question with zoologists
+whether the Beavers of the Old and New Worlds were or were not
+specifically identical. The external differences are very slight,
+and those observed in the skull, upon which most stress has been
+laid, do not appear to be of sufficient importance for the separation
+of the animals as distinct species. They consist chiefly in the
+greater breadth of the anterior portion of the skull, including the
+inter-orbital space; the extension farther back of the nasal bones,
+the greater size and depth of the basilar cavity and the more anterior
+position of the auditory bullæ, in the European Beaver; but the
+examination of large series of specimens has proved that the skulls
+from both hemispheres present many exceptions, in which one or more
+of the peculiarities which they ought to exhibit do not occur: a
+circumstance which of necessity greatly invalidates the distinction
+founded upon such characters. Dr. Ely sums up the results of an
+extended investigation in the following words:&mdash;“The extremes of
+difference, in their aggregate, on the one side and on the other, are
+sufficiently striking to justify us in regarding them as varieties
+of one and the same species; while the want of constancy in these
+peculiarities suggests the inference that these variations are due to
+long separation of the races, and to accidental causes, rather than to
+original diversity of the stock.” The Beaver may thus be regarded as a
+species with two geographical forms (varieties or sub-species), viz.,
+<i>Castor fiber</i>, var. <i>europæus</i>, and <i>Castor fiber</i>, var. <i>canadensis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So much has been written upon the habits of the Beaver, that the
+following short statement will suffice to give the leading facts in the
+natural history of the animal, the accounts of the marvellous sagacity
+of which, given by the older writers, have, perhaps, invested it with
+an exaggerated interest.</p>
+
+<p>In populous countries the Beaver is contented, like the Otter, with a
+long burrow for his residence; but in the wilder regions of Siberia and
+North America his dwelling-place is a much more complicated affair. But
+even in these regions, according to some authorities, a certain number
+of Beavers&mdash;always males&mdash;show a lazy unwillingness to take part in the
+common labours of the colony, and these, as idlers, are expelled from
+the community, often with rather severe treatment, and then take up
+their abode by themselves in holes, which they dig out in the banks of
+rivers, whence they are called “terriers.” On the other hand, it would
+appear that the building instinct which is so remarkably manifested by
+the Beaver is not always extinct even in those which inhabit populous
+countries, for we have a most interesting account from M. Meyerinck
+of the construction of a lodge, and even of a dam, by the colony of
+Beavers on a tributary of the Elbe.</p>
+
+<p>In North America, from which we have the fullest accounts of the habits
+of the Beavers, these animals select for their habitation some small
+stream running through a locality well covered with trees, especially
+willows, birches, and poplars, upon the bark of which they chiefly
+feed. These trees they cut down with their powerful incisor teeth,
+usually selecting those from the thickness of a man’s arm to that
+of his thigh, but sometimes even felling trunks eighteen inches in
+diameter. The operation, which at first sight would seem to be a rather
+difficult one for an animal like the Beaver to perform, is effected
+by gnawing all round the trunk for a certain distance, and gradually
+working deeper and deeper into its substance in the middle of the part
+attacked, until at length the tree stands<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span> upon quite a slender piece
+of wood, with the trunk both above and below this tapered off into
+the form of two cones, united by their apices. The work is done as
+sharply and neatly as if the wood had been cut away by a chisel; and
+the animals are said to have the sagacity to weaken the trunk more on
+the side that looks towards the water than on the opposite side, by
+which means, when it falls, it will generally do so in the direction
+of the water, which materially facilitates the further operations of
+the Beavers. The quantity of trees cut down by them in this way is very
+great, so that in the neighbourhood of a Beaver encampment the ground
+is everywhere full of the stumps which they have left.</p>
+
+<p>These tree trunks are then cut up into lengths of five or six feet,
+which, after their bark has been stripped off and eaten, are employed
+in the formation of a lodge, to serve as a shelter for the company of
+Beavers forming it. Access to the lodge is obtained by means of several
+subterranean passages, which always open under water, and lead up into
+the chamber occupying the interior of the lodge. The lodge is usually
+of an oven-like shape, and is built close to the edge of the water;
+its walls are very thick, and composed of the above-mentioned trunks
+of trees, plastered over with mud, clay, &amp;c., mixed with grasses and
+moss, until the whole fabric measures from twelve to twenty feet in
+diameter, and forms a hill some six or eight feet high. The larger
+lodges are in the interior about seven feet in diameter, and between
+two and three feet high; and the floor of this spacious chamber is
+covered with fine chips of wood, grasses, and the soft bark of trees,
+which serve to form the beds of the occupants. Occasionally the lodges
+are said to contain store-rooms. In front of the lodge, according to
+Audubon, the Beavers scratch away the mud of the bottom until they
+make the water deep enough to enable them to float their pieces of
+timber to this point, even when the water is frozen; and, communicating
+with this, a ditch surrounds the lodge, which is also made so deep
+that it will not readily freeze to the bottom. Into this ditch, and
+the deep water in front of the lodge, the passages by which access to
+the water is obtained always open, and thus the inhabitants can at
+any time make their way out when their business requires them to do
+so. In the neighbourhood of the lodge the timber cut into lengths,
+as above described, is piled up, so as to furnish a supply of food
+as it is required; and the pieces of timber, after being stripped of
+their bark, are usually employed by the Beavers either in repairing
+their lodges or in constructing or strengthening the dams which they
+very frequently throw across the streams haunted by them. These dams,
+which are destined to keep the water of variable streams up to the
+necessary height for the convenience of the Beaver, are wonderful
+pieces of work, and almost justify the marvellous stories told of its
+intelligence and sagacity by the older writers. They are often of
+great length&mdash;sometimes 150 or 200 yards and more&mdash;and run across the
+course of the brook inhabited by the Beavers&mdash;sometimes in a straight
+line, sometimes in a curved form, according to peculiarities in the
+ground or the stream, and the exigencies of the engineers. They are
+composed, like the lodges, of lengths cut from the trunks and branches
+of trees, filled in with smaller sticks, roots, grasses, and moss, and
+all plastered with mud and clay in a most workmanlike manner, until the
+whole structure becomes quite water-tight. Their height is from six to
+ten feet, and their thickness at the bottom sometimes as much as double
+this, but diminishing upwards by the slope of the sides until the top
+is only from three to five feet wide. These dams convert even small
+rivulets into large pools of water, often many acres in extent; and in
+districts where Beavers abound these pools may occupy neatly the whole
+course of a stream, one above the other, almost to its source. Their
+use to the Beavers, as constantly furnishing them with a sufficiency of
+water in which to carry on their business, and especially to float to
+their lodges the tree trunks necessary for their subsistence, is easily
+understood; but it is a more remarkable circumstance that by this
+means the Beavers exercise a considerable influence upon the external
+appearance of the locality inhabited by them, which may persist even
+long after they have themselves disappeared. In and about the pools
+the constant attacks of the Beavers upon the trees produce clearings
+in the forest, often many acres in extent; at the margins of the pools
+the formation of peat commences, and under favourable circumstances
+proceeds until the greater part of the cleared space becomes converted
+into a peat-moss. These peaty clearings are known as Beaver-meadows,
+and they have been detected in various countries where the Beaver is
+now extinct.</p>
+
+<p>As in the case of the majority of Rodents, the chief activity of the
+Beaver is nocturnal; and it is only when driven from its lodge by a
+high flood, or in the wildest and most sequestered localities, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span> it
+goes about during the day. It swims quickly, but entirely by the agency
+of the hind feet, the fore feet being used chiefly for carrying and
+building operations, and for conveying the food to the mouth. Before
+diving, it is said to slap the surface of the water with its tail,
+producing a sound that may be heard at a considerable distance. On land
+it sometimes travels a good way in the warm season, and is then stated
+to indulge in a change of diet, feeding upon roots and fruits, and
+sometimes upon corn. The roots of the water-lily (<i>Nuphar</i>) are also
+said to constitute part of its food. The Beaver is hunted&mdash;but less
+now than in former years&mdash;for the sake of its skin, the soft under fur
+of which was much used in the manufacture of hats. It is asserted that
+the flesh is very good, but according to some authorities, only certain
+parts of it are palatable; and Audubon declares that the tail, which is
+regarded as a peculiarly choice morsel, closely resembles marrow, and
+is so rich that only those whose stomachs are incapable of being upset
+by greasy food can eat more than a very little of it.</p>
+
+<p>The Beaver has been hunted not only for its fur, but also, and from
+time immemorial, for the sake of a peculiar secretion produced by it,
+which, under the name of <i>Castoreum</i>, has been for many centuries a
+highly-esteemed medicament. This substance is secreted in a pair of
+glandular pouches, situated in the inguinal region of the male Beaver;
+and it would seem that it was almost entirely in order to procure these
+that the ancients hunted this animal. Even in connection with this
+they had wonderful tales to tell of its sagacity: as how that, when it
+was pursued and found itself unable to escape, it would throw itself
+upon its back, as if to invite the hunter to take what he wanted and
+spare its life. Nay, some ancient writers seem to have believed that
+the Beaver would go the length of biting off its own castoreum glands,
+and leaving them for the hunter to pick up! Castoreum contains some
+volatile oil and resin, and a peculiar crystallisable substance called
+castorine; it is used in medicine as a stimulant, and seems to act
+especially on the nervous system, but is not much employed nowadays.
+Its odour, which appears to spread over a considerable space, is
+described as being very attractive to other Beavers. Audubon states
+that it is used for this reason as a lure by the American trappers.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_II_I">CHAPTER II.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#mouse_like_rodents">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span> R<span class="smaller">ODENTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#myoxidae">M<span class="smaller">YOXIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#dormouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Activity&mdash;Food&mdash;Winter
+Condition&mdash;<a href="#loir">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">OIR</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#garden_dormouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ARDEN</span> D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#lophiomydae">L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;How the Family came to be Founded&mdash;<a href="#lophiomys">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYS</span></a>&mdash;Milne-Edwards’ Opinion&mdash;Skull&mdash;General Form&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#muridae">M<span class="smaller">URIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Number of Species&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Variety
+of Forms&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The Murine Sub-Family&mdash;<a href="#brown_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;History&mdash;Fecundity
+and Ferocity&mdash;Diet&mdash;At the Horse Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon&mdash;Shipwrecked on Islands&mdash;Story
+of their Killing a Man in a Coal-pit&mdash;In the Sewers of Paris and London&mdash;<a href="#black_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#black_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">GYPTIAN</span>
+R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Destructiveness&mdash;Colours&mdash;<a href="#long_tailed_field_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#harvest_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;In Winter&mdash;Agility&mdash;Their Nest&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDICOOT</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">REE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRIPED</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Allied Genera&mdash;<a href="#white_footed_halapote">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> H<span class="smaller">APALOTE</span></a>&mdash;The American Murines&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">EER</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OLDEN</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ICE</span>-<span class="smaller">FIELD</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#deer_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span>
+H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">LORIDA</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Their Nest&mdash;Food&mdash;Mother and Young&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USHY</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>
+W<span class="smaller">OOD</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#florida_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OTTON</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rabbit_like_reithrodon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span> R<span class="smaller">EITHRODON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#hamsters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">AMSTERS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#tree_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">REE</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tree_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">STREAKED</span> T<span class="smaller">REE</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#gerbilles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+G<span class="smaller">ERBILLES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Habits&mdash;Other Genera&mdash;<a href="#water_mice">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Species&mdash;<a href="#sminthus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+S<span class="smaller">MINTHUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#voles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">OLES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#water_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span>
+V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANK</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">NOW</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#southern_field_vole">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OOT</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#meadow_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">EADOW</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#meadow_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">INE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#musquash">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">USQUASH</span>, M<span class="smaller">USK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> O<span class="smaller">NDATRA</span></a>&mdash;Distinguishing Features&mdash;Habits&mdash;His
+House&mdash;<a href="#lemming">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">EMMING</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Their Extraordinary Migrations&mdash;Other
+Lemmings&mdash;<a href="#zokor">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Z<span class="smaller">OKOR</span></a>,</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop2 mbot1" id="mouse_like_rodents">SECTION II.&mdash;MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS
+(<i>MYOMORPHA</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Myomorphic, or Mouse-like group of Rodents, includes a much greater
+variety of forms than the preceding, and the number of species is
+also very great. We find in it arboreal, terrestrial, and aquatic
+species; and in the second of these categories some presenting almost
+every variety of habit which the Rodent type is capable of assuming.
+Naturally the families and sub-families into which it is divided are
+rather numerous. Mr. Alston distinguished seven family groups, the
+first of which is the Myoxidæ.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="myoxidae">FAMILY V.&mdash;MYOXIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>The Dormice, which constitute this family, have generally been regarded
+as nearly related to the Squirrels; and certainly, although they fall
+under the definition of the Myomorphic section, they have a plain
+affinity to the Sciuridæ. In form they are Squirrel-like, and the tail
+is long and hairy, although not so bushy as in the true Squirrels. They
+have four molars on each side in each jaw (<i>see</i> figure), the front
+one in each series being smaller than the rest. All these teeth are
+rooted, and their crowns show transverse folds of enamel. The frontal
+bones are much narrowed; the fore limbs are small, with the thumbs
+rudimentary and furnished with a small flat nail; and the hind feet
+have five toes. The Dormice differ from all other Rodents by having
+the intestine entirely destitute of a cæcum. They are confined to the
+Eastern hemisphere, and chiefly to its temperate and colder regions;
+although a species of <i>Myoxus</i>, and some forms on which a special genus
+(<i>Graphiurus</i>) has been founded, inhabit Africa. The number of known
+species is only about a dozen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_102a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_102a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE DORMOUSE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="dormouse">The common D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span> (<i>Myoxus avellanarius</i>) is an elegant
+little creature, about three inches long, with a somewhat bushy,
+cylindrical tail, two inches and a half in length. Its fur is of a
+light reddish-tawny colour above, becoming paler and yellowish on the
+lower surface. On the throat there is a small whitish mark. It is
+widely distributed in Europe, ranging from Britain and Sweden in the
+north to Tuscany and Northern Turkey in the south. Generally it is more
+abundant in southern than in northern countries, but in the south of
+France it is less common than either of the other two European species.
+Eastwards it does not extend beyond Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_102b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_102b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DORMOUSE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Dormouse is nocturnal in its habits. During the day it sleeps in
+its nest or in some snug retreat, and at night comes forth in search of
+its food, which consists of nuts, acorns, seeds, berries, and the buds
+of trees and shrubs. It is particularly fond of the nuts of the common
+hazel, whence its specific name, and the name of “Haselmaus,” which it
+bears in Germany; these nuts it is said to pierce and empty without
+plucking them or taking them out of their cups. The Dormouse lives in
+small societies in thickets and hedgerows, where it is as active in its
+way amongst the bushes and undergrowth as its cousin the Squirrel upon
+the larger trees. Among the small twigs and branches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span> of the shrubs and
+small trees the Dormice climb with wonderful adroitness, often, indeed,
+hanging by their hind feet from a twig in order to reach and operate
+on a fruit or a nut which is otherwise inaccessible, and running along
+the lower surface of a branch with the activity and certainty of a
+Monkey. Detached articles of food are held up to the mouth by the fore
+paws, after the fashion of a Squirrel. Towards the winter the Dormouse
+becomes exceedingly fat, and having collected a small store of food,
+makes for itself a little globular nest, composed of small twigs,
+leaves, pine-needles, moss, and grass, and within this, coiled up into
+a ball, passes into a torpid state.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the winter sleep is not wholly uninterrupted; on mild
+days the Dormouse wakes up for a time and takes a little of its
+stored-up food. The female produces usually about four young, in the
+spring according to Professor Bell, in August according to Brehm; but
+the former writer thinks that in some cases two broods are produced
+in the year, as he has received from the same locality in September a
+half-grown Dormouse and three very young ones, evidently not more than
+a fortnight or three weeks old.</p>
+
+<p id="loir">Of the other common European species, the L<span class="smaller">OIR</span> (<i>Myoxus glis</i>)
+is found only in southern regions, its range extending from Spain to
+Southern Russia, and passing into the neighbouring parts of Asia. It is
+considerably larger than the Dormouse, measuring rather more than six
+inches in length, and has a bushy tail, in which the hairs are arranged
+in two rows, as in that of the Squirrel. The habits of this species
+are like those of the Dormouse. Fruit constitutes a portion of its
+diet, and it is said also to destroy and devour small birds and other
+animals. The Loir is a very voracious feeder, and becomes exceedingly
+fat in the autumn. By the ancient Roman epicures it was regarded as a
+dainty morsel, and they spared no pains to fatten it for the table.
+It sleeps during the day, and hibernates in some hole in a tree or in
+the ground, and the nest is formed in the former situation. The female
+usually produces about six young.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_103">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_103.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GARDEN DORMOUSE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="garden_dormouse">The G<span class="smaller">ARDEN</span> D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span>, or L<span class="smaller">EROT</span> of the French (<i>Myoxus
+nitela</i>), is common all over the southern and western parts of the
+Continent, extending northwards through Germany into the Baltic
+provinces of Russia. It is a little smaller than the preceding species,
+which, however, it resembles in its general habits; but it dwells
+commonly in gardens, and feeds on fruits, often doing much damage to
+the choicer varieties. It is a lighter and more active animal than the
+Loir, and is said to be even more predaceous in its habits. The female
+produces from four to six young, sometimes in a beautifully-made nest
+of her own, sometimes in the deserted or usurped nest of a Blackbird or
+Thrush, or in that of a Squirrel.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="lophiomydae">FAMILY VI.&mdash;LOPHIOMYIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of an animal in the zoological system by no means
+depends either upon its size or on its abundance in the world; its
+rank in the classification is decided solely by peculiarities of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span>
+organisation which distinguish it more or less from its fellows; and in
+many cases the creatures which are regarded with the most interest by
+the naturalist are those which seem most to withdraw themselves from
+general observation. A single genus, perhaps containing only one or two
+species, may, by a singular combination of characters, be so completely
+isolated from all the recognised allied groups that it cannot be placed
+in any of them, and accordingly a distinct family, possibly even an
+order, has to be established for its reception. Sometimes subsequent
+discoveries add to the number of species forming the group thus set up,
+and in this way the prescience of its founder is confirmed. Sometimes
+the group remains in its original condition, leaving us, according
+to circumstances, to regard the anomalous creatures of which it is
+composed either as a special development of their general type, or as
+the residue of a group which may have presented a greater variety of
+forms at some past period of the earth’s history.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_104a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_104a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF LOPHIOMYS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="lophiomys">The latter is perhaps the case with the curious little Rodent which
+alone forms the present family, of which its original describer,
+M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, writes as follows:&mdash;“In its general
+aspect it somewhat resembles certain Opossums, and like these it is
+pedimanous;<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> but these are the only analogies it presents to the
+Marsupials, and in its dental system, as also in the rest of its
+organisation, we easily see that it belongs to the order Rodentia. It
+differs, however, from all the members of this group by characters of
+considerable importance; I may even say that, by some peculiarities
+of structure it departs from all other Mammals, and that we find in
+it anatomical arrangements of which we have hitherto had examples
+only in the class of Reptiles.” After an exhaustive discussion of the
+characters of this curious little animal, M. Milne-Edwards comes to
+the conclusion that it is most nearly related to the members of the
+following family, and especially to the Hamsters, although he found it
+impossible to unite it with them. In this course he has been followed
+by other writers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37" id="i_104b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_104b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LOPHIOMYS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general construction of the skull is the same as in the Muridæ,
+but from the temporal ridges thin plates are developed, which bend
+downwards, and articulate with similar plates springing from the malar
+bones, and thus completely arch over the temporal fossæ after a fashion
+only met with in certain reptiles, and especially in the Hawksbill
+Turtle (<i>Chelone caretta</i>). The whole upper surface of the skull is
+covered with minute but perfectly definite granules, arranged with much
+regularity, and these, which occur in no other Mammal, give the skull
+a very peculiar aspect, such as may be seen in some fishes. As in the
+Muridæ, there are three molars on each side in each jaw, and these are
+rooted and strongly tubercular; the foremost in each series having
+three and the others each two ridges. Without entering in detail into
+the peculiarities described at great length by M. Milne-Edwards, we
+may say that in its general structure, and especially in that of the
+skeleton, the animal is murine, but with a very important distinction,
+namely, that the collar bones, which are well developed in the Rats and
+their allies,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span> are here reduced, as in the Hares and Rabbits, so as to
+form only two small bony styles freely suspended among the muscles,
+and that the first toe in the hind feet, although not very long, is so
+attached as to be opposite to the rest, thus converting the organ into
+a prehensile hand which the animal uses freely in climbing. The cæcum
+is small.</p>
+
+<p>In its external characters this animal is as remarkable as in its
+anatomical structure. In general appearance, as stated by its
+describer, it has much resemblance to a small Opossum, but the bushy
+tail and the peculiar arrangement of the hair on the body are met
+with in no Marsupials. The head is small; the general form stout; the
+limbs short, and the hind ones not much longer than their fellows;
+and the ears are of moderate size and sparingly clothed with hair.
+The prevailing colour is blackish-brown, but a triangular spot on the
+forehead, a streak under each eye, and the tip of the tail, are white;
+and the long hairs which clothe the body and tail are dark only in the
+middle, the base and tip being white, as are also a great quantity of
+finer and shorter hairs which form a sort of under fur. But the chief
+peculiarity of the coat is to be found in the arrangement of the hairs
+of the body. The long hairs of the middle of the back and tail, some of
+which are nearly three inches in length, are capable of being raised
+into a nearly upright position, forming a sort of crest which gives
+the animal a very peculiar aspect, and this crest is separated from
+the pendulous hair of the flanks by a sort of furrow clothed with very
+peculiar hair of a greyish-tawny colour. These hairs are unlike any
+others known to occur among Mammals. The apical part is of the ordinary
+construction; but the following portion down to the base is “very
+rugose, and presents a spongy aspect, due to the interlacing, and, so
+to speak, felting of a multitude of epidermic filaments emanating from
+radiate cells, which constitute a perfect network of irregular meshes.
+Within the sort of sheath thus formed longitudinal filaments which
+break up into bundles of fibrils are to be seen.”</p>
+
+<p>Very little is known as to the habitat of this animal, which M.
+Milne-Edwards has named <i>Lophiomys Imhausi</i>, the former name referring
+to the crested character of the back, the second commemorating the
+person who first brought the creature to the notice of naturalists. M.
+Imhaus, stopping for a few hours at Aden on his way home from Réunion,
+saw a living specimen of this Rodent in the possession of a negro
+from whom he bought it, but could learn nothing as to its origin. He
+inferred, however, that it had not been brought very far, and that its
+native country was either Southern Arabia, or some region in Abyssinia,
+or Nubia, on the other side of the Red Sea. This specimen was brought
+to France, and lived for about a year and a half in the Garden of
+Acclimatization in the Bois de Boulogne, where it fed upon maize,
+vegetables, and bread, slept during the day, and climbed with ease upon
+chairs and other convenient objects by the aid of its hinder hands. It
+never took its food in the fore-paws to carry it to the mouth as so
+many Rodents do. When irritated it elevated the crest right down to the
+end of the tail, and defended itself by biting vigorously.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful whether the <i>Lophiomys</i> inhabits Arabia, but it is found
+in the neighbouring parts of Africa. Professor Peters described the
+skull of the animal as representing a new generic type under the name
+of <i>Phractomys æthiops</i>. His specimen was obtained by Dr. Schweinfurth
+from the tombs of Maman, north of Kassala, in Upper Nubia. A third
+specimen has been brought from Keren in the Bogos country, and a fourth
+from the Erkanid mountains between Suakim and Singat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_105">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_105.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE BLACK RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="muridae">FAMILY VII.&mdash;MURIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>We come now to the largest and most typical family of the Rodents:
+that, namely, which includes the Rats and Mice and their numerous
+allies. Mr. Wallace estimates the number of known species at 330, which
+is probably within the mark. All these forms agree in the following
+characters:&mdash;The lower incisors are compressed; the molars are usually
+three in number on each side in each jaw, in one genus only two in
+the lower or in both jaws, and in another four in both jaws. They are
+rooted or rootless, tubercular or flat, with folds of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span> enamel; the
+malar bone is short and slender, generally reduced to a mere splint
+between the maxillary and squamosal processes of the zygomatic arch;
+the thumb is rudimentary, but often furnished with a small nail; and
+the tail is generally scaly, with a few scattered hairs, densely hairy
+only in a few species.</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected in so large an assemblage of species, the variety
+of forms is very great among the Muridæ, but broadly, the common Rats
+and Mice, which are only too well known to most of us, may serve as
+characteristic types of the whole series. The family, however, includes
+jumping forms, swimming forms, arboreal forms, and burrowing forms,
+in which the peculiarities of the life-habits are very distinctly
+indicated by the external appearance of the creatures. In their
+distribution the Muridæ are almost absolutely cosmopolitan, the family
+being represented in every part of the world, with the sole exception
+of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Australia possesses about thirty
+species of the family. New Zealand, at the time of its discovery,
+harboured a Rat, known as the Forest Rat, or Maori Rat, which was a
+favourite article of food with the natives, and is now almost extinct.
+It was proved by Capt. Hutton to be identical with the Black Rat (<i>Mus
+rattus</i>), and was probably introduced by the ancestors of the Maoris.
+Certain species also, such as the common Brown Rat and Mouse, are now
+perfectly cosmopolitan in their distribution, having accompanied man in
+all his migrations on the surface of the globe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_106">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_106.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BROWN RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="brown_rat">The Rat and Mouse form the types of a great sub-family,
+M<span class="smaller">URINÆ</span>, which have the molars rooted and tuberculate when
+young, the infra-orbital opening high and perpendicular, widest above,
+and the lower root of the zygomatic maxillary process flattened into
+a perpendicular plate. They possess no cheek-pouches, have the fore
+and hind limbs approximately equal in length, the thumb rudimentary,
+and the tail nearly naked, covered with scaly rings. The genus <i>Mus</i>,
+to which our household pests belong, includes upwards of one hundred
+species, scattered over most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, and
+living sometimes chiefly in the neighbourhood of human habitations,
+granaries, &amp;c., where they often feed indifferently upon animal and
+vegetable substances, sometimes in the open country, and feeding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span>
+almost exclusively upon the latter. The common B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>
+(<i>Mus decumanus</i>), sometimes called the Norway Rat, which is almost
+too well known to need description, is not a native of Great Britain,
+but was certainly introduced there by commerce, probably from some
+southern or eastern country&mdash;perhaps, as Pennant thinks, from the East
+Indies. Haunting ships in great numbers, it has now been introduced
+into all parts of the world, and it is quite impossible to ascertain
+its original habitat. It was known in Asia long before it made its
+appearance in Europe; and its passage into Russia is fixed by Pallas in
+the year 1727, when, he says, after an earthquake it swam across the
+Volga from the countries bordering the Caspian. Its first appearance
+in France and England is said to have occurred about the middle of the
+last century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_107">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_107.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BLACK RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From its great fecundity and determined ferocity of disposition, the
+Brown Rat has become a great pest wherever it has taken up its abode.
+“It digs,” says Professor Bell, “with great facility and vigour, making
+its way with rapidity beneath the floors of our houses, between the
+stones and bricks of walls, and often excavating the foundations of
+dwellings to a dangerous extent. There are many instances of their
+fatally undermining the most solid mason-work, or burrowing through
+dams which had for ages served to confine the waters of rivers and
+canals.” It is almost impossible to keep them out of our houses, and,
+once in, there is no end to the mischief they do. Their ferocity
+is very great; and although they will, if possible, retreat from a
+powerful enemy, they will fight in the most savage fashion when they
+cannot escape.</p>
+
+<p>Although not averse to a vegetable diet&mdash;as those who have to do
+with corn and seeds, whether in the field or the store-house, know
+to their cost&mdash;the Brown Rat evinces a decided preference for animal
+food, which he consumes of all kinds and in all states. The case of
+the horse slaughter-houses of Montfaucon, near Paris, is well known;
+here, the carcases of all the Horses killed during the day, sometimes
+to the number of thirty-five, would be picked to the bone by the next
+morning; and one main argument against the removal of the establishment
+to a greater distance from the city was that these swarms of ferocious
+vermin would be left without means of support, and would become a
+complete pest in the neighbourhood. That such an apprehension was not
+unfounded is proved by several instances recorded of the escape of
+Rats from wrecked ships upon small islands. In the course of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span> a few
+years they exterminated every other living thing. Professor Bell, on
+the authority of the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, relates the following
+instance of the extreme ferocity of the Rat when driven by hunger:&mdash;“In
+a coal-pit,” he says, “in which many Horses were employed, the Rats,
+which fed upon the fodder provided for the Horses, had accumulated
+in great multitudes. It was customary in holiday times to bring to
+the surface the Horses and the fodder, and to close the pit for the
+time. On one occasion, when the holiday had extended to ten days or
+a fortnight, during which the Rats had been deprived of food, on
+re-opening the pit, the first man who descended was attacked by the
+starving multitude, and speedily killed and devoured.” Stories are also
+told, with what truth we do not know, of the occurrence of similar
+catastrophes in the sewers of Paris and London, where, as is well
+known, Rats abound.</p>
+
+<p>The Brown Rat breeds several times during the year, and produces as
+many as ten, twelve, or fourteen young ones in a litter. Its general
+length is about nine inches. It may be distinguished from the old
+English Rat, which it has displaced in most localities, by its
+greyish-brown colour and by the comparative shortness of its ears,
+which, when pressed down, do not reach the eye.</p>
+
+<p id="black_rat">The B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Mus rattus</i>), or old English Rat, as it is
+sometimes called, agrees closely in its habits with the Brown Rat.
+It is smaller than the Brown Rat, measuring only about seven inches
+in length, but has a comparatively much longer tail and larger ears,
+which, when pressed forward, cover the eyes. Its colour above is
+greyish or brownish-black, and the lower parts are dark ash colour.
+Although the Black Rat has generally been compelled to give way before
+its larger and more vigorous competitor, it is still widely dispersed,
+but not in such numbers as formerly, in Europe. Its native country was
+probably Southern Asia. Nearly allied to it, if indeed specifically
+distinct, is the E<span class="smaller">GYPTIAN</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Mus alexandrinus</i>). Both these
+Rats are said to keep more to the upper parts of houses than the Brown
+Rat.</p>
+
+<p id="common_mouse">Although the true Mice are very nearly allied to the Rats, of which
+they are copies on a small scale (and some of them, at any rate, are
+as destructive in their way as their larger relatives), they do not
+excite by any means the same sentiments of disgust with which Rats
+are generally regarded; ladies, indeed, will sometimes scream at the
+mere sight of a Mouse, but most of them will admit that, apart from
+its predatory habits, it is an elegant little creature. The C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Mus musculus</i>) seems to be as completely associated with
+man as the Rat, and has accompanied him in his wanderings to all parts
+of the world. It is, however, said not to occur in the Sunda Islands.
+Of its general appearance and habits we need say nothing; they are too
+familiar to need description. But besides haunting our houses, the
+Mouse takes up its abode in the rick-yard, and here its devastations
+are often very serious. The Mice live in the ricks, through which they
+make passages in every direction, and their fecundity is so great
+that several bushels of Mice are often destroyed during the removal
+of a single rick. The Mouse breeds all the year round, and usually
+produces five or six young at a birth, so that its rapid increase under
+favourable circumstances is easily understood. Several varieties of the
+species are well known, especially the Albino form, or White Mouse,
+which is such a favourite pet with boys. The Common Mouse in England
+is sometimes patched with white, and we sometimes see in the shops
+Pied Mice, which are said to be of Indian origin. A pale buff variety
+is also sometimes met with; and during the removal of a rick some
+years ago, it was found to be infested by a breed of Mice with a naked
+wrinkled skin, to which the name of Rhinoceros Mice was given at the
+time.</p>
+
+<p id="long_tailed_field_mouse">Besides these more or less domestic species, there are in Britain
+two other representatives of the genus <i>Mus</i>, which do not generally
+frequent houses. One of these is the L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>
+(<i>Mus sylvaticus</i>), sometimes called the Wood Mouse, an exceedingly
+pretty little creature, rather larger than the Common Mouse, and having
+a proportionally longer tail. It measures about four inches in length,
+and the tail is about as long as the body; its colour is yellowish or
+yellowish-brown on the upper surface, whitish beneath; and the tail
+is brown above and white beneath. This species is found all over the
+temperate parts of Europe and Asia, living in the fields and gardens,
+where it takes up its abode, either in some small cavity under the root
+of a tree, in the deserted runs of the Mole, or less commonly in a
+little burrow excavated by its own labour. It feeds chiefly upon grain
+and seeds, of which it lays up a considerable store for winter use in
+its subterranean dwelling, and in this way does considerable damage
+to the crops. The Field Mouse does not, however, strictly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span> confine
+itself to a vegetable diet, but under circumstances of privation will
+attack and devour smaller and weaker animals, not even sparing its
+own species. It breeds more than once in the year, and produces from
+seven to ten young in each litter. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes
+familiar.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32_5" id="i_109">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_109.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HARVEST MICE.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_109_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="harvest_mouse">The remaining British species, the H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Mus
+minutus</i>), is the smallest of the British quadrupeds, with the
+exception of the Lesser Shrew (<i>Sorex pygmæus</i>). The Harvest Mouse
+is to be found in most parts of England. It also occurs in Scotland
+as far north as Aberdeenshire; and in Ireland, but very rarely. On
+the Continent its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe, from
+Russia in the north to Italy in the south. It is well known in Siberia,
+and occurs abundantly in the steppes near the Caucasus.</p>
+
+<p>The total length of this pretty little Mouse is about five inches, of
+which nearly one-half is made up of the tail. In it the eyes are less
+prominent than in the common Field Mouse, and the ears considerably
+shorter in proportion. Its colour on the upper surface is bright
+reddish-brown, and below pure white, the two colours being sharply
+separated. During the summer, the Harvest Mouse associates with the
+other Field Mice in corn-fields, and with them is very frequently
+carried in the sheaves of corn to rick-yards and barns, where it then
+takes up its abode for the autumn and winter, and, like other Mice,
+multiplies very rapidly, and no doubt does a good deal of mischief.
+The less fortunate individuals who are left behind in the fields
+retreat to little burrows for protection from the inclemency of the
+winter, which they pass in a state of at least partial torpidity; and
+to provide against exigencies they lay up in their dwellings a small
+store of food, to which they can have recourse when a fine day recalls
+them for a time to activity. Those which have been introduced into
+ricks and barns are, of course, liberally provided for, and they show
+their gratitude by remaining awake all the winter, as if on purpose to
+consume their abundant provender. In the open field their food consists
+of corn and the seeds of grasses and other plants, but also to a
+considerable extent of small insects.</p>
+
+<p>In its movements the Harvest Mouse is wonderfully agile. On the ground
+it runs very rapidly; and it climbs upon shrubs and plants as cleverly
+as a Monkey, running out upon the thinnest twigs with the greatest
+confidence, and climbing up stalks of grasses so thin that they bend
+nearly to the ground with its weight. In these operations the long
+slender tail comes into use, as its extremity is prehensile, and can
+be twisted neatly round the small stalks and branches over which the
+little climber is making its way. From its lively habits, and the
+elegance of its form, the Harvest Mouse is a very interesting pet.</p>
+
+<p>The Harvest Mouse breeds several times during the year, producing from
+five to eight or nine young at a birth, and provides for them one of
+the prettiest cradles formed by any Mammal. It is placed, according to
+the locality, upon several grass-leaves split and interwoven with the
+other materials, or suspended at a height of from eighteen inches to
+three feet above the ground, upon the twigs of some shrub or between
+several stalks of corn or strong grasses. It is egg-shaped, or nearly
+round, about the size of the egg of a Goose, and is composed externally
+of slit leaves of the reeds or grasses among which it is formed, each
+leaf being carefully divided longitudinally by the sharp teeth of the
+little architect into six or eight thread-like portions, which are then
+all woven together, so as to produce a firm structure. The interior is
+lined, or rather stuffed, with all sorts of soft vegetable substances,
+so that it has been a question with many observers how the mother could
+get at all the members of her family to suckle them, and how the nest
+could contain them all as they began to increase in bulk. The young
+usually remain in the nest until they can see; but as soon as they are
+able to provide for themselves, the mother takes them out, gives them
+some practical instructions in the art of living, and then leaves them
+to their own devices. According to Brehm, as these Mice increase in age
+they improve in the art of nest-building.</p>
+
+<p id="bandicoot_rat">Besides these few species, a multitude of Rats and Mice, belonging to
+the same genus, occur as natives of nearly all parts of the world,
+but in their habits they agree in general with the British species.
+India harbours a considerable number, among which we may mention the
+B<span class="smaller">ANDICOOT</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Mus bandicota</i>), a large species, which
+inhabits the Indian and Malayan peninsulas, and is very destructive
+in plantations; and the T<span class="smaller">REE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Mus arboreus</i>), a native
+of Bengal, seven or eight inches in length, which lives partly on
+grain, of which it lays up stores in its nests, and partly on young
+cocoa-nuts, which constitute its favourite food, and in search of
+which it climbs the trees. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span> species builds a nest on cocoa-nut
+trees and bamboos, and occasionally makes predatory visits to the
+houses. The S<span class="smaller">TRIPED</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Mus barbarus</i>) is remarkable
+for its coloration, its ground colour being a bright yellowish-brown
+or reddish-yellow, adorned with several longitudinal blackish-brown
+streaks. This elegant Mouse inhabits Northern Africa, especially in
+stony places. It is very abundant in Algeria.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_111">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_111.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAPALOTE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="white_footed_halapote">Nearly allied to the true Mice are numerous forms more restricted
+in their distribution, which have been formed into distinct genera.
+Thus <i>Pelomys fallax</i>, in which the incisors are grooved, the tail
+short, and the first and fifth toes of all the feet shorter than
+the three middle ones, is peculiar to Mozambique; <i>Acanthomys</i>,
+in which the fur is mixed with flattened spines, is an African
+genus; whilst <i>Echinothrix</i>, which has a somewhat similar coat, is
+Australian. Madagascar possesses two peculiar genera, <i>Nesomys</i> and
+<i>Brachytarsomys</i>, the former having some relation to the American
+Murinæ, the latter remarkable for the shortness of the hind feet;
+and in Australia, besides the genus already mentioned, and one or
+two species of true <i>Mus</i>, we find the genus <i>Hapalotis</i> represented
+by about thirteen exclusively Australian species. These animals have
+the hind limbs rather long, the ears large, and the tail long and
+hairy, terminating in a tuft. The molar teeth also exhibit a peculiar
+pattern; The best known species is the W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> H<span class="smaller">APALOTE</span>
+(<i>Hapalotis albipes</i>), an animal about the size of the Brown Rat, of
+a smoky brown colour, with the belly and the feet white. It inhabits
+New South Wales, especially in the mountainous parts. The animals of
+this genus were formerly regarded as allied to the South American
+Chinchillas and Viscachas.</p>
+
+<p id="deer_mouse">The American Murines all belong to a group to which the name of
+Sigmodontes has been given, because their molar teeth, which in the
+young state have two tubercles in each transverse row (instead of
+three, which is the usual number in the preceding forms), when ground
+down by use, show some S-like patterns in the enamel folds in place
+of transverse ridges. The greater number of the species belong to
+the genus <i>Hesperomys</i> (Western Mouse), which is represented in both
+divisions of the American continent, and has been divided by authors
+into several sub-genera. The W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span>, or D<span class="smaller">EER</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Hesperomys leucopus</i>) is perhaps the best known of all
+the species, and its varieties, or rather local permanent races, are
+distributed all over the continent of North America. The fur shows
+various brownish or greyish tints above; and the lower surface, with
+the feet up to the wrist and ankle, is snow-white. What Dr. Coues gives
+as the normal colour of typical specimens is a rich fawn, with a darker
+streak along the back: but he says that this is shown by not more than
+one example in six. The tail is generally white beneath. The length of
+the head and body is about three inches; the tail varies considerably
+in length. The White-footed Mouse is nocturnal in its habits, and feeds
+to a great extent upon corn, of which, with acorns and other nuts,
+it lays up stores for winter use. It lives a good deal upon trees,
+taking up its abode in the deserted nest of a Squirrel or of some small
+bird. When it constructs its own nest the little fabric is placed
+in a bush at from five to fifteen feet from the ground, and is very
+neatly constructed, usually of fine moss and strips of bark. In some
+localities it burrows in the ground. The G<span class="smaller">OLDEN</span> or R<span class="smaller">ED</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>H. aureolus</i>), which resembles the preceding species
+in form and size, has the fur of the upper surface golden-cinnamon
+colour, and the lower parts yellowish-white. It inhabits the Central
+and Southern States of the North American Union. The R<span class="smaller">ICE</span>-<span class="smaller">FIELD</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>H. palustris</i>), which has been placed in a distinct
+genus (<i>Oryzomys</i>), is a larger species, sometimes attaining the size
+of a small Rat. This is found in the Southern States, chiefly along
+the coast, and in rice-fields, where it is exceedingly abundant and
+does considerable damage. It is eminently aquatic in its habits. The
+A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> H<span class="smaller">ARVEST</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Ochetodon humilis</i>) closely resembles
+the preceding species, but differs from them in a rather remarkable
+character. It has the upper incisor teeth grooved, a peculiarity which
+occurs also in the South American Rats of the genus <i>Reithrodon</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span>
+The American Harvest Mouse inhabits the Southern States, and extends
+northwards as far as Iowa and Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p id="florida_rat">The F<span class="smaller">LORIDA</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>, or Wood Rat (<i>Neotoma floridana</i>), is a
+widely distributed species in the United States, inhabiting especially
+the southern portion, but extending northwards as far as New York and
+Massachusetts. It measures from six to nine inches in length, with
+a tail from four to six inches long. In its coloration it presents
+a general resemblance to the common Brown Rat, but is brighter,
+especially on the sides; the lower surface is white. According to
+Audubon and Bachmann, the habits of this species vary considerably in
+different localities. These authors say that “in Florida they burrow
+under stones and the ruins of dilapidated buildings. In Georgia and
+South Carolina they prefer remaining in the woods. In some swampy
+situations, in the vicinity of sluggish streams, amid tangled vines
+interspersed with leaves and long moss, they gather a heap of dry
+sticks, which they pile up into a conical shape, and which, with
+grasses, mud, and dead leaves, mixed in by the wind and rain, form,
+as they proceed, a structure impervious to rain, and inaccessible to
+the Wild Cat, Raccoon, or Fox. At other times their nest, composed of
+somewhat lighter materials, is placed in the fork of a tree.” This
+species is very active and Squirrel-like in its habits. It feeds on
+grain, seeds, and fruits, and sometimes makes a meal of a Crayfish
+or a Frog. There are from three to six young in each litter, and two
+litters in the year. The young animals in very early days continue to
+adhere to the teats of their mother, even when she is walking about
+outside the nest, and even at a later period they will cling to her
+sides and back, after the manner of some Opossums. The female seems
+but little inconvenienced by this burden, and shows great affection
+for her family, defending them even at the risk of her own life. A
+nearly-allied, but smaller species, the B<span class="smaller">USHY</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> W<span class="smaller">OOD</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>
+(<i>N. cinerea</i>), inhabits the western and north-western parts of
+America, also extending eastward to Hudson’s Bay, and southward to New
+Mexico and California. The C<span class="smaller">OTTON</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Sigmodon hispidus</i>),
+another inhabitant of the Southern States and Mexico, ranges southwards
+to Vera Cruz and Guatemala.</p>
+
+<p id="rabbit_like_reithrodon">Besides several species of <i>Hesperomys</i>, South America possesses
+various Murine animals, which have been placed in special genera. Among
+these the most remarkable are those of which Mr. Waterhouse formed
+his genus <i>Reithrodon</i>, as these, although true Murines, have a very
+Rabbit-like character, and further present the peculiarity of having
+the upper incisors grooved. They have the profile much arched, the eyes
+large, the ears hairy, and the first and fifth toes of the hind feet
+very short. The tail is well clothed with hair. The R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>
+R<span class="smaller">EITHRODON</span> (<i>R. cuniculoides</i>) inhabits Patagonia, where it was
+discovered by Mr. Darwin. It is of a yellowish-grey colour, mixed with
+black, with the throat and belly pale yellow, and the rump and feet
+white. The tail is about half the length of the head and body, dusky
+above, white beneath. The length of the head and body is six inches and
+a half. Two other species are described: one (<i>R. typicus</i>) from the La
+Plata; the other (<i>R. chinchilloides</i>) from the Strait of Magellan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_112">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_112.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD OF THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="hamsters">The H<span class="smaller">AMSTERS</span>, forming the sub-family C<span class="smaller">RICETINÆ</span>, are
+very nearly related to the true Mice and Rats, but differ from them at
+the first glance by their possession of large internal cheek-pouches,
+those organs being entirely wanting or very small in the Murinæ. Their
+molars, three in number in each series, are also tuberculate when
+young and regularly rooted. As age advances they become more and more
+worn away, so as to exhibit folds of enamel. They are stoutly-built
+rat-like animals, generally with short tails, with the upper lip cleft,
+and with short limbs, of which the hinder have five, and the anterior
+four, toes, the thumb being represented by a small wart. The Hamsters
+are confined to the Old World, and chiefly inhabit the temperate parts
+of Europe and Asia; two or three species occur in Africa. They live
+generally in corn-fields, where they dig deep burrows with numerous
+chambers, into which they can retreat to take their repose, and in
+which they pass the winter, previously, however, taking care to lay up
+a good store of provisions in some of the chambers of their domicile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_113">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_113.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HAMSTERS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_113_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span></p>
+
+<p>The best known species is the H<span class="smaller">AMSTER</span> (<i>Cricetus
+frumentarius</i>, <i>see</i> Plate 28), a rather pretty little beast, of about
+ten inches long, with bright, prominent, black eyes, short, membranous
+ears, and a tapering hairy tail, about two inches and a half in length.
+The fur, which is thick and somewhat lustrous, is usually of a light
+yellowish-brown colour above, with the snout, the neighbourhood of the
+eyes, and a band on the neck reddish-brown, and a yellow spot on each
+cheek; the lower surface, the greater part of the legs, and a band on
+the forehead are black, and the feet white. Many varieties occur. This
+Hamster is widely distributed, ranging from the Rhine, through Europe
+and Siberia, to the Obi; and in most localities where it occurs it
+appears in great numbers, and causes great injury to the crops. Its
+burrows are exceedingly spacious, and consist of numerous passages and
+chambers. In its temper it is exceedingly irascible, and at the same
+time very courageous, defending itself bravely against its enemies,
+and standing boldly on the defensive the moment any danger appears to
+threaten it. Its diet is by no means of a purely vegetable nature,
+but it will destroy and devour all sorts of small animals that come
+in its way. Besides the corn, which forms its chief winter provender,
+green herbage, peas and beans, and roots and fruits of various kinds,
+are welcome articles of diet, and in confinement it will eat almost
+anything.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_113a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_113a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAMSTER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Hamsters pass the winter in their burrows in a torpid state, but
+waken up very early in the spring, generally in March, but frequently
+in February. At first they do not open the mouths of their burrows, but
+remain for a time subsisting on the stores laid up during the preceding
+autumn. The old males make their appearance first, the females about
+a fortnight after them, the latter about the beginning of April. They
+then set about making their summer burrows, which are not so deep or
+so complicated as the winter dwellings; and shortly afterwards the
+sexes pair. The young are produced twice in the year, in May and July;
+their number varies from six to eighteen. They have teeth when first
+born, and their development as babies is very rapid. Their eyes open in
+little more than a week after birth, and in another week they begin to
+burrow in the ground, and then their hard-hearted parent drives them
+off to take care of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The other species of this sub-family generally very closely resemble
+the Hamster, both in appearance and manners. Most of them are found
+in Central Asia and Siberia, extending southwards as far as Persia
+and South Tartary. <i>Cricetus songarus</i> has been obtained at Kumaon.
+The recorded African species belong to two peculiar genera: they are
+<i>Saccostomus lapidarius</i> and <i>fuscus</i>, and <i>Cricetomys gambianus</i>.</p>
+
+<p id="tree_mice">Other African forms constitute the small sub-family of the T<span class="smaller">REE</span>
+M<span class="smaller">ICE</span> (<i>Dendromyinæ</i>), which are entirely confined to the southern
+portion of the continent. They are characterised by having the incisors
+rounded and grooved in front, the infra-orbital opening not narrow
+below, and the coronoid process of the lower jaw very small. The
+ears are clothed with hairs; and the feet, which are five-toed, are
+furnished with long claws, which are serviceable to the little rat-like
+animals in climbing up the trunks of trees. The B<span class="smaller">LACK</span>-<span class="smaller">STREAKED</span> T<span class="smaller">REE</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Dendromys mesomelas</i>) is a rather pretty little species,
+of a greyish colour, with a black line down the middle of the back. It
+is slender in form, with a long, scaly tail, rounded ears, and the two
+outer toes in each foot shorter than the rest. <i>Steatomys pratensis</i>,
+from Mozambique, is stouter in form than the preceding, and has a
+short, densely hairy tail; and in <i>Lophuromys ater</i>, from the same
+locality, the incisors are not grooved, and the fur is developed into
+fine flattened bristles.</p>
+
+<p id="gerbilles">The G<span class="smaller">ERBILLES</span> (<i>Gerbillinæ</i>) are distinguished from all other
+Muridæ (although approached by <i>Hapalotis</i>) by the great length of the
+hind limbs, which are converted into powerful leaping organs, somewhat
+as in the Jerboas and Kangaroos, although not quite to the same
+extent. Like all the preceding forms, they have the molars furnished
+with roots, but not with tuberculate crowns, these being divided into
+transverse plates formed by separate elliptical or rhomboidal coats
+of enamel. The incisor teeth are narrow, the infra-orbital opening as
+in the Murinæ, and the tail long and hairy.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span> The Gerbilles are plump
+little animals, with a short neck, a broad head, and a pointed muzzle.
+The feet are five-toed, but the thumb on the fore feet is reduced to
+a mere wart-like process with a flat nail. They are confined to the
+Eastern hemisphere, and, indeed, to the African continent, the south
+of Asia, as far as India, and the south-east of Europe, where they
+live both in cultivated districts and in the driest deserts, and often
+occur in great numbers, when they may cause considerable damage to the
+neighbouring crops. They shelter themselves during the day in shallow
+burrows, and come forth in the evening in search of their food, which
+consists chiefly of grain and roots. They store up great quantities of
+the ears of corn in their subterranean dwellings, and in many places
+the poorer inhabitants search after these stores, and by digging them
+out procure a good supply of grain. They are very prolific, the females
+producing large families several times in the year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_114a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_114a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE GERBILLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several other forms of Muridæ, with rooted molars, have been
+distinguished, and all are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere. The
+genera <i>Phlœomys</i> and <i>Nesokia</i>, each including a single species,
+form the group P<span class="smaller">HLÆOMYINÆ</span>, characterised by having broad
+incisors and the molars divided by transverse plates of enamel. The
+characters of the skull are as in the Murinæ. <i>Phlœomys Cumingii</i> is
+from the Philippine Islands; <i>Nesokia Griffithii</i> inhabits Northern
+India. <i>Platacanthomys lasiurus</i>, the only known species of the group
+P<span class="smaller">LATACANTHOMYINÆ</span>, resembles a Dormouse in its form, and is
+nearly allied to the preceding species, but has the fur of its back
+mixed with long, flattened, bristle-like spines. It is a native of the
+Malabar coast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_114b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_114b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE WATER-MOUSE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="water_mice">The W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span> (<i>Hydromyinæ</i>) are of particular interest, as
+being a small group, exclusively confined to the Australian region,
+and presenting the exceptional character among the Rodents of having
+only two molars on each side in each jaw. These teeth, are rooted, and
+divided into transverse lobes by ovate enamel lobes; the front tooth is
+much larger than its fellow. The <i>Hydromys</i> are small rat-like animals
+of slender form, with long tails, rather densely clothed with short
+hairs, and short limbs. The hind feet have much stronger claws than
+the fore feet, and their toes are partially webbed. Five species of
+this group are known from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, where they
+inhabit the banks of the streams. The best known are the Yellow-bellied
+and the White-bellied Water Mice (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i> and
+<i>leucogaster</i>), both of which inhabit New South Wales, and the latter
+is also found in Van Diemen’s Land. The Sooty Water Mouse (<i>H.
+fuliginosus</i>) is an inhabitant of Western Australia.</p>
+
+<p id="sminthus">In the S<span class="smaller">MINTHINÆ</span>&mdash;a group which includes only the genus
+<i>Sminthus</i>, founded for the reception of a rat-like Rodent (<i>S. vagus</i>)
+first discovered in the Crimea, but now known to range from Hungary,
+Finland, and Sweden, through Russia to the banks of the Irtisch and
+Yenisei, and into Tartary (Bokhara)&mdash;we find another exceptional
+character of the molar teeth. There are four of these teeth on each
+side both above and below, the first and fourth of which are much
+smaller than the intervening ones. In this animal the ears are rather
+long and pointed, the legs are rather short, and the tail is about as
+long as the body, and clothed with short hairs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_114c">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_114c.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF SMINTHUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the remainder of the Muridæ, the molars, which are again only three
+in number on each side, are generally rootless, although occasionally
+the growth of the teeth stops and they close up below. The molars are
+composed of triangular prisms placed alternately. Two groups are thus
+characterised, namely, the Voles and the Zokors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span></p>
+
+<p id="voles">The V<span class="smaller">OLES</span> (<i>Arvicolinæ</i>), which, next to the true Rats and
+Mice, form the most important group of Muridæ, are represented in the
+northern parts of both hemispheres. The brain-case in these animals
+is rhomboidal when looked at from above, the frontal region of the
+skull is much contracted, and the zygomatic arch stands out very far.
+The infra-orbital opening is as in the Murinæ. The molars are so
+constructed of alternating triangular prisms that the whole margin is
+enclosed by deep angular folds of enamel. These are mouse- and rat-like
+Rodents of a rather stout build, with the limbs and tail of moderate
+length, or short, and the latter more hairy than in the true Murines.
+The ears are short, often nearly concealed beneath the fur.</p>
+
+<p id="water_vole">The true Voles (genus <i>Arvicola</i>) number about fifty known species,
+which have been arranged by various writers under a considerable number
+of sub-genera, generally corresponding to differences in mode of
+life. Three species, representing three of these groups, are found in
+Britain, and may serve to illustrate the natural history of the Voles.
+The largest of these is the well-known W<span class="smaller">ATER</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span>, or Water
+Rat, as it is more commonly called (<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>), an animal
+rather smaller than the Common Rat, and having, like all the Voles, the
+muzzle considerably blunter, and the tail a good deal shorter and more
+hairy. Although thoroughly aquatic in its habits, the feet of the Water
+Vole are not webbed; they have five toes, but the thumb in the fore
+feet is very short. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown,
+mixed with grey on the upper surface, and yellowish-grey beneath; the
+ears are nearly concealed in the fur; and the incisor teeth are deep
+yellow in front, and very strong, presenting a considerable resemblance
+to those of the Beaver, to which great Rodent the Voles were formerly
+considered to be related. It is very widely distributed, being found in
+all parts of Europe, and stretching right across Central and Northern
+Asia, to China, the Amoor region, and the Sea of Okhotsk. In Ireland,
+however, it is not found. Its habits vary a little in different
+localities, but in general it haunts the banks of rivers, in which it
+burrows to a considerable distance. In the water it is very active,
+swimming and diving with the greatest facility, and it is here that
+it seeks its food, which appears to consist exclusively of vegetable
+substances. Professor Bell says:&mdash;“A decided preference is shown,
+during the summer months, for the inner or concealed part of some
+species of sword-flags, which is very succulent and sweet-tasted. As
+this portion is usually below water, the animal gnaws the plant in two
+near its root, when it rises to the surface, and being conveyed to some
+sound footing, is consumed at leisure. In default of its more favourite
+food, it will make a satisfactory meal on the common duckweed. Only
+the green and fleshy leaf is eaten, the roots and other fibrous parts
+being rejected. While feeding on this plant, the creature sits like a
+Squirrel on its haunches near the water’s edge, and taking up a lump
+of the soft and slimy-looking mass in its fore paws, eats a small part
+only, and letting the remainder fall, takes up some more in the same
+manner.” The accusation sometimes brought against the Water Vole of
+eating worms and insects, and even of destroying fish-spawn, young
+fishes, and even young ducks, seems to be entirely unfounded. In the
+winter the Water Voles will feed on turnips, mangel-wurzel, and other
+roots, and also upon the bark of osiers and willows, to which they do
+considerable damage; and in some localities they appear to frequent
+gardens at all seasons of the year, burrowing in the ground, and
+feeding luxuriously upon the produce of the gardener’s labour. Their
+greatest activity is in the twilight, but in quiet situations they are
+to be seen abroad during the day. The female produces from two to six
+young at a litter: twice in the year in Britain, according to Professor
+Bell; three or four times in the course of the summer, according to
+Brehm and other Continental naturalists.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_115">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_115.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE WATER RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="field_vole">A second British species is the F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span>, or Short-tailed
+Field Mouse (<i>Arvicola agrestis</i>), which is less than half the size of
+the Water Vole, and has the tail only about one-third the length of
+the body, instead of half that length. In the general form of the head
+and body the two species are a good deal alike, but the ears project
+farther beyond the fur in the Field Vole. The general colour of this
+species is greyish-brown, becoming tinged with reddish or yellowish on
+the sides; the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span> lower surface is pale grey or dirty white, and the tail
+is brown above and greyish beneath. The Field Vole is a very abundant
+species in the northern and central parts of Europe, but is wanting
+in Ireland and south of the Alps and Pyrenees. It is usually found
+in damp places, especially in meadows in the neighbourhood of woods
+and copses, where it forms burrows of considerable extent. Its food
+consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, such as roots and
+herbage, and in times of scarcity it will climb up trees and bushes to
+feed on the tender parts of the bark. In case of necessity, however,
+it does not disdain animal food, but will eat insects and meat, and
+even sometimes kill and devour smaller individuals of its own species.
+It breeds three or four times in the year, producing from four to six
+young at a birth, in a small round nest made of moss and leaves, among
+the roots of the herbage in some hollow of the ground. Their increase,
+which would otherwise be very formidable, is checked by the smaller
+predaceous beasts and birds, such as the Weasel, the Kestrel, and the
+Owls, which destroy them in great numbers. The B<span class="smaller">ANK</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span>
+(<i>Arvicola glareolus</i><a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>), the third British species, which is
+chestnut-coloured, with white feet and with a longish tail, closely
+resembles the preceding species in its habits, but feeds rather on
+fruits and roots than on herbage, and is far more addicted to a diet of
+animal food, freely devouring insects, worms, snails, and even young
+birds and carrion. It is pretty generally distributed over Europe, but
+not so uniformly as the Field Vole, which it even exceeds in fecundity,
+the females producing from four to eight young three or four times in
+the year, in a nest constructed of grass and moss placed in a hollow of
+the surface of the ground among dense herbage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_116">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_116.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="southern_field_vole">The Continent of Europe is inhabited by several other species of Voles,
+among which we may notice the little S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> F<span class="smaller">IELD</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span>
+(<i>Arvicola arvalis</i>), which more or less completely takes the place
+of our common Field Vole in Southern Europe, but also extends over
+the whole of Central Europe, and into Western Asia. Several of these
+species, and others to which we cannot specially refer, ascend to
+considerable elevations on the mountain-sides, but at least one
+species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span> the S<span class="smaller">NOW</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Arvicola nivalis</i>), lives on the
+Alps and Pyrenees, at elevations of 4,000 feet and upwards, being most
+abundant about the limit of perpetual snow, where it not only resides
+during the short period of summer, when some portion of the surface
+is freed from its snowy covering, but actually throughout the winter,
+buried under the snow, through which it makes its way in search of the
+roots of plants. The R<span class="smaller">OOT</span> V<span class="smaller">OLE</span> (<i>Arvicola œconomus</i>) is a
+large and abundant Siberian species, the range of which extends from
+the Obi to Kamstchatka. This and some other northern species often
+migrate in great bodies, after the fashion to which we shall have to
+refer when speaking of the Lemmings.</p>
+
+<p id="meadow_mouse">In North America, it would appear from Dr. Coues’ monograph, there
+are about a dozen distinct species of Voles. One of them, confined to
+the northern parts of the Continent, he identifies with the <i>Arvicola
+rutilus</i> of the Old World, which he regards as a circumpolar species.
+South of a line running from sea to sea, a little north of the boundary
+of the United States, comes another form, <i>A. Gapperi</i>, which is
+regarded as a sub-species of <i>A. rutilus</i>, to which <i>A. glareolus</i>
+(<i>see</i> p. 116) is considered to stand in a similar relation. The
+most abundant North American species is the M<span class="smaller">EADOW</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>
+(<i>A. riparius</i>), which is distributed, apparently, over the greater
+part of the Continent, and takes the place of the Field Vole. On the
+prairies there is a peculiar species (<i>A. austerus</i>), a sub-species
+of which (<i>A. curtatus</i>) is found in the Western territories as far
+as California; the P<span class="smaller">INE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>A. pinetorum</i>) inhabits the
+country east of the Mississippi; and the genus is represented in Mexico
+by one species (<i>A. quasiater</i>). The Voles are most numerous and
+abundant in the northern and north-western parts of North America.</p>
+
+<p id="musquash">Another American species is the M<span class="smaller">USQUASH</span>, M<span class="smaller">USK</span>-R<span class="smaller">AT</span>,
+or O<span class="smaller">NDATRA</span> (<i>Fiber zibethicus</i>), which constitutes a genus
+distinguished from the true Voles by having the tail compressed and
+nearly naked, the hinder toes united by short webs, and fringed with
+long hairs, and the enamel folds of the molars united by a line running
+down the middle of the tooth. The form of the animal is thickset, and
+in this respect, as in its aquatic habits, it resembles the Beaver, to
+which it was formerly supposed to be nearly allied. The head is short
+and broad, the ears project very little beyond the fur, the hind limbs
+are longer than the fore legs, and terminate in five toes with strong
+claws, while the fore limbs have only four toes and a wart-like thumb;
+the fur is very thick and shiny, and the colour is usually brown above
+and grey below, with the tail, which is nearly as long as the body,
+black. The fur is well known in commerce. The length of the head and
+body of a full-grown male is about twelve inches. The name Musk-rat,
+often given to this species, refers to the musky odour diffused by the
+secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region.</p>
+
+<p>The Musquash, which may be described as a large Water Rat, inhabits
+all the suitable parts of North America, from the thirteenth to the
+sixty-ninth degree of north latitude, and is most abundant in the
+Canadian region, which offers it peculiarly favourable conditions of
+life in the multitude of rivers and lakes, upon the banks of which
+the Musquash always takes up its abode. It is a nocturnal animal,
+passing the day in concealment, and coming forth with the twilight
+to seek its nourishment, and amuse itself with its fellows. In the
+water it displays wonderful activity, and, in many respects, presents
+much resemblance to the Beaver. Curiously enough, the parallelism of
+habits holds good to a certain extent, even in the construction of
+their dwellings. The Musquash generally lives in a burrow dug out of
+the bank of the stream in which he disports himself, and consisting of
+a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface
+of the water. But, under certain conditions, especially in the north,
+he builds himself a house of a rounded or dome-like form, composed
+of sedges, grasses, and similar materials, plastered together with
+mud, and supported upon a mound of mud of sufficient height to raise
+it above the water. The house contains a single chamber from sixteen
+inches to two feet in diameter, and is entered by a passage which opens
+at the bottom of the water. Other passages are said to issue from this,
+and to lead down into the ground under the bottom of the water; these
+are made by the animal in his search for the roots of water-lilies and
+other aquatic plants, which constitute a great part of his nourishment.
+The Musquash also seeks provisions on land, and in this way often does
+much mischief in gardens. Fresh-water mussels also form a part of its
+diet. It passes the winter in its house, which it then furnishes with
+a soft bed of leaves, grasses, and sedges, and, according to Audubon,
+ventilates by covering the middle of the dome only with a layer of
+similar materials, through which the air can pass. Of the propagation
+of the Musquash very little seems to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span> be known with certainty. They
+pair in April and May, and the female produces from three to six young
+at a birth; but whether this takes place once or several times in
+the course of the summer is a matter of doubt. They are captured in
+fall-traps baited with apples, or by traps set at the mouth of their
+burrows. The Indians sometimes spear them in their houses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_118">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_118.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MUSQUASH.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="lemming">The L<span class="smaller">EMMING</span> (<i>Myodes lemmus</i>) is one of the most remarkable
+of the Muridæ, on account of the great migrations which it performs,
+apparently with no special object. In Norway, where it is best known,
+they make their appearance in the cultivated districts in such enormous
+numbers, and so suddenly, that the peasants have always believed them
+to fall from the clouds. The Lemming is a Vole-like animal, about six
+inches long, of which the tail makes up about half an inch. It varies
+considerably in colour, but is usually brownish-yellow, with dark spots
+above, and with a yellow streak enclosing the eye on each side of the
+face; the under surface is yellowish. The ears are very short, scarcely
+projecting beyond the fur; the eyes are small, black, and bead-like;
+the soles of the feet are hairy, and the claws of the fore feet much
+stronger than those on the hinder extremities. The Norwegian Lemmings
+live and breed among the peat mosses of the mountains. They are lively
+and active little creatures both by day and night, and feed upon the
+scanty vegetation of their Alpine home&mdash;grasses, lichens, the catkins
+of the dwarf birch, and roots. They are active even through the winter,
+when they make passages for themselves under the thick covering of
+snow which then veils the whole country, and thus are enabled to go
+in search of their ordinary food. They also make their way up to the
+surface, upon which they may occasionally be seen running, even in
+the depth of winter. They breed in their burrows and under stones,
+and must be very prolific, seeing that every predaceous animal in the
+country destroys and devours them. The Lemming is, in one sense, an
+exceedingly timid little creature, the slightest disturbance of its
+quietude, or even the passing over-head of a cloud, being sufficient to
+alarm it; but when attacked it displays the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span> most dauntless courage,
+standing on the defensive against both men and animals, and biting very
+sharply at anything that comes within its reach. From time to time,
+from some unexplained cause, the Lemmings start in vast swarms from
+their mountain fastnesses, and make their way in a straight line in
+some definite direction. Nothing seems to turn them from their course;
+they go straight on, over hill and dale, and, although said at other
+times to have an aversion to water, they now swim across any lakes or
+rivers that come in their way. In this operation many of them lose
+their lives, for they require smooth water for their navigation, and
+the least breeze ruffling the surface suffices to send hundreds of them
+to the bottom. In this way they gradually arrive at the cultivated
+regions, where they do so much damage to vegetation, that in olden
+times a special form of prayer and exorcism was in use against them.
+Their march is accompanied by great numbers of carnivorous beasts and
+birds of all sorts. Wolves, Foxes, and Wild Cats, and the smaller
+quadrupeds of the family Mustelidæ, Eagles, Hawks, and Owls, all prey
+upon them with avidity&mdash;even the Reindeer is said to stamp them to
+death; and the story of his eating them, long discredited, has been
+confirmed on good authority, while man, with his Dogs and Cats, is not
+behindhand in the work of destruction. Nevertheless, a great multitude
+survives all these dangers, and, strange to say, the termination of
+this painful migration is always the sea, into which the survivors
+of the march plunge, and, apparently, voluntarily commit suicide.
+Mr. Crotch, who has published several papers on the Lemming and its
+migrations, says that in Norway these animals always proceed from the
+central backbone of the country in an east or west direction, and that
+in either case the survivors of the march drown themselves, those
+that go westward in the Atlantic, those that go eastward in the Gulf
+of Bothnia. His notion is that the migration is in obedience to an
+inherited instinct acquired at a time when there was land where the
+sea now rolls; but there are many difficulties in the way of such a
+hypothesis.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_119">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_119.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LEMMING.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides the Scandinavian Lemming above noticed, several other species
+occur in the northern parts of the world. Three species (<i>Myodes
+lagurus</i>, <i>obensis</i>, and <i>torquatus</i>) inhabit Siberia; the latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span>
+two are found in North America, the last also in Greenland. In this
+species, which has been placed in a distinct genus under the name of
+<i>Cuniculus torquatus</i>, the third and fourth toes of the fore feet are
+much larger than the second and fifth (the thumb being rudimentary),
+and their claws become periodically enlarged to double their ordinary
+size by an enormous growth during winter of horny matter on the lower
+surface.</p>
+
+<p id="zokor">The transition from this to the next family is effected by two genera,
+which to such an extent combine the characters of the two as to have
+led different zoologists to place them sometimes in the one, sometimes
+in the other. Externally they have all the characters of the Mole-rats
+of the following family; in the characters of the skull and teeth they
+more resemble the Voles. The Z<span class="smaller">OKOR</span> (<i>Siphneus aspalax</i>), which
+may be taken as an example of these forms, is an inhabitant of the
+Altai Mountains, has the eyes very small, the external ears reduced to
+mere rudiments, the body cylindrical, as in the true Mole-rats, and
+the fore-feet armed with very long and strong claws, of which that
+on the fifth toe is longer than the toe itself. This animal lives
+in subterranean runs something like those of the Mole, but of much
+greater extent, and in burrowing in the earth makes use of its strong
+incisors to cut through the roots it meets with, and when necessary
+to loosen the earth. The runs pass very near the surface, and are no
+doubt made for the purpose of feeding on the tender roots of grasses. A
+species of <i>Siphneus</i> is said to occur in North China. The other genus
+(<i>Ellobius</i>) includes two species; one (<i>E. luteus</i>) from the country
+about the Sea of Aral; the other (<i>E. talpinus</i>) from south-eastern
+Russia and the west of Asia. The latter abounds in the Crimea. These
+animals form the sub-family Siphneinæ.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_III_I">CHAPTER III.<br />
+<span class="s5">MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS,
+AND OCTODONTIDÆ.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#spalacidae">SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS</a>&mdash;Characteristics of the Family&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#chestnut_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HESTNUT</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#chestnut_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">AKED</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#strand_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRAND</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#cape_mole_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">APE</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#geomyidae">GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS</a>&mdash;Characteristics of the Family&mdash;The
+Cheek-pouches&mdash;<a href="#common_pocket_gopher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;Burrowing&mdash;Runs&mdash;Subterranean
+Dwelling&mdash;<a href="#northern_pocket_gopher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">ORTHERN</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#heteronyminae">H<span class="smaller">ETEROMYINÆ</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> P<span class="smaller">OUCHED</span> M<span class="smaller">ICE</span></a>&mdash;Difficulties as to Position&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#phillips_pocket_mouse">P<span class="smaller">HILLIPS</span>’
+P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#yellow_pocket_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">ELLOW</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yellow_pocket_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+L<span class="smaller">EAST</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dipodidae">DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS</a>&mdash;Organisation for Jumping&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#american_jumping_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Characters peculiar to itself&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#true_jerboas">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> J<span class="smaller">ERBOAS</span></a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#the_jerboa">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+J<span class="smaller">ERBOA</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mode of Locomotion&mdash;<a href="#alactaga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LACTAGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cape_jumping_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APE</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span>
+H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#porcupine_like_rodents">THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#octodontidae">OCTODONTIDÆ</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Sub-Family <a href="#ctenodactylinae">C<span class="smaller">TENODACTYLINÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ctenodactylinae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+G<span class="smaller">UNDI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#degu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">EGU</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#brown_schizodon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> S<span class="smaller">CHIZODON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#tukotuko">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">UKOTUKO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cururo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">URURO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rock_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>&mdash;Sub-Family, <a href="#echinominae">E<span class="smaller">CHINOMYINÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#coypu">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OYPU</span></a>&mdash;One of the Largest Rodents&mdash;Description&mdash;Burrows&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mother
+and Young&mdash;<a href="#hutia_conga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ONGA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#hutia_conga">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ARABALI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ground_rat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span></a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="spalacidae">FAMILY VIII.&mdash;SPALACIDÆ (MOLE RATS).</p>
+
+<p class="p0">A<span class="smaller">LTHOUGH</span> the Zokor and its allies in the preceding family have to a
+certain extent prepared us for the peculiar characters presented by the
+Mole-rats, these are exhibited by the latter in a much more extreme
+form. They have a very large broad head, which is usually flattened
+above, and forms an appropriate anterior termination to a clumsy,
+cylindrical body, supported upon short stout limbs; their incisor
+teeth are large and broad, and are most formidably exposed in front
+of the mouth; their eyes are exceedingly small, hidden in the fur,
+and sometimes quite rudimentary; the external ears are reduced to the
+smallest possible size, or altogether wanting; and their tails are
+either so short as to be concealed within the hair of the hinder part
+of the body, or altogether wanting externally, although the skeleton
+still shows some caudal vertebræ. The molar teeth are rooted, and not
+tuberculate; their surface shows re-entering folds of enamel. The
+feet have five toes, but the thumb is generally very small, although
+furnished with a nail. The number of molars varies from three to six on
+each side in each jaw.</p>
+
+<p>In their mode of life, as in their form and the condition of the organs
+of sight and hearing, these animals present a considerable resemblance
+to the Moles; but as their food is exclusively of a vegetable nature,
+the object of their burrowing is not exactly the same. They all inhabit
+the eastern hemisphere, and are generally met with in dry sandy plains,
+the soil of which lends itself readily to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span> mining operations. They
+seldom quit their burrows, and usually work in these only at night,
+when they make their way rapidly through the ground, and, like the
+Mole, can run either backwards or forwards in their subterranean
+galleries with equal facility. They feed chiefly on roots, and
+especially on the bulbs and tubers which so many plants possess in the
+dry districts which they frequent; but some of them also eat nuts,
+seeds, the young bark of trees, and herbage. None of them fall into a
+state of torpidity during the winter&mdash;indeed, only two species inhabit
+northern regions; but these, although active in the winter season, are
+said not to take the precaution to lay up a store of provisions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_121a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_121a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF MOLE-RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="mole_rat">Most zoologists distinguish two groups of Spalacidæ. In the
+S<span class="smaller">PALACINÆ</span>, the representatives of which range from
+south-eastern Europe to further India and the south of China, and also
+occur in Africa in the countries of Abyssinia and Shoa, the palate
+between the molar teeth is broader than one of the sockets of the
+molars, and the angular portion of the lower jaw springs from the
+lower edge of the bony case of the incisor. To this group belongs
+the M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>-<span class="smaller">RAT</span> (<i>Spalax typhlus</i>), which inhabits Hungary and
+Galicia, and the south-east of Europe generally, and ranges eastwards
+into Asia as far as the Caucasus and Ekaterinoslav. It possesses only
+three molars on each side in each jaw, and has the eyes rudimentary
+and covered by the skin, so that the animal is quite blind; the upper
+incisors are placed perpendicularly; and the tail reduced to a sort of
+wart. The toes, especially those of the fore-feet, are furnished with
+very powerful claws, which are vigorously employed by the animal in the
+digging operations above described. The general covering of the body is
+a soft fur of a yellowish-brown colour, tinged with ashy-grey; the head
+lighter, but becoming brownish behind; and the lower surface ashy-grey,
+with some white streaks and spots. The muzzle, chin, and feet are
+whitish, and along each side of the face there runs a sort of ridge of
+stiff bristle-like hairs. This species is particularly abundant in the
+Ukraine and the country about the Volga and the Don.</p>
+
+<p id="chestnut_mole_rat">The genus <i>Rhizomys</i>, of which there are an East Indian and two African
+species known, has the eyes uncovered, though very small, short naked
+ears, and a short partially hairy tail. The upper incisors are arched
+forward. The C<span class="smaller">HESTNUT</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>-<span class="smaller">RAT</span> (<i>Rhizomys badius</i>) lives in
+Northern India, Siam, and Arracan; and, according to Mr. Finlayson, the
+food of a specimen in confinement consisted of unhusked rice and other
+grain, but he showed himself fond of yams and pumpkins. The N<span class="smaller">AKED</span>
+M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>-<span class="smaller">RAT</span> (<i>Heterocephalus glaber</i>), which has no external ears and
+a short tail, has the body almost entirely naked. It is a native of
+Shoa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_121b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_121b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLE-RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="strand_mole_rat">The other section of the Mole rat family, the B<span class="smaller">ATHYERGINÆ</span>,
+is entirely confined to Africa, and, indeed, almost exclusively to
+the southern extremity of that continent, only a single species
+being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span> found elsewhere&mdash;at Mozambique. They show a resemblance to the
+Hystricine Rodents in the structure of the lower jaw, the angular
+portion of which springs from the side of the bony case of the lower
+incisor; and the palate between the molars is narrower than in the
+Spalacinæ. The best known of the six species inhabiting the Cape of
+Good Hope is the S<span class="smaller">TRAND</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>-<span class="smaller">RAT</span> (<i>Bathyergus maritimus</i>),
+which is nearly as large as a small Rabbit, its length being about ten
+inches, with a tail two inches in length. In general form it resembles
+the species last described; it has small but uncovered eyes, a broad
+nose, no external ears; very long, compressed, and powerful claws on
+all the toes, except the thumb of the fore-feet, which has a crooked
+nail; four molars on each side, and long white incisors, of which the
+upper ones are strongly grooved in front. The colour of the fur is
+greyish-white, with a yellowish tint on the upper surface. The tail has
+a sort of radiating tuft of hairs at the end. The Strand Mole-rat lives
+entirely in sandy localities near the sea-shore, and especially in the
+sand-hills or dunes which fringe the coast of the Cape of Good Hope in
+some parts. Here it burrows freely in all directions, its galleries
+generally radiating from several central points, and joining in various
+places. It avoids the light as much as possible, and if by chance it is
+exposed on the surface it is exceedingly helpless. Very little is known
+of the habits of this species, which probably feeds chiefly on roots
+like the other members of the family. It is regarded as mischievous,
+as it undermines the ground so much as to make it unsafe to ride over.
+The colonists, therefore, often destroy it by various means. The enamel
+folds of the teeth become effaced with use.</p>
+
+<p id="cape_mole_rat">The <i>Georychi</i>, five species of which inhabit Cape Colony, resemble
+the preceding species, but are smaller and weaker. The claws of the
+fore-feet are shorter and weaker, and the upper incisors, which are
+long and arched forward, are not grooved. The best-known species is
+the so-called C<span class="smaller">APE</span> M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>-<span class="smaller">RAT</span> (<i>Georychus capensis</i>). In the
+Mozambique species (<i>Heliophobius argenteo-cinereus</i>) there are six
+molars on each side above and below, and the second toe of the hind
+feet is the longest. In most other characters it resembles <i>Georychus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="geomyidae">FAMILY IX.&mdash;GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS.</p>
+
+<p>The Pouched Rats, or Pocket Gophers, and the Pouched Mice of North
+America, constitute a family distinguished from all the preceding forms
+by the presence of a pair of great cheek-pouches, opening <i>outside</i>
+and not inside the mouth (<i>see</i> figure). These cheek-pouches are hairy
+inside throughout. The angular portion of the lower jaw is strongly
+twisted, the molars are four in number on each side in each jaw, and
+the squamosal bone is very large. In external characters the animals
+of this family present considerable diversity, which has led to their
+being divided into two well-marked sub-families, the distinctive
+peculiarities of which are of such importance that Dr. Coues has
+raised them to the rank of distinct families. The G<span class="smaller">EOMYINÆ</span>,
+or Pouched Rats, are more or less Rat-like animals, in which the
+feet are five-toed, and all the toes furnished with claws, those of
+the fore feet being very strongly developed; and the tail is short.
+Certain other characters are presented by the skull. The outline of
+this part, including the zygomatic arches, is almost quadrangular; the
+infra-orbital opening is far in front of the jugal process; the malar
+bone extends forward to the lachrymal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_122a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_122a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_122b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_122b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">UNDER SURFACE OF THE HEAD OF HETEROMYS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="common_pocket_gopher">Of the animals thus characterised, the Continent of North America
+possesses, according to Dr. Coues, seven species, and they are met with
+from Hudson’s Bay and the Columbia River in the north, as far south
+as Mexico. The best-known species, the C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span>
+(<i>Geomys<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span> bursarius</i>), inhabits the whole valley of the Mississippi,
+and extends northwards into Canada. It reaches the foot of the Rocky
+Mountains in Colorado, but is not known to occur west of that range.
+It is also found in Texas. This Pouched Rat, like the rest of its
+genus, has the incisors broad and the upper ones deeply grooved; but in
+addition to the ordinary deep groove it has a fine line close to the
+inner margin of each of these teeth. Its form is stout and clumsy, but
+its coat is beautifully soft and velvety, like that of the Mole, but of
+a dull reddish-brown colour, with the feet and tail white. The average
+length of an adult specimen is from seven to eight inches, and the tail
+is two or three inches long. This organ is clothed with hair nearly to
+the tip.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_123">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_123.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like the Mole, this animal lives in burrows, which it makes in all
+directions in the ground, throwing out as it proceeds heaps of earth,
+which exactly resemble ordinary mole-hills. To enable it to perform
+these labours the claws of the fore feet are exceedingly powerful; and
+to adapt it the better to its subterranean existence, the eyes are very
+small, and the external ears are wanting. Its digging operations have
+generally the same object as those of the Mole&mdash;namely, the search
+for food. The tunnel is carried along not far from the surface of the
+ground, and the roots of any plants that lie in its course are bitten
+off and devoured by the little miner. Besides the runs, the Pouched
+Rat digs himself a convenient dwelling in the shape of a chamber
+hollowed out under the roots of a tree, access to which is gained by
+a somewhat spiral descending passage. This chamber, which is usually
+at a depth of four or five feet, is comfortably lined with soft grass,
+and the nest in which the female brings forth her young is a cavity of
+the same kind, but surrounded by circular passages, from which, like
+that of the Mole, other passages branch off. One of these, according
+to Gesner, leads from the nest to a large store-chamber filled with
+nuts, seeds, and roots, among which the potato was found to play an
+important part. These provisions are carried to the store-house in the
+great cheek-pouches, which the animal is said to fill by the aid of its
+tongue, and to empty with the fore paws. This Pouched Rat does much
+damage in cultivated ground by attacking the roots of both plants and
+trees, sometimes destroying a great number of the latter in a few days.
+The female produces from five to seven young at the end of March or the
+beginning of April. The other species of <i>Geomys</i> closely resemble this
+in their habits.</p>
+
+<p>Of the second genus belonging to this sub-family (<i>Thomomys</i>) Dr. Coues
+admits only two species, one of which, however, occurs under three
+named forms. They may be distinguished from the species of <i>Geomys</i> by
+their having the upper incisors plain, without grooves.</p>
+
+<p id="northern_pocket_gopher">The N<span class="smaller">ORTHERN</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> G<span class="smaller">OPHER</span> (<i>Thomomys talpoides</i>), with its
+sub-species, ranges over nearly the whole of North America from the
+Hudson’s Bay Territory to California and New Mexico. The three forms
+are for the most part in accordance with geographical distribution.
+A small species (<i>Thomomys clusius</i>) has been obtained in the Rocky
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p id="heteronyminae">The H<span class="smaller">ETEROMYINÆ</span> (forming the family Saccomyidæ of Dr. Coues,
+although he does not accept the genus <i>Saccomys</i>) are more slender
+and delicate in form than the Geomyinæ, and have the hind limbs and
+tail elongated, the former, indeed, being converted into leaping
+organs like those of the Jerboas and Kangaroos. The eyes and ears are
+larger, and the animals are in every respect adapted to life in the
+open, while the Geomyinæ, on the contrary, are subterranean in their
+habits. The hair in the present family is coarse and harsh, sometimes
+even spiny. In skeletal characters we find a similar alteration. The
+incisors are narrow; the skull is delicate, with its angles rounded
+off, and the mastoid bones form a considerable part of the roof of the
+cranial cavity; the zygomatic arches are slender; and, the lower root
+of the maxillary process being undeveloped, the infra-orbital opening
+is not defined. As in the Jerboas, the cervical vertebræ are sometimes
+anchylosed. Like the Geomyinæ, these animals are confined to America,
+and chiefly limited to the Southern United States and Central America,
+although some of the species occur as far north as the Columbia<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span> River
+and Hudson’s Bay, and one is found in Trinidad. By American writers
+they are called “Pocket Mice.”</p>
+
+<p id="phillips_pocket_mouse">P<span class="smaller">HILLIPS</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>, also known as the Kangaroo Rat
+(<i>Dipodomys Phillipsii</i>), is one of the best known species of this
+group. It is an elegantly formed little creature, about four inches
+long, with a slender tail nearly six inches in length. Its colour above
+is mouse-brown, white beneath; the sides of the body have some white
+streaks, especially one from the ear towards the shoulder, and one on
+the thigh running towards the root of the tail; the tip of the tail is
+also white. This is a Californian species, but extends throughout the
+Pacific region of the United States. It is represented in the Rocky
+Mountains by a rather larger and stouter form, with smaller ears and
+a shorter tail (<i>Dipodomys Ordii</i>), which is generally regarded as
+distinct, but is placed by Dr. Coues as a sub-species. The habits of
+the species are comparatively little known, but they appear to live in
+the most desert places they can find, the barren spots on which the
+only plants that seem to flourish are the great mis-shapen cactuses.
+They dwell in holes under rocks and stones, from which they emerge at
+sunset, and hop about gaily after the fashion of little Kangaroos. The
+places in which these Pocket Mice are found are so bare of vegetation
+and destitute of water, that it is difficult to imagine how they
+contrive to exist. In all probability they pick up a scanty living in
+the shape of roots and grasses, especially seeds, carrying a supply for
+the day into their holes in their great cheek-pouches.</p>
+
+<p id="yellow_pocket_mouse">The Y<span class="smaller">ELLOW</span> P<span class="smaller">OCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> and the
+L<span class="smaller">EAST</span> <span class="smaller">POCKET</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span>
+(<i>Cricetodipus flavus</i> and <i>parvus</i>) are very minute creatures, only
+about two inches long in the head and body. The tail is longer than the
+head and body in the latter, shorter in the former species, and the
+colour of the fur in both is a pale buff. These species are found in
+the Rocky Mountains and the region west of that range to the Pacific,
+the latter being inhabited by the second of the above species. Several
+species of the genus <i>Heteromys</i> inhabit Central America, and one is
+found in the island of Trinidad. Nothing appears to be known of their
+habits.</p>
+
+<p>From these we pass as by a natural transition to</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="dipodidae">FAMILY X.&mdash;DIPODIDÆ (THE JERBOAS).</p>
+
+<p>The J<span class="smaller">ERBOAS</span> are a more extensive and much more widely
+distributed family of hopping Rodents. In these we find the
+organisation for jumping brought to greater perfection than in any
+other group. The body is light and slender, the hind limbs much
+elongated, the fore limbs very small, and the tail long and usually
+tufted at the end. The number of toes on the hind feet varies from
+three to five, and the metatarsal bones are very often united so as to
+form what is called a “cannon bone” in the Horse. The incisor teeth
+are compressed; the molars sometimes four, but usually three in each
+series, rooted or rootless, not tuberculate; the infra-orbital opening
+is rounded and very large, and the zygomatic arch slender. The great
+home of these animals is the vast steppe region which stretches from
+South-eastern Europe across the greater part of Central Asia, but they
+extend southwards round the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean,
+through Syria and Arabia to Egypt and Africa, over a great part of
+which they are found, and eastward to India, Afghanistan, and Ceylon.
+A single species occurs at the Cape of Good Hope; and another is found
+in North America. We may commence by noticing this last species, as it
+not only makes the nearest approach to those of preceding families,
+especially the Muridæ, but differs from the rest of the Jerboas in
+characters of such importance, that Dr. Coues maintains its right to
+form a separate family (<i>Zapodidæ</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_124">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_124.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE CAPE JUMPING HARE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="american_jumping_mouse">The A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span> (<i>Zapus</i><a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> <i>hudsonius</i>) has a wide
+range, extending across<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span> the continent of North America from sea to
+sea, and from Labrador, Hudson’s Bay, and the Great Slave Lake in the
+north, to Virginia and the elevated portions of Arizona and New Mexico
+in the south. It is an elegant little mouse-like creature, rather more
+than three inches long, and furnished with a cylindrical tail, which
+exceeds the head and body in length by about two inches. Its hind limbs
+are not quite so disproportionately developed as in the other members
+of the family. Its fur in summer is of a brown colour above, becoming
+yellowish on the sides and white below; in the winter the brown tint
+covers the whole surface. The ears, which are not very large, are
+black, with a light-coloured rim; the hind feet are greyish, and the
+fore feet whitish on the upper surface; and the tail, which tapers to
+an exceedingly fine point, where there is a fine pencil of hairs, is
+ringed and nearly naked.</p>
+
+<p>The characters in which this animal differs from its nearest relatives
+are as follows:&mdash;In the upper jaw there are four rooted molars on
+each side, the first being very small, the second the largest, and
+the rest gradually diminishing in size; the fore feet have the thumbs
+rudimentary, and the hind feet have five toes, all of which touch the
+ground; the metatarsal bones are separate; and the soles of the feet
+naked, with granules and small horny shields.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_125a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_125a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The American Jumping Mouse is found in meadows in the neighbourhood of
+woods and copses. It is nocturnal in its activity, sleeping during the
+day in its burrow, which is usually about two feet deep, and coming
+forth at night. It is sociable in its habits, and excessively active,
+covering from three to five feet of ground at each leap, so that it is
+a matter of no little difficulty to capture a specimen in the open. In
+the woods it is worse, as the little creature will bound over bushes,
+and get out of sight in a moment. Its food consists of seeds of various
+kinds, and it is exceedingly fond of beech-mast. For protection from
+the cold of winter the Jumping Mouse makes a little hollow clay ball,
+within which it coils itself up, and goes comfortably to sleep. The
+nest is made about six inches under the surface of the ground, and
+is composed of fine grass, sometimes mixed with feathers, wool, and
+hair; and in this the female produces from two to four young, probably
+several times in the course of the summer, as the nests and young are
+to be found from May to August.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_125b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_125b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE JERBOA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="true_jerboas">If we regard the American Jumping Mouse as constituting a peculiar
+section of the family, Z<span class="smaller">APODINÆ</span>, a second group,
+D<span class="smaller">IPODINÆ</span>, is formed by the T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> J<span class="smaller">ERBOAS</span>, which make
+up the greater<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span> part of the family. These either possess only three
+molars, or a very small additional tooth exists in front of each series
+in the upper jaw. The molars are rooted, and diminish in size backwards
+in each series. The cervical vertebræ are anchylosed; the fore feet
+have the thumbs rudimentary, but sometimes furnished with a small nail;
+the hind feet have only three toes fully developed, and the metatarsals
+are united into a single bone of great length; the soles are furnished
+with elastic balls; and the tail is very long, well-clothed with hair,
+and tufted at the end.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_126">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_126.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">JERBOA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="the_jerboa">Of these pretty little creatures, which are in some respects singularly
+bird-like, about twenty species have been recorded, and these occupy
+the whole of the Old World area of the family, except South Africa.
+The J<span class="smaller">ERBOA</span> (<i>Dipus ægyptius</i>) may serve as an example of
+this section of the family. This is a most lively and active little
+creature, which inhabits the deserts of north-eastern Africa as far
+south as Nubia, and extends its range into Arabia and south-western
+Asia. On these arid plains, so scantily clothed with a few grasses and
+dry shrubs that it is difficult to conceive how any animal can find a
+living on them, the Jerboa lives, often in numerous societies, and in
+company with the few birds and lizards which enliven the wilderness.
+These animals dwell in subterranean abodes consisting of many branched
+galleries, which they dig out in the hard soil not far from the
+surface. The Arabs assert that these habitations are produced by the
+joint labour of the whole society. They retreat into their burrows at
+the least alarm. The females are said to produce from two to four young
+at a birth in a nest made in the deeper part of the burrow, and lined
+with hair pulled from the under surface of her own body. When going
+along quietly, the Jerboa walks and runs by alternate steps of the
+hind feet, but when there is occasion for rapid motion it springs from
+both feet at the same time, covering so much ground at each leap, and
+touching the ground so momentarily between them,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span> that its motion is
+more like that of a bird skimming close to the surface of the ground
+than that of a four-footed beast.</p>
+
+<p>The Jerboa is about six inches long, with a tail about eight inches in
+length exclusive of the tuft with which its tip is adorned. Its upper
+surface is of a greyish sand-colour, like that of many other desert
+animals; the lower surface is white; and the tail pale-yellowish above
+and white beneath, with the tuft white, with an arrow-shaped black mark
+on its upper surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_127a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_127a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ALACTAGA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="alactaga">Several other species of Jerboas are known, some from the deserts of
+North Africa, others from the steppes of Central Asia. The latter
+region harbours some forms, which differ from the preceding, among
+other characters, by having five toes in the hind feet, whereas the
+true Jerboas have only three, but of the five toes only three are
+sufficiently developed to take part in the animal’s progression. The
+best known of them is the A<span class="smaller">LACTAGA</span> (<i>Alactaga jaculus</i>), a
+rather larger species than the Jerboa, and with a still longer tail,
+reddish-yellow with a greyish tinge above, white beneath and on the
+hind legs. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don
+across Central Asia to the borders of China. It walks upon all-fours,
+and when advancing quickly springs along after the fashion of the
+Jerboa. Its food consists of all sorts of vegetable substances, but
+it is especially fond of the bulbs of plants, and does not refuse
+occasionally to eat insects, or even the eggs and young of the
+birds which inhabit the steppes with it. The Alactagas live in very
+complicated burrows, with many passages and branches, and they are said
+always to make one passage from the central chamber of their residence,
+which terminates close to the surface of the earth at some distance,
+but is only opened in case of danger, when the inhabitants escape
+through it, the position of its intended aperture being previously
+unrecognisable. In cold weather they sleep in their nests. The female
+produces from five or six to eight young, in a nest lined with her own
+hair. Species of <i>Alactaga</i> occur not only in Central Asia, but also in
+Arabia and North Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_127b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_127b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE JUMPING HARE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="cape_jumping_hare">South Africa produces one species, the C<span class="smaller">APE</span> J<span class="smaller">UMPING</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span>
+(<i>Pedetes caffer</i>), which constitutes a distinct sub-family,
+P<span class="smaller">EDETINÆ</span>, having four rootless molars on each side in each
+jaw, the metatarsal bones<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span> separate, the tail bushy, and the hind feet
+furnished with four toes having broad, hoof-like nails. This is a much
+larger animal than any of the preceding, being about the size of the
+common Hare, which it also resembles in its colours. The Jumping Hare
+inhabits a considerable portion of South Africa, extending on the
+west coast at least as far as Angola. It is abundant at the Cape of
+Good Hope, both in the mountains and in the plains. Great numbers of
+the animals often live together, and their burrows, which, like those
+of other Dipodidæ, are inhabited by numerous individuals as a common
+residence, consist of many-branched galleries made at no great depth
+from the surface, but leading into a more deeply-seated habitation.
+They generally go about slowly upon all-fours, but can advance with
+extraordinary rapidity by Kangaroo-like springs, in each of which, when
+pressed, they will cover a space of twenty or thirty feet. Their food
+consists of roots, seeds, and herbage. The female produces three or
+four young at a birth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_128">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_128.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CAPE JUMPING HARE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop2 mbot1" id="porcupine_like_rodents">SECTION III.&mdash;PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS
+(<i>HYSTRICOMORPHA</i>).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop1 mbot1" id="octodontidae">FAMILY XI.&mdash;OCTODONTIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>This first family of the Porcupine alliance consists of a number of
+rat-like animals, nearly all of which are inhabitants of South America,
+three species only being peculiar to the large West Indian Islands,
+whilst, singularly enough, four more are known from different parts of
+the African continent. Except in one of these last, all the members of
+the family have four molars on each side in each jaw, and the crowns
+of these teeth show internal and external folds of enamel. The malar
+portion of the zygomatic arch has an angular process at its lower
+margin.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span> The hind limbs are not disproportionately developed, and both
+they and the fore feet are nearly always furnished with five toes,
+armed with curved claws; and the clavicles are perfect. The ears are
+generally short and sparingly hairy, and the tail, which is of various
+lengths, is either clad with short hairs, or naked and scaly.</p>
+
+<p id="ctenodactylinae">We may begin with two African species of this generally American
+family, which have the two inner claws of the hind feet furnished with
+comb-like fringes of horny bristles, whence the name of <i>Ctenodactylus</i>
+has been applied to the best known species. These two species,
+which exhibit strong affinities to the Jerboas, form the sub-family
+C<span class="smaller">TENODACTYLINÆ</span>. The G<span class="smaller">UNDI</span> (<i>Ctenodactylus Massoni</i>)
+has only three molars on each side in each jaw, and only four toes upon
+each foot. It is an animal about the size of the Water Rat, but with
+a mere stump of a tail, very small ears, very long whiskers, and the
+hind limbs rather longer than their fellows. It lives in North Africa,
+chiefly on the borders of the Sahara, where it takes up its abode in
+the rocky hills, and descends therefrom to the cultivated grounds
+to feast upon the growing corn. It is diurnal in its habits, but
+exceedingly shy and watchful, making off to its fastnesses at the least
+appearance of danger. <i>Pectinator Spekei</i>, a species named after its
+discoverer, the celebrated African traveller, is nearly related to the
+preceding, but has a small additional molar in each series. The tail is
+of moderate length, and bushy, and the ears have a small antitragus. It
+inhabits the Somali land in the interior of North-eastern Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe26" id="i_129">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_129.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DEGU.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="degu">The D<span class="smaller">EGU</span> (<i>Octodon Cumingii</i>), a very abundant species
+in Chili, which also extends into Peru, may be taken as a typical
+example of the whole family, and also of its typical sub-family
+O<span class="smaller">CTODONTINÆ</span>, in which the molars are simply indented on
+each side. The fur is soft, and the tail is short. The Degu is a
+rat-like animal, rather smaller than the Water Vole, the head and
+body measuring from seven and a half to eight inches in length, and
+the tail, exclusive of its terminal tuft, rather more than half that
+length. The general colour of the animal is brownish-yellow, pencilled
+with black on the back; the lower surface is yellowish, the feet
+white, and the tail dusky above, whitish beneath, with the tufted tip
+dusky or blackish. In the central parts of Chili, according to various
+travellers, the Degu is exceedingly abundant, living in large societies
+about hedges and thickets, and running about boldly, even on the high
+roads. The animals make their burrows in the hedge-banks and similar
+places, and when alarmed rush into them with their tails elevated,
+very much after the manner of Rabbits. As the burrows communicate
+freely with each other, the Degus can easily escape pursuit, going
+in at one opening and coming out at another at some considerable
+distance. They sometimes climb up into the bushes among which they
+live. Their ordinary food consists of the herbage which grows about
+their dwelling-places, but they also invade gardens and fields, where
+they may do considerable damage. In the winter they will feed upon the
+tender bark of certain trees, but they are said by some authors to lay
+up a store of food against this season. They do not become torpid. The
+female is believed to produce two broods in the year, each consisting
+of from four to six young. Two other species of <i>Octodon</i> are known
+from Chili and Bolivia, which region is also inhabited by two species
+of <i>Habrocoma</i>, a genus distinguished by the large size of the ears,
+and the extreme softness of the fur. In these animals the molar teeth
+differ in the two jaws, the upper ones being as simple as in the
+preceding species, while the lower ones show a complication of the
+enamel folds like what we shall meet with in the third sub-family.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span></p>
+
+<p id="brown_schizodon">The B<span class="smaller">ROWN</span> S<span class="smaller">CHIZODON</span> (<i>Schizodon fuscus</i>), which inhabits
+certain elevated spots in the southern part of the Andes (75° S. lat.),
+has the enamel folds of the molar teeth meeting in the middle. It is
+about the size of the common Rat (seven and a half to nine inches
+long), and has a shortish tail clothed throughout with short hairs. Its
+fur is dark brown above, dirty yellowish beneath. This animal inhabits
+grassy places near mountain streams, where the ground is sometimes so
+undermined by its burrows as to render travelling on horseback very
+uncomfortable. It is a nocturnal animal, and passes most of its life
+underground. The valleys it inhabits are covered with snow for at least
+four months in the year.</p>
+
+<p id="tukotuko">In the T<span class="smaller">UKOTUKO</span> (<i>Ctenomys brasiliensis</i>) and its congeners,
+about four of which are known from different parts of South America,
+one of them extending as far south as the Strait of Magellan, the
+eyes and ears are very small, and the animal seems to be still more
+specially adapted to a subterranean mode of life. In these animals the
+claws are longer than the toes, and those of the hind feet are fringed
+with a sort of comb formed of bristles. The incisor teeth are very
+broad. The Tukotuko is about the size of a large Rat, namely, from
+eight and a half to nine and a half inches long, with the tail from
+two and a half to three and a half inches. Its name is in imitation of
+the sound which it constantly emits&mdash;a sound which rather surprises a
+stranger when he first hears it, seeing that the animal uttering it is
+concealed underground. In many places, as in the Argentine Republic,
+this animal is exceedingly numerous, living generally in sandy soil,
+but sometimes in damp situations. It makes long burrows not far from
+the surface, and thus in some places completely undermines the ground.
+In making these galleries the Tukotuko is engaged in the search for
+its food, which consists chiefly of the roots of plants. According
+to Azara, it lays up stores of food in its burrows. Its activity is
+nocturnal.</p>
+
+<p id="cururo">The C<span class="smaller">URURO</span> (<i>Spalacopus Pöppigii</i>) has the ears quite
+rudimentary, and is also organised for a subterranean existence. This
+and another species inhabit Chili, where they make extensive burrows
+in the ground, and feed upon the bulbous and tuberous roots of various
+plants, large stores of which they collect in their subterranean
+abodes. These magazines are sought out by the poorer people, and their
+contents used as food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_130a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_130a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DENTITION OF THE ROCK RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="rock_rat">The R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Petromys typicus</i>), although most nearly allied
+to the preceding species, lives on the opposite side of the Atlantic
+in the rocky hills of South Africa, especially towards the mouth of
+the Orange River. It differs from the preceding forms in the harshness
+of its fur, in which it resembles another sub-family of Octodontidæ,
+in the shortness of its thumbs, which are furnished with a small nail,
+and in its rather bushy tail. The molars are semi-rooted, with the
+enamel folds nearly meeting in the middle. The whiskers are of great
+length, and entirely black. The general colour is reddish-brown, with
+the head and fore parts greyish, the throat whitish, and the belly
+pale yellow. The tail is of the colour of the body at the root, with
+the remainder black. The length of the animal is about seven and a
+half inches, of the tail from five to five and a half inches. It feeds
+upon various vegetable substances, and appears to be very fond of the
+flowers of syngenesious plants, especially a species of groundsel,
+which it eagerly devours. It forms its retreat among loose stones, or
+in crevices of the rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_130b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_130b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE SPINY RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="echinominae">While the Octodontinæ may be regarded as specially characteristic of
+the region of the Andes, the other great group of this family is almost
+exclusively confined to the country east of that great chain, and to
+some of the West Indian islands. Curiously enough this sub-family also
+has a single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span> representative in Africa. Its members are distinguished
+at once by the complicated enamel folds of their molar teeth in both
+jaws, by these teeth being generally rooted, and by the texture of the
+fur, which is harsh and frequently mixed with fine spines. Hence the
+name of <i>Echinomys</i> (Spiny, or rather Hedgehog, Rat), applied to the
+typical genus, from which the sub-family is named E<span class="smaller">CHINOMYINÆ</span>.
+The tail in these animals is usually long.</p>
+
+<p>The Rodents belonging to this sub-family are generally of considerable
+size, as large as Rats, or larger, stoutly built, with the hinder part
+of the body larger than the fore-quarters, with limbs of moderate
+length, the hinder larger than the anterior, the former furnished with
+five toes, the latter with four complete digits and a rudimentary
+thumb, and the toes armed with strong curved claws. The tail is scaly,
+with scattered hairs. In their habits these animals appear to be
+strictly vegetable-feeders, but in other respects they present some
+variety. The majority live in and upon the ground; but one or two are
+arboreal, and one aquatic, in their mode of life.</p>
+
+<p id="coypu">The last species alluded to is the well-known C<span class="smaller">OYPU</span>
+(<i>Myopotamus Coypus</i>), one of the largest of Rodents, which occurs
+in nearly all parts of South America and on both sides of the Andes,
+from the tropic of Capricorn to about 15° N. lat. It is usually about
+twenty inches long, but often attains still greater dimensions. The
+tail, which is about two-thirds the length of the head and body, is
+scaly, with hairs about as thickly scattered as in the common Rat.
+The ears are of moderate size; the incisor teeth very large and
+powerful; the molars, the hindmost of which are the largest, have
+two internal and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three
+internal folds and one external in the lower, jaw; the hind feet are
+webbed. The general colour of the upper surface is brown, produced by
+dusky and brownish-yellow pencilling; the sides and under parts are
+brownish-yellow, and the front of the muzzle and the chin white.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_131">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_131.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COYPU.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Coypus live upon the shores of the rivers and lakes of South
+America, generally, according to Rengger, in pairs, each pair digging
+for themselves a burrow in the bank, which extends to a depth of three
+or four feet, and widens out into a cavity eighteen inches or two feet
+in diameter. Here they pass the night, and take refuge when necessary
+during the day. They select for their dwelling-places the stiller parts
+of the water, where the aquatic plants on which they chiefly feed grow
+freely. They are said to swim well, but not to be expert in diving. On
+land they are slow and awkward in their movements. They feed chiefly on
+the roots of plants, but in the Chonos Archipelago, where the Coypus
+frequent the sea and make their burrows at some little distance from
+the beach, they are said<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span> occasionally to eat shell-fish. The female
+produces from four to five young once in the year. The little animals
+very early accompany their mother into the water, when she swims with
+them on her back, until they have acquired the art of swimming. Mr.
+Waterhouse thinks that this habit may “explain the singular position
+of the nipples noticed in the female Coypu. Of these four were found
+by Mr. Lereboullet on each side of the body, and situated rather above
+the mesial line of the flanks, the foremost being placed behind the
+shoulder, and the hindermost in front of the thigh.” The Coypu is
+hunted for the sake of its flesh, which is described as white and of
+good flavour, and of its skin, which is well known in the fur trade
+under the name of “Nutria,” signifying Otter. Great quantities of these
+skins are annually exported from Buenos Ayres. It is said to be a
+courageous animal, fighting bravely with the dogs engaged in chasing it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_132a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_132a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HUTIA CONGA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_132b1">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_132b1.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF PLAGIODON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe26" id="i132b2">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_132b2.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF LONCHERES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="hutia_conga">The H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ONGA</span> (<i>Capromys pilorides</i>) is another large
+Rodent, measuring from twenty to twenty-two inches in length, with a
+stout rat-like tail about half as long as the head and body. It is an
+inhabitant of Cuba. The incisors are considerably smaller and weaker
+than in the Coypu; the upper molars have one internal and two external
+folds; the lower ones are similar but reversed. The fur, which is
+long, is very harsh, and consists of a mixture of black and yellow
+hairs, becoming rusty on the hinder part of the body. The belly is
+rusty yellow. This animal lives in the dense<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span> forests of Cuba, where
+it resides either upon the trees or in the thick underwood. It is a
+nocturnal or crepuscular animal, and is tolerably active when going
+about on the branches of trees, but is less at home on the ground. Its
+food consists of fruits, leaves, and the bark of trees, but, according
+to M. Ramon de la Sagra, it does not disdain animal food, and is
+especially fond of a species of Lizard belonging to the genus <i>Anolis</i>.
+On the other hand, the negroes are very partial to the flesh of the
+Hutia, and they capture the animal either by snaring it on the branches
+of trees, or by sending Dogs after it. Like the Coypu, it is said to
+fight courageously against its pursuers. Another Cuban species, the
+H<span class="smaller">UTIA</span> C<span class="smaller">ARABALI</span> (<i>C. prehensilis</i>), has a slightly longer tail,
+which is prehensile at the tip. It is described as keeping chiefly to
+the highest branches of the trees. In St. Domingo there is an allied
+form, <i>Plagiodon ædium</i>, in which the enamel folds of the molars are
+singularly complex (<i>see</i> figure on p. 132). This animal frequents
+the neighbourhood of human habitations, and approaches them at night
+in search of its food, which consists of fruit and roots. In most of
+the other members of this sub-family, which appear to be terrestrial
+in their habits, the intermixture of spines with the fur of the back
+is a striking character. In the genus <i>Echinomys</i> itself, and in
+<i>Loncheres</i>, which together include about a dozen species found chiefly
+in Guiana and Brazil, the spines frequently form the principal outer
+covering of the back. Side by side with these hedgehog-like species,
+however, others occur in which the fur is soft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_133">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_133.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF LONCHERES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="ground_rat">The G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span> (<i>Aulacodus Swinderianus</i>), of Western and
+Southern Africa, is remarkable as being the sole representative of this
+group outside the South American province. It has very broad incisors,
+and those of the upper jaw exhibit three deep grooves; the molars
+show the same arrangement of folds as in <i>Capromys</i>; the fur is harsh
+and bristly, and of a general brown tint; and the tail is of moderate
+length, sparingly haired, dusky above, and whitish below. The fore
+feet have the thumb rudimentary and the outer toe very short; and the
+hind feet have only four toes, of which the outer one is rudimentary.
+This curious animal, which is nearly two feet long, is known to be an
+inhabitant of Sierra Leone and the Gambia, and also of South Africa
+(Port Natal); in all probability it occurs at many intermediate
+localities. In Sierra Leone it is known as the Ground Rat, or Ground
+Pig, and is said to feed upon ground nuts, and cassada and other roots
+in search of which it digs into the ground, where it also forms large
+burrows for its residence.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_IV_I">CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<span class="s5">PORCUPINES&mdash;CHINCHILLAS&mdash;AGOUTIS&mdash;CAVIES&mdash;HARES
+AND RABBITS&mdash;PIKAS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#hystricidae">HYSTRICIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINES</span></a>&mdash;Conversion of Hairs into Spines&mdash;Skull&mdash;Dentition&mdash;Tail&mdash;Sub-families&mdash;The True
+Porcupines&mdash;The Tree Porcupines&mdash;<a href="#common_porcupine">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Description&mdash;The Crest of Bristles&mdash;Nature
+of the Spines&mdash;Habits&mdash;Young&mdash;Flesh&mdash;On the Defensive&mdash;Other Species&mdash;Species of Tree Porcupines&mdash;<a href="#couendou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">OUENDOU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#couendou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OUIY</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> U<span class="smaller">RSON</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> C<span class="smaller">ANADA</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#chinchillidae">CHINCHILLIDÆ,
+<span class="smaller">THE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLAS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#viscacha">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ISCACHA</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Life on the
+Pampas&mdash;Their Burrows&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Chinchillas of the Andes&mdash;<a href="#common_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cuviers_chinchilla">C<span class="smaller">UVIER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#cuviers_chinchilla">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ALE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#DASYPROCTIDAE">DASYPROCTIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> A<span class="smaller">GOUTIS</span></a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#agouti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#azaras_agouti">A<span class="smaller">ZARA</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#azaras_agouti">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">COUCHY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#paca">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ACA</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#DINOMYDAE">DINOMYIDÆ</a>&mdash;Founded
+for a Single Species&mdash;Description&mdash;Rarity&mdash;<a href="#CAVIIDAE">CAVIIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">AVIES</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#restless_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ESTLESS</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Guinea-Pig Controversy&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">OLIVIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bolivian_cavy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mara">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ATAGONIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> M<span class="smaller">ARA</span></a>&mdash;Peculiar Features&mdash;Its
+Burrows&mdash;Mode of Running&mdash;<a href="#capybara">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APYBARA</span></a>&mdash;Its Teeth&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#SUB_ORDER_II_DOUBLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS">THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED
+RODENTS</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#LEPORIDAE">LEPORIDÆ, <span class="smaller">THE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARES</span> <span class="smaller">AND</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBITS</span></a>&mdash;Structural Peculiarities&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Disposition&mdash;<a href="#common_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;Hind Legs&mdash;Speed&mdash;Its “Doubles”&mdash;Other Artifices&mdash;Its
+“Form”&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;Pet Hares&mdash;<a href="#rabbit">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Habits&mdash;Domesticated&mdash;<a href="#mountain_hare">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#LAGOMYDAE">LAGOMYIDÆ,
+<span class="smaller">THE</span> P<span class="smaller">IKAS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#alpine_pika">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rocky_mountain_pika">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OCKY</span> M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span></a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="hystricidae">FAMILY XII.&mdash;HYSTRICIDÆ (PORCUPINES).</p>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HIS</span> second family of the section Hystricomorpha exhibits the
+conversion of the hairs into spines in perfection, the whole upper part
+of the body being in several instances completely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span> covered with long,
+hollow, pointed quills, whilst in all cases great numbers of spines
+and stiff bristles are mixed with the hair. The form of the skull in
+these animals is distinctive. It is ovate, the cranial portion being
+more or less inflated by air-cavities in the bones, and the facial
+portion short, but the occipital or hinder surface is usually nearly
+perpendicular; the malar portion of the zygoma has no angular process
+as in the preceding family; the molar teeth are four in number on each
+side in each jaw; and the limbs are about equal in development. The
+incisor teeth are large and powerful. With regard to the development of
+the tail there are considerable differences, some species having that
+organ quite short, while in others it is of moderate length, or long
+and sometimes prehensile.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_134a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_134a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE PORCUPINE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Porcupines fall readily into two distinct groups (sub-families)
+characterised by structure, habits, and geographical distribution.
+In the strictly terrestrial species, or True Porcupines
+(H<span class="smaller">YSTRICINÆ</span>), which inhabit the warmer parts of the eastern
+hemisphere, the skull is rather more elongated than in the others;
+the front margin of the orbit is over the third molar; the molars are
+rootless when young, but become closed after a time, and the clavicles
+are imperfect. The upper lip is furrowed; the tail, which may be either
+long or short, is never prehensile; the soles of the feet are smooth;
+and the female has six teats.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_134b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_134b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON PORCUPINE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The arboreal species (S<span class="smaller">PHINGURINÆ</span>), which are all American,
+have the skull peculiarly short, the front margin of the orbit over the
+first molar, the molars always rooted, and the clavicles perfect. The
+upper lip is not furrowed; the tail is moderate or long, and generally
+prehensile; the soles of the feet are covered with wart-like tubercles;
+and the female has only four teats.</p>
+
+<p id="common_porcupine">The C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span> (<i>Hystrix cristata</i>) may serve as a
+characteristic and well-known example of the first of these two groups.
+It is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean region, occurring in most
+parts of North Africa, and extending as far southwards as the Gambia
+and Soudan; in Southern Europe it is abundant in Italy, Sicily, and
+Greece. It measures about twenty-seven or twenty-eight inches in
+length to the root of the tail, which is about four inches long. The
+head, shoulders, limbs, and under parts are clothed with short spines
+intermixed with hairs usually of a dusky or brownish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span>-black hue; the
+neck is marked with a whitish collar; from the back of the head and
+neck there rises a great crest of long bristles, many of them fifteen
+or sixteen inches in length, which can be elevated and depressed at
+the pleasure of the animal, are gently curved backwards, and are
+either dusky with the extremities white, or whitish throughout; the
+hinder portion of the body is entirely covered by a great number of
+long, sharp spines, ringed with black and white, but always having
+the extremities white. These spines vary considerably in size, some
+of them being very long (fifteen or sixteen inches), comparatively
+slender and flexible; others shorter (from six to twelve inches),
+but much stouter. They are all hollow, or filled only with a sort of
+spongy tissue, but from their structure are exceedingly resistant, and
+when the animal erects them, which he is able to do by contracting the
+muscles of the skin in which their roots are imbedded, they constitute
+a most formidable armature. They appear to be but loosely attached to
+the skin, and readily fall out, a circumstance which no doubt gave rise
+to the belief prevalent among the ancients (and many moderns) that the
+Porcupine was able to shoot his spines at an approaching enemy, or even
+to project them behind him at a pursuer when he was rushing away in
+search of a place of safety. The tail of the animal bears at its tip
+about twenty spines of very curious construction; they are about two
+inches long, hollow, open, and cut off square at the end, and about a
+quarter of an inch in diameter for the greater part of their length,
+but they are inserted into the skin by the extremity of a thin stalk
+half an inch long.</p>
+
+<p>The Porcupine lives in holes among the rocks, or in a burrow, which he
+makes for himself in ordinary ground. In this retreat he passes the
+day in sleep, coming forth in the evening in search of food, which
+consists of herbage of various kinds, fruits, roots, and the bark and
+leaves of trees and bushes. He is slow in his movements, and does
+not even display much activity in burrowing. His habits are solitary
+except during the pairing season; and during the winter he passes
+most of his time in his habitation, without, however, falling into a
+torpid state. The pairing takes place early in the year, but varies
+in this respect according to the climate of the locality; and in the
+spring or early summer the female produces from two to four young, in a
+nest carefully lined with leaves, grasses, roots, and other vegetable
+substances. The young Porcupines are born with their eyes open, and
+their bodies are covered with short, soft spines, which are pressed
+closely to the body. These speedily harden and grow longer, and the
+young do not appear to remain very long with their mother. The flesh of
+the Porcupine, like that of most purely vegetable-feeding Rodents, is
+very good, and is eaten in the countries where the animal occurs. When
+pursued or irritated, he stands on the defensive, erects his formidable
+quills and crest, stamps on the ground with his hind feet after the
+manner of a Hare, jerks himself towards the object of his dread, as if
+to wound it with his spines, and at the same time produces a curious
+noise by rattling the open quills of the tip of his tail. But all these
+manœuvres are generally in vain, and the Porcupine, in spite of his
+defensive armour, is pretty easily captured by those who know how to
+set about it. The Leopard is said to manage the business at once by a
+single blow of his paw on the head.</p>
+
+<p>A very similar Porcupine (<i>Hystrix hirsutirostris</i>) takes the place
+of this species in Syria and Asia Minor, and extends thence eastward
+to India; another (<i>H. javanica</i>) inhabits the Sunda Islands; and the
+district of Nepaul has a peculiar species of its own. In Siam and
+Malacca, and on the west coast of Africa, we find two species of an
+allied genus, in which the spines of the body are comparatively short
+and depressed, and the tail is elongated, scaly, with a few scattered
+bristles in the middle, and with a large tuft of long flat bristles at
+the tip. The Malayan species (<i>Atherura fasciculata</i>) is about eighteen
+inches long, the African one (<i>A. africana</i>) about fourteen inches.
+Both are somewhat rat-like in their form.</p>
+
+<p id="couendou">The Tree Porcupines, forming the second sub-family, several species
+with prehensile tails, range over the continent of South America, east
+of the Andes, and one of them, the Mexican Tree Porcupine (<i>Sphingurus
+mexicanus</i>), is found as far north as Guatemala and Southern Mexico.
+The most abundant and widely-distributed species in the Brazilian
+region are the C<span class="smaller">OUENDOU</span> (<i>Sphingurus prehensilis</i>) and the
+C<span class="smaller">OUIY</span> (<i>S. villosus</i>), inhabiting Guiana, Brazil, and Bolivia,
+the latter being found throughout the forest region of Brazil and as
+far south as Paraguay.</p>
+
+<p>These animals are of considerable size, usually measuring from sixteen
+to twenty inches in length without the tail, which is about one-third
+the length of the head and body. By the aid of the prehensile tip
+of this organ they climb with great facility and security upon the
+branches of the trees, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span> their feet are also specially adapted for
+this particular mode of activity, and they are said even to climb
+the palm-trees in order to feed upon their fruit. They are nocturnal
+in their habits, passing the day in sleep concealed in the fork of
+a branch, and going abroad at night in search of their food, which
+consists of fruits of various kinds, and the buds, leaves, and even
+flowers, of the trees on which they live. Roots also form a part of
+their nourishment, probably when they reside rather among thickets than
+in the high forest. Their spines, although short when compared with
+those of the Common Porcupine, are formidable defensive weapons when
+the animal erects them; in some species, as especially in the Couiy,
+they are concealed, when depressed, by the long hair, and, according
+to Hensel, this serves as a protection to the animal from rapacious
+birds, for, when it sits in a heap, sleeping away the daylight, these
+soft grey hairs give it a most deceptive resemblance to a mass of
+the beard-moss which so commonly grows on the trees in the Brazilian
+forests.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_136">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_136.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TREE PORCUPINE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="urson">The U<span class="smaller">RSON</span>, or C<span class="smaller">ANADA</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span> (<i>Erythizon
+dorsatus</i>), the only North American species of the family, according
+to Mr. Allen, although other writers distinguish two or three such
+forms, is about two feet or more in length when full grown, and is
+covered with woolly hair, and with long coarse hair of a dark brown
+colour, with the points white or yellowish, this difference in the
+colour of the tips of the hairs being the chief distinction between the
+two varieties which Mr. Allen recognises. The spines in both forms are
+white, with the points usually dusky or brown. The Canada Porcupine
+is distributed through the whole of the Eastern United States, except
+on the seaboard, from New York to Virginia, and north of the States
+through Canada, as far as the limit of trees. The Western Porcupine,
+which has the tips of the long hairs yellowish (whence it has received
+the name <i>E. epixanthus</i>), occurs west of the Missouri river, extending
+to the Pacific shores and going southward along the mountains to
+Arizona and New Mexico, and northwards at least as far as Alaska and
+Sitka.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe33" id="i_137">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_137.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MEXICAN TREE PORCUPINES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although a heavy and clumsy-looking beast, and destitute of the
+prehensile tail of its South American cousins, this Porcupine is a
+good climber, and passes nearly the whole of its life upon trees;
+nevertheless, according to Mr. Allen, it may be met with travelling
+upon the prairies, probably on its way from one suitable residence to
+another. On the ground it moves slowly, but its armature of spines is a
+protection against most of its enemies, and it has the art of striking
+very forcible and judicious blows with its spiny tail. Audubon and
+Bachmann mention many cases in which Dogs, Wolves, and even a Puma were
+found dead or dying in consequence of the severe inflammation caused
+by the spines of this animal sticking about their mouths; and the
+former gives an interesting account of a lesson in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span> urbanity given by
+a captive Urson to a Mastiff that attacked him. The food of the Urson
+consists of various vegetable substances, fruits, buds, and the young
+shoots and leaves of trees. In the winter it subsists chiefly upon the
+bark, which it strips off the upper branches of the trees, and when it
+has taken up its abode upon a tree it stays there until the suitable
+bark has been consumed. As it prefers young trees this operation is
+generally effected pretty quickly, and in this way it is estimated
+that a single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span> Porcupine may destroy hundreds of trees in the course
+of a winter. The Urson resides in the holes of trees, and in such
+situations, or in crevices among the rocks, the female prepares her
+nest, in which she brings forth usually two, but occasionally three or
+four, young in April or May.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="chinchillidae">FAMILY XIII.&mdash;CHINCHILLIDÆ (THE CHINCHILLAS).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Chinchillas, which form a small family peculiar to South
+America, the incisor teeth are short; the molars are rootless, divided
+by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates, and the two
+series in each jaw converge towards the front; the zygomatic arch has
+no angular process on the lower margin; the clavicles are slender but
+perfect; the fore limbs are small, the hind limbs long; the tail of
+moderate length or long, and turned up at the end; and the fur is very
+fine and soft. They are Rodents of moderate size and more or less of
+Rabbit-like appearance, except that the tail is always elongated and
+bushy. Of the five known species, four are inhabitants of the mountain
+regions, and one lives in the plains of the region of La Plata.</p>
+
+<p id="viscacha">The latter, the V<span class="smaller">ISCACHA</span> (<i>Lagostomus trichodactylus</i>), is a
+stout-built and almost Marmot-like creature, from eighteen inches to
+two feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures from six to eight
+inches. It has four toes on the fore limbs, and three on the hind feet,
+the latter furnished with long, compressed, and pointed nails; the
+muffle is broad and covered with a velvet-like coat of brown hair; the
+fur, which is soft and moderately long, is of a mottled grey colour
+above, and white or yellowish-white beneath; on each cheek there is a
+dark band; a white band crosses the muzzle and runs back on each side
+almost as far as the eye; the tail is dusky-brown or black.</p>
+
+<p>The Viscacha lives on the Pampas from Buenos Ayres to the borders
+of Patagonia, and where it occurs is generally to be found in great
+numbers, residing in extensive burrows which it digs for itself in the
+ground, generally in the neighbourhood of copses, and, if possible,
+near cultivated fields. Each burrow has a great number of passages
+leading down to several chambers, in which the Viscachas live in family
+parties to the number of eight or ten. The Burrowing Owl already
+mentioned as an associate of the Prairie Dogs of North America, is
+found about the settlements of the Viscachas, living in their burrows,
+but it is said that the intrusion of these birds immediately drives out
+the real owners of the dwelling, as the Owls will not observe those
+rules of cleanliness which are characteristic of their unwilling hosts.
+Of course the expelled family has to make itself a new residence, and
+in this way great stretches of country come to be so undermined that
+they are dangerous to ride over. According to Mr. Darwin, the most
+favourite resort of the Viscachas in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres
+are those parts of the plain which, during half the year, are covered
+with great thistles.</p>
+
+<p>They are nocturnal in their habits, passing the day sleeping in the
+recesses of their burrows, and coming forth in the twilight one by
+one, until a large and lively company is to be seen playing about the
+neighbourhood of their holes. When all is quiet they go in search of
+their food, which consists of grasses and other herbage and roots, and
+sometimes of the bark of trees and shrubs. In cultivated fields they
+may do considerable damage. While engaged in feeding, one or other
+of the party is perpetually on the watch, and the moment anything
+occurs to cause alarm, the whole of them scamper away with their tails
+elevated, to take refuge in their holes. In their movements they are
+very like Rabbits, but less active.</p>
+
+<p>The Viscacha has the very singular habit of dragging all sorts
+of hard objects to the mouth of its burrow, where bones, stones,
+thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry cow-dung, and other chance
+articles may be found collected into a heap, frequently, according
+to Mr. Darwin, amounting to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain.
+Mr. Darwin says that he was informed that “a gentleman riding on
+a dark night dropped his watch; he returned in the morning, and
+by searching in the neighbourhood of every Viscacha hole on the
+line of road, as he expected, soon found it.” The purpose of this
+accumulation of apparently useless articles by the Viscacha has never
+been ascertained. It has been compared to the habit of some of the
+Australian Bower-birds, which adorn their playing-places with bright
+and glittering objects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_139">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_139.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">VISCACHAS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_139_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chinchillas of the Andes, or Alpine Chinchillas, are much lighter
+and more elegant animals than their cousins of the plains; in form they
+more resemble Squirrels or large Dormice. Their fur is excessively
+soft, perhaps the softest that clothes any animal, and in all the
+species it is of a grey<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span> colour, mottled or clouded with darker and
+lighter tints. The ears are of large size. They are confined to the
+Andes of Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, where they live among the bare rocks
+at a considerable elevation, seeking refuge in natural clefts and
+cavities, sleeping in their holes during the day, and coming forth at
+twilight in search of food. They are exceedingly lively and active in
+their movements, and very shy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_139a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_139a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH TEETH OF THE CHINCHILLA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="common_chinchilla">The C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span> (<i>Chinchilla lanigera</i>), the skins of
+which are well known as furs, is a squirrel-like animal, nine or ten
+inches long, with a tail more than half this length. It has large
+rounded ears; its fore feet have five, and its hind four, toes. Its
+fur on the upper part is grey, elegantly marbled with dusky or black,
+on the lower surface yellowish-white; the tail is black above, and
+dirty white at the sides and beneath. The incisors are of a bright
+orange colour in front. The S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span> (<i>C.
+brevicaudata</i>), a larger species, has the tail only three inches
+long. Its fur is of a general silvery-grey hue, tinged with black,
+especially along the back, and the tail has two dark bands on its upper
+surface. Both these animals inhabit Peru, and the former is also found
+in Bolivia and Chili. They are exceedingly abundant, notwithstanding
+the constant persecution to which they are subjected for the sake of
+their skins. They come out of their holes even in the daytime, but then
+always keep on the shady side of the rocks. Their activity is described
+as wonderful, and they will run with great rapidity up perpendicular
+walls of rock which seem to offer no hold for their feet. On the ground
+they are said to run very much after the fashion of our common Mice.
+The Chinchilla seems to breed nearly all the year round, and the female
+is said to produce from four to six young at a birth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_139b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_139b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CHINCHILLA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="cuviers_chinchilla">The other two species of Alpine Chinchillas are placed in a separate
+genus, characterised by a more hare-like form, longer ears, and the
+presence of only four toes on both fore and hind feet. C<span class="smaller">UVIER</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span> (<i>Lagidium Cuvieri</i>) is about eighteen or twenty inches
+long, of an ashy-grey colour with a yellowish tinge above, and pale
+yellow beneath; the tail, which, with the hair, is nearly as long as
+the body is clothed beneath with short black hairs, and above with much
+longer bushy hairs, gradually increasing in length towards the tip,
+where they are black; a black line passes down the middle of the tail,
+and its sides are dirty white. The P<span class="smaller">ALE</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLA</span>
+(<i>Lagidium pallipes</i>), which is about the same size as the preceding,
+but has a shorter tail, is ashy grey, with a brownish tinge, becoming
+yellowish fawn colour beneath. The range of these animals seems to be
+the same as that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span> of the true Chinchilla, but the second of them passes
+northwards into the mountains of Ecuador. In their habits they agree
+with the Chinchillas.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="DASYPROCTIDAE">FAMILY XIV.&mdash;DASYPROCTIDÆ (AGOUTIS).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Agoutis we have the first of three more or less pig-like
+families, furnished with hoof-like nails on the toes, all the members
+of which are inhabitants of South America. The Agoutis especially may
+be compared to small slender-limbed Pigs, but they bear a still closer
+resemblance in external form to the little Musk Deer. The Dasyproctidæ
+have the incisors long; the molars, which are at first rootless,
+and afterwards close up, have enamel folds from both surfaces; the
+clavicles are rudimentary; the upper lip entire; the ears short; the
+tail short and naked, or quite rudimentary; and the fore feet have five
+toes.</p>
+
+<p>Of these animals eight or nine species are known. They inhabit South
+America, from Mexico southwards to Paraguay and Bolivia, and some of
+them also occur in the larger West Indian Islands. They frequent the
+forest region, and especially haunt the banks of rivers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17" id="i_140a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_140a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLAR TEETH OF THE AGOUTI.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="agouti">The A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span> (<i>Dasyprocta aguti</i>), the most abundant and
+best-known species, is found chiefly in Guiana, Brazil, and eastern
+Peru, where it is to be found plentifully in the primeval forests. Like
+the other true Agoutis, it has only three toes on the hind foot; its
+ears are of moderate size and rounded; its form compact, and supported
+upon slender limbs; its tail rudimentary; and the hair of its back
+is coarse and harsh, and longer towards the hinder parts, which thus
+obtain a somewhat truncated appearance. Its general colour is olive
+brown, produced by a mixture of black and yellow; but the long hairs
+covering the hinder portion of the back are usually of an orange
+colour, and the middle line of the abdomen is whitish or yellow. This
+animal is from eighteen to twenty inches long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_140b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_140b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AZARA’S AGOUTI. (From the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society</i>.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although inhabiting the forests, the Agouti is not unfrequently seen on
+the neighbouring grassy plains, but its residence is among the trees,
+in the hollows of which, or in cavities at their roots, it takes up
+its abode, generally lying concealed in its retreat during the day.
+It is very quick in its movements, runs well, and springs with almost
+the agility of an Antelope. The food of the Agouti consists of almost
+any vegetable substances that come in its way. It will eat grass
+and herbage, the roots of plants, their flowers and fruit, and when
+it lives in the neighbourhood of sugar plantations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span> and gardens its
+inroads may give rise to considerable injury. The animal is, however,
+rather solitary in its habits, living by itself in its cell, in its
+departure from and return to which it appears generally to follow
+exactly the same roads, by which means a narrow but very distinct
+footpath is in course of time produced. This naturally often leads to
+the discovery and capture of the little recluse.</p>
+
+<p>The Agouti appears to breed all the year round, usually producing
+two young ones at a birth. The female prepares her dwelling for the
+reception of her family by lining it comfortably with leaves, fine
+roots, and hair.</p>
+
+<p id="azaras_agouti">In the southern parts of Brazil, in Paraguay and Bolivia, the place of
+this species is taken by A<span class="smaller">ZARA</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> A<span class="smaller">GOUTI</span> (<i>Dasyprocta Azaræ</i>).
+A smaller species, the A<span class="smaller">COUCHY</span> (<i>D. acouchy</i>), is found not
+only in Guiana and the north of Brazil, but also in several of the West
+India Islands. The last-named species has a well-developed tail about
+two inches long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe20" id="i_141a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_141a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE PACA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="paca">Besides the Agoutis, this family includes an allied animal, the
+P<span class="smaller">ACA</span> (<i>Cœlogenys paca</i>), which differs generically from the
+Agoutis by having five toes on the hind feet. It has a broader head
+and a blunter muzzle, and is altogether a rather stouter animal than
+the Agoutis; but, like most of them, it has a mere tubercle instead
+of a tail. One of the most remarkable characters presented by this
+animal, however, is the enormous development of the zygomatic arches,
+which are enlarged and inflated in the most extraordinary manner,
+the maxillary portion, which occupies the anterior two-thirds being
+hollowed out beneath into a great chamber, lined with mucous membrane,
+and opening into the mouth by a rather small aperture. The function of
+these remarkable cavities is at present quite unknown. Food is not to
+be found in them, and, indeed, as they are enclosed by solid bone, it
+would seem impossible that they could act as cheek-pouches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_141b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_141b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PACA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Paca, which inhabits Central and South America from Guatemala to
+Paraguay, is about two feet long, and is clothed with short rather
+coarse hair of a brown or yellowish-brown colour above, white beneath,
+with from three to five bands of white streaks and spots upon each
+side<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span> of the body. In its habits the Paca very much resembles the
+Agouti. It usually lives singly, or sometimes in pairs, on the borders
+of the forests, or near the banks of rivers, taking up its abode during
+the day either in a hole at the root of some tree, or in a burrow
+excavated by its own labour, which is generally carried to a depth of
+four or five feet. Its food consists of the leaves, fruits, and flowers
+of various plants, and, like the Agouti, it occasionally does mischief
+in the corn-fields and gardens. The female produces only one, or at
+most two, young at a birth. The Paca swims well, and can cross even a
+broad river in this way. Its flesh, like that of the Agouti, is very
+well flavoured, and is consumed both by natives and Europeans.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="DINOMYDAE">FAMILY XV.&mdash;DINOMYIDÆ.</p>
+
+<p>This family has been founded for the reception of a single species,
+of which only a single specimen has hitherto been obtained. It is
+described by Professor Peters under the name of <i>Dinomys Branickii</i>.
+In its external appearance it closely resembles the Paca (<i>Cœlogenys
+paca</i>), but may at once be distinguished from that animal by its
+possession of only four toes both before and behind. The ears are short
+and rounded; the upper lip deeply cleft; the incisors very broad;
+the molars four on each side, and divided into transverse plates by
+folds of enamel; the clavicles are imperfect; and the tail of moderate
+length and well clothed with hair. The animal, which inhabits the high
+mountain regions of Peru, is of the size of the Paca, or about two
+feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures rather more than nine
+inches. Its general colour is grey, produced by the sprinkling of white
+among nearly black hairs; and on each side of the body are numerous
+large white spots, of which the upper ones nearly run together, so as
+to form two longitudinal bands. The extremity of the tail is black.</p>
+
+<p>The only known example of this Rodent was obtained by M. Constantin
+Jelski at the Colonie Amable Maria, on the Montaña de Vitoc, in Peru,
+having been found at daybreak walking about the yard. It showed no
+fear of man, and was easily killed by a sword cut or two on the
+head. The species would appear to be rare, as the inhabitants of the
+neighbourhood were not acquainted with it. Of course nothing is known
+of its habits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_142">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_142.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">THE DINOMYS. (<i>After Peters.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief interest at present attaching to this animal, therefore,
+consists in its peculiar combination of characters. Externally, as
+already stated, it resembles the Paca, with which it also agrees in
+the S-like form of the nostrils, and in the structure of the limbs
+(except the number of toes). In the lamellar structure of the molar
+teeth, in the structure of the skull, and of the skeleton generally,
+and especially in the flattened form of the front of the sternum
+and the development of clavicles, it differs from the Paca and all
+other Rodents with hoof-like nails. In some minor particulars it
+resembles the Capybara. By the structure of the molar teeth and certain
+osteological characters, it is most nearly allied to the Chinchillas;
+while it approaches the genus <i>Capromys</i> among the Octodontidæ in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span>
+the structure of the limbs and of some other parts of the skeleton.
+Professor Peters is evidently inclined to regard it as most nearly
+related to the Chinchillidæ, but as constituting a group establishing a
+closer union than previously existed between the families Chinchillidæ,
+Octodontidæ, Dasyproctidæ, and Caviidæ.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="CAVIIDAE">FAMILY XVI.&mdash;CAVIIDÆ (CAVIES).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This family, the last of the simple-toothed Rodents, includes a small
+number of species, of which the Common Guinea-pig may serve as a sort
+of type. The Guinea-pig is, however, one of the smaller species of
+the family, and is shorter in the limbs than most of its relatives.
+They have the incisor teeth short, that is to say, not extending far
+back in the jaw; the molars are rootless, variously divided by folds
+of enamel into lobes, the angles of which are acute; the palate is
+narrow in front, so that the upper series of molars approach each other
+rather closely in front; the clavicles are rudimentary or wanting;
+the fore limbs have four and the hind feet only three toes, all armed
+with hoof-like nails; the upper lip is not cleft; and the tail is
+rudimentary or wanting. They are stout, more or less rabbit-like
+animals, with a soft coat, and the ears variable in length; and they
+are confined to the continent of South America, where they chiefly
+inhabit the plains.</p>
+
+<p id="restless_cavy">The R<span class="smaller">ESTLESS</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span> (<i>Cavia aperea</i>), which is commonly regarded
+as the wild original of the so-called Guinea-pig (<i>Cavia cobaya</i> of
+some authors), is abundant on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and
+extends thence northwards through Paraguay into Bolivia and Brazil.
+It is usually about nine inches long, with the fur of the upper
+part and sides of the body composed of a mixture of black and dingy
+yellow hairs, the chest greyish-brown, and the throat and belly pale
+dingy-yellow or brownish-grey. The incisor teeth are white. The genus
+to which this animal belongs may be at once distinguished from the
+other two genera constituting the family by the shortness of the limbs;
+the ears also are short; the feet are naked beneath; the hind toes are
+not webbed; and the molar teeth are nearly equal in size, and each
+composed of two angular lobes.</p>
+
+<p>The specific name of the Restless Cavy seems to be derived from
+its popular name in the country where it occurs. According to Mr.
+Darwin, it is very common about the banks of the La Plata, sometimes
+frequenting sandy hillocks, and the hedge-rows formed of the agave and
+the prickly pear, but apparently preferring marshy places covered with
+aquatic plants. In dry places it makes a burrow; but when it frequents
+wet localities contents itself with the concealment afforded to it by
+the herbage. Rengger describes it also as generally haunting moist
+situations in Paraguay, and he adds that it keeps near the borders
+of forests, but is never found either in the forests or in the open
+fields. It lives in small societies of from six to fifteen individuals,
+in the impenetrable thickets of Bromelias, where its presence is
+revealed by the numerous beaten paths which it produces by going to
+and fro. In Bolivia, according to Mr. Bridges, it is peculiar to the
+low lands, and there takes shelter among the loose stones of the walls
+enclosing the fields. It is active in search of food early in the
+morning and in the evening, but will also come forth on gloomy days.
+Rengger and Azara both agree in the statement that the female produces
+only one or two young at a time; but the former says that this takes
+place only once in the year, whilst the latter describes the animal
+as breeding all the year round, and, indeed, in this way accounts for
+its abundance, notwithstanding its being preyed upon so extensively by
+rapacious birds and quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether our common Guinea-pig is really the domesticated
+descendant of the animal just described can hardly be regarded as
+finally settled, and, indeed, independently of colour, there are
+sufficient differences between them to justify some doubt on the
+subject. The name Guinea-pig may, as Mr. Waterhouse suggests, be a
+mistake for Guiana-pig, and the first specimens may very probably have
+come from that part of America. Its prevalent colours, as is well
+known, are combinations of white, black, and yellow, and as these
+colours are shown in the drawings of Aldrovandus, dating back to within
+fifty years of the discovery of South America, there seems every
+reason to believe that the animal must have been long domesticated in
+America prior to its introduction into Europe. On the other hand, Dr.
+Rengger says that he saw fourteen Apereas representing the fifth or
+sixth generation from a single couple domesticated about seven years
+before, and that these exhibited no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span> difference of colouring from the
+wild animal. Several allied species inhabit the great plains of South
+America.</p>
+
+<p id="bolivian_cavy">The B<span class="smaller">OLIVIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span> (<i>Cavia boliviensis</i>), which is grey in
+colour, with a faint yellowish tinge, with the throat and belly white,
+the feet whitish, and the incisor teeth orange yellow, inhabits
+the elevated parts of Bolivia, generally at a height of 10,000 or
+12,000 feet. The R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span> (<i>Cavia rupestris</i>) is found in
+rocky districts in Brazil, where it shelters itself in holes and
+crevices. It is always found near the upper waters of rivers, and is
+a large species, measuring thirteen or fourteen inches in length. The
+S<span class="smaller">OUTHERN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span> (<i>Cavia australis</i>), on the other hand, is a
+small species which inhabits Patagonia, where it ranges from 39° S.
+lat. to the Strait of Magellan.</p>
+
+<p id="mara">This part of the world is also the abode of another and much larger
+species of the family, the P<span class="smaller">ATAGONIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">AVY</span> or M<span class="smaller">ARA</span>
+(<i>Dolichotis patachonica</i>), an animal which somewhat resembles the
+Agouti in the length and comparative slenderness of its legs, and
+differs from all other Cavies in having tolerably long, pointed ears.
+It also possesses a very short tail. The molar teeth are rather small,
+and resemble those of the Guinea-pig in being formed of two nearly
+equal angular lobes, but the last molar in the upper jaw, and the
+first in the lower jaw, have three such lobes. The animal is somewhat
+Hare-like in its appearance, and has been mistaken for a Hare by
+superficial observers. It is, however, a much larger animal, measuring
+from thirty to thirty-six inches in length, and weighing from twenty to
+thirty-six pounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_144">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_144.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PATAGONIAN CAVY.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Patagonian Cavy is clothed with a dense crisp fur of a grey colour
+on the upper part of the head and body, rusty yellow on the flanks,
+and white on the chin, throat, and belly; the rump is black, with a
+broad white band crossing it immediately above the tail. It inhabits
+Patagonia about as far south as 48°, and extends northwards into the
+La Plata territory as far as Mendoza. It is found only in the sterile
+desert part of the country, where the gravelly plains are thinly
+covered with a few stunted thorny bushes and a scanty herbage. The
+northern limit of the species, according to Mr. Darwin, is at the point
+where the vegetation of the plains becomes rather more luxuriant. The
+Patagonian Cavy usually burrows in the ground, but where it lives
+in the same region as the Viscacha, it will take advantage of the
+excavations made by that animal. It wanders to considerable distances
+from its home, and on these excursions two or three are usually seen
+together. Mr. Darwin says:&mdash;“It is a common feature in the landscape of
+Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these Cavies hopping
+one after the other over the gravelly plains.” Their mode of running,
+on the same authority, more nearly resembles that of the Rabbit than of
+the Hare; though their limbs are long, they do not run very fast. They
+rarely squat like a Hare, but are very shy and watchful, and feed by
+day, in connection with which it is to be observed that the eyes are
+defended from the direct rays of the sun by well-developed eyelashes,
+which do not occur in the other Cavies. The female produces generally
+two young at a birth, which are brought forth and suckled in the burrow.</p>
+
+<p id="capybara">The C<span class="smaller">APYBARA</span> (<i>Hydrochœrus capybara</i>), the only other member
+of the present family, is the largest of all existing Rodents, large
+specimens measuring over four feet in length. It is a stout-built and
+massive animal, with limbs of moderate length, a large head with a very
+blunt muzzle, small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span> eyes and ears, no tail, and both the fore and hind
+feet webbed. The upper incisor teeth have a broad and shallow groove
+down the front, and the molars present very remarkable characters. In
+the upper jaw the first three molars are each composed of two lobes
+united by cement, and on the outside of each of these lobes there is
+a fold of enamel which passes deeply into the tooth. The last molar
+consists of one lobe similar to those of the preceding teeth, but in
+place of the second there are ten or a dozen transverse plates. The
+first two molars of the lower jaw exhibit complex lobes and folds
+of enamel; the third and fourth a combination of folded lobes and
+transverse plates.</p>
+
+<p>In its general form the Capybara is more pig-like than any of its
+relatives, and, indeed, its generic name, <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, Water-pig,
+recalls this resemblance, and at the same time intimates its aquatic
+habits. Its coat is composed of long and coarse hairs, often five or
+six inches long on the hinder parts, of a reddish-brown colour above,
+and a dirty brownish-yellow beneath. It is distributed over the whole
+eastern part of South America, from Guiana southwards to the Rio de la
+Plata, and ranges westwards into the lower parts of Peru and Bolivia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_145">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_145.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOLARS OF THE CAPYBARA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Capybaras frequent the borders of the lakes and rivers, with which
+all this part of the South American continent abounds, and, according
+to Mr. Darwin, they used to frequent the islands in the mouth of the
+La Plata, where the water is quite salt. In this part of America they
+are called “Carpinchos.” They never wander far from the water-side,
+and show a marked preference for the larger rivers, among the reeds
+and other plants fringing which they take up their abode. In populous
+districts they seem to pass the day in concealment, coming forth in
+search of food only at morning and evening, but where they are less in
+danger of pursuit they come out freely in the day-time. Seen from a
+little distance when walking they have much the appearance of Pigs, but
+they lose this when they sit, like the other Cavies, on their haunches.
+When danger threatens they emit a short, sharp bark, and immediately
+plunge into the water, where they swim about with little more than
+the nostrils above the surface; but under pressing circumstances
+they can dive and swim for a considerable distance under water. When
+swimming, the female is said to take her young ones on her back. About
+Maldonado Mr. Darwin observed that the Capybaras were usually to be
+seen only three or four together, but they are more numerous and go in
+larger companies more in the interior of the country. They constitute
+the ordinary food of the Jaguar, and are also eaten by the Indians,
+although their flesh is said not to be very good. The female produces
+five or six young at a birth, but has only one litter in the year. The
+young follow their mother about at a very early age.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="SUB_ORDER_II_DOUBLE_TOOTHED_RODENTS"><span class="s4">SUB-ORDER
+II.&mdash;DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>With the Cavies concludes the long series of simple-toothed Rodents,
+and some of them, as we have seen, present no small resemblance to the
+Hares and Rabbits which constitute the greater part of the second great
+group into which we have divided the order. The chief peculiarity of
+this section, as has been already stated, consists in the presence in
+the upper jaw of a pair of minute incisor teeth, placed immediately
+behind the large effective incisors; and in the newly-born animal the
+number of these teeth is even greater, there being six incisors in the
+upper jaw, two of which fall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span> out at an early period. Though the number
+of species included in this section is very considerable (about fifty,
+according to Mr. Wallace’s estimate), it includes only two families,
+and each of these contains only a single genus. We will commence with
+that which includes the best-known forms, the Hares and Rabbits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42_5" id="i_146">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_146.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CAPYBARA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="LEPORIDAE">FAMILY XVII.&mdash;LEPORIDÆ (HARES AND RABBITS).</p>
+
+<p>The general appearance of these animals hardly needs to be described,
+and we may, therefore, indicate merely the structural peculiarities
+which serve to define the family. These consist in the presence of
+six rootless molars on each side in the upper, and five in the lower
+jaw (<i>see</i> figure on p. 82), each molar being divided into lobes by
+transverse folds of enamel; in the compressed form of the skull and
+the presence of wing-like post-orbital processes of the frontal bones;
+in the imperfect condition of the clavicles; the greater development
+of the hind limbs; and the presence of a short, bushy, upturned tail.
+The ears are long; the inner surface of the cheeks is more or less
+clothed with short hairs; the fore-limbs have five, and the hind-limbs
+only four toes; and the soles of the feet are hairy throughout. In
+all these characters, however they may differ in some respects, all
+the true Hares and Rabbits agree. The representatives of this family
+occur in nearly all parts of the world, but chiefly in the northern
+hemisphere, and the few species which pass down within the tropics are
+generally found only in mountainous regions. In the north they reach
+the Arctic regions in both continents. In the Old World a few species
+are scattered over India and Further India, and four or five occur in
+Africa, but chiefly in the southern part of the continent. In North
+America the species are numerous, and some of them range southward into
+Central America; but South America has only a single species, which
+occurs in the mountains of Brazil and upon the Andes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span></p>
+
+<p>As the whole of the family consists of animals to which in common
+parlance the names of Hares and Rabbits are given, we may take as
+examples of it the Hares and Rabbits which are so abundant in Great
+Britain, the other species agreeing generally with one or other of them
+in character and habits.</p>
+
+<p>They may all be characterised as animals destitute of any means of
+defence against their enemies, except the rapidity of their movements,
+and as exceedingly shy and timid. Their general colour is a mixture
+of grey and brown, sometimes quite tawny, sometimes almost pure grey,
+and, as Mr. Bell remarks, “The admirable wisdom which has assigned such
+colours to a group of defenceless animals which conceal themselves
+amidst the brown sombre vegetation of woods and heaths, will appear
+more striking when it is recollected that certain species inhabiting
+the snowy regions of the north become wholly white in winter. All the
+members of the genus,” he adds, “are remarkable for their timidity,
+and their whole structure is such as at once to announce to them the
+presence of danger, and to enable them to escape from it. The eyes and
+ears are so formed and situate as to become instantly cognisant of even
+distant warnings of peril, and the limbs are admirably adapted for the
+most rapid flight.”</p>
+
+<p id="common_hare">This last statement applies in a special manner to the C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span>
+H<span class="smaller">ARE</span> (<i>Lepus europæus</i>), which is singularly well adapted for
+getting over the ground rapidly by the great length and powerful
+development of its hind legs. These organs are nearly twice as long as
+the fore limbs, and, as most of us are well aware, the bones composing
+them are set in motion by an enormous mass of solid muscle. Owing to
+their great preponderance the Hare, when moving slowly in search of
+food, goes with a sort of lolloping gait; but the moment there is
+occasion for him to move with rapidity, the disproportionate hind
+limbs stand him in good stead, and he shoots along over the ground by
+a series of long leaps, and with great swiftness. At the same time,
+it is observed that the length of its hind legs causes the Hare to
+run with much greater facility up hill than down, and, in fact, it
+is said that in descending steep inclines the animal is obliged to
+run obliquely in order to escape over-balancing itself. When pursued,
+the Hare has the art of making sudden turns in its course, known as
+“doubles” or “wrenches,” by which the Dogs in chase of it are thrown
+out, for although most Greyhounds are swifter of foot than a Hare, they
+are incapable of changing their course so sharply, and thus, while they
+are carried some distance onwards by their own impetus, their intended
+victim is making off in a different direction. They adopt other
+cunning artifices in order to escape from their pursuers, and some
+of these indicate a considerable amount of intelligence. Under such
+circumstances, and also in search of a more plentiful supply of food,
+the Hare will take to the water readily, and swim across rivers. Mr.
+Yarrell observed a Hare even swimming across an arm of the sea about a
+mile broad.</p>
+
+<p>The Hare lives chiefly in cultivated fields, where it resides in
+a small depression of the surface, which is called its “form.” It
+shifts the situation of this simple residence according to the season,
+selecting a shady spot in summer, and a sunny one in winter, and going
+into cover in wet weather. It is rather a nocturnal or crepuscular
+than a day-feeding animal, although it may not unfrequently be seen
+abroad in the day. In the evening and early in the morning it is most
+active, passing the brighter hours at rest in its form. When out in the
+field in search of food it goes hopping along among the herbage and
+cultivated plants, every now and then sitting upright on its haunches
+and listening with erected ears for the slightest sound indicative of
+approaching danger. Its food is exclusively of a vegetable nature, but
+it seems to embrace pretty nearly the whole round of cultivated plants.
+Cruciferous plants appear to be amongst its favourite articles of diet,
+but it also does much damage to fields of young wheat. In the winter,
+when the open fields are covered with snow frozen hard, and, indeed,
+sometimes in the summer, the Hare will make his way into gardens in
+search of food, or, if this resource is not at hand, into plantations
+of young trees, where it will gnaw off and feed upon the bark, thus
+destroying great numbers of the trees. Mr. S. Mawson has recorded
+finding the stomach of a Hare killed in winter filled with hawthorn
+berries. After its wanderings the Hare always returns to its own form.</p>
+
+<p>Hares pair when they are about a year old, and from that time produce
+several broods every year, each consisting of from two to five young,
+which are born covered with hair and with their eyes open. From Mr.
+Bell’s statement, these animals would appear to breed almost all the
+year<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span> round; he says that in mild winters young Hares have been found
+in January, and that he has known breeding continue till the middle
+of November. When captured young, the Hare may be easily tamed, and
+become an amusing pet, as, indeed, will be familiar to almost every
+one, through Cowper’s account of his Hares. Formerly the Hare used to
+be trained by jugglers to perform various tricks, one of which was the
+beating of a tambourine with its fore-feet, with which the animal will
+of its own accord drum upon the back of an offending companion. A relic
+of this practice is to be recognised in a common toy, which shows a
+small Hare sitting and beating a tambourine, its fore limbs being set
+in motion by the turning of the wheels of its stand.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Hare is found spread over the greater part of Europe, from
+the south of Sweden and northern Russia to the Mediterranean and the
+Caucasus. It does not occur in Ireland. It varies somewhat in colour in
+different localities, and although it does not become white in winter,
+the northern forms show a tendency in that direction, and the others
+acquire a greyish tint at the approach of the cold weather.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_148">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_148.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON HARE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="rabbit">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>, or C<span class="smaller">ONY</span> (<i>Lepus cuniculus</i>), differs from
+the Hare in various characters; its colour is a tawny brownish-grey,
+the disproportion between the fore and hind limbs is not so great,
+and the ears are shorter, not exceeding the head in length. Although
+the Wild Rabbit is so plentiful in England as to become a pest to
+the farmers in many places, it is supposed not to be a native of
+north-western and central Europe, but to have been naturalised in
+Britain, its original home being in the countries bordering the
+Mediterranean. It is, and always was, very abundant in Spain, the name
+of which country (Hispania) has been supposed to mean the “country of
+Conies,” from the Phœnician and Hebrew word <i>Schaphan</i>, the name of
+the Hyrax or Cony of the Bible. Even in the present<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span> day it is very
+local in its distribution north of the Alps, and is not found at all
+in eastern and northern Europe. In Australia it has proved to be a
+veritable scourge.</p>
+
+<p>In its habits the Rabbit differs from the Hare more than in its form
+and structure. Instead of contenting itself with a shallow depression
+as a resting-place on the surface of the ground, it digs deep holes
+in the ground, into which it may retire to sleep or at the approach
+of danger. It prefers light sandy soils for its residence, as these
+present great facilities for burrowing, and wherever particularly
+favourable conditions exist the Rabbits are to be found living together
+in very large societies. Furzy heaths are favourite places with them,
+as the ground is easily worked, and the furze bushes not only serve as
+a protection to the burrows, but furnish the Rabbit with an abundant
+supply of food, the young shoots being eaten off as high as the animals
+can reach when standing on their hind feet. In wet moors the Rabbits
+avoid burrowing, and live in runs and galleries formed in the matted
+heather and long herbage. Mr. Bell says that in more than one instance
+he has known a family to take possession of a hollow tree, ascending
+its inclined and decayed trunk for some distance.</p>
+
+<p>Like the Hare, the Rabbit is generally quiet during the day, although
+it will not unfrequently be abroad at all hours. The evening, however,
+is its principal time for activity, and then the inhabitants of the
+warren may be seen playing about near their abodes, or wandering to
+greater distances in search of the green vegetables on which they
+feed. The moment there is the smallest suspicion of danger, the whole
+company scamper off at once to seek safety in their burrows. As they
+go, their white tails are the most conspicuous objects to be seen, and
+the spectacle of some hundreds of them rushing along at full speed,
+vanishing one after the other down the burrows, is lively and amusing
+enough.</p>
+
+<p>The Rabbit begins breeding at six months old, and has several litters
+in each year. The young are usually from five to eight in number,
+sometimes even more; they are born blind and naked, and are produced in
+a separate burrow which the female digs for their reception, and lines
+with fur pulled from her own body. This brood-chamber has usually only
+a single entrance, and this the mother closes with earth after visiting
+and suckling her young family, which she is said to do only at night.</p>
+
+<p>When domesticated, the Rabbit, as is well known, differs materially
+from its wild state. It is larger, and its colours are usually white,
+black, brown, or fawn colour, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed in
+patches. Albinoes are common, and form a permanent race. The Angora
+Rabbit, which is usually albino, has the hairs very long; and the
+so-called “fancy Rabbits” have the ears more or less pendent at the
+sides of the head, and often so long as to touch the ground.</p>
+
+<p id="mountain_hare">A third British species is the M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span> (<i>Lepus
+variabilis</i>), or Northern Hare, an inhabitant of all the northern
+parts of both hemispheres, which occurs in most parts of Scotland, and
+in Ireland, where, indeed, it takes the place of the common Hare. In
+its summer coat it is of a light fulvous grey colour, and is further
+distinguished from the common Hare by the shortness of the ears and
+tail, the former being shorter than the head, and the latter little
+more than half its length. In cold climates this animal becomes pure
+white in the winter. This Hare is absent from Central Europe, but
+reappears on the chain of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>It will be unnecessary to enter into details with regard to the other
+species of this family, all of which more or less resemble those just
+described, both in appearance and habits. They are distributed over
+nearly the whole world except the Australian region, but they are
+most numerous in North America, where a great many species have been
+described, which are reduced by Mr. Allen to twelve. Four of these,
+however, present well-marked local races, which double the number of
+recognised permanent forms.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="LAGOMYDAE">FAMILY XVIII.&mdash;LAGOMYIDÆ (PIKAS).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In many respects the Pikas closely resemble the Hares, but they are
+distinguished by having only five molars on each side in each jaw,
+a depressed skull, with contracted frontal bones destitute of the
+wing-like process seen in the Hares, complete clavicles, short ears,
+limbs nearly equal in length, and no tail visible externally. They are
+much smaller than any of the Leporidæ, the largest being no larger
+than a Guinea-pig, to which the animals have some resemblance; while
+in their habits they somewhat resemble the Marmots. When feeding they
+often produce a chirping or whistling noise, whence the name of Piping
+Hares, or Calling Hares, has been applied to them. Ten or a dozen
+supposed species of these animals have been described, most of them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span>
+inhabiting the northern and mountainous parts of Asia, and one of these
+is also found in Europe, about the southern part of the Volga. In Asia
+species have been found as far south as the Himalayas and Nepaul. In
+North America a single species (<i>Lagomys princeps</i>) inhabits the Rocky
+Mountains, where it was first discovered by Sir John Richardson.</p>
+
+<p id="alpine_pika">The A<span class="smaller">LPINE</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span> (<i>Lagomys alpinus</i>), which inhabits Siberia
+from the Irtish eastwards into Kamtchatka, is a little animal from
+nine to nine and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour
+above, yellowish-grey beneath; the feet are pale, and the ears dirty
+yellowish-white within, becoming dusky towards the margin, which is
+white. This animal occurs in considerable numbers in the Alpine and
+sub-Alpine parts of Siberia, where it either burrows in the ground, or
+shelters itself in crevices of rocks or among loose stones. The Pikas
+generally come out only at night, although they sometimes venture
+forth on a cloudy day. Their food consists of the scanty herbage to
+be found in their elevated abode, and as this would be impossible to
+procure during the winter when the ground is thickly covered with snow,
+the Pikas take care in the autumn to collect a large supply of dried
+grasses and other herbage, which they pile up near their habitations
+like little haystacks. They are, however, sometimes deprived of the
+fruits of their labour by the Sable-hunters, who plunder the Pikas’
+stacks to feed their Horses. The female produces about six naked young
+early in the summer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_150">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_150.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ALPINE PIKA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="rocky_mountain_pika">The R<span class="smaller">OCKY</span> M<span class="smaller">OUNTAIN</span> P<span class="smaller">IKA</span> (<i>Lagomys princeps</i>) is a small
+species from six inches to seven and a half inches long, of a
+greyish-brown colour above, yellowish-brown on the sides, and greyish
+below. It received its specific name from its discoverer, Sir J.
+Richardson, in allusion to the name of “Little Chief Hare” given to it
+by the Indians. It inhabits the summits of the Rocky Mountains from
+Colorado northwards far within British America, and also occurs in the
+mountains of Utah, California, and Oregon. Mr. Allen describes its
+habits as follows:&mdash;“The animals are everywhere found in communities,
+living among the loose rocks from a little below timber-line nearly up
+to the snow-line. They appear to rarely wander many yards from their
+homes; are timid, yet easily become familiar. Though retreating to
+their homes when first alarmed, they soon come cautiously out one after
+another, till one may hear their sharp little cries in every direction.
+Their colour so nearly resembles that of the rocks they live among,
+that they are not easily seen, and their cry is of such a character as
+easily to mislead one in respect to the point from which it proceeds,
+seeming to be far away when only a few feet distant. They sit erect,
+like little Marmots.... They carry into fissures of the rocks large
+quantities of grass, which they lay up for winter consumption.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_V_I">CHAPTER V.<br />
+<span class="s5">FOSSIL RODENTIA.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Families of Rodents represented by Fossil Remains&mdash;State of the “Record of the Rocks”&mdash;<a href="#fossil_sciuridae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">CIURIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;Sciurine
+Genera now Extinct&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_anomaluridae">No Fossil A<span class="smaller">NOMALURIDÆ</span> and H<span class="smaller">APLODONTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_anomaluridae">I<span class="smaller">SCHYROMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<i>Pseudotomus hians</i>&mdash;<i>Gymnoptychus</i>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_castoridae">C<span class="smaller">ASTORIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#allens_castoroididae">Mr.
+Allen’s C<span class="smaller">ASTOROIDIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_myoxidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">YOXIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_lophiomyidae">No Fossil L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#no_fossil_lophiomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+M<span class="smaller">URIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_spalacidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PALACIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_spalacidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">EOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_dipodidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">IPODIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_theridomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">HERIDOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_octodontidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">CTODONTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_hystricidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+H<span class="smaller">YSTRICIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_chinchillidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_dasyproctidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">ASYPROCTIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_caviidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">AVIIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_leporidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">EPORIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#fossil_lagomyidae">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">AGOMYIDÆ</span></a>&mdash;<i>Mesotherium</i>
+<i>cristatum</i>&mdash;Difficulties concerning it&mdash;Mr. Alston’s Suggestion&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">EBETIDENTATA</span>&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Conclusions
+regarding it&mdash;Table of Rodent Families&mdash;Concluding Remarks.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> majority of the preceding families are more or less clearly
+represented by fossil remains, either in the younger strata of
+the earth’s crust, or in those cave-deposits of comparatively
+recent date which have furnished so many interesting relics of the
+Mammals of former days. It must be remarked, however, that while a
+considerable number of fossil Rodents have been named and described
+by palæontologists, the materials upon which many of them have been
+established are very imperfect; in a great number of cases isolated
+molar or even incisor teeth furnish the sole evidence of the existence
+of creatures which were manifestly Rodents, but of which the other
+characters are rather difficult to divine from such scanty material.
+Still, imperfect as may be “the record of the rocks” in this as in
+other instances, it is in some parts sufficiently complete to enable us
+to trace back the existence of many forms of gnawing Mammals through a
+long period of geological time.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_sciuridae">Of the S<span class="smaller">CIURIDÆ</span> a considerable number of fossil species
+have been recorded. Species of the genera <i>Sciurus</i>, <i>Arctomys</i>, and
+<i>Spermophilus</i>, some of them identical with those still existing,
+have left their remains in Post-Tertiary deposits and in bone-caves
+in various parts of Europe; while species belonging to the first two
+genera, and to the American genus <i>Tamias</i>, have been detected in
+similar situations in North America. A few forms referred to the same
+genera go down still lower in the series of geological formations.
+True Squirrels are recorded from Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits in
+France, and a single species from the Tertiaries (probably Miocene)
+of Colorado; Marmots from Pliocene and Miocene beds in the South of
+France, and from a Pliocene deposit in Nebraska; and a Spermophile from
+the Miocene of Weisenau in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these examples of known types, several fossils have been
+obtained both in Europe and America, which are regarded as indicating
+genera distinct from any now living. <i>Plesiarctomys Gervaisii</i> is
+founded on a fragment of jaw with four molars, obtained from Upper
+Eocene beds near Apt, Vaucluse. In its characters it appears to be
+intermediate between Squirrels and Marmots. <i>Pseudosciurus suevicus</i>,
+from the Upper Eocene (Bohnerz) of Würtemberg, seems to differ from
+all other Sciuridæ in the form of the molar teeth of the lower jaw,
+which are somewhat elongated, and have four tubercles arranged in two
+pairs, each pair being connected by a ridge. From the Tertiary deposits
+of the western territories of the United States, Professors Cope,
+Marsh, and Leidy have described several Sciurine Rodents as belonging
+to genera now extinct: thus <i>Paramys</i> has five species; <i>Sciuravus</i>
+(perhaps identical with the preceding), three; <i>Heliscomys</i>, <i>Mysops</i>,
+<i>Colonymys</i>, <i>Taxymys</i>, and <i>Tillomys</i>, one or two species each.</p>
+
+<p id="no_fossil_anomaluridae">Of the A<span class="smaller">NOMALURIDÆ</span> and  H<span class="smaller">APLODONTIDÆ</span> no fossil remains
+are known. On the other hand, a North American fossil Rodent, described
+by Dr. Leidy under the name of <i>Ischyromys typus</i>, is regarded by Mr.
+Alston as the type of a distinct family, the <i>Ischyromyidæ</i>, nearly
+allied to the Sciuridæ, but also showing an affinity to the Beaver
+in some of its characters. The specimen described and figured by Dr.
+Leidy was obtained by Dr. Hayden from Miocene deposits in the “Bad
+Lands” of Wyoming. It was originally referred to the Sciuridæ, with
+which it agrees in its dentition, but is distinguished by its large
+infra-orbital opening, the presence of a sagittal crest, and the
+absence of post-orbital processes. The parietal region of the skull is
+much narrowed, and in this, as in the large size of the infra-orbital
+opening, <i>Ischyromys</i> resembles the Musk Rat.</p>
+
+<p>Two other forms must be referred to here. Under the name of
+<i>Pseudotomus hians</i>, Professor Cope has described the remains of an
+animal which he believed to have been about the size of an Agouti, and
+originally thought to belong to the order Edentata. Subsequently he
+referred it to the Sciuridæ; but both Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen think
+that it may belong to the family Ischyromyidæ. In some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span> respects the
+skull resembles that of <i>Arctomys</i>, but it has the same contraction
+between the orbits as <i>Ischyromys</i> and <i>Fiber</i>. The incisor teeth are
+separated, and Professor Cope believes that the animal had only three
+molars on each side in each jaw. A still more doubtful member of the
+family is Professor Cope’s genus <i>Gymnoptychus</i>, which includes four
+species, all said to be from the “Tertiary of the Plains.” In this
+genus there are five molars above and four below on each side, as in
+<i>Ischyromys</i> and the Sciuridæ; but these teeth show two crescents on
+the inner side in the upper, on the outer side in the lower jaw, and
+each crescent gives origin to a cross-ridge running to the opposite
+margin of the tooth.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_castoridae">The C<span class="smaller">ASTORIDÆ</span>, including at present only a single species
+common to the northern parts of both hemispheres, are represented by
+several peculiar fossil forms. Remains of the Common Beaver (<i>Castor
+fiber</i>) are not uncommon in peat bogs and other late superficial
+deposits both in Europe and America; and, according to Sir R. Owen,
+in association with those of the Rhinoceros, Mammoth, and Mastodon,
+even in the Fluvio-marine Crag (Newer Pliocene) of Norfolk. In Belgium
+its bones have been found in caves. Among the Mammals from the Upper
+Tertiaries of the Sivalik Hills, Messrs. Falconer and Cautley record
+a Beaver distinct from the existing species, although nearly allied
+to it. The skull of a great Beaver, one-fifth larger than that of the
+living species, was obtained many years ago by M. Fischer from sandy
+deposits on the shores of the Sea of Azov, and, as it differed in
+some peculiarities of the teeth from <i>Castor fiber</i>, was described by
+him as constituting a distinct genus under the name of <i>Trogontherium
+Cuvieri</i>. It is now regarded as a true Beaver, and named <i>Castor
+Trogontherium</i>. The British species, described and figured by Sir R.
+Owen from the Norfolk Forest bed under the name of <i>Trogontherium
+Cuvieri</i>, is, however, quite distinct, and belongs to the genus
+<i>Diobroticus</i>, characterised by having the third upper and first lower
+molar teeth with four enamel folds, and the rest only with two, most of
+the folds soon becoming isolated as the teeth wear down. This animal
+must have been nearly twice the size of the European Beaver.</p>
+
+<p>At a still earlier period&mdash;namely, in the Miocene&mdash;the family Castoridæ
+was represented, both in Europe and America, by some small species,
+nearly agreeing with the Beavers in dentition, but differing in
+the characters of certain bones of the skull. These form the genus
+<i>Steneofiber</i>. The largest (<i>S. viciacensis</i>), from the Miocene of
+the Allier, was about half the size of the Beaver; another (<i>S.
+sansaniensis</i>), from the fresh-water limestone of Sansan, was about as
+large as a Rat; an American species (<i>S. nebrascensis</i>), from the “Bad
+Lands” of Dakota, was rather smaller than a Marmot, and presented some
+resemblance to the Agoutis in the characters of the teeth; and a fourth
+species (<i>S. pansus</i>) occurs in the Santa Fé marls. <i>Eucastor tortus</i>,
+a species rather smaller than a Marmot, is described by Dr. Leidy as
+very nearly related to the Beaver. Its remains were found in loose
+sands of the Niobrara River, Wyoming. <i>Chalicomys</i> and <i>Palæomys</i> are
+genera doubtfully placed here. Their species occur in the Miocene and
+Pliocene of Europe.</p>
+
+<p id="allens_castoroididae">Some bones of a gigantic Rodent, indicating an animal as large as a
+full-grown Black Bear, obtained from Quaternary and Alluvial deposits
+of various parts of the United States, have been described under the
+name of <i>Castoroides ohioensis</i>, Mr. J. W. Foster, its first describer,
+having an idea that it was a great Beaver. It has generally been
+known as the “Fossil Beaver” of North America, but several authors
+have entertained doubts of the correctness of this designation,
+and Mr. Allen has lately made it the type of a special family,
+C<span class="smaller">ASTOROIDIDÆ</span>, which he regards as most nearly related to the
+Chinchillidæ. In the general aspect of the skull it resembles the
+Beaver, but in several details of structure approaches the Viscacha;
+while the structure of the molar teeth, which consist of a series of
+plates of dentine, completely enclosed by enamel, and held together by
+a thin coating of cement, occurs elsewhere only in the Chinchillidæ,
+and in the last molar of the Capybara.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_myoxidae">Dormice as well as Squirrels disported themselves in the Tertiary
+woods and thickets of Europe, and remains of several species of
+M<span class="smaller">YOXIDÆ</span> occur in various deposits in France, Switzerland, and
+elsewhere, from the Upper Eocene onwards. <i>Myoxus glis</i>, the Garden
+Dormouse, has been identified with some doubt from the caves of Lunel
+Viel; and this is also probably the species occurring in the Belgian
+bone-caves, and described as <i>Myoxus priscus</i> by Dr. Schmerling. A
+species a little larger than the Dormouse occurs in Russian caves, and
+has received the name of <i>Myoxus fossilis</i> from M. Fischer; and the
+most striking species of all is also a Post-Pliocene form, namely,
+the gigantic Dormouse of Malta (<i>M. melitensis</i>). This animal, which
+seems to have been about the size of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span> Guinea-pig, must have been
+excessively abundant in Malta, for its describer, Professor Leith
+Adams, says that “its remains are met with in abundance throughout
+the cavern and fissure deposits, up even to the superficial alluvium
+now in course of formation.” From older times we have evidence of the
+existence of a Dormouse, about the size of the common species, at the
+time of the deposition of the gypsum of Montmartre (Upper Eocene),
+in which a well-preserved skeleton of the animal has been found. The
+same deposit has furnished traces of a second rather larger species.
+The Miocene of Switzerland and of Sansan has also yielded species of
+<i>Myoxus</i>; and Professor Hermann von Meyer has recorded a Dormouse from
+the Miocene of Weisenau, under the name of <i>Brachymys ornatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p id="no_fossil_lophiomyidae">No fossil L<span class="smaller">OPHIOMYIDÆ</span> have yet been detected, but the great
+family M<span class="smaller">URIDÆ</span> has left abundant evidence of its former
+existence. Species of the genera <i>Mus</i>, <i>Arvicola</i>, <i>Myodes</i>, and
+<i>Cricetus</i>, identical in many cases with those now living, have been
+obtained frequently in Post-Pliocene deposits and in bone-caves in
+Europe. Lemmings (<i>Myodes lemmus</i> and <i>torquatus</i>) are recorded
+from English caves. The genus <i>Mus</i> is also represented by several
+species in the Miocene deposits of France, and in the Sivalik beds
+investigated by Falconer and Cautley. The Miocene of Sansan has
+furnished a form which has been doubtfully regarded as a Gerbille, and
+named <i>Meriones Laurillardi</i>. In the same and other deposits of the
+same age in South-eastern France several species of an extinct genus
+(<i>Cricetodon</i>) have been obtained. Their dentition resembles that of
+the Hamster, but the first molars in both jaws have a tubercle less;
+the largest species (<i>C. sansaniensis</i>) rather exceeded the Hamster in
+size, while the smallest was less than a Mouse. Associated with some
+of these are two doubtful forms, <i>Decticus</i> and <i>Elomys</i>, the latter
+considered by M. Aymard, its describer, to be allied to <i>Hydromys</i>.
+The American fossil Muridæ are for the most part either species of the
+genus <i>Hesperomys</i>, or nearly related to it. Twelve species of that
+genus were obtained by Dr. Lund from the Brazilian bone-caves, but of
+these eight were identified by him with species still existing. In
+North America two species of a nearly-allied genus (<i>Eumys</i>) have been
+obtained from Miocene deposits; and the bone-caves of Pennsylvania
+furnish the remains of a species of <i>Neotoma</i> (<i>N. magister</i>), hardly
+distinguishable from the Florida Rat.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_spalacidae">A <i>Rhizomys</i> from the Sivalik deposits of North-western India is the
+only recorded fossil representative of the S<span class="smaller">PALACIDÆ</span>; and of
+the G<span class="smaller">EOMYIDÆ</span> the only known species are a <i>Geomys</i> from the
+Pliocene of Nebraska, nearly allied to, if not identical with, the
+living <i>G. bursarius</i>; and one from the “Tertiaries of the Plains,”
+described by Professor Cope as <i>Colotaxis cristatus</i>, which, however,
+has only three molars in the lower jaw.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_dipodidae">The D<span class="smaller">IPODIDÆ</span> are still more scantily represented. A Jerboa
+described by M. Fischer from Post-Pliocene deposits, probably of
+Tartary, is very nearly allied to the living <i>Dipus platurus</i>, but has
+shorter toes and broader cannon-bones. The genus <i>Dipoïdes</i>, from the
+“Bohnerz” of Würtemberg, is founded on a single tooth, and its position
+in this family is very doubtful.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_theridomyidae">On the other hand, some fossil allies of the Dipodidæ and Geomyidæ
+constitute a distinct family, for which Mr. Alston proposed the name of
+T<span class="smaller">HERIDOMYIDÆ</span>, from that of one of its genera, <i>Theridomys</i>.
+In this genus, of which six species are recorded from the Eocene and
+Miocene deposits of France, there are four rooted molars in each
+series, and each of these has several enamel folds, some of which are
+converted into isolated loops as the crown is worn away. The best
+known species is <i>Theridomys platiceps</i>, from the Miocene of Caylus.
+In <i>Archæomys chinchilloides</i> there are still four molars, but these
+present a very different structure; they are rootless, and have the
+enamel folds extending diagonally across the crown, so that they are
+composed of a series of plates, thus presenting a certain amount of
+resemblance to the Chinchillas, which American family <i>Archæomys</i> was
+at one time supposed to represent in Europe. In fact, in the structure
+of their molar teeth, both the above genera approach American types;
+but in other characters, especially the form of the lower jaw, they
+appear to have been decidedly Mouse-like, and Mr. Alston regards them
+as most nearly related to the Dipodidæ, with which they are joined by
+a third form referred to the family <i>Issiodoromys</i>, a genus sometimes
+placed with the Jerboas. The teeth in this genus are of the same
+number as in the preceding, but the molars are much simpler, each of
+them exhibiting one large re-entering fold of enamel, which causes the
+surface of the tooth to present two heart-shaped lobes. This structure
+is not dissimilar to that prevailing in some Dipodidæ, and especially
+in <i>Pedetes</i>, but it was formerly thought to indicate a relationship
+to the Cavies, and accordingly the best-known species has received
+the name of <i>Issiodoromys pseudanæma</i> (<i>Anæma</i> being a sub-genus of
+Cavies).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span> This species occurs abundantly in the Miocene lacustrine
+limestone near Issoire. A second species (<i>I. minor</i>) has been detected
+in the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-haute.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_octodontidae">Of the O<span class="smaller">CTODONTIDÆ</span>, an essentially American family at the
+present day, nearly all the recorded fossil forms are also American.
+Species of <i>Echinomys</i>, <i>Loncheres</i>, and <i>Phyllomys</i> were obtained by
+Dr. Lund from the Brazilian bone-caves, which also furnished him with
+the remains of a Coypu (<i>Myopotamus antiquus</i>), and of an allied form,
+<i>Carterodon sulcidens</i>, distinguished by its having broad incisors
+with longitudinal furrows and raised ridges. The latter has since been
+found living in South America. Another species, allied to <i>Echinomys</i>,
+is named by Lund <i>Lonchophorus fossilis</i>. The superficial deposits of
+South America have yielded the remains of two species of <i>Ctenomys</i>,
+one of which is believed to be identical with a recent species. As
+several species of this family now live in Africa, the occurrence in
+the eastern hemisphere of fossil forms belonging to it would not be
+surprising, but the few that have been referred to it are of very
+doubtful nature. M. Lartet obtained some isolated teeth from the
+Miocene of Sansan, which he described under the name of <i>Myopotamus
+sansaniensis</i>; and one or two other types (<i>Aulacodon</i>, <i>Adelomys</i>),
+from Upper Eocene and Miocene beds, are of very uncertain position.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_hystricidae">Of the H<span class="smaller">YSTRICIDÆ</span>, or Porcupines, remains have been obtained
+in both hemispheres. In the Old World traces of true Porcupines
+(<i>Hystrix</i>) are recorded from the Valley of the Arno, from the
+Sivaliks, the Pliocene deposits of the Auvergne, from Pikermi, and,
+on very doubtful evidence, from the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-basse;
+whilst Dr. Leidy has described two teeth from the Pliocene deposits of
+Dakota, as belonging to a species (<i>Hystrix venustus</i>) allied to the
+European Porcupine. This determination, if confirmed, would be of great
+interest, as no true Porcupine now occurs in America. Of the American
+type, two species of <i>Sphingurus</i> have been obtained from the Brazilian
+bone-caves; and Professor Cope records a species of the North American
+genus <i>Erythizon</i> from a similar cave in Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_chinchillidae">The C<span class="smaller">HINCHILLIDÆ</span> have left but scanty traces of their former
+existence. <i>Lagostomus brasiliensis</i> is from the Brazilian bone-caves;
+and <i>Megamys patagoniensis</i> from the Eocene sandstone of Patagonia. The
+latter species is founded upon a tibia and rotula, which on comparison
+seemed to approach most nearly to those of the Rodents of this family,
+and if the determination be correct it was probably one of the largest
+species of the order, as the tibia measures about a foot long.
+<i>Amblyrhiza</i> and <i>Loxomylus</i>, are two genera described by Professor
+Cope from bone-caves in Anguilla Island, West Indies.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_dasyproctidae">The D<span class="smaller">ASYPROCTIDÆ</span> have but few fossil representatives, and the
+undoubted ones are all from the bone-caves of Brazil, which furnished
+Dr. Lund with two Agoutis and two Pacas. Of the former, one is
+described as <i>Dasyprocta capreolus</i>; the second is allied to the living
+<i>D. caudata</i>. The two species of <i>Cœlogenys</i> are extinct. Some teeth,
+found in Tertiary deposits of the Puy-de-Dôme, have been referred
+to <i>Dasyprocta</i>, but this determination is excessively doubtful.
+<i>Diobroticus schmerlingi</i> from Belgian caves has been placed with the
+Castoridæ.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_caviidae">Of the C<span class="smaller">AVIIDÆ</span>, Dr. Lund obtained three species of the genus
+<i>Cavia</i>, and two of <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, from Brazilian bone-caves. Of
+the latter, one was allied to the existing Capybara; the other was
+a gigantic species, measuring about five feet in length. Dr. Leidy
+has described a species (<i>Hydrochœrus æsopi</i>) from teeth found in
+Post-Pliocene deposits in South Carolina; and the Pampean deposits of
+the same age furnished M. D’Orbigny with the remains of a Cavy (<i>Cavia
+antiqua</i>) which, however, is doubtfully distinct from the Patagonian
+species.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_leporidae">The remains of species of the family L<span class="smaller">EPORIDÆ</span> are very
+abundant in some Post-Pliocene cave deposits on both sides of the
+Atlantic, and in several cases the species are evidently identical with
+those now living. Besides these, species of the genus <i>Lepus</i> have been
+found in Pliocene and Miocene beds in France. In North America three
+extinct Leporine genera have been recognised, differing from <i>Lepus</i>
+in certain peculiarities of the molar teeth:&mdash;<i>Palæolagus</i>, with three
+species, from the Miocene of Dakota and Colorado; <i>Panolax</i>, from
+the Pliocene marls of Santa Fé; and <i>Praotherium</i>, from a bone-cave
+in Pennsylvania. The last-named genus has the crowns of the molars
+transversely oval, and without the enamel-band or crest which is seen
+on the surface of the teeth of other Hares.</p>
+
+<p id="fossil_lagomyidae">The L<span class="smaller">AGOMYIDÆ</span> are known in a fossil state chiefly from
+Post-Pliocene deposits, and the bone breccias of caves in various
+parts of Europe. In Post-Pliocene times the genus <i>Lagomys</i> seems
+to have been very generally distributed over the South of Europe;
+and the earliest appearance of the genus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span> is in the Pliocene, three
+species having been described from deposits of that age at Œningen
+and Montpellier. The family is, however, carried further back in time
+by the genus <i>Titanomys</i>, in which the molars differ but slightly in
+structure from those of <i>Lagomys</i>, but there are only four of them in
+each series, both above and below. Two species of this genus have been
+recorded from Miocene deposits in France and Germany.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_155a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_155a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SIDE VIEW OF SKULL AND LOWER JAW OF MESOTHERIUM
+CRISTATUM.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i155b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_155b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DENTITION OF MESOTHERIUM CRISTATUM.<br />
+  (<span class="smaller">A</span>) Upper Jaw; (<span class="smaller">B</span>)
+  Lower Jaw; (<span class="smaller">C</span>) Incisors.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="fossil_hebentidentata">We have thus passed very briefly in review the fossil Rodents belonging
+to the two great sections of the order to which all its living species
+are to be referred; and it will be seen that while a knowledge of their
+existence is necessary to complete the history of the order, they
+present none of those peculiar characters which lend such interest
+to the fossil members of many other orders. There is, however, one
+fossil South American type to which we have yet to refer, as, by the
+curious combination of characters which it presents, it has long been
+somewhat of a puzzle to palæontologists, and although generally placed
+among the Rodents, its peculiarities are such that Mr. Alston found
+himself compelled to establish a third primary section of the order
+for its reception. According to M. Bravard, the first discoverer of
+this peculiar type, the Pliocene deposits of the Pampas of La Plata
+contain the remains of three species belonging to it; but the bones
+which have been sent to Europe, and which represent most parts of
+the skeleton, seem all to belong to a single species, which has been
+very fully described by M. Serres under the name of <i>Mesotherium
+cristatum</i>.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> What distinguishes it at once from all other known
+Rodents is the presence <i>in the lower jaw</i> of four incisor teeth, the
+second pair being very small and placed immediately behind the outer
+edge of the broad middle pair. The latter are peculiarly widened and
+compressed from front to back in both jaws, and their summits, instead
+of being worn to a sharp chisel-like edge as in ordinary Rodents, show
+an elongated ring of enamel surrounding a slightly depressed surface.
+Hence Mr. Alston denominated this section H<span class="smaller">EBETIDENTATA</span>, or
+B<span class="smaller">LUNT</span>-<span class="smaller">TOOTHED</span> R<span class="smaller">ODENTS</span>. The enamel in all the incisors is
+continuous round the tooth. The molar teeth are rootless and curved,
+the convex side being directed outwards, contrary to what occurs in
+other Rodents. They are surrounded by enamel, and show re-entering
+folds which differ in the two jaws. Their number on each side is five
+in the upper and four in the lower jaw. The skull is massive, with
+enormously-developed sagittal and occipital crests, the latter of
+which run forward so far as to join the zygomatic arches; and these
+crests rise so high that the upper surface of the actual brain-case
+is entirely concealed by them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span> when the skull is looked at from the
+side. The lower jaw in its characters presents some resemblance to the
+same part in the Leporidæ; but it has the condyle for its articulation
+with the skull transverse, and fitting into a cavity of corresponding
+direction, a character which occurs in no other Rodent. Of the
+remainder of the skeleton we need only state that the animal possessed
+perfect clavicles; that the shoulder-blade and humerus somewhat
+resemble those of the Beaver; that the fibula articulated with the
+heel-bone; and that both front and hind limbs possessed five toes, some
+of which, judging from the form of the terminal joint, were probably
+furnished with hoof-like claws.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as regards its affinities in the order Rodentia, <i>Mesotherium</i>
+presents resemblances in its lower jaw (as also in some peculiarities
+of the skull), and in the articulation of the heel with the shank,
+to the Hares; while in the shortness of the incisors and some other
+cranial peculiarities, the form of the shoulder-blades, and the
+probably hoof-like character of the claws, we may notice an approach to
+the Cavies, which are also South American forms, and especially to the
+Capybara, which it probably resembled in its habits, although, if the
+evidence of the Beaver-like shoulder-blade and humerus be taken into
+account, it would appear to have been still more aquatic.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the resemblance to certain other Mammalia, and
+especially to some aberrant Ungulates, is unmistakable. The number of
+incisor teeth is the same as in <i>Hyrax</i>, and in these teeth there is
+also a certain amount of resemblance to the curious genus <i>Toxodon</i>,
+in which the incisors are four in the upper and six in the lower jaw,
+and worn away in somewhat the same fashion. In <i>Toxodon</i> also, the
+convexity of the curve of the molars is turned outwards. Certain other
+characters of <i>Mesotherium</i>&mdash;such as the mode of articulation of the
+lower jaw, and the peculiar connection of some of the caudal vertebræ
+with the ischiatic bones&mdash;present resemblances to the Edentata. As
+Mr. Alston says, “It appears to have been a survivor, to Pliocene
+times, of a much earlier type, which represented an era at which the
+Rodents were not yet clearly marked off from their allies. In fact,
+<i>Mesotherium</i> seems to continue <i>into</i> the order Glires that line of
+affinity which Professor Flower has pointed out as extending from the
+typical Ungulates through <i>Hyracodon</i>, <i>Homalodontotherium</i>, <i>Nesodon</i>,
+and <i>Toxodon</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The general relationships of <i>Mesotherium</i> to the other Rodents, and of
+these among themselves, are represented by Mr. Alston in a diagrammatic
+form, from which the following scheme, which will serve also as a table
+of the families, is derived:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_156">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_156.jpg"  alt="Fossil Rodents" />
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_156_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It seems quite clear, even from the above brief sketch of the history
+of the Rodentia in time, that, except in the case of <i>Mesotherium</i>,
+the fossil remains of animals belonging to this order furnish us with
+no important information bearing upon their alliances and possible
+origin. They make their earliest appearances, so far as we know, in
+deposits of Eocene age; and the earliest forms the remains of which are
+sufficient to give us a clear insight into their nature, are manifestly
+members of families, and often nearly allied to species still extant
+in the regions where their traces are now found. Thus in Eocene and
+Miocene deposits, we have representatives of the families <i>Sciuridæ</i>,
+<i>Castoridæ</i>, <i>Myoxidæ</i>, <i>Muridæ</i>, <i>Geomyidæ</i>, <i>Chinchillidæ</i>, and
+<i>Leporidæ</i>, already differen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span>tiated as at the present day, so far as
+the evidence goes; and it is clear that we must go much further back
+in time to seek the earliest appearance of the Rodent type, whether it
+branched off directly from the Marsupial series, or passed, as would
+seem to be indicated by <i>Mesotherium</i>, through a sequence of forms more
+or less related to the Ungulates.</p>
+
+<p>Nor does the geographical distribution of the animals lead to any more
+definite conclusions. Certain families and even sub-families are of
+very wide range, the Muridæ and Sciuridæ especially being represented
+nearly all over the world, while the Hystricidæ and Leporidæ are also
+spread over very large areas, occurring in both hemispheres. Certain
+groups, such as the Sciuridæ of both sub-families, the Castoridæ,
+the Murine, and Arvicoline sub-families of Muridæ, the Leporidæ, and
+the Lagomyidæ, may be said to have a circumpolar distribution in the
+northern hemisphere, nearly allied and sometimes identical species
+being found in the more northern parts of both the Old and the New
+World, but mixed with other forms peculiar to the regions, especially
+as we advance southwards. On the other hand, the Myoxidæ are peculiar
+to the eastern hemisphere, as are also the Spalacidæ and the Dipodidæ
+(with the exception of <i>Zapus</i>, which is considered by Dr. Coues to
+form a distinct family), and all the sub-families of Muridæ, except
+those above mentioned as having a circumpolar range. The Myomorpha may
+in fact be looked upon as an Old World group, the Geomyidæ being the
+only exclusively American family; while the Hystricomorpha as a whole
+may be regarded as American, certain aberrant forms of the Octodontidæ
+inhabiting various parts of Africa and the Old World Porcupines being
+the sole representatives of that great section outside the western
+continent. Considering these facts, we may regard the Sciuromorpha
+and the Duplicidentata as originally polar types, or at all events
+as having an equal claim to an origin in the northern regions of
+either continent; while the Myomorpha, with their multitudinous
+forms spreading over all parts of the Old World, and having a much
+scantier representation in America, probably originated in the eastern
+hemisphere, and spread by a northern passage into the New World; and
+the Hystricomorpha would seem to have originated in South America,
+where they display the greatest variety of forms.</p>
+
+<p class="right mtop2 mright2">W. S. D<span class="smaller">ALLAS.</span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_158">
+  <img class="w100 mtop3 padtop1" src="images/i_158.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GROUP OF SLOTHS (<i>Arctopithecus griseus</i>).</div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="nopad" id="ORDER_EDENTATA_OR_BRUTA_ANIMALS_WITHOUT_FRONT_TEETH">ORDER
+EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_I_II">CHAPTER I.<br />
+<span class="s5">TARDIGRADA, OR SLOTHS.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">The South American Forests&mdash;Discovery of the Sloth&mdash;How it derived its Name&mdash;Peculiarities of Dentition&mdash;Food&mdash;Fore
+Limbs and Fingers&mdash;Hind Limbs and Heel&mdash;Other Modifications of Structure&mdash;Kinds of Sloth&mdash;Waterton’s
+Captive Sloth&mdash;Habits of the Animal&mdash;Burchell’s Tame Sloths&mdash;Manner of Climbing Trees&mdash;Disposition&mdash;Activity
+among Trees&mdash;Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy&mdash;Probable Conclusion regarding it&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Vertebræ&mdash;the
+Rudimentary Tail&mdash;Most Distinctive Skeletal Characters&mdash;Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers, Claws&mdash;Mode of
+Walking&mdash;Great Utility of the Claws&mdash;Face of Sloth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#TARDIGRADA"><i>TARDIGRADA</i></a>&mdash;<a href="#BRADYPODIDAE">BRADIPODIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#bradypus">Genus
+B<span class="smaller">RADYPUS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#arctopithecus">Genus A<span class="smaller">RCTOPITHECUS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#choloepodidae">CHOLŒPODIDÆ</a>&mdash;<a href="#collared_sloth">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">OLLARED</span> S<span class="smaller">LOTH</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Skull Bones&mdash;Habits&mdash;Circulation of the Blood&mdash;<i>Rete Mirabile</i>&mdash;<a href="#ai">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">I</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#unau">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+U<span class="smaller">NAU</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Skull and Teeth&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Interesting Anatomical Features&mdash;Stomach&mdash;<a href="#hoffmanns_sloth">H<span class="smaller">OFFMANN</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+S<span class="smaller">LOTH</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">W<span class="smaller">HEN</span> the dense forests of the northern parts of South America were
+first explored by Europeans, it was observed that active Spider
+Monkeys, Howlers, and their Quadrumanous allies, were not the only
+climbing animals which frequented the trees. For every now and then,
+hunters came in sight of creatures about the size of a large Monkey,
+but whose sluggish movements, long hair, short heads, small ears and
+tail, and very long claws, enabled them to be distinguished at once
+from their very lively companions. It was noticed that these new
+creatures, instead of climbing quickly and swinging from branch to
+branch and running along the boughs, moved very slowly, by hanging
+head and body downwards and grasping the branches with their long
+claws. During the daytime, these quiet animals were constantly found
+asleep, huddled up in the fork of a branch, and looking like great
+balls of tow, or else hanging by two legs, the rest of the body being
+curled up. Now and then, one was seen at the foot of a tree, and it
+appeared to run along the ground with great difficulty; for the arms
+were so long that it walked on the elbows, and the hind feet were
+turned in, so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span> that it supported itself on the sides of its great hind
+claws. Naturally, the animal took its time in moving, and as it was
+never seen to be lively, it received the name of Sloth. Interesting
+from being so different in its habits from other arboreal animals, it
+became much more so, to naturalists, when its remarkable construction
+was ascertained; but still the hairy creature with a short face, small
+head, long neck, hardly any tail, and very long front limbs, retained
+its popular name.</p>
+
+<p>A very slight examination of one of the Sloths showed that it had no
+front teeth, that is to say, neither incisors nor true canine teeth,
+and that the hinder teeth&mdash;the false and true molars&mdash;were not like
+those of any other mammal. The back teeth, few in number, have since
+been ascertained to be exceptionally simple in their structure, and
+evidently the masticating process is very simple. But when it was
+noticed that the Sloth fed upon leaves and young twigs, the absence
+of the necessity for more elaborate teeth was acknowledged. Then it
+was observed that they had very long arms, or rather fore limbs, for
+the fore-arm bones and the humerus are all unusually long, and also
+that they had great power of movement. Moreover, it was seen that the
+fingers were reduced to three in number in some kinds, and to two in
+others, and that they were furnished with long and strong claws, which
+did not interfere with a great amount of mobility in the wrist. The
+length of limb, the mobility of the wrist, and the great claws, enable
+the Sloth to bring the leaves to its mouth, to hang on, and to walk, as
+it were, beneath the branches. An examination of the hind limbs showed
+that they were shorter than the others, and always furnished, in all
+kinds of Sloths, with three great claws. But the ankle seemed to be
+turned in, as if there was a state of “club-foot.” This condition would
+enable the toes to clasp a bough without effort, but it would prevent
+the sole from being placed flat on the ground. As the knowledge of the
+anatomy of these constant tree-livers progressed, other modifications
+of structure, equally important in relation to the peculiar arboreal
+life and food, were gradually discovered. For instance, a remarkable
+flexibility of the neck, produced by the peculiar arrangement of
+the vertebræ; a <i>rete mirabile</i>, to a certain extent, in the limbs,
+resembling somewhat that in the Lemurs (Vol. I., pages 213, 245),
+and a complicated stomach suited for the digestion of leaves, and
+foreshadowing that of the Ruminants.</p>
+
+<p>Two different kinds of Sloths were described in the first instance,
+and subsequently, several others. The first kinds known were the Ai, a
+Sloth with three claws on the fore limb, and the Two-toed Sloth, with
+two claws on the fore limb. The Ai was called <i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>,
+and the other the Unau, or <i>Bradypus didactylus</i>, names which have been
+changed somewhat, as will be seen further on.</p>
+
+<p>Sloths are caught without much difficulty, and their habits, in
+captivity, have been observed in South America, and also after their
+removal to Europe. Waterton writes<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> on the subject:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“Some years ago I kept a Sloth for several months. I often took him
+out of the house and placed him on the ground, in order to have an
+opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough he would
+pull himself forward by means of his fore-legs, at a pretty good pace,
+and he invariably shaped his course towards the nearest tree; but if I
+put him upon a smooth and well-trodden part of the road, he appeared
+to be in trouble and distress. His favourite abode was the back of a
+chair, and often getting all his legs in a line upon the topmost part
+of it, he would hang there for hours together. The Sloth, in its wild
+state, spends its whole life upon trees, not upon the branches, but
+under them; he moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended
+from it, and he sleeps suspended from it; hence his seemingly bungled
+conformation is at once accounted for. One day, crossing the Essequibo,
+I saw a large Two-toed Sloth on the ground upon the bank, and although
+the trees were not twenty yards from him, he could not make his way
+through the sand in time enough to make his escape before we landed. He
+threw himself on his back and defended himself with his fore-legs. I
+took a long stick and held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him
+to a high and stately Mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in
+about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in
+a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree,
+and then proceeded towards the heart of the forest.”</p>
+
+<p>At Santos, in Brazil, in 1826, Mr. Burchell kept a tame Sloth, a
+<i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>, which at the end of two months pined and
+died. It fed exclusively on the buds and leaves of a species of
+<i>Cecropia</i>, a tree having a slender stem of thirty or forty feet long,
+with horizontal branches, hollow internally,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span> and naked, except at
+the extremities. It ate only the young shoots and terminal buds of
+the unexpanded leaves, rejecting the old leaves on the boughs, which
+were brought to it daily. It was always perfectly silent, and its
+countenance and manners were most expressive of melancholy. It fed by
+day, and slept much; being kept in a room, it sat upright upon its
+short tail, embracing the legs of a chair with its arms and legs.</p>
+
+<p>When resident at Para, near the mouth of the Amazons, Mr. Burchell also
+kept two full-grown Sloths, and a young one of a three-toed species
+(not <i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>, but of nearly similar form and habits),
+in a garden enclosed with strong stockades. They were kept tied up
+to the pillars of a verandah, to prevent their escape. Against these
+pillars they always placed themselves in an erect position, embracing
+the pillar with all four legs; when not tied to the verandah, they got
+up into trees in the garden. They slept both by day and night, always
+fixing their arms round something or other. Their food, consisting of
+branches, was brought to them in the verandah. They appeared extremely
+stupid, and would never come to the food. They would eat no leaves but
+those of the <i>Cecropia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>They did not mount very large trees, and they ascended with their
+breasts pressing the trunk of the tree, advancing the hind-leg beyond
+the fore-leg. On the ground, they could neither stand nor walk, but lay
+sprawling on their belly, and dragged, or rather warped, themselves
+along, laying hold of a bunch of grass or stone with their three claws,
+which operated like grappling-irons, or, rather, pincers. All these
+died in a month or two. In their wild state they are seldom seen,
+from their colour mingling with the grey foliage of the trees, and
+from their being so extremely quiet and slow. The tame Sloths never
+willingly remained on the ground, except to pass from one tree to
+another. All the movements of the animal are slow. It moves its claws
+slowly. In eating it chews slowly; it also climbs slowly. The moisture
+of the leaves it eats suffices it for drink, without descending to
+obtain water. None of those kept by Mr. Burchell were ever seen to
+drink. The full-grown animals were never heard to utter any sound,
+but the young one occasionally, though rarely, gave a short cry or
+whistling squeak, of a single note.</p>
+
+<p>They showed no indication of fear, and seemed to give attention only
+with their eyes. They took no notice of the boy who often carried them
+across the garden to their place in the verandah, with their long arms
+sprawling; the only objects of their regard were trees. They fight on
+their backs, and grapple their enemy to strangulation. The use of the
+long wool that covers the body, and even the face, seems to be to guard
+them from the annoyance of insects. Possibly it may preserve them from
+the attacks of Snakes, which are, doubtless, their greatest enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The Sloth spends nearly the whole of its life in the trees, and travels
+along the branches body downwards. It rarely comes to the ground, on
+which it walks with difficulty, and it occasionally takes to the water
+and swims. It looks slothful enough when asleep, for it then resembles
+a bunch of rough hair, and a jumble of limbs close together, hanging
+to a branch; but when awake, it is industrious in its search for nice
+twigs and leaves, and moves along the under side of the branches of the
+trees with some activity. It seizes the ends of adjoining branches,
+clinging to the leafy mass, and moves from tree to tree quickly enough,
+when it is requisite, and it has a very singular power of moving the
+head and neck backwards in seeking food. When the atmosphere is still,
+the Sloth keeps to its tree, feeding on the leaves and twigs, but when
+there is wind, and the branches of neighbouring trees come in contact,
+the opportunity is seized, and the animal moves along the forest, under
+the shady cover of the boughs. The Indians have a saying that “when
+the wind blows the Sloths begin to crawl,” and the reason is thus
+evident enough&mdash;the animal cannot jump, but it can hang, swing, and
+crawl suspended. Mr. Waterton states, however, that “the Sloth travels
+at a good round pace, and were you to see him passing from tree to
+tree you would never think of calling him a Sloth. Being born up in a
+tree, living amongst the branches, feeding on leaves, and finally dying
+amidst the foliage, and enjoying life as much as any other animal, its
+structure and conformation are, of course, admirably suited for this
+arboreal existence. Its power of grasp is great, and is assisted by the
+great bent claws as it hangs by its feet when asleep, and also often
+when it is dead. One which was much frightened by being taken from the
+forest had a pole placed near it at a little distance from the ground,
+on two supports. It clung directly to the pole and hung on. A Dog was
+then made to attack the Sloth, which seized it in its long claws, and
+did not let go until the enemy died.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span></p>
+
+<p>Leading thus a very unusual kind of life, up amongst the dense foliage,
+and having some very unusual peculiarities of construction, much debate
+occurred many years since regarding the general conformation as well as
+the special anatomy of the Sloths. One school of anatomists considered
+the Sloths incomplete and abnormal animals, moving with “pain” on the
+ground, and another regarded their unusual and peculiar anatomy as
+singularly beneficent.</p>
+
+<p>But whilst it is perfectly evident that the long limbs and their
+joints, and the peculiar turning in of the ankles, and the structure
+of the clawed hands and feet, are all admirably adapted for the
+peculiar life which the animal leads, it appears to be consistent
+with anatomical reasoning to believe that the Sloth is an instance of
+retrograde development; that, in fact, the peculiar formation of the
+skull, neck, wrists, and ankles, is the result of the laws of disuse
+and adaptation operating on ancestral animals, which once had their
+anatomy more consistent with a perfect mammalian type.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_161">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_161.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the Sloths were first carefully watched and studied, their length
+of neck and their ability to turn the head, so as to look at a person
+standing directly behind or beneath them, without swerving the body,
+struck Mr. Burchell especially. This curious peculiarity led to a
+careful examination of the skeleton of the different kinds, and much
+discussion followed, for it was found that in the Sloth examined (the
+Three-clawed Ai) there were more neck bones (vertebræ of the cervical
+region) than in other Mammalia. Instead of the common number of seven
+neck bones, there were nine. This elongation of the neck of course
+permitted a greater amount of twisting than could occur in an animal
+with fewer neck bones. But there are other reasons why the head can
+be so much twisted round, for the spines on the neck bones are small,
+and the joint between the skull and the first vertebra is so fashioned
+that this remarkable motion is possible. There was a great deal of
+discussion about the extra neck bones, and as the last two had rib-like
+projections from their sides, some anatomists considered them to belong
+to the true rib-bearing vertebræ, or those of the back (the dorsal).
+But when the other Sloths were examined it was found that the number of
+the bones of the neck in all the two-fingered kinds was not as great as
+in other animals. There are only six neck vertebra in one well-known
+species (<i>Cholœpus Hoffmanni</i>, for instance), whilst there are seven in
+another two-toed Sloth.</p>
+
+<p>Eating largely and of bulky substances, the Sloths require a large
+digestive cavity, and the ribs are numerous, and the body is long
+and broad. There is much variation, however, in the number of the
+back bones in the dorsal and lumbar regions. Thus in the Ai there are
+sixteen dorsal and three lumbar vertebræ, whilst in the Two-fingered
+Sloth there may be twenty-three or twenty-four dorsal bones, and two,
+three, or four lumbar vertebræ. The ribs are close together and are
+broad. As the hind limbs require strong muscles, for the animal hangs
+on by them whilst it is feeding itself with the fore hands, the pelvis
+is large and is strengthened by having the hip and haunch bones (ilia
+and ischia) united to the conjoined sacral vertebræ, which may be six,
+seven, or eight in number. Moreover, all the strength of the pelvis is
+behind, the fore part or pubic bones being slender and united in front.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span></p>
+
+<p>Some small tail bones exist, for that organ is rudimentary in all the
+Sloths, there being a stump in the Ai, and eleven very small bones; but
+in the Two-fingered Sloths the tail is not visible, and there are four
+little ossicles. There are no long and very prominent spines to any
+of the back bones, and the whole bony column of the spine is readily
+curved and bent. The animals so constantly bring the hands and feet
+close together, when hanging, that a ready bending of the spine is
+absolutely necessary. Moreover, in sleeping they often rest in the fork
+of a tree, or on a branch, and place the head between the hind legs,
+rolling the body up as it were in a ball, and this is facilitated by
+the peculiar construction of the long chain of back bones with small
+spines.</p>
+
+<p>The most distinctive character of the skeleton of the Sloth is the
+excess of length of the fore limb over the hind one. An examination of
+the slender bones of the arm shows that they are more solid than those
+of most Mammals. The arm bone (humerus) has a hole through it in the
+inner expanded part, just above the elbow (inner condyle), in the Ai;
+but this is not found in the two-toed kinds. The wrist and hand are
+long and narrow, and this is produced by the union of some bones which
+are separate in other Mammalia, and the slight development of others.
+Thus there are six bones in the wrist instead of eight (the scaphoid
+and trapezium, and the os magnum and trapezoid have coalesced). In
+the Ai there are three clawed fingers, and the bones of the thumb and
+of the little finger are absent, and their corresponding hand bones
+(metacarpals) are very small, and are joined on to the next, that is,
+to the metacarpal of the index and third finger.</p>
+
+<p>The three fingers are, moreover, strengthened for their peculiar uses,
+the first two joints being united, and the tip or last joint being
+very long, and supporting the claw. Moreover, as the long claws are
+constantly half closed in the hand, and they are never required to be
+widely open, the tip of the finger is so made that flexion is possible,
+but not unclasping widely. The skin comes up to the base of the claws,
+and encloses the fingers, and the base of each claw is protected by a
+bony sheath. They form capital hooks; they grasp, and although there is
+no opposable thumb, they hold the food; and a tame Sloth may be seen
+holding a carrot very firmly between them and the wrist. In the case of
+the Unau Sloth, the outer claw is the longer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_162">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_162.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BONES OF HAND OF THREE-TOED SLOTH.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Sloths walk on the outside of the extremities of the fore and
+hind limbs, and their claws are always curved in, and, as it were,
+retracted. Consequently, the animal cannot place the soles flat on
+the ground, and it cannot open its foot-claws to a great extent. This
+fixing of the claws assists in the clasping and hanging, which are the
+usual and commonest attitudes. The claws surpass the foot in length,
+and are so sharp and crooked that they readily seize upon the smallest
+inequalities in the bark of the trees and branches upon which the
+animals habitually reside. They and those of the fore limb are no mean
+weapons of offence and defence, for, situated at the end of long and
+muscular arms, they can drag, cling, and hold with great tenacity. The
+thigh bone (femur) of the Sloth is straight, and is thicker and shorter
+than the arm bone (humerus); it has no ligament to unite it to the
+joint (no ligamentum teres). On examining the lower bones of the leg
+(the tibia and fibula), they will be found to be bent, so as to leave
+a space between them, and they are shorter than the bones of the fore
+arm. The bones of the ankle joint, are united together immovably&mdash;that
+is to say, the usual bones seen in other Mammalia are there, but
+are united by bone. Moreover, this union includes the complete and
+ill-developed feet bones (metatarsals), and the first bones of the
+second, third, and fourth fingers. One bone is not included in this
+strange union. It is the astragalus, or the bone immediately jointed
+with the ends of the bones of the legs. The outer or small bone of the
+leg (fibula) fits into a pit in the outer part of the upper surface of
+this bone, and thus prevents any movement of the foot like a twisting
+outwards, and favours, but does not produce, the usual position of
+twisting inwards. Moreover, there are two powerful muscles in the front
+of the leg which are not opposed by others as strong, and they, by
+their contraction, keep the foot twisted inwards, as in club-foot (the
+anterior tibial and the long extensor of the great toe).</p>
+
+<p>In the Unau, or Two-fingered Sloth, there is the same general
+arrangement of the bones and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span> muscles, with some important differences,
+which result in there being a greater amount of bending and extending
+of the foot, although the foot rests on its outer edge.</p>
+
+<p>A Sloth’s face is short, and there is a broad snub nose, with round
+nostrils, which are widely open. The cheeks become wide suddenly,
+and the forehead slopes rapidly backwards, the eyes being wide apart
+and small, but looking forwards. The head is small and round, and
+as it is covered with hair behind, it cannot be distinguished well
+from the upper part of the back of the neck. The expression of the
+face is always the same, and the method of masticating and eating is
+disagreeable to observe. The animal having no front teeth, and moving
+its jaws usually only upwards and downwards, and not from side to
+side, places the morsel, such as lettuce leaf or carrot, well into its
+mouth, and chews at it, dragging out the food every now and then, when
+it is covered with moisture. On examining the skull, the short cut
+off or truncated appearance of the face is very evident, and it will
+be observed that the teeth are wanting in the front bones of the face
+(the pre-maxillaries), and that only the palatal part of these bones
+exists. The lower jaw is strongly jointed to the upper, and the back
+part is large: there are teeth at the sides, but there are none in the
+front part of it. A very singular-looking cheek bone (zygoma) exists
+on either side. It is not attached behind to the ear bone, so as to
+cover the jaw muscles, but it has two processes behind&mdash;an upper and
+a lower&mdash;which differ in shape and size according to the species. The
+central bone of the nose does not reach to the nasal outlet, and there
+is a system of air-cavities which is continued from the nose into the
+forehead bone. In some kinds, the lower jaw ends abruptly in front, as
+in the Ai; but in the Unau Sloths it is slightly angular, and projects.</p>
+
+<p>The back teeth of the Sloths are very simple, and consist of three
+structures, called vaso-dentine, hard dentine, and cement, there being
+no proper enamel. The vaso-dentine is a kind of bony substance in
+the centre of the tooth, in which there are the passages and tubes
+of blood-vessels. The dentine is outside this, and consists of more
+earthy particles than the vaso-dentine, and of fewer tubes; it is
+all the denser and more resistant. Wearing away more slowly than the
+vaso-dentine, it forms a ridge which grinds easily. The cement is a
+kind of bony structure on the outside of the tooth. The teeth of the
+Sloth continue to grow from below as they are worn above, and there is
+no entire milk set which are replaced by those of a permanent kind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_163">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_163.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF SLOTH.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a><br />
+  (From the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The term Sloth is commonly applied to all the kinds of animals whose
+general shape and habits have just been noticed. It is evident,
+however, that this union of several species under one term is not
+correct in zoology, and it is necessary to distinguish them by
+peculiarities which are permanent. A very ready method of distinction
+is to separate the Sloths into two families, one containing those which
+have three claws on the fore limbs and the same number on the hind
+limbs, and the second including those which have only two claws on the
+fore feet and three on the hinder.</p>
+
+<p id="TARDIGRADA">The first family is called the B<span class="smaller">RADYPODIDÆ</span>, from βραδύς
+(slow), and πούς (foot), and the second C<span class="smaller">HOLŒPODIDÆ</span>, from
+χωλός (halting, lame), and πούς (foot), and both are included in the
+group TARDIGRADA, or slow-moving <i>Edentata</i>.</p>
+
+<p id="BRADYPODIDAE">The B<span class="smaller">RADYPODIDÆ</span> include two genera, but many naturalists only
+acknowledge one. The first is <i>Bradypus</i>. This includes the Sloths with
+three-clawed fingers on the fore limbs, whose males and females are
+alike in their fur, and which have the cheek bone (malar bone) with
+two processes. The upper one is long and dilated at the end, and the
+lower is long and triangular, and neither of the processes reaches the
+ear bone. There are in these Sloths, when full grown, five molar teeth
+on each side in both jaws, and the first is very short. There are two
+mammæ on the chest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span></p>
+
+<p id="arctopithecus">The second genus is <i>Arctopithecus</i> (Gray), and it contains species
+which have the males and females dissimilar in their colour and
+ornamentation, and the malar bone has a thin and narrow upper process.</p>
+
+<p id="choloepodidae">The second family of the Sloths (the C<span class="smaller">HOLŒPODIDÆ</span>) contains but
+one genus, <i>Cholœpus</i> (the Unau), whose species have two claws on the
+fore limbs and three on the hind ones. The front of the lower jaw is
+stuck out, and not cut short, and the first molar teeth are long.</p>
+
+<p id="bradypus">The genus <i>Bradypus</i> probably contains several species, but it is only
+necessary to mention one, which is called</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="collared_sloth">THE COLLARED SLOTH, OR THE HAIRY SLOTH.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>This Sloth lives in the densest forests of Brazil, Peru, and Para, and
+is found not far from Rio Janeiro.</p>
+
+<p>It is a kind of the Three-clawed Sloths, in which there is little
+or no difference between the fur of the males and females. The neck
+is surrounded by a large collar of long black hair, and underneath
+this is a fur of a dark-brown colour. The face is naked, and is of a
+black colour, and the hair of the body is not very flattened, but is
+withered-looking to a certain extent. The forehead, temples, chin,
+throat, and breast are covered with reddish or rust-coloured hair,
+slightly grizzled. On the crown of the head it is long and yellow, and
+pale orange on the rest of the body. This Sloth produces one at a birth.</p>
+
+<p>The lower jaw has a kind of blunted lobe in front, and the angle of
+this jaw is broad, triangular, with a rounded lower edge, and it
+projects backwards beyond the joint which connects the bone with the
+skull. The cheek bone has those peculiarities which have already been
+mentioned. The teeth are peculiar, for the first or foremost grinders
+are smaller than the others, and the second upper grinder is the
+largest of all. The first grinder on the lower jaw is broader than the
+rest, and the hinder are the largest, being also cylindrical.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe34" id="i_164">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_164.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COLLARED SLOTH. (From Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s
+<i>Animals of Brazil</i>.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It has the general method of living of the Sloths, being perhaps not
+quite so lively or active as the Unau, and feeds mainly on <i>Cecropia</i>
+leaves, finishing those of one tree as far as it can before commencing
+those of another. Like all the Sloths, it has the power of long and
+sustained muscular action, and can cling on, or grasp, for a very long
+time without perceptible fatigue, and this gift is associated with a
+structure of the blood-vessels which supply the muscles, resembling, as
+we have said, that noticed in some of the Lemurs. The main artery which
+supplies each of the fore limbs is the axillary, so called from its
+being found in the armpit or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span> axilla. In quickly-moving animals this
+vessel reaches into the upper arm, and divides into a few rather large
+ones lower down, and these give off others, so that a certain quantity
+of blood is supplied and removed quickly. But in the Sloths the
+axillary artery divides at once into a number of cylindrical vessels
+nearly as large as it is, and they are united here and there. These
+unusual arteries are found in contact with the surface of the muscles,
+and their branches go in and amongst the muscular bundles. As many as
+forty-two of these large vessels were counted by Sir A. Carlisle, on
+the surface of the muscles on the front of the arm, and probably about
+twenty were inside. These arteries thus carry an immense supply of
+blood to the muscles, but blood which, although it is finally removed
+by the veins, does not move very rapidly. In fact, the muscles are
+turgid with blood. The same arterial structure is seen in the hinder
+limbs, and the arteries of the thigh form as numerous a set as those of
+the arm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42_5" id="i_165">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_165.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AI. (From the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It seems to be in accordance with careful investigation, to state that
+the species of Sloth called <i>Bradypus tridactylus</i> (the Three-toed
+Sloth, or Ai) has too large a meaning, and that it really refers to
+the Collared Sloth, as well as to others which have been placed in the
+next genus. It is as well to remark here, that although there are three
+clawed fingers to the fore limb, there are vestiges of two other ones
+by their side in the form of two rudimentary metacarpal bones.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="ai">GENUS ARCTOPITHECUS.&mdash;THE
+AI.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Several kinds of three-clawed Sloths have been called Ai; for instance,
+the Yellow-throated Ai, and De Blainville’s Ai, and all have been
+named <i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>. Dr. Gray, however, satisfied himself
+that the kind which was first described by Cuvier as the Ai, and which
+is figured in Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s “Animals of Brazil,” is
+the same as one which has since been called <i>Arctopithecus Ai</i>, or
+<i>Arctopithecus flaccidus</i>. The word <i>Ai</i> is taken from the noise made
+by the animal, and the term <i>flaccidus</i> relates to its long hair.
+The true Ai inhabits Venezuela and Peru, and has very long flaccid
+grey hair mottled with white. There is an abundant under-fur of a
+blackish-brown colour, which has white and black in spots and blotches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span></p>
+
+<p>There is a small spot between the shoulders on the back, where the fur
+is soft and woolly, and a broad, short, blackish streak there, with
+a white or orange ring around it. The claws are coloured brown. The
+head has a curiously-cut short and turned-up nose appearance, and is
+furnished with coarse shaggy hair, disposed on the crown in a diverging
+manner. The short hair of the face contrasts with the long, shaggy,
+shrivelled, dry, hay-looking hair of the body. This hair is coarse and
+flattened at the ends, but it is exceptionally fine at the roots, and
+it greatly resembles in colour and texture some of the vegetation of
+the trees on which it lives. The eyes are bright, and are surrounded
+by a dark ring. Several species of the genus Arctopithecus have been
+described which live in Guiana, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe23" id="i_166">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_166.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF AI.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next genus of the Sloths is represented by</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="unau">THE TWO-FINGERED SLOTH (THE
+UNAU).<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are several kinds of Sloths with two “toes,” or rather with two
+fingers ending in claws on the fore limb, but the differences between
+the species are not very readily appreciated. They are differences
+which can be recognised, but it is doubtful whether the possession of
+dark brown or pale brown hair is sufficient to decide that there are
+more than one species.</p>
+
+<p>The common Unau Sloth is usually of a darker tint than the others, but
+there is no doubt that the specimens in museums of all these Sloths
+vary much in the colour and length of the hair. Thus the hair may be
+generally dark, and the hairs of the crest on the back of the head
+may be white, and more or less tinted with bright green; or the hair
+may be short, of a dark brown colour, paler on the rump, much paler
+on the head, cheeks, and chin; a band may be across the nose, and the
+orbits dark brown. Others of the same species have very long hair, of
+an uniform dark tint, paler on the head and redder beneath, whilst one
+from Juan de Fuca has short hair, without any indication of a crest.
+From Brazil there are specimens with long paler hair and a crest. All
+these specimens, however, have pale whitish claws.</p>
+
+<p>A Unau from Columbia is of a pale and whitey-brown paper colour, darker
+at the root of the hairs, and it has pale fawn-coloured claws.</p>
+
+<p>In all these animals with different kinds of furs, the two-clawed
+condition is peculiar to the fore limbs only, for on the hinder there
+are three claws, and it is to be remarked that the hair and skin unite
+the fingers and toes close up to the base of the claws. The skull of
+the Unau is rather projecting in front, and not, as it were, quite
+cut off close; and there is a great gap in the upper and lower gums
+in front, the incisor teeth being absent, of course. But at the side
+of the mouth there is a longish tooth above and below, looking like
+a canine, but really it is the front molar, which in both jaws and
+on both sides is longer and larger than the others. The under teeth
+belonging to the lower molar set are placed behind the corresponding
+upper ones when the mouth is shut.</p>
+
+<p>The cheek or malar bone is seen, on looking at the skull, to be
+separated from the ear bone, and to have a forked end posteriorly, the
+lower part of the fork extending downwards and backwards.</p>
+
+<p>The lower jaw is very straight: it projects a little, in front and
+behind, where it is jointed with the upper jaw, there is no upright
+portion or branch, or ascending ramus. The last back tooth is just in
+front of a curved piece of bone called the coronoid process, the base
+of which is on a level with the line of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>This Sloth has seven neck bones (cervical vertebræ), and the last one
+has a very small and rudimentary rib attached to it on either side.
+There are no less than twenty-three dorsal vertebræ found to be with
+ribs. The Unau has a clavicle which is much smaller in the other group.
+It has no tail. The structure of the ankle joint enables it to turn
+in, even more than that of the Three-clawed Sloth. As the habits of
+the Unau Sloth are the same as those with three claws, and all live
+in the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span> great district, these anatomical distinctions are very
+interesting, and relate to their remote ancestors, being hereditary
+legacies, which are of little or no importance in assisting the
+creature merely to live. One of the differences between the Sloths is
+singular. The Unaus have a very remarkably formed stomach, which may
+be said to be double. The first stomach is large and rounded, but it
+is contracted behind, and then formed into a kind of conical appendix.
+This appendix is doubled from left to right, and its cavity has a
+fold at its opening into the stomach. It forms a special part of the
+first stomach. Then it is to be noticed, that where the food enters
+the stomach, or at the opening, which is called the cardia, there is
+a pouch, looking like a bag at the end of the tube which runs down
+from the gullet to the stomach. This is the second part of the first
+stomach: and the third is a tube-like space which connects the cardia
+with the stomach far away to the left. These three cavities form the
+first stomach. The second stomach is of a slender form, and is very
+much smaller than the other. Its walls are thin for the first half of
+its length, but towards the spot where the gut commences (the pylorus)
+they are thick and muscular. A small fold occurs midway. There is a
+fold in the body of the smaller or second stomach, and there is a
+little hollow there with glands in it, and it is called the appendix to
+the second stomach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe20" id="i_167">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_167.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STOMACH OF SLOTH.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The stomach is thus rather complicated, and its internal mucous
+membrane is so thrown into folds, and made into hollow spaces, that it
+occupies much more space than if it were a simple bag. This plan is
+also well seen in those ruminating animals which, like the Ox, live
+entirely upon vegetable substances; and it is evident that the diet of
+the Sloth bears some relation to the complicated stomach.</p>
+
+<p>In the Ai, the appendix to the second stomach is larger than that of
+the Unau Sloth, and is more complicated.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="hoffmanns_sloth">HOFFMANN’S
+SLOTH.<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a Sloth with two clawed fingers on the fore, and with three
+claws on the hinder extremities. Living specimens are occasionally
+brought to Europe, especially from Porto Rico, so that its general
+appearance may now and then be studied at the Zoological Gardens,
+in the Regent’s Park. If it be looked at there in the day-time, it
+certainly merits the name of Sloth, for it resembles a bundle of long,
+light, brown hair, fixed on the top of a bar of wood close to an
+upright branch, or huddled up in a corner on the ground; but in the
+morning, and also late in the evening, the creature begins to move
+slowly, and to look out for the food put for its use on the floor of
+the den. All the Hoffmann’s Sloths have pale brown hair, whiter at the
+tips, and a white face, showing a brown band across the nose, extending
+to a ring round each eye. They have also a long and full crest of hair
+on the neck, and the hair on the limbs is darker than that of the
+rest of the animal. Dr. Peters, who discovered this Sloth, examined
+the skeleton, and found only six vertebræ in the neck, and in this it
+differs from the <i>Cholœpus</i> just noticed.</p>
+
+<p>When its food, consisting of carrots and lettuce, and bread-and-milk,
+is put down in the morning it is soon in movement, and enjoys its meal
+hanging down from a bar with its hind legs, and resting its back on
+the floor of the cage. It seizes the food between the claws and the
+long straight palm of the fore-foot, and passes it into its mouth,
+chewing actively with the molar teeth, especially with the first,
+which are sharp. It cares little for the spectators, and when it has
+finished, slowly mounts up into a corner of its little den and settles
+down to sleep. In the evening it becomes lively, for it is, and,
+indeed, all Sloths are, nocturnal in habit. The hairless snout, of a
+light red tint, the absence of “smellers,” the little eyes with a few
+hairs around them, and the broad forehead, give the animal a curious
+appearance. The hair is brushed back on the forehead, and comes around
+the very small ears on to the cheeks, and is whitey-brown, and this
+same tint is seen over the whole of the back in long slender hairs. But
+the under hair is light red or red-brown. The long and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span> slender hand,
+with its two claws, contrasts with the rather bulky upper part of the
+limbs, and the flesh-coloured palms are very remarkable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37" id="i_168">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_168.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HOFFMANN’S SLOTH.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The whole of the Sloths lead very monotonous lives; their food is
+ever within their reach, and it is abundant, and they do not appear
+to have to compete much or at all in the struggle for existence with
+other animals. Their enemies are Snakes and the Carnivora, but it is
+evident that they are much more readily preserved by their habits from
+the latter than from the former. Leading such an uneventful existence,
+there is no great call upon their nervous energies or intelligence,
+and these are at a low pitch. The brain consequently is very simple in
+regard to convolutions, which are few in number and shallow.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_II_II">CHAPTER II.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE ANT-EATERS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#cape_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">APE</span> <span class="smaller">ANT</span>-E<span class="smaller">ATER</span></a>&mdash;The Cage at “the Zoo”&mdash;Appearance of the Animal&mdash;Its Prey&mdash;The Ant-hills-How the
+Orycteropus obtains its Food&mdash;Place in the Order&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skull&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Interesting Questions concerning
+the Ant-eater&mdash;<a href="#THE_PANGOLINS_OR_SCALY_ANT_EATERS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ANGOLINS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#african_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">FRICAN</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;Differences between
+the Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters&mdash;Their Habitat&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#african_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">EMMINCK</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Food&mdash;How
+it Feeds&mdash;Superstitious Regard for it shown by the Natives&mdash;Scarcity&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#long_tailed_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> F<span class="smaller">OUR</span>-<span class="smaller">FINGERED</span>
+P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#great_manis">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> M<span class="smaller">ANIS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#asiatic_scaly_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">SIATIC</span> S<span class="smaller">CALY</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_tailed_pangolin">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> F<span class="smaller">IVE</span>-<span class="smaller">FINGERED</span>
+P<span class="smaller">ANGOLIN</span></a>&mdash;The Species of <i>Manis</i>&mdash;Skull&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Claws fitted for Digging&mdash;Other Skeletal
+Peculiarities&mdash;<a href="#american_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MERICAN</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;General Appearance&mdash;Genera&mdash;<a href="#great_ant_bear">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-B<span class="smaller">EAR</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Diet&mdash;How
+it Procures its Food&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Mode and Rate of Locomotion&mdash;Stupidity&mdash;Manner of Assault and
+Defence&mdash;Stories of its Contests with other Animals&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#tamandua">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">AMANDUA</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Where Found&mdash;Habits&mdash;Odour&mdash;<a href="#two_toed_ant_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">WO</span>-<span class="smaller">TOED</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Two-clawed Hand&mdash;Habits&mdash;Von Sach’s Account of
+his Specimen.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="cape_ant_eater">THE CAPE ANT-EATER.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>&mdash;THE AARD-VARK.</p>
+
+<p class="p0">I<span class="smaller">N</span> one of the cages in the house, close to where the Kangaroos are
+kept, in the Zoological Gardens of London, there is usually a heap of
+straw to be seen and an empty dish. Outside the cage is placed the
+name of an animal, “The Cape Ant-eater.” People look and wait, and as
+neither the animal nor the Ants it eats are to be seen, they go away,
+supposing that the absence of the last-named insects has caused the
+destruction of the animal, whose straw alone remains.</p>
+
+<p>But in the evening, and sometimes in the morning, when the food is
+placed in the cage&mdash;not Ants, however&mdash;a long pair of stuck-up ears,
+looking like those of a gigantic Hare with a white skin and little fur,
+may be seen poked up above the straw; and, soon after, a long white
+muzzle, with small sharp eyes between it and the long ears, comes into
+view.</p>
+
+<p>Then a very fat and rather short-bodied animal with a long head and
+short neck, low fore and large hind quarters, with a bowed back, comes
+forth, and finally a moderately long fleshy tail is seen. It is very
+pig-like in the look of its skin, which is light-coloured and has a few
+hairs on it. Moreover, the snout is somewhat like that of a Pig, but
+the mouth has a small opening only, and to make the difference between
+the animals decided, out comes a worm-shaped long tongue covered with
+mucus. The animal has to content itself with other fare than Ants in
+England, but it seems to thrive, and as it walks slowly on the flat of
+its feet and hands to its food, they are seen to be armed with very
+powerful claws.</p>
+
+<p>In Southern Africa, whence this animal came, it is as rarely seen by
+ordinary observers as in England, for there it burrows into the earth
+with its claws, and makes an underground place to live in, and is
+nocturnal in its habits, sleeping by day.</p>
+
+<p>The Orycteropus, which means digging-up foot, from ὀρύσσω (to dig
+up), and πούς (foot), is the deadly foe of the Ants of all kinds, and
+especially of those which, like the White Ants, live in large colonies
+and build nests.</p>
+
+<p>These nest-building Ants abound in certain districts, but not in the
+region of the downs or karoos, nor where it is very dry and woody.
+They choose the country which is covered with a poor and so-called
+“sour” grass, and there they dig galleries in the ground, fetch earth
+from far and wide, and erect large rounded mounds of an elliptical
+figure, and often from three to seven feet in height. Apparently fond
+of company, the Ants congregate, and these gigantic hills of theirs are
+often crowded together and occupy the plains, as far as the eye can
+reach. The nests, or hills, are solidly built, and contain innumerable
+ants. This is the favourite resort of the Orycteropus, and the insects
+are his sole food then. Wherever ant-hills are found, there is a good
+chance of finding one of these Aard-varks, or Innagus, or Ant-Bears, as
+the Dutch and natives call them, leading a sort of mole-like life. But
+he is not easy to catch if the stories told be true. It is stated that
+the long strong flattened claws and short extremities, worked by their
+strong muscles, enable the animal to burrow in the soft soil as quickly
+as the hunters can dig, and that in a few minutes it will get out of
+the way; moreover, its strength is sufficient to resist the efforts of
+two or three men to drag it out of the hole. But when fairly caught,
+the Ant-eater does not resist much; it has no front teeth or eye teeth
+to do any harm with, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span> it can be killed easily by a blow on the
+head. The Ant-eater runs slowly, and never moves far from the entrance
+of its burrow, being seen to do so only at night-time. The burrows
+are often two feet in diameter and three or four feet deep before
+they branch off. Night is the time for Ant-eating, for the active and
+industrious insects are then all at home and within their solid nests.
+Then the Orycteropus sallies forth, finds a fresh nest, sprawls over
+it, and scratches a hole in its side, using his strong claws, and
+then introduces his long snout. Having satisfied himself that there
+is no danger at hand, the animal protrudes its long slimy tongue into
+the galleries and body of the nest, and it is at once covered with
+enraged Ants, which stick to it, and are finally returned with it into
+the mouth. This goes on over and over again, until the appetite is
+satisfied; and apparently the diet is excellent, for the Ant-eater is
+generally fat, and indeed his hams are appreciated as a delicacy for
+their peculiar flavour, into which that of formic acid is said to enter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_170">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_170.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CAPE ANT-EATER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although without an armour to its body, and provided with only a thick
+skin and bristles, the Orycteropus has a great resemblance in many
+points of its anatomy to the Armadillos of America. It is more closely
+allied to them than to the other Edentata. It is one of the order of
+Edentata, for there are no front teeth in the jaws, the incisors and
+canines being absent. The teeth are found in the back part of the
+mouth, and there are five on each side and in the upper and lower
+jaws, or twenty in all; there are also some small teeth which fall out
+during the growth of the animal. As might be expected from the very
+simple nature of the diet, the teeth are not at all complicated in
+their structure. They increase in size from before backwards, the last
+tooth but one being the largest, and all are peculiar in their minute
+construction. The first permanent tooth, which may be called a molar,
+is cylindrical in shape, and consists of a centre of very remarkable
+substance, for the body of the tooth is composed of a great number of
+vertical canals placed side by side, and running up the tooth. It was
+this interesting structure, so different to that of other animals,
+which led Cuvier to compare the teeth to pieces of cane. Outside this
+part of the tooth is a hard and more solid substance. When<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span> the teeth
+are unworn, this outer covering covers their top, but as it wears
+off the tubular appearance is seen, and the ends of the tubes become
+exposed. The teeth have no fangs like those of such orders of Mammalia
+as the Carnivora and Insectivora, and they increase in length by
+growth from below, so that the wear above is continually compensated
+for. The second tooth resembles the first in its minute construction,
+but appears like two cylinders fixed together, a longitudinal groove
+indicating the junction, and this is the appearance presented by most
+of the others. The hindermost teeth resemble the first molars. The
+dental number varies according to age, and the presence or absence of
+the teeth which are not permanent. The jaws, in which the teeth are
+fixed, are long, and the lower one is low, but there is an ascending
+back part, or ramus; consequently, the face is long and low. The eye
+is placed far from the ear, and is small. Its bony case, or orbit, and
+its surrounding bones, are somewhat remarkable for an Edentate, for
+there is a lachrymal bone, and the tear canal is open on the bony face.
+Moreover, the malar bone is united to the ear bone by a complete arch,
+the zygoma, and the deficiency so remarkable in some other Edentates
+is thus not observed. The pre-maxillary bones are also to be seen, in
+front of the face. In this completeness of the bones of the face this
+animal is a true mammal, but in the nature and extent of the ear bones,
+the Orycteropus has some resemblance to reptiles and birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25" id="i_171">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_171.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE CAPE ANT-EATER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tongue is long, narrow, and flat, and can be protruded considerably
+beyond the mouth, but not so far as those of the other insect-eating
+Edentata; and in order to keep up a supply of thick mucus, the glands
+under and at its side, or the sub-maxillary, are very large and active
+in their functions. The stomach is moderately bulky and not simple,
+for the portion towards the right has very thick muscular walls, and
+the rest is thin. The intestine has a blind gut, or cæcum.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> In
+fact, the stomach and blind gut might belong to an animal which eats
+something more bulky and less nutritious than Ants, and would be of use
+to the creature, did it eat vegetable matters. All these structures,
+the simple teeth, the tear bones, the size of the ear bones, the
+Sloth-like teeth, with tubes, however, and the peculiarities about the
+intestinal canal are, it must be remembered, associated with the life
+of a purely insectivorous animal. Why has it not the kind of teeth of
+the Insectivora and their stomach? and why should it combine high and
+low characters in its skull? These are questions which, when attempted
+to be answered, show that in the great philosophy of nature causes and
+effects are not everything, and that the same definite methods of life
+may be followed by animals very differently constituted.</p>
+
+<p>The claws of the Orycteropus and the limbs are admirably suited for
+its kind of life. There are five claws on the hind limbs and four on
+the front, and they are long, slightly curved, flat, and scooped out
+below. The burrowing is facilitated by the arrangement of the claws as
+regards length, and they diminish in size from within outwards. There
+is a collar bone. The foot rests evenly on the ground and not on its
+outside, and the body is supported either by the whole foot or by the
+palm surface of the claws. The fore arm can be rotated more or less,
+and the pronator quadratus<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> muscle enables this necessary action to
+be carried out. The <i>Orycteropus capensis</i> lives over a wide extent of
+country in South Africa, in Caffraria, and in the western districts. A
+closely-allied species lives in Senegal (<i>Orycteropus senegalensis</i>,
+Less.); and a third is found in Southern Nubia, near the White Nile
+(<i>Orycteropus æthiopicus</i>, Sund.).</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span></p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_PANGOLINS_OR_SCALY_ANT_EATERS" title="THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY
+ANT-EATERS."><span class="s4">THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY
+ANT-EATERS.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="african_pangolin">THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS.</p>
+
+<p>An animal living in the same country, on the same kind of food, and
+having many of the habits of the Cape Ant-eater, especially as it
+belongs to the same order of the animal kingdom, might be expected
+to resemble it in shape and in most of the important parts of its
+construction. But the comparison between the Ant-eater, just described,
+and the Scaly Ant-eater, shows that these animals have some very
+remarkable differences. The Scaly Ant-eater is toothless, and covered
+with scales.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_172">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_172.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEMMINCK’S PANGOLIN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Formerly, the Scaly Ant-eaters roamed far south in Africa, but now they
+are rare animals in South Africa, in the west of the continent, and
+across to Sennaar. They are found in Zanzibar, and as far south as the
+latitude of Mozambique. They are small animals, of from two to nearly
+five feet in length, with long tails; and their body, limbs, and tail
+are covered with numerous large, somewhat angular, and sharp-edged
+scales, as with armour. The scales overlap each other like tiles,
+and the free part pointing backwards is bluntly angular or rounded
+at the tip. When the animal is on its feet walking, they form a very
+close and impenetrable covering, being doubtless of great use to the
+creature, for it must trust entirely to its defences, having no weapon
+of offence. But when the Scaly Ant-eater is alarmed or threatened with
+danger, or positively attacked, it rolls itself up like a ball, places
+the snout between the legs, and the tail underneath, and then sticks
+up its scales, offering their sharp edges to the enemy. There are
+several kinds of them, and one in particular was noticed by Dr. Smith,
+the African traveller, and was named after the zoologist Temminck,
+M<span class="smaller">ANIS</span> T<span class="smaller">EMMINCKII</span>. He observed that it was rarely seen, but
+that when it was discovered, instead of burrowing, it did not attempt
+to escape, but rolled itself up instantly in the shape of a ball,
+taking especial care of its head, which is the only part unarmoured and
+likely to be injured. He states that Ants form its chief and favourite
+food, and that it secures them by extending its projectable tongue into
+holes which may exist in the habitations of those insects, or which it
+may itself form. The tongue having made an entry, it is soon covered
+with a multitude of insects, and as it is well lubricated with saliva,
+they are held fast, and when a full load is ready, the retracting
+muscles act on the tongue and the whole is carried back into the mouth,
+after which the Ants are swallowed. The same traveller accounts for the
+scarcity of the Scaly Ant-eaters, partly from the disinclination of the
+natives to discover them for strangers, and partly because they are
+environed with supernatural<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span> gifts in their eyes. They are carefully
+sought for, by the natives, for their own use and supposed advantage,
+for they believe the animal to have some influence on cattle, and that
+certain treatment to which they are exposed produces this. Whenever
+a specimen is secured by the natives, it is submitted to fire in
+some cattle-pen, apparently as a burnt offering for the increase of
+the health and fertility of all cattle which may henceforward enter
+the fold. “Here,” writes Dr. Smith, “we have another cause for the
+obliteration of a species. Intolerance of their aggression has wrought
+up the shepherd or agriculturist to the destruction of some; but in
+this case, a species is probably dying out under the influence of a
+superstition.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_173">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_173.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>They burrow even in rather hard ground, and feed at night time. It has
+been noticed that the mother sits upright when enticing the young to
+suckle.</p>
+
+<p>This <i>Manis</i> has rather a short head, and a wide body, and the tail is
+as long as the trunk: it is rather less in width near the body, and
+does not diminish much near the end. In a specimen which is twenty-five
+inches and a half long, the back of the animal is eight inches across,
+and the tail at its root is five inches broad. The scales are large,
+and are in about eleven rows. The body is of a pale yellowish-brown
+colour, the scales being lightest in tint near their points, and they
+are often streaked with yellow. Where the scales are wanting the skin
+is dusky brown. The eyes are reddish-brown, and the muzzle is black.
+The nails of the fore feet are bent under, so that the animal walks on
+their upper part. The scales are composed of hairs placed side by side
+and agglutinated together, and when first formed, and for some little
+time after, they are soft. They cover the upper part of the fore and
+hind extremities besides the body, and are striated. This kind lives in
+Eastern Africa, Sennaar, Caffraria, Kordofan, and Latakoo.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="long_tailed_ant_eater">THE LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED
+PANGOLIN.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p>This Ant-eater is from two to three feet in length, and the tail is
+twice as long as the body. It inhabits the Guinea Coast and the Gaboon,
+and probably Senegal. It is a dark brown animal, with the hair of the
+face and under sides black in tint. There are eleven series of scales,
+with the end rounded, and a central prominence.</p>
+
+<p>Buffon described a pale brown or horn-coloured, very scaly, long-tailed
+Ant-eater as a Phatagin, but it is correctly called <i>Manis tricuspis</i>,
+from the scales having three projections on them. It lives in Western
+Africa, Fernando Po, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="great_manis">THE GREAT
+MANIS.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>This scaled Ant-eater is thirty inches long in the body, and its tail
+measures twenty-five inches in length. The great tail lessens to the
+end, and the scales are striated at the base, the whole colour being
+pale brown. It is an interesting animal from its likeness to one of the
+Asiatic species, the <i>Manis pentadactyla</i> (Linn.); but the difference
+in the length of tail is remarkable. It has been found in West Africa,
+Guinea, and in the Cape Coast Castle district.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="asiatic_scaly_ant_eaters">THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS.</p>
+
+<p>There is one point of great interest about the genus <i>Manis</i>, and it is
+that it is not restricted to Africa, for some species are found over
+a wide extent of country in India. They live there in a region from
+the Himalayan Mountains to Ceylon, and eastward to Sumatra and Java,
+and in Southern China as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They afford
+an instance of closely-allied animals now living in large districts
+which are separated by seas, deserts, mountains, and rivers, and other
+impassable barriers. The Javanese are said to have called the animal,
+from the fact of its rolling itself up, Pangolin, and the Bengalese
+termed it the Reptile of Stone. The first to be noticed is&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="short_tailed_pangolin">THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED
+PANGOLIN.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is supposed to be the Phattage of Ælian, and much resembles
+Temminck’s <i>Manis</i> from South Africa. It has a small head, which is
+pointed and long at the muzzle; the body is rather stout, and the tail
+is short, broad at the root. The back scales are in longitudinal rows,
+eleven in number, and they are smaller than those of the African kind.
+It has the under part of the body, head, and feet naked, and more or
+less hairy, and some long, fair-coloured hairs spring from between the
+scales. The middle claw of the fore-foot exceeds the others in size.
+They feed on white Ants especially. They are found in Bengal, Madras,
+and Assam.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Manis</i> with a tail as long as the body, and with the scales of the
+hind feet acutely pointed, and the front and hind claws nearly equal in
+size, is found in Sumatra and in Java. Finally, the other Asiatic kind,
+<i>Manis Dalmannii</i>, is found in the Himalayas, China, and possibly in
+Java.</p>
+
+<p>All the species of the genus <i>Manis</i>, whether from Africa or Asia,
+are absolutely toothless, and the Edentate peculiarity is perfect,
+for there are no back teeth. The tongue is worm-like, round, very
+long, and can be stuck out far from the mouth, and it supplies the
+want of the teeth, but from having this long organ and no back teeth,
+the palate and the skull are very long and conical. Being without
+masticating teeth, the lower jaw is very flat and simple, and there is
+no ascending ramus. The muscles of the lower jaw being of secondary
+importance, the arch (zygoma) of bone between the face and the ear is
+incomplete, and the outside ear is very small. But the organ of hearing
+is somewhat complicated, and there is a large space in the temporal
+bone which communicates with the internal ear, so that one tympanum is
+in communication with the other.</p>
+
+<p>Much saliva is required to moisten the tongue, and the sub-maxillary
+glands are therefore very large, and reach down under the skin of the
+neck on to the chest. The stomach is usually, if not always, found
+to contain stones which the creature has swallowed. Of course it can
+hardly tell what may be on its tongue in the dark Ants’ nest, and earth
+and stones are likely to rest on it and be swallowed, but the constant
+presence of these hard things may have something to do with the
+absence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span> of the teeth, and the necessity of having a crushing material
+somewhere or other. The walls of the stomach are thin near the entry of
+the gullet tube, but towards the pylorus, or the right side end, the
+muscles are well developed, and the mucous membrane is very dense.</p>
+
+<p>These animals use their claws for the purpose of digging holes in the
+ground, or in the Ants’ nests, for the sake of food, and the position
+in walking is with the front claws bent under, so that the whole weight
+of the front of the body is felt on the back (or upper part) of the
+claws. The hind feet are placed flat, and the sole and under part of
+the claws sustain the hinder quarters. The joints of the five fingers
+of the fore feet are so arranged that they can bend downwards only,
+and indeed they are more or less permanently bent, being kept in that
+position by strong ligaments. This assists the digging powers of the
+claws, which are, moreover, forked at their points in some species, and
+the wrist is rendered very strong by having the joints between two of
+its bones abolished, and they are united by bone, as in the carnivorous
+animals. The bones thus united are the scaphoid and semi-lunar bones.
+Every structure in the creature’s fore limbs tends to the promotion of
+easy and powerful digging, and as the motion of scratching the ground
+is directly downwards and backwards, the power of moving the wrist
+half round, and presenting the palm more or less upwards, as in the
+Sloths and in man, does not exist. In order to prevent this pronation
+and supination, the part of the fore-arm bone, the radius, next to the
+elbow, is not rounded, but forms part of a hinge joint. Finally, it is
+necessary to observe, that the middle claw is the longest of the five
+on all the extremities, and that as the animal does not require to
+reach over its head, there is no collar bone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_175">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_175.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The long tail of the Pangolins, stumpy at the end in some kinds, has a
+considerable number of bones, usually twenty-six; and the first of them
+joins on to the last of the back bones of the pelvis. This last, or
+sacral vertebra, unites on each side with the haunch bones (ischium),
+and there is no notch in the bone for the passages of the great nerves
+of the back of the leg, but a hole.</p>
+
+<p>The thigh bone is flattened from before backwards, and the bones of
+the leg are wide apart, and all this gives extra powers to the muscles
+which have to direct the scraping and digging by the hind feet. The
+feet are solid and strong, and have not any of the inside turning
+and club-foot appearance of the Sloths, and the heel bone projects
+backwards.</p>
+
+<p>There is an interesting peculiarity about the chest of the Pangolins,
+for the breast bone is very long, and the cartilage at its end is
+large, and has two long projections resembling those of the Lizards.
+The neck consists of seven vertebræ, and the back of thirteen, and
+there are three or four in the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="american_ant_eaters">THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS.</p>
+
+<p>The adjective “long” may be applied to nearly all the structures of
+these animals. The tail, body, neck, head, snout, and tongue, and the
+hair are all very long, and the only things which are short are the
+ears. The observer is immediately struck with the curiously-shaped
+head, so narrow, low, and ending in a flexible and very slender snout,
+especially if the round tongue happens to be projecting out of the
+mouth, for it is longer even than the head, and is like a gigantic
+worm. The snout appears bent, and is made to look all the longer, by
+the eye being placed not far from the small ear. Then the huge bushy
+tail, flattened from side to side, as long as the body, has a fringe
+of very long and strong hair. The body itself moves on four powerful
+limbs, well clawed, and looks bulky from the quantity of hair on it,
+but usually it is thin. The animal, when it stands still, is higher at
+the shoulders than behind, and it rests on the sides of the fore-feet,
+where there is a callous pad, the claws being bent inwards and under,
+and not touching the ground with their tips. The under part of the hind
+feet bears the weight of the hind limbs. It is about four feet and a
+half in length from the snout to the tail, the tail being rather more
+than three feet in length, and the height is about three feet and a
+half. So long is the head, that it measures thirteen inches and a half
+from the ear to the snout, and the tongue can be projected for sixteen
+or eighteen inches, and is, when brought back into the mouth, bent so
+that its tip looks backwards towards the throat.</p>
+
+<p>The animal belongs to a group of the Edentata (for it is toothless)
+which has the following genera:&mdash;One genus, which is now being
+considered, is <i>Myrmecophaga</i>&mdash;μύρμης (an Ant), and φαγεῖν (to eat)&mdash;a
+second is <i>Tamandua</i>, and the third is <i>Cyclothurus</i>, from κυκλωτός
+(rounded). The animals of this group represent in South America the
+Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters of the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>The species of the genus <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, which has been thus slightly
+alluded to, is called the Maned Ant-eater.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="great_ant_bear">THE GREAT
+ANT-BEAR.<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>The habits of this animal, which has been named Great Ant-Bear by the
+English and Spaniards, have been described as follows:&mdash;“The habits of
+the Great Ant-Bear are slothful and solitary; the greater part of his
+life is consumed in sleeping, notwithstanding which he is never fat,
+and rarely even in good condition. When about to sleep he lies on one
+side, conceals his long snout in the fur of the breast, locks the hind
+and fore claws into one another, so as to cover the head and belly,
+and turns his long, bushy tail over the whole body in such a manner as
+to protect it from the too powerful rays of the sun. The female bears
+but a single young one at a birth, which attaches itself to her back,
+and is carried about with her wherever she goes, rarely quitting her,
+even for a year after it has acquired sufficient strength to walk and
+provide for itself. This unprolific constitution, and the tardy growth
+of the young, account for the comparative rarity of these animals,
+which are said to be seldom seen, even in their native regions. The
+female has only two mammæ, situated on the breast, like those of
+Monkeys, Apes, and Bats. In his natural state the Ant-Bear lives
+exclusively upon Ants, to procure which he opens their hills with his
+powerful crooked claws, and at the moment that the insects, according
+to their nature, flock from all quarters to defend their dwellings,
+draws over them his long, flexible tongue covered with glutinous
+saliva, to which they consequently adhere; and so quickly does he
+repeat this operation, that we are assured he will thus exsert his
+tongue and draw it in again covered with insects twice in a second. He
+never actually introduces it into the holes or breaches which he makes
+in the hills themselves, but only draws it lightly over the swarms of
+insects which will issue forth, alarmed by his attack. ‘It seems almost
+incredible,’ says D’Azara, ‘that so robust and powerful an animal can
+procure sufficient sustenance from Ants alone; but this circumstance
+has nothing strange in it to those who are acquainted with the tropical
+parts of America, and who have seen the enormous multitudes of these
+insects, which swarm in all parts of the country to that degree that
+their hills often almost touch one another for miles together.’ The
+same author informs us that domestic Ant-Bears were occasionally kept
+by different persons in Paraguay, and that they had even been sent
+alive to Spain, being fed upon bread-and-milk mixed with morsels of
+flesh minced very small. Like all animals which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span> live upon insects,
+they are capable of sustaining a total deprivation of nourishment for
+an almost incredible time.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_177">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_177.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT ANT-BEAR.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Great Ant-Bear is found in all the warm and tropical parts of
+South America, from Colombia to Paraguay, and from the shores of the
+Atlantic to the foot of the Andes. His favourite resorts are the low,
+swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds. He is
+found also frequenting the humid forests, but never climbing trees, as
+falsely reported by Buffon, on the authority of La Borde. His pace is
+slow, heavy, and hesitating; his head is carried low, as if he smelled
+the ground at every step, whilst his long, shaggy tail, drooping
+behind him, sweeps the ground on each side, and readily indicates
+his path to the hunter; though, when hard pressed, he increases his
+pace to a slow gallop, yet his greatest velocity never half equals
+the ordinary running of a man. So great is his stupidity, that those
+who encounter him in the woods or plains may drive him before them
+by merely pushing him with a stick, so long, at least, as he is not
+compelled to proceed beyond a moderate gallop; but if pressed too
+hard, or urged to extremity, he turns obstinate, sits up on his hind
+quarters like a Bear, and defends himself with his powerful claws.
+Like that animal, his usual, and indeed only, mode of assault is by
+seizing his adversary with his fore paws, wrapping his arms round him,
+and endeavouring by this means to squeeze him to death. His great
+strength and powerful muscles would easily enable him to accomplish his
+purpose in this respect, even against the largest animals of his native
+forests, were it but guided by ordinary intelligence, or accompanied
+with a common degree of activity. But in these qualities there are
+few animals, indeed, which do not greatly surpass the Ant-Bear, so
+that the different stories handed down by writers on natural history
+from one to another, and copied, without question, into the histories
+and descriptions of this animal, may be regarded as pure fiction. For
+this statement we have the express authority of Don Felix d’Azara, an
+excellent observer and credible writer, from whose “Natural<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span> History
+of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay” we have derived the greater portion of
+the preceding account of the habits and economy of this extraordinary
+animal. “It is supposed,” says Don Felix, “that the Jaguar himself
+dares not attack the Ant-Bear, and that if, pressed by hunger, or
+under some other excitement, he does so, the Ant-Bear hugs him and
+embraces him so tightly, as very soon to deprive him of life, not even
+relaxing his hold for hours after life has been extinguished by his
+assailant. It is very certain that such is the manner in which the
+Ant-eater defends himself; but it is not to be believed that his utmost
+efforts could prevail against the Jaguar, which, by a single bite or
+blow of his paw, could kill the Ant-eater before he was prepared for
+resistance; for even in so extreme a case, his motions are so slow and
+so heavy, that he takes some time to get himself ready, and besides
+being unable to leap, or to turn with even ordinary rapidity, he is
+necessarily forced to act solely on the defensive.” The flesh of the
+Ant-eater is esteemed a delicacy by the Indians and negro slaves, and,
+though black, and of a strong musky flavour, is sometimes even met with
+at the tables of Europeans.</p>
+
+<p>This large Ant-eater, grey in colour, with a black-coloured throat
+and a triangular spot, black in tint, ascending obliquely over each
+shoulder, has four claws on the fore limb and five on the hinder
+extremity. The claws are grooved underneath, and are not split or
+forked as in the <i>Manis</i>, and they, and especially the great middle
+claw, are protected by an expansion of bone from the last joint of
+the digits, or toes. This envelopes the base of the claw, except
+quite underneath, leaving the tip free to perform its office without
+endangering the tender base. The tips are protected, moreover, in the
+fore limbs by the position assumed during standing and walking, for
+they are then turned in and do not touch the ground; but this is not
+the case in the feet, for the Great Ant-Bears rest on their soles.
+Without teeth, and having an incomplete arch of bone between the cheek
+and ear bones, they possess a long palate, so long, indeed, that when
+the long nose cavity opens into the throat in the skeleton certain
+bones called pterygoid, or wing-shaped, form part of its boundary.
+This is unusual amongst the Mammalia, and Huxley observes that it is
+only found in some of the Whale tribe (<i>Cetacea</i>). Moreover, it is
+not noticed in any other vertebrate animals except the Crocodiles.
+The skull is very low and long, and the framework of the tongue is as
+important as that of the jaws. This kind of Ant-eater has imperfect
+collar bones. As in the other Ant-eaters there is in this one a very
+muscular condition of the right side of the stomach.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="tamandua">THE
+TAMANDUA.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Tamandua is much smaller than the Great Ant-eater, and is, were it
+not for its long snout and tail, somewhat like a Sloth. It is nearly
+as large as one of these animals, and has a long head, small rounded
+ears, and small mouth. The body, some two feet in length, is rather
+short, and is covered with short, silky, or woolly shining hair, of
+almost uniform length. The fore limbs are very stout, especially above
+the elbow, and the hind ones rest on the rather long sole. The tail is
+about a foot and a half in length; it is stout at its root, and round
+and tapering to the blunt end, is minutely scaled, and covered in some
+places with short hairs. The fore claws are bent on the hand, and the
+animal walks on their outer and upper surface, using them also to clasp
+and to hang on in climbing. The tail is more or less prehensile. The
+colour of the hair and the markings varies much in the species, and
+in captivity the rusty straw-colour of the body becomes whiter; but
+there is a line of black on the upper part of the chest reaching over
+the shoulders and between them and the neck on to the back, and also
+several black patches over the tail and on the flanks.</p>
+
+<p>The Tamandua is an inhabitant of the thick primeval forests of tropical
+America, and lives in Brazil and Paraguay. It is rarely found on the
+ground, but resides almost exclusively on trees, where it lives upon
+termites, honey, and even, according to the report of D’Azara, bees,
+which in those countries form their hives among the loftiest branches
+of the forest, and, having no sting, are more readily despoiled of
+their honey than their congeners of Great Britain. When about to sleep,
+it hides its muzzle in the fur of its breast, falls on its belly,
+letting its fore feet hang down on each side, and wrapping the whole
+tightly round with its tail. The female, as in the case of the Great
+Ant-eater, has but two pectoral mammæ, and produces but a single cub
+at a birth, which she carries about with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span> her on her shoulders for the
+first three or four months. The young are at first exceedingly deformed
+and ugly, and of an uniform straw-colour.</p>
+
+<p>The animal is called Cagouaré by the Guaranis, on account of the
+noxious and infected vapours of the forests in which alone it is found,
+the word literally signifying, in the language of those Indians, “the
+inhabitants of a stinking wood or marsh.” Such at least is D’Azara’s
+interpretation of the term, though it appears more probable that it may
+refer to the strong disagreeable odour of the animal itself, which,
+this very author informs us, is so powerful that it may be perceived
+at a very great distance, particularly when the animal is irritated.
+Tamandua is the name by which it is known to the Portuguese of Brazil;
+the French and the English call it Fourmilier and Little Ant-Bear.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="two_toed_ant_eater">THE TWO-TOED
+ANT-EATER.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>These little animals appear, at first sight, to resemble Sloths with
+tails; and their round heads, furry bodies, and two claws on the fore
+limb, add to the resemblance. They are essentially arboreal animals
+also, but they have long and useful tails, and live on insects. They
+hunt their insect prey in the forests of Costa Rica, Honduras, and
+Brazil. Their two-clawed hands are remarkable, for the rudiments of
+the thumb and little finger are hidden beneath the skin, and the claws
+are placed on the first and second digits. The third digit has no
+claw. There are four claws on the feet, so that in this arrangement
+the animal is peculiar amongst the Ant-eaters. It is not larger than
+a common Squirrel, and the general shape of the body is like that of
+a Tamandua on a small scale. Its whole length, from the snout to the
+origin of the tail, is but six inches, and of the tail, seven inches
+and a quarter. This is consequently rather longer than the body; it
+is thick at the root, and covered with short fur, but tapers suddenly
+towards the point, where it is naked and strongly prehensile. The
+muzzle is not so long, in proportion, as in the other two species; the
+tongue also is shorter, and has a flatter form; the mouth opens further
+back in the jaws, and has a much larger gape, the eye being situated
+close to its posterior angle; the ears are short, rather drooping, and
+concealed among the long fur which covers the head and cheeks; the legs
+are short and stout; and the hair, very soft and fine to the touch, is
+three-quarters of an inch in length on the body, but much shorter on
+the head, legs, and tail. The general colour is that of straw, more or
+less tinged with maroon on the shoulders, and particularly along the
+median line of the back, which usually exhibits a deep line of this
+shade. The feet and tail are grey.</p>
+
+<p>This species is said to have four mammæ, two pectoral, as in those
+already described, and two others on the abdomen. It is reported,
+nevertheless, to have but a single cub at birth, which it conceals
+in the hollow of some decayed tree. The habits and manners of this
+little animal, hitherto very imperfectly known to naturalists, are well
+described by Von Sach, in his “Narrative of a Voyage to Surinam.”</p>
+
+<p>“I have had two little Ant-eaters, or Fourmiliers, which were not
+larger than a Squirrel. One was of a bright-yellow colour, with a brown
+stripe on the back, the other was a silvery-grey, and darker on the
+back. The hair of each was very soft and silky, a little crisped; the
+head was small and round, the nose long, gradually bending downwards to
+a point; it had no teeth, but a very long round tongue; the eyes were
+very small, round, and black; the legs rather short; the fore-feet had
+only two claws on each, the exterior being much larger and stronger
+than the interior, which exactly filled the curve or hollow of the
+large one; the hind feet had four claws of a moderate size; the tail
+was prehensile, longer than the body, thick at the base and tapering
+to the end, which, for some inches on the under side, was bare. This
+little animal is called in Surinam ‘Kissing-hand,’ as the inhabitants
+pretend that it will never eat, at least when caught, but that it only
+licks its paws, in the same manner as the Bear; that all trials to make
+it eat have proved in vain, and that it soon dies in confinement. When
+I got the first, I sent to the forest for a nest of Ants, and during
+the interim I put into its cage some eggs, honey, milk, and meat; but
+it refused to touch any of them. At length the Ants’ nest arrived,
+but the animal did not pay the slightest attention to it either. By
+the shape of its fore-paws, which resemble nippers, and differ very
+much from those of all the other different species of Ant-eaters, I
+thought that this little creature might perhaps live on the nymphæ of
+Wasps, &amp;c. I therefore brought it a Wasps’ nest, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span> then it pulled
+out, with its nippers, the nymphæ from the nest, and began to eat them
+with the greatest eagerness, sitting in the posture of a Squirrel. I
+showed this phenomenon to many of the inhabitants, who all assured me
+that it was the first time they had ever known that species of animal
+take any nourishment. The Ants which I tried it with were the large
+white termites upon which fowls are fed here. As the natural history
+of this pretty little animal is not much known, I thought of trying
+if they would breed in a cage; but when I returned from my excursion
+into the country I found them both dead, perhaps occasioned by the
+trouble given to procure the Wasps’ nest for them, though they are here
+very plentiful; wherefore I can give no further description of them,
+than that they slept all the day long, curled together, and fastened
+by their prehensile tails to one of the perches of the cage. When
+touched they erected themselves on their hind legs, and struck with
+the fore-paws at the object which disturbed them, like the hammer of
+a clock striking the bell, with both paws at the same time, and with
+a great deal of strength. They never attempted to run away, but were
+always ready for defence when attacked. As soon as evening came, they
+awoke, and with the greatest activity walked on the wire of the cage,
+though they never jumped, nor did I ever hear their voice.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_180">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_180.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>All these Ant-eaters have great glands (sub-maxillary) for the purpose
+of secreting the sticky saliva, and the tongue is most movable, and
+wriggles like an eel in feeding on milk. The Little Ant-eater has a
+<i>rete mirabile</i> of blood-vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Another Cyclothurus lives in Costa Rica, which is golden-yellow in
+colour, and silky in its hair. It has a broad black stripe on the back.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_III_II">CHAPTER III.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">The Armour-plates&mdash;How the Shields are formed&mdash;Their connection with the Body&mdash;Description of the Animals&mdash;Mode
+of Walking&mdash;Diet&mdash;Skeleton&mdash;Adaptation of their Limbs for Burrowing&mdash;Classification&mdash;<a href="#great_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Great
+Burrower&mdash;<a href="#tatouay">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">ATOUAY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#poyou">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OYOU</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> Y<span class="smaller">ELLOW</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peludo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ELUDO</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span>
+H<span class="smaller">AIRY</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pichiy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ICHIY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peba">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">EBA</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> T<span class="smaller">ATOU</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#mule_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ULE</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#ball_armadillo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ALL</span> A<span class="smaller">RMADILLO</span></a>&mdash;Dr.
+Murie’s Account of its Habits&mdash;Description&mdash;The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and Unrolls itself&mdash;<a href="#pichiciago">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+P<span class="smaller">ICHICIAGO</span></a>&mdash;Concluding Remarks: Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of <i>Manis</i> in
+South Africa and Hindostan.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_181">
+  <img class="w100 padtop1" src="images/i_181.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BONES OF CLAW OF GREAT ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HESE</span> South American animals are more or less covered with a hard
+bony crust, separated into shields and bands, which are more or less
+movable, owing to the presence of special skin-muscles. In the most
+perfectly armoured there are four distinct shields and a set of
+bands, a certain amount of motion being possible between their edges.
+Of the shields, one covers the head, another the back of the neck,
+a third protects the shoulders like a great cape, and the fourth
+arches over the rump like a half dome, and is, in some, attached by
+its deep structure to the bones of the hip and haunch. The movable
+bands cover the back and loins, and are between the third and fourth
+shields. The tail may further be invested by incomplete bony rings,
+and scattered scales, and others are distributed over the limbs. This
+covering is, according to Professor Huxley, strictly comparable to
+part of the armour of the Crocodile; and the Armadillos are the only
+Mammals possessing such structure. The shields and bands are formed
+of many scales, or scutes, which are ossifications of the skin, and
+they may be of many kinds of shape&mdash;four, or many-sided&mdash;being united
+by sutures, and they are incapable of separate motion. The shields
+and bands, however, vary much in their number, size, and perfectness
+in the different animals, which, being armoured, the Spaniards called
+Armadillos; and, indeed, the number of bands in the back and loin
+division varies in individuals of the same species. These bands cover
+the flanks, and, with the shields fore and aft, protect the limbs,
+which are often more or less hidden by a growth of hair. The bands,
+moreover, by being movable one on the other, enable the rest of the
+armour to accommodate itself to the motions of the body, so that some
+roll themselves up, as in a ball shape. There may be few or many bands
+present, and the extreme numbers are three and thirteen. The Armadillos
+are of different sizes, and whilst the smallest may be only ten inches
+in length without the tail, the largest are more than three feet long.
+The head is long, and broad at the neck, the ears are usually long,
+the neck is short, the body is long, round, and low, and the length of
+tail varies much in different kinds. Where the head shield joins that
+of the shoulders, there is a space for the movement of the short neck;
+but this is protected by a backward projection from the head shield.
+The throat, under parts, and thighs are not protected by armour, except
+here and there by small plates in the skin, or by a granulated state
+of it; and they are naked or hairy. Even between the bands on the back
+there are often long hairs, and the tail fits into a kind of notch in
+the last shield of the body, and its plates are close in almost all
+Armadillos, but not united. So that much more motion is given to it and
+to the body than might be expected by the muscles during their action
+beneath the more or less soldered bony skin. The flat top to the head,
+and the long muzzle, are useful to the Armadillos in their burrowing,
+and this is assisted by short and strong limbs armed with powerful
+claws. Some of the Armadillos are even capable of running with some
+speed; and the little Six-banded Armadillo, or Poyou, and the Matico,
+are very restless and active in captivity. With one exception, these
+animals move with the flat of their feet and hands on the ground; all
+have five hind claws, but there is some variation in the number of the
+fore claws, which may be four or five. They have simple cylindrical
+molar teeth, which, according to the species, are from seven or eight
+to twenty-five on each side of each jaw, and they are separate,
+standing apart from one another. Moreover, they are so arranged that
+when the mouth is closed, the upper teeth fit into the spaces between
+the under ones, and the under teeth into those of the upper, so that
+their grinding surfaces wear down into ridges. In one kind, there are
+some teeth in the pre-maxillary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span> bones; but all the others have only
+molar teeth, which do not, however, go very far back, for there are
+none on the ascending ramus of the lower jaw. They are not, therefore,
+animals which prey upon their fellows, but are vegetable, insect, and
+probably carrion eaters. They dig and burrow, and their sense of smell
+is acute. This is assisted by the position of the nostrils in the long
+muzzle, for they are not at its tip, but rather underneath, so that
+they open downwards. In fact, the ends of the bones of the nose project
+in front of the pre-maxillary bones. The armour is doubtless useful
+against the attacks of their many carnivorous and reptile enemies;
+it assists them in burrowing, keeps off pressure, and may protect
+those which live in forests against a falling bough. They are passive
+creatures, mostly nocturnal in their habits, and their skeleton is
+strengthened in some parts in relation to its armour and its office.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe41" id="i_182a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_182a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus the spine of the second vertebra is tall and compressed, and
+reaches backwards over those of the third and fourth vertebræ, and
+it coalesces with them. The bodies of these vertebræ also join more
+or less solidly, and there are no (or very minute) spines on the
+last three cervical vertebræ. This gives a strange appearance to the
+skeleton, which is increased by the length of the spine of the first
+vertebra of the back (dorsal). In order to support the back shield,
+the projections from the back bones are greatly developed, and two
+side processes stand out on either side of the spinous one. Moreover,
+there is much fixity between the last dorsal and lumbar vertebræ, and
+the strong and long sacrum beneath the last shield is formed by the
+junction of the back bones of the root of the tail with the true sacral
+vertebræ. Finally, the transverse processes of some of the upper tail
+vertebræ are united to the pelvic bones. There is a corresponding
+strengthening of the chest, and a broad flat first rib accompanies an
+expanded condition of the upper part of the breast bone; and this bone
+is jointed with bony sternal ribs, which unite on the side of the chest
+with the ordinary ribs of the spine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17_5" id="i_182b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_182b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As they are rapid burrowers, the limbs are fashioned with a view of
+favouring this kind of life, the general skeletal peculiarities of
+the Edentata being more or less preserved at the same time. They have
+a collar bone, and the blade bone is long, rather narrow, and has
+a tall, long spine, and a kind of offshoot from the back edge. The
+humerus of the arm is short and robust, strongly marked by ridges and
+depressions for the great muscles of the shoulder and chest, and the
+fore-arm is characterised by the disproportionate size of its two
+bones. The ulna has a very long and stout elbow process (olecranon) for
+the attachment of the muscles, which can force the hand strongly on to
+and into the earth, and drag it out, and its length makes the whole
+bone twice as long as the radius. The thigh bone has a strong crest,
+arising from the great trochanter, and extending downwards nearly the
+whole length of the bone; moreover, the great trochanter has a large
+process on the middle of its outer edge. The bones of the leg are
+broad, arched, and united at both ends, and the heel bone reaches far
+back, in order to give strength to the squatting position taken up when
+the animal is burrowing. The eye is placed rather high in the head,
+is protected above by the outer edge of the head armour, and by some
+small surrounding scales. It looks as a rule outwards. The lower jaw
+is long, and has a back angle, sometimes of some size; the cheek bone
+unites to the temporal bone, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span> the arch is complete. In the face
+the intermaxillary bone is well developed, and there is often a crest
+of bone passing over the top of the skull from side to side over the
+occiput, which is in relation to the head armour. The brain is small;
+the back or little brain is not covered by the brain proper, whose
+convolutions and processes are few and simple. The olfactory lobes
+project.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_183a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_183a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These armoured, round-bodied, short-legged, great-clawed animals are
+numerous, and there are several species, which need not, however,
+be collected into more than two genera. But it is by no means easy
+to arrange those of the first genus&mdash;the True Armadillos, genus
+<i>Dasypus</i>&mdash;in any other than an arbitrary and very artificial
+classification. Usually they are grouped and separated by the relative
+number of digits or claws on the fore and hinder extremities; by the
+presence or absence of teeth in the intermaxillary bones; by their
+ability to roll up; and by the excessive or the small number of their
+teeth. The method of walking, whether on the sole or on the tips of
+the claws, and the number of the bands, have been partly employed in
+classification, but their number is often variable in individuals of
+the same species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12_5" id="i_183b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_183b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF THE ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Priodontes have but one species, which is readily distinguished by
+its superior size, besides by its great number of teeth, of which there
+are from twenty-two to twenty-four small ones on each jaw on each side,
+making from eighty-eight to ninety-six in all.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="great_armadillo">THE GREAT
+ARMADILLO.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is an inhabitant of Brazil, and of the northern parts of Paraguay
+and of Surinam, and is a dweller in the forest, being never found far
+out on the plains. The head is seven inches and a half long, and the
+ears, usually pointed and laid backwards, are not quite two inches in
+length. The head and body, without the tail, measure three feet and
+some inches, whilst the thickly-rooted but rapidly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span>tapering tail is
+about a foot and a half in length. Hence the head is small for the body
+in this Armadillo, and the forehead is protuberant, and the face is
+very tubular and cylindrical-looking. The shoulder and croup shields
+are not expanded and solid, but consist of nine and eighteen rows of
+plates respectively, and the intermediate part of the body has twelve
+or thirteen movable bands, each of which is made up of rectangular
+scales, or scutes, about half an inch square. The circumference of the
+root of the tail is upwards of ten inches, and the organ is covered
+with plates, disposed in rings at the root, and not farther down, but
+forming spiral or crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its
+length.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Armadillo is a persevering and most rapid burrower, and the
+fore limb and hand are singularly modified for the purpose of enabling
+rapid digging and removal of the soil. The olecranon process of the
+ulna is enormous, and the muscle of the deep flexor or tendon of the
+claws is ossified and turned into a hand bone. The metacarpal bones of
+the thumb and first finger are small, and so are the slender digits,
+but that of the middle finger is irregularly rectangular, and is
+broader than long, and the digit which it supports is extraordinarily
+short, stout, strong, and broad. Its corresponding bones of the fourth
+finger are similarly formed, but are somewhat smaller, and the fifth
+finger is very small. The nail phalanx of the middle finger is large
+and strong, being curved <i>outwards</i>, and having a large horny hood,
+or core, at its base, for the lodgment of the claw. There are five
+claws on the hands and feet, and the Armadillo moves on the flat of
+its feet, being plantigrade. There is no doubt that, aided by these
+digging weapons, and being of considerable stoutness, the animal makes
+long and deep burrows. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, and insects,
+and there is a story that it seeks carrion, and it used to be said that
+the collectors of Cinchona bark in the dense forests, when they lost a
+companion by death, were obliged to bury the body in a grave surrounded
+with a double row of stout planks, to prevent its being scratched up
+and devoured by the Great Armadillo. Planks must be scarce, however, in
+those localities, and difficult to carry; and probably there are other
+inhabitants of the woods besides the Armadillos which would discover
+and drag out a corpse. To assist the scratching and digging, the soles
+of the feet are partly covered with flat scales.</p>
+
+<p class="mtop1">The Kabassous have the fore and hind extremities furnished with an
+equal number of (five) fingers and toes respectively, but the number of
+teeth is, altogether, from thirty to forty.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="tatouay">THE
+TATOUAY.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>This Kabassou has the five fingers disposed obliquely; and the great
+middle and fourth claws resemble those of the gigantic Armadillo. It is
+named in allusion to its tail, which is more or less naked, and nearly
+uncovered with rings or plates, so that it has not the usual tube-like
+protection, or beautifully ornamented crust seen in some Armadillos.
+The tail is about seven inches and a half long, and is round and
+pointed, having only a few hard crusts beneath, near the outer third,
+where it often trails on the ground. The rest of its root is covered
+with soft brown fur, interspersed with a few stiff short hairs on the
+upper surface. The ears are large, being nearly two inches in length,
+and they form a segment of a circle in figure. The body is round, and
+the shields of the shoulder and croup have seven and ten rows of scales
+respectively, each scale forming an oblong rectangle, those near the
+root of the tail being the largest. The movable bands are thirteen
+in number, and are composed of much smaller scales than those of the
+shields, and they have a nearly square outline. The head is long and
+larger in proportion than that of the Great Armadillo, and it has not
+the very cylindrical appearance noticed in that and some other species.
+The arrangement of the claws resembles that of the Great Armadillo,
+whose they almost equal in size. The female has two pectoral mammæ.</p>
+
+<p>It inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, and Surinam, and but little
+is known of the habits of these Armadillos. They burrow easily and
+rapidly, and their great claws enable them to grasp the earth, and fix
+themselves so thoroughly that a great amount of exertion is required
+to pull them out of a burrow. They live on insects and on vegetable
+matters.</p>
+
+<p class="mtop1">The Encouberts of Cuvier have five toes on the fore and hinder
+extremities, and nine or ten teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span> on each side of the jaws, and
+there are two teeth in the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw,
+representing the incisor teeth of ordinary Mammals, and thus forming an
+exception, not only to the other Armadillos, but even to the order of
+<i>Edentata</i>, as represented in the recent period.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="poyou">THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED
+ARMADILLO.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<p>This little Armadillo, which in captivity and in the natural state is
+remarkable for its boldness and restlessness, is a native of Brazil
+and especially of Paraguay, where it is common. It has a large, flat,
+nearly triangular top to its head, the face is short, the muzzle
+obtuse, and the ears erect and of moderate size. It has sharp little
+eyes. It measures about sixteen inches from the nose to the tail, and
+this is about seven or eight inches long. The number of movable bands
+is often six, but this is not the invariable number, for there may
+be seven or eight. The tail is surrounded, at its base, with three
+or four bony rings, and throughout the rest of its length is nearly
+covered with regular tuberculous scales, the separations between the
+bands showing some long bristly grey hairs. The body is flat and
+broad, and has short legs, and the creature runs with a very active
+and determined gait. It is a strong little thing, and it is said that
+when it is chased, it will often get away from a man by sheer speed and
+activity. When any noise is made at the entrance of its burrow, or if
+it is teased by spectators around its cage, it comes forth and grunts
+like a Pig, and looks at the disturber with a bold inquiring look.
+When it is attacked it is powerless, and seems incapable of making any
+defence, but it retreats to its burrow, and getting to the bottom of
+it, digs deeper still. Its power of burrowing does not seem to be much
+diminished by the limited rotation of the fore-arm, to which there is
+no pronator quadratus, but a well-developed pronator teres.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_185">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_185.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">POYOU.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Poyou feeds much on carrion, and for this reason its flesh, though
+fat, is never eaten by the inhabitants of European origin, though
+the Indians make no distinction in this respect between it and other
+Armadillos. When it stops or rests, it has a custom of squatting close
+to the ground like a Hare on her form, and in this position the great
+breadth of the body becomes apparent.</p>
+
+<p>The hinder shield has two hairs on the hinder side of each of its
+dorsal scales, and the under part of the body has scattered bristles on
+it. The female has two pectoral mammæ.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span></p>
+
+<p>The next two Armadillos to be noticed were formerly included in the
+same group as the Poyou, but as they have not the incisor teeth on the
+intermaxillary bones, they are placed in the sub-division <i>Euphractes</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="peludo">THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY
+ARMADILLO.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p>The long, silky, half bristly, abundant black hairs of this little
+Armadillo are the principal characteristics, which separate it, so
+far as its external construction is concerned, from the Poyou just
+noticed. It is smaller, however, the head measuring nearly four inches
+in length, and the whole body about two inches less than <i>Dasypus
+sexcintus</i>. The ears are long, large, and elliptical, and are pointed
+outwards, and the muzzle is broad. The forehead is broad and covered
+with rugged scales. The bands are six or seven in number, and the
+border of the shield, as well as that of the movable bands below, is
+indented in a remarkable manner, and forms sharp, regular points. There
+are eight teeth on each side, above and below, and the body, hairy as
+it is, is much scaled interiorly and on the limbs. The tail is long
+and slender, and only hairy at the root. This species does not inhabit
+Paraguay, nor probably is it found in the Brazils, but it exists in
+multitudes in the Pampas north of the Rio Plata, and Mr. Darwin noticed
+it in Chili. Its habits, according to that most accurate observer,
+are nocturnal, but D’Azara, to whom natural history owes very careful
+descriptions, states that “in an expedition which I made into the
+interior, between the parallels of 35° and 36° south latitude, I met
+with vast multitudes of this species of Armadillo, so that there was
+scarcely an individual of the party who did not daily capture one or
+two at least; for, unlike the Poyou, which moves abroad only at night,
+this animal is to be found at all times, and if alarmed, promptly
+conceals himself, if not intercepted. In March and April, when I saw
+them, they were so extremely fat that their flesh surfeited and palled
+the appetite; notwithstanding which, the pioneers and soldiers ate them
+roasted, and preferred them to beef and veal. This Hairy Armadillo,
+like others of the genus, has undoubtedly a very acute sense of smell,
+since it scents the carcases of dead Horses from a great distance, and
+runs to devour them; but as it is unable to penetrate the hide, it
+burrows under the body until it finds a place which the moisture of
+the soil has already begun to render soft and putrid. Here it makes
+an entrance with its claws, and eats its way into the interior, where
+it continues feasting on the putrid flesh, till nothing remains but
+the hide and bones, and so perfectly do these preserve their position,
+that it is impossible, from a mere external view, to anticipate the
+operations which the Armadillos have been carrying on within.” The same
+author states that this species never constructs burrows to reside
+in, that it avoids low, damp situations, and is found only on the dry
+upland plains. Probably there is more than one Hairy Armadillo.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pichiy">THE
+PICHIY.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<p>This little Armadillo is only fourteen inches long, tail included; its
+scaling is very handsome, and there are six or seven bands according to
+the individual and age. The head is covered with close scales, which
+are elliptical behind, and concealed under the others in front, and the
+whole top has a triangular outline, hiding the eye much. The scales
+on the front shield are large, and are hexagonal or pentagonal, and
+the croup shield has the angular endings noticed in the last species.
+The scales of the bands and of the shields generally are beautifully
+ornamented with lines, depressions, and little tubercles, which are
+more or less concentric. There is some hair on the long neck, and on
+the legs and tail. The five digits and claws on the fore limbs are
+moderately developed, for the thumb is very small, and the fourth
+finger only a little longer. But the index is long, with a short claw,
+and the second has a stouter and longer claw, and the third is shorter.
+It has a slender snout and small ears.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Darwin writes that it “prefers a very dry soil and the sandy dunes
+of the coast of Chili, where for many months it can never taste water.
+In soft soil, the animal burrows so quickly that its hind quarters
+would almost disappear before one could alight from one’s horse.” It
+also inhabits the Pampas to the south of Buenos Ayres, and extends from
+36° lat. southward to the confines of Patagonia. It inhabits burrows,
+to which, however, it does not confine itself during the day. Its
+flesh is said to be remarkably tender and well tasting. It is a hardy
+species, and can live in the dreary solitudes of Port Desire on the
+east coast.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Cachicames, another group of Armadillos, were so called after the
+Indian name for a black kind, which has a very long tail, and which is
+the type of it.</p>
+
+<p>The two kinds included in the group have four fingers, and five toes,
+which are separate, and the backs of the feet are round and covered
+with scales. The claws are conical, and the animal walks, as it were,
+on the toes more than on the sole, being thus digitigrade. The teeth
+number about eight on each side above and below.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="peba">THE PEBA, OR BLACK
+TATOU.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p>This Armadillo has a very wide geographical range, extending from
+Texas, through Central America to Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, and a
+variety called <i>Dasypus Kappleri</i> inhabits Surinam. It has great ears,
+which are long and placed very close together, and the muzzle at the
+end of the long, tapering face is not unlike that of the snout of a
+Hog in shape. The head is small, long, and straight, but the mouth is
+large. There are eight teeth on both sides of both jaws. The body is
+hairy below the shields and bands, which are largely developed. Then
+the neck and shoulder shield extends far back and comes as low as the
+elbow, and is composed of numerous scales disposed in many concentric
+rings, having the concavity in front, the first embracing the neck in
+its curve. The croup shield extends from the back to the origin of the
+tail, and reaches as low as the knees, and the concavity of its rings
+is turned towards the rear, the last embracing the tail. These scales
+are hexagons. Between the shields the bands are marked with zigzag
+lines forming very acute angles, and in some degree gliding over one
+another according to the movements of the animal. Out of fourteen
+specimens, two had six, one had seven, seven had eight, and there were
+four with nine bands; the full-grown ones have the greatest number.
+The head shield descends from the ears to the muzzle, and covers the
+cheeks as far down as the eyes, and there are small, interspersed,
+detached scales over the throat, the under jaw, the legs, and feet. The
+body is sixteen inches long, and the tail is nearly as long&mdash;fourteen
+inches&mdash;and is stout at the root. One variety of the species has some
+of the rings of the tail soldered into a case, which is used as a horn
+by the Indians. It is a timid, nocturnal animal, tolerably swift-footed
+and very expert in burrowing. It is never found in the woods, but
+delights in the open plains and cultivated fields, and is much hunted
+on account of the delicacy of the flesh, which, when roasted in the
+shell, is fat, and something better than Sucking-pig in taste. These
+long-tailed Armadillos bury garbage and flesh in their burrows, and eat
+it at their leisure.</p>
+
+<p id="mule_armadillo">Another species of this group is the Mule Armadillo (<i>Dasypus
+hybridus</i>, Desmarest), which has long, straight ears and a short
+tail. It roams farther north than the other kind, and is common on
+the Pampas, and is not nocturnal, nor does it burrow very easily. The
+female has from eight to twelve young at a birth, and the individuals
+of a litter are often of one sex.</p>
+
+<p>The Armadillos of all kinds, it is said, only have one litter a year,
+and then the young are numerous, but the mother has never more than
+four teats, and many have only two.</p>
+
+<p class="mtop1">The last group of the Armadillos, the <i>Tolypeutes</i>, contains some
+remarkable species, which have the power of rolling themselves up as in
+a ball-shape, and they walk in a most extraordinary manner on the tip
+of long and powerful front claws, and also on the flat and tip of the
+hind ones.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="ball_armadillo">THE BALL
+ARMADILLO.<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a small and very beautifully ornamented Armadillo, which has
+three free central bands and a short tail, with large fore and aft
+shields. It rolls itself up on the slightest alarm, so that the great
+shoulder and croup shields meet, the head and tail fitting in exactly,
+in front, so as to close up the body very safely. The little animal,
+which is rarely more than fifteen inches long, and has a tail of a
+couple of inches in length, is found in Brazil, Paraguay, and Buenos
+Ayres, and its walking on the long, stout claws of the fore legs gives
+it a very curious and unsteady appearance.</p>
+
+<p>It is an active, sprightly, light-footed little thing, according to Dr.
+Murie, and is constantly on the move, going here and there with much
+vivacity. Poising itself on tiptoe, it trots backwards and forwards as
+if on some urgent errand. In captivity the food was raw meat, boiled
+eggs, and bread-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span>and-milk. In the forest land, where it dwells along
+with its fellow armoured creatures, it has the advantage of being able
+to curl itself up, and to present no tangible part of its body to the
+host of mischievous Monkeys of its locality. The other Armadillos,
+when retiring to their holes, are often set upon by their lively
+quadrumanous neighbours, and are dragged out by the tail with great
+gusto; but the little Tolypeutes curls himself up and laughs at the
+disappointed Monkeys, who can find nothing to pull at about him.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_188">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_188.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BALL ARMADILLO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The shoulder shield comes down like a flap, far in front, and the croup
+extends behind in the same way, and they and the bands have large
+scales, which are very pretty in shape and ornament. The shields are
+very stout, and so is the skeleton within. The fore foot has three
+large clawed toes, on the tips of which the animal walks. The thumb of
+the fore extremity is to be seen in the skeleton, but is not always
+visible in the skin, and it is very small and high up; the index is
+long, and the claw also, and it is slightly bent, but sharp at the
+tip. The next claw is the largest and longest, and has a cutting edge
+at the back and outer part, and the point is sharp. The next digit is
+smaller. In the hind foot there are five toes, one being high up and
+rudimentary, and the second and third having broad, flat, curved, short
+nails, the third being the greatest. The fourth nail is smaller, and
+they are all placed more or less flatly on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The shell of this Armadillo is blackish-brown, and the skin between
+the central bands is bald and smooth. There are nine back teeth on
+each side in both jaws, and there are none in front. The muscles which
+enable this Armadillo to bring its tail and nose together and to
+form a ball shape, are not simply expansions of the common muscular
+tissue, which exists deeply in the skin in so many animals, but are
+special structures. The most important are in relation to the position
+of the head, neck, limbs, tail, and the shields and bands, when
+the body is about to be and while it is being rolled up; and these
+roller-up muscles are so arranged as to permit of the large liver and
+other internal organs not suffering pressure during their natural or
+temporary displacement. On the other hand, the unrollers act when the
+body and bones are in the rolled-up condition. The muscles of the back
+are very tendinous, and to a degree they unroll the animal, but this
+is also performed by muscles which are attached underneath the first
+movable band of armour, and to the front part of the spine of the
+blade<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[Pg 189]</span> bone; this will tend, when it contracts, to pull out the legs
+and protrude the fore part of the body, the centre being still rigid.
+Another drawer-back of the bladebone assists in this action, and it
+is inserted into the front or chest shield. The rolling up is done by
+the action of muscles which draw the nose down, so as to make the long
+head at right angles to the neck; then the fore-legs and bladebones are
+drawn in and up. At the same time, the muscles which pull down the tail
+act on the hind shield, and draw it down and forwards. The legs are
+pulled up, and then a great muscle, which is largely attached to the
+front and hind shields, and has a tendon-like expansion in the middle
+of its course beneath the movable bands, contracts and pulls front and
+stern together. The muscles of the loins, which in jumping animals
+bring the spine to a curve, do not act, and indeed are excessively
+small. The chief bend in the back is between the second and third
+lumbar vertebræ. (Murie.)</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pichiciago">GENUS CHLAMYDOPHORUS.&mdash;THE
+PICHICIAGO.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_189">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_189.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PICHICIAGO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is an Edentate animal, resembling the Armadillos more than any
+others, and is about six inches in length. It has a conical-shaped
+head, a large full chest, short clumsy powerful fore limbs, with
+four great nails rising gradually one above the other, the external
+shortest, and broadest; and the whole so arranged as to form a
+sharp-cutting instrument, rather scooped, and very convenient for
+progression under ground. The back and croup are broad and high,
+and the tail is small. The hind legs are weak and short, the feet
+being long and narrow, and there is a well-defined heel. The foot is
+arched, the toes are separate, and the nails are strong. The whole
+surface of the body is covered with fine silk-like hair, which covers
+over the limbs on to the palms. But the most striking peculiarity is
+the long-banded shell, which is loose as it were throughout, being
+attached to the back immediately above the spine by cellular tissue.
+It rests on two knobs on the frontal bones, and these are the great
+attachments of this important covering. There are twenty-four bands and
+no separate shields, and their consistence is somewhat more dense than
+leather of the same thickness. They are composed of scales or plates of
+geometrical form, and the bands are separated by skin. There is a notch
+in the last band for the tail, and the free inferior edges of the bands
+are everywhere fringed with silky hair. This elongated band structure
+is moved, to a certain extent, by two broad thin muscles, which are
+beneath it, on the back, and each of which divides, on approaching the
+shoulder, into two portions, one being attached to the bladebone, and
+the other to the occiput.</p>
+
+<p>The ear is hidden by hair, and is small; so also is the eye, which is
+black. The nostrils open downwards, at the inferior border of a large
+cartilage. The mouth is small, and there are eight teeth on both sides
+in both jaws. They are simple molars, and are separate and cylindrical.
+The head is large behind, and the jaws come almost to a point, and
+the lower has a long ascending ramus. A<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span> great passage for the spinal
+cord, and the two processes on the frontal bone, add to the curious
+appearance of this “bumpy” skull. The pelvis is remarkable in its
+structure, and is open in front.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these animals have the bands of the armour not attached, as has
+been mentioned, to the muscles of the back and to the head, but have
+them adherent to the skin of the back to the edge; and the sides and
+under part of the body are then covered with woolly hair. These are the
+largest animals of the two, and are found in Bolivia. The others are
+from Mendoza and Chili. These curious animals live, partly, mole-like
+lives.</p>
+
+<p class="mtop1">From what may be gleaned by reading the previous pages about the
+Edentates, it will appear that the order is a very remarkable one, and
+that it is interesting on account of the different external appearance
+of the species, their diverse modes of life, and singularly restricted
+localities. Evidently, there has been much degeneration in some of
+the anatomical characters of many of the species, and especially in
+those whose foot bones and neck vertebræ have joined more or less. The
+singular resemblance which some species present, in various points of
+their anatomy, to the lower animals, is very interesting, as is also
+their wonderful relation, in points of structure, with a number of
+extinct Edentata, most of which were gigantic.</p>
+
+<p>The Edentata, called also Bruta by Linnæus, form an order, the
+characters of which are, that there are teeth of one or two kinds all
+very similar, and often wanting. The incisors are not developed except
+in one group, and the rest have either molars which are separate, and
+numerous and simple, or there are none. The extremities are clawed, and
+the tongue is more or less elongated. The great groups of this order
+are the <i>Tardigrada</i>, or slow movers, which have a short face, long
+limbs, and small tail, and the body is covered with crisp hair; and the
+<i>Effodientia</i>, or diggers, which have long faces and worm-like tongues,
+with short limbs.</p>
+
+<p>The Sloths form the only family of the Tardigrada, and the Effodientia
+are divided into the genera <i>Manis</i>, the scaly Ant-eaters; <i>Dasypus</i>,
+the Armadillos; <i>Chlamydophorus</i>, the Pichiciagos; <i>Orycteropus</i>, the
+Ant-Bears; and <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, the American Ant-eaters. The Sloths form
+three genera&mdash;<i>Cholœpus</i>, <i>Bradypus</i>, and <i>Arctopithecus</i>. Amongst the
+Ant-eaters, the genus <i>Manis</i> may stand alone. The genus <i>Dasypus</i>
+may be divided, for the sake of convenience, into the subdivisions
+Priodontes, Kabassous, Euphractes, Cachicames, and Tolypeutes. The
+other genera need no subdivision.</p>
+
+<p>The fossil Edentata are mostly gigantic, and formerly lived in Europe
+and in the Americas. The European kinds would, were they now living,
+belong probably to the group of Pangolins, and they are placed in the
+extinct genera <i>Pervatherium</i>, <i>Macrotherium</i>, and <i>Ancylotherium</i>.
+In the Pliocene deposits of North America, there are large Edentates
+belonging to the genus <i>Morotherium</i>, and the previous Miocene
+deposits contain <i>Moropus</i>. The later, or Post-Pliocene strata of
+North and South America, contain species of <i>Mylodon</i> and <i>Megalonyx</i>,
+<i>Megatherium</i>, <i>Scelidotherium</i>, <i>Cœlodon</i>, and <i>Sphenodon</i>; they
+constitute a group of Terrestrial Sloths&mdash;the Gravigrada. In Cuba,
+the fossil huge Gravigrade Sloths are of the genera <i>Megalocnus</i> and
+<i>Myomorphus</i>. The Armadillo group are found fossil in South America,
+and the genera are <i>Chlamydotherium</i>, <i>Euryodon</i>, <i>Heterodon</i>,
+<i>Pachytherium</i>, and <i>Schistopleuron</i>. The modern genera are found
+with these, and the gigantic Armadillo-like animal, the Glyptodon,
+lived contemporaneously with the others, and possessed many strange
+peculiarities in its skeleton. The Ant-eaters are represented by
+a fossil form called <i>Glossotherium</i>. The oldest Edentates of the
+American Continent are found in North America, unless there is a
+Miocene group of them in South America, which is by no means an
+improbable supposition. The European Ant-eaters now found fossil lived
+in the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene ages.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the discovery of recent and closely-allied species
+of <i>Manis</i>, in South Africa and Hindostan, it may be said that they
+are relics of the old forms of the intermediate and now sunken land,
+between Eastern Africa and India, which existed before the last
+upheaval of the Himalayas. The evident structural affinity between the
+Effodient Edentata of South America and Africa, although the genera
+are different, adds to the interest of the corresponding, and in some
+instances greater, resemblance of many African and South American
+fresh-water fish and plants. The geologist looks back in the remote
+ages of the globe, when the great land surfaces and seas of the world
+were rather across the earth than in their present longitudinal
+position, in order to explain this remarkable similarity.</p>
+
+<p class="right mtop2 mright2">P. M<span class="smaller">ARTIN</span>
+D<span class="smaller">UNCAN</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[Pg 191]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32_5" id="i_191">
+  <img class="w100 mtop3 padtop1" src="images/i_191.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT KANGAROO.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_191_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="nopad" id="ORDER_MARSUPIALIA_MARSUPIAL_OR_POUCHED_ANIMALS">ORDER
+MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_I_IV">CHAPTER I.<br />
+<span class="s5">SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.&mdash;THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#I_THE_KANGAROO_FAMILY">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;Captain Cook and the Great Kangaroo&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Appearance of the Animal&mdash;Marsupials
+separated from the other Mammalian Orders, and why (Footnote)&mdash;Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)&mdash;Mode
+of Running&mdash;The Short Fore Limbs&mdash;The <i>Marsupium</i>, or Pouch&mdash;Head&mdash;Dentition&mdash;Peculiarities in the
+Teeth&mdash;Hind Extremities&mdash;Foot&mdash;Great Claw&mdash;How the Erect Position is maintained&mdash;Whence their Jumping
+Power is derived&mdash;Other Skeletal Peculiarities&mdash;Kangaroo Hunts&mdash;Becoming Rarer&mdash;Mode of Attack and
+Defence&mdash;Hands&mdash;Bones of the Fore Limbs&mdash;Skull&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Circulation of Blood&mdash;Peculiarity in Young&mdash;Nervous
+System not fully developed&mdash;Brain&mdash;The Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch&mdash;<a href="#hare_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#great_rock_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_tailed_rock_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> R<span class="smaller">OCK</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_tree_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> T<span class="smaller">REE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kangaroo_rats">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span>-R<span class="smaller">ATS</span></a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#rat_tailed_hypsiprymnus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">AT</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> H<span class="smaller">YPSIPRYMNUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;<a href="#II_THE_WOMBAT_FAMILY">THE
+WOMBAT FAMILY</a>&mdash;<a href="#wombat">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OMBAT</span></a>&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;Description&mdash;Habits&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Skeleton.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="I_THE_KANGAROO_FAMILY" title="I. THE KANGAROO FAMILY.&mdash;THE
+GREAT KANGAROO."><span class="s4">I. THE KANGAROO
+FAMILY.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>&mdash;THE
+GREAT KANGAROO.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></span></h4>
+
+<p class="p0">I<span class="smaller">N</span> the year <span class="smaller">A.D.</span> 1770, the great circumnavigator, Captain
+Cook, was on the coast of New South Wales repairing his ship, and a
+party of sailors were sent on land, to procure food for the sick. They
+saw an animal whose description tempted Cook himself, and also Mr.
+Banks (afterwards Sir Joseph Banks), to land and go in pursuit of it
+the next day. The animal was seen in company with others of its kind,
+and its short front limbs, great hind legs, and huge tail, and the
+tremendous hops it made in its very fleet course, quite bore out the
+statements of the astonished crew. They had seen, for the first time,
+the Great Kangaroo in its wild condition and on its own ground. Soon
+afterwards a specimen was shot, and notes were made about the creature,
+and some skins were brought over to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The animal has now become familiar to the civilised world. It is,
+however, gradually receding before the Australian colonist and
+squatter; but formerly it roamed all over the plains of New South
+Wales, Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, and Van Diemen’s
+Land, with only the aborigines for its enemies. It is called Bundaary
+and Bullucur by the natives of the Liverpool range and Murray, and the
+name Kangaroo is a mistaken native one.</p>
+
+<p>On looking at one of the Great Kangaroos in some menagerie or
+zoological garden, the first peculiarities that strike the eye are its
+small fore limbs, its very large and long hind ones, and the great and
+thick tail. The smallness of the head, which has rather long ears, and
+a long dusky brown muzzle, the length of the body, and the comfortable
+grey-brown, thick, shortish fur, are then noticed. But the principal
+fact which impresses all these things upon the visitor, is that the
+female may have a little Kangaroo with its head poked out of a kind of
+pouch in the under part of the body. Sometimes the little one jumps out
+and gets in again if it is frightened, and the old one moves, hops, and
+jumps about, with its portable nursery, with the greatest ease.<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the Kangaroos may be seen feeding, and then the awkwardness
+of their gait becomes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span> evident; for the small fore legs and curious
+paws are on or very close to the ground, whilst the back part of the
+body is raised up by the long hind legs, and, as it were, balanced by
+the great tail. These hind legs seem to do nearly all the running, or
+rather jumping, both being used together; and the tail is of use in
+supporting the long body when the animal suddenly raises itself up
+straight, and squats on its hind quarters. The small front legs then
+appear quite stunted, and the ears stick up, and the small head is held
+straight. But in slow walking, the fore feet are placed on the ground,
+and the animal rests on them whilst it brings the long hind quarters
+forward and outside them. Evidently the senses of hearing and sight are
+very acute; but they are used to warn the animal of danger, rather than
+to urge it to attack, for it is a feeder on herbs, leaves, and grass,
+and often may be seen reclining and moving its jaws, as if it were
+chewing the cud after a fashion.</p>
+
+<p>When moving with great velocity, the Kangaroo depends upon the hind
+limbs alone, bounding along with great ease, over ten, fifteen, or more
+feet at a jump. Its body is then carried almost horizontally, and the
+tail is stuck out as if to balance it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_192">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_192.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>If the short fore limbs are examined, they will be noticed to be able
+to do a great deal in the way of holding, clasping, and turning things
+about, and they are used in patting the little ones, and in embracing
+and cleaning them. The five digits, or fingers, have a very free
+movement, and the fore arm can twist and turn like that of the higher
+animals; that is to say, it is capable of pronation and supination.
+The first digit, or thumb, has two joints (phalanges), and the other
+four have three; and the five curved claws (the third and fourth being
+large) are useful weapons of offence. But they and the fingers are
+often used for very different purposes, and they have, in the female,
+to open the curious pouch for the young ones, and to place them there.
+There is an evident relation between the arrangement of the bones of
+the wrist and this necessary office or function. The <i>marsupium</i>,
+or pouch, is a kind of inbending of the skin of the lower part of
+the belly, and is moist and naked inside. In it, in the females,
+are the nipples of the mammary glands, and to these the very young
+Kangaroos<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> hang on for a long time, before they see the outer world.
+They are put in there by the mother, when they are just born, and when
+very small and not perfectly formed. They grow there, and after a
+while, leave the nipple when they think fit. As this pouch, with its
+contents, would drag upon the mother, it is kept from doing so, more
+or less, by two bones which are found amongst the muscles of the lower
+part of the body, and which are attached to the front or pubic bones
+of the pelvis. They are called marsupial bones. They exist also in
+the males, but they have no open pouch, for it is, as it were, turned
+outwards, and contains part of the reproductive organs.</p>
+
+<p>The head is long, and is remarkable for the long nose, and large
+full eyes, with eyelashes, for the Kangaroo is not nocturnal in its
+habits, like most of the Marsupials. The upper lip is split, the end
+of the nose or muffle is naked or hairy according to the kind, and the
+brain-case is small. The nostrils<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[Pg 193]</span> are at the side of the end of the
+muzzle, and are slit-like and oblique, and there are bristly “smellers”
+to the fleshy lips and chin. A slender tongue is sometimes seen for an
+instant whilst the Kangaroo is feeding, and if the bones of the jaws be
+examined, the angle, or lower part of the back of the lower jaw, will
+be found to be turned inwards.</p>
+
+<p>The long jaws have not very many teeth, and there are two large lower
+front ones, or lower incisors, which project in a line with the lower
+jaw; they are horizontal and more or less pointed, but have an outer
+and inner cutting edge. The upper incisors, six in number, or three on
+each side of the middle line, are placed on the pre-maxillary bone, and
+they work up and down. They are broad and have the cutting edge below,
+and the outer one, on each side, is broad, grooved, and complicated by
+one or two folds of its enamel, which are continued from the outer side
+of the tooth obliquely forward and inward. There is a space or diastema
+behind the incisors. There are four premolars, one on each side of both
+jaws, and then follow four molar teeth above and below and on both
+sides of the mouth. The dental formula is thus&mdash;Incisors, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">3&ndash;3</span><span
+class="denominator">1&ndash;1</span></span>;
+premolars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1&ndash;1</span><span
+class="denominator">1&ndash;1</span></span>; molars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">4&ndash;4</span><span
+class="denominator">4&ndash;4</span></span> = 28. There are no canine
+teeth in the adults, but their germs may be found in the very young
+Kangaroos. As the Kangaroo is a vegetable feeder, and delights in
+grass, leaves, and herbs, its teeth are eminently of a non-carnivorous
+kind. It may be remarked that when the mouth is closed, the cutting
+edges of the upper incisors come against the outer cutting edge of the
+long front teeth of the lower jaw. The true molars increase in size
+from front backwards; and the crown of each molar is squarish, but is
+longer than broad, and it has two principal cross ridges, which, when
+not worn, are tall, and have sharp edges. Besides these, there are two
+other transverse ridges which are smaller and not so tall. One of these
+is on the front part of the tooth, and the other on the hinder (in the
+upper molars only). Then there is a long ridge which connects the cross
+ones. They are all covered with enamel. When the tooth is worn, we find
+it presenting, according to Mr. Waterhouse,<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> two powerful loops or
+folds. On comparing these teeth with those of the herbivorous mammalia
+already noticed, a remarkable difference will be seen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_193">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_193.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.<br />
+  (<span class="smaller">A</span>) Upper and Lower Jaw;
+  (<span class="smaller">B</span>) Upper Molar;
+  (<span class="smaller">C</span>) Lower Molar.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hinder extremities consist of a nearly straight, long, cylindrical
+bone, the femur, which has a hemispherical joint head, and a large
+trochanter, which reaches above the joint; of two leg bones&mdash;the tibia,
+which is prismatic above and cylindrical below, but with only a slight
+inner ankle projection, and the fibula, which is distinct but thinned
+and concave in its lower half, where it is close and attached to the
+other bone, and forms the outer ankle projection. To these are added
+the bones of the ankle-joint and the clawed toes. The Kangaroo being
+a great jumper, and having a great tendon, the analogue of the tendo
+achillis of man, has a powerful projecting process of the hinder ankle
+bone for its attachment. But the great length of the foot is produced
+by the size of the fourth and fifth or two outer toes, and especially
+of the fourth, which often reaches a foot in length, including the
+metatarsal bone behind, and the pointed claw in front. The great
+claw looks like a long hoof, is three-sided and sharp-pointed like a
+bayonet, and with it the animal stabs and rips open the body of its
+opponent.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The outer claw is very small, and there is no great toe
+(or first), but the second and third are long and slender, and are
+united in a common skin, so as to look like a single toe with a double
+nail, the hair coming to the roots of it. The long narrow foot is
+nearly as long as the leg bones, and is admirably adapted for jumping
+forwards, as well as sideways, and for supporting, when the legs are
+widely separated, the weight of the erect body. The body in that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span>
+position has the leg bones straight, the thigh bones oblique, and
+the pelvis and spine erect, the great tail being a prop behind. Owen
+remarks that in man it is the massive and expanded muscles of the back
+of the pelvis and upper part of the thigh, or the gluteal muscles,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>
+which are the chief structures in maintaining the erect posture. But
+in the Kangaroo, the narrow bones of the haunch could not afford
+attachment to great gluteal muscles; so a muscle which is but slightly
+formed in man, and is called the little psoas, is greatly developed
+in the Kangaroo, and has evidently the power of maintaining the erect
+posture, although it is situate within the body and in front of the
+spine. The great jumping power is due to the leverage of the ankle and
+long toes, and the muscles which supply the tendon already mentioned,
+and others which have the same office. These are of great strength
+and size, and there are some accessory muscles to the thigh and leg.
+The long spine of the back has powerful processes, and the jar of the
+great jumps is received by two vertebræ which, anchylosed or united
+together, form the sacrum. The tail is made up of many vertebræ, and
+covered with muscles. The great blood-vessels running underneath it
+have many chevron, or V-shaped, bones, to protect them from pressure.
+The marsupial bones, one on each side, are long, and broad below; they
+are movable on the pubis, and afford attachment to muscular fibres, act
+as a pulley for others, and strengthen the walls of the abdomen. Formed
+within muscles and tendons, they are rather bony growths than parts of
+the true skeleton, and hence they may be absent in some of the order,
+although they are always present in the Kangaroos.</p>
+
+<p>Although well provided with strong limbs and muscles, and acute senses,
+the Kangaroos living the life of the deer and cattle of other regions
+than Australia, are subject to the attacks of beasts of prey and
+hunters. In Australia the great Carnivora do not exist, but there is a
+native dog, the Dingo, aborigines, and trained dogs and colonists, who
+enjoy a Kangaroo hunt. The native dogs stalk and run them down, the
+natives spear them after sometimes forming a great circle and closing
+in and yelling and shouting. But the rifle and trained hounds have
+dislodged many more than the natives, and the animals are becoming
+scarcer near the settlements than in former years. Dogs which run
+by sight afford many an exciting hunt, and the Kangaroo starts off,
+bounding at a great rate, and clearing all sorts of impediments with
+ease. It is hard riding to keep up with the chase, and especially in
+hot weather, when the Kangaroo often escapes, thanks to its greater
+powers of endurance. Sometimes the Kangaroo will stand at bay, and will
+rip up a solitary Dog with its claws, or will kill with a single blow
+of the leg and tail. Three or more Dogs are usually laid on, one more
+fleet than the others, to “pull” the Kangaroo, while the others rush
+in and kill it. Mr. Gould<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> says that it sometimes adopts a singular
+mode of defending itself, by clasping its short, powerful fore limbs
+round its antagonist, leaping away with it to the nearest water hole,
+and then keeping it beneath the water until drowned.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. R. Foulerton, who has paid some attention to the habits of the
+Marsupials, writes that the Great Kangaroo, although its numbers have
+been greatly diminished in some pastoral districts, still is numerous
+enough to render some runs almost worthless for pastoral purposes. They
+may be seen there in thousands, eating off all the best grass, and in
+the bad seasons reducing the cattle to starving point. They have few
+enemies but man, as even the native Dog will never attack them, unless
+they are very young. An “old man” Kangaroo is a formidable opponent; he
+will severely wound and even kill a man, unless approached cautiously.
+Their mode of attack is to “hug” him bear fashion, and then rip him
+with the hind foot. When pursued, they generally take to the water,
+and there stand at bay, and the luckless man or dog who gets within
+their grasp is forced under the water, and held there until drowned.
+The middle-aged Kangaroos, or Flyers, easily outstrip the hunting Dogs
+at the start, but they are gradually gained upon. When caught, the
+Kangaroo fights to the last.</p>
+
+<p>The diminutive fore limbs are separated by narrow shoulders, and
+although the upper arm is short and well furnished with muscles, the
+fore arm is long, slender, but very movable. The hand is short and
+broad, and there are four curved, sharp claws, the first one, or thumb,
+being the smallest, and the third and fourth the largest. The hair
+covers over the fingers to the claws, which can separate widely, grasp
+and hold, and be bent on the palm. The movements of the wrists and
+fore arms are considerable, and a large and long upward-turning muscle
+is in the space between the ulna<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span> and radius (the bones of the arm).
+Moreover, the ulna joints with a cavity in the cuneiform bone of the
+wrist; and the first row of wrist bones has three in it, and the second
+has four. The first phalanges, or those of the thumb, are not placed
+as a thumb in relation to the wrist bones, and it is the outer fingers
+that grasp with their claws. As the Kangaroo has to lift up its arm,
+there is a collar-bone, and the arm bone (humerus) is perforated on the
+inner side of the end above the elbow; and the olecranon is long.</p>
+
+<p>The bladebone has a curved ridge, and the muscles of the upper part
+are less than those which are attached to the part below it. There are
+thirteen pairs of ribs to the chest.</p>
+
+<p>The skull is long and comparatively smooth, and even the ridges for
+the temporal muscles are only slightly raised; and in old Kangaroos
+the bones do not unite or anchylose as they do in the other Mammalia
+hitherto noticed. The teeth are not used as weapons of offence, but
+simply to graze with, and the lower jaw is not quite solid at the
+chin, but only so below, so that the lower incisors can be slightly
+separated. The ear-bone is remarkable for being separated into three
+parts, namely, the temporal or squamous, the petrosal, and the
+tympanic; and this is rather a reptilian character. Moreover, the
+air-chambers of the side of the under part of the skull are in the form
+of rounded prominences, or “bullæ.” They are situated in the lower part
+of the ear-bone, called squamosal. The zygoma, or process between the
+cheek (malar) bone and the ear, is hollow, complete, and arched, its
+front part being, moreover, extended downwards in a projection which
+reaches below the grinding teeth, and resembles that of the Sloths
+somewhat. The lower jaw has its back part, or angle, bent inwards (or
+inflected) strongly, and this is, except in one set, a characteristic
+of the Marsupiata.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_195">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_195.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STOMACH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.<br />
+  (<i>œ</i>) œsophagus; (<i>in</i>) intestine.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Kangaroo, being a vegetable feeder, has a stomach suited for the
+diet, which also permits of a certain amount of regurgitation of food
+up again into the mouth, when a kind of chewing of the cud occasionally
+is indulged in. The stomach is large and long, resembling the colon
+or large intestine of the highest Mammalia in its general shape. It
+measured, in one instance, according to Owen, no less than three feet
+six inches, the measurement following its bends or curvatures. It
+consists of a left, middle, and right or pyloric division. The left
+ends in two round sacs, and these are really continuations of the
+stomach separated to a certain extent by a peculiar arrangement of
+the three bands of muscular fibres which pass separately along the
+organ. Numerous clusters of secreting glands are found in the mucous
+membrane of the stomach in its middle part, and they disappear near
+the pylorus where the tissues are thick and corrugated. The animal
+has a small intestine, a cæcum, and a large gut, but this last is not
+much larger than the first part of the stomach. The organs of the
+circulation of the blood resemble those of the other Mammalia, but
+there is a distinction which relates to the short period during which
+the young Kangaroo is a portion of the maternal being. So soon is it
+born, and so soon therefore must it breathe, that before the heart has
+grown much, it has the blood from the lungs and the rest of the body
+running through it. The young Kangaroo breathes when its heart is not
+fully developed, yet it has the perfect double circulation set up. The
+auricles of the heart communicate as in other Mammals until birth, but
+the duration of this communication is very short in the Marsupial,
+and its traces so evident in the other Mammals are wanting in it. The
+arteries of the body are simpler than in those Mammals which have a
+more complicated intestinal arrangement, and Owen, in his great work
+on the Marsupials, has pointed out that the hind limbs and tail are
+supplied with arterial blood by vessels which have an arrangement not
+without its similarity to that of birds. Leading a very simple life,
+and one of great sameness, moving in a manner which does not require
+much complexity of muscular action, the nervous system of the Kangaroo
+could not be expected to be highly organised or fully developed. The
+brain is small for the body of the animal. It is simple in form, and
+does not cover the cerebellum, which is visible behind, and has a
+little lobe on each side. The surface of the brain proper has a few
+convolutions on it, and more perhaps than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span> the Rodent Mammalia have.
+The commissures of the brain, which relate to the complexity of the
+method of life, are unequally developed. The central one, or the corpus
+callosum, is small, and the front one is very large. Finally, the part
+of the brain which refers to the sense of smell is large, but hidden by
+the brain proper, and its nerves supply a large surface in the nose, at
+its upper part at the base of its skull.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_196">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_196.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The young Kangaroo, when very small, and almost transparent, comes down
+from the womb into a canal, and gets into the uro-genital sac, as it is
+termed. Thence it is taken by the mother, and put into the marsupium,
+or pouch, where it fixes on to a nipple, and holds on. As the little
+one is ever “at the breast,” it might have any quantity of milk go the
+wrong way, but this is provided for by the upper part of the organ
+of voice (the larynx) being prolonged at the back of the nose, above
+the level of the long nipple. Breathing goes on through the nose, and
+swallowing safely through the gullet.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="hare_kangaroo">THE HARE
+KANGAROO.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>&mdash;THE
+TURATT.</p>
+
+<p>There are many kinds of Kangaroos, and one of them, which is solitary
+and nocturnal in its habits, is called the Hare Kangaroo, of which
+Mr. Gould writes:&mdash;“The name of Hare Kangaroo has been given to this
+species as much from its similarity of form and size to the common Hare
+as from its similarity of habits. I usually found it solitary, and
+sitting alone on a well-formed seat under the stalk of a tuft of grass
+on the open plains. For a short distance, its fleetness is beyond that
+of all others of its group that I have had an opportunity of coursing.
+Its powers of leaping are also equally extraordinary. While out on the
+plains in South Australia, I started a Hare Kangaroo before two fleet
+Dogs. After running to the distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly
+doubled and came back to me, the Dogs following close to its heels. I
+stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within twenty feet
+before it observed me, when, to my astonishment, instead of branching
+off to the right or to the left, it bounded clear over my head, and,
+on descending to the ground, I was able to make a successful shot, by
+which it was procured. It has the end of the nose covered with a fine
+set of hairs. The fur is long and soft and very hare-like, and it has
+small limbs and sharply-pointed nails.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="great_rock_kangaroo">THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO.</p>
+
+<p>This is very different from its timid congener just described. It
+inhabits the sterile and rocky mountains in the south-eastern part of
+Australia. It scampers about the rocks, and readily escapes Dogs, and
+it is a dangerous and formidable animal to approach, for it will, if
+closely pressed, turn on its enemy, and force him over the rocks. It
+bites, and uses its strong fore-arms very efficiently. It is called
+<i>Macropus robustus</i>, and is often found in companies of four or six;
+and it has more powerful fore-limbs than the Great Kangaroo, which is
+even sometimes the smaller of the two. It has the part of the nose
+called the muffle without hair.</p>
+
+<p id="red_kangaroo">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span> K<span class="smaller">ANGAROO</span><a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> is so called from the red tint of the
+male, which is sometimes marked under the neck and elsewhere. It was
+found in the plains near the Darling and Murrumbidgee rivers, and is
+celebrated for its great fleetness; and the female is often called
+the “Flying Doe.” It is as fast as the Agile Kangaroo,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> which is
+long-haired, and is found in Northern and Eastern Australia.</p>
+
+<p id="brush_kangaroo">Van Diemen’s Land has a Kangaroo with a long, deep-grey fur, with red
+on the back of the ears, neck, and shoulders; and it is called the
+Brush Kangaroo by the settlers. It is eaten and highly esteemed, and
+its skin is exported for leather. Liking the dense and damp forests of
+the island, it finds a safe retreat therein, and probably this is what
+keeps them from extinction, for they have been killed by the thousand,
+in order to supply contracts for boot-leather. The young of this
+Kangaroo,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[Pg 197]</span> which is also called after Bennett the naturalist (<i>Macropus
+Bennetti</i>), does not leave the pouch of its mother permanently, until
+it is as large as a Rabbit.</p>
+
+<p>In the north of Australia, in the region of King George’s Sound, there
+is a small Kangaroo which is not larger than a common Rabbit, and it is
+a very interesting example of how species may differ from the type of a
+genus. It has a slender and rather short tail, which is rather scaly,
+and has but a few hairs on it, but it is not very short. The ears are
+short and round, and the hind feet are short. The departure from the
+configuration of the Great and Brush Kangaroo shape is therefore great.
+It is called the Short-tailed Kangaroo. The last four kinds mentioned
+are grouped together with others under a sub-genus, <i>Halmaturus</i> (ἅλμα,
+a leap, and οὐρά, a tail).</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="brush_tailed_rock_kangaroo">THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_197">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_197.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Almost as strange as the slender-tailed Kangaroo are those which
+are called the “brush-tailed,” and which inhabit rocky situations
+(<i>Macropus penicillatus</i>). Mr. Waterhouse thus notices them:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“Whilst the Kangaroos of the plain have the fore part of the body
+slender and light, great strength in the hinder parts, combined with
+a long leg and foot, adapting them to fleetness, the tail powerful,
+and assisting in the support of the long body, we perceive certain
+modifications in the form and structure of these parts in the Rock
+Kangaroos which adapt them to their particular habitats. The body, more
+compact in form, requires but little assistance from the tail for its
+support, the leverage being less; and the feet are, though powerful,
+comparatively short, and remarkably rough beneath, being thickly
+covered over this part with hard tubercles, which no doubt prevent
+the foot from slipping. The nails of the two larger toes are shorter
+than usual, and, indeed, in some of the species, scarcely project
+beyond the fleshy pads with which the toes are terminated, and on the
+upper surface of which the nails are placed. A long and slender foot,
+with long nails, as in the typical Kangaroos, it is obvious, would be
+ill-adapted to an animal which has to leap to and balance itself upon
+the small ledges of the rocks. The tail is large, but not thickened
+at the root, as in the plain Kangaroos; and, unlike the tail in those
+animals, it is clothed with long hairs, which, gradually increasing
+in length from the base of the tail, become very long and bushy at
+the opposite extremity. It serves to steady the animal in its leaps,
+and to balance the body when perched in situations which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span> require it,
+but is of little assistance in supporting the weight of the trunk.
+Its muffle, that is to say, the end of the nose, is naked, as in the
+scrub-inhabiting Kangaroos just noticed, and it forms the type of the
+sub-genus <i>Heteropus</i>” (ἕτερος, altered, πούς, foot).</p>
+
+<p>One of these was hunted and shot amongst the woods of Liverpool plains,
+New South Wales, by Sir Edward Parry, who wrote that they appear to be
+gregarious, and seem to prefer the neighbourhood of rocky ground, in
+which they had holes, and to which, when hunted, they retreated. They
+swarm along in groups one after the other, and jump from side to side,
+alighting on ledges so slightly prominent that their resting thereon
+appears to be an impossibility. They go into caves and holes in the
+rocks during the day, and they enjoy the night, and gambol and feed by
+moonlight.</p>
+
+<p>A Rock Kangaroo, with white and black bands on it, inhabits Western
+Australia, and a short-eared kind enjoys the hot sands and high rocks
+of Hanover Bay. There is a Kangaroo in the island of New Guinea
+(<i>Macropus Brunii</i>), and it was the first seen by Europeans.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_tree_kangaroo">THE COMMON TREE
+KANGAROO.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_198">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_198.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON TREE KANGAROO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and instead of frequenting the
+brush and scrub, which are not physical features found in the island,
+or the rocks, it lives in the forests, and is no mean but rather a
+good climber of trees. There is a Kangaroo look about the animal, even
+when it is seated on a thick branch, but the fur is very different to
+that of its fellows of Australia. The fur looks coarse and harsh, and
+is not very unlike that of a Bear. There is no soft under fur, but all
+the hairs are long and resemble the long ones of the Kangaroos, and
+the ears are quite clothed with it. Then, as the animal glides down
+the stem of a tree, the shortness of the hind legs becomes apparent;
+moreover, the claws on the foot do not resemble those of the Kangaroo.
+The feet are stout but rather short, and the toes are more equal in
+size than in the other Kangaroos. The claw of the outer toe is often
+on a line with the middle of the longest one (the fourth), whilst the
+nails of the double inner toe extend slightly beyond its base. The
+nail of this large fourth toe is about an inch in length. Then the
+fore limbs are nearly as large as the hind ones, and are very strongly
+made, and so are the hands, the claw of the middle finger being
+three-quarters of an inch in length. It has a clumsy-looking head, with
+a high muzzle and small lower jaw. The upper lip is straight. It has
+a large face and small ears, and the colour of the fur is brown-black
+and yellow-brown. The tail is very long, tapers slightly, and is
+considerably of use in steadying the climber, and it is carried very
+much after the fashion of the other Kangaroos when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[Pg 199]</span> the animal has
+come down from its tree and hops off to its retreat. A specimen in the
+Zoological Gardens of London had grizzled-grey fur, whiter underneath
+the jaws and on the neck and limbs, and the ears were wide apart, and
+the powerful fore limbs ended in five claws. The tail tapered but
+very little. This was probably a second species called the Brown Tree
+Kangaroo (<i>Dendrolagus inustus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These Tree Kangaroos have a small superior canine tooth on each side,
+and the hinder incisor is not grooved. Hence they form a sub-genus,
+which is called <i>Dendrolagus</i> (δένδρον, a tree, λαγός, a hare), Tree
+Hare.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="kangaroo_rats">THE KANGAROO-RATS.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe41" id="i_199a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_199a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">KANGAROO-RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are also called Potoroos, and are of small size, being about
+that of a Hare or Rabbit. They have a compact body, the neck being
+short, and the ears are rather rounded, so that their shape is unlike
+that of the Great Kangaroo, but it resembles that of the smaller
+kinds somewhat. They have a rat-like shape, both hind feet like the
+Kangaroos, a long tail, and peculiar teeth. The head is very like that
+of a Rodent, and the incisor teeth in the upper jaw have the front ones
+the longest. The canine teeth exist in the upper jaw, and the premolar
+is large, and has numerous distinct vertical grooves on the outer and
+inner sides; and the front molars are the largest, the smallest being
+in the rear. The toes of the fore foot are unevenly developed; the
+three central ones are large, and those at the side are small. The
+nails are solid, broadest above, and much compressed. The foot is long,
+and the fourth toe and nail are greatly developed. The fifth toe is
+next in size, and the small second and third are coupled together by
+skin, and form a projection, with two small nails, which are useful in
+combing and scratching the fur. The first toe is absent. The Rufous
+Kangaroo-Rat inhabits New South Wales, and is very common.<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> Its nest
+is made up of grasses, and is frequently placed under the shelter of
+a fallen tree, or at the foot of some low shrub. During the day the
+little animal lies curled up in its nest, but it occasionally reposes
+in a “seat” like the Hare Kangaroo; but it never sits in the open
+plains. On being pursued it jumps like a Jerboa, with great swiftness
+for a short distance, and seeks shelter in hollow logs and holes. Its
+food consists of roots and grasses. Another is a native of Van Diemen’s
+Land, and keeps to the open, sandy, or stony forest land, rather than
+to the thick and humid bushes. It is called <i>Hypsiprymnus cuniculus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe19" id="i_199b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_199b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE KANGAROO-RAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span></p>
+
+<p>None of the animals hitherto described as Kangaroos have any prehensile
+power in the tail; but in one group of the Kangaroo-Rats, the tip of
+the tail has a brush of long hairs above, and is clothed beneath with
+short hairs, which are closely applied to the skin. This structure,
+and the motion of the muscles beneath, give the Tufted-tailed
+Kangaroo-Rat<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> of New South Wales a power of encircling and holding
+objects, especially for seizing grasses with which to make its nest.
+This is placed in a hollow in the ground, excavated for its reception,
+and its opening being on a level with the surrounding herbage, the
+practised eye of the native is required to discern it. After the little
+things creep in, they drag some grass after them, and close up the
+place. In the evening, they sally forth and scratch and dig up roots
+with their strong fore-claws.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="rat_tailed_hypsiprymnus">THE RAT-TAILED
+HYPSIPRYMNUS.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Rat-tailed Kangaroo-Rat is about fifteen inches and a half long,
+and the tail measures, in addition, more than nine inches. It has a
+long head and rather short hind feet, and the rat-like tail has short
+stiff hairs on it which do not quite hide the scaly skin beneath.
+The body fur is long and loose, and dusky brown, more or less tinted
+with black and pale yellowish-brown. The end of the nose or muzzle
+is spotted, and the ears are short and rounded. This little animal
+lives in New South Wales, and was that which was first described by
+Hunter under the name of Potoroo, or Poto Roo, being the “Bettong”
+of the natives of New South Wales. The stomach of the Kangaroo-Rats
+is less sacculated than that of the Kangaroos, but its left-hand
+portion is enormously developed in proportion to the rest, and may be
+compared with that of the Ruminantia in point of relative size. It
+may be noticed that the lower jaws of the Potoroos, which are largely
+inflected at the angle, articulate with the skull rather differently to
+those of the Kangaroos. In these last, the cavity at the base of the
+zygomatic process which receives the lower jaw is broad and slightly
+convex, permitting considerable side-to-side movement which is useful
+in the occasional “cud chewing.” But in the others the cavity barely
+deserves the name, it being a nearly flat surface, and, therefore,
+not much motion, except that of an up-and-down kind, is possible to
+the jaw. The organ of hearing has been slightly noticed in the Great
+Kangaroo in a former page, and it is necessary to observe that the
+tympanic bone does not form a perfect tube in the Potoroos as in
+the Kangaroos, and that the surface of the auditory cavity is also
+increased by a “bulla,” or bony cavity, bulging out at the under part
+of the skull. Corresponding “bullæ” were noticed in the Rodentia, but
+in their case the swelling is in the temporal bone, whilst in the
+Marsupials, with the exception of the Wombat, they are formed out
+of the sphenoid bone (the great ala). Moreover, the Potoroos, like
+the Kangaroos, and some of the other Marsupials (the Phalangers and
+Koalas), have the ear chamber prolonged, by a number of cells, into the
+zygomatic process of the temporal bone. The Kangaroo-Rats are numerous,
+and there are many species. They are distributed in New South Wales,
+Western Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and South Australia, and to the
+north-east.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_200">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_200.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FORE (<span class="smaller">A</span>) AND HIND
+  (<span class="smaller">B</span>) FOOT OF HYPSIPRYMNUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sir R. Owen investigated the anatomy of a small Kangaroo-Rat which had
+been described by Mr. Ramsay in Australia, and which was remarkable
+for its musky smell. It is a long and slender-bodied little animal,
+measuring about one foot three inches and a half from the snout to
+the end of the tail, which is five inches and nine lines in the
+female, and rather less in the male. Its hinder legs are shorter, and
+the head is more slender and pointed than in the Kangaroo-Rats just
+described. The fur is of moderate length, pretty closely applied, and
+has numerous rather long hairs scattered here<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[Pg 201]</span> and there, the visible
+portions being black or blackish, or pointed. These are relieved by
+the dark and light-barred colour of the visible part of the shorter
+hairs, all the hairs being of a leaden-greyish tint at the skin. The
+upper surface of the body has a close and stiff fur of rich golden
+colour, mixed with black; the head, face, and lower parts of the legs
+are dark brownish-grey; and there are a few patches of white along the
+centre of the throat and chest. The fur covers the tail for half an
+inch or more, and then the rest is naked, and covered with a network
+of scales about three to a line in length. The scales are black above,
+and a few minute and very short hairs project from the interstices of
+the scales. The animal has a naked muffle and rounded ears. The hind
+foot is remarkable, for whilst the skull and dentition of the creature
+would associate it more with the Kangaroo-Rats, the position of the
+first toe (wanting in the Kangaroo-Rats) resembles somewhat that of the
+Phalangista group, or the Phalangers, which will be noticed further
+on. The sole of the foot is long, and there is a nailless projecting
+first toe, like a thumb; next come the second and third toes&mdash;small,
+united by skin, and leaving the two combing-nails visible; and then the
+largest, or fourth toe, is followed by a smaller fifth. Sir R. Owen
+judged that this animal was an occasional climber of trees, but that
+its usual locality was on the ground. Mr. Ramsay states that it lives
+in the Rockingham Bay district, and that it frequents the dense and
+damp positions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the
+sides of the coast range. Its habits are diurnal, and its movements are
+graceful. It procures its food by turning over the rubbish in search of
+insects, worms, and tuberous roots, frequently eating the palm-berries,
+which it holds with its fore paws, after the manner of the Phalangers,
+sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging. They have a pouch,
+and two young ones have been found in it. Considering the importance
+of the great toe to the animal, and its linking together the climbing
+and jumping Marsupials, Sir R. Owen acknowledged the necessity of
+recognising Mr. Ramsay’s name of <i>Hypsiprymnodon moschatus</i>, and of
+thus bringing in a new genus into a new family in the Kangaroo series
+with two large front teeth in the lower jaw.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="II_THE_WOMBAT_FAMILY"><span class="s4">II.&mdash;THE WOMBAT FAMILY.&mdash;THE
+PHASCOLOMYIDÆ.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="wombat">THE WOMBAT.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe33" id="i_201">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_201.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE WOMBAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>On looking at a picture of a Wombat, the outside distinctions
+between it and all the Kangaroo family may be seen at a glance, and
+an examination of its anatomy affords still greater evidence of
+differences which, to a certain extent, relate to the fact that the
+animal now under consideration is a burrower and gnawer. About two to
+three feet in length, the Wombat has only a small stump of a tail, a
+low body, small feet, and strong limbs, ending in broad extremities,
+well provided with claws. It has moderately long and coarse fur of a
+grey-brown colour, and there is some white about the short ears, and
+the feet are black. It is usually a plump animal, with a bare black
+muzzle, and feet naked beneath, and covered with little tubercles
+of flesh. The claws are large, and those of the fore feet (five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[Pg 202]</span> in
+number) are solid and but little curved, whilst the four on the hind
+feet are curved and concave beneath. It has long moustache hairs,
+and plenty of them. Sir Everard Home had one, and he found that
+its principal desire was to get into the ground, and to do this it
+worked with great skill and rapidity, covering itself with earth with
+surprising quickness. It was very quiet during the day, but was in
+constant motion during the night; was very sensible of cold; ate all
+vegetables, and was particularly fond of new hay, which it ate stalk by
+stalk, taking it into its mouth like a Bear, in small bits at a time.
+It was not wanting in intelligence, and appeared attached to those to
+whom it was accustomed, and who were kind to it. When it saw them, it
+would put up its fore-paws on their knees, and when taken up would
+sleep on the lap. It allowed children to pull and carry it about, and
+when it bit them it did not appear to do so in anger or with violence.
+When wild, the Wombat hides up during the day, and quits its retreat
+at night, to dig and get grass and roots. It is by no means an active
+animal, and shuffles along like a Bear. The Wombat has a slit-like,
+imperfect marsupium, and the special peculiarities of its order, such
+as marsupial bones, the inflected lower jaw, and double uterus. On
+the hind foot the innermost or first toe is very small, nailless, and
+placed at right angles to the foot, and the second, third, and fourth
+toes are joined by skin, and have larger claws than the small fifth
+toe. The stomach is simple, and has a peculiar glandular apparatus, and
+the cæcum is short, and has an appendage as in man and some monkeys.
+The teeth are remarkable for their number in relation to those of
+the Kangaroos, and for having no rootlets. The incisor teeth greatly
+resemble those of a Rodent, like the Rat. They are two in number in
+each jaw, and are widely separated from the other teeth. The molars
+are long, curved, and, like the incisors, have no true fangs, but
+persistent pulps. They are divided into two nearly equal parts by a
+fold of the enamel entering deeply into the body of the tooth on one
+side, and a slight indentation on the opposite side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_202a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_202a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WOMBAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_202b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_202b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LOWER JAW OF THE WOMBAT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of the persistent teeth is as follows:&mdash;Incisors,
+<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">2</span><span
+class="denominator">2</span></span>; true
+molars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">4&ndash;4</span><span
+class="denominator">4&ndash;4</span></span>. It is the only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[Pg 203]</span> Marsupial which has an equal
+number of incisors in both jaws. There are no canines. As the Wombat
+uses much force in gnawing, the muscles of the jaws and their bony
+attachments are large; consequently the temporal ridges are strongly
+marked. There is a deep and strong zygomatic arch, and in the lower
+jaw the turned-in angle is of great size. The chin is also large,
+and the joint of the jaw also. The sutures of the bones of the skull
+are scarcely ever obliterated, and the auditory “bullæ” are formed
+in the temporal bone. With regard to the marsupial bones, they are
+long, flat, curved, and, moreover, less expanded near their attachment
+to the pubis. The ribs are fifteen in number on each side, and the
+collar-bones are large and stout. There is a curious power of movement
+of the ankle, so that the foot can imitate the turning movements of the
+wrist and fore-arm of man. This pronation and supination is because
+the small bone of the leg, the fibula, is free and not attached to the
+other bone (tibia), and because there is a muscle whose action is to
+move the fibula after the fashion of the corresponding muscle in the
+fore limb. The stomach is smaller than in the Kangaroos, and has a
+large gland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_203">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_203.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE WOMBAT.<br /><span class="smaller">A</span>, Upper Jaw; <span class="smaller">B</span>, Lower Jaw; <span class="smaller">C</span>, Molar.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Wombat has been found in South Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, Bass
+Strait, and in New South Wales.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_II_IV">CHAPTER II.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">THE PHALANGER FAMILY&mdash;<a href="#koala">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">OALA</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#cuscus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">USCUS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#vulpine_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> V<span class="smaller">ULPINE</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dormouse_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+D<span class="smaller">ORMOUSE</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGER</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Remarkable Characters&mdash;<a href="#flying_phalangers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">LYING</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGERS</span></a>&mdash;Its Flying Machine&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#squirrel_flying_phalanger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+S<span class="smaller">QUIRREL</span> F<span class="smaller">LYING</span> P<span class="smaller">HALANGERS</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Parachute-like Membrane&mdash;Exciting Scene on board
+a Vessel&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#opossum_mouse">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#noolbenger">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">OOLBENGER</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> T<span class="smaller">AIT</span></a>&mdash;A Curiosity among Marsupials&mdash;Distinctive
+Features&mdash;THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#rabbit_eared_parameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ABBIT</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bandicoot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">ANDICOOT</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#banded_perameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pig_footed_perameles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">IG</span>-<span class="smaller">FOOTED</span> P<span class="smaller">ERAMELES</span></a>&mdash;Discussion regarding it&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#V_THE_DASYURUS_FAMILY">THE
+DASYURUS FAMILY</a>&mdash;Characteristics&mdash;<a href="#pouched_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">OUCHED</span> A<span class="smaller">NT</span>-<span class="smaller">EATERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pouched_ant_eaters">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span>
+M<span class="smaller">YRMECOBIUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Great number of Teeth&mdash;History&mdash;Food&mdash;Habits&mdash;Range&mdash;<a href="#ursine_dasyure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> U<span class="smaller">RSINE</span> D<span class="smaller">ASYURE</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;“Native
+Devil”&mdash;Ferocity&mdash;Havoc among the Sheep of the Settlers&mdash;Trap to Catch them&mdash;Its
+Teeth&mdash;A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the Carnivora&mdash;Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself&mdash;<a href="#mauges_dasyure">M<span class="smaller">AUGE</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+D<span class="smaller">ASYURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#dog_headed_thylacinus">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> D<span class="smaller">OG</span>-<span class="smaller">HEADED</span> T<span class="smaller">HYLACINUS</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Resemblance to the Dog&mdash;Habits&mdash;Peculiarities&mdash;<a href="#brush_tailed_phascogale">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> P<span class="smaller">HASCOGALE</span></a>&mdash;Description&mdash;Other Varieties.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="III_THE_PHALANGER_FAMILY"><span class="s4">III.&mdash;THE PHALANGER
+FAMILY.&mdash;THE PHALANGISTIDÆ.</span></h4>
+
+<p class="p0" id="koala">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> loftiest of the gum-trees of the country from Moreton Bay to Port
+Phillip, and even more widely than this, were often the familiar haunt
+of a small Marsupial animal, not unlike a little Bear, about two feet
+in length, and without a tail. It is a famous tree-climber, and its
+stout body, small head, short limbs, and well-developed feet, are all
+cased in an ash-grey fur. It has moderate-sized ears, which are hidden
+by the long hair of the head, and it has a short and nearly naked
+black muzzle. The eye is large and without eyelashes. The natives
+climb up the trees after it, according to Mr. Gould, with as much ease
+and expertness as an European would get up a long ladder, and having
+reached the branch, perhaps forty or fifty feet from the ground, they
+follow the animal to the extremity of a bough, and either kill it or
+take it alive. This animal is called the K<span class="smaller">OALA</span>, and it feeds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[Pg 204]</span>
+on the tender shoots of the blue gum in preference to those of any
+others, and it rests and feeds in the boughs. At night it descends
+and prowls about, scratching up the ground in search of some peculiar
+roots, and it seems to creep rather than to walk. When angry it utters
+a long, shrill yell, and assumes a fierce and menacing look. They are
+found in pairs, and the young soon learn to perch on the mother’s
+shoulders. Mr. Gould says that, unlike most quadrupeds, the Koala
+does not flee upon the approach of man, and that it is very tenacious
+of life. Even when severely wounded it will not quit its hold of the
+branch upon which it may be. The animal has a nice thick fur, which
+nearly hides the ears, and the pouch is large. A careful examination of
+the animal shows that it differs from the Kangaroos and Wombats; it is
+more like the latter than the former, but it is sufficiently distinct
+to be placed in another family, the Phalangers, in which the incisors
+are six above and two below, and there are two canines in the upper
+jaw, and in some, two in the lower jaw, but not in all. There are two
+premolars above and below, and either six or eight molars in the upper
+and lower jaws. The head is rather small, and the face is short, the
+upper lip being cleft. The limbs are equal; the fore feet have five
+well-made toes with compressed and curved claws; the hind feet have
+five toes, of which the first or inner one is large, nailless, and at
+right angles to the rest, and opposable to them. The second and third
+toes are shorter than the others, and are united in a common skin,
+and they have nails. The fourth and fifth toes are curved and have
+compressed claws. The name Phalangista is derived from this union by
+skin of the phalanges of the foot. The tail may be absent, or long, and
+more or less prehensile, but sometimes not.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_204">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_204.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">KOALA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a well-developed pouch, and the stomach is simple, and the
+cæcum is usually very long and large. One young one is produced at a
+birth.</p>
+
+<p>The Koala, or Native Bear,<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> may be taken as the type of the tailless
+group, and it belongs to the genus <i>Phascolarctus</i>.</p>
+
+<p id="cuscus">The C<span class="smaller">USCUS</span>, or Ursine Phalanger,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> belongs to a second
+division, for it has a prehensile tail. They are common animals in the
+dense woods of the Island of Celebes. They squat on the branches half
+asleep by day, but are lively enough at night, and it is said that
+they have a fancy for flesh as well as fruit. A pretty spotted Cuscus
+inhabits the islands of Amboyna, Waigeoe, Banda, and New Guinea, as
+well as Cape York.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> They are dull in captivity, but when placed
+together they fight with fury, growling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span> like Cats, and biting. They
+have small red eyes with a vertical pupil, short ears, and a very
+stupid look. They are all nocturnal in their habits, and feed on fruit,
+buds, leaves, meat, and eggs.</p>
+
+<p>One of the Phalangers, called <i>Cuscus albus</i>, is abundant in New
+Ireland, Amboyna, Banda, and Timor, and is remarkable for its peculiar
+odour. The male is white, and the female reddish-brown in colour, both
+being about the size of a common Rabbit. It is slow in its movements,
+lives in trees, and takes good care to conceal itself, but its scent
+discovers it. The naturalists Lesson and Garnet stated that when
+they traversed the forests of the island the odour of the Cuscus was
+distinctly perceptible. It is stated that if these animals see any one,
+they suspend themselves at once by the tail, and if they are looked at
+steadfastly, they will drop by-and-by from fatigue, and are then easily
+caught; in fact, they pretend to be dead.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_205">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_205.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CUSCUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="vulpine_phalanger">THE VULPINE PHALANGER.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>&mdash;THE BRUSH-TAILED “OPOSSUM.”</p>
+
+<p>Waterhouse describes this Marsupial to be about the size of a Cat, but
+in shape it is somewhat between a Squirrel and a Marten. It has long
+and somewhat pointed ears; and the tail, clothed with bushy, harsh,
+black fur, except beneath, near the end, where it is naked, is about as
+long as the body. The limbs are rather short, the muzzle is moderately
+long and foxy-looking, and the whole body and head, except the naked
+muzzle, are covered with a grey and black fur. The moustaches are long,
+numerous, and black, and the feet are yellowish-white, and the naked
+soles are flesh-coloured, the nails being dusky. The pupil of the eye
+is round and intensely dark in colour. They sleep during the day, and
+become active during the evening, and on the alert for their food,
+which consists, in the Zoological Gardens, of bread and milk, fruit and
+vegetables. They hold up the solid food between the hands as a Squirrel
+holds a nut, and nibble very much in the same manner. Their native
+haunts are New South Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia.
+They inhabit the large trees, usually the Eucalypti, selecting such as
+have the heart of the branches or trunk decayed, and they take refuge
+there during the daylight. At night they leave their nests and climb
+the branches of the trees which yield them buds and fruit. They descend
+to the ground for food, and doubtless now and then eat snails and small
+birds. When climbing they use the tail to hold by, and carefully grasp
+every support with it before they let go with their feet or hands. A
+brown-black species, closely allied, lives in Van Diemen’s Land.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_206">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_206.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">VULPINE PHALANGER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="dormouse_phalanger">THE DORMOUSE PHALANGER.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a very small Marsupial animal, about six inches in length,
+including the tail, which measures nearly, if not quite, one-half. It
+is like a little Dormouse, with its soft fur, ashy-grey in colour,
+large ears, and thick tail. They are broader, not so long in the leg,
+and usually larger than the Dormouse, and the eyes are larger, and the
+upper jaw overhangs the lower. But they look just as fat and sleepy
+in the daytime. The habits of these animals, moreover, are much the
+same, for the Phalangista living in Van Diemen’s Land feeds on nuts
+and other similar food, which they hold in their fore paws, using them
+as hands. They are nocturnal, remaining asleep during the whole day,
+or, if disturbed, are not easily roused into a state of activity. They
+come forth in the evening, and are then more easy and rapid in their
+movements. Some of these were kept in the Zoological Gardens of London,
+and it was noticed that they made great use of their tail, which is
+prehensile, and thus not like that of the Dormouse. They ran about a
+small tree, using their paws and tail to hang on by, and using the tail
+as a suspender when they descended. Sometimes the tail is thrown in a
+reverse direction, and is turned over the back, and at other times,
+when the weather is cold, it is rolled closely up towards the under
+part, and coiled up almost between the thighs. They are like little
+balls of fur, and are very gentle and harmless.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gould states that another kind of these Dormouse-looking creatures
+is very abundant in the northern portion of Van Diemen’s Land, and that
+of all trees it appears to prefer the Banksia, whose numerous blossoms
+supply it with a never-ceasing store of food, both of insects and
+sweets. It undergoes a kind of hibernation somewhat similar to but not
+to the extent of that of the Dormouse.</p>
+
+<p>These pretty little marsupials are remarkable by having only three
+true molar teeth in each jaw on both sides; but they have the usual
+two narrow, long, and pointed incisors in the lower jaw. The auditory
+bullæ on the base of the skull are large, and the hard palate has
+four openings in it. The lower jaw is slender behind, and the angular
+process is inflected, the process of bone being, however, slender and
+pointed. Their mouse-like shape is evident, but they have a large eye,
+and the ears are often more or less crumpled and pendent, but they
+start up and are erect at the least noise. There are three species of
+these Phalangistidæ, and they are included in a sub-genus, Dromicia.
+They live in Van Diemen’s Land, Western Australia, and South Australia.
+Some which were found in King George’s Sound district live in retreats
+under the dead bark of trees, and in holes in trees which have been
+burnt out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[Pg 207]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="flying_phalangers">THE FLYING PHALANGERS.</p>
+
+<p>The next genus of the family Phalangistidæ contains the Flying
+Phalangers, which form the genus Petaurus. They have all the
+peculiarities of the Phalangers, and also a skin on the flank of the
+body, which is extended between the fore and hind legs, which serves
+to sustain the animal in the air, when descending from a height.
+They have a long hairy tail. The Yellow-bellied Flying Phalanger
+(<i>Petaurus australis</i>, Shaw) may be taken as the type of the genus,
+and is fourteen inches long in the body, and nineteen in the tail. The
+peculiar fold of fur, which is its flying machine, is attached to the
+fore leg as far as the elbow, and all down the legs to the great toe.
+It is common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
+along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. Mr. Gould states, in
+addition to this, “In these vast forests, trees of one kind or other
+are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of
+blossoms, upon which the animal feeds. The flowers of the gum-trees,
+some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites,
+and, like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits,
+dwelling in holes of trees and in the hollows of branches during the
+day, and displaying the greatest activity at night, while running over
+the small leafy branches, sometimes even to their very extremities,
+in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its
+structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends
+to the ground, except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant
+to be attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops
+of the trees are traversed at a pace and with as much ease as if it
+were on the ground. If chased, it ascends to the highest branches, and
+performs enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful
+address.”</p>
+
+<p>A slight elevation gives its body an impetus, which, with the expansion
+of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always
+ascending a little at the extremity of the leap. By this ascent the
+animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise
+sustain.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="squirrel_flying_phalanger">THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<p>This little creature, called the Sugar Squirrel by the colonists, is
+very generally dispersed over the whole of New South Wales, where, in
+common with other Phalangers, it inhabits the magnificent gum-trees.
+Mr. Gould states that it is nocturnal in its habits, and that it
+conceals itself during the day in the hollows of trees, where it early
+falls a prey to the natives, who capture it both for the sake of its
+flesh and skin, which latter, in some parts of the colony, they dispose
+of to the colonists, who occasionally apply it to the same purposes as
+those to which the fur of the Chinchilla and other animals is applied
+in Europe. At night it becomes extremely active in its motions. It
+prefers those forests which adorn the more open and grassy portions of
+the country rather than the thick brush near the coast. By expanding
+the membrane attached to the sides of its body it has the power of
+performing enormous leaps. They have the power of changing their
+course to a certain extent when descending, parachute-like, from a
+height. It is stated that a ship sailing off the coast had a Squirrel
+Petaurus on board which was permitted to roam at large. On one occasion
+it reached the mast-head, and as the sailor who was sent to bring it
+down approached, it made a spring from aloft to avoid him. At this
+moment the ship gave a lurch, which, if the original direction of the
+little creature’s course had been continued, must have plunged it in
+the sea. All who witnessed the scene were in pain for its safety; but
+it suddenly appeared to check itself, and so to modify its career
+that it alighted safely on deck. This kind is not more than eight or
+nine inches in length, and its bushy tail is as long as the body. The
+soft fur of the tail, like that of the body, is a delicate ashy-grey.
+There is a long stripe of black fur from the naked tip of the nose to
+the root of the tail, and the cheeks are white with a black patch;
+the flank membrane is edged with white, and this is the colour of the
+underneath part of the body; the ears are long, and of a brownish flesh
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind, with a yellow flank membrane, is short-headed, and
+it inhabits Port Essington, North Australia,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> whilst the true
+Short-headed Flying Phalanger is found in New South Wales.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>
+Probably it is the first of these which is found in New Guinea, and
+which has been called the Squirrel Flying Phalanger by mistake. These
+Flying Phalangers all have long and nearly naked ears,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[Pg 208]</span> and the side
+membrane extends to the outer finger. They have the outer two fingers
+of the hand long and equal to each other, or very nearly so; the second
+and third fingers are distinctly shorter than these; and the inner
+finger is very short. Their dentition is&mdash;Incisors, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">6</span><span
+class="denominator">2</span></span>; canines,
+<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1&ndash;1</span><span
+class="denominator">0&ndash;0</span></span>; premolars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">3&ndash;3</span><span
+class="denominator">4&ndash;4</span></span>; true molars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">4&ndash;4</span><span
+class="denominator">4&ndash;4</span></span> = 40. The
+incisors of the lower jaw are, as usual, long and pointed, and almost
+horizontal, whilst the upper incisors are large and dilated, so far
+as the anterior ones are concerned, and the next is smaller than the
+hindmost. The canine is large, and separated from the first premolar,
+which is large and compressed, and all the molars have rounded
+tubercles on them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_208">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_208.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="opossum_mouse">The O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span> M<span class="smaller">OUSE</span><a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> of the colonists of New South Wales
+used to be common in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. It is about the
+size of a common Mouse, and of an ashy brown and grey colour on the
+upper parts and on the flank membrane; the rest is white. It belongs
+to the Flying Phalangers, but its side membrane scarcely extends to
+the wrist, and the thumb of the hind foot is large. It has only three
+true molars in each jaw on both sides, and the canine is close to the
+incisors. It forms part of the sub-genus Acrobata, whilst those already
+mentioned constitute the sub-genus Belideus (βέλος, a dart). Finally,
+the short-eared, white-bellied Taguan Phalanger of the scrub of New
+South Wales is the type of the sub-genus <i>Petaurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="noolbenger">GENUS TARSIPES.&mdash;THE NOOLBENGER, OR
+TAIT.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is an Australian curiosity amongst the Marsupials, and is a small,
+mouse-like thing, with a long muzzle, small ears, long tongue, and
+very few teeth. Its dental formula is&mdash;Incisors, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">2&ndash;2</span><span
+class="denominator">2</span></span>; canines,
+<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1&ndash;1</span><span
+class="denominator">0&ndash;0</span></span>; molars, <span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">3&ndash;3</span><span
+class="denominator">3&ndash;3</span></span>. The fore and hind extremities have
+toes something like those of the Lemur, called Tarsius (Vol. I., page
+248). The fore feet have five smallish toes, each thickened at the end,
+and a minute scale-like nail, which reaches neither the end nor sides
+of the toe. The hind feet have five toes on each, and the innermost
+has the formation of a thumb, and is slender and nailless. The second
+and third toes are very short, and are joined to the end and furnished
+with small pointed nails, which are directed upwards almost at right
+angles to the plane of the toe; and the fourth toe is twice as long as
+the second and third. The fifth is shorter than the fourth, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span> has a
+scale-like nail on the upper surface. This is the case with the fourth
+also. There is a long, slender tail. The small bones of this little
+honey-sucker are very thin, and the lower jaw has two slender and
+almost straight sides, and the inflection is wanting.</p>
+
+<p>This little animal is rare, but it is to be found in West Australia,
+from Swan River to King George’s Sound. It is nocturnal in its habits,
+and catches flies in captivity with great ease. But its food is honey,
+which it gets like a moth, with its tongue. The tail is prehensile, and
+the little pouch contains four mammæ in the female.</p>
+
+<p>The little Tarsipes, with its honey and insect diet, has a very
+long intestine and no cæcum, whilst the Koala has a cæcum more than
+three times the length of its body. The pigmy Acrobata has this
+organ disposed in a spiral curve in the left lumbar region. The
+marsupial bones are large in the Koala, and are long, broad, and
+flat, almost equalling the iliac bone in size. Finally, with regard
+to the parachute-fold of skin on the flanks of the Petaurists, it is
+a simple fold with very elastic tissues within, which draw it up to
+the body, more or less, when the animal is walking or standing. When,
+however, the limbs are extended after a jump, the membrane becomes very
+tense, and acts by increasing the surface of the body so as to oppose
+gravitation by the supporting power of the air.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="IV_FAMILY_PERAMELIDAE"><span class="s4">IV.&mdash;FAMILY
+PERAMELIDÆ.&mdash;POUCHED BADGERS.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This group of Marsupials embraces two genera, Perameles and Chœropus,
+the first having several species and the last but one. They have all
+long, slender heads; large, long ears, with fleshy lobes; longer hind
+than fore limbs; the tail short in some, long in others, and hairy; and
+the pouch is directed backwards. They have a considerable number of
+teeth, there being ten incisors in the upper jaw and six in the lower;
+there are two canines in each jaw, three premolars in each jaw on
+either side, and four true molars behind them, making forty-eight teeth
+in all. The teeth have fangs, the premolars are compressed and pointed,
+and the molars have tubercles on them. The stomach is simple.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="rabbit_eared_parameles">GENUS PERAMELES (BANDICOOTS).&mdash;THE
+RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES.<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p>
+
+<p>The so-called native Rabbit of the Swan River district of Western
+Australia is abundant in the grassy country in the interior; and it
+frequents, in pairs, places where the soil will permit of burrowing.
+It is about the size of a common Rabbit, and has a long and pointed
+muzzle, which is naked at the tip. It has long, oval ears, which are
+tubular at the base. The eye is small, and the tail is a little shorter
+than the body. The legs are longish, and the fur is well grown.</p>
+
+<p>This sharp-looking animal lives upon insects, and its favourite food
+is a large grub, probably the larvæ of a species of Buprestis beetle
+which infest the roots of the acacia trees. In order to obtain this
+peculiar food, it has to compete with the natives, who like it also,
+and often enough it has to rush to its long and deep burrows for
+safety. Its flesh is sweet, and is much sought after by the aborigines.
+One which was kept at the Zoological Gardens was very active in the
+evening, but usually slept during the day-time, when, sitting upon its
+haunches, with its head thrust between its hind legs, it appeared like
+a ball of fur. It was a very savage animal, and bit severely, holding
+on, moreover, if it could, with its teeth. It waddled on its hind legs
+alone, which were straddled, and the tail assisted in supporting the
+body. They have five toes to the fore-foot, of which the two outermost
+are rudimentary and nailless, the remaining three are well developed,
+and are furnished with strong solid nails, which cover the last
+phalanges which are cleft above in the longitudinal direction almost to
+the root. The hind feet have a rudimentary inner toe, the second and
+third are joined and are slender, and have two hollow nails, and the
+fourth is large and, like the fifth, which is well developed, has a
+solid nail sheathed on the end bone.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="bandicoot">GUNN’S PERAMELES.&mdash;THE
+BANDICOOT.<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is the animal which has given the native name to the genus, and
+Mr. Gunn, who discovered the species, informed Mr. Waterhouse that it
+is common in many parts of Van Diemen’s Land, going by the name of
+Bandicoot. It is a burrower, and lives principally upon roots, and it
+likes the bulbs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span> which are introduced from the Cape and elsewhere into
+gardens. It is about sixteen inches long, and has a slender muzzle,
+moderate-sized ears, and the under parts of the body are white, the
+rest being grey and pencilled with black and yellow, except behind,
+where it is blacker. There are four broadish white bands on this part.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="banded_perameles">THE BANDED
+PERAMELES.<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_210">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_210.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BANDED PERAMELES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is a pretty little Perameles with a body about a foot in length,
+and a tail of about four inches long. It has rather a sharp and long
+snout, rather large ears, which are broad at the base, and long and
+pointed at the tip. The fur is longish and harsh, and is pencilled with
+black and yellow in about equal proportions on the upper part of the
+body, there being a black ground colour on the hinder part of the back.
+There, however, there are three broad yellow-white bands, the foremost
+of which crosses the back. The feet and under parts are white, and the
+tail is of the same colour underneath, but black on the top. The feet
+are slender, and the hind ones have a rudimentary inner toe, naked
+beneath, in front, and at the heel. In the skeleton this inner toe has
+one or two phalanges, and a small tubercle without a nail is visible
+before the flesh is removed. It inhabits Southern Australia from east
+to west. This kind resembles the Bandicoot of Van Diemen’s Land on the
+other side of Bass Strait, and may be considered its representative. It
+is smaller than the Van Diemen’s Land species, but its tail is longer;
+moreover, the ear exceeds those of the insular forms in size. Like
+the other Perameles, the pouch for the young opens backwards. “Though
+provided with strong claws it rarely burrows,” says Mr. Krefft, “and
+it is a great enemy to little Rodents. It tumbles the Mice about with
+its fore paws, breaks their hind legs, and eats the head.” New Guinea
+contains a short-legged Perameles,<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> which appears to be deficient
+in the usual number of upper incisor teeth; and another<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> resembling
+the common Bandicoot.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pig_footed_perameles">GENUS CHŒROPUS.&mdash;THE PIG-FOOTED
+PERAMELES.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+
+<p>A very rare little, large-eared, small-legged animal was found by Sir
+Thomas Mitchell on the banks of the River Murray, and its appearance
+was so remarkable that much attention was paid to its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[Pg 211]</span> anatomy, whilst
+unfortunately nothing particular was learned regarding its natural
+history and habits. Subsequently the little creature, whose body is
+about nine inches and a half long, the tail measuring in addition
+about four inches, was found in the interior of the country near the
+Swan River. It is an active little animal, and a hunter of insects,
+but it will feed upon vegetable substances also. Mr. Gould states
+that, like the Perameles, to which it is allied in many parts of its
+construction, it forms a nest composed of leaves and other substances.
+The pouch is deep and runs upwards, and not like that of the Kangaroo,
+and there are eight teats. At first there was much discussion whether
+the animal had a tail, but there is no doubt about its possessing one
+when in the perfect condition. The slender fore limbs, no thicker than
+goose-quills, end in two very small digits, and they are provided
+with small, compressed, and but little curved nails. They have a
+small fleshy pad on their under surface, behind which is a smaller
+one. The hind legs are longer than the front ones, and are almost as
+slender. The foot is long, and at first sight appears to have only
+one large toe, for the others are very small and far removed from the
+end of the foot. The outer little toe has a small nail, and the inner
+toes, joined, are almost as small, but they have hollow nails. The
+greatly-developed toe has a conical and compressed nail, but beneath
+there is a large fleshy pad; the rest of the foot is hairy. Hence it
+appears that the heel is not put to the ground. The colour of the long,
+loose, soft fur is brown-grey above, and yellowish-white beneath, the
+limbs and the fore feet have a whitish tint, and the large toe is of a
+dirty white colour. So far as the skull and teeth are concerned, the
+little Chœropus greatly resembles the other kinds of Marsupials which
+are classified under the genus Perameles. Sir Thomas Mitchell noticed
+the broad head and very slender snout, which, he stated, resembled the
+narrow neck of a wide bottle, in the specimen which the natives took
+from a hollow tree after chasing it on the ground. In the construction
+of the skull and in the number of the teeth, this long-eared creature
+resembles the rest of the genus Perameles. In the upper jaw there are
+five incisor teeth on each side, and they are close, and the canine
+is small, and resembles a premolar, and is slightly distant from the
+incisors. The first premolar is separated from the canine by a space
+of one line and a half, and slightly from the second premolar; and the
+second and third premolars and the four molars form a continuous line.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="V_THE_DASYURUS_FAMILY"><span class="s4">V.&mdash;THE DASYURUS
+FAMILY.&mdash;DASYURIDÆ.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These animals are all carnivorous, and prey upon small quadrupeds and
+the young of large ones, as well as upon birds and insects. They are
+of different shapes and sizes, according to the genera to which they
+may belong; and whilst some resemble the Shrew Mice somewhat in outward
+appearance, others are like the Marten, and one important group may be
+compared with Short-legged Wolves, or Jackals. Varying in size from
+that of a Mouse to a small Wolf, the members of the different genera
+of this family are equally variable in the number of the teeth, of the
+claws, and in the development of the marsupial pouch and its bones.
+They all have rather long muzzles and furry tails, which, however,
+are not prehensile. The second and third toes of the hind feet are
+disunited and well developed, and the thumb-toe is small or absent.
+There are eight incisors in the upper jaw, and six in the lower.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pouched_ant_eaters">GENUS MYRMECOBIUS.&mdash;THE POUCHED
+ANT-EATERS.<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>The B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span> M<span class="smaller">YRMECOBIUS</span> may be taken as an example of this
+genus. It is about the size of a Rat, but it is more Squirrel-like
+in shape, and has a long and pointed muzzle. The tail is long and
+furry, with long hairs also; and the prevailing colour of the body
+is reddish, but posteriorly it becomes dark or black. There are nine
+bands of light or white colour on the sides of the body, from the back
+over the flanks, and the crupper is also marked with a band. The head
+is long, the ears are moderately long, narrow, and pointed, the gape
+is considerable, and the small pointed snout has some rather long
+smellers; there are also some long hairs under the eye. A black mark
+runs on the cheek to the ear, and has white hairs above and below
+it. The fur is somewhat remarkable. The under hair is scanty and
+whitish-grey, and the upper hair is rather coarse, short, and depressed
+on the fore parts of the body. It is long on the hind and under parts,
+and the hairs on the fore part of the back are black near the skin and
+reddish at the tip. The fur of the head is short and brownish above,
+being composed of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[Pg 212]</span> a mixture of black, fulvous, and a few white hairs.
+The fore legs are rather stout and strongly made, and the five curved
+and compressed claws are admirably adapted for its method of life,
+which consists of insect-hunting by digging. The hind limbs are suited
+to support the weight of the animal, as it scratches with the fore
+feet, but they are deficient in the first toes. The whole animal is
+about seventeen inches long, seven inches being included in the tail.
+This animal has a greater number of teeth than any other Marsupial,
+and, indeed, they are only surpassed by some Cetacea and Edentate
+Ant-eaters amongst the other Mammalia. There are fifty-two teeth in the
+mouth&mdash;namely, eight upper and six lower incisors, four canines, six
+compressed false molars behind the canines above and below, and ten
+small true molars above, and twelve below. The canines of the lower jaw
+are incurved, and the last lower molars are worn in ridges internally.
+The number of teeth appears, however, to be variable, and some have
+fifty-four and others less than fifty.</p>
+
+<p>The Myrmecobius, although it has the inflected condition of the lower
+jawbone and small marsupial bones, not more than half an inch in
+length, has no pouch. The young adhere to the mother’s nipples, and are
+protected by the comfortable fur and long hair of her body.</p>
+
+<p>The Banded Myrmecobius was first discovered by Lieutenant Dale, who
+procured a specimen whilst on an exploring expedition into the interior
+of the Swan River Settlement, about ninety miles to the south-east
+of the mouth of the river. Two specimens of this very elegant little
+animal were seen by Lieutenant Dale, both of which fled to hollow trees
+for shelter upon being pursued. The district in which they were found
+abounded in decayed trees and ant-hills; and, from some peculiarities
+in the dentition of the animal, combined with its extremely long and
+slender tongue, it became evident that its food was insects, and the
+softer and smaller species, for procuring which, by scratching up the
+earth, the strong fore feet and claws appeared to be adapted. Indeed,
+the peculiarities of structure, combined with the fact that the animal
+was found in the vicinity of ant-hills, suggested that its food, in all
+probability, consisted chiefly of Ants: and hence the generic name.
+As yet, however, we have no direct evidence that Ants form the chief
+food of the Myrmecobius, though it is stated, in Mr. Gould’s “Mammals
+of Australia,” that wherever this animal takes up its abode, there
+Ants are found to be very abundant. In the same work the following
+particulars of the habits of the animal are given from the pen of Mr.
+Gilbert:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“I have seen a good deal of this little animal. It appears very much
+like a Squirrel when running on the ground, which it does in successive
+leaps, with its tail a little elevated, every now and then raising
+its body and resting on its hind feet. When alarmed, it generally
+takes to a dead tree lying on the ground, and before entering the
+hollow, invariably raises itself on its hind feet to ascertain the
+reality of approaching danger. In this kind of retreat it is easily
+captured; and when caught, is so harmless and tame as scarcely to make
+any resistance, and never attempts to bite. When it has no chance of
+escaping from its place of refuge, it utters a sort of half-smothered
+grunt, apparently produced by a succession of hard breathings.</p>
+
+<p>“The female is said to bring forth her young in a hole in the ground or
+in a fallen tree, and to produce from five to nine in a litter. I have
+not myself observed more than seven young attached to the nipples.” It
+is not nocturnal in its habits.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the range of the genus Myrmecobius, Mr. Gould states
+that it is very generally dispersed over the interior of the Swan River
+Settlement, from King George’s Sound on the south to the neighbourhood
+of Moor’s River on the north, and as far westward as civilised man has
+yet been able to penetrate. Its species are also found near the Murray
+and Darling.</p>
+
+<p>This many-toothed Ant-eating Marsupial has always been interesting to
+geologists, for in the Stonesfield slates of the Oolitic formation of
+England, which lie low down in the Great Oolite, the lower jaws of an
+animal have been found greatly resembling those of Myrmecobius. The
+fossil Amphitherium has the jaws but slightly inflected, and is not
+without resemblance to insectivorous creatures; but, nevertheless, its
+similarity to Myrmecobius struck Owen and Lyell many years since.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="ursine_dasyure">GENUS DASYURUS.&mdash;THE URSINE
+DASYURE.<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>Being a great enemy of the poultry and tender rearlings of the
+colonists of Van Diemen’s Land, this small creature has earned the
+name of the “Native Devil.” It may be compared to a Bear, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[Pg 213]</span> a body
+about two feet in length, and the resemblance is tolerably correct in
+the fur, general proportions of the body and limbs, and also in its
+gait and its actions. The Dasyure, however, has a longer tail than the
+Bear, and never grows larger than a Badger. It is a short animal, with
+a round broad head and rather a long snout, and the coarse black fur
+(brown-black on the head, tail, and beneath) is marked by one broad
+white band across the chest and by another over the back, close to
+the tail. The tail is about half the length of the head and trunk.
+Harris notices that these animals were very common on the British first
+settling at Hobart Town, and were particularly destructive to poultry,
+and Mr. Gunn states that they commit great havoc among Sheep, and that
+notwithstanding their comparatively small size, they are so fierce that
+they are a match for any ordinary Dog.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_213">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_213.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DASYURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the settlements increased in Tasmania, and the ground became
+cleared, the animals were driven from their haunts near the town
+to the deeper recesses of the forests yet unexplored. They were
+easily procured by setting a trap in the most unfrequented parts of
+the woods, baited with raw flesh, all kinds of which they will eat
+indiscriminately and voraciously. They also, it is probable, prey on
+dead fish and blubber, as their tracks are frequently found on the
+sands of the sea-shore. In a state of confinement they appear to be
+untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same time a low
+yelling growl. A male and female which Mr. Harris kept for a couple of
+months, chained together in an empty cask, were continually fighting.
+Their quarrels began as soon as it was dark, as they slept all day,
+and continued throughout the night almost without intermission,
+accompanied by a kind of hollow barking, not unlike that of a Dog, and
+sometimes a sudden kind of snorting, as if the breath were restrained
+a considerable time and then suddenly expelled. They frequently sat
+on their hind parts, and used their fore paws to convey food to their
+mouths. The muscles of the jaws were strong, and they crushed the
+largest bones asunder with ease.</p>
+
+<p>This Dasyure, like the others of the genus, has the incisor teeth
+equal, and there are eight of them in the upper jaw and six in the
+lower. The four canines are large, and there are two powerful premolars
+in each jaw and on each side. These are succeeded by four molars above
+and below, and on both sides of the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The incisor teeth, equal in size, are arranged in a semicircle in the
+upper jaw, and those of the lower jaw have a corresponding direction,
+but they are rather the stouter. The canines are well developed, and
+those of the lower jaw bite in front of those of the upper. They look
+eminently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span> adapted for stopping and seizing prey, and their carnivorous
+character is surpassed by that of the premolars and true molars. These
+last have a triangular grinding surface: the first has four sharp
+cusps, the second and third have five, and the last, which is the
+smallest in the upper jaw, has only three. In the lower jaw the last
+molar is of the same size as the last but one, and has four cusps; and
+the other molars have much resemblance to those in the upper jaw.</p>
+
+<p>The hind feet have the toes separate and not united by a fold of skin,
+and there is a rudimentary great toe in this species. The condyle of
+the humerus is not perforated&mdash;as in the Kangaroos, for instance&mdash;for
+the passage of the blood vessels, but is whole, and the outside of the
+bone is marked by a groove, along which they pass.</p>
+
+<p>Although this Dasyure has the lower jaw inflected, and is a true
+Marsupial, the resemblance in shape, and in dental and other
+characters, as well as in its habits, to the Carnivora is striking. Its
+fierce character and the nocturnal habits add to the similarity; but
+there are some very peculiar anatomical distinctions. The wrist bones,
+called scaphoid and lunar, those which are nearest the radius along
+the first row of carpal bones, are separate in the Dasyure, but in the
+Carnivora they are united to form one bone. And in the foot there is
+a peculiarity: for whilst in the Carnivora there is a groove between
+the heel bone and the astragalus, this is absent in the Marsupial
+Carnivore, and the articular surface of the bones is continuous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_214a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_214a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE DASYURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Dasyures have a small crest of bone on the top of the skull,
+which is also seen on a grander scale in the Carnivora. They have,
+moreover, the zygoma well developed and strong; it bulges outwards and
+curves upwards, but not to the amount seen in the true Carnivora. The
+occipital bone is developed as in the non-Marsupial mammals, but its
+parts, instead of joining together and forming one with age, often
+remain separate; but this does not appear to occur in all the species
+of the genus, for Owen, in his wonderful article on the Marsupials in
+the “Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,” notices that in the little
+<i>Dasyurus Maugei</i> the occipital bone presents the usual state of bony
+confluence. He notices that the Dasyure, in common with some other
+Marsupials, has the temporal bone permanently divided into its several
+parts, there being separate squamous, petrous, and tympanic bones; but
+the petrous and mastoid parts are usually united. This is a reptilian
+peculiarity, but the tympanic bone of the Dasyure is not without its
+resemblances to those of birds. The surface on which the lower jaw
+moves or is hinged, is not composed entirely by the temporal bone, but
+the malar bone is slightly included, and even the sphenoid comes into
+the joint.</p>
+
+<p>Another marked character of the Dasyures is, that their hard palates
+are not whole, but have spaces and perforations, and this denotes a low
+organisation. This absence of a perfect hard palate is seen in other
+Marsupials, and especially in the Bandicoots (Perameles).</p>
+
+<p>The angular process of the lower jaw, where inflected or bent in, is
+triangular and directed upwards, with a blunt point; and the condyle of
+the jaw is low, being on a level with the molar teeth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12" id="i_214b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_214b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAIN OF THE DASYURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that the Dasyures should have the bones of the leg,
+the tibia and fibula, so connected together as to allow of a certain
+degree of rotation on each other, after the fashion of the fore-arm
+bones. The muscles of the leg are modified for the purpose. This
+interesting anatomical point recalls one of the great distinctions
+between the fixed leg bones of man and those of the hand-footed Ape.
+It is not found, however, in the non-Marsupial mammals, whose habits
+of life are simulated by the Dasyure; but it is found in the Wombat,
+a burrower, and in the Koala, Phalangers, and Opossums, which are
+climbers. In examining the stomachs of the Marsupials, Owen noticed
+that differences in food and habit are not met by alteration in the
+shape of the organ, as they are in the higher Mammalia. Thus, the
+common Dasyure, the insectivorous Bandicoot, and the leaf-eating<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span>
+Phalangers, have a full round, oval, or sub-triangular-shaped stomach,
+with the right extremity projecting beyond and below the pylorus. The
+length of the stomach seldom exceeds the height by more than one-third.
+No cæcum is found in the carnivorous Marsupial, and the intestine is
+short and wide, being continued, like the intestine of a reptile, along
+the margin of a single and simple mesentery, from the pylorus to the
+rectum (Owen). The liver has a gall-bladder in the Dasyure, and there
+is a pancreas as well as a spleen. The heart is contained in a slight
+pericardium, as in the other Mammalia. The Ursine Dasyure is found in
+Van Diemen’s Land only.</p>
+
+<p>There are several kinds of Dasyure, which have been carefully noticed
+and described. One is called the Long-tailed or Spotted Dasyure,<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>
+and is about the size of a Cat. The fur is reddish-brown, pencilled
+with yellow, and is spotted with white both on the body and on the
+tail. It has a tail as long as the head and body together, and the
+under parts of the body and the fore-legs and feet are of a dirty
+yellow tinge. It lives in Van Diemen’s Land, and was, from its shape,
+at first called a Marten. The teats are six in number, three on each
+side, and seated within a slight fold only of the skin, so that there
+is no true pouch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25" id="i_215">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_215.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">UPPER (<span class="smaller">A</span>) AND UNDER
+  (<span class="smaller">B</span>) VIEW OF SKULL OF DASYURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="mauges_dasyure">MAUGE’S
+DASYURE.<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a small animal, not larger than a half-grown Cat. It has a
+longish bushy tail, a broad head, and is somewhat of greyish-yellow
+colour. There are white spots on the sides of the body and tail. In
+confinement this little creature is torpid by day, but lively as
+evening comes on, and it rushes about, with its tail extended, with
+great rapidity. It is very injurious to the poultry when in a wild
+state, and is called the Wild Cat in Van Diemen’s Land. A variety of
+it is the Viverrine Dasyure, which has the head and body spotted with
+white, the general colour being brown, black, or grey, tinted with
+yellow, the under parts being white. It has long hairs to its tail;
+rather large ears, the flesh of which is of a pale pink, as is that of
+the naked lips, the tip of the nose, and the soles of the feet, the
+latter being hairless, but covered with small fleshy tubercles. There
+is no trace of an inner toe to the hind foot, unless it be a slight
+swelling of the flesh, marking the situation of the rudimentary bone
+beneath. Both of these animals are to be found in New South Wales and
+Van Diemen’s Land.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the Dasyures are widely spread over the continent. The
+smallest kind is the North Australian Dasyure. Geoffroy’s Dasyure,
+which has a thin tail and an inner toe to the hind foot, inhabits
+Western and Southern Australia and New South Wales, is a great killer
+of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, and they hunt and kill Mice or Rats as
+well as any Cat. They have not a pouch.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="dog_headed_thylacinus">GENUS
+THYLACINUS.<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>&mdash;THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a Dog-like, slim, narrow-muzzled animal, with clean and rather
+short limbs, a foxy head, and a tail about half as long as the body,
+which in males is forty-five inches in length. It is about the size of
+a Jackal, and the fur is short, but rather woolly and greyish-brown,
+faintly suffused with yellow in colour. The fur on the back is deep
+brown near the skin, and yellowish-brown towards the tip. It has from
+twelve to fourteen black bands on the body, and the tail has long hairs
+at the tip only. The eyes are keen, large, and full, and they are black
+and have a nictitating membrane.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span> The animal walks half on its toes and
+half on its soles or palms, and thus is a semi-plantigrade, the body
+being brought nearer the ground than that of the Wolf in running. There
+is a marsupial pouch, but the bones are mere cartilages. The Dog-headed
+Thylacinus, or the Zebra-Wolf of the colonists of Van Diemen’s Land,
+thus described, has often been taken for one of the Carnivora, and
+certainly there are great resemblances between it and the Dogs. The
+canine teeth are of large size, but they are recurved at the top, and
+in the upper jaw are separated from the incisors by a space, into which
+the point of the lower canine fits when the jaws are closed. This is
+different in the Dogs, whose lower canine passes on the outer side of
+the upper one when the mouth is closed. The premolar of the Thylacinus
+has a small cusp behind, but in the lower jaw the premolars are
+isolated, and do not form a continuous cutting and masticating ridge.
+It is also to be remembered that this animal has a peculiar lower jaw,
+as it is one of the Marsupials, and the angle is inflected. It is a
+Marsupial, with some structures which foreshadow those of the more
+highly-developed Dog.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_216">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_216.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Harris, who was the first to make this animal known, states that
+it lives among caverns and rocks, in the deep and almost impenetrable
+glens, in the neighbourhood of the highest mountains of Van Diemen’s
+Land. The specimen from which his description was taken was caught in a
+trap baited with Kangaroo’s flesh; it remained alive but a few hours,
+having received some internal hurt whilst being secured. From time
+to time it uttered a short guttural cry, and it appeared exceedingly
+inactive and stupid, and, like the Owl, had an almost continual motion
+of the nictitant membrane of the eye. Remains of an Echidna were found
+in the stomach of the animal. Waterhouse states,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span> on the authority
+of Mr. Gunn, that these animals are common only in the remoter parts
+of the colony, and used to be frequently caught at Woolnooth and the
+Hampshire Hills. They attack the Sheep at night, but are occasionally
+seen during the daytime, upon which occasions, perhaps from imperfect
+vision, their pace is very slow. Mr. Gunn also observes that the
+Thylacinus sometimes attains so large and formidable a size, that a
+number of Dogs will not face it. That gentleman denies that the tail
+of the animal is compressed, as has been stated by some authors, and
+his observations do not confirm the aquatic habits which have been
+attributed to it. There are cartilages in the place of the marsupial
+bones; but the pouch is well developed in the female Thylacine, and
+there are four well developed teats, each four inches long, indicating
+that it may contain four young ones at a time. The marsupium, or pouch,
+opens backwards, not, as in the Kangaroos and most others, forwards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_217">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_217.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="brush_tailed_phascogale">GENUS PHASCOGALE (POUCHED WEASELS).&mdash;THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>This genus includes many species of small Weasel- or Rat-like
+Marsupials. They are small, insectivorous, and climb shrubs and trees
+in pursuit of their prey. The largest known is about the size of a
+common Rat. The brush-tailed kind inhabits New South Wales, South
+Australia, and Western Australia, and is a pretty little animal, having
+a long and soft fur, of a grey colour above and white or yellow-white
+under the body. The eyes are encircled with black, and there is a pale
+spot above and below the eye, and the hairs are blackest along the
+middle of the head. The ear is rather large and not furry; the tail
+is about equal to the body in length, or seven inches to nine inches,
+and there is a portion near its end of about two inches in length,
+which is clothed with short, stiff hairs, and the rest has long and
+glossy hairs, sometimes an inch or two long. An insectivorous little
+creature, its teeth are modified to meet its diet, and they are less
+carnivorous than the other Dasyurids. They have the two foremost
+incisors of the upper and lower jaw larger than the others. There are
+three premolars in each jaw on each side, and eight molars above and
+below, which are studded with prickly tubercles, those of the upper
+jaw having triangular crowns. There are five toes to the fore and
+hinder extremities, and the inner toe of the latter is in the form of
+a small nailless prehensile thumb. The brain-case is large and the
+skull comparatively smooth. The species just noticed is said to enter
+the stores of the settlers, and it makes a nest in the hollows of the
+trunks of trees or in the branches. The female has no pouch, but ten
+teats covered with hair. It is the Tapoa Tafa of White, according to
+Krefft.</p>
+
+<p>Another species, about six inches long, not including a tail of three
+inches&mdash;the Freckled Phascogale&mdash;lives in the Swan River district
+and at King George’s Sound, being generally distributed over Western
+Australia. It has the fur freckled with black and white on the head
+and fore parts of the body. Mr. Gilbert found insect remains in
+its stomach, and he obtained a female specimen having<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span> seven young
+attached. They were little more than half an inch in length, and quite
+blind and naked. Above the teats of the mother is a very small fold of
+skin, from which the long hairs of the under surface spread downwards,
+and effectually cover and protect the young. This fold is the only
+approximation to a pouch which has been found in any species of this
+genus. The young are very tenacious of life, and those just mentioned
+lived nearly two days attached to the mammæ of the dead mother.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_218a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_218a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Yellow-footed Phascogale is a kind which inhabits New South
+Wales and South Australia, and the White-footed Phascogale and a
+closely-allied kind live in South Australia and Van Diemen’s Land. In
+New Guinea, which constitutes a part of the Australian natural history
+province, there is a black, short-eared, and short-furred kind, about
+the size of a Rat, called <i>Phascogale melas</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_218b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_218b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ANTECHINUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span></p>
+
+<p>There is a little kind, measuring only three inches in length, with
+white fur everywhere, except on the upper parts, which are ashy grey;
+and in Western and Southern Australia there is one which has great
+ears, very slender limbs, and a short and thick fat tail. It looks like
+a large-eared, fat-tailed Mouse, and is under four inches in length.
+All these kinds of Phascogale, except the brush-tailed one, belong to a
+group with very short hairs on the tail, and are sometimes classified
+under the name Antechinus, the thick-tailed one being termed Podabrus;
+and they all have shallow pouches.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_219">
+  <img class="w100 mtop3 padtop1" src="images/i_219.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">OPOSSUM AND YOUNG.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_219_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_III_IV">CHAPTER III.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE OPOSSUMS.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Prehistoric Opossums&mdash;Description of the Animal&mdash;Their Teeth&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#common_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Use of
+its Tail&mdash;Food&mdash;The Young&mdash;How they are Reared&mdash;<a href="#azaras_opossum">D’A<span class="smaller">ZARA</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#crab_eating_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">RAB</span>-<span class="smaller">EATING</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#thick_tailed_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">HICK</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#merians_opossum">M<span class="smaller">ERIAN</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;Pouchless Opossums&mdash;Their Young&mdash;<a href="#murina_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">URINA</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#elegant_opossum">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+E<span class="smaller">LEGANT</span> O<span class="smaller">POSSUM</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yapock">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">APOCK</span></a>&mdash;Classification of Marsupial Animals&mdash;Geographical Distribution of the Sub-Order&mdash;Ancestry
+of the Marsupials&mdash;Fossil Remains.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="VI_THE_OPOSSUM_FAMILY"><span class="s4">VI.&mdash;THE OPOSSUM
+FAMILY.&mdash;DIDELPHIDÆ.</span></h4>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Marsupial animals included in this family are not found in
+Australia or in Van Diemen’s Land, or in any part of the natural
+history province to which those countries belong. They are numerous,
+however, and are now living on the American continent; but formerly
+some inhabited Europe during that geological period which is called the
+Eocene. The Opossums are very rat-like in form, the largest species
+being about the size of a large Cat, but they have the snout more
+elongated; and in some species in which the individuals are large the
+body is proportionately stout, and on most there is a comfortable fur,
+with short and long hair. The tail is almost always very long, nearly
+destitute of hair, excepting at the root, and is covered with a scaly
+skin, there being a few scattered hairs. It is a useful organ, for the
+Opossums hang by it, and it assists them in climbing and descending
+trees, and in holding on, when they are young, to their parent. The
+ears are rather large and round, the eyes are placed rather high up
+in the face, and the long muzzle ends in a naked snout. The legs look
+short for the body. The feet are naked beneath; there are five toes,
+and the great toe is more or less opposable to the foot, and acts like
+a grasping thumb. Each toe is furnished with moderate-sized claws,
+excepting the inner toe of the hind foot, which is clawless. The
+Opossums are remarkable for the great number of their incisor teeth,
+there being ten in the upper and eight in the lower jaw, and they are
+arranged in a semicircular manner. The upper and two foremost incisors
+are rather longer than the rest, and are generally separated from them
+by a narrow space. They are nearly cylindrical and expanded at the tip.
+The canines are well developed, the upper ones being the largest. There
+are three premolars on each side of both jaws, and they have two roots,
+and are compressed and pointed. There is a posterior talon to them. The
+molars, eight in each jaw, have three roots, and those of the upper jaw
+have the crown of a triangular form and tubercular, whilst those of the
+lower jaw are longer than broad, and each has the appearance of five
+prickly cusps on its upper surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_219a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_219a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TEETH OF THE OPOSSUM.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some of the Didelphidæ have no marsupium, or pouch, or it is very
+slightly developed, and in these particular kinds the young, after
+having left the nipples, are carried on the back of the mother,
+retaining their position by twining their tails around hers. The mammæ
+are numerous: there may be as many as thirteen, an odd one being found
+in the centre of the ring of the other nipples.</p>
+
+<p>The Opossums are active, sly, and very intelligent in certain things,
+and their food consists of insects, small reptiles, birds, and eggs.
+Living for the most part in trees, they secrete themselves in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span> the
+hollows of the branches and trunks during the daytime and sally forth
+in the night. They have a moderate-sized cæcum. It must be noticed that
+the great toe of the hind foot is well developed, has no nail, and
+enables the creature to grasp, and is thus very useful; and that they
+walk plantigrade. The ankle and leg have the same movements as in the
+Wombats, and the same general anatomy. If the members of the family
+are compared with those of the families which live in the Australian
+province, it will be found that they most resemble the Perameles and
+Dasyures. The Opossums may be divided into three groups: those whose
+pouch is well developed, those in which it is a mere fold, and those
+which have webbed feet and live in the water, like Otters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_220">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_220.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_opossum">THE COMMON OPOSSUM.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a large kind, and is about the size of a common Cat, and its
+long, large, pointed head, ending in a naked snout, and having eyes
+encircled in dusky brown fur amongst the white hair and fur of the
+head, gives it a very cunning and thoughtful appearance. The ears are
+black. The tail is long and prehensile, the end being white and the
+rest black, and the legs and feet are brownish. It is a great climber,
+and uses its tail almost as much as some of its Monkey companions.
+Running along the branches, it will often suspend itself by its tail,
+and give a swing and let go, thus launching its body to a distance, and
+then it catches at the boughs with its feet and unclawed but prehensile
+hind toe-thumb. In coming down trees it uses the tail to steady itself,
+and to prevent too rapid a fall; and in climbing, the ever-ready tail
+prevents mishaps, should the clawed toes not grasp sufficiently. The
+natural food of this Opossum is probably vegetarian, but it is a great
+birds’-nester; it will eat roots and fruits, but the early settlers
+found it very destructive to their poultry, for it catches the birds
+and sucks their blood, not eating the flesh: consequently, it has
+been much hunted, and as the fur and skin are sometimes used, the
+destruction of the Opossum has been great. It is a curious creature,
+and seems to have gained experience in its struggle with man, and as
+many stories are told of its cleverness as there are about Reynard the
+Fox and the Indian Jackal. It will sham death in a most persevering
+manner, and is at the same time very tenacious of life.</p>
+
+<p>The skull has strong temporal ridges, which form a sagittal crest, and
+the arch of the zygoma is well grown. The animal has a longer facial
+part of the skull and a smaller brain-case than the other Dasyures, and
+the brain has large olfactory or front lobes. The cerebral hemispheres
+are small, and there are no convolutions. This is essentially a North
+American animal, and is found from Mexico to the Southern States
+inclusive.</p>
+
+<p>The female brings forth from twelve to sixteen young at a time, and her
+nest, which is formed of dry grass, is usually at the root of a tree or
+bush. When first born, the young are said not to be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span> more than a grain
+in weight, and blind, naked, and shapeless. They find the teats in the
+mother’s pouch, unless she places them on to them with her mouth, and
+they cling on so as not to be separated except by violence. In about
+five days, so rapid is their growth, they have reached the size of a
+Mouse, and all their parts are developed. They then leave the pouch,
+and return to suckle and when danger appears. During this time the
+female shows great attachment to her young; and Mr. Waterhouse, from
+whose work these descriptions are taken, states that she will suffer
+any torture rather than permit the pouch to be opened.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_221">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_221.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="azaras_opossum">AZARA’S OPOSSUM.<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is a smaller animal than the common or Virginian Opossum, but
+its tail is long in proportion to its body. It is the South American
+representative of its larger fellow species, and is found over a very
+wide extent of country. It was noticed by the celebrated naturalist
+D’Azara in Paraguay; Mr. Darwin found it at Maldonado, La Plata; and
+specimens have been obtained from the Brazils, Santa Fé de Bogota,
+and Bolivia. This is because it is not entirely a forest animal, but
+is found occasionally in the open country. It may be distinguished
+from the common Opossum by three distinct black marks on its head,
+by its large tail, one-third of which is covered with fur like that
+on the body. The rest of this important member is scaly, with small
+hairs springing from between, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span> scales being black in the second
+third, and white at the tip in colour. The habits of this Opossum are
+nocturnal, and it lies concealed by day in burrows in the ground or in
+thickets. At night it climbs trees to feed upon fruits and birds’ eggs.
+It will chase and catch sleeping birds, and suck their blood like a
+Weasel.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="crab_eating_opossum">THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a></p>
+
+<p>A small Opossum, with a long black tail tipped with white, and a
+dull-coloured fur to its body, lives in Brazil and Guiana, and has a
+very omnivorous disposition. Preferring swampy situations, it lives
+mostly on the trees, hunts small birds and insects, and even catches a
+reptile now and then, but its fondness for the Crustacea of the swamps
+is proverbial, and hence its name of Crab-eater.</p>
+
+<p>Another species is interesting from being found in the part of
+California which adjoins Mexico. The Short-headed Opossum also belongs
+to this group, and is from the same locality. Besides these, there are
+several smaller pouch-bearing Opossums, without the long hair of those
+just mentioned, and they are from Brazil, Guiana, and Surinam&mdash;for
+instance, the Quica, the Naked-tailed, and the Four Spotted kinds. The
+Philander Opossum is a bird-hunter, and lives in Surinam.</p>
+
+<p>The next group of Opossums have no pouch, but there may be folds of the
+skin protecting the mammæ.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="thick_tailed_opossum">THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM.<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p>
+
+<p>As its name implies, this pouchless Opossum has a very thick tail.
+Moreover, it has smaller ears than the other Opossums, and has a
+short head and short legs. The fur is made up of harsh hairs, which
+are close to the body, and there is but little under fur. Its colour
+is yellow-brown, but the eye and muzzle are brownish, and the tail,
+with the terminal two-thirds, is black, with the exception of a small
+white spot at the end. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay, and extends
+southwards to the River Plate. One of the Opossums was kept by D’Azara,
+who found it quiet, tame, and stupid; but having been fed on raw meat,
+and a parrot happening to come too close, it killed the bird in a
+moment. There are folds of skin in the lower part of the abdomen, but
+no pouch, and there are six mammæ.</p>
+
+<p id="merians_opossum">Another of the Opossums is called Merian’s Opossum, or <i>Didelphys
+dorsigera</i>, and it inhabits Surinam. It was described by Madame Merian
+in 1717, who represented it in her great book on insects with its young
+clustered on its back and hanging on to the mother’s tail, which was
+curved over its back, with their little tails.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_222">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_222.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MERIAN’S OPOSSUM.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is very curious that the young of these pouchless Opossums should
+resemble those of the whole order in being comparatively little
+advanced in their development at the time of their birth. The young
+are at first strongly attached to the teats of the mother, and when
+they are sufficiently strong and grown to leave them, occasionally she
+takes them off from the nipples and places them on her back. Here they
+cling on with their tails to hers. Hence the name of back-bearing, or
+Dorsigera, which is given to this kind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_223">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_223.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">YAPOCK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was at first supposed that this method of carrying the young was
+restricted to this species, but subsequent experience has shown that
+several kinds do the same thing.</p>
+
+<p id="murina_opossum">Two or three other species of Opossum are interesting from their small
+size and habits. Thus the Murina Opossum (<i>Didelphys murina</i>), with a
+very long tail, inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. The body is
+about five inches in length, and the tail is either slightly longer or
+about the same. Yet this little thing attacks birds and insects; it
+burrows in the ground, and climbs trees to get its insect food.</p>
+
+<p id="elegant_opossum">The Elegant Opossum (<i>Didelphys elegans</i>), of Chili, is still smaller
+than the last, and frequents the thickets growing on the rocky hills
+near Valparaiso. They are numerous, or were so when Mr. Darwin observed
+them, and are easily caught in traps baited with cheese or meat. The
+tail appeared to be rarely, if at all, used as a prehensile organ;
+yet they could run up trees with some degree of facility. It is an
+interesting fact that some of the smallest Opossums prey upon Lizards
+and Snakes as large, and even heavier, than themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The last section of the Opossums contains the Water Opossum.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="yapock">THE YAPOCK.<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
+
+<p>This animal has a perfect pouch, and has large hind feet, the toes of
+which are united by a web. The fore feet are moderate-sized, and the
+pisiform bone is unusually long. Its habits are aquatic.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span> The Yapock
+has large naked ears, and a long, almost naked, tail, and is altogether
+rather larger than the common Rat. Its method of life is very much
+the same as that of the Otter. It is a good diver, and feeds upon
+crustaceous and other aquatic animals. It is a native of Guiana and
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p class="mtop2">The Marsupial animals assume the general shape and habits of many
+orders of Mammalia which have no marsupium, and which live in the other
+great natural history provinces. Thus there are Marsupial animals
+like Dogs, Rats, Squirrels, Flying Squirrels, Deer, &amp;c. They have,
+therefore, many methods of life as a group, and, as might be expected,
+the brain and nervous system present many differences in them. In all,
+the front lobes of the brain which deal with the sense of smell are
+very large, and in some, such as in the Carnivorous Marsupials, they
+are exposed, and not covered by the main mass of the brain. In the
+Kangaroos, however, these olfactory lobes are hidden more or less.
+These last also have well-marked convolutions on the brain which are
+nearly wanting in those first mentioned.</p>
+
+<p class="mbot1">The Marsupial animals just considered have been classified to a certain
+extent during their descriptions, but it is necessary to recapitulate.
+They are arranged in groups of genera or species, or into families.
+They are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center mbot1">ORDER MARSUPIALIA.&mdash;SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.</p>
+
+<table summary="Sub-order Marsupiata">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <div class="center">Family</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <div class="left">M<span class="smaller">ACROPODIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <img class="h4_5em" src="images/i_224_4l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">Genus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Macropus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Kangaroos.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"> „</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dendrolagus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Tree Kangaroos.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"> „</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Hypsiprymnus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Potoroos.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"> „</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Hypsiprymnodon</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">The Hypsiprymnodon.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">P<span class="smaller">HASCOLOMYIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center"> „</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Phascolomys</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">The Wombat.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="6">
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="6">
+      <div class="left">P<span class="smaller">HALANGISTIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="6">
+      <img class="h7em" src="images/i_224_6l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Phascolarctus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">The Koala.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3">
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3">
+      <div class="left">Phalangista</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="3">
+      <img class="h3_5em" src="images/i_224_3l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">The Cuscus.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dormouse Phalanger.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Phalangers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Petaurus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Flying&nbsp;Phalangers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Tarsipes</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Tarsipes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="left">P<span class="smaller">ERAMELIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <img class="h2_5em" src="images/i_224_2l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Perameles</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Bandicoots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Chœropus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Chœropus.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <div class="left">D<span class="smaller">ASYURIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="4">
+      <img class="h4_5em" src="images/i_224_4l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Myrmecobius</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Ant-eaters.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Phascogale</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Phascogale.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dasyurus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dasyures.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Thylacinus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Dog-headed&nbsp;Thylacinus.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <div class="left">D<span class="smaller">IDELPHIDÆ</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="vam" rowspan="2">
+      <img class="h2_5em" src="images/i_224_2l.jpg"  alt="" />
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Didelphys</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Opossum.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">„</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Chironectes</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="center">&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Yapock.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1">The Macropodidæ, Phalangistidæ, Peramelidæ, and Dasyuridæ are found
+living somewhere or other in the Australian distributional province,
+which includes the mainland, Tasmania to the south, and the Molucca
+and Arru Islands to the north, bounded by the Straits of Lombok, and
+Celebes, New Guinea, New Ireland, Timor, Amboyna, Banda, and Waigeoe.
+Each family is not represented fully, however, in all the remarkably
+separated divisions of the province. Thus the genera Macropus and
+Dendrolagus of the first family, Petaurus and Phalangista of the
+third, Perameles of the fourth, and Phascogale of the Dasyuridæ have
+been found in New Guinea; but in other islands, such as Celebes, and
+in those from Lombok to Timor, the genus Cuscus alone is represented.
+In the Moluccas, Cuscus and the genus Petaurus are found. In Van
+Diemen’s Land about one-half of the species are peculiar to the
+island, and the remainder are found also on the eastern districts
+of the mainland. It has Kangaroos, Potoroos, Wombats, Phalangers,
+Bandicoots, and three out of the four genera of Dasyuridæ. Western
+Australia, which is such a remarkable botanical province, and is so
+separated by desert and sand from the east, has numerous Kangaroos,
+Potoroos, Phalangers, Bandicoots,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span> Phascogales, Dasyures; and, in
+common with South Australia, a Chœropus, whilst the genus Tarsipes is
+peculiar to it. The Wombat is found in Van Diemen’s Land and some of
+the islands in Bass Strait. It is found in the south and east of the
+mainland of Australia, but not to the west and north. Mr. Waterhouse
+notices that the Marsupials of the eastern districts are for the most
+part distinct from those of the opposite side of the continent, there
+being, when his great work, which has been so constantly referred to
+in this description, was written, but eight species out of upwards of
+sixty inhabiting the two provinces. South Australia is the habitat of
+more common species than elsewhere. The northern part of Australia has
+more species peculiar to it than the other divisions, and some of its
+Dasyuridæ especially, and species of Cuscus also, are found in the Arru
+and other islands to the north. The metropolis of the sub-genus Cuscus
+is in the Moluccas, where two species are widely distributed, or one is
+restricted to certain islands.</p>
+
+<p>The other divisions of the genus are represented by the Vulpine
+Phalanger, an animal with long loose fur, which inhabits New South
+Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia; by Cook’s Phalanger,
+of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. The genus Perameles, the
+Bandicoots, has species in Van Diemen’s Land, Australia, New Guinea,
+and in the Arru Islands, and the genus Petaurus has a corresponding
+distribution. The Didelphidæ are found in the United States,
+California, Mexico, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, Banda Oriental, and
+Chili; and Brazil is the country where they abound the most in species
+and individuals, the number diminishing to the north and south.</p>
+
+<p>The Marsupials have a great ancestry, and some of them lived when the
+continents and oceans of the earth were in very different relative
+positions to those they now occupy. Indeed, it is most probable that
+the fossil remains of the most ancient mammal belong to this order.
+There is a small double-fanged molar tooth of a mammal which was found
+by Plieninger, in 1847, contained in a jumble of shells and of the
+remains of reptiles and fishes in strata beneath the Lias formation of
+Diegerloch, near Stuttgart. It and another which was discovered close
+by, by the same professor, belonged to animals which were dead when
+this topmost stratum of the Trias, immediately beneath the Lias, was
+being formed. They are Triassic in age, therefore, and they somewhat
+resemble the back teeth of a fossil which was found subsequently in the
+Purbeck strata of England, and which evidently belonged to a Marsupial
+more or less resembling the existing Kangaroo-Rats or Potoroos, of
+the genus Hypsiprymnus. Later on, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
+discovered a small tooth belonging to the same extinct genus as that
+which included Plieninger’s fossil, namely, Microlestes; and its
+resemblance to one of Hypsiprymnus is even greater. Its position was
+high up in the Trias of Watchet in Somersetshire. Mr. Charles Moore, of
+Bath, had previously found many specimens of teeth of the same family
+in a fissure, down which they had been washed by the Triassic sea.</p>
+
+<p>A lower jaw of a small Mammal was found in the Trias of North America
+by Emmons; and it has on one side three incisors, one long canine, then
+a diastema, three premolars, and seven molars with three points. It is
+therefore one of the Myrmecobius group.</p>
+
+<p>After the age of the Trias, when there was much continuous land
+surface, Europe was broken up into a coral island tract, during the age
+of the collection of the Jurassic deposits. The islands were tenanted
+by many small Marsupials, four species of which have been discovered in
+the deposits of Stonesfield slate at the bottom of the Great Oolite.
+They belong to the extinct genera Amphitherium, Phascolotherium,
+and Stereognathus, and the first somewhat resembled the Myrmecobius
+of recent times; but all that can be said is that they belonged to
+Marsupial animals. Piled on the Stonesfield slates are many hundred
+feet of strata, and high up amongst them, in the Swanage and Purbeck
+districts, are deposits in which Messrs. Brodie and Beckles have found
+portions of the skeletons of numerous insectivorous Marsupials, of
+which the genera Spalacotherium, Plagiaulax, Triconodon, and Galestes
+are the most important. They were small, as a rule, and there has been
+much debate regarding their affinities with modern insectivorous forms,
+and they are still surrounded with doubt.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the Mammalia without pouches took place in the
+Eocene age, and in the Old and New World, and contemporaneously with
+them lived in France a kind of Opossum, some of whose bones were
+found in the strata of Montmartre, near Paris; and in later Tertiary
+strata other relics have been found. These are the only instances of
+a fossil Didelphid occurring out of the New World; and there, where
+the Opossums are now characteristic animals, they were present in the
+last geological age, for in the Brazilian latest deposits remains of
+several species of Didelphys have been found.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span> Remains of these fossil
+Opossums have been found in the North American Pliocene deposits.
+The more ancient deposits of Australia have not yielded the remains
+of any of the animals which are now so peculiar to the province, but
+in the bone caves of the Wellington Valley, some two hundred and ten
+miles west of Sydney, Sir Thomas Mitchell discovered a mass of bones,
+forming a breccia with limestone, which contained numerous and most
+interesting Marsupial remains. In deposits of the same late age, and
+in bogs and gravels in Queensland, other remains were found. They were
+described by Sir R. Owen in one of his greatest works, and they belong
+to the Australian families of Marsupials, and not to the American
+Didelphidæ. As was usual elsewhere before the appearance of man on the
+earth, and contemporaneously with him for awhile, many of the kinds
+which resemble more or less those now living, or would be classified
+in the same family, and perhaps in the same genus, are gigantic. Owen
+distinguished among the bones those of large fossil Marsupials which
+belong to the Macropodidæ, and which may be arranged as subdivisions
+of the genus Macropus or Kangaroos, and of a powerful creature called
+Thylacoleo, or Pouched Lion, which must be admitted as a new section of
+the Macropodidæ, and whose habits were probably carnivorous, although
+there is much diversity of opinion on the subject, some of the most
+distinguished anatomists believing the creature to have been of an
+innocent disposition, although appearances are much against it. It is
+more closely allied to Plagiaulax, of the English Purbeck beds, than to
+any other form, and they well fit in between the genera Macropus and
+Hypsiprymnus.</p>
+
+<p>A huge Marsupial, with a skull three feet in length, with teeth, in
+front especially, on the Kangaroo plan, and with longer fore limbs and
+shorter hind ones than the last-named animal, was described by Owen.
+The pelvis, however, has but two sacral vertebræ, and its ilio-pubic
+process would ally it with the Macropodidæ. This Diprotodon was an
+herbivorous animal, and was of the size of a Rhinoceros. This great
+Marsupial had fore limbs which possessed the power of rotation, and it
+was not without some characters which are seen amongst the Wombats.
+It appears to have had a great range, for its remains have been found
+in the caverns in the Wellington Valley, at Welcome Springs, South
+Australia, Hergolt’s Springs, 500 miles north of Adelaide, near
+Melbourne, in the valley of the Condamine River, and widely over
+Queensland. A slightly smaller animal, called the Nototherium, also
+existed with the larger one.</p>
+
+<p>The species of this genus have no lower incisive tusks, and a very
+short chin; the angle of the jaw is curved inwards, and there were
+only four molar teeth on each side in both jaws, and they were with
+two strong roots or fangs. It was probably one of the Macropodidæ.
+Others of this family are allied to Dendrolagus, and form the genera
+Protemnodon and Sthenurus. The Wombat was represented in the age of the
+great Marsupials; and both large and small species, one being of the
+size of the Tapir, have been described from bones and teeth which were
+found in the cave deposits of Australia. Remains of a Marsupial animal,
+probably of the Vulpine Phalanger, were found in the same caves, as
+were also some referable to the genus Perameles, or Bandicoots, and
+to the Potoroos. Several fossil species of the family Dasyuridæ have
+been found in the Australian caves, and one of them is referable to a
+section of the genus Dasyurus, which at present is restricted to Van
+Diemen’s Land, it being somewhat like <i>Dasyurus ursinus</i>; moreover,
+probably, there was a species of Thylacinus present also. So far as is
+known from the researches of Owen amongst this wonderful cave fauna, no
+members of the family Didelphidæ occur there. They were American then,
+as they are now.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[Pg 227]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_IV_IV" title="CHAPTER IV. SUB-ORDER&mdash;MONOTREMATA.">CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<span class="s5">SUB-ORDER&mdash;MONOTREMATA.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a></span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="s4 center">THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED
+PLATYPUS.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order&mdash;The lowest of the Mammalian Class&mdash;<a href="#THE_PORCUPINE_OR_LONG_SPINED_ECHIDNA">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ORCUPINE</span> <span class="smaller">OR</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">SPINED</span>
+E<span class="smaller">CHIDNA</span></a>&mdash;An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate&mdash;Its Correct Name&mdash;Description of the Animal&mdash;Habits and
+Disposition&mdash;Manner of Using the Tongue&mdash;Where it is Found&mdash;Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial
+Bones&mdash;The Young&mdash;Species of Van Diemen’s Land and New Guinea&mdash;<a href="#THE_WATER_MOLE_OR_DUCK_BILLED_PLATYPUS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">ATER</span>-M<span class="smaller">OLE</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> D<span class="smaller">UCK</span>-<span class="smaller">BILLED</span>
+P<span class="smaller">LATYPUS</span></a>&mdash;The most Bird-like Mammal&mdash;Various Names&mdash;Description&mdash;Their Appearance and Movements in
+Water&mdash;Their Burrows&mdash;Habits of an Individual kept in Confinement&mdash;Used by Natives as Food&mdash;How they
+are Captured&mdash;The Young&mdash;A Family in Captivity&mdash;The Snout&mdash;Jaws&mdash;Teeth&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Fore and Hind Feet&mdash;Heel&mdash;Spur&mdash;The
+Shoulder Girdle&mdash;Breastbone&mdash;Concluding Remarks on the Sub-orders&mdash;Postscript on the Monotremes.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_PORCUPINE_OR_LONG_SPINED_ECHIDNA"><span class="s4">THE PORCUPINE OR
+LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA.</span></h4>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HIS</span> animal is the first example of some Marsupial beasts which are
+separated into a sub-order, because, in addition to the marsupial
+bones, there are some internal points of construction which are more
+bird- and lizard-like than those of the Kangaroo tribes. It contains
+animals which are the lowest of the Mammalian class, and are found only
+in the Australian natural history province. The Porcupine Ant-eater, as
+its name implies, has somewhat the shape of a Hedgehog or Porcupine,
+and it is fond of burrowing with its peculiar limbs, as well as of
+eating Ants with the assistance of its long tongue. But its internal
+anatomy and the construction of the skeleton differ from those of the
+true Ant-eaters, which belong to the order Edentata. It was called
+Ant-eater by its first describer (Shaw) in 1792, but a few years
+afterwards it was decided to belong to the same group as an animal
+about to be described&mdash;the Duck-billed Platypus, or Water Mole&mdash;and
+Cuvier, whilst believing that they both belonged to a peculiar order,
+separated this false Ant-eater from the Water Mole as a species and
+genus. He called this Hedgehog-like creature Echidna, from the presence
+of a spur on the heel, which is perforated, and which was erroneously
+supposed to be poisonous, like the fang of a Viper (Ἔχιδνα). The
+correct name is the Long-spined Echidna, or the Porcupine Echidna
+(<i>Echidna hystrix</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12_5" id="i_227">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_227.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PELVIC ARCH OF THE ECHIDNA.<br />(<i>a</i> <i>a</i>) Marsupial Bones.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The creature greatly resembles a Hedgehog with a very long snout, at
+first sight, but a slight examination will show that it differs much
+from the insect-eating and spiny little Hystrix. The Echidna is about
+a foot in length, and the upper part of its short body is covered with
+strong spines, and the rest is hairy, the front of the head, and the
+long, slender, and tapering snout being naked. The legs are short and
+strong, and the five toes of the fore leg have large and strong claws.
+This is in order to permit the creature to bury itself in sand and soft
+earth quickly, and this operation is assisted by a broad and rounded
+nail on the inner toe of the hind foot and by large claws on the other
+toes, and especially by a long nail to the second toe. A very long
+and flexible tongue enables the creature to catch prey. There are no
+teeth. The skull, when the skin and flesh have been removed, has a very
+pear-like appearance. It is a great burrower, and manages to get out of
+the way of observers as soon as is possible, for working actively with
+its strong limbs and claws, it pokes its snout into the earth and soon
+gets out of view. Ants are its favourite food, and they are captured
+in the same way as by the Great Ant-eaters belonging to the Edentata:
+for in both there is a long slimy tongue, which can be poked far out
+of the mouth into Ants’ nests. The saliva required to make the tongue
+sticky comes from large glands under the lower jaw from the ear on to
+the fore part of the chest. When the Ants have collected on the sticky
+tongue it is taken into the mouth, and they are swallowed. The absence
+of teeth is made up by the presence of horny spines on the palate and
+tongue, which look backwards, and these crush and direct<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[Pg 228]</span> the food to
+the throat. It is an apathetic and stupid animal, and usually tries
+to get out of the light, and it will lie and roll itself up, but not
+so successfully as a Hedgehog. One of the first which was seen was
+attacked by the Dogs of two of the travellers, Bass and Flinders,
+whose names are so familiar from places having been named after them
+in Australia. The Dogs did not come off victorious, for the new animal
+burrowed in the loose sand, but not head foremost; it sank itself
+directly downwards, and left its prickly back just on a level with the
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>An Echidna was watched, so that the manner in which it could use its
+tongue was observed. Ants could not be had, but a diet of chopped-up
+eggs, liver, and meat was readily received, and it was noticed that the
+tongue was used in the same manner as that of the Chameleon, by simple
+protrusion and bringing in, and also as a mower moves his scythe, it
+being curved sideways, and the food swept into the mouth. The Echidna
+is fond of water and milk, which are licked up by a rapid putting out
+and drawing in of the long tongue.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_228">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_228.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PORCUPINE ECHIDNA. (<i>After Gervais.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gerard Krefft says that they are usually found in mountain ranges,
+and among rocks in the Lower Murray district. He failed to feed them
+on Ants and their eggs. On hen’s eggs they fed for a time, and liked
+bread-and-milk. He has reason to believe that they live on grass also,
+as those whose stomachs and intestines he examined had fed on herbs and
+grasses. The spur on the heel is not used as a weapon of offence.</p>
+
+<p>It inhabits Australia, and has been found as far north as the Bellenden
+Plains, Queensland, about 18° south latitude. A specimen has also been
+captured at Cape York, and others at Plain Creek, Queensland. It is not
+found in Van Diemen’s Land.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the anatomy of the Echidna, it may be said that the long
+muzzle and the very slender lower jaw give the skull a bird-like look
+which is increased by the swollen and ball shape of the brain-case. The
+bones of the skull remain imperfectly united for some time, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[Pg 229]</span> then
+they are united by plain lines of junction, and not by jagged sutures.
+The shoulder and the bones of the upper part of the chest resemble
+those of the Water Mole, and will be noticed in its description. The
+brain of the Echidna weighs about one-fiftieth of the whole body,
+and the hemispheres do not conceal the cerebellum. There are three
+convolutions behind, and in front of them is a large one bent on
+itself, and on its outside are some oblique folds. The sense of smell,
+evidently acute in the Echidna, is assisted by a large development of
+the olfactory lobes of the brain and their nerves.</p>
+
+<p>The Echidnas have large marsupial bones. They have not a true pouch,
+but only a rudimentary one, or rather an infolding of the skin,
+during the breeding season, in the female. The orifices of the teats
+are situated beneath the level of the skin, and inverted; and as the
+surrounding parts swell under the influence of suckling, there is a
+little cavity made, at the bottom of which are the so-called nipples.
+They are really little depressions with hair around them. The young
+Echidnas are placed in this temporary cavity by the mother, and help
+themselves by placing their snouts in the small depressions leading to
+the milk gland. Captain Armit says that some force is required to get
+the young out of the pouch, and that there is probably a muscular ring
+to it. They are at first very small. When about a month or so old, the
+hinder parts of the young may be seen sticking out of the region of the
+fold, and at three months the body may be observed, the animal still
+adhering by its snout. When the prickles of the young begin to harden,
+the old one turns them out into the world. (But see Postscript, p. 234.)</p>
+
+<p>A short-spined Echidna (<i>Echidna setosa</i>) inhabits Van Diemen’s Land,
+whose hair is sufficiently long to hide most of the spines, but
+little is known regarding its habits. Quoy and Gaimard, two French
+naturalists, kept one for a month, and it took no food, but after that
+time it began to lap and to eat a mixture of flour, sugar, and water.
+It burrowed very rapidly, and got to the bottom of a large can full of
+earth and plants in the course of a few minutes, and it was assisted in
+this by its snout.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_229">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_229.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOUTH (<span class="smaller">A</span>) AND NOSE-SNOUT
+  (<span class="smaller">B</span>) OF ECHIDNA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A species of Echidna has been found in the north of the Island of
+New Guinea, at the Mont des Karous and Mount Arfak, at an altitude
+in the first place of 1,150 yards. It likes the rocky broken ground,
+and is unknown on the sea coast. The natives call it “Nokdiak,” and
+hunt it for the flesh. As the animal burrows well, the natives dig
+down about a yard in different places, and generally cut across one of
+the underground runs. It has been described, and has been named after
+the explorer, M. Brujn. It is more robust and larger than the species
+from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, has a very long snout&mdash;three
+times the length of the head&mdash;a short tail, and is black in colour
+with white points. The fur is plentiful, and like velvet, whilst the
+spines are scanty, and about midway in strength between those of the
+two Australian kinds. The number of nails on the fore and hind feet
+is singular in this New Guinea Echidna, for there are three on each
+instead of five. The tongue of the species is longer and more spiny;
+moreover, the number of vertebræ differs in this new kind. There are
+seventeen dorsal instead of fifteen, and there is one caudal more than
+in the others. The spiny pimples on the tongue and palate, so well
+developed in this Echidna, have tempted Professor Gervais to include
+it in a new genus, Acanthoglossus; but it is as well to retain the old
+name, so that the creature is called Echidna Brujnii. Another species
+has been found in the south of New Guinea, at Port Moresby, which
+is distinguished chiefly by the long, thin, cylindrical form of the
+quills, and the stiff, flat, hair-like bristles on the face. The tint
+of the flattish bristles covering all the body and limbs, except the
+back, is brown; on the back are long cylindrical spines, some white
+and others black. There are five claws to each foot, and the second
+hind toe is said to be the largest. The fore limbs are short, stout,
+and strong. It has been named Echidna Lawesii (Ramsay), after its
+discoverer. All these animals can roll themselves up.</p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_WATER_MOLE_OR_DUCK_BILLED_PLATYPUS" title="THE WATER MOLE,
+OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS."><span class="s4">THE WATER MOLE,
+OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></span></h4>
+
+<p>Like most of the other objects of natural history found in Australia
+and the neighbouring islands, the Water Mole is very singular in its
+construction, nature, and habits. It is of all animals that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span> suckle
+their young the most like a bird, and it really deserves the title,
+from its external appearance of half beast, half bird. As its shape and
+method of life are peculiar, it has received several names, such as
+the Water Mole, the Flat-footed, Duck-billed Platypus, the Bird-beaked
+quadruped, and the Paradoxical Bird-beaked animal. It is very fond
+of the water and also of burrowing in the ground, and, of course, is
+admirably adapted for these pursuits: hence its construction relates to
+them to a certain extent, and also to that of the animals of which it
+was, as it were, a continuation in the scheme of nature.</p>
+
+<p>The Ornithorhynchus anatinus has a rather flat body of about eighteen
+inches in length, and the head and snout greatly resemble those of a
+Duck, whilst the tail is short, broad, and flat, and resembles that
+of a small Beaver, but is shorter. The feet are webbed and flat, and
+the greater part of the creature is covered with a short dense fur
+of a dusky brown colour, darker on the upper and paler on the under
+parts of the body. A slight examination of the habits of the animal
+will explain the necessity for observing it a little more closely.
+Mr. Bennett describes his first interview with one shortly after his
+arrival in Australia. He writes: “We soon came to a tranquil part of
+the river, such as the colonists call a ‘pond,’ on the surface of which
+numerous aquatic plants grew. It is in places of this description that
+the Water Moles are most commonly seen, seeking their food among the
+aquatic plants, whilst the steep and shaded banks afford them excellent
+situations for excavating their burrows. We remained stationary on the
+banks, waiting their appearance with some degree of impatience, and it
+was not long before my companion quietly directed my attention to one
+of these animals, paddling on the surface of the water, not far distant
+from the bank on which we were then standing. In such circumstances
+they may be readily recognised by their dark bodies, just seen level
+with the surface, above which the head is slightly raised, and by
+the circles made in the water round them by their paddling action.
+On seeing them, the spectator must remain perfectly stationary, as
+the slightest noise or movement of his body would cause their instant
+disappearance, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or perhaps both;
+and they seldom appear when they have been frightened.” On ordinary
+occasions they do not remain more than a minute or two at a time on the
+surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>A burrow of an Ornithorhynchus, which Mr. Bennett opened, had its
+entrance on a steep part of a bank, situated about one foot from the
+water’s edge, and concealed among the long grass and other Plants.
+“This burrow ran up the bank in a serpentine course, approaching nearer
+to the surface of the earth towards its termination, at which part
+the nest is situated. No nest had yet been made in the termination of
+the burrow, for that appears to be formed about the time of bringing
+forth the young, and consists merely of dried grass, weeds, &amp;c.,
+strewed over the floor of this part of the habitation.” The expanded
+termination measured one foot in length and six inches in breadth, and
+the whole length of the burrow was twenty feet. Besides the entrance
+before alluded to, it appears there is usually a second opening
+into the burrows below the surface of the water, communicating with
+the interior, just within the upper aperture. A burrow subsequently
+examined by Mr. Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet
+from the entrance; and that gentleman stated that they have been found
+fifty feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>From the burrow first opened by Mr. Bennett a living female was
+taken, and placed in a cask, with grass, mud, water, &amp;c., and in this
+situation it soon became tranquil, and apparently reconciled to its
+confinement. On his return home to Sydney, Mr. Bennett determined to
+indulge it with a bathe; and with this view, when he arrived in the
+vicinity of some ponds, he tied a long cord to its leg. “When placed on
+the bank, it soon found its way into the water, and travelled up the
+stream, apparently delighting in those places which most abounded in
+aquatic weeds. When diving in deep and clear water, its motions were
+distinctly seen: it sank speedily to the bottom, swam there for a short
+distance, and then rose again to the surface. It appeared, however, to
+prefer keeping close to the bank, occasionally thrusting its beak into
+the mud, from whence it evidently procured food, as, on raising the
+head, after withdrawing the beak, the mandibles were seen in lateral
+motion, as is usual when the animal masticates. The motions of the
+mandibles were similar to those of a Duck under the same circumstances.
+After feeding, it would lie sometimes on the grassy bank, and at others
+partly in and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its coat
+with the claws of the hind feet. This process occupied a considerable
+time, and greatly improved its sleek and glossy appearance.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[Pg 231]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Water Moles are said to have a peculiarly fishy smell, more
+especially when wet, which probably proceeds from an oily secretion.
+They are used by the aborigines for food; “but it is no particular
+recommendation of them,” Mr. Bennett remarks, “to say they are eaten by
+the native Australian, as nothing in the shape of provender comes amiss
+to him, whether it be Snakes, Rats, Frogs, Grubs, or the more delicate
+Opossum, Bandicoot, and Flying Squirrel.”</p>
+
+<p>The Ornithorhynchus is captured by the natives when in its burrow. They
+first examine the neighbourhood of the burrow, to ascertain, by the
+presence of recent footmarks on the soil, whether it is inhabited, and
+if the examination proves satisfactory, they proceed to dig holes with
+pieces of sticks from the surface of the ground into the burrow, at
+distances from each other, until they discover its termination, when
+the Australians consider themselves exceedingly fortunate should they
+find the young, since they are regarded as a great delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>The young have been found in their nests by Mr. Bennett about one inch
+and seven-eighths in length, in the early part of December, and near
+the end of the same month he found young Water Moles of ten inches
+in length. These latter were kept alive for nearly five weeks, and
+their habits whilst in captivity are described in detail in his paper,
+which is illustrated by some admirable figures, showing their various
+attitudes, &amp;c. The young were allowed to run about the room; but an old
+Ornithorhynchus in the possession of our author was so restless, and
+damaged the walls of the room so much by her attempts at burrowing,
+that it was found necessary to confine her to the box. “During the day
+she would remain quiet, huddled up with her young ones; but at night
+she became very restless, and eager to escape. The little ones were
+as frolicsome as puppies, and apparently as fond of play; and many of
+their actions were not a little ludicrous. During the day they seemed
+to prefer a dark corner for repose, and generally resorted to the spot
+to which they had been accustomed, although they would change it on
+a sudden, apparently from mere caprice. They did not appear to like
+deep water, but enjoyed exceedingly a bathe in shallow water, with a
+turf of grass placed in one corner of the pan; they seldom remained
+longer than ten or fifteen minutes in the water at one time. Though
+apparently nocturnal, or at least preferring the cool and dusky evening
+to the glare and heat of noon, their movements in this respect were
+so irregular as to furnish no grounds for a definite conclusion. They
+slept much; and it frequently happened that one slept whilst the other
+was running about; and this occurred at almost all periods of the day.
+They climbed with great readiness to the summit of a book-case, and
+thus, by means of their strong cutaneous muscles and of their claws,
+mounting with much expedition to the top. Their food consisted of bread
+soaked in water, chopped eggs, and meat minced very small, and they did
+not seem to prefer milk to water.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Foulerton states that the natives are seldom successful in catching
+the Water Moles alive, although in some places in the rivers and creeks
+of New England they are so numerous that from fifteen to eighteen have
+been shot in an afternoon. In the dark, rocky, shady rivers they may
+be seen at any time of the day, but in more open places seldom before
+sunset. He failed to see any young ones, and believes that they keep
+them concealed until near their maturity. They are very active in the
+water, and are more frequently under than above the surface. He never
+saw one leave the water, and states that they made very poor progress
+on land. As a rule they are to be found in good fellowship with the
+Australian Water Rat (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The young Water Moles are naked, and have a short beak with fleshy and
+smooth edges, and this conformation enables them to seize the space
+on the mother whence the milk comes, for there are no nipples. Their
+tongue is large and assists in the sucking also.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe20" id="i_231">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_231.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.<br />
+  (<i>After Waterhouse.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<span class="smaller">A</span>) Upper, (<span class="smaller">B</span>) Lower Jaw; (<i>a</i>) Molar Teeth;
+(<i>b</i>) Narrow Anterior Teeth; (<i>c</i>) Tongue; (<i>d</i>) Integument
+projecting from Jaw; (<i>e</i>) Transverse Ridges on Covering of Beak.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most curious feature in the Ornithorhynchus is the snout in the
+form of a beak. This is flat and broadest in front where it is rounded.
+It is hard, and is covered with a skin full of pores, and on each side
+this skin overlaps the sides to form a kind of fringe or flexible
+cheek, and this free membrane is carried round the front. Where this
+skin comes to the head, it forms a wide fold, which flaps over the
+front of the head and throat, and is a capital protection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span> when the
+creature is grubbing in the wet banks or burrowing, and evidently
+protects the face and the eyes from injury. The nostrils are close to
+the extremity of the snout. In the lower jaw, or part of the beak-like
+snout, there are some ridges, which mark it crosswise from the mouth
+to the outside, and corresponding structures may be noticed in a Duck,
+their use being to provide grooves or spaces through which water may
+pour out of the mouth when the creature is feeding on soft mud and wet
+substances. Inside the mouth there is a pouch in the cheek, one on each
+side, and this is to retain food. It has four teeth in the upper and
+four in the lower jaw, but they are horny and made up of tubes; the
+front ones are long and narrow, and the others are oblong and oval in
+form, with a hollow crown. Moreover, the tongue, as in some reptiles,
+has horny teeth on it. The eyes of the creature are small and brown,
+and are situated close to the beak, and they look upwards. The ear is
+hidden by the fur, but it is none the less sharp of hearing. As may
+be gleaned from the notice of its habits, the animal has great power
+of swimming but not much of running, although the limbs are short.
+The fore-feet have five toes, nearly equal in length, the first being
+rather the shortest, and all have solid and rounded claws. The toes are
+webbed, and the fold of skin even extends in front of the claws when
+swimming is going on, but is folded back in digging. In the hind-feet
+the web does not extend farther than the base of the claws, and there
+is a spur on the heel, which is movable and sharp. It is found on the
+adult males in perfection, and it may be useful as well as ornamental.
+On carefully examining the under and lower part of the body, the milk
+or mammary glands are to be seen, and there is no proper nipple; but
+when suckling, the swelling of the gland produces an eminence, which
+can be grasped by the wide, open, and soft beak of the young.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_232a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_232a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.<br />
+  (<i>After Waterhouse.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>a</i>) Spur on Heel of Hind Foot.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe22" id="i_232b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_232b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF THE ECHIDNA.</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>a</i>) T-shaped interclavicle;
+  (<i>b</i>) Manubrium; (<i>c</i>) Ensiform end of sternum; (<i>d</i>)
+  Cartilages of ribs; (<i>e</i>) Scapula; (<i>f</i>) Coracoid; (<i>g</i>)
+  Epicoracoid.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was thought that this bird-like creature laid eggs, but the point
+was not easy to determine. (See Postscript, page 234.) It has a double
+uterus, leading to the common canal, called urogenital, and this
+ends in the common outlet. The Ornithorhynchus and Echidna have an
+arrangement of the bones of the shoulder and chest, which resembles to
+a certain extent that of the Lizards and of the Ichthyosaurus, and the
+annexed engraving will explain the position of the bones. Indeed, the
+most important peculiarity in the skeleton of the Monotremes is that of
+the shoulder-girdle and upper part of the chest; for a bone, the merest
+vestiges of which are noticed in some of the Mammalia, occurs, that is
+of some importance in the great groups of birds and reptiles, which
+are lower in the animal scale than the Vertebrata already described.
+In all the animals described hitherto, and including the Marsupiata,
+the large arm bone (humerus) is jointed at the shoulder with the blade
+bone, or scapula. The socket in this bone, which receives the somewhat
+ball-shaped top of the humerus, in order to permit of very general
+motion, is a part of the scapula, and is called the glenoid cavity; but
+in the Monotremes a bone called the coracoid joins with the scapula,
+and forms part of the socket;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span> moreover, this coracoid is long enough
+to reach the breast bone, or sternum. The breast bone in the Mammalia
+hitherto noticed consists of an expanded part at its fore end (in
+the usual position of quadrupeds), or at its top in man, called the
+manubrium, and of some smaller pieces, which form the front bone of
+the chest and reach to the belly, having ribs attached to them on each
+side. This is the state of things in the Monotremes; and the coracoids
+are attached to the manubrium, one on each side. In other Mammalia it
+is the collar bone which is jointed there. In addition to these breast
+bones in the Monotremes, there are other bones in front, or between
+the neck and the top of the manubrium. Firstly, there is a bone in the
+shape of a <b>T</b>: the lower point is on the breast bone, and the
+cross-bar supports a collar bone on each side, which reaches outwards
+to the blade bone. Secondly, there is a bone on each side in front of
+the coracoid, reaching forwards towards the neck. This is called the
+epicoracoid. Some of these bones, now noticed for the first time, are
+more or less common to birds, reptiles, and amphibians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_233">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_233.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are some other anatomical points which ally the Monotremes to
+the reptiles. For instance, the peg on the second, or axis vertebra of
+the neck, is not fixed to the bone by true bony matter, and some of
+the ribs which exist in the neck in the Monotremes are separate from
+the vertebræ until late<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span> in life, or altogether. And the cavity for
+jointing of the thigh bone with the pelvis (the acetabulum) is not
+perfect, there being a part of it not filled with bony matter.</p>
+
+<p>The ear is singularly simple in its construction in this sub-order, and
+the cochlea is not coiled into a spiral; moreover, there is no external
+ear.</p>
+
+<p>The hemispheres of the brain, which are convoluted in the Echidnas,
+are smooth in the Ornithorhynchus, and in both the central commissure,
+or corpus callosum, just exists, whilst the anterior one is large. The
+Ornithorhynchus inhabits Van Diemen’s Land and Australia, as far north
+as Queensland inclusive.</p>
+
+<p>The Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus belong to a sub-order of the
+Marsupialia which, whilst it has some structures resembling those
+of the sub-order of Marsupiata, possesses others which link it with
+the birds and reptiles. This sub-order is the lowest amongst the
+Mammalia, and the animals which are included in it have the following
+peculiarities:&mdash;The marsupial bones are present, the uterus is double,
+and the young are not nourished when within the parent by a placenta;
+there is no inflection of the lower jaw; the shoulder-girdle has
+additional bones; there are no true nipples; the teeth are either
+absent or horny; the external ear is not present, and there is not a
+true pouch. The excretion of the kidneys and the contents of the bowels
+fall into one receptacle, through which the young also pass. It is
+called a cloaca, and receives the outlets of the rectum and urogenital
+canal. The presence of the spur on the heel is also a peculiarity.</p>
+
+<p>A fossil Echidna has been discovered in deposits on the Darling Downs.</p>
+
+<p>The Echidnas form one genus and the Ornithorhynchus another, and the
+classification of the whole is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Classification of Echidnas">
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">O<span class="smaller">RDER</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">M<span class="smaller">ARSUPIALIA</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span></div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">M<span class="smaller">ONOTREMATA</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">Genus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">Echidna.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">Genus</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft2">Ornithorhynchus.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In concluding this Natural History of the Marsupiata and Monotremata,
+it is necessary to direct attention to the fact that they are less well
+defined than the other great groups of the Mammalia. As sub-orders,
+they are very artificial, for some of their most important structural
+peculiarities are deficient in some of the genera. The inflected lower
+jaw is not invariably found, the marsupium does not always exist, and
+the marsupial bones differ in shape and size, and are occasionally
+absent. With regard to these bones or cartilages, they are not
+connected with the pouch, but with the muscular system of the belly.
+They have been shown by Huxley to be present in Crocodiles, and in the
+amphibian called the Salamander. Hence these structures are relics
+of a remote ancestry, and have but slight functional importance. The
+authorities whence I have derived most of this Natural History are
+Waterhouse, Owen, Huxley, Bennett, Gould, and Kreeft, to whom I am
+under great obligations.</p>
+
+<p class="right mtop2 mbot2 mright2">P. M<span class="smaller">ARTIN</span>
+D<span class="smaller">UNCAN</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Postscript.</i>&mdash;Mr. W. H. Caldwell has discovered that the Monotremes
+lay eggs as has been suspected, and he has traced the development of
+the animal during the hatching. The eggs resemble those of a Reptile
+more than a Mammal, and the yolk is in such excess that it is not all
+subdivided during the early stages of the embryo of the Monotreme,
+but some remains over and above, upon which it is nourished in the
+early stages within the egg. The heart of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus is
+interesting because Meckel, and, subsequently, Prof. E. Ray Lankester,
+F.R.S., have shown that it differs from that of the higher Mammalia,
+and is not without considerable resemblance in some of the valvular
+structures to the hearts of Birds and Crocodiles. The last-named
+naturalist states that the reflux of blood into the right auricle
+on contraction of the ventricle, is not prevented by the presence
+of the special structure seen in Mammals, but by an arrangement
+which is observed in Reptiles and Birds. The mitral valve is with
+three divisions instead of two, as in the higher Mammalia, but the
+tendinous structures seen in this last group, to terminate the muscular
+structures, do not exist in the Monotreme. This increase of the
+muscular structure is not so palpable in Echidna. It is interesting to
+know that the special structures of the right side of the heart in the
+adult Ornithorhynchus are seen in the embryonic condition of the higher
+Mammalia.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_235">
+  <img class="w100 mtop3 padtop1" src="images/i_235.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">IMPERIAL EAGLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<h2 class="nopad" id="THE_CLASS_AVES_THE_BIRDS">THE CLASS AVES.&mdash;THE
+BIRDS.</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_I_V">CHAPTER I.<br />
+<span class="s5">INTRODUCTION&mdash;WING-STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS&mdash;DISTRIBUTION.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Introduction&mdash;Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves&mdash;Power of Flight&mdash;The Wing&mdash;Its Structure&mdash;The Six Zoo-geographical
+Regions of the Earth&mdash;Birds peculiar to these Regions.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> study of birds is almost an instinct in an Englishman: from peasant
+to noble, an innate affection for the feathered songsters seems to
+prevail; so that whether it be in a stately aviary or in a little cage
+outside a cottage door, birds are found to be the constant companions
+of man throughout the length and breadth of the land. And it is
+possible that no other country in the world possesses such a number
+of birds, in proportion to its size, as does Great Britain. Any one
+travelling on the continent of Europe cannot fail to notice how few
+birds meet his eye; and although they may be there, and may be found
+by a little searching for, they do not form such a prominent feature
+of a walk as they do in England or Scotland. Even the toiler in large
+towns has but to get a little way into the nearest fields to hear the
+cheering song of the Skylark or the Thrush, or to be amused with the
+bustling and active habits of the Starling, or those of the more sedate
+and cautious Rook. It is certain that a study of the habits of birds
+will always repay the student, who may see in the feathered favourites
+which are around him many a little bright example<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span> to be followed, if
+he read the lesson aright. Birds teach us many things&mdash;perseverance,
+fidelity, parental affection, thrift, cleanliness, and many other
+domestic virtues, which are to be seen carried out in their life in
+the greatest perfection. In the following pages the birds will be
+passed in review, and the habits of some of the most striking and
+important forms will be detailed. But, although every species and genus
+cannot be noticed here, it is necessary to assure the student that
+in every country&mdash;even in England, where so much has been done for
+Ornithology&mdash;he will find an ample reward in the study of all birds;
+and that even the commonest species cannot be neglected, for there is
+always something new to learn and to record in their life-history.
+To quote Dr. A. E. Brehm, one of the most accomplished observers of
+nature, who, carefully trained by his father, a true naturalist also,
+has studied the feathered tribes in many climes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“He who is only half at home with nature on this earth of ours will be
+able approximately to appreciate the feelings with which the naturalist
+wanders and travels from place to place: wherever he may be he finds
+friendly forms. For years he has silently watched the interior economy
+and household arrangements of animated nature, and yet he has not seen
+all; and on this account he is never in want of employment. Every bird
+is a personal friend: the old ones he knows almost as well as he knows
+himself, and the new ones must be studied. How much more is there yet
+to observe! Rich as he may be in experiences, every fresh ramble brings
+him fresh mental treasure. The relations existing between him and the
+bird become each day more and more intimate; he knows the lives and
+habits of each: when each arrives, or takes its departure: where is
+its abode: how it is made: when it is occupied by a happy troop of
+nestlings: when deserted. The naturalist knows his friends by their
+notes, flight, and bearing. In his eye the bird never ceases to exist:
+alive or dead it is always interesting in his eyes, for in either case
+the bird is associated with a poesy of feeling in creative nature which
+he would put into words. Every new bird raises his spirits a step
+higher; every fresh discovery is a step onward in the knowledge of the
+ways and means of all things. He is indebted to his friends for many a
+happy hour; their lives are a pattern worthy of imitation.”<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here, then, we may ask&mdash;What is a bird? How can a bird be told from all
+other Vertebrate animals? The chief character which distinguishes the
+class of birds is undoubtedly <i>the clothing of the body with feathers</i>.
+Other characters they also possess, but not exclusively. For instance,
+they have the power of flight developed in the greatest degree: but
+there are some birds, such as the Apteryx, the Ostrich, and the
+Cassowary, which cannot fly at all; while, on the other hand, there are
+flying mammals, such as Bats, Flying Squirrels, and there are flying
+reptiles, which can progress through the air by means of flight. Again,
+birds lay the eggs from which they produce their young; but so do many
+reptiles and fish: so that this cannot be considered a prerogative of
+the class of birds. Their bill is hard and sheathed in horn; but so
+is that of the Duck-billed Platypus (page 231), an animal belonging
+to the Monotreme Mammals; and Turtles also have beaks. Most, but not
+all, birds build nests; and in this they stand almost alone among the
+higher animals; but nest-building propensities are developed in many of
+the Mammalia&mdash;in the Lemurs and Mice, for instance&mdash;while it cannot be
+assigned as a habit peculiar to birds, as the wonderful nests made by
+some fish conclusively prove.</p>
+
+<p>All birds, whether they fly or not, are clothed with feathers, and this
+distinguishes the class <i>Aves</i> in the existing state of nature. The
+majority are specially adapted for flight: and as this is undoubtedly
+the most vigorous form of locomotion, the greatest muscular efforts
+being required to raise and sustain a body above the ground and to
+propel it rapidly through the air, a large development of muscular
+energy is necessary. The great strain on the circulation of the blood
+is met by a heart not only as complete as in the Mammalia, but with
+stronger and a peculiar valvular mechanism for propelling that fluid
+vigorously through the body. Moreover, in addition to their lungs,
+birds possess a singular provision of air-receptacles within the body,
+and these are connected with a series of cavities, also filled with
+air, which occupy the interior of most of the bones. These cavities
+serve not only to give lightness to the bird’s body, but they also
+assist the lungs in aërating the blood, so that birds may be said to
+enjoy a double respiration. As birds exceed mammals in the activity of
+their breathing and circulatory system, so also they possess a higher
+degree of animal heat, their temperature ranging from 106° to 112°
+Fahr. This high temperature, which exceeds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span> that of the Mammalia by
+from 8° to 14°, is maintained by its admirable feather-clothing, which,
+being a non-conductor, effectually serves to guard against any sudden
+variations of temperature in the air to which its body is exposed,
+during its rapid and extensive flights, as well as tempering the usual
+radiation from the body.</p>
+
+<p>As one might expect in the fore-limb of a creature specially organised
+for suspension in, and progression through, the air, it is found that
+the muscles, as well as the bones and joints, of the bird’s wing
+become much modified as compared with the corresponding parts of other
+animals. With all our scientific knowledge and mechanical contrivances,
+no one has yet succeeded in constructing a flying machine. It is a
+significant fact that Nature has not only long ago solved this problem,
+but that she has done so in several ways. The flight of an insect, of
+a bird, of a bat, is equally perfect in its way: but in each case the
+result is attained by very different modifications in the skeletal and
+muscular apparatus. The principal resistance that a flying animal has
+to work against is its weight: that is, the force of gravity which,
+proportionately to its mass, tends to draw it down vertically towards
+the earth; hence the muscles which are largest and strongest in a bird
+are those which pull down the wing against the air, thereby raising the
+body and overcoming its weight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_237a">
+  <img class="illowe12_5" src="images/i_237a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe23">BONES OF WING OF BIRD.<br />
+  (<i>After Sundevall.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe23"><span class="s5">(<i>a</i>) Humerus; (<span class="smaller">B</span>)
+  Cubitus; (<i>c</i>) Ulna; (<i>d</i>) Radius; (<span class="smaller">E</span>)
+  Manus, or hand; (<i>f</i>) Carpus; (<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>) Metacarpus;
+  (<i>k</i>) Pollex, or thumb; (<i>l</i>) Second digit; (<i>m</i>) Third digit.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief muscle thus employed is the “great pectoral,” attached to
+the large keel (or ridge) on the breast-bone, and inserted into the
+“humerus,” or “arm-bone.” This “great pectoral” is generally the
+largest muscle in the bird’s body, and in fact often equals in bulk all
+the other muscles put together.</p>
+
+<p>The wing is <i>opened out</i> by straightening the elbow and the
+wrist-joints. The former process is effected by the contraction of the
+<i>triceps</i>; the latter chiefly by the action of the so-called “radial
+extensors,” and by the elasticity of the long “tensor,” or ligament,
+which comes from the shoulder muscles along the front border of the
+anterior wing-membrane, and is attached to the base of the thumb, at
+the front side of the wrist.</p>
+
+<p>The wing is <i>folded</i> by the bending of the elbow and the adduction of
+the wrist-joints. The elbow is bent principally by the contraction of
+the “biceps” and the “internal brachial,” the wrist-joint chiefly by
+the contraction of the “hand-adductor,” and of the “ulnar wrist-flexor.”</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the possession of feathers is one of the most
+characteristic features in a bird. These beautiful structures are
+modifications of the skin, just as are the scales of the feet and
+the claws of the toes. Feathers and hairs, scales and claws, are all
+produced out of, and are modifications of, the cells of the upper
+skin, or <i>epidermis</i>, and of the under, or true skin, or <i>cutis</i>. The
+feathers differ much in their minute construction in some birds; and
+all those of a bird are of course not of the same size and shape, but
+they have the following parts in common.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_237b">
+  <img class="illowe22_5" src="images/i_237b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe29">FEATHERS OF WING OF BIRD.<br />
+  (<i>After Sundevall.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe29"><span class="s5">(<span class="smaller">A</span>)
+  Feathers of the manus, or primary quills; (<span class="smaller">B</span>)
+  Feathers of the <i>cubitus</i>, or secondary quills; (<span class="smaller">C</span>)
+  Coverts of the manus, or primary-coverts; (<span class="smaller">D</span>)
+  Lesser primary-coverts; (<span class="smaller">E</span>) Coverts of the
+  <i>cubitus</i>, or secondary-coverts; (<span class="smaller">F</span>) Median
+  coverts; (<span class="smaller">G</span>) Lesser coverts;
+  (<span class="smaller">H</span>) Feathers of the thumb, or bastard wing.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A feather consists of a quill, a shaft, barbs, and barbules: moreover,
+there may be a kind of accessory part, often in the shape of a downy
+tuft, close to the junction of the shaft and the quill. The shaft
+(<i>scapus</i>) or axis of every perfect feather (<i>penna</i>) is divided into
+the quill (<i>calamus</i>), the hollow cylinder (<i>d</i>), which is partly
+embedded in a sac of the skin, and the true shaft (<i>rachis</i>, <i>a</i>),
+which bears on each side the lateral processes called barbs (<i>rami</i>
+or <i>radii</i>). The rachis and the barbs together are known as the
+vane (<i>vexillum</i>), and, in fact, form what is commonly known as the
+“feather” in contradistinction to the “quill.” The barbs (<i>c</i>, <i>c</i>,
+<i>c</i>, <i>c</i>) are narrow plates, or laminæ, “tapering to points at their
+free ends, and attached by their bases on each side of the rachis.
+The edges of these barbs are directed upwards and downwards, when the
+<i>vexillum</i> of the feather is horizontal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span> The interstices between the
+barbs are filled up by the <i>barbules</i>, pointed processes, which stand
+in the same relation to the barbs as the barbs do to the rachis. The
+barbules themselves may be laterally serrated and terminated by little
+hooks, which interlock with the hooks of the opposed barbules. In very
+many birds each quill bears two <i>vexilla</i>; the second, called the
+<i>aftershaft</i> (<i>b</i>) (<i>hyporachis</i>), being attached on the under side of
+the first,”<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> close to the junction of the shaft with the quills.</p>
+
+<p>In all the feathers of the Ratitæ, and in the case of all but the
+contour feathers in other birds, there are no barbules to the barbs.
+The pennæ are ordinarily arranged in definite patches, or areas on
+the bird, and the shape and size of these, and their relation to one
+another, differ in many birds.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>aftershaft</i> (<i>b</i>) is ordinarily a smaller <i>vexillum</i>, which is
+attached to the under side of the larger one at about the point where
+the rounded quill passes into the stem.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to notice these important characteristic structures
+more fully now, as they will have to be considered in explaining the
+distinctions between the great groups of birds, and we pass on to
+notice that the same kinds of birds are not found everywhere, but that
+they have, as groups, a remarkable geographical distribution.</p>
+
+<p>In the following pages the distribution of birds is often alluded to,
+although it will naturally be impossible to discuss, within these
+limits, all the various phases of the study which the geographical
+distribution of the feathered tribes opens up to us. At the same time
+sufficient evidence will be given to show that birds are not scattered
+without order over the earth, but are more or less restricted to
+certain spots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe23" id="i_238">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_238.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PARTS OF A FEATHER. (<i>After Nitzsch.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The six natural history or distributional provinces into which the
+world is ordinarily divided by modern naturalists were determined,
+first of all, from the study of the birds; and in fixing the boundaries
+of each division the wading birds and many swimming birds must be left
+out of the question, as they are creatures of such very extensive
+flight, and wander almost from pole to pole. A natural region,
+therefore, can be marked only by its resident forms of bird life, or
+at the most by the birds which breed within its limits; and the six
+regions alluded to provide us with many excellent reasons for believing
+that they possess well-defined physical boundaries. No Capercailzie,
+for instance, was ever found out of the <i>Palæarctic</i><a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> region, which
+comprises Europe and the greater part of Asia above the line of the
+Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang River in China. This region is also
+characterised by a large number of Buntings, Warblers, Grouse, &amp;c.
+In the <i>Nearctic</i><a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> region there is a certain similarity to the
+European and Siberian Avifauna, Grouse, Ptarmigan, Waxwings, Magpies,
+Ravens, &amp;c., being commonly found throughout the two regions. North
+America possesses, however, several forms peculiar to itself, though
+it is by no means so rich in species as is the <i>Neotropical</i><a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>
+region, which commences south of a line drawn through Northern Mexico,
+and includes the whole of Central and Southern America. Within this
+large area are contained whole families of birds, such as Toucans,
+Mot-mots, the vast majority of the Humming-birds, Trogons, besides
+innumerable genera of Tanagers and other forms, so that this region is
+by far the richest in the world as regards bird life. The <i>Ethiopian</i>
+region embraces all Africa below the Sahara Desert and Madagascar:
+Plaintain-eaters, &amp;c., are characteristic of this region. The <i>Indian</i>
+region skirts the Palæarctic, and includes the remainder of Asia below
+the Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang; the Malayan Peninsula, the Sunda
+Islands, and the Philippines, belong to this region, which contains
+all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span> finest Pheasants in the world, the Impeyan Pheasant from the
+Himalayas, the Tragopans, and the Lobed Pheasant of Borneo being most
+beautiful creatures. Lastly, between the islands of Bali and Lombok
+passes a deep sea boundary called “Wallace’s line,” which divides the
+<i>Australian</i> region from the Indian, and although these islands lie so
+close together, the great depth of the channel between them seems to
+mark them out as frontier lines of two ancient continents. Certain it
+is that the birds and animals on each side of Wallace’s line differ
+remarkably; and the Australian region, which includes all the Moluccas,
+New Guinea, and Oceania, in addition to the Australian continent and
+New Zealand, presents us with forms not found elsewhere, such as Birds
+of Paradise, Cassowaries, Lyre-birds, and a large variety of peculiar
+types. Many smaller divisions of the globe are now recognised, but the
+above are the main ones, which may occasionally be referred to in these
+pages.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>Many birds migrate, and the student of migration alone would find
+sufficient material there for the work of a lifetime; and it seems
+almost impossible to account for the instinct or other causes which
+bring birds regularly year by year to breed in the same haunts, and
+which drive them away at the same change of season. Why is it, for
+instance, that species of similar habits and form, and both visiting
+Europe in equal abundance, should occupy such different winter
+quarters? Yet the common Red-backed Shrike, or Butcher-bird (<i>Lanius
+collyrio</i>), when he is said to leave Europe, passes by the Nile Valley
+along the east coast of Africa down to the Cape, where he brings up
+a second brood of nestlings; while the Wood-Chat Shrike (<i>Lanius
+auriculatus</i>), a bird of about the same size and of precisely similar
+habits, proceeds down the Nile Valley and invades Abyssinia in the
+winter, and also occupies Senegambia, where a Red-backed Shrike has
+never been found yet by a naturalist. Nothing whatever is known by
+which route the bird gets to the Gambia: whether he follows the same
+one as his red-backed relation as far as Abyssinia, and then skirts the
+southern edge of the Sahara, or whether he reaches north-western Africa
+by a direct flight across the Great Desert. Many other such problems
+in the economy of our most familiar species are still awaiting further
+scientific research.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_II_V" title="CHAPTER II. THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.">CHAPTER II.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">The Three Divisions of the Class Aves&mdash;A<span class="smaller">NATOMY</span> <span class="smaller">OF A</span> B<span class="smaller">IRD</span>&mdash;The Skeleton&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;Peculiar Bone
+Character&mdash;The Skull&mdash;Difference between the Skull of Birds and that of Mammals&mdash;The Jawbones&mdash;Vertebral
+Column&mdash;Sternum&mdash;Fore-limbs&mdash;Hind-limbs&mdash;Toes&mdash;The Muscular System&mdash;How a Bird remains Fixed when
+Asleep&mdash;The Oil-gland&mdash;The Nervous System&mdash;The Brain&mdash;The Eye&mdash;The Ear&mdash;The Digestive System&mdash;The
+Dental papillæ&mdash;The Beak&mdash;Tongue&mdash;Gullet&mdash;Crop&mdash;Stomach&mdash;Uses of the Gizzard&mdash;Intestine&mdash;The Liver,
+Pancreas, and Spleen&mdash;The Blood and Circulatory System&mdash;Temperature of Blood of a Bird&mdash;Blood Corpuscles&mdash;The
+Heart&mdash;The Respiratory System&mdash;Lungs&mdash;Air-sacs&mdash;The Organs of Voice&mdash;The Egg&mdash;Classification of the
+Class Aves.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span> may be separated into three great divisions: the <i>Carinatæ</i>, or
+birds with a keeled sternum, the <i>Ratitæ</i>, or birds having a raft-like
+sternum, and the <i>Saururæ</i>, or lizard-like birds. The last of these
+orders links the birds with the reptiles, and does not concern us here,
+as it contains only one genus, and that a fossil one, the <i>Archæopteryx
+lithographica</i>, respecting which a few words will be found at the end
+of this article (Vol. IV., pp. 236&ndash;8). The other two divisions are of
+great importance, and are easily recognisable, although the characters
+which separate them are chiefly anatomical. The principal point of
+difference lies in the sternum, or breast-bone, and the name <i>Carinatæ</i>
+is given to all those which have a keel (<i>carina</i>) or sternal ridge
+largely developed, as in the common fowl; and this is present in the
+great majority of birds. The <i>Ratitæ</i> have not got this keel, and in
+this division are found the Struthious birds&mdash;Ostriches, Cassowaries,
+&amp;c. They are all species which cannot fly; and although the number at
+present existing is small, the fact of their being found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[Pg 240]</span> at widely
+distant parts of the earth&mdash;in South America, in Africa, and again in
+Australia&mdash;would seem to indicate that they were once more plentifully
+distributed, and that they are remains of what was formerly a large
+and important group. To these Ratite birds belonged also the extinct
+gigantic Moas of New Zealand, and the <i>Æpyornis</i> of Madagascar.</p>
+
+<p id="bird_anatomy">Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to give a brief outline
+of the principal anatomical features of a bird’s body. On examining
+either the general features of the skeleton, or the minute characters
+of many of the bones of which it is made up, in such a bird as a Hawk,
+for example, we are arrested by those remarkable arrangements by which
+this part of the body is adapted to the mode of life of its possessor.
+Here, however, as in so many instances, we have to distinguish between
+what is characteristic of the bird as a flying animal, and what is
+more or less common to it and other vertebrate animals, and does not
+especially relate to peculiar habits. We may well be struck by the
+marvellous power which birds have, and which man has not, and it is
+curious to notice how man’s aspirations have ever been associated with
+it. Without pausing to observe that painters always endow spirits with
+wings, or that the imaginative genius of the French has emboldened them
+to form a “Société d’Encouragement pour la Locomotion Aérienne,” we may
+find in the words of Faust definite expression of what man feels with
+regard to the law by which he is held down to earth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Ich eile fort, ihr ew’ges Licht zu trinken,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Vor mir den Tag und hinter mir die Nacht,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Den Himmel über mir, und unter mir die Wellen.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Ein schöner Traum, indessen sie entweicht.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Ach! zu des Geistes Flügeln wird so leicht</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Kein körperlicher Flügel sich gesellen.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Doch ist es jedem eingeboren,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Dass sein Gefühl hinauf und vorwärts dringt,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Wenn über uns, im blauen Raum verloren,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Ihr schmetternd Lied die Lerche singt,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Wenn über schroffen Fichtenhöhen</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Der Adler ausgebreitet schwebt,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Und über Flächen, über Seen</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Der Kranich nach der Heimat strebt.”<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Inspired by feelings such as those so powerfully expressed in Goethe’s
+lines, numerous naturalists have treated of the bird as though the
+powers of flight were confined to it, and were not shared by Bees and
+Bats in the present, and by Pterodactyles in the past. With this word
+of comment, which it is even still necessary to insist upon, attention
+should be given to the following avian characters:&mdash;The anterior limbs
+do not touch the ground, and the bones which compose them are adapted
+for carrying the feathers of the wing; the breast-bone is not only
+elongated, but has its central portion developed (except in the Ratitæ)
+into a strong keel, the better to permit insertion of the muscles
+by which the fore-limb is moved; the small bones (vertebræ) in the
+region of the back are fixed firmly together, and are not, as in man
+or in the Ostrich, movable on one another; while those which succeed
+them are often welded into one mass with the greatly-developed upper
+bones (<i>ilia</i>) of the pelvic girdle; and the hinder vertebræ develop
+an upstanding plate (ploughshare bone) which gives support to the
+<i>rectrices</i>, or so-called steering feathers of the tail. It will have
+been seen that the ordinary seizing organ of man (the hand) has in
+birds been modified to serve another purpose; but this is made up for,
+not only by the character of the beak, but by the long and flexible
+neck, and in some by the grasping toes.</p>
+
+<p>Before describing in detail the characters of the different parts of
+the skeleton, it is to be noted that many of the bones are not, as in
+the Mammalia, filled with marrow, but with air; a large cavity may,
+for example, be seen in the upper bone (<i>humerus</i>) of the wing of the
+common fowl. It is obvious that the specific gravity, or weight of the
+bird, is thus largely reduced, while the connection between<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span> these
+air-spaces and those which are derived from the lungs enables the
+contained air to undergo the necessary exchanges with the surrounding
+medium.</p>
+
+<p>It was long ago observed by the famous German anatomist, Johannes
+Müller, that “it has often been a subject for complaint that the
+anatomical characters of birds are so constant that they are of but
+slight assistance in the labours of the zoologist.” The truth of this
+will very forcibly strike any one who comes to the study of the skulls
+of birds, after having examined a series of skulls in mammals, so that
+the seemingly trivial variations to which anatomists have directed
+attention are in truth those which are, in birds, often of the most
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe30" id="i_241">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_241.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKELETON OF EAGLE. (<i>Reduced. After
+  Milne-Edwards.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>p</i>) Pelvis; (<i>c</i>) Coracoid;
+  (<i>dr</i>) Dorsal ribs; (<i>sr</i>) Sternal ribs; (<i>up</i>) Uncinate
+  processes; (<i>co</i>) Coccyx; (<i>r</i>) Radius; (<i>u</i>) Ulna; (<i>d</i>)
+  first phalanx of chief digit of the wing; (<i>d′</i>) second phalanx of chief
+  digit of the wing; (<i>d″</i>) Phalanges of lower digit; (<i>d‴</i>) Pollex;
+  (<i>ca</i>) Carpus; (<i>f</i>) Femur; (<i>fu</i>) Furcula; (<i>h</i>) Humerus;
+  (<i>pp</i>) Postorbital process; (<i>tm</i>) Tarso-metatarsus; (<i>m</i>)
+  Metatarsus; (<i>ma</i>) Lower jaw; (<i>me</i>) Metacarpus; (<i>s</i>)
+  Scapula; (<i>pa</i>) Phalanges of foot; (<i>fi</i>) Fibula; (<i>pt</i>)
+  Patella; (<i>st</i>) Sternum; (<i>ti</i>) Tibia.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The skull, then, is, as compared with the rest of the body, small; but
+that portion which contains the brain is relatively larger to the face
+than it is in any living mammal. The orbits, or cavities in which lie
+the eyes, are very deep, in consequence of the small extent to which
+the walls of the brain-case extend forwards. The cavities of each side
+are separated by a partition (<i>inter-orbital septum</i>), which is more
+or less bony; the nasal bones are short, so that the nasal orifices
+(anterior <i>nares</i>) are placed near to where the beak joins the face. Of
+the four bones which bound the great opening at the back of the skull
+for the passage of the spinal cord, three take part in the formation
+of the single ball-like projection, or condyle, by which the skull
+is hinged on the vertebral column. In this point, the skull of birds
+offers a striking point of dissimilarity to that of mammals, in which
+there are two condyles, one on each side of the great opening (<i>of</i>).
+Another point in which birds do not resemble mammals is in the mode
+by which the lower jaw is hinged on the skull. This is in the case of
+birds effected by a bone, which, being more or less square in shape,
+has gained the name of the <i>quadrate</i> (<i>q</i>). In mammals the skull
+proper and the lower jaw are directly connected. This quadrate bone is
+connected by a long narrow bar (<i>quadrato-jugal</i>) with the bones which
+go to form the “beak,” and also, by a narrow bone directed inwards,
+with the bones which lie in the middle line of the base of the skull,
+and form the hard palate. The connections between these bones are often
+of such a kind as to allow of the upper jaw, or upper half of the beak,
+being movable on the rest of the skull, the upper bones of which are so
+completely united together as to form a very firm point of support. In
+the Parrots this arrangement is carried to an extreme, for the slender
+bones (nasals and processes of the pre-maxillaries) which connect the
+upper jaw with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span> bones of the brain-case form with them a distinct
+joint, and so allow of that large amount of vertical movement which
+will have been observed in these birds. The pre-maxillary bones (<i>pm</i>),
+which are so small in mammals, are very largely developed in birds,
+giving off, as they do, three processes: one to the <i>frontal bone</i> (or
+fore-bone of the brain-case), one along the hard palate, and another
+externally to form the margin of the beak. The parts that vary most in
+this bone-group are the bones which make up the hard palate. Of these,
+the chief are the so-called <i>palatines</i> (<i>p</i>) and the <i>maxillaries</i>;
+the former are united by an articular surface with the bone which forms
+the anterior part of the base of the brain-case, while there is in the
+middle a narrow bone, which, from its shape in man, has received the
+name of the <i>vomer</i> (ploughshare, <i>v</i>). The maxillary bones develop
+horizontal plates, which have the palate below and the nasal chamber
+above them.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<p>The lower jaw (<i>ma</i>) is composed of six pieces of bone on each
+side&mdash;the dentary, angular, surangular, coronoid, splenial, and
+articular. The upper part of the joint is concave.</p>
+
+<p>The tongue is in relation, as regards its support and movements, to
+the <i>hyoid</i> bones, which will be especially noticed in describing the
+Woodpecker.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_242">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_242.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF YOUNG OSTRICH FROM ABOVE (A) AND FROM BELOW (B).<br />
+  (<i>After Owen.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>of</i>) Occipital foramen; (<i>so</i>)
+  Supraoccipital; (<i>eo</i>) Exoccipital; (<i>q</i>) Quadrate; (<i>pa</i>)
+  Parietal; (<i>pp</i>) Pterygoid process; (<i>f</i>) Frontal; (<i>e</i>)
+  Ethmoid; (<i>n</i>) Nasal; (<i>pm</i>) Premaxillary; (<i>m</i>) Malar;
+  (<i>p</i>) Palatine; (<i>v</i>) Vomer; (<i>im</i>) Intermaxillary;
+  (<i>l</i>) Lachrymal bones.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Turning to the vertebral column, we find a number of small bones,
+complicated in form, and more or less movable on one another. For
+convenience of description they may be divided into those which belong
+to the neck (<i>cervical vertebræ</i>), to the trunk (<i>dorsal vertebræ</i>), to
+the <i>sacrum</i> (so-called because it was offered in sacrifices!), or to
+the tail (<i>caudal vertebræ</i>). As has been observed already, the first
+of these, or the region of the neck, is very long, and is always long
+enough for the beak to be able to reach to the base of the tail. In
+birds, unlike mammals, the number of these cervical vertebræ may be
+as low as nine, or as high as twenty-four. The first of them, which
+is known as the <i>atlas</i>, has on its front face a rounded cavity into
+which fits the single projecting condyle, which was spoken of as being
+found at the back of the skull; and this condyle, being well rounded,
+is easily able to turn in the cavity which it fits, and the head is
+thereby capable of a large amount of movement. In the succeeding
+vertebræ it is possible to make out a body, an upper arch, through
+which passes the spinal cord, which meets above in the middle line, and
+is produced into a more or less long spinous process set horizontally
+to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[Pg 243]</span> “body,” and others directed forwards and backwards, so as to
+connect each vertebra with its neighbours; and lastly, a lower arch,
+the two halves of which are not connected below, but are converted
+into the more or less long ribs. As these vertebræ are so small it is
+clear that if their spines were long the free movement of the neck
+would be greatly impeded, and they are therefore in many cases little
+more than projecting processes. This free movement is further greatly
+aided by the characters of the two faces of the body (or <i>centrum</i>)
+of each vertebra; the face of each is saddle-shaped, that is to say,
+the anterior face is concave from side to side, and convex from above
+downwards, while the reverse of this is seen on the posterior face; in
+addition to this the vertebræ are separated by a disc of cartilage from
+one another. The region of the neck is, broadly speaking, distinguished
+from that which succeeds it by the fact that the ribs connected with
+its vertebræ do not reach to the sternum, or breast-bone. In all birds
+which are capable of flight this dorsal region has its parts firmly
+united together, and the same holds for the parts which follow, till
+we reach the region of the tail, where the more anterior vertebræ are
+movable on one another, so as, perhaps, to serve in aid of the steering
+organ formed by the rectrices, or feathers (<i>co</i>). In all living birds
+the caudal vertebræ are a good deal shorter than the body, but in the
+fossil <i>Archæopteryx</i> they are longer.</p>
+
+<p>The only important point to note with regard to the ribs, is the
+presence on some of them of backwardly directed hooked processes (<i>up</i>,
+fig. on p. 241), which aid in giving firmness to the thoracic region.
+The number of ribs is variable, but there is never a large number
+connected with the dorsal vertebræ, as there are in some Carnivora, in
+Hyrax, and in the Horse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12_5" id="i_243a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_243a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">STERNUM OF FREGILUPUS VARIUS. (<i>After Murie.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>cl</i>) Clavicle; (<i>sc</i>)
+  Scapula; (<i>co</i>) Coracoid; (<i>cs</i>) Keel of Sternum.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The fore and hind limbs are connected to the body by a series of
+bones, which form the breast and hip girdles respectively; with
+the former series is also connected that large, long bone with its
+sharply-projecting ridge (<i>is</i>), which is known as the breast-bone, or
+sternum, and in the depressions on which so much muscle is collected.
+This sharply-projecting ridge to the sternum, which is known as the
+carina, or “keel” (<i>cs</i>), is found only in the flying birds, though
+here and there, as in the Parrot of New Zealand (<i>Strigops</i>), it is
+very rudimentary. The lower edge of the bone is often imperfect, so
+that, as in the fowl, there are two deep clefts on each side, or
+there may be but a single cleft, and this again may be converted into
+a rounded space; in all cases these clefts or holes are covered, or
+filled by membrane, during the life of the animal. Projecting in front
+of the sternum, and often intimately connected with it, are the two
+clavicles (<i>cl</i>), which unite in the middle line to form the bone of
+childhood’s delight&mdash;the furcula, or “merrythought.” Above, this bone
+is connected with two bones, one of which, called the coracoid (<i>c</i>),
+descends on each side to fit into a depression on the upper edge of
+the sternum, while the other, known as the scapula, or shoulder-blade
+(<i>sc</i>), is set at an angle to the coracoid. The scapula has a backward
+and downward direction; while it may be noted that among mammals the
+coracoid is well developed only in <i>Echidna</i> and <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>.
+These two last bones form, at their point of junction, a cavity into
+which is fitted the head of the long bone of the arm (wing). In the
+Ratitæ, it must be observed, these two bones are not set at an angle to
+one another, and they become more firmly united together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_243b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_243b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PELVIS OF AN ADULT FOWL, SIDE VIEW. (<i>Reduced.</i>)<br />
+  (<i>After W. K. Parker.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>il</i>) Ilium; (<i>is</i>) Ischium; (<i>pb</i>) Pubes; (<i>dl</i>) Dorso-lumbar
+vertebræ; (<i>cd</i>) Caudal vertebræ; (<i>am</i>) Acetabulum.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As in all the vertebrate animals except fishes, the fore-limb may be
+divided into three parts (fig. on p. 237)&mdash;upper arm, in which there
+is one bone, the humerus (<i>a</i>); fore arm, in which there are two,
+radius (<i>d</i>) and ulna (<i>c</i>); and hand (<span class="smaller">E</span>), which can again be
+divided into three parts, which in man would be called wrist, palm,
+and fingers. Now, in some animals the wrist-bones may be ten in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[Pg 244]</span>
+number, and the palm-bones five, while the number of small bones in
+the fingers varies a good deal, but the number of fingers is <i>five</i>.
+In most birds all these numbers are reduced. Just beyond the fore
+arm, the larger bone of which has often small projections indicating
+the points at which the secondary feathers have been attached, there
+are two small bones (<i>f</i>), then comes a longer bone (<i>g h i</i>), as it
+seems, in which there is an elongated space. Now, this bone consists
+of three metacarpals and one wrist-bone; the two outer metacarpals are
+absent, the two innermost ones have completely united with one another,
+and with the (true) middle metacarpal bone at their upper end; while
+the second and third metacarpals are also united at the other&mdash;or
+finger&mdash;end. The inner digit (<i>k</i>), or that which corresponds to man’s
+thumb, has two joints (<i>phalanges</i>), and may be clawed; the next has
+three joints, and may also be clawed; while the third finger, which
+has never more than two joints, is never known to carry a claw. In
+the <i>Archæopteryx</i> the metacarpal bones are well developed, and are
+not, as in recent birds, united together. No idea of a bird’s flying
+powers can be fairly gathered from the length of the hand, for it is
+long in Swifts and short in Albatrosses, for example; although it is to
+be noted that in the former the single bone (<i>humerus</i>) of the arm is
+short, and in the latter long.</p>
+
+<p>As in the breast-girdle, the bones of the hinder or hip-girdle, by
+which the hind-limbs are connected with the body, are three in number;
+of these the upper one is greatly flattened out and projects very far
+forwards, thus aiding in the formation of the firm back of flying
+birds; the other two bones are much more slender, and are directed
+backwards and downwards. It is a curious circumstance that it is in
+one bird only, in either case, that these bones are directly connected
+at their lower ends with their fellow on the opposite side; those
+which are known as the <i>pubes</i> (<i>pb</i>) are so in the African Ostrich,
+and those which are known as the <i>ischia</i> (<i>is</i>) in the Rhea of South
+America. These two bones, with the large, flat <i>ilia</i> (<i>il</i>), take
+part in forming the cavity in which the head of the thigh-bone plays;
+the outer of the two bones (<i>fi</i>) which are found in the leg is rarely
+as long as, and is always much more slender than the other (<i>ti</i>),
+which has a strong ridge on its front face. There is yet another very
+remarkable point of resemblance between birds and reptiles, in that
+the “ankle-joint” is in both cases situated between the two rows of
+bones which make up the “ankle” (<i>tarsus</i>). In birds this arrangement
+is carried to a still further extent, for the single bone of the upper
+row is early united with the shin-bone, as may be seen under those
+unfortunate circumstances in which the poulterer has provided an aged
+fowl (aged, that is, for eating); in more fortunate cases it will be
+found possible to separate a small bone from the lower end of the
+shin-bone of the leg.</p>
+
+<p>In no case does any bird, even <i>Archæopteryx</i>, possess a fifth toe.
+Unlike mammals, the number of joints in the toes varies greatly in
+birds. In those which possess four toes we find the following number of
+joints: in the first, two; in the second, three; in the third, four;
+and in the fourth, five. This rule holds for nearly all birds, but the
+Swifts have never more than three joints, and in the Goat-sucker and
+the Sand Grouse there are two less than ordinary on the fourth toe. In
+a number of birds the inner toe (big toe of man) disappears, and in the
+Ostrich proper the next division of the “typically” five-toed foot, or
+second toe, has no toe-joints.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the muscular system of birds, we need here concern
+ourselves with only those special muscles which are modified in
+accordance with the necessities of the bird’s habits, and those other
+muscles which have been brought into special notice by valuable
+investigations.</p>
+
+<p>That great fleshy mass which is found on the breast of a bird, and
+which is not unknown to those who are fond of a good “dish,” consists
+of three separate muscles, two of which depress, while the other
+elevates the wing. The presence of the elevator muscle on the lower
+side of the sternum is a curious arrangement by which the centre of
+gravity of the animal is lowered&mdash;a most necessary condition in flight;
+the tendon from this muscle passes through a pulley-like canal to
+be inserted into the upper side of the head of the bone, which, as
+has already been explained, is known as the humerus, so that when it
+contracts it draws this bone up. The ability of the wings to resist
+the pressure of the air is clearly dependent on the power possessed by
+these muscles. Borelli has calculated that the “pectoral muscles” of
+the bird exceed in weight all the other muscles taken together, whilst
+in man the pectoral muscles are but a seventieth part of the mass of
+the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>The large and important muscles, which in the Mammalia, constitute the
+<i>diaphragm</i>, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[Pg 245]</span> midriff, are ordinarily said to be absent in birds,
+and, indeed, in most cases are but feebly represented. In the Ratitæ,
+and especially in the New Zealand form (<i>Apteryx</i>) of this group, the
+diaphragm may attain to a very fair degree of completeness, though
+even here the apex of the heart is allowed to pass into the abdominal
+cavity. The muscles of the back are feebly developed, as might be
+imagined from the firm character of the spinal column; and as the fore
+limb exhibits but slight power of <i>varying</i> its movements, its muscles
+are not well developed. Those muscles which are found in the skin are,
+on the contrary, expanded into broad pieces; and special bundles are
+sent to the larger feathers of the wings and of the tail, and to those
+folds of skin which connect the upper arm with the trunk, and with
+the fore arm, respectively. Borelli thus explains the arrangement by
+which a perching bird remains fixed when asleep: A muscle which arises
+from the <i>pubes</i> bone of the hip-girdle passes over the knee, and then
+takes a backward direction so as to pass behind the ankle; it thus
+becomes one of the flexor muscles, by the contraction of which the
+toes are flexed, or bent. When the perching bird, which, as we know,
+has one of its toes directed <i>backwards</i>, is seated on a bough, the
+thigh has its upper end directed backwards, while the upper joint of
+the leg is turned forwards, or in other words, the two parts of the
+leg have opposite directions. This arrangement acts as a contracting
+influence on this muscle and its tendons, while the weight of the bird
+is sufficient to preserve this condition and the consequent flexion of
+the toes.</p>
+
+<p>To turn to those muscles the arrangement of which has, been made the
+basis of a suggested classification. In the leg of the bird there are,
+among others, four muscles, the names of which are <i>femoro-caudal</i>,
+<i>accessory femoro-caudal</i>, <i>semi-tendinosus</i>, and <i>accessory
+semi-tendinosus</i>, any of which may be absent, but in those cases where
+a single muscle only is found the first is always present; again, there
+is a muscle which, from its course, is known as the <i>ambiens</i>, and
+this, too, may be present or may be absent. As the presence or absence
+of any of these muscles is a very constant phenomenon in any given
+section of birds, it has been proposed to divide the class into those
+which do, and those which do not, possess the above-named <i>ambiens</i>
+muscle. In the latter group the second of the four above-named
+muscles&mdash;the accessory femoro-caudal&mdash;is never present.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of all the muscles, those which act in aid of the vocal organs are of
+the greatest interest, but they will be considered a little later on.</p>
+
+<p>A valuable suggestion has been made, which, if followed out, may lead
+us to understand how it is that the brain of the bird, which is so
+simple as compared with that of man, is nevertheless capable of so much
+intelligent activity. Bearing in mind the axiom that it is quality not
+quantity that tells, and looking at the fact that the brain of the most
+highly intelligent man is, after death, supposed to be similar to that
+of the foolish and of the unwise of our race, it is obvious that the
+essential difference must lie elsewhere than in the coarser, or more
+evident, characters of that organ which is known as the brain. The
+suggestion, then, that was made, was to the effect, that the possessors
+of aviaries, in which it was possible to study the characters of birds,
+should submit the brains of their deceased favourites to that more
+thorough investigation which the microscope allows of. The brains of
+birds vary but little in their anatomy. The optic lobes are rounded,
+paired, and tubercular in the bird, and are not divided into four, as
+in mammals; they are found at the lower part and sides, and not in the
+upper part of the brain. The <i>cerebellum</i> is not continued at the sides
+into distinct lobes; nor are the two lobes of the brain (or <i>cerebral
+hemispheres</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[Pg 246]</span> provided with those convolutions which, in mammals, seem
+to increase in complexity of character as the animal rises in the scale
+of intelligence. The cerebrum does not cover the cerebellum. Small as
+is the brain of birds, it is found that, in many, its weight is, as
+compared with that of the body, much greater than it is in man.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the spinal cord, or the continuation of the central
+part of the nervous system through the vertebral column, it is
+only necessary to remark that it is much increased in width at the
+two regions, in which the nerves for the fore and hind limbs are
+respectively given off; that there is a narrow canal running along its
+centre, and that at the lower end there is a large space. In regard to
+the cerebral nerves, those for the eyes are of great size.</p>
+
+<p>Coming now to consider the organs of the senses, and beginning with
+the eye, it is interesting to note that there are no blind birds, and,
+indeed, the eyes are of a large size as compared with the brain. They
+are generally placed at the sides, though the nocturnal birds of prey
+(in which they are directed forwards) are an exception to this rule.
+It is in very rare cases that eyelashes are present, and although they
+seem to exist in the group just mentioned, it is probably more correct
+to look upon them as slightly modified feathers.</p>
+
+<p>If the eye be regarded as having on its front face, a part which would,
+if completed, form part of a smaller circle than the rest of the eye,
+it is clear that this <i>cornea</i>, or front part, would be more convex
+than the rest, and that it would consequently be a “more powerful
+glass,” inasmuch as it would exert a greater bending (refracting)
+influence on the rays of light which pass through it, while, further,
+it is clear that the more convex it is the better “glass” would it be.
+Now this is just what happens in birds: the <i>cornea</i> is very convex;
+in addition to this, the long axis of the eye, on the length of which
+it seems that, in many cases, the condition known as that of being
+“short-sighted” depends, is very long in some birds, and notably in the
+Owls.</p>
+
+<p>The eye is covered in by a firm and strong membrane, which is known
+as the “sclerotic;” this, in its front part, develops a number of
+bony plates; of these there may be as many as twenty, and they are
+capable of a certain amount of free movement on one another. What
+is known as the power of accommodation depends upon the extent to
+which the front face of the somewhat lens-shaped body which helps to
+separate the eye into two chambers is capable of being rendered more
+or less flat; this front face is covered by a membrane which is found
+to be more or less taut, according to the state of contraction of the
+muscles (ciliary muscles) connected with it. A very little reflection
+is sufficient to show that a swiftly moving animal has the focus of
+its eye, or the point at which clear vision is alone possible, changed
+much more rapidly than an animal which moves more slowly. So much on
+the one side. On the other, it is to be observed that muscles vary
+in structure; they are either “smooth” or “striated,” and it is the
+latter that contract the more rapidly. Putting these two series of
+observations together, it is easy to arrive at the result that a bird
+should have striated muscular fibre in its ciliary muscles, and a more
+slowly moving animal like man, smooth muscular fibres; and this we find
+to be the case! The <i>iris</i> is an arrangement by which the quantity of
+light admitted into the eye is enabled to be varied, and the small hole
+in the centre, through which the rays of light pass, is known as the
+<i>pupil</i>; this is always rounded in birds, and is never elongated as it
+is in some mammals&mdash;the Cats, for example.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the most peculiar arrangement in the bird’s eye is the presence,
+projecting into the hinder chamber, of a membrane in which run
+blood-vessels; this, which is known as the <i>pecten</i> (comb), or
+<i>marsupium</i> (pouch), enters the vitreous humour, which fills up this
+hinder chamber by the same cleft as the optic nerve. It is folded, and
+is generally of a quadrangular shape; it is not found in the eye of the
+Wingless Bird of New Zealand (<i>Apteryx</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_246">
+  <img class="illowe14" src="images/i_246.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe14">SECTION OF THE EYE OF THE COMMON BUZZARD.<br />
+  (<i>After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe23"><span class="s5">(<i>aa</i>) Sclerotic; (<i>bb</i>)
+  Choroid Coat and Pigment; (<i>c</i>) Ciliary Circle; (<i>d</i>) Lens;
+  (<i>ee</i>) Iris; (<i>f</i>) Cornea; (<i>g</i>) Optic Nerve; (<i>i</i>)
+  Pecten.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A third eyelid is well developed in this class; it is an elastic
+membrane (<i>membrana nictitans</i>, or winking membrane), which has not,
+like the other two, a vertical movement, but is drawn obliquely over
+the eye from the inner to the outer side. This movement is effected
+by two special muscles, one of which arises on the inside, and below
+the eyeball, and has therefore to pass over to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[Pg 247]</span> outer side. In
+contracting, it would press on the optic nerve, were it not for the
+other one, which, however, is so disposed that by its contraction it
+draws away the tendon of the <i>pyramidalis</i> muscle from pressing on the
+nerve. As in ourselves, there are six special muscles for moving the
+orbit or ball of the eye, but the one which in man is well enough known
+as the <i>trochlear</i>, has no pulley-arrangements in birds. Lachrymal
+glands are present.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the organ of hearing, one particular part, which in man
+is in the form of a snail’s shell, and is known as the <i>cochlea</i>, is
+not coiled into this shape in birds, being very slightly bent, though
+holding in other respects the same general relations. Nor is there any
+external ear, as in mammals, for collecting the waves of sound; there
+is, however, in the nocturnal birds of prey a crescent-shaped valve on
+which are set tufts of short feathers, and it is possible that this
+may aid in hearing. Nor, again, are there in the interior of the ear
+those three small bones, which are known generally as the auditory
+ossicles; of the two that are absent, one is thought by many anatomists
+to be represented by the quadrate bone, which, as has already been
+mentioned, connects the lower jaw of the bird with the skull. The
+single bone which is present, and which is, perhaps, most generally
+known as the “columella,” is connected by two or three cartilaginous
+processes with the drum of the ear, and by the other end&mdash;at which it
+has a small oval plate&mdash;with the more internal parts of the organ of
+hearing. In man there is a curious arrangement of rods, which vary in
+so remarkable a way as to have led to the supposition that each was
+adapted to a distinct note; these rods, which constitute the organ of
+Corti, are not present in birds, affording thereby a striking example
+of the law that physiological inferences are often well examined by the
+aid of comparative anatomy, no physiologist being hardy enough to deny
+to birds the power of appreciating those delicate modulations of sound
+which go to make up the chief charm of music. With regard to the organ
+of smell, it is only necessary to note the absence of those muscles by
+which, in man and other mammals, the nostrils are contracted or dilated.</p>
+
+<p>The first point which attracts us on examining the digestive tract
+of birds is the absence of lips and of teeth; but with regard to
+these latter we must note that it is a character which has only
+become distinct since the time when birds were first developed. This
+statement is borne out by two series of facts, each taken from one of
+the two great aids to a correct apprehension of the real importance of
+structural characters&mdash;that is, from embryology, or the study of the
+developing individual; and from palæontology, or the natural history of
+the past. The young of certain Parrots have been observed to possess,
+at an early stage of their development, those uprisings on the mucous
+membrane of the jaw which go by the name of “dental papillæ,” and these
+papillæ have been seen to be covered with a cap of dentine. On the
+other hand, the researches of Owen and of some American palæontologists
+have brought to light bird-like forms which were provided with teeth
+(Odontornithes: <i>Ichthyornis</i>, <i>Hesperornis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>beak</i>, or horny covering of the jaws, varies very greatly in
+form, and in the degree of its sensibility. This tactile sense is
+dependent on the extent to which the beak is supplied by nerves (from
+the fifth cerebral nerve). In the Woodpecker, for example, there is a
+large branch extending along the inside of the lower jaw, which, as it
+approaches the extremity, breaks up into finer nerves that perforate
+the bone by a number of small canals and so give to the beak a power
+of discovering what lies hid in the crevices of the wood and under
+the bark. Being an external structure, the beak is naturally adapted
+to the habits of its possessors, so that it may be hooked, as in many
+flesh-eating forms, or trenchant, and fit to cut and break, or provided
+with transversely-set fine plates by which the water taken in with the
+food can be filtered off, or provided with bristles, the better to hold
+a living prey. Finally, in many cases the hardness of the bill is made
+up for by a patch of naked skin at the base of the upper mandibles,
+which is known by the name of the “cere” and seems to have a tactile
+function.</p>
+
+<p>In many birds, the tongue is either feebly developed, or is encased
+in horn, so that it can hardly be as useful an organ of taste as is
+our tongue: in the Pelicans it is obsolete. In some, however, as in
+the Woodpecker, the tongue is a very powerful seizing organ, as it is
+protruded with great rapidity by means of a special muscle, and is well
+provided with a sticky secretion, which is given off from a large gland
+(the sub-lingual), which, lying below the muscle above referred to,
+is compressed when this muscle contracts; so that in the Woodpecker,
+just as in the mammal called the Great Ant-eater (<i>Myrmecophaga</i>), the
+insect prey is easily captured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[Pg 248]</span></p>
+
+<p>The region of the mouth is not separated from that which follows
+it (the pharynx) by an epiglottis, which in ourselves protects the
+entrance into the air-passages, nor is there any uvula to guard the
+posterior orifice of the nose by which the air reaches the throat. The
+succeeding portion of the gullet (the œsophagus) is very long, as might
+be supposed from the length of the neck in most birds, and it is very
+frequently either dilated at one side, or produced into a cæcal pouch
+(crop, <i>ingluvies</i>), which may, or may not, be separated by a narrow
+connection, from the rest of the gullet, and which may be divided into
+two compartments. This crop serves for the detention of the food, which
+cannot have undergone any complete process of mastication, and it is
+here treated to a process of maceration by the fluid secreted from the
+walls of this organ. Passing from this receptacle, the food becomes
+subject to the action of the stomach proper, which differs, however,
+from our ordinary conception of a stomach, as seen in man, by being
+divided into two distinct portions. The anterior one is known as the
+<i>proventriculus</i>, and it is in this that the gastric juice is brought
+to bear upon the food, and its walls are consequently thickened by a
+glandular layer; the hinder division, which is known as the <i>gizzard</i>,
+forms an elongated sac, with two orifices&mdash;one from the proventriculus,
+the other leading to the small intestine&mdash;in its upper portion. The
+characters of its walls are very different in those birds which live on
+animal, as compared with those that live on vegetable (grains) food;
+in the former they are membranous and thin, but in the latter they are
+enormously thick and very muscular. On examination, it is seen that the
+dark colour of the muscles is on each side of the gizzard relieved by a
+shining spot of tendinous material, and the walls of the gizzard have
+consequently been compared to a double-bellied (digastric) muscle. The
+internal cavity of the gizzard is lined with a dense and rough coat,
+and is ordinarily found to contain small stones, and occasionally other
+hard materials. These obviously take the place of the absent teeth,
+when the muscles of the gizzard set up that (grinding or compressing)
+action by which the ingested seeds are broken down. The wall of the
+gizzard may itself also act as a rasping organ, being, as it often
+is, provided with a firm glandular layer, the secretion of which is
+converted into a hard lining, the structure of which has been observed
+in some cases to be due to interlaced filaments secreted from and
+continuous with the glands in the wall of the gizzard.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the differences in the character of the gizzard
+in carnivorous and graminivorous birds, it has been shown by the
+ever-famous John Hunter that carnivorous birds can be brought to live
+on grains, and grain-eating birds on meat.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting, further, to note, with regard to the opening into
+the small intestine, that in a number of grain- or fruit-eating birds
+there is no valvular arrangement to detain the food in the gizzard till
+it is completely triturated, for it is thus that many plants have their
+area of distribution increased, the escaped seeds passing uninjured
+from the intestine to find, perhaps, a suitable soil in a new district.
+In those that swallow large stones a valve is often to be observed.
+The difference which we have already had so frequently to notice, as
+obtaining between the carnivorous and “vegetarian” birds, is seen to be
+continued into their small intestine; just as in mammals, this portion
+of the tract is longer in the latter than in the former birds. The
+anterior, or <i>duodenal</i> portion, is always characterised by forming
+a loop, within which lies the gland known as the <i>pancreas</i>, and the
+succeeding portion is, as compared with most mammals, short. A slight
+elevation, hardly ever of any great size, may at times be observed on
+the course of the short intestine. This represents all that remains of
+the duct by which the hatching bird was connected with the yolk. The
+short and straight large intestine is ordinarily separated from the
+preceding by a cæcum; this is generally paired (in the Herons and some
+others it is single), and varies in length; in many cases these cæcal
+tubes are hardly more than papillæ. In the Parrot, as in the Woodpecker
+and some others, these cæca are absent. In the desert-dwelling Ostrich
+(<i>Struthio</i>) they are said to be as much as two feet long; but in the
+Emu they do not exceed six inches in length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_248">
+  <img class="illowe11" src="images/i_248.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe18">DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF THE KINGFISHER.<br />
+  (<i>After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe18"><span class="s5">(<i>a</i>) Tongue; (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>,
+  <i>d</i>) Œsophogus; (<i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>) Stomach; (<i>f</i>,
+  <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>) Intestine; (<i>j</i>,
+  <i>k</i>) Cloaca.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The intestine ends in a cavity, which is common to it, and to the other
+organs that open to the exterior in this region. This <i>cloaca</i> (sewer)
+is found in reptiles also, and in one division of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span> Mammalia, the
+Monotremata. In birds it is provided with a special glandular appendage
+on its upper (or <i>dorsal</i>) aspect, which goes by the name of the <i>Bursa
+Fabricii</i>. Neither the history nor the functions of this peculiar organ
+can be said to be thoroughly understood.</p>
+
+<p>Of the organs which are appended to the intestine, the lungs will be
+described elsewhere; of the rest we have to consider the liver, the
+pancreas, and the spleen. The first-named organ is large, and covers
+over the pancreas, the proventriculus, the spleen, part of the gizzard,
+and part of the small intestine. It is ordinarily divided into two
+“lobes,” between which, on the upper edge, is placed the tip of the
+heart. In the common fowl the left lobe is often divided into two; but
+this organ is never broken up into so large a number of parts as it is
+in many mammals, from which animals birds also differ in always having
+more than one duct to carry off the secretion of the liver (bile) to
+the small intestine, except in the Ostrich; in this, as in some other
+birds, there is no gall-bladder in which the bile may be collected, so
+that in such this secretion passes directly into the intestine.</p>
+
+<p>As has been already pointed out, the commencement of the small
+intestine forms a loop, in which is set the organ known as <i>pancreas</i>,
+which may for simplicity be described as the salivary gland of this
+region, although in truth the fluid secreted from it is a much more
+powerful aid to the digestion of food than that of any known salivary
+gland. It has always two, and in a number of cases three ducts, which
+do not unite with the bile ducts, but open separately from, though near
+them, into the end of the “duodenal loop.” The <i>spleen</i>, which is a
+small oval body, and is placed to the right of the proventriculus, has
+no ducts; in birds of prey it is more cylindrical in shape.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature of the blood of the bird is, in requirement with the
+conditions of its existence, hot&mdash;that is to say, it is ordinarily
+hotter than the temperature of the surrounding air, and is found to
+register between 100° (Gull) and 112° (Swallow) on Fahrenheit’s scale,
+or from two to fourteen degrees more than does that of man. Birds
+and mammals, are, speaking broadly, the only hot-blooded animals now
+existing, and it has consequently been suggested that they should be
+grouped together as such, in opposition to the rest of the Vertebrata.
+But it is obvious that this character of the temperature is merely
+dependent on physiological conditions; and were this a treatise on
+the anatomy of birds rather than one on their natural history, the
+statement of this fact would not receive the prominence here given to
+it. The high temperature of any body may be preserved from cooling
+influences by two methods: thus, tea in a well-polished silver teapot
+keeps hot because the rays of heat are but slightly radiated from
+its surface; or a less costly teapot may be kept hot by covering it
+with a loosely-fitting “cosy,” which, being made of badly-conducting
+materials, “keeps the heat in.” It is, then, clear that the heat of a
+body is best preserved when it is covered by a bad radiator and a bad
+conductor of heat; and this is just the case with birds: the polished
+feathers are bad radiators, and the air entangled among them forms a
+bad conductor.</p>
+
+<p>The blood corpuscles are, broadly speaking, about twice as large as in
+man; those which are coloured red are oval in shape, as they are in
+nearly all of the lower Vertebrates and in the Camels among mammals.
+Like the white ones, they are “nucleated.” The heart is, as in mammals,
+divided into four chambers. It is a condition of the circulation
+in hot-blooded and rapidly-breathing animals that the current of
+<i>arterial</i> blood <i>from</i> the heart, and the current of <i>venous</i> blood
+<i>to</i> it, should be kept as much as possible separate; no reflection is
+needed to show that the blood freshly purified by contact with the air
+in the lungs must be kept as distinct as can be from the blood which
+has lost its purity in passing through the body; in other words, it is
+required that there should be a similar result in birds and in mammals.</p>
+
+<p>Birds, like all warm-blooded creatures, have the heart divided into
+four cavities&mdash;two ventricles and two auricles&mdash;those of the right
+side being completely separated from those of the left. The whole is
+enclosed in a pericardium, a thin, but strong, membrane. The right
+ventricle has thin muscular walls, and almost completely envelopes
+the left. The right auricle has a remarkable valve in the shape of a
+fleshy leaflet, which appears almost to be a portion of the inside
+of the ventricle that has become detached from the partition between
+the two ventricles. The blood, under certain circumstances, passes
+between this septum, or partition, and the leaflet, into the auricle;
+but when the beat of the heart takes place (the systole), the septum,
+being convex, is forced against the leaflet on the other side of the
+auricolo-ventricular opening, and the passage of the blood, through
+this, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[Pg 250]</span> prevented. The valve between the stout-chambered left
+ventricle and auricle does not present this structure, but is divided
+into two or three lobes attached to tendinous processes. At the origin
+of the great vessels&mdash;the pulmonary artery and the aorta&mdash;there are
+three valves, semi-lunar in shape and by name. And this last vessel,
+often having given off the coronary artery to the heart itself, is
+curved to the right, and then passes backwards to go down the body. The
+blood from the body is collected into three large veins&mdash;two anterior
+<i>venæ cavæ</i> and one posterior.</p>
+
+<p>The lymphatic system is well developed, and of the so-called “lymphatic
+hearts,” which are well known in the Frog, the posterior ones have been
+observed in some, and especially in the Ratite birds.</p>
+
+<p>The lungs, or organs in which the blood effects an exchange of its
+gases with the outer air, are paired, and set on either side of the
+heart. As is elsewhere mentioned, the nostrils are not provided with
+muscles, and there is no <i>epiglottis</i> sufficiently well developed to
+cover the entrance into the long tube, or <i>trachea</i>, which runs down
+the neck. This tube, which does not always take a straight course,
+is essentially made up of a number of rings of cartilage, which are
+for the greater part perfect, and not, as in man, imperfect rings.
+The <i>bronchi</i> which are given off from this tube, to the right and
+left, have their rings imperfect, and they do not show that two-forked
+mode of division which is so characteristic of mammals. The lungs
+are of a rosy colour, and of a comparatively small volume; they are
+marked externally by depressions corresponding to the characters of
+the vertebræ and ribs, to which latter they are firmly attached, and
+they are not divided into <i>lobes</i>; in their texture they are spongy;
+the air-tubes are given off from them at right angles to the main
+air-passage; these run nearly parallel to one another, and contain in
+their walls the true tissue of the respiratory organ. The air-tubes are
+also connected with the air-cells, which are arranged in so remarkable
+a manner as to deserve a full account.</p>
+
+<p>They are found in all birds with the exception of the <i>Apteryx</i>,
+according to Professor Owen. Our knowledge of their existence is
+primarily due to the illustrious William Harvey, while it is to the
+distinguished anatomist, John Hunter, that we owe our knowledge of the
+very curious fact that these air-passages and sacs communicate also
+with the cavities of some of the bones of the skeleton. Though these
+sacs are not by any means highly vascular, or supplied with vessels
+to the same rich extent as are the lungs, they are nevertheless of
+enormous importance to the bird; thus, they diminish the specific
+gravity of the animal. For example, taking a bird which weighs 1,600
+grammes, and has a volume of 1,230 cubic centimetres&mdash;or a specific
+gravity of 1·30 <span class="s3">(</span><span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1600</span><span
+class="denominator">1230</span></span><span class="s3">)</span> it has been calculated (Bert) that 200
+cubic centimetres of air can be introduced; now these centimetres would
+weigh ·22 of a gramme, so that the specific gravity of the animal
+would be reduced to 1·05 <span class="s3">(</span><span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1600+0·22</span><span
+class="denominator">1230+200</span></span><span class="s3">)</span> or <span class="s3">(</span><span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">1600·22</span><span
+class="denominator">1520</span></span><span class="s3">)</span>.
+Again, the air which is taken into the lungs is, in high-flying
+birds, often of an extremely low temperature; but this air is not
+only brought into contact with that of the lungs, but also with that
+which has been warmed in the abdominal cavity. And again, the air
+is often very dry&mdash;as it is for the Ostrich on the desert plains of
+Africa&mdash;but the air from the air-sacs contains a large amount of
+moisture. Of the proper air-sacs there are nine; of these, four&mdash;the
+two anterior and the two posterior <i>thoracic</i>&mdash;lie in the thorax
+(breast) proper; three&mdash;the right and left cervical, and the sac
+between the <i>clavicles</i>&mdash;lie in front of the thorax; while the last
+two are found behind it and in the abdomen. From all of these, with
+the exception of those within the thorax, communications are, or may
+be, given off to the bones of the vertebral column, to the humerus, to
+the bones of the thigh, and to the sternum and the ribs; but there is
+no communication between these sacs and the air-spaces which are so
+constantly found in the bones of the skull, and which are in connection
+with the air-cavities of the ear and of the nose. The inter-clavicular
+sac has been observed to be covered with a thick layer of muscle in
+those birds, at any rate, which perform somersaults, and it has been
+suggested that this layer of muscle is capable of driving the air in
+the sac backwards. It is obvious that such an operation would send the
+centre of gravity of the animal nearer the head, and would, so far, be
+of assistance in the execution of the curious movement alluded to.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested that the air-sacs are of assistance in increasing
+the resonance of the bird’s voice. Be this as it may, attention must
+now be turned to the organ of voice. This organ may take one of three
+forms, or, if absence is to be counted, four. There is no organ of
+voice in the Ratitæ, or in the American Vultures (<i>Cathartidæ</i>). It is,
+when present, remarkable for being developed at the lower, and not at
+the upper, end of the <i>trachea</i>; while the true <i>vocal cords</i>, which,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[Pg 251]</span>
+by their vibration produce the notes of the human voice, are altogether
+and always absent from the larynx; in other words, the vocal organ is
+not the <i>larynx</i>, but an organ seated at a lower level, and known as
+the <i>syrinx</i>. This instrument may, further, be formed in the trachea
+alone (as in some American Passerines), or in the bronchi alone (as in
+Steatornis), or at the point at which the tracheal and bronchial tubes
+pass into one another (as in the majority of singing birds).</p>
+
+<p>The last-mentioned, or <i>bronchio-tracheal syrinx</i>, consists of the
+following parts; (i.) a <i>tympanic</i> chamber formed by the union of
+some of the lower rings of the trachea; (ii.) a membranous <i>septum</i>
+separating from one another the tracheal orifices of the two bronchi;
+(iii.) on either side a <i>tympaniform membrane</i>, formed on the inner
+side of the uppermost bronchial rings; in consequence of this these
+bronchial rings are not complete circles; their mucous membrane is
+developed into a fold which bounds one side of a cleft which is formed
+by the presence on the other side of the above-mentioned tympaniform
+membrane. The air which passes through these bronchial clefts sets in
+vibration the membranes which bound them, while the character of the
+note is affected by the position of the bronchial half-rings, and the
+length of the column of air in the trachea. These rings have their
+positions changed by five lateral muscles, which act on their ends,
+and so rotate them. The principle variations in the characters of the
+muscular supply of the organ of the voice were long ago worked out by
+Johannes Müller, the famous German anatomist and physiologist.</p>
+
+<p>It is also to this observer that we owe our first information with
+regard to the bronchial syrinx of Steatornis; the anatomy of this
+animal was also investigated by the late Prof. Garrod, who gave the
+following account of its vocal apparatus:&mdash;“Each semi-syrinx, as it
+may be termed, is formed on the same principle as that of the combined
+organ in most of the non-singing birds. Taking for description that
+of the left side, it is found that the thirteenth bronchial ring
+is complete, though considerably flattened from side to side; the
+fourteenth is not complete in the middle of its upper surface; it
+is a little longer from before backwards than the one above, and
+not so long as the one following it. The fifteenth is only a half
+ring, its inner portion being deficient; it is slightly convex
+upwards, and articulates, both at its anterior and posterior ends,
+with the fourteenth incomplete ring and the sixteenth half-ring. The
+sixteenth half-ring is concave upwards, and so forms an oval figure in
+combination with the one above, which is filled with a thin membrane
+to form part of the outer wall of the bronchus. There is a membrane
+also between the ends of these and the succeeding half-rings, which
+completes the tube of the bronchus internally.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe16" id="i_251">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_251.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FRONT VIEW (A) AND SECTION (B) OF INFERIOR LARYNX OF
+  PEREGRINE FALCON.<br />
+  (<i>After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ducts from the urinary organs open to the exterior through the
+cloaca, into which, as already mentioned, the digestive tube also
+opens. The chief point with regard to the urinary secretion of birds
+is the fact that it is <i>semi-solid</i>, and that it contains a quantity
+of the substance known as <i>uric acid</i>. The kidneys are placed some way
+back and near the cloaca; they are set on either side of the spinal
+column, between the transverse processes of the sacral vertebræ, and
+are generally divided into three portions of greatly varying size. On
+their inner edge are given off the <i>ureters</i>, which pass on each side
+to enter separately into the before-mentioned cloaca.</p>
+
+<p>The right ovary of birds is always atrophied, and it is in rare cases
+only that rudiments of it are found (namely, in the diurnal Raptores).
+The <i>oviduct</i> is a coiled canal, the lower portion of which has strong,
+muscular walls, while internally the characters of its surface vary
+according to the substance which the glands of different regions add to
+the descending egg. The right oviduct is not so completely atrophied as
+is the ovary of the same side. This duct opens into the cloaca through
+which the egg passes to reach the outer world; as further development
+is so largely independent of the mother, the female organs offer no
+peculiarities of arrangement, or complexities of structure.</p>
+
+<p>All birds lay eggs, or, in other words, the born young are not carried
+about by the mother till the time of birth. The advantage of this to a
+flying animal is so obvious that we may pass at once to describe the
+egg of a common fowl. The shell, which consists of organic matter and
+lime-salts, is found to be formed of two layers; it is in the outer
+one only that pigment is found. Both layers are traversed by canals,
+through which air can pass only when the shell is dry;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[Pg 252]</span> that is to
+say, the outer pores of the shell are closed under the influence of
+moisture. This may be seen by removing the outer layers, when air or
+water will pass in quite easily. These canals are said to be branched
+in the Ratite birds, and to be simple in the Carinatæ. The shell is
+lined by the shell-membrane, which, again, is made up of two layers.
+At the broad end of the egg these two layers are separated from one
+another, and so give rise to that air-chamber which is found in stale
+eggs, and increases in size as the egg grows older and the yolk
+evaporates.</p>
+
+<p>The shell-membrane is in direct contact with the <i>white</i> of the egg
+(<i>albumen</i>). This, in its fresh state, consists of fluid albumen,
+arranged in layers, which are separated from one another by networks
+of fibres, in the meshes of which, however, fluid albumen is also to
+be found. There are, further, two special sets of fibrous cords in the
+white of the egg; these extend somewhat along the long axis of the egg,
+though they do not reach to the shell-membrane. From their bead-like
+character they are known as <i>chalazæ</i> (hailstones), but their more
+common English name is that of the “tread.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe26" id="i_252">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_252.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A FOWL’S EGG.</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>bl</i>) Blastoderm; (<i>wy</i>)
+  White Yolk; (<i>yy</i>) Yellow Yolk; (<i>vt</i>) Vitelline Membrane; (<i>w</i>)
+  Albumen; (<i>ch</i>) Chalazæ; (<i>ach</i>) Air-chamber; (<i>ism</i>) Internal
+  Layer of Shell Membrane; (<i>em</i>) External Layer of ditto; (<i>s</i>) Shell.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The “white” is separated from the <i>yolk</i> by the so-called <i>vitelline</i>
+(or <i>yolk</i>) membrane; the greater part of this yolk is known as the
+<i>yellow yolk</i>, and is made up of minute albuminous granules, but its
+outermost part is formed of a thin layer of a somewhat different
+substance, which goes by the name of the <i>white yolk</i>. The spheres of
+this latter are still smaller than those of the yellow yolk, and they
+are also found to form layers at various levels in it. At one point
+the white yolk becomes a good deal thicker, and forms, as it were,
+a pad for a small white disc, which, in ordinary circumstances, is
+always found uppermost when an egg is opened. This disc is formed of
+an encircling white rim, and within it there is a rounded transparent
+region, the centre of which is more opaque.</p>
+
+<p>This region is known as the <i>blastoderm</i>, and is that part of the egg
+from which the chick, with its organs and complicated vessels, muscles
+and bones is soon to be developed. In the laid egg, this blastoderm
+consists of two layers of cells, as do at a certain stage the eggs of
+all but the very simplest of animals. The dissection of a laying fowl
+will probably reveal the presence of eggs at an earlier stage, and from
+their study the following history has been made out: the ellipse-shaped
+egg, when about to leave the ovary, is a yellow body enclosed in a
+fine membrane, and possessing at one pole a small (<i>germinal</i>) disc;
+this disc contains a smaller <i>germinal vesicle</i>, and a still smaller
+<i>germinal spot</i>; when this body is ripe, it escapes from its enclosing
+capsule, and the germinal vesicle disappears. As the egg passes down
+the <i>oviduct</i> the albumen becomes deposited around it, and part of it
+is converted into the shell-membrane. The egg now becomes subjected to
+a thick, white fluid, which is gradually converted into the shell.</p>
+
+<p>While these additions to the substance of the egg are going on, the
+germinal disc undergoes the remarkable process known as segmentation,
+in which it becomes divided into two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two
+(and so on) masses, which arrange themselves in two distinct layers,
+the presence of which has been already noted in the laid egg.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the place in which it is possible to follow out the various
+future changes undergone, but the condition of the young birds on
+escaping from the egg is widely different in some of the larger groups
+of birds. Some young birds, on their exclusion from the egg, are able
+to shift for themselves, and are covered with down; while others are
+born naked and helpless, and require food from their parents for some
+time after they are hatched. Of the first section, an ordinary chicken
+is a familiar example, while a young Thrush or a Sparrow illustrates
+the second. There are, however, manifest exceptions to this rule, as
+in the Herons, for instance, where the young are densely clothed with
+feathery down, but are helpless for a long time after they are hatched.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, it must be stated that all birds possess an oil-gland (known
+as the uropygial), situated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[Pg 253]</span> near the tail, with which they clean and
+dress their feathers. Attention has already been called to this gland
+in the foot note on p. 245.</p>
+
+<p>Before commencing the special part of the present article, it may
+be useful to give a slight sketch of the classification which it is
+proposed to follow throughout its course.</p>
+
+<table class="s5" summary="Classification of the Class Aves">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s3 center">CLASS AVES.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s4 center">DIVISION I. CARINATÆ: CARINATE BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER I.&mdash;ACCIPITRES:
+      BIRDS OF PREY.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span> I.&mdash;F<span class="smaller">ALCONES</span>: F<span class="smaller">ALCONS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Vulturidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Vultures.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Falconidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hawks.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sub-Family I.&mdash;Polyborinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Caracaras.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; II.&mdash;Accipitrinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Long-legged Hawks.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &nbsp; III.&mdash;Buteoninæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Buzzards.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp;&ensp; IV.&mdash;Aquilinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Eagles.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; V.&mdash;Falconinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Falcons.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      II.&mdash;P<span class="smaller">ANDIONES</span>: O<span class="smaller">SPREYS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      III.&mdash;S<span class="smaller">TRIGES</span>: O<span class="smaller">WLS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Bubonidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Owls proper.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Strigidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Barn Owls.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER II.&mdash;PICARIÆ: PICARIAN BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      I.&mdash;Z<span class="smaller">YGODACTYLÆ</span>:
+      C<span class="smaller">LIMBING</span> B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Psittaci</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Parrots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">a. <i>Psittaci proprii.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sub-Family I.&mdash;Camptolophinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Cockatoos.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; II.&mdash;Androglossinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Fleshy-tongued Parrots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &nbsp; III.&mdash;Conurinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Conures.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp;&ensp; IV.&mdash;Platycercinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Parrakeets.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; V.&mdash;Strigopinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Owl Parrots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">b. <i>Psittaci orthognathi.</i></div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp;&ensp; VI.&mdash;Trichoglossinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Brush-tongued Parrots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family II.&mdash;Cuculidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Cuckoos.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &nbsp;&ensp;III.&mdash;Indicatoridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Honey-guides.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp; &ensp;IV.&mdash;Musophagidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Touracoes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &nbsp; &ensp;V.&mdash;Picidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Woodpeckers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp; &ensp;VI.&mdash;Rhamphastidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Toucans.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp;&ensp;VII.&mdash;Capitonidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Barbets.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      II.&mdash;F<span class="smaller">ISSIROSTRES</span>:
+      W<span class="smaller">IDE</span>-<span class="smaller">GAPING</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Galbulidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Jacamars.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Bucconidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Puff Birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Alcedinidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Kingfishers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Bucerotidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hornbills.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Upupidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hoopoes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;VI.&mdash;Meropidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Bee-eaters.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&ensp;VII.&mdash;Momotidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Motmots.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp;VIII.&mdash;Coraciadæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Rollers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IX.&mdash;Trogonidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Trogons.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; X.&mdash;Caprimulgidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Goatsuckers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;XI.&mdash;Cypselidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Swifts.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&ensp;XII.&mdash;Trochilidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Humming-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER III.&mdash;PASSERIFORMES: PERCHING BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">ECTION</span>
+      A.&mdash;A<span class="smaller">CROMYODI</span>: S<span class="smaller">INGING</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      I.&mdash;T<span class="smaller">URDIFORMES</span>:
+      T<span class="smaller">HRUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>.
+      B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center s4">G<span class="smaller">ROUP</span>
+      I.&mdash;C<span class="smaller">OLIOMORPHÆ</span>:
+      C<span class="smaller">ROW</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>.
+      P<span class="smaller">ASSERES</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Corvidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Crows.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sub-Family I.&mdash;Corvinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Crows proper.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; II.&mdash;Fregilinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Choughs.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Paradisiidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Birds of Paradise.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Orioliidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Orioles.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Dicruridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Drongos.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Prionopidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Wood-shrikes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center s4">G<span class="smaller">ROUP</span>
+      II.&mdash;C<span class="smaller">ICHLOMORPHÆ</span>:
+      T<span class="smaller">HRUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>
+      P<span class="smaller">ASSERES</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family VI.&mdash;Campophagidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Cuckoo-shrikes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;&nbsp;VII.&mdash;Muscicapidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Flycatchers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&ensp;&nbsp;VIII.&mdash;Turdidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">True Thrushes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sub-Family I.&mdash;Turdinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Thrushes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; II.&mdash;Sylviinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Warblers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family IX.&mdash;Timeliidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Babbling Thrushes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sub-Family I.&mdash;Troglodytinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Wrens.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; II.&mdash;Brachypodinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Bulbuls.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp;III.&mdash;Timeliinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Babblers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp;IV.&mdash;Cisticolinæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Grass-warblers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">&emsp; &ensp; „ &emsp; &ensp; V.&mdash;Miminæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">American Babblers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family X.&mdash;Laniidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Butcher-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; XI.&mdash;Vireonidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Greenlets.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;XII.&mdash;Paridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Titmice.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center s4">G<span class="smaller">ROUP</span>
+      III.&mdash;C<span class="smaller">ERTHIIMORPHÆ</span>:
+      C<span class="smaller">REEPERS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center s4">G<span class="smaller">ROUP</span>
+      IV.&mdash;C<span class="smaller">INNYRIMORPHÆ</span>:
+      H<span class="smaller">ONEY</span> S<span class="smaller">UCKERS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      II.&mdash;F<span class="smaller">RINGILLIFORMES</span>:
+      F<span class="smaller">INCH</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Motacillidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Wagtails.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Mniotiltidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">American Warblers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Cærebidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">American Creepers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Diceidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Flower-peckers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Ampelidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Chatterers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &nbsp; VI.&mdash;Hirundinidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Swallows.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &nbsp;VII.&mdash;Tanagridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Tanagers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp;VIII.&mdash;Fringillidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Finches.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &nbsp; IX.&mdash;Icteridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hang-nests.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">UB</span>-O<span class="smaller">RDER</span>
+      III.&mdash;S<span class="smaller">TURNIFORMES</span>:
+      S<span class="smaller">TARLING</span>-<span class="smaller">LIKE</span>
+      B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Ploceidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Weavers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Sturnidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Starlings.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Artamidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Wood-swallows.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Alaudidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Larks.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">S<span class="smaller">ECTION</span>
+      B.&mdash;M<span class="smaller">ESOMYODI</span>:
+      S<span class="smaller">ONGLESS</span> B<span class="smaller">IRDS</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Menuridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Lyre-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Pteroptochidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Bush-wrens.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Dendrocolaptidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Spine-tails.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Formicariidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">American Ant-thrushes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Pittidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Old-World Ant-thrushes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;VI.&mdash;Tyrannidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Tyrant-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp; VII.&mdash;Cotingidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">American Chatterers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp;VIII.&mdash;Pipridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Manakins.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IX.&mdash;Eurylæmiidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Broadbills.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; X.&mdash;Phytotomidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Plant-cutters.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER IV.&mdash;COLUMBÆ:
+      PIGEONS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER V.&mdash;GALLINÆ:
+      GAME-BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Cracidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Curassows.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Opisthocomidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hoatzins.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Phasianidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Pheasants.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Meleagridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Turkeys.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Tetraonidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Grouse.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;VI.&mdash;Pteroclidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Sand-grouse.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp; VII.&mdash;Turnicidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Hemipodes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „&nbsp;VIII.&mdash;Megapodidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Megapodes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[Pg 254]</span>
+      <div class="center">ORDER VI.&mdash;GRALLÆ:
+      WADING BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Rallidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Rails.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Scolopacidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Snipes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Charadriidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Plovers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Otididæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Bustards.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; V.&mdash;Gruidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Cranes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;VI.&mdash;Psophiidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Trumpeters.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER VII.&mdash;HERODIONES:
+      HERONS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Ardeidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Herons proper.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Ciconiidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Storks.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Plataleidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Spoonbills.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;IV.&mdash;Phænicopteridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Flamingoes.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER VIII.&mdash;ANSERES:
+      GEESE.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Palamedeidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Screamers.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Anatidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Ducks.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER IX.&mdash;STEGANOPODES:
+      PELICANS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Fregatidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Frigate-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Phæthontidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Tropic-birds.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp;III.&mdash;Pelecanidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Pelicans.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER X.&mdash;GAVIÆ:
+      SEA-BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">Family I.&mdash;Laridæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Gulls.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left">&emsp; „ &ensp; II.&mdash;Procellariidæ</div>
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      <div class="left mleft1">Petrels.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER XI.&mdash;PYGOPODES:
+      GREBES.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER XII.&mdash;IMPENNES:
+      PENGUINS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="center">ORDER XIII.&mdash;CRYPTURI:
+      TINAMOUS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s4 center">DIVISION II.&mdash;RATITÆ: STRUTHIOUS BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">
+      <div class="s4 center">DIVISION III.&mdash;SAURURÆ: LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It has been already stated that birds are divisible into three
+great sections, and attention is now directed to those which have a
+keel to the sternum, and which are good flyers&mdash;the Carinate Birds
+(C<span class="smaller">ARINATÆ</span>).</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_III_V">CHAPTER III.<br />
+<span class="s5">DIVISION I.&mdash;THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_ACCIPITRINE_ORDER"><span class="s4">THE ACCIPITRINE
+ORDER&mdash;BIRDS OF PREY.</span></h4>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1">VULTURES AND CARACARAS.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">The Birds of Prey&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;The Cere&mdash;How the Birds of Prey are Divided&mdash;Difference between a Hawk,
+an Owl, and an Osprey&mdash;The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres&mdash;<a href="#THE_ACCIPITRINE_ORDER">Sub-order F<span class="smaller">ALCONES</span></a>&mdash;Difference between the
+Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New World&mdash;<a href="#old_world_vultures">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">LD</span> W<span class="smaller">ORLD</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURES</span></a>&mdash;Controversy as to
+how the Vultures reach their Prey&mdash;Waterton on the Faculty of Scent&mdash;Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon
+Tristram’s Views in Favour of Sight&mdash;<a href="#black_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">LACK</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#griffon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">RIFFON</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;Its Capacity for Feeding
+while on the Wing&mdash;<a href="#eared_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">ARED</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;One of the Largest of the Birds of Prey&mdash;Whence it gets its Name&mdash;<a href="#egyptian_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+E<span class="smaller">GYPTIAN</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;A Foul Feeder&mdash;<a href="#american_vultures">THE NEW WORLD VULTURES</a>&mdash;<a href="#condor">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">ONDOR</span></a>&mdash;Its Appearance&mdash;Power
+of Flight&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#king_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ING</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#turkey_vulture">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">URKEY</span> V<span class="smaller">ULTURE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#FAMILY_FALCONIDAE">THE CARACARAS</a>&mdash;Distinctive
+Characters&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#secretary_bird">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">ECRETARY</span> B<span class="smaller">IRD</span></a>&mdash;How it attacks Snakes&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#cariama">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Ç<span class="smaller">ARIAMA</span></a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey
+(<i>Accipitres</i>). They are all remarkable for strong and sharply-hooked
+bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In the Eagles
+and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree,
+although many modifications of their structure take place in the
+order&mdash;the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding birds,
+not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while
+their feet are larger and more adapted for holding their prey than for
+striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In most of the
+birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more
+powerful bird. This fact is always recognised in falconry, especially
+in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks or Goshawks, whose
+females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for
+holding ground game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &amp;c. The difference in
+size is not very noticeable in the Vultures, but is unmistakable in
+the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the
+breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification
+of other birds, is a character of less value in the birds of prey,
+as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their
+habits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another
+character possessed by these birds is the distinct <i>cere</i>, which is
+present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls: it is a
+waxy covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy
+in substance.</p>
+
+<p>Birds of prey are of three kinds: Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the
+first name is included every rapacious bird which is not an Osprey or
+an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[Pg 255]</span> out is&mdash;how to tell
+an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came
+out by night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into
+two great divisions, which were called diurnal birds of prey<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> and
+nocturnal birds of prey.<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> Now, however, that the habits of birds
+are getting better observed, these divisions have to be abandoned as
+not being entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home
+in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any other bird of
+prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is known, whose habit it is to feed
+on Bats in the evening. This is Andersson’s Pern,<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> a kind of Kite,
+allied to the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the Damara
+Country, in South-western Africa, and in Madagascar. A far better way
+to distinguish Hawks from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have
+the outer toe reversible&mdash;that is to say, they can turn their outer
+toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in
+the living birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological
+Gardens will see that it sits with its toes in pairs&mdash;two in front
+and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as
+in a little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in
+front and one behind. Then, again, Owls have no “after-shaft” to the
+feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The “after-shaft” is
+the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the
+main feather. In some birds it is very large, in others small. It
+occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the quills
+or tail feathers (see p. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible
+outer toe, and the absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls
+may be distinguished from all other birds of prey, save one, by the
+proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the
+three principal leg-bones are pointed out; and it is the length which
+the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia that is here insisted on.
+In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia; this
+is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different
+proportions the one to the other, according to the sub-family. Thus in
+Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> the tibia and the tarsus are equal in
+length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is
+always much longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as
+it is in the Owls. The term “Hawk,” which has been employed throughout
+the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey
+excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits
+of the Osprey are noticed later on, but they may be briefly stated to
+be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting entirely of
+fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an
+Eagle, so that in many places it is popularly known as the “Fish Hawk,”
+or “Fishing Eagle;” but here the resemblance of the Osprey to the Eagle
+ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is
+more than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls; the feathers
+of the body have no after-shaft, as in the Owls, and the outer toe is
+reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of
+the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most
+striking peculiarities of the Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate
+position between these two sub-orders of birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_255">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_255.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HEAD AND BILL OF SEA EAGLE. (<i>After Keulemans.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>a</i>) bony eye-shelf; (<i>b</i>)
+   cere.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang3">(<i>a</i>). Outer toe <i>not</i> reversible; tibia varying in length in
+proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never double
+the length of the latter; body feathers <i>with</i> an after-shaft or
+accessory plume. (American Vultures excepted.)</p>
+
+<p class="mleft3">I. Hawks (<i>Falcones</i>).<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p class="hang3">(<i>b</i>). Outer toe <i>reversible</i>; tibia double the length of tarsus;
+body feathers <i>without</i> an after-shaft or accessory plume; plumage
+compact, as in an Eagle; no facial disk.</p>
+
+<p class="mleft3">II. Ospreys (<i>Pandiones</i>).<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p class="hang3">(<i>c</i>). Outer toe <i>reversible</i>; tibia double the length of tarsus;
+body feathers <i>without</i> an after-shaft; plumage soft and fluffy; a
+facial disk.</p>
+
+<p class="mleft3">III. Striges;<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> Owls.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[Pg 256]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious
+birds than the other two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras,
+the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards, Eagles, Kites, and
+Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are
+classified as <i>Falcones</i>. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is
+found nearly all over the world; and about two hundred different kinds
+of Owls remain to represent the S<span class="smaller">TRIGES</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="ORDER_ACCIPITRES"><span class="s4">ORDER ACCIPITRES.&mdash;SUB-ORDER
+FALCONES.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be
+noticed being the Vultures (<i>Vulturidæ</i>), which is again sub-divided
+into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (<i>Vulturinæ</i>) and the
+Vultures of the New World (<i>Sarcorhamphinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="old_world_vultures">THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.&mdash;THE
+OLD WORLD VULTURES (<i>Vulturinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor
+for their personal appearance. In fact, in both these respects they
+are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates,
+where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and
+decaying substances, which but for their intervention would prove most
+offensive. They are all inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm,
+countries; and it is only on rare occasions that they wander into the
+North of Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the
+New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no difficulty
+in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he is looking at
+belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World have <i>a hole through
+their nose</i>&mdash;or, in other words, want the wall of bone which divides
+one nostril from the other; in the Vultures of the Old World this bony
+wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other ordinary
+birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17" id="i_256a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_256a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BILL OF EGYPTIAN VULTURE, TO SHOW FORM OF NOSTRIL.
+  (<i>After Keulemans.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides their perforated nostril, the American Vultures differ from
+the Old World species in having no after-shaft to the feathers,
+therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some naturalists
+to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family,
+which bears the name of <i>Cathartidæ</i>; but although the absence of
+an after-shaft is a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds
+so closely resemble those of their Old World cousins, that it seems
+unnatural to separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The
+head of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the
+nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, or nearly
+so: sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on the head and
+neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of the other birds of
+prey. The Vultures feed on the ground, where they walk with comparative
+ease, their large feet being fitted for progression on the earth, and
+their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same
+extent as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them
+from striking down or snatching their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would
+do; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour the carcase
+or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up
+food from their crop. They are all birds of powerful flight, and are
+capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air without any apparent
+motion of the wings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17" id="i_256b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_256b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BILL OF TURKEY VULTURE, TO SHOW THE PERFORATED NOSTRIL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of
+naturalists has for a long time been divided, and controversy has waxed
+hot upon the subject, the question being whether the Vulture possesses
+a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell
+is so powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a
+greater distance than other birds can do. The experiments of various
+travellers seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are
+possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree; but the balance of
+evidence seems to prove that it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[Pg 257]</span> is by their keen sight that they
+generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded, and
+escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring
+high in the air; another circling far away on the horizon sees the
+first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on, until a large
+company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well
+described by Longfellow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container s5">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Never stoops the soaring Vulture</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">On his quarry in the desert,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">On the sick or wounded Bison,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">But another Vulture, watching</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">From his high aërial look-out,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Sees the downward plunge, and follows;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">And a third pursues the second,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Coming from the invisible ether,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">First a speck, and then a Vulture,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Till the air is dark with pinions.”<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The power of the Vulture’s sight was long disputed by the former
+generation of naturalists, and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article
+on the “Faculty of Scent in the Vulture,”<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> to prove that it was
+more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a
+carcase. Waterton was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in
+Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument as follows:&mdash;“After the
+repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I
+am quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its
+olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium, which rises
+from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived
+who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter
+in the tropics, where the trade-winds prevail. Often, at the very time
+that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above, there is a
+lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This
+takes place most frequently during the night-time, in or near the
+woods; and it often occurs early in the morning, from sunrise till near
+ten o’clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it
+is noticed in the evening, after sunset; and now and then during the
+best part of the day in the rainy season.... Vultures, as far as I have
+been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock when they
+are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a
+Mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of
+evergreen tropical trees; fifty Vultures, we will say, roost in a tree
+a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest
+of food. Ten fly, by mere chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and
+manage to spy it through the trees; the rest go quite in a different
+direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule? Every
+minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement; and
+instead of a Mule nearly dead, let us suppose a Mule in an offensive
+state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not only
+the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also
+that every Vulture in the adjacent forest would manage to get there
+in time to partake of the repast.” It will be seen from the above
+that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on
+some occasions, a part in their discovering food. Another observation
+on this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work
+on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable
+Vulture (<i>Otogyps auricularis</i>), he says:&mdash;“I believe naturalists are
+not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent, or by
+both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the
+one sense as well as the other in finding their prey, though I feel
+inclined to give sight the preference; and I once had a very striking
+proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion&mdash;in
+this instance, however, not so much by the actual sight of the carrion
+(though the first discovery probably originated in that way) as by
+another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up
+the ascent of a somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of
+obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and before arriving at the
+summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me: but thinking I
+had merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any
+particular notice of their appearance, as the event was one of usual
+occurrence; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were
+not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance
+on the other side. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had
+wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction towards which the
+Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The
+flight of the Vultures was low&mdash;at least five hundred to a thousand
+feet below the summit of the mountain; and on arriving near the base,
+they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[Pg 258]</span>
+and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they
+again depressed their flight. Those Vultures which I saw could not have
+themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct sight of one
+another. There was a numerous arrival; and although I could not always
+detect the next bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one,
+yet, when at length it did come into view, it never seemed uncertain
+about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended,
+and proceeded in the direction which the Vultures had pursued; and
+after about half an hour’s rapid walking, I found, as I anticipated,
+the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily
+discussing it.”<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the “Birds of
+the Zambesi Region of Eastern Tropical Africa,”<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> says that to the
+inexperienced hunter the Griffon is “a great annoyance. If game be
+left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off,
+the birds will descend, and in a very short time completely devour
+it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little grass or with
+branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the
+birds discover their prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters
+not&mdash;probably owing to its being mistaken for one asleep; nor does the
+presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed
+from view.”</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram’s interesting essay on the
+“Ornithology of the Sahara:”<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> “As, happily for the traveller,
+Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the
+Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally
+gives it a passing call, though, if his meal be deposited near an
+oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hyæna (‘Dubba,’ Arab.), who
+lurks in the ‘weds.’ On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having
+become footsore had to be slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants
+selected the tenderest morsels for ‘kouskous,’ the Arab broth; and
+it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather
+descried, his prey. That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather
+than that of smell, seems to be certain from the immense height at
+which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary
+bird descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second.
+A short time elapsed, and the Nubian Vulture (<i>Otogyps nubicus</i>)
+appeared, self-invited, at the feast; and before the bones were left
+to the Hyæna no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had broken
+their fast. I should hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their
+appetites. I have observed the same regular succession of diners out on
+other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows?
+The Griffon who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation
+at once; another, sweeping the horizon at a still greater distance,
+observes his neighbour’s movements and follows his course; a third,
+still farther removed, follows the flight of the second; he is traced
+by another; and so a perpetual succession is kept up as long as a
+morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no other
+way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a
+few hours will gather over a carcase, when previously the horizon might
+have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the most two, in
+sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were
+congregated in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the
+bird was comparatively scarce before? May not this habit of watching
+the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from
+the Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance? The
+Arabs believe that the Vultures from all North Africa were gathered to
+feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that during the war
+very few ‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.”</p>
+
+<p>The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length,
+as exhibiting the general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to
+notice some of the most striking forms of these birds.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="black_vulture">THE BLACK
+VULTURE<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both
+sides of the Mediterranean to North-western India, where it is a cold
+weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird is rather
+unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing
+into the open country, except when attracted by the presence of some
+carcase, on which it feasts in company with the Griffon Vulture. It
+breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a
+rock for its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[Pg 259]</span> breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the
+neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a richly mottled red colour, two
+eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very
+like those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair
+of old birds of their young ones, which were in danger from the felling
+of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus related by Count
+von Tshusi Schmidthofen:&mdash;“The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in
+1860, on the top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobrabach, in the
+Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture. When the young birds were
+large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders
+were given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the
+tree some time, when the old birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and
+suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones in their
+claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who
+loudly complained of the unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of
+the astonished spectators.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_259">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_259.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GRIFFON VULTURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is
+entirely black, the bare places on the head and neck being of a livid
+flesh colour when the bird is alive.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="griffon">THE GRIFFON
+VULTURE.<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found
+all over Southern Europe, and occurs occasionally at different points
+in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British islands off
+Cork Harbour; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It
+ranges all over North-eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into
+Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As it goes eastwards
+the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists
+considered to be a different species. In the British Museum is a very
+interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected by Major Denham in
+Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively
+few birds that have been brought from Central Africa, about the
+ornithology of which we do not even yet know<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[Pg 260]</span> much. Like other
+Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent
+the sea-shore in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South
+African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and small Tortoises, the
+latter of which it swallows whole.<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>This bird’s capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing
+anecdote of Canon Tristram’s:&mdash;“For some months we possessed two
+Griffons taken from the nest, who at length arrived safely in England.
+They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our
+Lämmergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched
+on the backs of the baggage-camels <i>en route</i>. They took a peculiar
+interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the whole
+operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when
+a morsel would be ready, exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement
+when they saw the skin drawn back over the head, and knew that the
+whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was
+of a desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different
+natural temperament, always contented and cheerful, a universal
+favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly
+kick for his complaints. They were able to fast for days; but, whenever
+such an opportunity as a Camel’s carcase presented itself, would be
+revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ‘Musha Pasha,’ attack the
+entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his
+breast, unable to stand, till at length, even this position being too
+much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, overpowered and
+helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined
+with the power of long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative
+wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is so uncertain, while the
+necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent.
+The strength of the Vulture’s stomach is equal to its capacity, for on
+one occasion one of our Griffons devoured a half pound pot of arsenical
+soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of vomiting.”</p>
+
+<p>The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in
+the same neighbourhood. Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says
+that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the Griffon sails
+through the air; the apparently effortless extension of the wing
+seems amply sufficient to sustain its huge body; no flapping motion
+is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is only on
+leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary
+impulse, after which, with primaries bent upwards by the force of the
+air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting,
+the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing
+to within a few yards, it checks its velocity by two or three heavy
+strokes of the wing.</p>
+
+<p>Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred
+bird, and its remains have been found embalmed. It is also figured on
+their monuments, sometimes in its natural form, sometimes with the head
+of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a
+half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills
+and tail; the under surface is creamy-brown, with a darker brown mark
+on the crop; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered
+tufts of white down; and round the neck there is a white ruff.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which
+seem to be distinct species, the Himalayan Griffon, the South African
+Griffon, Rüppell’s Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed Griffon
+from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon
+Vultures, which have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the
+genus <i>Pseudogyps</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="eared_vulture">THE EARED VULTURE
+(<i>Otogyps</i><a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
+<i>auricularis</i><a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the
+Old World, being exceeded in size only by the Great Condor of the
+Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully spread over the
+southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern
+Africa, whence it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the
+Sahara, and has even been said to occur accidentally in Europe. It has
+received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin on
+the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the
+Indian Vulture (<i>O. calvus</i>). These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear
+to play the part of the King Vulture of South America,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[Pg 261]</span> the smaller
+Vultures, such as the <i>Neophrons</i>, always giving place to them, and
+allowing them to finish their feast before venturing to approach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe41" id="i_261">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_261.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">EGYPTIAN VULTURE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="egyptian_vulture">The Egyptian Vulture (<i>Neophron<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> percnopterus</i><a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a>) is also
+familiarly known as Pharaoh’s Chicken. It is a small bird about two
+feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great
+part of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds
+are brown. In Europe the Egyptian Vulture is a migratory bird, but
+it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has
+even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In
+winter it takes itself to the Cape of Good Hope. It is much valued in
+certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary matter, but
+Mr. Gurney states that its food also consists of carrion of various
+descriptions, and in default of such food it occasionally preys upon
+rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even earthworms.
+Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that
+lives, and that it is very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance,
+even all sorts of excrement; nothing comes amiss to it, and he has
+sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up
+by the tide. The same gentleman<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> says that on their migrations
+they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of passage, about the
+end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place,
+beginning to lay about the 1st of April. The nest is composed of a few
+dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[Pg 262]</span> or rubbish; and Colonel
+Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the
+sleeve of an old coat; while another observer says that on a foundation
+of branches Pharaoh’s Hen heaps rags, patches, old slippers, and whole
+basketfuls of camels’ hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring.
+The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments,
+but do not appear to have attached any particular significance to it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_262">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_262.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CONDOR.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian
+Scavenger Vulture (<i>Neophron ginginianus</i>), and in Africa the Pileated
+Vulture (<i>N. pileatus</i>), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly all over
+the continent.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="american_vultures">THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.&mdash;THE
+AMERICAN VULTURES (<i>Sarcorhamphinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="center mbot1" id="condor">THE CONDOR (<i>Sarcorhamphus<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> gryphus</i><a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily
+distinguished by the perforation of their nostrils. The Condor is a
+very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures,
+and the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in
+the female. The hind toe also is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[Pg 263]</span> extremely small, scarcely touching
+the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile than in
+any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of
+the Andes in South America, and the neighbouring countries to the
+west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains from Ecuador and
+Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the
+east coast as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears
+confinement well, examples being generally to be seen living in the
+Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the Condor
+can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on
+their perch. The expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much
+as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that when seen in a wild
+state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of
+ascending to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on
+account of the rarefaction of the air, a state of things which does
+not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the
+clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of
+this Vulture were circulated by the old authors, and it was even said
+to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations, however, of recent
+travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it,
+and it is now a well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack
+full-grown animals of any size, but will devour newly-born and helpless
+offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she
+appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed
+to these birds, of carrying off prey in their feet, is disproved by
+the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity for
+grasping anything: in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in
+the bird’s economy, the powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing
+a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about three feet and a half
+in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general
+colour of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the
+wing-coverts being externally grey. Round the neck is a ruff of soft
+white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not remarkable for
+any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour
+here and there. That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown
+by a specimen in the British Museum, which was hatched by a common
+hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are
+usually covered with white down.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="king_vulture">THE KING VULTURE
+(<i>Cathartes</i><a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
+<i>papa</i><a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck
+being covered with caruncles, which in life are orange, purple, and
+crimson in colour; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a delicate
+fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern
+America, from Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little
+below the twentieth degree of south latitude. It appears to be rather
+a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and
+frequents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the
+Condor delights. It is rarer than the last-named bird, and from its
+forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is altogether
+a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is
+most difficult to obtain, from its habit of sitting on the tops of
+trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this account
+it is seldom shot, and D’Orbigny, from whose works much of the above
+information is derived, says that it is only captured by attracting
+it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an ambush. Another mode of
+capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de
+la Sierra,<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture
+roosts, and to which it returns night after night, and then to climb
+up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer says that
+it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill,
+that the Turkey Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not
+venturing to commence their repast until he is satisfied, whereby he is
+popularly known as the “King” of the Vultures.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="turkey_vulture">THE TURKEY VULTURE
+(<i>Rhinogryphus</i><a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>
+<i>aura</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout
+Central America and the West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to
+the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[Pg 264]</span>
+with locality, for whereas in the Southern United
+States they act as scavengers in the towns, in Guatemala and other
+places in Central America they are not seen in flocks, but occur in
+pairs only in the forests. As in the case of the other Vultures, their
+food consists of carrion, and they are found in large numbers in
+deserts, where they obtain an ample supply of food in the animals which
+perish. The Turkey Vulture is about two feet and a half in length. The
+plumage is black with a purplish gloss, and in life the bare head and
+neck are of a bright red colour, which soon fades after death.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_264">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_264.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BRAZILIAN CARACARA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="FAMILY_FALCONIDAE"><span class="s4">FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.&mdash;THE
+FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop1 mbot1">THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.&mdash;THE CARACARAS
+(<i>Polyborinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p>All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their
+habits and appearance, and many of them are carrion feeders. The name
+“Caracara” with which these birds are here designated is of Brazilian
+origin, and all the species included under the present heading are
+inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the
+Secretary Bird of Africa. They all seem to be at home on the ground,
+and they differ from all other birds of prey in having a membrane which
+joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature
+which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy
+ground, which many of them frequent in quest of frogs, &amp;c. The Southern
+Caracaras (<i>Ibycter australis</i>) are said to run with extreme quickness,
+putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their
+bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted
+with these birds during his voyage in the <i>Beagle</i>, says that their
+flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[Pg 265]</span> account of
+the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where
+they were extraordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the
+neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all kinds of offal. If a beast
+were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures,
+and they did not hesitate to attack and capture wounded birds, on one
+occasion pouncing on a Dog which was lying asleep. They would also
+carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground. “A
+large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of
+heavy balls, used in catching wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced
+during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater’s compass, in a
+red morocco case, which was never recovered.” According also to Mr.
+Darwin, these birds were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it
+was curious to behold them, when impatient, tearing up the grass with
+their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as
+described by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face
+changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concerning which a somewhat amusing
+incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the Zoological
+Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the
+Brazilian species (<i>Polyborus tharus</i>), and the question which troubled
+naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds were a distinct
+species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary
+Brazilian bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow,
+whereas the white birds had this part purple, and this was looked
+upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one
+memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals,
+and to bestow on them a name, which should mark the character of the
+purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the white birds had now
+lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a
+purple visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment,
+he was not a little surprised, on looking back at his supposed new
+species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that
+the bird’s visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one
+of the Brazilian birds in the adjoining den had turned red, and hence
+it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of the bare
+face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino
+after all! Besides the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of
+prey changes colour in a somewhat similar way&mdash;the Bateleur Eagle,<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>
+which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and
+its bare face, which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or
+crimson. In the case of the latter bird the change of colour is visible
+not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a
+darker red than before.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop1 mbot1" id="secretary_bird">THE SECRETARY BIRD
+(<i>Serpentarius</i><a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>
+<i>secretarius</i><a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed
+birds of prey, and from its general look and from its habits, no less
+than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many good
+authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No
+one, however, who has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious
+force with which, by repeated blows of his powerful legs, sometimes
+springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment
+upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would
+consider him anything but a bird of prey. Standing before a Cobra which
+rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings out in front as
+a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he
+strikes his enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying
+venomous Serpents, they are protected with care by both the European
+and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a
+penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these
+useful birds. Sometimes the Secretary does not win in the fight with
+the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one occasion he saw
+a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where
+he fell down dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately
+pulls it out, but in the above instance the reptile had drawn blood
+from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the
+Secretary should have such striking power in his legs, as they are
+long and slender for the size of the bird, and are so brittle that it
+is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will
+snap. The Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats,
+Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &amp;c., and Levaillant states that
+he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long
+as his arm<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[Pg 266]</span> and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight
+inches in length, and twenty-one small Tortoises of about two inches
+in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and
+other insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_266">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_266.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SECRETARY BIRD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was
+published in 1856 by the late M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of
+fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the natural history
+of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be
+resisted.<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> “As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she
+has given to each animal its means of preservation. Thus the Secretary
+Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life; and
+it is therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs
+and tarsi, its piercing eye is able to discover at a long distance the
+prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the
+sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the
+bird becomes now even more graceful; it now brings into action all its
+cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to attack;
+therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the
+feathers of the neck and back of the head shows when the moment for
+attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on the reptile
+that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if
+the bird does not succeed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[Pg 267]</span> and the enraged Snake draws itself up and
+expands, at the same time, the skin of its neck, as is the way with the
+more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a
+spring backwards, waiting to seize a favourable moment for recommencing
+the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its tongue
+with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement
+hisses, which keep back the enemy and seem to force some respect from
+it: but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same ratio that the
+difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the
+charge, assails the reptile afresh with blows from its terrible feet,
+such as no one would believe, and which are not long in putting the
+Snake <i>hors de combat</i>. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes
+launch themselves on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings,
+whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield, or by jumping
+backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of
+its antagonist, who at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length
+on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary to redouble its
+massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause
+the reptile to give up the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk
+darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on the Serpent’s neck, just
+at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by
+beginning at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with
+reptiles five or six feet in length and more than four inches in
+diameter; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes
+the skull by several blows of its bill before swallowing it.”</p>
+
+<p>“Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, which is always
+placed on the summit of a high dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is
+added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by the
+number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young
+birds remain for six months before leaving the nest, their legs not
+being strong enough to support the weight of the body. During the whole
+of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents.”</p>
+
+<p>The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown.
+The general colour of the plumage is grey, with black quills; the lower
+back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white; the tail is
+grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the
+colour is ashy-white, the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder
+part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant crest of plumes, which
+the bird can raise or depress at will; they are either entirely black,
+or grey with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird
+has got the name of the Secretary, from some fancied resemblance in the
+bird’s head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.</p>
+
+<p id="cariama">In America, the Secretary is represented by the Çariama (<i>Çariama
+cristata</i>), a bird which looks so like a game bird that, as we have
+said, many ornithologists place both it and the Secretary among the
+Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration of
+its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall
+determined that the Çariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a
+very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit that where the
+Secretary is placed in the natural system the Çariama must also be
+located, and no one who has studied the habits of the former, either
+in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a moment that it is a
+veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard-like Çariama
+must also be included in the same order.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_IV_V">CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#banded_gymnogene">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ANDED</span> G<span class="smaller">YMNOGENE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Its Movable Tarsi&mdash;<a href="#harriers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIERS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Features&mdash;<a href="#marsh_harrier">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> M<span class="smaller">ARSH</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Its
+Thievish Propensities&mdash;<a href="#harrier_hawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWKS</span></a>&mdash;Colonel Greyson’s Account of their Habits&mdash;<a href="#chanting_goshawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">HANTING</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWKS</span></a>&mdash;Why so Called&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#true_goshawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWKS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;<a href="#goshawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OSHAWK</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;In
+Pursuit of its Prey&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#sparrow_hawks">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">PARROW</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWKS</span></a>&mdash;Distinctive Characters&mdash;<a href="#common_sparrow_hawk">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> S<span class="smaller">PARROW</span>-H<span class="smaller">AWK</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#THE_THIRD_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">UZZARDS</span></a>&mdash;Their Tarsus&mdash;<a href="#common_buzzard">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> B<span class="smaller">UZZARD</span></a>&mdash;Where
+Found&mdash;How it might be turned to Account&mdash;Food&mdash;Its Migrations&mdash;Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#harpy">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> H<span class="smaller">ARPY</span></a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_SECOND_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE"><span class="s4">THE
+SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.&mdash;THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS
+(<i>Accipitrinæ</i>).</span></h4>
+
+<p class="p0">A<span class="smaller">LL</span> the Hawks included under this heading are remarkable for their
+long legs, in which the tibial bone and the tarsus are about equal in
+length. In all the other Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Buzzards, and Falcons,
+the tibia is always longer than the tarsus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[Pg 268]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Long-legged Hawks are not such powerful birds of prey as the Eagles
+or Falcons, and do not possess, as a rule, the same dash and courage in
+pursuing their quarry, many of them feeding on a low kind of diet, and
+being robbers of eggs and destroyers of young birds. The birds of prey
+belonging to this sub-family are&mdash;1. The Gymnogenes; 2. The Harriers;
+3. The Goshawks; 4. The Sparrow-Hawks.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="banded_gymnogene">THE BANDED
+GYMNOGENE<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>
+(<i>Polyboroides</i><a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>
+<i>typicus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>From its general appearance, especially in its naked yellow face, this
+remarkable Hawk is considered to be a close ally of the Secretary
+Bird; but the proportions of its legs and its habits proclaim it to be
+nearly related to the Harriers. Two kinds of Gymnogenes are known, one
+inhabiting Africa, and the other being found in Madagascar. The food
+of the present species appears to consist of Frogs and Lizards, and
+at times it walks over the ground which has been recently burnt, in
+pursuit of insects and small reptiles; at other times it will sit for
+a long time on stumps by pools of water, watching for Frogs, which in
+such situations form its favourite food. The Gymnogenes are remarkable
+in the class of birds for being able to put their leg “out of joint” at
+will (that is to say, they can bend the tarsus backwards just as they
+please); and this is a fact which may be accepted as a certainty, since
+its truth has been tested by many trusty and independent observers. One
+of these, the late M. Jules Verreaux, states that the tarsi are movable
+at the “knee”-joint toward the front from behind, a provision which,
+from the facility it affords the bird for drawing up Frogs out of the
+marsh-holes by means of its talons, is of no little service to it. The
+exceedingly compressed toes of this species also enable it to introduce
+its long tarsi into the narrow crevices of the rocks. He saw it twist
+and turn its legs in all directions in capturing its prey in marshy
+places. Mr. Thomas Ayres also says that “the legs of this bird bend
+backward at the knee in an extraordinary manner, very much as if they
+were out of joint.”</p>
+
+<p>The Banded Gymnogene is nearly twenty-four inches in length, and is of
+a light grey colour, with black wings, the secondaries being grey like
+the back, with a black band before the tip; the lower back is white
+barred with black; the tail black with a white tip and a white bar
+across the middle; the throat and chest are grey like the back, and the
+rest of the under surface is white barred with black. The cere and bare
+space round the eye are yellow when the bird is alive.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="harriers">THE HARRIERS (<i>Circus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>All the Harriers have a facial disc as in the Owls, though not so
+distinct as in the latter group of birds. In both, however, the disc is
+formed by a ruff of soft, close-set plumes, which encircle the face;
+and hence in most classifications the Harriers have been considered
+as being closely allied to the Owls, on account of their having this
+“facial disc.” Their structure and habits, however, entirely do away
+with the idea of there being any real affinity between these two groups
+of accipitrine birds.</p>
+
+<p>Before the draining of the fens in England, Harriers were by no means
+uncommon in certain localities; but they are becoming rarer year by
+year, as each favourite haunt passes from them under the dominion of
+the agriculturist. Three kinds were found in England, of which the
+Hen Harrier (<i>Circus cyaneus</i>) was the rarest; Montagu’s Harrier (<i>C.
+pygargus</i>) was the most plentiful and the most widely distributed;
+and the Marsh Harrier, or Moor Buzzard (<i>C. æruginosus</i>), the most
+powerful. This is the species which has held its own best, as it is
+still found breeding in some few places in the United Kingdom. The
+habits of all the Harriers are very similar, and the genus Circus
+is probably&mdash;with the exception of the Peregrine Falcons&mdash;the most
+universally distributed of any Raptorial birds, for there is scarcely
+any part of the world where a Harrier is not found.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="marsh_harrier">THE MARSH HARRIER (<i>Circus æruginosus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is an inhabitant of the Old World, where it enjoys a wide range.
+It is one of the greatest robbers of eggs and young birds, being,
+in countries where it is still plentiful, a great nuisance to the
+sportsman, as, says Colonel Irby, “slowly hunting along in front, it
+puts up every Snipe and Duck<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[Pg 269]</span> that lies in its course, making them
+unsettled and wild.”<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The same authority furnishes the following
+interesting particulars about the habits of the present species:&mdash;“In
+Andalusia, as well as in Morocco, over all low wet ground, the Marsh
+Harrier is to be seen in vast numbers, particularly in winter. Great
+quantities remain to breed, sometimes as many as twenty nests being
+within three hundred yards of one another. The latter, loosely
+constructed with dead sedges, vary very much in size and depth, and
+are usually placed amidst rushes in swamps, but sometimes on the
+ground among brambles and low brushwood, always near water, though
+occasionally far from marshes. They begin to lay about the end of
+March, and at that time fly up a great height, playing about, and
+continually uttering their wailing cry. The eggs are bluish-white, and
+usually four or five in number; they certainly vary in size and shape,
+and are often much stained. Like the eggs of all the Harriers that I
+am acquainted with, and many others of the Accipitres, when blown and
+held up to the light they show a bluish tinge. I once found a nest
+containing only one egg nearly ready to hatch, and saw another with six
+eggs (three quite fresh, and the other three hard sat on). I believe
+that if the first set of eggs be taken they lay again in a fresh nest,
+as I found sets of fresh eggs as late as the 2nd of May.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47_5" id="i_269">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_269.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MARSH HARRIER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Cowardly and ignoble, they are the terror of all the poultry which
+are in their districts, continually carrying off chickens, and, like
+other Harriers, are most terribly destructive to the eggs and young of
+all birds. On account of these propensities, I never let off a Marsh
+Harrier unless it spoiled sport to fire at one. Sometimes, when at Casa
+Vieja, and the Snipe were scarce, we used to lie up in the line of the
+Harriers’ flight to their roosting-places; for they always take the
+same course, and come evening after evening within five minutes of the
+same time. Upon one occasion a friend and myself killed eleven, and
+during the visit accounted for over twenty. I also upon every possible
+opportunity destroyed the nest and shot the old ones; but it was the
+labour of Sisyphus, for others immediately appeared. However, there was
+a visible diminution of their numbers at Casa Vieja. I never saw rats
+in their nests or crops, and believe they have not the courage to kill
+them; small snakes, frogs, wounded birds, eggs, and nestlings unable to
+fly, form the main part of their prey. I have seen the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[Pg 270]</span> Marsh Harrier
+hawking over the sea about two hundred yards from the shore, where
+there was shallow water, but could not see what they were taking.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="harrier_hawks">THE HARRIER-HAWKS
+(<i>Micrastur</i><a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>These constitute a little genus of Hawks peculiar to the New World,
+where they form a perfect link between the Harriers and the Goshawks.
+In form they are stoutly-built birds like the latter, while they retain
+the facial ruff of the Harriers, and hence the name of Harrier-Hawk
+adopted for them here. Their habits are well described by a good
+observer, the late Colonel Greyson, of the U.S. Army, who writes
+of the largest species of the genus, the Harrier-Hawk (<i>Micrastur
+semitorquatus</i>):&mdash;“Among the great variety of Hawks to be met with
+in a single day’s excursion in the locality of Mazatlan, none are
+so easily recognised as this peculiar and interesting species. I
+have found it only in the heavy forests, or the immediate vicinity
+of a thickly-wooded country, where its slender form and lengthened
+tail attract our attention as it swiftly glides through the tangled
+woods with that remarkable ease which we have often noticed in the
+Sharp-shinned Hawk (<i>A. fuscus</i>). It appears to be strictly arboreal in
+its habits, and possessed of wonderful activity, either in springing
+from branch to branch without opening its wings, or rapidly darting
+through the intricacies of the bush with apparently but little
+difficulty. I have seldom seen one of these Hawks in an open country,
+and have never seen one flying higher than the tree tops, where they
+are met with. Its wings are rather short, and its flight is performed
+by rapidly repeated strokes, only for a short distance at a time. It
+preys upon various species of wood birds, which it captures by darting
+upon them on the ground or in the bushes; but the Chachalaca is its
+favourite game. This is a gallinaceous bird, or wild chicken, about the
+size of, or lighter than, the common hen, and is entirely arboreal,
+seldom running upon the ground, but is able by its peculiarly-formed
+feet to cling to, or spring rapidly through, the thickest branches
+with great agility; but this Hawk follows it with equal facility,
+until an opportunity offers to strike its prey, then both come to the
+ground together, the Hawk being the lighter bird. I witnessed a scene
+of this kind that took place when I was endeavouring to get a shot at
+a Chachalaca, as it was jumping about the very thick branches of an
+acacia overgrown with lianas; it appeared to be in great distress,
+uttering its harsh notes of alarm, and spreading its fan-shaped tail.
+Suddenly I saw one of these Hawks pounce upon it; when with harsh
+screams of terror and pain the Chachalaca dragged its captor to the
+ground, where they struggled for a few moments, but the unfortunate
+bird was soon overcome. The struggling and screams of the Chachalaca
+created a great commotion among the denizens of the woods; far and
+near were heard the harsh cries of other members of its family, and
+the Urraca Magpie, with streaming tail and ludicrous gesticulations,
+as well as the Blue-back Jay, and other birds in the neighbourhood,
+gathered around to witness the scene of rapine. Suddenly appeared in
+the midst of this clamour a larger Hawk (<i>Buteo Harrisi</i>, Aud.), which
+rushed at once upon the captor of the Chachalaca. Unable to withstand
+so heavy a charge, he was compelled to give up his honestly captured
+prey to a superior force, thus proving the old adage that ‘might is
+right.’ The slender but compact figure of our present subject was now
+seen perched upon a neighbouring bough, scrutinising, with a vicious
+eye, the more powerful but less active bird of prey, as he vainly
+attempted to bear off the lifeless form of the Chachalaca; but there
+was one yet mightier than he. I observed it for a few moments, then
+shot it, as also the Long-tailed Hawk, thus securing all three.</p>
+
+<p>“They build their nest of dry twigs and moss, which is placed in a very
+tall tree, but below the higher branches. The only nest I have seen was
+inaccessible, therefore I regret that I am unable to describe the eggs.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="chanting_goshawks">THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS
+(<i>Melierax</i><a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>These birds are met with in Africa only, and they have received the
+name of “Chanting” Goshawks from their song, which has been stated by
+the French traveller, Levaillant, to be of considerable power, for he
+says he has heard the male of the Cape species (<i>Melierax canorus</i>)
+sing for hours together in the twilight of morning and evening, and
+sometimes through the night. This, however, has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[Pg 271]</span> questioned by
+Mr. Layard, who is well known as an authority on African birds, and
+who observed the species in some abundance in certain parts of South
+Africa. According to this observer, the bird will perch on the top of
+a high tree, utter its “mellow piping whistle,” and fly off again. He
+has also heard it call when flying. Now, although the Chanting Goshawks
+may not have such powers of song as have been credited to them, it is
+certain that they really have a more varied note than is the case with
+other Goshawks, and the Red-faced Goshawk (<i>Melierax gobar</i>) is said to
+whistle very much and better than <i>M. canorus</i>. About five different
+species of Chanting Goshawks are known, all being from Africa: hence
+the genus <i>Melierax</i> is one of those forms characteristic of the
+<i>Ethiopian region</i>, which embraces Africa below the Sahara desert.
+One species only, the Many-banded Goshawk (<i>Melierax polyzonus</i>), a
+frequent bird in Abyssinia and Senegambia, is known to wander beyond
+the limits of the above-named region, as it occurs in Mogador, whence
+living specimens have been more than once sent to the Zoological
+Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of the Chanting Goshawks are very similar to those of the
+ordinary Goshawks of more northern climates, the larger species feeding
+on Quails, Francolins, and other small game, reptiles, and locusts,
+while the less powerful kinds devour small birds and reptiles. The
+colour of the plumage is a pearly-grey in the South African Chanting
+Goshawk (<i>M. canorus</i>), the belly being white with greyish cross-lines;
+the rump is white; the primary quills black; tail dusky, tipped with
+white and crossed by broad white bars; the cere and legs are red; the
+iris dark brown. It measures about three feet in length. This style of
+colouring is found in all the species, excepting one small one, which
+is entirely black all over, save some white spots on the tail, and is
+known as the Black Goshawk (<i>Melierax niger</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="true_goshawk">THE TRUE GOSHAWKS (<i>Astur</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These are represented nearly all over the world, every country having
+one or more species of the genus Astur, excepting the continent of
+South America, which possesses only two kinds, both of them rare and
+of limited range. More than thirty different species of the genus have
+been described, and they present great differences in size and style of
+coloration, their habits varying equally, according to the strength and
+power of the birds; but they are all remarkable for a very sturdy bill,
+and thick-set legs and sharp talons. A Goshawk may always be told by
+the latter characters, and by its short toes, which are perhaps smaller
+in proportion to the size of the bird than in any other group of the
+birds of prey.</p>
+
+<p>These birds, and the Sparrow-Hawks, have very short wings, and have not
+the same power of flight as in the true Falcons, which are long-winged
+birds; and hence, in the old days of falconry, they were never
+considered of such value as the Peregrine in the chase. They were also
+called Hawks of the “fist,” as they were flown at game from the hand,
+instead of soaring down on the quarry from aloft.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="goshawk">THE GOSHAWK (<i>Astur palumbarius</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is the largest and most powerful of all the genus, as it is also
+the best known, being found all over the northern parts of Europe and
+Asia. It used to be of more frequent occurrence in Britain formerly
+than it is now; and although it can only nest in this country on the
+rarest occasions in the present day, the author was introduced to
+an old gamekeeper on the Marquis of Huntly’s estate at Aboyne, who
+perfectly remembered the Goshawk breeding regularly at Glentanner. A
+young bird is still captured now and then in autumn, one of the last
+instances being that of a young male, who was captured in an area at
+Hampstead, on the 3rd of August, 1872, and is now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>It will feed on nearly every kind of bird and animal that it is able
+to catch, and in falconry it is principally employed to take Hares and
+Rabbits; it will also take Pheasants and Partridges, a great number
+of these latter birds being killed by the Goshawk in its wild state.
+It is able to pursue its quarry with great dexterity through a wooded
+country, and it possesses great powers of abstinence, so that, if its
+prey escapes into cover for the time, the Hawk will often wait for its
+re-appearance, and will generally exhaust the patience of the quarry,
+and succeed in capturing it. During the daytime it remains solitary in
+dark fir-forests, and comes out to feed in the morning and evening.
+The nest is often a huge structure, being added to year by year; and
+an immense nest is figured in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[Pg 272]</span> Professor Newton’s “Ootheca Wolleyana.”
+Some idea of the size may be gained from the story told by Mr. Wolley,
+who climbed up to one that was placed a good height up in a large
+Scottish fir, and when he stood on the same branch with the nest,
+the latter still reached several inches above his head, so that the
+building of this nest had probably been the work of several years.</p>
+
+<p>The old birds are alike in plumage; but the female, as is the case
+with all Goshawks, is larger than the male, measuring about two feet
+in length, while the male does not exceed twenty inches; the wing
+also, which is about twelve inches in the male, exceeds fourteen in
+the female. The colour is grey, the head black, the sides of the face
+white, streaked with black lines; below, the under surface of the body
+is white, barred across with black cross-bars of ashy-brown; the under
+tail-coverts are white; quills and tail ashy-brown, the tail feathers
+tipped with white; cere yellow; bill bluish; iris orange. The young
+birds differ considerably from the adults, being rufous below, with
+longitudinal streaks of dark brown; the upper surface is brown, all the
+feathers being margined with reddish-white.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_272">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_272.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GOSHAWK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In North America, a bird very similar to the Goshawk takes its place;
+and a third species of the same group is found in Madagascar only. It
+is, however, principally in the Malayan Archipelago that the greatest
+number of species occur, nearly every island possessing a Goshawk
+peculiar to itself.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="sparrow_hawks">THE SPARROW-HAWKS (<i>Accipiter</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These may almost be called miniature Goshawks, as they are not only
+short-winged birds like the latter, but they even have the same style
+of plumage, consisting generally of a dark-grey back, a barred under
+surface, and a piercing yellow eye. They may, however, be distinguished
+from the Goshawks by their small, weak bill, and long, slender, middle
+toe. With the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands, Sparrow-Hawks
+are found all over the world, being plentiful even in South America,
+where the rarity of the Goshawks has already been alluded to.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_sparrow_hawk">THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK (<i>Accipiter nisus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is an active and plucky little bird, which still holds its own
+in England, notwithstanding the raids made upon its nest, and the
+destruction of old birds by keepers. Nor can it be denied that the
+Sparrow-Hawk, hatching its young about the time when the young chickens
+and Pheasants are also being reared, will occasionally make a swoop on
+the pheasantry, and carry off the chicks to feed its own offspring. The
+principal food of this Hawk is small birds, in the pursuit of which
+it is so eager<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[Pg 273]</span> that it has several times been known to dash through
+a glass window, and be caught in the room; while Messrs. Salvin and
+Brodrick, in their work on British Falconry, state that they have
+“known a trained Sparrow-Hawk force itself to such an extent into a
+blackthorn bush, where it had killed a bird, as to require to be cut
+out.” Like the Goshawk, it is often trained for hawking, but is a
+much more delicate bird to rear, and requires careful management when
+young. Nevertheless, a well-trained Sparrow-Hawk will account for a
+considerable number of birds; and in the work of the above-mentioned
+authors is given an instance of one Hawk having killed 327 head in
+less than two months, consisting of Sparrows, Blackbirds, Thrushes, a
+few Partridges, and Linnets, more than two-thirds of the number being
+Sparrows.</p>
+
+<p>In size the female Sparrow-Hawk is considerably larger than the male,
+measuring nearly sixteen inches in length, and nine inches and a half
+in the wing. She is generally paler grey, never so blue as in the male,
+nor is she so red underneath. A sign of age, by which a mature hen
+Sparrow-Hawk may be known, is the presence of a tuft of rufous plumes
+on the flanks, which is feebly developed in the young bird, but is a
+conspicuous feature in the adult.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe26" id="i_273">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_273.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SPARROW-HAWK. (<i>After Keulemans</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male is bluish slate-colour above, the quills browner and barred
+across with darker brown, these bars being very distinct below; the
+tail is barred with blackish-brown, and tipped with white; cheeks and
+ear-coverts are rufous; under surface of body whitish, with narrow
+bars of bright rufous, the under tail-coverts white, as are also the
+under wing-coverts and axillaries, these two latter parts being spotted
+with brown. Young birds are brown with rufous edges to the feathers;
+underneath they are rufous, barred with brown on the flanks and breast,
+the throat and fore-neck streaked with the same colour. The bars on
+the tail are five in number in a young male, but as the bird increases
+in age the number of bars decreases, and is generally only four in a
+very old bird: the same takes place in the female. The range of the
+Common Sparrow-Hawk is very similar to that of the Goshawk, being
+extended all over Europe and Northern Asia, and into Northern China and
+North-western India. Neither of the birds go to South Africa, and range
+into the north-eastern portion of that continent only in winter.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_THIRD_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE"><span class="s4">THE
+THIRD SUB-FAMILY.&mdash;THE BUZZARDS (<i>Buteoninæ</i>).</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These Hawks constitute a numerous assemblage of the birds of prey,
+and lead on from the long-legged Hawks of the previous sub-family to
+the Eagles, ending with the Great Harpy, which is, perhaps, the most
+powerful bird of prey in the world. All the Buzzards have the tibia
+much longer than the tarsus, but they may be distinguished from all the
+Eagles, Kites, and Falcons by having the back of the tarsus “plated,”
+and not “reticulated.” In the accompanying woodcuts is shown the hinder
+aspect of a Buzzard’s tarsus (figure on p. 274), by which it will be
+seen that the scales are arranged in plates, very differently from that
+which takes place in the tarsus of an Eagle (figure on p. 274), where
+the scales are reticulated.<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Buzzards are more numerous in the northern parts of the world than
+in the tropics, and a large decrease in the number of species takes
+place in Central and Southern America, whilst in Oceania and Australia
+they are altogether absent. As a rule, they are birds of plain plumage
+and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[Pg 274]</span> sluggish habits, possessing neither the courage of the Eagles, nor
+the dash and adroitness of the Falcons, in capturing their prey. Africa
+produces some species which, as regards plumage, are an exception to
+the general rule, the Augur and Jackal Buzzards (<i>Buteo augur</i> and
+<i>Buteo jackal</i>) being rather handsome birds, their plumage being a
+mixture of black and chestnut.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_274a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_274a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF BUZZARD, SHOWING THE PLATED
+  ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES (<span class="smaller">A</span>).</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_buzzard">THE COMMON BUZZARD
+(<i>Buteo</i><a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>
+<i>vulgaris</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is a strictly European bird, although it has been stated to occur
+in Central Asia, and to sometimes wander into North-eastern Africa.
+Like all other birds of prey, it is rather rare in Great Britain, but
+it still breeds in certain localities, although the great majority of
+specimens which are killed in Britain are found in the fall of the
+year. The power of the Common Buzzards to attack large game is very
+limited, and Mr. Robert Gray<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a> observes:&mdash;“To many persons it will
+seem unwise, I dare say, to call this Buzzard a useful bird in game
+preserves, yet I cannot but think that if the experiment were made of
+allowing it to fulfil the ends for which Nature designed it, our native
+game birds would benefit by the trial. So far as my own observations
+have extended, the Common Buzzard is just the kind of instrument wanted
+to clear off sickly young birds, which, on arriving at maturity, yield
+an offspring of a degenerate breed. Of somewhat sluggish habits, it
+does not care to interfere with strong-winged birds, being content with
+those that, through wounds or a naturally feeble constitution, are
+unable to save themselves. In this way only strong birds are left, and
+a healthy breed ensues. Let any of our proprietors of moors, who are
+jealous of the daring prowess of Eagles and lordly Peregrines, act upon
+this hint, and I will venture to say we should have fewer instances of
+disease amongst game birds to chronicle.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_274b">
+  <img class="illowe19" src="images/i_274b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe26">HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF SERPENT EAGLE, SHOWING THE
+  RETICULATED ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the Buzzard does not quarter the ground like a Harrier, and
+search for its prey on the wing, it may not unfrequently be seen
+circling in the air at a considerable height, generally over the place
+which contains its nest, but as a rule it perches on some stone or
+similar resting-place, whence it watches for its prey. When flying it
+utters a clear loud cry, which has been described as “mewing.” Its
+principal food consists of Field Mice, but it also devours Moles, young
+birds, the caterpillars of Hawk Moths (<i>Sphingidæ</i>), Grasshoppers,
+and it will also occasionally feed on carrion, or on dead fish cast
+up on the sea-shore. When migrating in the autumn, which it does in
+considerable numbers together, a good many are caught for the purposes
+of food, and the manner of catching them is thus described by Nilsson
+in his work on the birds of Sweden:&mdash;“In October, when they pass
+through Skåne on their passage to the south, they remain for some
+time on the outermost point of land to await a suitable westerly
+wind to cross. Large numbers collect and roost at night in the trees
+(especially in the willows) which grow there. When the darkness sets
+in, two men go in company to catch them, one with a sack, and the other
+with a stout cudgel. The latter climbs quietly up into the tree, where
+he can just distinguish the bird, whilst the other remains below; and
+so soon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[Pg 275]</span> as the climber has got up to where he can reach a bird, he
+catches it by the legs with the left hand, and either twists its neck
+with his right hand, or stuns it with a blow of the cudgel, and throws
+it down to his companion on the ground, who crams it into the sack.
+In this manner two men can catch thirty or forty in the evening, or,
+according to Burgomaster C., as many even as seventy or eighty; and
+Captain E. relates that twenty were obtained one evening from the same
+tree. They are easiest to catch when it is dark and blowing hard, so
+that the bird cannot easily hear the noise. In all, many hundreds are
+caught annually, some of which are cooked fresh or made into soup, but
+most are salted down and kept for use during the winter.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_275">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_275.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON BUZZARD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The nest of the Buzzard is generally placed on some non-evergreen
+tree at various heights from the ground, but in Scotland it builds
+on rocks. The usual number of eggs is three or four, and these are a
+bluish-white, with reddish blotches. They vary a good deal in colour,
+some being rather richly marked, while others are almost colourless.
+The time of breeding is generally the month of April, or in severe
+seasons, early in May. A Crow’s nest is occasionally taken possession
+of. When the bird makes its own nest, this is formed of large branches
+with a lining of grass, occasionally of a few feathers. No bird varies
+more than the Buzzard in plumage, and many beautiful variations in its
+dress take place before the adult plumage is gained. The old bird is
+almost entirely brown above and below, the breast and abdomen generally
+having a more or less barred appearance; the quills are brown, banded
+with darker brown, and shaded with grey on their outer aspect; the tail
+is ashy-brown, more or less inclining to rufous, and having twelve or
+thirteen bars of darker brown. Young birds have a great deal of white
+about their plumage, some of them being nearly cream-coloured. The size
+of the adults is about twenty-two inches, and the sexes vary a little
+in dimensions, the wing of the female being perhaps one inch longer
+than that of the male.</p>
+
+<p>The great utility of the Buzzard in destroying Mice ought to render
+it an object of protection and encouragement, for the number of small
+Mammals destroyed by these birds is immense. Brehm<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[Pg 276]</span> calculates that
+when they have young they will destroy at least one hundred Mice a day,
+and mentions that thirty Field Mice have been taken from the crop of a
+single bird.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="harpy">THE HARPY
+(<i>Thrasatus</i><a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>
+<i>harpyia</i><a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_276">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_276.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">THE HARPY.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although from its size and courage this bird is generally called the
+<i>Harpy Eagle</i>, it is evident from its structure that it is a Buzzard,
+as it possesses the “plated” tarsi of the latter group of birds. It is
+an inhabitant of the New World, from Mexico through Central America to
+Brazil and Bolivia. It is a very destructive bird, causing great damage
+to the flocks, and even destroying calves, whence it is an object of
+detestation to the stock-keepers in Mexico. It also feeds on deer and
+on the large Macaws which are found in the forest it frequents. It
+stands more than three feet and a half high, and has a large crest,
+which, together with its powerful talons and glittering eye, gives
+the bird an imposing aspect even in captivity. In the adult bird the
+coloration is ashy-grey, inclining in very old examples to silvery grey
+relieved by the dark ash-coloured wings and tail.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[Pg 277]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop3" id="CHAPTER_V_V">CHAPTER V.<br />
+<span class="s5">EAGLES AND FALCONS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_FOURTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">THE EAGLES</a>&mdash;<a href="#laemmergeier">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">EARDED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> L<span class="smaller">ÄMMERGEIER</span></a>&mdash;A Visit to their Nest&mdash;Habits&mdash;A Little Girl carried off
+alive&mdash;Habits in Greece&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Von Tschudi’s and Captain Hutton’s Descriptions of its Attacks&mdash;<a href="#true_eagles">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+T<span class="smaller">RUE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#wedge_tailed_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">EDGE</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;Eye&mdash;Crystalline Lens&mdash;How Eagles may be Divided&mdash;<a href="#imperial_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+I<span class="smaller">MPERIAL</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#golden_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">OLDEN</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;In Great Britain&mdash;Macgillivray’s Description of its Habits&mdash;Appearance&mdash;<a href="#kite_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+K<span class="smaller">ITE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;Its Peculiar Feet&mdash;Its Bird’s-nesting Habits&mdash;<a href="#common_harrier_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">ARRIER</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#indian_serpent_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> I<span class="smaller">NDIAN</span>
+S<span class="smaller">ERPENT</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#bateleur_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ATELEUR</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#white_tailed_eagle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span></a>&mdash;A Sea Eagle&mdash;Story of Capture of some
+Young&mdash;<a href="#swallow_tailed_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">WALLOW</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;On the Wing&mdash;<a href="#common_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#european_honey_kite">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">UROPEAN</span> H<span class="smaller">ONEY</span> K<span class="smaller">ITE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#anderssons_pern">A<span class="smaller">NDERSSON</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+P<span class="smaller">ERN</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_FIFTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE">THE FALCONS</a>&mdash;The Bill&mdash;<a href="#cuckoo_falcons">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOO</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCONS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#falconets">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCONETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#peregrine_falcon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+P<span class="smaller">EREGRINE</span> F<span class="smaller">ALCON</span></a>&mdash;Its Wonderful Distribution&mdash;Falconry&mdash;Names for Male, Female, and Young&mdash;Hawks and
+Herons&mdash;<a href="#greenland_jer_falcon">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REENLAND</span> J<span class="smaller">ER</span>-F<span class="smaller">ALCON</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kestrels">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">ESTRELS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#common_kestrel">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">ESTREL</span></a>&mdash;Its Habits and Disposition.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_FOURTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE"><span class="s4">THE
+THIRD SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.&mdash;THE EAGLES (<i>Aquilinæ</i>).</span></h4>
+
+<p class="p0">A<span class="smaller">S</span> already explained, the Eagles may be distinguished from the Buzzards
+by their reticulated tarsus; otherwise the proportions of the leg-bones
+are similar, the tibia being considerably longer than the tarsus.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="laemmergeier">THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER (<i>Gypaëtus
+barbatus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The generic name of this Eagle is derived from two Greek words (γύψ,
+a Vulture, ἀετός, an Eagle), and no name could have been better
+chosen, for with the structure of an Eagle it combines many of the
+habits of a Vulture, and has many ways in common with the Egyptian
+Vulture (<i>Neophron percnopterus</i>). In Europe it is found only in the
+mountainous parts of those countries bordering the Mediterranean basin,
+and is now nearly extinct in Switzerland. In the mountains of Spain,
+however, it is still to be met with in some quantities, and Mr. Howard
+Saunders states that one or two pairs may be found in every range of
+mountains. In Sardinia it is said by Mr. Basil Brooke to be decidedly
+common, and during one of his visits to that island he obtained a very
+curious nestling bird covered with down. “A pair of these birds,” says
+Mr. Brooke, “are in possession of every separate range of hills, which
+they appear to regard as their own territory, and from which they are
+seldom to be found far distant. They are generally to be seen singly or
+in pairs; but now and then I have observed three, and on one occasion
+four together. As a rule they are most decidedly mountain birds, but
+occasionally a single bird may be seen hunting over the plains and
+cultivated lands, not flying more than one hundred yards high. The
+nest of one found on the 18th of April was built on a broad ledge of
+a precipitous cliff, about three hundred feet high, within twenty
+feet of the top, and was completely sheltered from the severity of
+the weather by a large overhanging piece of rock. After some trouble
+I discovered a way by which, with a little care, I managed to get on
+the ledge, much to the discomfort of the solitary inmate&mdash;a young
+nestling, covered as yet with a pale yellowish-brown down. The nest
+itself was an accumulation of dried sticks, with a cup-shaped hollow
+in the middle, and had evidently been used for years. In it, and on
+the surrounding ledge, were great quantities of the leg-bones and
+feet of goats, &amp;c., and a part of a fox’s lower jaw; these being in
+all stages of putrefaction, the smell was abominable. The old female
+on my first visit to the nest sat extremely close, and although I was
+standing over her within seven or eight yards, would not leave her
+young until I fired a shot, upon which she dashed off, dropping almost
+perpendicularly, and was out of range before I could fire. She flew
+over the valley and lit upon a high-projecting, rocky pinnacle, upon
+which I could see her through the telescope, sitting quietly watching
+all my proceedings. She returned to the nest shortly afterwards, on my
+having retired to a little distance.”</p>
+
+<p>In Algeria the Lämmergeier is said to feed largely on Land Tortoises,
+which it carries to a great height in the air, and drops upon a
+convenient rock, so as to break the shell. So much has been written
+upon the habits of this bird that it would be impossible to give here
+one tithe of the interesting notes which have been published in various
+works and periodicals; but no history of the species, however brief,
+would be complete without a passing mention of the little girl who
+was said to have been carried off in childhood by one of these birds.
+The history,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[Pg 278]</span> believed by him to be well authenticated, is related by
+Naumann as follows.&mdash;“Anna Zurbuchen, of Hatchern, in Bern Oberland,
+born in 1760, was taken out by her parents, when she was nearly three
+years old, when they went to collect herbs. She fell asleep, and the
+father put his straw hat over her face and went to his work. Shortly
+after, when he returned with a bundle of hay, the child was gone; and
+the parents and peasants sought her in vain. During this time Heinrich
+Michel, of Unterseen, was going on a wild path to Wäppesbach, and
+suddenly heard a child cry. He ran towards the sound, and a Bearded
+Vulture rose, scared by him, from a mound, and soared away over the
+precipice. On the extreme edge of the latter, below which a stream
+roared, and over whose edge any moment would have precipitated it,
+Michel found the child, which was uninjured, except on the left arm and
+hand, where the bird had probably clutched it; its shoes, stockings,
+and cap were gone. This occurred on the 12th of July, 1763. The place
+where the child was found was about 1,400 paces distant from the
+tarn where it had been left asleep. The child was afterwards called
+<i>Lämmergeier-Anni</i>, and married Peter Frutiger, a tailor in Gewaldswyl,
+where she was still living in 1814.”</p>
+
+<p>The circumstantial way in which the above narrative runs appears to
+leave little doubt of its reality, but it is difficult to give it
+credence, as the Lämmergeier has but little power in its feet, which
+resemble those of the Vultures; and most of the stories of its prowess
+have been discredited by the researches of modern naturalists. Dr.
+Brehm observes:&mdash;“To my intense astonishment, the Spanish hunters did
+not regard this bird in the slightest degree as a bold, merciless
+robber: all asserted that it fed on carrion, especially bones, only
+attacking living animals when driven by necessity. They called it
+‘Quebranta-Huesos,’ or the ‘Bone-smasher,’ and assured me that this
+favourite food was broken in a singular manner. My later observations
+proved nothing which would justify my treating their statements as
+otherwise than correct, so I was forced to come to the conclusion that
+the Lämmergeier had been much maligned. Since my first account of this
+bird, I have read a number of communications from other observers, and
+gather from the whole that the Bearded Vulture is nought else than a
+weak, cowardly bird of prey, gifted neither in mind nor body to any
+great extent, and one that but rarely carries away small mammals. Its
+food usually consists of bones and other carrion.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hudleston met with the Lämmergeier in Greece, where, however, it
+was not common, and he writes of its habits as observed by him:&mdash;“He
+is not a demonstrative bird like the Griffon, who may be seen sailing
+about at a great height in the air, sometimes alone, but more often
+in troops of from half a dozen to fifty, revolving in endless circles
+round each other, that no corner may remain unseen. The Lämmergeier,
+on the contrary, may be observed floating slowly, at a uniform level,
+close to the cliffs of some deep ravine, where his shadow is perhaps
+projected on the wall-like rocks. If the ravine has salient and
+re-entering angles, he does not cut across from point to point, but
+preserves the same distance from the cliff; and when he disappears
+in any natural fissure, you feel sure of the very spot where he will
+emerge on turning the corner of the precipice. Marrow-bones are the
+dainties he loves the best; and when the other Vultures have picked the
+flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows
+the bones, or breaks them and swallows the pieces, if he cannot get the
+marrow out otherwise. The bones he cracks by taking them to a great
+height and letting them fall on a stone. This is probably the bird that
+dropped a Tortoise on the bald head of poor old Æschylus. Not, however,
+that he restricts himself, or the huge black infant that he and his
+mate are bringing up, in one of the many holes with which the limestone
+precipice abounds, to marrow, turtle, bones, and similar delicacies:
+neither lamb, hare, nor kid comes amiss to him&mdash;though, his power of
+claw and beak being feeble for so large a bird, he cannot tear his
+meat like other Vultures and Eagles. I once saw a mature bird of this
+species which had evidently swallowed a bone, or something uncommonly
+indigestible, close to the <i>abattoir</i> at Athens. He was in a very
+uncomfortable attitude, and appeared to be leaning on his long tail for
+support. After riding round in gradually decreasing circles till within
+ten yards, I dropped off horseback and made a rush at him, but he just
+managed to escape, and then rising slowly till about the height of the
+Acropolis, made off towards the gorge of Phylæ, where there is an eyry.</p>
+
+<p>“The Lämmergeier has an extremely ugly countenance; this becomes
+perfectly diabolical when he is irritated, and shows the bright
+red round his eyes. Altogether, what with his black beard, rufous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[Pg 279]</span>
+breast, and long, dark tail, he is an awful-looking beast, and has the
+reputation of committing divers evil deeds&mdash;such, for instance, as
+pushing lambs and kids, and even men, off the rocks, when they are in
+ticklish situations. Nevertheless, he is a somewhat cowardly bird, has
+a feeble, querulous cry, and will submit to insults from a Falcon not a
+fourth his size or weight.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_279">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_279.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Von Tschudi says that in Switzerland it will capture Hares, Martens,
+Squirrels, Crows, and Woodcocks, and he states that a stomach was found
+to contain five pieces of Bullock’s ribs two inches thick and from six
+to nine inches long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young Goat from
+the knee to the foot. The bones were perforated by the gastric juice,
+and partly reduced to powder. The stomach of another Lämmergeier,
+examined by Mr. Schinz, contained the large hip-bone of a Cow, the
+skin and fore-quarters of a Chamois, many smaller bones, some hair,
+and a Heath-cock’s claws. Should a Lämmergeier see an old Chamois or a
+Sheep or Goat grazing near a precipice, it will whirl round and round,
+trying to torment and frighten the creature till it runs to the edge of
+the cliff; and then, falling down upon it, the bird not unfrequently
+succeeds in pushing it into the abyss below with one stroke of its
+wings. Diving down after its mangled victim, it will begin by picking
+out its eyes, and then proceed to tear open and devour the body. It
+is only the smaller class of booty, such as Foxes, Lambs, or Marmots,
+which can be carried off by the Lämmergeier, as its feet and claws, as
+we have already remarked, are comparatively weak.<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Himalayas, where the species is also tolerably plentiful,
+its habits vary somewhat, and it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[Pg 280]</span> not unfrequently comes close to
+habitations for offal or bones, and behaves in a very Vulturine manner.
+Captain Hutton writes:&mdash;“Marvellous, indeed, are the stories told,
+both by natives and Europeans, of the destructive habits of this bird,
+and both accounts, I fully believe, have scarcely a grain of truth in
+them: all I can positively say on the point, however, is that I have
+known the bird well in its native haunts for thirty years and more,
+and never once, in all that time, have I seen it stoop to anything but
+a dead carcase. As to carrying off hens, dogs, lambs, or children, I
+say the feat would be utterly impossible, for the creature does not
+possess the strongly-curved, sharp-pointed claws of the Eagle, but the
+far straighter and perfectly blunt talons of the Vulture. Day after
+day I have seen them sweeping by along the face of the hill, like the
+wandering Albatross at sea, and, like it, ever in search of offal,
+which, when found, is not swept off the ground after the manner of the
+Kite, but the bird alights upon it, as it would upon a Bullock, and
+then, if the morsel is worth having, devours it on the spot, and again
+launches itself upon its wide-spread wings and sails away as before.
+There is no sudden stooping upon a living prey, as with the Falcon
+tribe, but its habits and manners in this respect are, as far as I have
+seen, entirely Vulturine.”</p>
+
+<p>The Lämmergeier measures about three feet and a half in length, and
+its outspread wings often extend to as much as nine feet in expanse. A
+second species is found in Africa, the Southern Lämmergeier (<i>Gypaëtus
+ossifragus</i>), which differs from the European one, in having the tarsus
+bare, instead of being feathered to the toes.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="true_eagles">THE TRUE EAGLES (<i>Aquila</i>).</p>
+
+<p id="wedge_tailed_eagle">In Australia no true Eagle is found, but a very powerful bird called
+the W<span class="smaller">EDGE</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span> (<i>Uroaëtus</i><a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a>
+<i>audax</i><a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>) inhabits
+that country, differing from all its more northern relations in its
+very long and wedge-shaped tail, which is like that of the Lämmergeier.</p>
+
+<p>The true Eagles have a very powerful bill, with a festoon distinctly
+marked in the edge of the upper mandible, which is, however, different
+from the toothed bill of the Falcons, to be considered presently. They
+nearly all possess a large bony shelf over the eye, which may serve
+to protect that organ from the sunlight during some of the aerial
+excursions the bird makes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe24" id="i_280">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_280.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">EYE OF EAGLE, SHOWING CRYSTALLINE LENS. (<i>After
+Yarrell.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The orb of the eye in the Eagles is supported by a ring of bony plates,
+numbering fifteen in the Golden Eagle. These bony plates are capable of
+slight motion upon each other. The figure represents the crystalline
+lens of the same bird, the lens being subject to great variety of form
+in different birds. In the Eagle the proportion of the axis to the
+diameter of the lens is as 3<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">8</span><span
+class="denominator">10</span></span> to 5<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">7</span><span
+class="denominator">10</span></span>; in the Eagle Owl, which
+seeks its prey at twilight, the relative proportions of the lens are as
+6<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">7</span><span
+class="denominator">10</span></span>, to 7<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">8</span><span
+class="denominator">10</span></span>; and in the Swan, which has to select its food under
+water, the proportions of the lens are as 3 to 3<span class="hfrac"><span class="numerator">8</span><span
+class="denominator">10</span></span>. Birds have also
+the power of altering the degree of the convexity of the cornea. With
+numerous modifications of form, aided by delicate muscular arrangement,
+birds appear to have the power of obtaining such variable degrees of
+extent or intensity of vision as are most in accordance with their
+peculiar habits and necessities.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p>
+
+<p id="imperial_eagle">In these birds is found a return of that difference in the size of
+the sexes which was so noticeable in the Sparrow-Hawks, for in the
+Eagles the female is decidedly larger than the male. There are two
+convenient groups into which the Eagles may be divided, according as
+they have feathered or unfeathered legs. All the true Eagles belong
+to the first section, all the less noble and Serpent-eating kinds to
+the latter section. Although they are birds of grand physique, it is a
+question whether Eagles deserve the position they enjoy for nobility
+of disposition: they are rapacious it is true, but not always brave,
+for one Golden Eagle will give way to a Peregrine Falcon, while the
+grand-looking I<span class="smaller">MPERIAL</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span> (<i>Aquila heliaca</i>, see figure
+on p. 235) is said by a good observer in India, Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B.,
+to be no better than a great hulking Kite. He adds:&mdash;“Much has been
+written about the daring and fierceness of this Eagle. I can only say
+that in India (where possibly the climate is subversive of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[Pg 281]</span> courage),
+I have never seen the slightest indications of these qualities. I have
+driven the female off hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before the
+eyes of the pair, without either of them flapping a pinion even to
+defend what a little Shrike will swoop at once to save; and I have seen
+a couple of Crows thrash one of them soundly. As a rule, this species
+with us is an ignoble feeder. I have generally found them gorged with
+carrion, and after a good meal they will sit stupidly on a tree, or
+any little mud pillar, and permit you to walk within thirty yards of
+them; but before feeding they are somewhat wary, and can by no means
+always be secured, even when seen sitting. On more than one occasion
+I have seen Desert Rats (<i>Gerbillus erythrurus</i>) in their crops, and
+I once shot one of a pair which were busy, on the line of rail at
+Etawah, devouring a Bandicoot Rat (<i>Mus bandicota</i>), which some passing
+train had cut in two. Occasionally, but rarely, I found that they had
+eaten Quails and other birds. Once I shot a male which was dancing
+about on the ground in such an astounding fashion that I killed it
+to see what the matter was. The bird proved to have been choking. It
+had swallowed a whole dry shin-bone and foot of an Antelope. The bone
+apparently could not be got down altogether, and in trying to void it,
+the sharp points of the hoof had stuck into the back of the roof of the
+mouth.”<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="golden_eagle">THE GOLDEN EAGLE (<i>Aquila
+chrysaëtus</i><a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The Golden Eagle is so called from the tawny or golden-brown colour
+which pervades the feathers of the neck in the old bird. Excepting in
+certain places in “Caledonia stern and wild,” where it is protected, it
+is a species which is becoming very rare in Great Britain, and but for
+the intervention of a few large-minded proprietors in Scotland would
+doubtless ere this have been extinguished. It is a much rarer bird
+now than the White-tailed Eagle, and the last-named species is often
+mistaken for it; but a little attention to one point will obviate all
+fear of a mistake in this respect, the Golden Eagle having at all ages
+the tarsus feathered to the toes, whereas the Sea Eagle belongs to the
+bare-legged section of these birds.</p>
+
+<p>A better description of the habits of the Golden Eagle probably does
+not exist than that given by the late Professor Macgillivray:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>“See how the sunshine brightens the yellow tint of his head and neck,
+until it shines almost like gold! There he stands, nearly erect, with
+his tail depressed, his large wings half raised by his side, his neck
+stretched out and his eye glistening as he glances around. Like other
+robbers of the desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien, a
+look of proud defiance; but his nobility has a dash of clownishness,
+and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still, he is a noble bird,
+powerful, independent, proud, and ferocious, regardless of the weal
+or woe of others, and intent solely on the gratification of his own
+appetites; without generosity, without honour, bold against the
+defenceless, but ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility,
+about which men have so raved. Suddenly he raises his wings, for
+he has heard the whistle of the shepherd in the corry, and bending
+forward, he springs into the air. Oh, that this pencil of mine were a
+musket charged with buck-shot! Hardly do those vigorous flaps serve
+at first to prevent his descent; but now, curving upwards, he glides
+majestically along. As he passes the corner of that buttressed and
+battlemented crag, forth rush two ravens from their nest, croaking
+fiercely. While one flies above him, the other steals beneath, and
+they essay to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
+knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following him a little
+way they return to their home, vainly exulting in the thought of having
+driven him from their neighbourhood. Bent on a far journey, he advances
+in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular intervals, then
+shooting along without seeming to move them. In ten minutes he has
+progressed three miles, although he is in no haste, and now disappears
+behind the shoulder of the hill. But we may follow him in imagination,
+for his habits being well known to us, we may be allowed the
+ornithological licence of tracing them in continuance. Homeward bound,
+his own wants satisfied, he knows that his young must be supplied with
+food.</p>
+
+<p>“Over the moors he sweeps, at the height of two or three hundred feet,
+bending his course to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck
+retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[Pg 282]</span> smoothly along.
+Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a moment, stoops, but recovers
+himself without touching the ground. The object of his regards, a
+Golden Plover, which he had spied on her nest, has eluded him; and
+he cares not to pursue it. Now he ascends a little, wheels in short
+curves, presently rushes down headlong, assumes the horizontal position
+when close to the ground, prevents his being dashed against it by
+expanding his wings and tail, thrusts forth his talons, and grasping
+a poor terrified Ptarmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens,
+squeezes it to death, raises his head exultingly, emits a clear, shrill
+cry, and springing from the ground pursues his journey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe41" id="i_282">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_282.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GOLDEN EAGLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small lake, he is assailed
+by a fierce Peregrine Falcon, which darts and plunges at him as if
+determined to deprive him of his booty, or drive him headlong to the
+ground. This proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the
+Eagle screams, yelps, and throws himself into postures of defence;
+but at length the Hawk, seeing the tyrant is not bent on plundering
+his nest, leaves him to pursue his course unmolested. Over woods,
+and green fields, and scattered hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now he
+enters the long valley of the Dee, near the upper end of which is dimly
+seen through the grey mist the rock of his nest. About a mile from it
+he meets his mate, who has been abroad on a similar errand, and is
+returning with a white Hare in her talons. They congratulate each other
+with loud yelping cries, which rouse the drowsy shepherd on the strath
+below, who, mindful of the lambs carried off in spring-time, sends
+after them his malediction. Now they reach their nest and are greeted
+by their young with loud clamour.</p>
+
+<p>“Let us mark the spot. It is a shelf of a rock, concealed by a
+projecting angle, so that it cannot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[Pg 283]</span> be injured from above, and is
+too distant from the base to be reached by a shot. In the crevices
+are luxuriant tufts of <i>Rhodiola rosea</i>, and scattered around are
+many alpine plants, which it would delight the botanist to enumerate.
+The mineralogist would not be less pleased could he with chisel and
+hammer reach that knob which glitters with crystals of quartz and
+felspar. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet at least in diameter,
+rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and heath; flat, unless in
+the centre, where it is a little hollowed and covered with wool and
+feathers. Slovenly creatures you would think these two young birds,
+clothed with white down, amid which the larger feathers are seen
+projecting, for their fluid dung is scattered all over the sticks,
+and you see that, had the nest been formed more compactly of softer
+materials, it would have been less comfortable. Strewn around, too, are
+fragments of Lambs, Hares, Grouse and other birds in various stages of
+decay. Alighting on the edges of the nest, the Eagles deposit their
+prey, partially pluck off the hair and feathers, and rudely tearing up
+the flesh, lay it before their ever-hungry young.”</p>
+
+<p>The length of a male Golden Eagle is a little more than two feet and
+a half, while the female attains at least three feet in dimensions,
+with a wing three inches longer than that of her mate. The colour of
+the plumage is dark brown, with a rich tawny hue on the back of the
+neck and nape, the feathers of these parts being streaked with darker
+brown; the tail is more or less mottled with grey at the base, and is
+whiter in younger birds. The latter are often popularly distinguished
+as the Ring-tailed Eagles. By some authors the Eagle which frequents
+the mountains is considered to be a different species from that which
+inhabits the plains, but as far as present experience goes it is the
+younger birds which are more often met with in the latter localities,
+being probably driven from their mountain homes by the older birds.
+The Golden Eagle varies his choice of an eyry in different localities,
+building in the British Islands generally on a rock, but in many other
+countries nesting on a tree. It is found all over Europe and Northern
+Asia, in mountainous districts, extending into China and even into the
+Himalayas, whence the finest specimens are obtained. In North America
+also the examples of the Golden Eagle seem to be very large, but are
+not to be otherwise distinguished from European specimens.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="kite_eagle">THE KITE EAGLE (<i>Neopus</i><a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>
+<i>malayensis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This extraordinary bird bears the above name from its resemblance
+generally to a Kite, and also from its plumage, which in the young bird
+is wonderfully Kite-like, so that a dead specimen carelessly examined
+might be taken easily for one of the latter birds. One moment’s search,
+however, would dispose of the illusion, for no one who has once heard
+of the foot of this Eagle could ever forget it or mistake it for that
+of any other raptorial bird, the talons being longer and more slender
+in proportion to the size of the foot than in any known Eagle; they
+are also nearly straight. The inner claws are the longest, and that
+excellent observer, Captain Vincent Legge, points out that they seem
+“especially adapted for the work of carrying off loose and fragile
+masses, such as the nests of small birds, as they would naturally form
+its chief means of grasp when such an object was being held by both
+feet during the process of flight.” This last sentence gives an insight
+into the habits of the bird, which are on a par with its remarkable
+structure. It might well be called the “Bird’s-nesting Eagle,” for it
+seems to be the only bird of prey which systematically lives by the
+robbery of smaller birds’ nests; only on very rare occasions, and when
+pressed by hunger, has it been known to attack larger game or worry the
+poultry-yard. It is almost always on the wing, and the Lepcha-hunters
+near Darjeeling speak of it as the bird “that never sits down.” It
+is found in the Himalayas and in other wooded districts of India,
+and occurs but more sparingly in the Malayan peninsula and islands,
+ranging to some of the Moluccas, but probably visiting the latter only
+on migration. But it is in Ceylon that it is, perhaps, more plentiful
+than in any other locality, and the best account of its habits is
+that given by Captain Legge, whose words are subjoined. “This fine,
+long-winged Eagle is, on account of the singular structure of its feet
+and its curious habits, one of the most interesting, but, at the same
+time, perhaps the most destructive of raptors to bird-life in Ceylon.
+It subsists, as far as can be observed, entirely by birds’-nesting,
+and is not content with the eggs and young birds which its keen sight
+espies among the branches of the forest-trees, but seizes the nest in
+its talons, decamps with it, and often examines<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[Pg 284]</span> the contents as it
+sails lazily along. Furthermore, Mr. S. Bligh informs me that he once
+found the best part of a bird’s nest in the stomach of one of these
+Eagles which he shot in the Central Province. Its flight is most easy
+and graceful. In the early morning it passes much of its time soaring
+round the high peaks or cliffs on which it has passed the night, and
+about nine or ten o’clock starts off on its daily foraging expedition.
+It launches itself with motionless wings from some dizzy precipice,
+and proceeding in a straight line, till over some inviting-looking
+patna-woods it quickly descends with one or two rather sharp gyrations,
+through, perhaps, a thousand feet, and is in another moment gliding
+stealthily along just above the tops of the trees. In and out among
+these, along the side of the wood, backwards and forwards over the
+top of the narrow strip, it quarters, its long wings outstretched
+and the tips of its pinions wide apart, with apparently no exertion;
+and luckless indeed is the Bulbul, Oriole, or Mountain Finch whose
+carefully-built nest is discovered by the soaring robber.”<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a></p>
+
+<p>The size of the Kite Eagle is about thirty inches in length, and the
+colour is entirely black, with some indistinct bars of ashy-grey on the
+tail. Besides the Eagles that have been alluded to already, there are
+the Hawk-Eagles (<i>Nisaëtus</i>), remarkable for their long legs, and the
+Crested Eagles (<i>Spizaëtus</i>), which have a beautiful long crest hanging
+from the hinder part of the head.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_harrier_eagle">THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE
+(<i>Circaëtus</i><a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a>
+<i>gallicus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This, which is also called the “Jean-le-Blanc,” is one of the
+best-known of all the bare-legged section of the Eagles. The genus
+<i>Circaëtus</i>, to which it belongs, contains five species, of which four
+are peculiar to Africa, the <i>C. gallicus</i> being found all over Southern
+and Central Europe, and extending into India, where it is not at all
+unplentiful. In its nature this bird is rather sluggish, though in
+confinement it is very untamable, and wears a thoroughly fierce aspect,
+as could be seen by any one who examined the specimen in the Zoological
+Gardens. Its ferocious appearance was heightened by its peculiar eye,
+which is very large, of a bright yellow, with a very small black pupil,
+whereas the pupil in most birds of prey is rather large.<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="indian_serpent_eagle">THE INDIAN SERPENT EAGLE (<i>Spilornis cheela</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is a beautiful bird, having the under surface mottled with white
+spots or “ocelli.” All the Serpent Eagles, of which there are several
+species, are characterised by a similar style of plumage, and by a
+full, thick crest of feathers springing from the occiput and hind
+part of the head. They are found all over India and Ceylon, Southern
+China, and the Burmese countries, the Malayan Peninsula, Sunda Islands,
+Borneo, and Celebes. The Ceylonese species, which is a small race of
+the Indian bird, is stated by Layard to feed on Snakes, Lizards, and
+other reptiles and insects, and to be particularly partial to the large
+trees on the banks of tanks, from them swooping down on the frogs which
+came up to sun themselves on the floating logs or reeds. The Indian
+species of Serpent Eagle is a powerful bird, and is said to capture
+Pheasants during the breeding season and bring them to the nest. Mr.
+Hume has generally found small Snakes in their stomachs; once as many
+as fifty together were found, all scarcely bigger than large Worms; and
+an instance was brought to his knowledge of a Cobra some two feet and a
+half long having been found dead, but uninjured, in one of these birds’
+stomachs. Mr. Thompson, a frequent contributor to Mr. Hume’s “Rough
+Notes,” tells of one which he had alive, and which was kept along with
+two little Indian Owls (<i>Carine brama</i>), a Carrion Crow, and three
+large green Woodpeckers, and who killed and ate up every one of the
+latter, though well supplied with other fresh meat.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="bateleur_eagle">THE BATELEUR EAGLE
+(<i>Helotarsus</i><a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a>
+<i>ecaudatus</i><a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is a very remarkable bird, which might also with propriety be
+called the Short-tailed Eagle, as it is the only species known in which
+the wings exceed the tail in length. It is found in Africa only, where
+it is by no means rare in the southern and north-eastern quarters of
+the continent.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[Pg 285]</span> In Damara Land, according to Mr. Andersson, it builds
+its nest on trees, selecting generally one of such a terribly thorny
+nature that the nest is always difficult of access. Occasionally,
+however, a rock is selected for the breeding-place. When in captivity,
+this bird changes the colour of the face, exactly as the Brazilian
+Caracara already alluded to; the bare skin round the nostrils and eyes,
+which is generally brilliant coral-red, fading to pale orange-yellow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_285">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_285.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BATELEUR EAGLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Bateleur Eagle is about two feet in length, and has an enormous
+crest of plumes. The colour is black, with a large maroon-coloured
+patch on the shoulders and on the back, the tail being also of this
+colour. Sometimes individuals with pale, cream-coloured backs are
+found; but at present it is not known whether these are a different
+species, or whether they constitute only a pale variety of the ordinary
+Bateleur.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="white_tailed_eagle">THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE (<i>Haliaëtus
+albicilla</i><a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Sea Eagles are absent from South America, but probably from no other
+country of the globe. Both Europe and North America are inhabited
+by large and powerful species; and throughout Africa and Madagascar
+the handsomely-marked species <i>H. vocifer</i> occurs. One of the most
+widespread is the White-bellied Sea Eagle; it is found round the coasts
+of Australia and all the Molucca Islands, ranging as far as India and
+Ceylon, and as high as Cochin China.</p>
+
+<p>The White-tailed Eagle, which, from its being an inhabitant of the
+British Islands, is the species most familiarly known of all the Sea
+Eagles, is still met with in some of the northern parts of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[Pg 286]</span> Scotland,
+and in the Hebrides; but as it is a bird which creates a good deal
+of havoc among lambs at certain periods of the year, the war of
+extermination which has been waged against it has now contributed
+considerably to the increasing rarity of the species on these coasts.
+The breeding of this Sea Eagle has been well described by Mr.
+Woolley.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> He says:&mdash;“On the coasts, the Sea Eagle chooses a roomy
+and generally sheltered ledge of rock. The egg which Mr. Hewitson
+figures (Eggs, Br. B., ed. 3, pl. iv., fig. 2) is one of two which I
+took on the 23rd April, 1849, on one of the most northern points of our
+island. The nest was very slightly made of a little grass and fresh
+heather loosely put together, without any sticks; but two or three
+‘kek’ stalks were strewn about outside. There was a good thickness of
+guano-like soil upon the rock, which made much nest unnecessary. Two
+or three Guillemot’s beaks, the only unmanageable part of that bird,
+were not far off. The eggs were laid two days before when I went to
+reconnoitre; and I never shall forget the forbearance which a friend
+who was with me showed, at my request, as he lay, gun in hand, with
+the hen Eagle in full view upon her nest not forty yards below him.
+Her head was towards the cliff, and concealed from our sight; whilst
+her broad back and white tail, as she stood bending over her nest on
+the grassy ledge, with the beautiful sandstone rock and sea beyond,
+completed a picture rarely to be forgotten. But our ears, and the
+air we breathe, give a finish to Nature’s pictures which no art can
+imitate; and here were the effects of the sea, and the heather, and
+the rocks, the fresh warmth of the northern sun, and the excitement
+of exercise, while the musical yelping of the male Eagle came from
+some stand out of sight. Add to all this the innate feeling of delight
+connected with the pursuit of wild animals, which no philosopher has
+yet been able to explain further than as a special gift of our Great
+Maker, and then say whether it is not almost blasphemy to call such a
+scene a ‘picture!’ Upon this occasion, I made some remark to my friend,
+when the hen Eagle showed her clear eye and big, yellow beak, her head
+full of the expression of wild nature and freedom. She gave us a steady
+glance, then sprang from the rock, and with ‘slow winnowing wing’&mdash;the
+flight-feathers turning upwards at every stroke&mdash;was soon out at sea.
+Joined by her mate, she began to sail with him in circles farther and
+farther away, till quite out of sight, yelping as long as we could
+hear them, Gulls mobbing them all the time. To enjoy the beauties of
+a wild coast to perfection, let me recommend any man to seat himself
+in an Eagle’s nest. The year before this I took the young ones out
+of the same eyry late in July. It was my first attempt at an Eagle’s
+stronghold, and I shall never forget the interest of the whole affair;
+a thunderstorm coming on just before, making it necessary to cut drains
+in the peat with our knives, to divert the torrents of water; our
+councils about the best mode of attaching the ropes; the impertinence
+of a young lad who, stationed to watch for my signals, was rendered
+quite useless by his keen sense of the ridiculous on seeing me, in my
+inexperience, twisting round and round at the end of the rope; the
+extraordinary grandeur everything assumed, from the nest itself; the
+luxurious feeling of exultation; the interest of every plant about
+it&mdash;I know them all now; the heaps of young Herring-Gulls’ remains, and
+the large fish-bone; but, above all, the Eaglets fully able to fly, and
+yet crouching side by side, with their necks stretched out and chins on
+the ground, like young Fawns, their frightened eyes showing that they
+had no intention of showing fight.</p>
+
+<p>“Very gently, as a man ‘tickles’ trout, I passed my hand under them,
+and tied their legs together, and then tried to confine their wings.
+They actually allowed me to fasten a handkerchief round them, which,
+however, was soon shaken off when they began to be pulled up. When the
+men had raised me, the string attached to my waist lifted one Eaglet,
+and presently the second came to the length of his tether. Great was
+the flapping of wings, and clutching at rocks and grass. I had many
+fears that the string or the birds’ legs must give way; but, after much
+hard pulling, I got them safely to the top, and they are now (1853)
+alive at Matlock amongst rocks, where I hope they may breed; but,
+though five years old this season, they have not yet quite completed
+the adult plumage. Their dutiful parents never came near them in their
+difficulties; but I am happy to say that in 1850 (the year after I took
+their eggs), they carried off their young, through the interest I was
+able to exert in their favour. They had shifted their position; and
+they changed again in 1851 to a rock with an aspect quite different,
+and more than a mile away. In 1847, to please the shepherds, the young
+were shot in the nest, which was built in the spot where I visited it
+the two following years. There was no sea-weed about this nest either
+time that I saw it; but a friend writes me word, that two which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[Pg 287]</span> he
+examined last year on the sea-cliffs of this island, and which he
+carefully described to me, were principally made of that material, as
+Mr. Hewitson also had found them in the Shetland Islands. On one of
+these two occasions, the old Eagle made a dash near my informant, with
+a ‘fearful scream,’ and such was the tremendous character of the rocks,
+that his ‘hair gets strong’ when he thinks of them. These two nests,
+both occupied, were not more than a mile and a half apart.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_287">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_287.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="swallow_tailed_kite">THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (<i>Elanoides furcatus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The forked tail which is characteristic of the Kites reaches in
+the present species its greatest development, so that the name of
+Swallow-tailed Kite is by no means inappropriate. On five occasions
+the bird has been captured in England, and it is doubtless during its
+migration that the bird is driven to Britain by some adverse wind.
+Its range is extensive, as it is numerous during the summer in some
+of the southern States of North America, and it migrates to South
+America, whence it frequently appears in collections from Brazil and
+Columbia. Mr. Audubon gives the following account of the Swallow-tailed
+Kite:&mdash;“The flight of this elegant species of Hawk is singularly
+beautiful and protracted. It moves through the air with such ease and
+grace, that it is impossible for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[Pg 288]</span> any individual, who takes the least
+pleasure in observing the manners of birds, not to be delighted by
+the sight of it whilst on the wing. Gliding along in easy flappings,
+it rises in wide circles to an immense height, inclining in various
+ways its deeply-forked tail, to assist the direction of its course;
+dives with the rapidity of lightning, and, suddenly checking itself,
+re-ascends, soars away, and is soon out of sight. At other times, a
+flock of these birds, amounting to fifteen or twenty individuals, is
+seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst
+the branches, glancing along the trunks, and seizing in their course
+the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest. Their motions
+are astonishingly rapid, and the deep curves which they describe, their
+sudden doublings and crossings, and the extreme ease with which they
+seem to cleave the air, excite the admiration of him who views them
+while thus employed in searching for food.</p>
+
+<p>“In the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are
+abundant, they arrive in large companies in the beginning of April, and
+are heard uttering a sharp plaintive note. At this period I generally
+remarked that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of
+a hundred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly
+course. At that season, and in the beginning of September when they
+all retire from the United States, they are easily approached when
+they have alighted, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged
+in preparing themselves for continuing their journey, by dressing and
+oiling their feathers. At all other times, however, it is extremely
+difficult to get near them, as they are generally on wing through the
+day, and at night rest on the highest pines and cypresses, bordering
+the river-bluffs, the lakes, or the swamps of that district of country.</p>
+
+<p>“They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather they soar to an
+immense height, pursuing the large insects called <i>Musquito Hawks</i>, and
+performing the most singular evolutions that can be conceived, using
+their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their
+principal food, however, is large Grasshoppers, Grass Caterpillars,
+small Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs. They sweep close over the fields,
+sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a Snake, and
+holding it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air.
+When searching for Grasshoppers and Caterpillars, it is not difficult
+to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then
+killed, and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead
+bird, as if intent upon carrying it off. An excellent opportunity is
+thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted; and I have killed
+several of these Hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could load
+my gun.</p>
+
+<p>“The Fork-tailed Hawks are also very fond of frequenting the creeks,
+which, in that country, are much encumbered with drifted logs and
+accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of the numerous
+Water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash
+along the trunks of trees, and snap off the pupæ of the Locust, or that
+insect itself. Although when on the wing they move with a grace and
+ease which it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are
+scarcely able to walk.</p>
+
+<p>“I kept for several days one which had been slightly wounded in the
+wing. It refused to eat, kept the feathers of the head and rump
+constantly erect, and vomited several times part of the contents of its
+stomach. It never threw itself on its back, nor attempted to strike
+with its talons, unless when taken up by the tip of the wing. It died
+from inanition, as it constantly refused the food placed before it in
+profusion, and instantly vomited what had been placed down its throat.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_kite">THE COMMON KITE (<i>Milvus
+ictinus</i><a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Times have changed in England since the number of Kites to be seen
+flying about London Bridge could form a subject of astonishment to a
+foreign traveller visiting that country; but less than three hundred
+years ago this was the case, though now the species has been all but
+banished from the land. It may still occasionally nest in some parts of
+Wales and of Scotland; but in the latter country places where formerly
+the species bred plentifully now know it no more. The Kite builds its
+nest of sticks on a large tree, but occasionally also on rocks, and it
+is generally composed of a mixture of materials, such as bones, &amp;c.,
+and the lining usually contains a good many rags; so that Shakspere,
+with the knowledge of natural history which always distinguished him,
+was quite right when he said&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“When the Kite builds, look to lesser linen.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[Pg 289]</span></p>
+<p>The presence of the Kite in London was useful in the old days, as its
+food consists by preference of offal, though it also devours Moles,
+Frogs, and unfledged nestlings, Rabbits, Snakes, and fish. The forked
+tail of this species&mdash;which serves as a rudder to the bird when flying,
+as it often does, in circles aloft&mdash;easily distinguishes it from all
+other British birds of prey. The length of the bird is about two feet,
+and the general colour of the upper plumage is rufous, most of the
+feathers being edged with that colour. Below, it is rufous-brown, with
+a narrow streak of blackish down the feathers; the quills are black;
+the tail rufous-brown, deeply forked, and crossed with seven or eight
+bars of black. The species is found all over Europe, but becomes
+gradually rarer in the eastern parts.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="european_honey_kite">THE EUROPEAN HONEY-KITE (<i>Pernis apivorus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This bird is generally known as the Honey-Buzzard, though from the
+reticulations on the hinder aspect of the tarsus it has evidently
+nothing to do with those birds, even if its soft and kite-like plumage
+did not show its affinities to the Kites. Its nostril is also peculiar,
+and is closed in by a membrane, which doubtless forms a protection
+from the stings of insects when the bird is attacking a Bee’s or
+Wasp’s nest. Its habits have been well described by Brehm.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> This
+bird is, perhaps, the most timid of all European birds of prey, but
+is remarkable for its good temper. Its movements are in the highest
+degree clumsy; its flight is bad, heavy, and slow, and is generally a
+short one, and the bird shows a great disinclination to rise to any
+considerable height in the air; in short, its whole bearing evinces the
+most lazy disposition. It will sit for hours on a stone boundary wall,
+on a solitary tree or sign-post, or on some other elevated spot, quite
+contented, watching its prey, which consists of the following:&mdash;Insects
+of all descriptions, Beetles, Caterpillars, Dragon-flies, Gadflies,
+Worms, Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, and destructive Rodents, which form its
+principal food; besides which it is very fond of hunting for the nests
+of the Humble-bee and Wasp, and of feeding on their larvæ. This bird
+also, unfortunately, destroys the young, and especially the eggs, of
+such of the smaller birds as it comes across while hunting for insects;
+this causes it to be looked upon as a disagreeable and hateful enemy
+by all birds. Crows and Rooks mob the Honey-Buzzard with almost the
+same eagerness as they chase the Eagle-Owl, and all small birds make
+a great noise at its appearance. In the summer it also feeds on buds,
+blossoms, bilberries, other wood-berries, and even leaves. This habit
+distinguishes it from all other German birds of prey.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe33" id="i_289">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_289.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON KITE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The Honey-Buzzard reaches us somewhat late in the year, and commences
+to build its nest when the other Raptors have hatched their broods. The
+nest is very flat, and is placed on the highest of our forest trees;
+it is principally constructed of green twigs, mixed with dead sticks,
+and is lined with moss, hair, and feathers. It generally contains three
+eggs, of a rusty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[Pg 290]</span> yellow ground, very thickly blotched and spotted with
+dark reddish-brown. They are somewhat small and rather long in shape.
+Of these rarely more than two are hatched. The young ones are at first
+fed with Caterpillars, Flies, Beetles, Worms, &amp;c., which the old birds
+collect in their crops, and then throw up; later they are treated to
+pieces of Wasps’ nests filled with larvæ, Frogs, Mice, young birds,
+&amp;c. The parent birds still continue to feed their young long after the
+latter have left the nest. Both young and old birds remain in company
+almost till the moulting season comes round, when they migrate more to
+the southward.”</p>
+
+<p>The Honey-Kite inhabits, during the summer, the greater part of Europe,
+and flies away to Africa to pass the winter. In India it is represented
+by a species which goes through similar changes of plumage, but may
+always be recognised by its long crest. The phases through which the
+Honey-Kite passes are most remarkable, the bird being sometimes nearly
+all white, at other times all black; and this plumage seems to occur
+at any age, sometimes in youth, sometimes in old age; and hence this
+is called a melanism (μέλας, black). Many birds of prey are subject
+to this melanism, but none more so than the Honey-Buzzards, and their
+representatives in America, the Tooth-billed Kites (<i>Leptodon</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="anderssons_pern">ANDERSSON’S PERN
+(<i>Machærhamphus</i><a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a>
+<i>Anderssoni</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable bird bears the name of one of the most intrepid, as
+well as one of the most unassuming, of African travellers, the late
+Charles John Andersson, who discovered it during his residence in
+Damara Land in South-western Africa. So rare is it, and so difficult to
+obtain, that he only managed to procure two specimens in the space of
+ten years, though constantly on the look-out for the bird. He writes
+concerning it:&mdash;“On the 10th of March, 1865, I obtained one specimen,
+a female, of this singular bird at Objimbinque, Damara Land. It was
+shot by my servant, who observed another, probably the male. I imagine
+that I have myself observed it once or twice in the neighbourhood
+of Objimbinque just before dusk. When brought to me I instinctively
+suspected the bird to be a feeder at dusk or at night, and called
+out, ‘Why, that fellow is likely to feed on Bats!’ And truly enough
+so it turned out; for on dissection an undigested Bat was found in
+the stomach; and in another specimen, subsequently killed by Axel,
+there were several Bats in the stomach.”<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> It is probably owing to
+this habit of feeding in the evening that the bird is so difficult
+to procure, as is the case with many of the Goat-suckers, which are
+also night-feeding birds. Since Mr. Andersson’s death, two or three
+specimens of his Pern have been sent from Madagascar, but in the
+intervening portions of the African continent it is as yet unknown.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring of this species is plain, being of a chocolate-brown
+colour, with a long crest springing from the back of the head; above
+the eye is a white spot, and another below the eye; the throat and
+chest are white, with a streak of dark brown down the centre of the
+throat; the quills and tail are banded the bars showing paler below.
+The length of the bird is about seventeen inches.</p>
+
+<p>Only one other species of the genus <i>Machærhamphus</i> is known, and this
+is Westermann’s Pern (<i>M. alcinus</i>), which is an inhabitant of Malacca,
+where it is almost as rare as Andersson’s Pern is in Africa. It has
+lately been sent from South-eastern New Guinea, and may ultimately be
+found to inhabit some of the Moluccas.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_FIFTH_SUB_FAMILY_OF_THE_FALCONIDAE"><span class="s4">THE
+FIFTH SUB-FAMILY.&mdash;THE FALCONS (<i>Falconinæ</i>).</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In all the true Falcons and in the allied genera the bill, which was
+simply festooned in the Eagles, Kites, and Buzzards, becomes very
+distinctly toothed, and in some genera even two teeth are present. In
+these birds, too, the cere is strongly shown, and is generally of a
+bright yellow colour.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="cuckoo_falcons">THE CUCKOO-FALCONS (<i>Baza</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These birds have the soft plumage of a Honey-Kite, and yet possess the
+toothed bill of a Falcon, so that they are placed among the Falconinæ;
+but, because of their Kite-like plumage, they follow close to the
+Perns and Honey-Kites. They not only possess the usual tooth of the
+Falcon’s bill, but a second is actually present, so that there is no
+difficulty in recognising a member of the genus <i>Baza</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[Pg 291]</span> The American
+Cuckoo-Falcons (<i>Harpagus</i>) are the only other birds of prey which have
+a double-toothed bill.</p>
+
+<p>The name of “Cuckoo”-Falcon has been given to these birds on account
+of their actual resemblance to a Cuckoo, in the grey colour of the
+back with the reddish bars on the under surface. They have also a very
+large yellow eye. The distribution of the genus <i>Baza</i> is singular, and
+it is one of those forms which does not occur in Europe, but exhibits
+the affinity which is often seen between certain African and Indian
+birds. About nine different kinds are known, each having its own
+limited range. Thus Swainson’s Cuckoo-Falcon (<i>B. cuculoides</i><a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>)
+is found in the forest country from Senegambia to Gaboon in West
+Africa, and is replaced by <i>Baza Verreauxi</i> in the forests of Natal.
+In Madagascar a third species (<i>B. madagascariensis</i>) occurs, and on
+crossing the Indian Ocean a fourth kind (<i>B. ceylonensis</i>) is found
+inhabiting Ceylon. Malacca and the Sunda Islands have their own Baza
+sumatrensis, the Philippines <i>B. magnirostris</i>, the island of Celebes
+<i>B. erythrothorax</i>, the Moluccas and New Guinea <i>B. Reinwardti</i>, and
+Northern Australia, <i>B. subcristata</i>. None of these birds appear to
+be migratory, and their geographical distribution is interesting when
+traced out on a map of the world.</p>
+
+<p>From their shy and retiring habits, but little has been recorded of
+their life. Verreaux’s Cuckoo-Falcon is said to frequent the dense bush
+in Natal, and Captain Harford shot one in that country while engaged
+upon an ant-hill, and their food appears to consist of Grasshoppers
+and Mantidæ, while another observer took from the stomach of one of
+these birds remains of a green Mantis, of Locusts, and of a Chameleon.
+This species is one of the largest of the Cuckoo-Falcons, measuring
+seventeen inches in length, and the colour is dark ashy-grey; deeper
+ash-colour on the head and crest; the sides of the face, throat, and
+chest, are clear ashy; the breast white, banded across with pale rufous
+brown; the under tail-coverts being pure white; both the wings and tail
+are barred with dark brown. The sexes of these birds differ very little
+in size.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="falconets">THE FALCONETS
+(<i>Microhierax</i><a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This name is applied to a genus of tiny Falcons, which are peculiar
+to the Indian region. One of them, the Indian Falconet (<i>Microhierax
+cærulescens</i>), is found in the Himalayas and the Burmese countries. A
+second one is peculiar to Assam, a third to the Philippine Islands,
+and a fourth to the interior of China, while the fifth and remaining
+species is found in the Malayan Peninsula and the Sunda Islands.</p>
+
+<p>Not one of these little Hawks is seven inches in length, and even to
+this day there are many authors who think that they are Butcher-birds
+or Shrikes, and not Hawks at all. They are, however, true Falcons,
+though of very small size, and are said to be used by native chiefs for
+hawking insects and Button-quails, being thrown from the hand like a
+ball; but this story has been discredited of late, the Besra, a small
+Sparrow-Hawk, being probably the bird alluded to. The Falconets are
+known to sit solitary on high trees, and according to native accounts
+they feed on small birds and insects.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="peregrine_falcon">THE PEREGRINE FALCON
+(<i>Falco peregrinus</i><a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This noble bird justifies his name of <i>peregrinus</i>, by his distribution
+over the earth’s surface. The ordinary Peregrine, which is still
+found in suitable places breeding on British coasts, is met with all
+over Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into South Africa and India
+in winter, extending throughout China to the Sunda Islands, and the
+Philippine Archipelago. In North America he is also widely distributed,
+and is as plentiful as in Europe. In the southern hemisphere the
+Peregrines, though strictly of the same type as the European bird,
+are always darker in colour, and have blacker faces and heads. The
+Australian Peregrine is called <i>Falco melanogenys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> and extends
+its range from the Australian continent to New Caledonia and the New
+Hebrides, and as far north as Java. In South Africa the resident
+Peregrine is a very small, dark-coloured bird, and is called <i>Falco
+minor</i>. This species is also met with in North-eastern Africa, and even
+ranges into the Mediterranean, as it has been shot in Rhodes, Sardinia,
+and Morocco. Again, in Chili, another dark-faced form occurs, the
+<i>Falco nigriceps</i>,<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> not unlike its Australian relative.</p>
+
+<p>To write a history of the Peregrine Falcon would be almost to write
+a history of falconry, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[Pg 292]</span> although it would be beyond the limits
+of the present work to enter deeply into the subject, a few words
+must be said about it here. The art of falconry probably came from
+the East, where it is still practised, and an ancient bas-relief was
+found by Sir Austen Layard, among the ruins of Khorsabad, depicting a
+falconer with a Hawk on his wrist, thus proving the antiquity of the
+pursuit. In Great Britain it was formerly much in vogue, and in Salvin
+and Brodrick’s work on “Falconry in the British Islands” there will
+be found an interesting <i>résumé</i> of the art, as performed in Great
+Britain, from ancient times down to the present. It is lamentable
+to think of the way in which these noble birds, once the pride and
+favourite of monarchs, are now shot down and classed as vermin. The
+strict way of preserving game which has been common of late years, and
+the general use of firearms, have, no doubt, been the chief causes of
+the destruction of the larger Falcons, and it will take some time to
+disabuse the vulgar prejudices of gamekeepers, and of some proprietors,
+as to the mistake that is made in killing off every kind of raptorial
+bird indiscriminately. A protest which was penned by Mr. G. E. Freeman,
+in his “Falconry,” is worthy of reproduction here:&mdash;“All Hawks, when
+they have a choice, invariably choose the easiest flight. This fact is
+of the last importance in the matter before us. I confess that I at
+once give it the chief place in this argument. Who has not heard of the
+Grouse disease? It has been attributed, sometimes respectively, and
+sometimes collectively, to burnt heather; to heather poisoned from the
+dressings put on Sheep; to the Sheep themselves cropping the tender
+shoots and leaves of the plant, and thus destroying the Grouse’s food;
+to the tape-worm; to shot which has wounded but not killed; and perhaps
+to other things besides. It may be, I doubt not, correctly referred to
+any or to all of these. Of this, however, there appears no question
+that from whatever cause it springs it is <i>propagated</i>. A diseased
+parent produces a diseased child. Now, I say that when every Hawk is
+killed upon a large manor, the balance of Nature is forgotten, or
+ignored; and that Nature will not overlook an insult. <i>She</i> would have
+kept her wilds healthy; destroy her appointed instruments, and beware
+of her revenge!”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe31" id="i_292">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_292.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PEREGRINE FALCON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Peregrine Falcon has always been celebrated with falconers for
+its superior dash and courage. The female is much the larger and
+more powerful bird, and is called the “Falcon,” the male being known
+as the “Tiercel.” The young birds reared from the nest are called
+“Eyes,” and the immature specimens, from their more rufous colour, are
+distinguished as the “Red Falcon” and the “Red Tiercel.” When a bird
+has been caught wild in the full plumage it is called “Haggard.” The
+principal flight of the “Falcon” was at the Heron, and many anecdotes
+are told of the encounters between these two antagonists in mid-air.
+The evidence of Falconers, however, goes to show that the impalement
+of the Hawk by the Heron’s bill is a rare occurrence, and it is only
+when the birds come to the ground that the presence of the man is
+required to rescue the Falcons from their dangerous foe. The Heron,
+on being pursued, endeavours to avoid his pursuer by mounting high
+into the air, the Falcon meanwhile doing his best to rise above him
+and strike the quarry to the ground. Generally,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[Pg 293]</span> two Falcons were
+employed in the chase, and while the Heron avoided the stoop of one
+by changing his position suddenly, the other was ready to stoop from
+above, until, by a successful swoop, the Heron would be mastered and
+borne to the ground with the two Falcons in close embrace. Then was
+the time for the good falconer to be at hand to save his Hawks from
+the Heron. In a wild state the Peregrine feeds on Grouse of all kinds,
+Pheasants, Partridges, Ducks, Pigeons, Plovers, &amp;c., but it does not
+so often visit the poultry-yard as the other Hawks, preferring the
+open country or the sea-coast. In this latter locality, the Falcon
+feeds on the various sea-birds, such as the Puffins, Auks, Guillemots,
+and as it flies back to its nest with food for its young, it will
+sometimes in very wantonness rip up a Gull or other sea-bird if it
+happens to get in the way as it rushes by. The nest is generally large,
+and composed of sticks and herbaceous plants, excepting in localities
+where none of the latter exist, when it is made of grass. The site
+chosen is some sea-cliff or high precipice inland, where there is
+sure to be some difficulty in reaching the nest, which is generally
+harried by means of a rope. They build in the same localities for years
+together, and Professor Newton gives an interesting record of such
+an occurrence,<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a> when he mentions a hill in Lapland, where a pair
+of Falcons had a nest when it was visited by the French astronomical
+expedition in 1736, a nest being re-discovered in the same place in
+1799 by Captain Skjöldebrand, and again by the late Mr. Woolley, in
+1853. Near the site of its nest the Peregrine brooks no intruder,
+and will even attack an Eagle, an instance having been recorded of
+one of the latter birds being stunned and brought to the ground by a
+Peregrine, who broke its own wing in the attempt, and was liberated
+by the shepherds to mend its wing as best it could, in gratitude for
+having delivered their aquiline enemy into their hands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17" id="i_293a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_293a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HOODED FALCON.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Holland, where until recent years hawking was largely carried on
+under the auspices of the king, there is a well-known place, called
+Valkenswaard, where a good many Hawks are trapped every autumn during
+migration, and it is from the neighbourhood of this village that many
+of the most celebrated falconers have come. At the same time England
+has also produced many celebrated adepts at the art, which is generally
+carried on from father to son; and one of the Barr family, with a high
+reputation as a falconer, a few years ago exhibited his trained birds
+in the neighbourhood of London. The writer has also seen some fine
+sport in Huntingdonshire, with Lord Lilford’s Hawks, in a large extent
+of open country near Great Gidding.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe14" id="i_293b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_293b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FALCON’S HOOD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The male Peregrine is of a bluish-grey colour, narrowly barred with
+black, the wings darker; the cheeks, ear-coverts, and moustache, black,
+the entire sides of the head being sometimes of this dark aspect;
+underneath, the body is white, with more or less of a reddish tinge,
+and crossed with black bars; tail grey, broadly barred with black and
+tipped with white. The length is about fifteen inches, that of the
+female about seventeen; and the wing is fourteen inches and a half in
+length instead of about twelve, as in the male. In plumage the hen bird
+is very similar, but is generally of a richer rufous hue below.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Peregrine Falcons there are a host of smaller species
+of the genus <i>Falco</i>, varying much from the above birds in size and
+style of colour, but of exactly the same form, and having much the
+same habits. The Hobby (<i>Falco subbuteo</i>) and the Merlin (<i>F. æsalon</i>)
+represent these smaller Falcons in the British Islands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[Pg 294]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="greenland_jer_falcon">THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON (<i>Hierofalco
+candicans</i>).<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>Besides the Peregrine, there were used in falconry, in England, the
+Noble, or Jer-Falcons, birds which were much prized, although they did
+not possess the same fire and dash in pursuit of their quarry exhibited
+by the former bird. There are five distinct kinds of these northern
+Jer-Falcons, without mentioning the Saker Falcon of South-eastern
+Europe, which also belongs to the genus <i>Hierofalco</i>. The best known
+is the Greenland Jer-Falcon, which, as its name implies, is an
+inhabitant of Greenland and North America, young birds only occurring
+in the British Islands during migration. This species is nearly pure
+white in colour when fully adult, the back and wings retaining small
+spots of black, the entire head and breast, and especially the tail,
+becoming pure white as the bird gets older and loses the spots and
+bars which characterise its immature dress. An unfailing mark by which
+a Greenland Jer-Falcon can be told at any age is the light yellowish
+bill and cere, and the absence of arrow-shaped bars on the flanks,
+which in young birds are longitudinally streaked with brown, but are
+never barred. All the other Jer-Falcons have distinct bars across the
+flanks, as well as bluish bills and regularly barred tails. They are
+four in number, the Norway Jer-Falcon (<i>H. gyrfalco</i>), the Iceland
+Jer-Falcon (<i>H. islandicus</i>), Holböll’s Jer-Falcon (<i>H. Holbölli</i>), and
+the Labrador Jer-Falcon (<i>H. labradorus</i>). They are nearly all peculiar
+to the countries whose names they bear, the Norway bird not occurring
+anywhere out of Europe and Northern Asia, one specimen having been
+known to occur in England; it seems also to emigrate to Central Asia,
+as a single bird was procured during the last Yarkand Mission. All the
+Jer-Falcons have shorter toes than the Peregrines, in which the outer
+toe is very long, while in the other birds the outer and inner toes are
+about equal in length.</p>
+
+<p>When in a wild state the Greenland Falcon feeds upon Ptarmigan, Geese,
+and on the sea-birds which frequent the cliffs where it takes up its
+abode. It evinces great courage in defending its nest.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="kestrels">THE KESTRELS (<i>Cerchneis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These form a group of short-toed Hawks, like the foregoing, but are
+much more numerous in species, and are found distributed all over the
+world, with the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands. More than
+twenty different kinds of Kestrel are recognised by naturalists, and
+they are more insect-feeding birds than the bolder and nobler Falcons
+which have just been spoken of. The commonest and best known of all is</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_kestrel">THE COMMON KESTREL, OR WIND-HOVER (<i>Cerchneis
+tinnunculus</i>).<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
+
+<p>This species gains its name of Wind-hover from a very pretty and
+graceful action with which it hangs suspended in the air, as if by a
+thread, keeping itself balanced by a constant winnowing of the air
+by its wings, and from this position it scans the ground below for
+a stray Mouse which may venture out of its hole, for mice and small
+birds constitute its principal food. It is frequently to be seen in
+the autumn hovering about a field of sheaved corn in the twilight,
+selecting a position about forty feet in the air, and occasionally
+stooping down on some prey in the stubble below. Should it not succeed
+in its pounce, it flies a little way in a few easy circles, and
+again commences to hover over a new part of the field. Insects also
+form a staple article of food to the Kestrel, who devours them while
+in full flight, passing its leg up to its bill, and the author has
+met with an instance of a Kestrel hawking for insects over a stream
+in the late evening. This Hawk is, unfortunately, often confounded
+through the ignorance of gamekeepers with the Sparrow-Hawk, and
+suffers consequently for the misdeeds of the latter, a fact much to be
+regretted, for it is a very useful bird, owing to the number of mice it
+destroys; indeed, a writer in Macgillivray’s “British Birds” computes
+that a single Kestrel would destroy upwards of ten thousand mice
+during its stay in Britain. It will also catch birds, but in limited
+numbers, and then generally only during the breeding season, when its
+young require constant food. Although of a less ferocious nature and
+aspect than the Falcons, the Kestrel, nevertheless, often shows forth
+his accipitrine temperament in a way that would scarcely be expected
+from his mild-looking dark eye,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span> which has nothing of the ferocity of
+the yellow iris of the Sparrow-Hawk. Some young birds belonging to the
+writer, consisting of three females and a male, being left without
+food for a few hours by the person in whose charge they were placed,
+forgot their fraternal affection, and the larger hen birds set upon
+the male, who was not so large or strong as they were, and devoured
+him completely. When shooting in a sandy island near Heligoland also,
+the writer wounded a Dunlin, which floated on the water a considerable
+distance out at sea, and whilst waiting for the waves to bring the bird
+in to land a Kestrel hove in sight and made a swoop at the Dunlin,
+which the latter avoided by a rapid dive. Twenty-three times the Hawk
+repeated the manœuvre without success, until the poor little wader
+became exhausted, and was borne in the talons of his relentless foe
+towards the rock of Heligoland, about a mile off. This action had been
+witnessed also by Messrs Seebohm and Nicholson, from other parts of
+the same sandy island, and the latter kept pace with the Kestrel as it
+skirted the beach, in the hopes that it might cross the island when a
+shot would perhaps have caused the bird to drop his exhausted quarry.
+The Hawk, however, kept well out at sea, and regained his rocky home,
+though he was several times seen to pause in his flight and take a
+tighter grasp of his victim.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe31" id="i_295">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_295.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON KESTREL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The nest of the Kestrel is often placed in towers and old buildings,
+and the bird is sometimes to be seen round the Nelson monument in
+Trafalgar Square, but a tree is more frequently the site selected, when
+an old Crow’s or Raven’s nest is often chosen. The hen bird, as is the
+case with most Hawks, sits very close, and will often require a stick
+or stone to be thrown close to the nest before it will move off, and
+the sudden drop which it gives is often the means of saving its life,
+as the chance of a successful shot is difficult. The eggs are from four
+to six in number, and are rather handsomely coloured, being blotched
+with rufous on a white ground, and are not unfrequently entirely rufous.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the Kestrels the sexes differ conspicuously in colour, the
+females being barred. This is the case in the common species, where
+the male has a blue head and tail. In the size of the sexes there is
+little or no difference, each measuring about twelve inches and a half.
+In winter, when there are fewer mice and beetles about, the Kestrel
+shifts his quarters, and becomes to a certain extent migratory: at this
+season of the year it visits India and Africa, not extending, however,
+so far down the latter continent as some of the European birds go. It
+is abundant at certain seasons in north-eastern Africa and Senegambia,
+but seldom goes as far as the Cape. The most easterly occurrence that
+is known of the Common Kestrel is the island of Borneo, though it is a
+common bird in China. It should be mentioned, however, that the Kestrel
+is always darker in colour from Japan and China, so much so that many
+naturalists consider it to be a distinct species from the British bird.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[Pg 296]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_296">
+  <img class="w100 padtop3" src="images/i_296.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">OSPREY.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="s3 center" id="pandiones">THE SECOND SUB-ORDER.&mdash;PANDIONES.</p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_VI_V">CHAPTER VI.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">SPREY</span>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Food&mdash;How it Seizes its Prey&mdash;Nesting Communities&mdash;STRIGES, or OWLS&mdash;Distinctions
+between Hawks and Owls&mdash;Owls in Bird-lore and Superstition&mdash;Families of the Sub-order&mdash;<a href="#fish_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> F<span class="smaller">ISH</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#pels_fish_owl">P<span class="smaller">EL</span>’<span class="smaller">S</span>
+F<span class="smaller">ISH</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#eagle_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> E<span class="smaller">AGLE</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;Dr. Brehm’s Description of its Appearance and Habits&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">NOWY</span>
+O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">H<span class="smaller">AWK</span> O<span class="smaller">WLS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#snowy_owl">P<span class="smaller">IGMY</span> O<span class="smaller">WLETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_eared_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">HORT</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#short_eared_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">EARED</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#barn_owl">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">ARN</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span></a>&mdash;The
+Farmer’s Friend&mdash;Peculiar Characters&mdash;Distribution.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="osprey">THE OSPREY, OR FISHING EAGLE (<i>Pandion
+haliaëtus</i>).</p>
+
+<p class="p0">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan of the birds of prey, being
+found all over the world, with the exception of the continent of South
+America and some of the Pacific Islands. Specimens from Australia
+and the Moluccas are generally smaller than those from Europe or
+America; but as the size of the species appears to vary in different
+localities, the Australian form cannot be considered other than a
+permanently smaller race. Everywhere the habits of the Osprey seem to
+be very similar, the bird never being found away from the vicinity
+of water, unless it be sometimes during the breeding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[Pg 297]</span> season, when
+it makes its nest at some distance from its feeding haunts. Its food
+consists entirely of fish, and it is capable of carrying off one of
+considerable size; in the capture of its prey it is greatly aided by
+its reversible toes, and by the roughness of the sole of the foot,
+which is covered with minute spikes, and these are, of course, of great
+assistance to the bird in holding such a strong and slippery prey as a
+large fish often proves to be. Professor Newton writes of one living
+in the Zoological Gardens, that “when a fish was given to it, it was
+observed to seize it across the body, placing the inner and outer
+toes at right angles with the middle and hind toes, and, digging in
+the claws, it held the fish most firmly by four opposite points, not
+relaxing its hold or altering the position of the toes, but picking
+out the portions of flesh from between them with great dexterity.”
+Occasionally, the Osprey attacks a fish beyond its strength, and it is
+then drawn under the water, and drowned. Mr. Dresser saw this happen in
+the Bay of Fundy, when a Fish Hawk was unable to release itself from a
+heavy fish, and, after being dragged under the water time after time,
+was ultimately carried out to sea, and disappeared. Mr. Collett, of
+Christiania, tells us that in one of the Norwegian lakes a huge Pike
+was caught, with the remains of an Osprey’s skeleton still attached
+to its back. Sometimes, on landing its prey, the bird is unable to
+extricate its talons, and is captured alive. The nest of the Osprey is
+a large structure, and is variously situated, according to the nature
+of the locality. It is generally placed on a tree; but in situations
+where there are no trees the position chosen is on a large rock or
+stone, very often on the islands in the middle of the lakes which it
+frequents. The eggs are generally three in number, sometimes four, and
+are very beautiful, varying from a rich red to a buffy-white colour,
+with large reddish and brown markings. In Europe it is found nesting
+invariably in pairs, but in North America large communities are found;
+and Dr. Brewer relates that sometimes as many as “three hundred pairs
+have been observed nesting on one small island; and when a new nest is
+to be constructed, the whole community has been known to take part in
+its completion. They are remarkably tolerant towards smaller birds, and
+permit the Purple Grakle (<i>Quiscalus purpureus</i>) to construct its nests
+in the interstices of their own.”</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_THIRD_SUB_ORDER_OWLS"><span class="s4">THE THIRD SUB-ORDER.&mdash;STRIGES, THE OWLS.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal distinctions between Hawks and Owls (<i>Striges</i>) have
+been already pointed out (p. 255); but there are still some other
+smaller characters to which a passing allusion must be made. It would
+be difficult, for instance, for the merest novice in the study of
+ornithology to mistake an Owl, when seen alive in a cage, or even in a
+case of stuffed birds, its enormous head and short neck being unlike
+those of any of the other birds of prey. The neck of some Owls is,
+indeed, so short and contracted, that it is with difficulty that any
+intervening curve between the nape and the back, which would mark a
+perceptible neck as in most Hawks, can be detected. Again, the Owls
+have their eyes directed forwards, so that they confront the spectator;
+while most of the other birds of prey turn their head more or less
+on one side when their attention is diverted, and do not look one
+straight in the face as an Owl does. The cere is almost always hidden
+by bristles in the <i>Striges</i>, and the latter have a very distinct
+facial disc, surrounded by a curious ruff, somewhat similar to that of
+the Harriers (<i>Circus</i>, p. 268), and Harrier-Hawks (<i>Micrastur</i>, p.
+270). The external ear-opening is a complicated organ in the Owls, and
+differs considerably, the orifices often being of different form on
+either side of the head; and in one species, Tengmalm’s Owl (<i>Nyctala
+tengmalmi</i>), the ear-openings are of different shape in the skull
+itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe15" id="i_297">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_297.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF TENGMALM’S OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>To those interested in bird-lore, a most entertaining study might
+be afforded by tracing the superstitions with which Owls have been
+regarded in all countries, and in the earliest times. Such a study was
+begun by the late Mr. Broderip, in his “Zoological Recreations,”<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>
+where he quotes from the ancient writers many passages, which show that
+Owls were as much regarded as birds of ill-omen by the inhabitants of
+Greece and Italy in olden times as they have been in England up to
+the present<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[Pg 298]</span> day. Nor is the infatuation confined to Europe, as later
+on are quoted instances of superstitious dread of the Owls in Morocco
+and West Africa; while they are equally held in fear in many Eastern
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>The Athenians alone seem to have had a regard for these birds, and an
+Owl is found on the reverse side of many of their coins, the bird being
+sacred to their guardian deity, Athené. The species figured is probably
+the Little Owl (<i>Carine noctua</i>), a bird which is common in Greece. It
+is difficult to guess why the Owl came to be regarded as the embodiment
+of wisdom, unless it was from its having been sacred to Minerva, the
+Goddess of Wisdom, who is sometimes represented as the Owl-headed
+goddess.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_298">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_298.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LITTLE OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The Owlet’s wing,” writes Mr. Harting,<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> “was an ingredient in the
+cauldron wherein the witches prepared their ‘charm of powerful trouble’
+(<i>Macbeth</i>, Act iv., sc. 1); and with the character assigned to it by
+the ancients, Shakspere, no doubt, felt that the introduction of an Owl
+in a dreadful scene of a tragedy would help to make the subject come
+home more forcibly to the people, who had, from early times, associated
+its presence with melancholy, misfortune, and death. Accordingly, we
+find the unfortunate Owl stigmatised as the ‘obscure,’ ‘ominous,’
+‘fearful,’ and ‘fatal’ ‘bird of night.’ Its doleful cry pierces the ear
+of Lady Macbeth while the murder is being done:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent4">‘Hark! Peace!</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">It was the Owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Which gives the stern’st good-night.’</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4"><span class="mleft10"><i>Macbeth</i>, Act ii., Sc. 2.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And when the murderer rushes in immediately afterwards, exclaiming&mdash;‘I
+have done the deed. Didst thou not hear a noise?’ She replies&mdash;‘I
+heard the Owl scream.’ And later on&mdash;‘The <i>obscure bird</i> clamour’d the
+live-long night.’” (<i>Macbeth</i>, Act. ii., Sc. 3.)</p>
+
+<p>The awe, no doubt, with which this bird is regarded by the
+superstitious, may be attributed in some measure to the fact of its
+flying by night.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2 s3">·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·&emsp; ·</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">The time when Screech-Owls cry and Ban-Dogs howl.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2"><span class="mleft10"><i>Henry VI.</i>, Part ii., Act i., Sc. 4.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[Pg 299]</span></p>
+<p>And yet, strange to say, the appearance of an Owl by day is by some
+considered equally ominous:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent10"><span class="mleft2">“The Owl by day,</span></div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">If he arise, is mocked and wondered at.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent10"><span class="mleft6"><i>Henry VI.</i>, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 4.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“For Night-Owls shriek, where mounting Larks should sing.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4"><span class="mleft10"><i>Richard II.</i>, Act iii., Sc. 3.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Should an Owl appear at a birth, it is said to forebode ill-luck to the
+infant. King Henry VI., addressing Gloster, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“The Owl shrieked at thy birth, an evil sign.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4"><span class="mleft10"><i>Henry VI.</i>, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 6.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>While upon any other occasion, its presence was supposed to predict a
+death, or at least some dire mishap:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“The Screech Owl, screeching loud,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">Puts the wretch that lies in woe</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">In remembrance of a shroud.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4"><span class="mleft6"><i>Midsummer Night’s Dream</i>, Act v., Sc. 2.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When Richard III. is irritated by the ill-news showered thick upon him,
+he interrupts the third messenger with</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Out on ye, Owls! Nothing but songs of death?”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4"><span class="mleft10"><i>Richard III.</i>, Act iv., Sc. 4.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The same author, from whom the above Shaksperian illustrations are
+quoted, alludes further to the superstitious dread of the Owl, which
+exists likewise amongst the Dyaks of Borneo, and in Ceylon a Wood-Owl,
+belonging to the same genus <i>Syrnium</i>, to which the English Wood-Owl
+belongs, is known as the “Devil-bird,” and is held in great fear.
+Colonel Irby, writing of the Barn-Owl,<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> tells the following story
+from the MS. of the late Mr. Favier, of Tangier:&mdash;“The inhabitants
+of Tangier consider this bird the clairvoyant friend of the Devil.
+The Jews believe that their cry causes the death of young children;
+so in order to prevent this, they pour a vessel of water out into
+the courtyard every time that they hear the cry of one of these Owls
+passing over their house. The Arabs believe even more than the Jews,
+for they think that they can cause all kinds of evil to old as well
+as young; but their mode of action is even more simple than that
+of their antagonists the Jews, as they rest contented with cursing
+them whenever they hear their cry. Endeavouring to find out from the
+Mahometans what foundation there is for the evil reputation of this
+species, I was told this: ‘When these birds cry they are only cursing
+in their own language; but their malediction is harmless unless they
+know the name of the individual to whom they wish evil, or unless they
+have the malignity to point out that person when passing him; as the
+Devil sleeps but little, when there is evil work to be done he would
+infallibly execute the command of his favourite if one did not, by
+cursing the Owl by name, thus guard against the power of that enemy,
+who is sworn to do evil to all living beings.’ Having learned the
+belief of the Mahometans relative to this Owl, it was more difficult
+to find out exactly that of the Jews, who, when questioned by me, knew
+not how to answer, except that the act of pouring water in the middle
+of the courtyard is a custom of long standing, in order to avert the
+evil which the Owl is capable of doing; that is to say, the water is
+poured out with the view of attracting the evil spirit’s attention to
+an object which distracts him, and so hides from him the infant which
+the Owl in its wickedness wishes to show him.”</p>
+
+<p>The late Mr. Waterton, in an entertaining essay on the habits of the
+Barn-Owl, says:&mdash;“Among the numberless verses which might be quoted
+against the family of the Owl, I think I only know of one little ode
+which expresses any pity for it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">‘Once I was a Monarch’s daughter,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">And sat on a lady’s knee;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">But am now a nightly rover,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">Banish’d to the ivy tree.</div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="stanza">
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[Pg 300]</span>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Crying, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo.</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">Hoo, hoo, hoo, my feet are cold;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Pity me, for here you see me,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">Persecuted, poor, and old.’”<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Owls are divided into two families, the first of which is called
+<i>Bubonidæ</i>, and the second <i>Strigidæ</i>. In the latter family are
+represented only two genera, <i>Strix</i> and <i>Heliodilus</i>, which contain
+six species, all the remaining Owls, about one hundred and ninety in
+number, belonging to the <i>Bubonidæ</i>. The breast-bone in the latter
+family always shows two or more clefts or indentations, and there
+are no “serrations” on the middle claw, whereas the Barn-Owls always
+have the inner edge of the middle claw serrated, that is, with a
+small, toothed margin, like the teeth of a saw (<i>serra</i>, Lat., a saw;
+<i>serratus</i>, notched like a saw), and the breast-bone has no clefts
+in its hinder edge. The <i>Bubonidæ</i> embrace two sub-families, the
+<i>Buboninæ</i>, which have no <i>operculum</i>, or fold of skin, closing in the
+ear, and the <i>Syrniinæ</i>, which have a very large <i>operculum</i>. It seems
+natural to commence the classification of the Nocturnal Accipitres
+with the Bare-legged or Fishing Owls, as the structure of this part
+very much resembles that of the Osprey, which was the concluding
+representative of the Diurnal Accipitres. The thigh feathers are thick,
+and fit close to the leg; the tarsus and toes are bare; the outer
+toe is reversible; and the soles of the feet are covered with tiny
+spicules, which serve to hold fast their finny prey in the same manner
+as do those of the Osprey.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="fish_owl">THE FISH OWL.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the Indian Fish Owl (<i>Ketupa</i><a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>
+<i>ceylonensis</i>) is taken from the work by Captain Vincent Legge, R.A.,
+on the birds of Ceylon:&mdash;“This large Owl loves the vicinity of water,
+haunting the banks of rivers, tanks, inland salt lagoons, the borders
+of sea-bogs, and woods surrounding rice-fields. All who have visited
+the tanks in the north and east of Ceylon must be familiar with the
+fine bird, which so often is surprised napping in the lofty trees
+growing on the embankments, or so-called ‘bunds.’ Its powers of vision
+in the day are not quick, but they are tolerably clear. On hearing the
+footsteps of man, it raises its large ear-tufts, and bending down its
+head, stares steadily down from its lofty perch among the green boughs,
+and as soon as it becomes aware of the nature of the intruder on its
+retreat, launches itself out of the tree, and is not easily approached
+a second time. It is much more common in wild forest country, combined
+with water, than in cultivated districts. It sallies out in the evening
+with great regularity. As soon as the sun begins to sink behind the
+surrounding forest, it may be noticed flapping noiselessly round some
+secluded cheena, or leisurely crossing the lonely tank, resounding
+at the hour of sunset with the buzzing of innumerable frogs, to the
+nearest conspicuous tree, and there gives out its sepulchral groan.
+This gloomy salutation is usually responded to by its mate, who perches
+close at hand, and answers by a double note, the two lonesome sounds
+resembling the words <i>gloom&mdash;oh, gloom</i>. At night I have often heard
+these notes repeated by a pair without intermission for many minutes.
+Layard remarks that, when alarmed during the day, they utter a loud
+hiss, subsiding into a growl. They appear to have an accustomed place
+of roosting, for Mr. Houldsworth notices that they ‘perched day after
+day on the same branch!’ This is very often in an exposed situation,
+and it frequently falls to their lot to be mobbed by a flock of
+garrulous Bulbuls, King-Crows, and other Owl-hating small birds. Fish
+is the favourite food, and, in fact, the usual diet of this species;
+but when this is not procurable, small mammals, reptiles, and even
+insects are devoured by them. In the stomach of one, for example, I
+found a Snake (<i>Haplocercus ceylonensis</i>), and some large Beetles. As
+a proof of their miscellaneous diet, and also of their voracity, I may
+mention that a pair of Fish Owls, which were kept by Sir Charles Layard
+in the same aviary with a Brahmin Kite, fell one night upon their
+luckless companion, and, after slaughtering him, forthwith proceeded to
+devour him completely. Further, Mr. Hume records, in ‘Nests and Eggs,’
+finding the remains of Quails, Doves, and Mynahs in the nest of a pair
+on the Jumna. It has also been stated that they feed on the carcases of
+the Gavial and Crocodile.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe36" id="i_301">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_301.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">EAGLE OWL.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_301_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[Pg 301]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pels_fish_owl">PEL’S FISH-OWL (<i>Scotopelia peli</i>).<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p>
+
+<p>The African Fish-Owls are exactly like the Indian as regards their bare
+legs, but they have no tufts on their heads. Three different kinds
+are known, and they are all rare birds, frequenting the rivers and
+inland lakes of the African continent. Pel’s Fish-Owl was discovered
+on the Gold Coast by Mr. Pel, the Dutch commandant at Elmina, nearly
+forty years ago. The specimen procured by that gentleman flew across
+the river Boutry, and settled among some shady boughs on the other
+bank, when it was knocked down with the blow of a gun. The following
+account of one of these rare birds, from the Barra country, Senegambia,
+is given by Mr. John Henry Gurney, who had the specimen alive in
+his possession for a long time: it was presented to him by Colonel
+O’Connor, C.B., who is the author of the accompanying “Sketch of Nero,
+the Owl, a Fetish Bird.” The colonel writes<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>:&mdash;“During seven
+years’ exploration of Western Africa, I only met one of the species
+of the Owl ‘Nero.’ He was brought ‘a chicken,’ full of pen-feathers,
+or rather down, of a delicate straw-colour, and very thick, from a
+lagoon in the Barra country. No native would admit ‘Nero’ as a visitor;
+and when the bird was installed in Government House, the servants and
+head people came in a body to remonstrate, asserting ‘he was a Gumbi
+Owl, a Fetish!! and would destroy and kill whatever object he looked
+on.’ The chief groom (an old soldier, who had charge of the poultry)
+insisted that ‘every cock and hen would go dead.’ Strangely enough,
+an epidemic broke out, and carried off from fifty to sixty head of
+fowls; and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of
+Government House, to meet the eye of Mrs. O’Connor, seeming to exult
+in the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. ‘You see wid your own
+eye, Missus, dat debil Jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls. Governor
+tink he hab long head, but he no sabey Owl. Suppose you put him in
+de stable, he see Nelly (Mrs. O’Connor’s favourite mare), de horse
+he go tumble down dead.’ Death at last ceased to reign amongst the
+poultry population, and Nero became my principal pet; he ranged over
+the piazza, perching on the branch of a tree; he was fed regularly by
+the orderly on roasted fish, but he often came to the dinner-table,
+and flew down for scraps of meat, bread and butter, which he took
+gently from myself or from Mrs. O’Connor, permitting us to rub his
+head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. But he
+would snatch meat or bones from the Cat or Dog; and when the Eagle was
+introduced into his company, he beat him in a most unmerciful manner
+away from his peculiar and original position of the piazza, the Eagle
+being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought
+from the upper part of the Gambia river near ‘Wallie,’ and, when in
+vigour, able to carry away a kid or small lamb. Nero luxuriated in a
+tub of water, frequently washing himself, and perching on the rim until
+dry. He was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly
+an immense commotion arose among all the birds. The larger ones flew
+round the Owl, keeping a very civil distance, the smaller birds flew
+away; but Nero treated both alike with sovereign contempt. He would
+return of his own accord to the roosting-place in the piazza, and when
+put out and confined for some days, rejected all food, and pined until
+restored to his perch. With me he was as tame as any Canary, and, after
+an absence of two months, recognised my voice when I went to his cage
+at Oatlands (Devon), appearing much pleased by my taking him out for
+a walk on the grass. Many natives from the interior told me ‘they had
+never seen such a bird before; but they considered him <i>unlucky</i>.’ I
+really think Nero is nearly <i>sans</i> any relations, and certainly devoid
+of all friends in Western Africa.”</p>
+
+<p>Pel’s Owl measures nearly two feet in length, and has the wing sixteen
+inches and a half. Its colour is a deep rufous bay, with black
+transverse bars; below it is light bay, with heart-shaped bars of
+black; the iris is dark-brown, whereas in the Indian Fishing Owls it is
+always yellow.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="eagle_owl">THE EAGLE OWL (<i>Bubo ignavus</i>).<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a></p>
+
+<p>This and its relative, the Virginian Eared Owl of America, are the
+largest of all the family. It is found all over Europe and Siberia,
+extending even to China and the Himalayas, but the few instances of
+its capture in Great Britain have been probably those of birds escaped
+from confinement, as it is by no means an uncommon species in aviaries
+in England. As it is not, strictly speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[Pg 302]</span> a British bird, recourse
+must be had to the writings of Continental naturalists for an account
+of its habits, and the following extract is made from Dr. Brehm’s “Bird
+Life” (p. 567):&mdash;“The Eagle Owl is somewhat fantastic in appearance,
+usually sitting with its feathers so much ruffled as to make it seem
+much larger than it really is. ‘In that large, shapeless mass of
+feathers,’ says Naumann, ‘one can scarcely distinguish the limbs; the
+half-closed eyes hide their glorious rays; suddenly it opens them
+wide, bends the head and upper part of the body forwards, swaying from
+side to side, and raising first one foot and then the other, begins to
+tremble, winks slowly with the eyelids, spits like a cat, and snaps its
+bill. When angry its eyes flash fire, it bends forward with hanging
+wings, ruffles its plumage as much as possible, and snapping and
+hissing, dashes furiously at the enemy.’</p>
+
+<p>“This bird seems less courageous than surly and quarrelsome, and yet it
+is asserted that it will fight to the death with the Golden Eagle, when
+attacked by the latter. The Eagle Owl is a powerful bird, and as there
+are no bounds to its fury, it is but rarely that anything escapes from
+its grasp. Though strictly nocturnal in its habits, it always keeps a
+good look out for its own safety in the daytime, and is ever shy and
+cautious. Keen of sight and hearing, it takes wing while the danger is
+still far off. Like other Owls, this bird is fond of pressing itself
+against the stem of a tree, with unruffled feathers, so as to closely
+imitate the stump of a tree, and thus escape detection. Inasmuch as
+deep clefts in the rocks, or the thickest of trees, are its usual
+retreats, the Owl is often passed over, which fact is undoubtedly an
+advantage, for the day birds mob it whenever they see it. They may
+possibly have made it the savage, spiteful bird it is, inasmuch as
+their system of constant irritation would be sufficient to try the
+temper of the mildest individual. Thus nothing remains for the Owl but
+to evade its disturbers, and hide itself as long as possible; but woe
+betide it if discovered, for then the friends of daylight treat it to a
+‘charivari’ without equal.</p>
+
+<p>“The first to arrive on the scene is the ubiquitous Crow, conducted
+thither by some inquisitive warbler who has discovered the enemy’s
+retreat. The Crow thoroughly understands what the little fellow means,
+and hastens to convince itself of the truth of the information. Having
+satisfied itself, it retires noiselessly, but only to carry the news
+to its relatives. Now they flock in from all sides to take part in
+the fight, with an eagerness worthy of the boldest man; greeting one
+another with hoarse and scornful croaks, the sooty tribe hasten as
+fast as they can to the scene of action. The mockers surround the poor
+old ‘Grand Duke,’ at first at a respectful distance, though they are
+fully determined effectively to disturb its siesta. There sits the
+Owl, rolling its eyes, spitting, snapping its beak, and ruffling its
+feathers, now hopping from one leg to another, now raising and lowering
+its feathered horns by turns; mad with rage, bemoaning its fate, and at
+loggerheads with the whole world, it awaits the turn that matters may
+take; at the same time, be it remembered, every Crow takes good care
+not to lay hold of the irritated gentleman; nothing less than a Raven
+dares to rely on its own strength. One of these, however, will run a
+tilt at the dark knight, using its sharp beak as a lance; but before
+the latter has time to raise the terrible claw, the Raven makes good
+its retreat, prepares for another rush, and darts like an arrow, so
+as to use its weapon effectively. The Owl now loses the last remnant
+of patience, and seeks safety in flight. Oh, unlucky wight! this is
+all the black swarm have been waiting for, the Crows being far its
+superiors on the wing. Giving vent to exulting cries, they dart down
+from above with such unerring aim and force as to scatter the poor
+brute’s feathers in clouds to the wind: they rise again with a mighty
+noise that heeds no secrecy, as though they sought to proclaim to the
+world at large all the fell deeds committed by this Prince of Darkness,
+while other knights advance to battle. All Hawks and Falcons, ay, the
+proud Eagle even, answer to the call, and hasten to take part in the
+fray. Now the Owl must, perforce, either beat a hasty retreat or remain
+on the field. In any case, however, the Owl is thoroughly worried, and
+sometimes really damaged, before it finds refuge in some thick tree or
+rocky cleft, where it hides itself as closely and as silently as its
+rage will permit, until quit of the Crows.</p>
+
+<p>“The detestation in which the Eagle Owl is held by all diurnal birds
+is not ill-founded, for this bird preys on every living creature
+it can overcome, assassinating them in the most abominable manner
+while they are asleep. Its quarry is as follows:&mdash;Fawns of the Roe
+Deer, Hares, Rabbits, Hamsters, Rats, Moles, Mice, Capercailzie,
+Black-game, Hazel-hens, Pheasants, Partridges, Rooks, Jays, Magpies,
+Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs; Rooks seem to be its favourite morsel.
+No wonder, then, that they pay their enemy out if they can only see
+an opportunity. It assassinates them; they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[Pg 303]</span> attack it in open day.
+The Eagle Owl generally breaks the spine of the smaller animals close
+to the head, and, cracking the remaining bones, devours its prey,
+skin and all; the heads of the larger birds it pulls in large pieces
+which it swallows. It, however, always devours a portion of the hair,
+feathers, or scales as well, and wastes away if fed on flesh alone. The
+indigestible portions of the meal are thrown up in large round pellets
+or ‘casts.’ With larger animals, it lays open the skin of the belly,
+and eats out the flesh from inside. If it finds that there is too much
+for one meal, it carefully replaces the skin, and hides the remainder
+in some dark cranny or corner until required again. This Owl drinks
+rarely, slaking its thirst generally with the blood of its victims. If
+food is plentiful, it gorges itself; but in times of dearth it can go
+without food for weeks together.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe46" id="i_303">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_303.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SNOWY OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“By the last fortnight in March the Eagle Owls commence preparations
+for breeding. At this season may be heard their hollow, muffled cry of
+‘poohoo, poohoo,’ which is distinguishable at a great distance through
+the woods, and it is not to be wondered that the timid are frightened
+at it. In the silent, dark recesses of the mountain forest a variety of
+noises, well calculated to make one’s flesh creep, fall upon the ear:
+the shrill, mocking laugh, a sound as of snarling hounds; the whoop of
+the hunter, the snorting of Horses; these are all calculated to impress
+the uneducated and superstitious with the truth of the legend of the
+wild huntsman. Even to the ear of the better-informed, these hideous
+cries, the loud screech of the female, or the ‘poohoo’ of the male,
+intermingled with the snapping of the beak and curious miaulings, sound
+somewhat weird; and the boldest of mortals can<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[Pg 304]</span> scarcely repress a cold
+shudder when a company of these forest spirits favour him with one of
+their demoniacal nocturnal concerts. Doubtless these sounds represent
+the battle-cries of the males when fighting for the females, and take
+the place of the song of the Nightingale when telling its tale of love.</p>
+
+<p>“After the Owls have paired these cries are heard less frequently,
+both birds being now fully occupied with their nursery operations. The
+large nest is composed outwardly of branches and sticks, and is lined
+with dry leaves and small twigs. It is built, and generally placed in
+either the cleft of a rock or in a hole in some ruined tower; the nest
+is never built in a tree but from necessity. The two or three eggs are
+also often found lying on the bare surface of the rock, without any
+nest whatever. They are round, cross-grained, and white, and somewhat
+larger than a hen’s egg. The young are hatched in about three weeks.
+They are usually two in number, rarely three; they look, on their first
+appearance, like balls of cotton-wool, and keep up a constant hissing
+or shrill whistle. They remain a long time in the nest, and are so
+abundantly provided with food by the parent birds, that one is sure to
+find a large heap of provisions at the nest. The Owlets often betray
+their presence to their innumerable enemies by their cries, and suffer
+much persecution in consequence. When about eight weeks old they are
+able to fly, though they still remain for some time longer under the
+care of the old birds. These latter rarely wander far from a particular
+neighbourhood, and usually build in the very same place the following
+year.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe31" id="i_304">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_304.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SHORT-EARED OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="snowy_owl">Besides the Eagle Owls, the sub-family <i>Buboninæ</i> contains the Snowy
+Owl (<i>Nyctea<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a> scandiaca</i><a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a>), all the Hawk Owls (<i>Surnia<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>
+Ninox</i><a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>), and the Pigmy Owlets (<i>Glaucidium</i><a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>). Many of the
+birds belonging to this latter genus are not much bigger than a
+Sparrow. They are found nearly all over the world, with the exception
+of Australia and Oceania, and one species, the European Pigmy Owlet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[Pg 305]</span>
+(<i>G. passerinum</i><a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>), is by no means uncommon in many parts of the
+Continent, though it has not yet been met with for certain in the
+British Islands.</p>
+
+<p id="short_eared_owl">The sub-family <i>Syrniinæ</i> contains only three genera, the Horned Owls
+(<i>Asio</i><a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a>), the Wood Owls (<i>Syrnium</i><a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>), and the Tengmalm’s Owl
+(<i>Nyctala</i><a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> <i>tengmalmi</i>), the latter having been already noticed
+(p. 297) as possessing the curious difference in the ear-opening on
+each side of the skull. Of the Horned Owls two species are found in the
+British Islands, viz., the Short-eared Owl (<i>Asio accipitrinus</i><a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>),
+and the Long-eared Owl (<i>A. otus</i><a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a>). The former of these birds is
+often seen in the daytime, and is said to hunt for its prey on dull
+days, when it will fly at small birds as well as mice; and Mr. Low,
+writing on the birds of the Orkneys, where the Short-eared Owl breeds,
+says that he has found in the nest the remains of a Moor-fowl (Red
+Grouse), two Plovers, besides the feet of several others; and the
+same writer states that during the breeding season it becomes very
+impudent, and will even seize and catch up chickens from the doors, and
+also chase pigeons in open daylight. Although resident in the British
+Islands, a large migration of the species takes place in autumn, and
+it is not unfrequently shot by sportsmen in the turnip-fields; while
+Bewick mentions the recurrence of twenty-eight individuals being
+flushed in a turnip-field in November, being probably attracted to
+the locality by an abundance of food. It may also be occasionally
+found in marshes near the sea-shore, as occurred once to the writer,
+who started a Short-eared Owl from the sedgy bank on the west side
+of Pagham Harbour, in the early part of September. When winged, it
+boldly faced its pursuer, erecting the little tufts on its head and
+fiercely snapping its bill, as is the manner with all Owls in defending
+themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe18" id="i_305">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_305.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FACE OF THE BARN OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Its relation, the Long-eared Owl, is a bird of different habits, and,
+instead of breeding on the ground as the foregoing species does,
+it selects a dark wood or clump of firs, appropriating a deserted
+Squirrel’s “dray,” or adapting the nest of another bird to its own
+requirements. Macgillivray gives the following account of a young
+specimen which he had in confinement:&mdash;“An individual of this species,
+which was sent to me in winter by the Rev. Mr. Adam, having been left
+at night perched on the back of a chair in my drawing-room, tore to
+tatters six valuable skins of birds from the Rocky Mountains, and an
+equal number of nearly equally rare specimens from India. A young bird
+which I kept for some time, on perching, stood at first with the body
+inclined, afterwards nearly erect, and slept in the latter posture,
+with its neck rather extended, its feathers drawn close, and its tufts
+recumbent. When irritated, it raised its plumage, threw its body
+forward, and uttered a sharp cry. It seized its food with its bill; if
+large, transferred it to one of its feet, but if otherwise, retained
+it in its bill. In flying, it carried a small object in its bill, but
+a larger in its foot. It could close one eye while the other remained
+open, and when placed in a strong light, frequently drew the membrane
+over the lighted eye, while the other remained unsheathed, though for
+the most part it winked with both simultaneously. The irides contracted
+unequally, according to the degree of light. When perched at night, it
+sometimes emitted a clicking noise, like that of a spring, with its
+bill; but when provoked, it neither hissed nor snapped, but uttered
+a shrill, tremulous, plaintive cry, or succession of short notes,
+erecting its tufts at the same time.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="barn_owl">THE BARN OWL (<i>Strix</i><a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>
+<i>flammea</i><a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a>).</p>
+
+<p class="mbot1">This is essentially the friend of man, frequenting villages and
+homesteads where he is protected, and extending his range where
+civilisation precedes him, being attracted doubtless by the Mice and
+Rats, which are also the accompaniments of civilisation. The number
+of small mammals which one of these birds will devour ought to be his
+passport to the protecting care of the farmer and agriculturist,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[Pg 306]</span> but
+it is seldom that an Owl of any kind meets with approval on taking up
+his residence on an estate. Facts, however, are stubborn things, and in
+the hope that a more generous reception may be afforded to these useful
+birds, the following quotation is made from Professor Newton:&mdash;“Owls,
+like other birds of prey, as already mentioned, return by the mouth
+the indigestible parts of the food swallowed in the form of elongated
+pellets. These are found in considerable numbers about the usual haunts
+of the birds, and examination of them reveals the nature of the food,
+and shows in nearly every case the great services they render to man
+by the destruction of Rats and Mice.”<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> The infallibility of the
+evidence thus afforded as to the food of the Owls is as complete as
+the way of obtaining it, by those who have the opportunity, is simple.
+Several German naturalists have made some very precise researches on
+this subject. The following results, with regard to the three commonest
+species of Owls, are those afforded by the investigations of Dr. Altam,
+as communicated by him to the German Ornithologists’ Society during its
+meeting in 1862:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="s5 collapse" summary="Food of the Owls">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bl bt br">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="bt br bb" colspan="9">
+      <div class="center">R<span class="smaller">EMAINS</span>
+      F<span class="smaller">OUND</span>.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bl br">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">No. of<br />
+      Pellets<br />
+      examined.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Bats.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Rats.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Mice.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Voles.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Shrews.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Moles.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Birds.</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">Beetles.</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bl br">
+      <div class="left">Tawny Owl&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">210</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">6</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;42</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">296</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199; 33</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">48</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">18</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">48</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bl br">
+      <div class="left">Long-eared Owl&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;25</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;&#8199;6</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;35</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&#8199;2</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="bl br bb">
+      <div class="left">Barn Owl&nbsp;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">706</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">16</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">3</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">237</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">693</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">1,590</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">22</div>
+    </td>
+    <td class="br bb">
+      <div class="center">&mdash;</div>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="mtop1">Colonel Irby, in the work which has already been alluded to, says of
+the Barn Owl:&mdash;“Almost exclusively feeding on Rats and Mice, they
+deserve every encouragement and support that can be afforded them;
+but from being in all countries regarded with superstitious awe and
+dislike, they are more or less persecuted on that account; and in
+England, through the ignorance and stupidity of gamekeepers, who
+fancy that they kill game (<i>i.e.</i>, feathered game), they suffer most
+severely. This excuse is ridiculous, for old birds they have not the
+power to kill, and young Pheasants and Partridges, at the time the Owls
+are on the feed, are safely being brooded by the parent bird.” Those
+who wish to encourage and increase Owls, and have not hollow trees or
+buildings where they nest, may always gratify their wishes by fixing
+an empty barrel (about an 18-gallon size) horizontally in the fork of
+any large tree, cutting a hole in one end large enough for the birds
+to enter; but the hoops of the cask should be screwed on, or it will
+soon fall to pieces. Not only the Barn Owl, but the Tawny Owl (<i>Syrnium
+aluco</i>) also will use barrels, or “Owl-tubs.” The difficulty, however,
+is to keep out the Jackdaws, but when once the Owls have established
+themselves, there is no fear of that intrusion. The late Mr. Waterton
+was a well-known admirer of the present species, and he devotes one
+of his “Essays on Natural History” to the Barn Owl, from which a few
+passages are extracted:&mdash;“Up to the year 1813 the Barn Owl had a sad
+time of it at Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes alarmed the
+aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had brought into
+other houses when she was a young woman, and there was enough of
+mischief in the midnight wintry blast, without having it increased
+by the dismal screams of something which people knew very little
+about, and which everybody said was far too busy in the churchyard at
+night-time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were sick
+in the neighbourhood it would be for ever looking in at the window,
+and holding a conversation outside with somebody, they did not know
+whom. The gamekeeper agreed with her in everything she said on this
+important subject, and he always stood better in her books when he had
+managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous family. However, in
+1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana, having suffered myself,
+and learned mercy, I broke in pieces the code of penal laws which the
+knavery of the gamekeeper and the lamentable ignorance of the other
+servants had hitherto put in force, far too successfully, to thin the
+numbers of this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the
+old gateway, against which tradition says the waves of the lake have
+dashed for the greater part of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[Pg 307]</span> thousand years, I made a place with
+stone and mortar, about four feet square, and fixed a thick oaken stick
+firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy now quite cover it. In about a month
+or so after it was finished a pair of Barn Owls came and took up their
+abode in it. I threatened to strangle the keeper if ever, after this,
+he molested either the old birds or their young ones; and I assured the
+housekeeper that I would take upon myself the whole responsibility of
+all the sickness, woe, and sorrow that the new tenants might bring to
+the Hall. She made a low courtesy, as much as to say, ‘Sir, I fall into
+your will and pleasure,’ but I saw in her eye that she had made up her
+mind to have to do with things of fearful and portentous shape, and to
+hear many a midnight wailing in the neighbouring woods. I do not think
+that up to the day of this old lady’s death, which took place in her
+eighty-fourth year, she ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the
+Barn Owl, as it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the
+ruined gateway.</p>
+
+<p>“When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had succeeded
+so well, I set about forming other establishments. This year I have had
+four broods, and I trust that next season I can calculate on having
+nine. This will be a pretty increase, and it will help to supply the
+place of those which in this neighbourhood are still unfortunately
+doomed to death by the hand of cruelty or superstition. We can now
+always have a peep at the Owls in their habitation on the old ruined
+gateway whenever we choose. Confident of protection, these pretty birds
+betray no fear when the stranger mounts up to their place of abode.
+I would here venture a surmise that the Barn Owl sleeps standing.
+Whenever we go to look at it we invariably see it upon the perch, bolt
+upright, and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon
+and Bewick err, no doubt unintentionally, when they say that the Barn
+Owl snores during its repose. What they took for snoring was the cry of
+the young birds for food. I had fully satisfied myself on this score
+some years ago. However, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to
+hear this same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the
+month of July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of young Owls in
+the apartment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12_5" id="i_307">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_307.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BREAST-BONE OF THE BARN OWL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the hole at which
+the Owls enter. Sometimes, at mid-day, when the weather is gloomy, you
+may see an Owl upon it, apparently enjoying the refreshing diurnal
+breeze. This year (1831) a pair of Barn Owls hatched their young, on
+the 7th of September, in a sycamore tree, near the old ruined gateway.</p>
+
+<p>“If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting for it
+by night, mankind would have ocular demonstration of its utility in
+thinning the country of Mice; and it would be protected and encouraged
+everywhere. It would be with us what the Ibis was to the Egyptians.
+When it has young, it will bring a Mouse to the nest about every twelve
+or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a proper idea of the enormous
+quantity of Mice which this bird destroys, we must examine the pellets
+which it ejects from its stomach in the place of its retreat. Every
+pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of Mice. In sixteen months
+from the time that the apartment of the Owl on the old gateway was
+cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets. The
+Barn Owl sometimes carries off Rats. One evening I was sitting under a
+shed, and killed a very large Rat as it was coming out of a hole about
+ten yards from where I was watching it. I did not go to take it up,
+hoping to get another shot. As it lay there, a Barn Owl pounced upon
+it, and flew away with it. This bird has been known to catch fish.
+Some years ago, on a fine evening in the month of July, long before it
+was dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and minuting
+the Owl by my watch as she brought Mice into her nest, all on a sudden
+she dropped perpendicularly into the water. Thinking she had fallen
+down in epilepsy, my first thoughts were to go and fetch the boat; but
+before I had well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the Owl rise out
+of the water with a fish in her claws, and take it to the nest. When
+farmers complain that the Barn Owl destroys the eggs of their Pigeons,
+they lay the saddle on the wrong horse; they ought to put it on the
+Rat. Formerly, I could get very few young Pigeons, till the Rats were
+excluded effectually from the dovecot. Since that took place it has
+produced a great abundance every year, though the Barn Owls frequent
+it, and are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[Pg 308]</span> encouraged all around it. The Barn Owl merely resorts to
+it for the purpose of concealment. If it were really an enemy to the
+dovecot, we should see the Pigeons in commotion as soon as it begins
+its evening flight; but the Pigeons heed it not. Whereas, if the
+Sparrow-Hawk or Hobby should make its appearance, the whole community
+would be up at once; proof sufficient that the Barn Owl is not looked
+upon as a bad, or even a suspicious character, by the inhabitants of
+the dovecot.”</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the Barn Owl, which is a bright orange buff, mottled
+with ashy-grey on the upper surface, and white below, distinguishes
+it from any other Owl. The oval form of the disc is also to a great
+extent peculiar, as is also the serrated edge to the middle claw, which
+has been referred to before (p. 300). The breast bone is likewise
+remarkable, as it has no clefts in the hinder margin.</p>
+
+<p>The range of the present species is very considerable, as it is found
+all over the New World, from the northern and middle United States
+down to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. In the Old World it occurs
+in equal plenty, but does not extend very high north, being a rare
+visitant to Denmark and Sweden. Although common in Poland, it is
+only sparingly distributed throughout Russia, and even appears to be
+entirely absent in many Central and Southern parts. The same may be
+said of Turkey. It is not known at present from Siberia or China, but
+is found throughout Africa, India, Australia, and the majority of the
+Oceanic Islands. Nearly all Owls have two distinct phases of plumage&mdash;a
+grey one, and a red one. This is especially the case in the little
+Scops Owls, which have tufts of feathers on the head like the Eagle
+Owls, of which they may be said to be representations in miniature.
+The Barn Owls are no exception to this general rule of the family; but
+owing to the light colouring of the bird, it is not so perceptible
+as in some of the other species of Owls. Even in England, however, a
+short study of the species will show the student that some individuals
+are much redder underneath, instead of being white, and are profusely
+freckled with grey above; and this dark coloration does not depend upon
+the age of the bird, nor is it a difference of sex. In some islands,
+such as the Cape Verde group, San Domingo in the West Indies, the
+Falkland Islands, and the Galapagos, the Barn Owls are almost always
+dark-coloured, and light ones are very seldom found. On the other
+hand, in Australia and Oceania the species becomes peculiarly light in
+plumage, and dark individuals are the exception.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="s3 center padtop3" id="SECOND_ORDER_PICARIAN_BIRDS">THE SECOND ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN BIRDS
+(<i>Picariæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_VII_V">CHAPTER VII.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE PARROTS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2">Characteristics of the Order&mdash;The Sub-orders&mdash;ZYGODACTYLÆ&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span>&mdash;Their Talking Powers&mdash;Sections of
+the Family&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REAT</span> P<span class="smaller">ALM</span> C<span class="smaller">OCKATOO</span>&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">YGMY</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span>&mdash;<a href="#amazon_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MAZON</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#amazons">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> A<span class="smaller">MAZONS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+G<span class="smaller">REY</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Court Favourites&mdash;Historical Specimens&mdash;In a state of Nature&mdash;Mr. Keulemans’ Observations&mdash;<a href="#conures">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">ONURES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#rose_ringed_parrakeet">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">OSE</span>-<span class="smaller">RINGED</span> P<span class="smaller">ARRAKEET</span></a>&mdash;Known to the Ancients&mdash;Habitat&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#carolina_conure">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+C<span class="smaller">AROLINA</span> C<span class="smaller">ONURE</span></a>&mdash;Destructive Propensities&mdash;<a href="#parrakeets">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> P<span class="smaller">ARRAKEETS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#owl_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> O<span class="smaller">WL</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Chiefly Nocturnal&mdash;Incapable
+of Flight&mdash;How this Fact may be accounted for&mdash;Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits&mdash;<a href="#straight_billed_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">TRAIGHT</span>-<span class="smaller">BILLED</span>
+P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#brush_tongued_parrots">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">RUSH</span>-<span class="smaller">TONGUED</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROTS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#nestors">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> N<span class="smaller">ESTORS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#kaka_parrot">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> K<span class="smaller">AKA</span> P<span class="smaller">ARROT</span></a>&mdash;Skull of a Parrot&mdash;The
+Bill.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HE</span> birds which are contained in this order are of very different
+forms, but they possess one character which, although an osteological
+one, is found throughout nearly the whole group, and that is, the
+double notch in the hinder margin of the sternum or breast bone.
+In all the true <i>Passeres</i>, or perching birds, only a single notch
+is observed. The hind toe, which in the true perching birds is an
+essential character, and is separately movable, possessing its own
+distinct flexor muscle, is in the Picarians not of so much account, its
+flexor muscle being joined to the common flexor of all the toes; it is
+sometimes absent altogether. If the Parrots have certain characters
+in common with the <i>Accipitres</i>, the Cuckoos and the Plantain-eaters
+undoubtedly show affinity to the Game-birds, while most of the other
+families have peculiar structures which render them quite distinct
+from the ordinary mass of true perching birds or Passeres. It may be
+remarked that the eggs of most of the <i>Picariæ</i>, so far as we are
+acquainted with them, are glossy white, and that the majority of them
+breed in the holes of trees or of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[Pg 309]</span> rocks, and that they are as a rule
+bad nest-builders. The greatest exception to the above description of
+the nesting of these birds is met with in the family of Goatsuckers
+(<i>Caprimulgidæ</i>), some of whom lay their eggs on the ground, the eggs
+being beautifully marbled with streaks and spots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_309">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_309.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COCKATOOS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_309_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Within this great Picarian order there are two large sub-orders, called
+respectively the Scansorial and the Fissirostral<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> <i>Picariæ</i>. The
+Scansorial birds are also sometimes known as the Zygodactylæ,<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> or
+yoke-footed birds, because they have their toes arranged in pairs,
+two in front and two behind, and their name of Scansores is given to
+them because most of them are climbing birds, and run up trees and
+rocks with great facility, though in different ways. Parrots, for
+instance, use their bills in climbing from branch to branch, while
+Woodpeckers have very powerful feet and stiffened tail-feathers,
+which support them as they cling to the bark of the trees, the bill
+being chiefly employed to prise off the bark in order to get at the
+insects underneath. Cuckoos do not climb trees in the same manner as
+the Woodpeckers, though they have true zygodactyle feet: the present
+writer has, however, seen a common Cuckoo (<i>Cuculus canorus</i>) cling
+with both feet to the trunk of a huge elm while it picked off insects
+from the bark. It must not be supposed, however, that the above are the
+only birds which climb trees, for among the true Passeres, or perching
+birds, there occur such birds as the <i>Dendrocolaptidæ</i> in South
+America, who have stiffened tails exactly as the Woodpeckers, while
+the Tree-creepers are just as expert as the last-named birds, and yet
+cannot be placed in the same order as the Scansorial (<i>Picariæ</i>), for
+they possess a simple passerine foot, with three toes in front and one
+behind.</p>
+
+<p>The Fissirostres, or wide-gaping birds, are also called Gressorial
+Picariæ, as their toes are more or less connected together, which gives
+them a very flat sole to the foot. They generally hunt for their food
+from some selected spot, ordinarily a post or a dead bough, whence
+they take flights after their prey, usually returning to the same spot
+to devour it. Their flight is active and swift, their gape extremely
+large, and the head correspondingly big, and in many instances clumsy
+and ungainly. The feet are generally small and weak.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="SUB_ORDER_I_ZYGODACTYLAE"><span class="s4">SUB-ORDER
+I.&mdash;ZYGODACTYLÆ.</span></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop1 mbot1" id="parrots">FAMILY I.&mdash;THE PARROTS (<i>Psittaci</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Just as the Monkeys have been placed at the head of the Mammalia on
+account of their high development, so the Parrots, from their general
+cleverness, and especially on account of the facility with which
+they can talk, have been considered the highest order of birds, and
+placed at the beginning of the class. It is impossible for some people
+to avoid the conclusion that these birds think and reason, and the
+<i>à propos</i> or sometimes <i>mal à propos</i> way in which they introduce
+speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which they assume while being
+spoken to, seems to show that the brain is being employed in thinking.
+A friend in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show in the North of
+England, where the talking powers of each bird were made the subject
+of a prize competition. Several of the birds had exhibited their
+prowess, and at last the cover was removed from the cage of a Grey
+Parrot, who at once exclaimed, on seeing the company to which he was
+suddenly introduced, “By Jove! what a lot of Parrots!” an observation
+which gained him the prize at once. Instances of famous talking birds
+might be multiplied by the hundred, and it is wonderful to read some
+of the stories which have been related of Parrots, whose fame has been
+recorded in many popular works, leaving no doubt that these birds often
+possess the power of reason of a very high order; at the same time,
+it must be confessed that many of the Corvine birds, such as Ravens,
+Jackdaws, and Magpies, do not fall far short of their Scansorial
+friends.</p>
+
+<p>The Parrots are divided into two large sections, firstly the Parrots
+proper (<i>Psittaci proprii</i>), and secondly the straight-billed Parrots
+(<i>Psittaci orthognathi</i><a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a>). These two sections together contain six
+families, of which five belong to the first and one to the second. The
+true Parrots have a powerful and swollen bill, especially as regards
+the lower mandible, which is much inflated, curved, and flattened in
+front, the cutting edges (<i>tomium</i>) indented just behind their tip. The
+sub-family which has to be noticed first are the <i>Camptolophinæ</i><a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>
+or Cockatoos, which are birds entirely of the Australian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[Pg 310]</span> region, being
+confined to Australia and the Molucca Islands. The bill is higher
+than it is broad, with a very distinct indentation of each side of
+the cutting edge of the mandible, the tip of the bill short, rather
+strong and perpendicular, the head crested in all except the Pygmy
+Parrots (<i>Nasiterna</i>). This family contains at once the largest and the
+smallest of the Parrots.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="great_palm_cockatoo">THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO
+(<i>Microglossus<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> aterrimus</i><a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the most powerful of all the Parrot tribe, measuring
+about twenty-four inches in length, and having a bill of unusual
+thickness and power. Its black plumage also renders it a conspicuous
+species, the only relief to this sombre colouring being the greyish
+crest and the dull crimson cheeks. Its home is New Guinea, but it
+is also found in the Cape York Peninsula in Australia, where it was
+discovered by John Macgillivray during the voyage of the <i>Rattlesnake</i>.
+He writes as follows respecting it:&mdash;“This very fine bird, which is
+not uncommon in the vicinity of Cape York, was usually found in the
+densest scrub among the tops of the tallest trees, but was occasionally
+seen in the open forest land perched on the largest of the <i>Eucalypti</i>,
+apparently resting on its passage from one belt of trees or patch of
+scrub to another. Like the Black Cockatoos, or <i>Calyptorhynchi</i>, it
+flies slowly and usually but a short distance. In November, 1849, the
+period of our last visit to Cape York, it was always found in pairs,
+very shy, and difficult of approach. Its cry is merely a low short
+whistle of a single note, which may be represented by the letters
+‘<i>Hweet-Hweet</i>.’ The stomach of the first one killed contained a few
+small pieces of quartz and triturated fragments of palm-cabbage, with
+which the crop of another specimen was completely filled; and the idea
+immediately suggests itself, that the powerful bill of this bird is a
+most fitting instrument for stripping off the leaves near the summits
+of the <i>Seaforthia elegans</i> and other palms to enable it to arrive at
+the central tender shoot.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="pygmy_parrots">THE PYGMY PARROTS (<i>Nasiternæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These Parrots are represented by seven little manikins which are
+found in New Guinea and the adjacent islands, each particular island
+possessing its own peculiar species. Not one of these little birds
+exceeds a Sparrow in size, the largest being a little over three inches
+and a half in length. Owing to their small size and the resemblance of
+the green colouring to the forests they inhabit, they are not easily
+seen, and until recent years were very hard to procure. In the island
+of Mafoor in the Bay of Geelvink, N.W., New Guinea, Baron von Rosenberg
+says that he found it common near Roemsaro, and several specimens, both
+alive and dead, were brought to him by the natives. They bred there in
+January and February, nesting in hollow trees and laying two eggs, the
+size of those of the English Bottle Titmouse. Their food consists of
+fruit.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="amazon_parrots">THE AMAZON PARROTS
+(<i>Androglossinæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
+
+<p>This, the second sub-family, consists of the true Parrots, of which
+the ordinary Grey Parrot (<i>Psittacus erythacus</i>) is the type. It also
+includes all the Green Parrots of America, which are called Amazons,
+as well as the Lories (<i>Eclectus</i>) and Love-birds (<i>Agapornis</i>). The
+head is moderately smooth, without any highly-developed crest, as in
+the Cockatoos, and the tail is short, or of only moderate length. The
+tail-feathers are generally broad and obtuse, in a few widening at the
+tip, or sharp at the end. In the genus <i>Prioniturus</i>, which inhabits
+the Philippine Islands, and some of the Moluccas, the two centre
+feathers have the shafts produced, and ending in a small spatule, or
+racket.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="amazons">THE AMAZONS
+(<i>Chrysotis</i>).<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_311">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_311.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AMAZON PARROT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These Parrots are entirely American, and are the only birds of the
+New World which can compete in talking powers with the African Grey
+Parrots, who, however, far surpass their American relatives. About
+thirty species of Amazon are known, all of them confined within the
+limits of the Neotropical region, which comprises the whole of Central
+and Southern America, south of an imaginary line drawn through Northern
+Mexico. The West India islands are also included in this area, and
+most of them<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[Pg 311]</span> are inhabited by a species of Amazon. The habits of
+all these Parrots seem to be very similar, and a good account of
+the Active Amazon of Jamaica (<i>Chrysotis agilis</i>) is given by Mr.
+Gosse<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>:&mdash;“All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
+mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the Yellow-billed
+Parrot [Mr. Gosse’s name for <i>C. agilis</i> is the Black-billed Parrot]
+are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that a description
+of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from half a dozen
+to twenty or thirty fly hither and thither over the forest, screeching
+as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered with berries.
+Here they feast, but with caution. On a slight alarm one screams,
+and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not musical, and
+brilliant if not beautiful, particularly when the sun shines on their
+green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer lofty trees,
+except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts them to descend,
+or when the blackberry shines upon the pimento. Of the latter the
+flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former they destroy by
+cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at the small
+seeds. One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
+Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
+and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills, and a few Parrakeets,
+flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the
+hot, aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
+neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
+carelessness of one’s proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
+gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I shot
+on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons of the
+seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the fleshy
+part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and rejected.
+When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their emerald hue
+is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner; but in a tree
+of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent concealment. They
+seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts them to rely on it for
+security. Often we hear their voices proceeding from a certain tree, or
+else have marked the descent of a flock upon it, but on proceeding to
+the spot, though the eye has not wandered from it, and we are therefore
+sure that they are there, we cannot discover an individual.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[Pg 312]</span> We go
+close to the tree, but all is silent, and still as death; we institute
+a careful survey of every part with the eye, to detect the slightest
+motion, or the form of a bird among the leaves, but in vain; we begin
+to think that they have stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a
+stone into the tree, a dozen throats burst forth into cry, and as many
+green birds rush forth upon the wing. The screaming of this and the
+following species differs from that of the Parrakeet, so far as to be
+easily distinguished. That of the latter consists of a series of harsh
+screeches, of comparative length; that of the Parrots is less shrill,
+more broken into short and rapid articulations, forming a series of
+varying length, separated by momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much
+more like a hurried chattering.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="grey_parrot">THE GREY PARROT (<i>Psittacus erythacus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This familiar cage-bird is a native of Africa, and it would appear
+to have been a favourite in England for a longer period than can be
+traced. They were held in great estimation at the court of the “Merry
+Monarch” Charles II., for his Queen Catharine of Braganza had a
+parrot-keeper, at a salary of £36 per annum, while the maids of honour
+received only £10 a year each, and the “mother of the maids” £20 per
+annum. Therefore, the custodian of the Parrots was better paid by £16
+than the lady who held the very responsible post of care-taker of
+the maids of honour.<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> A Grey Parrot which lived for forty years
+with the Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, who died in 1702, and who
+was a celebrated beauty at the court of Charles II., is preserved in
+Westminster Abbey along with the effigy of that lady, having survived
+its mistress only a few days.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange that for a bird which has so long been one of the chief
+pets in Europe, so little is known of its habits in a wild state,
+and at the present time not a single authentic egg of this species,
+taken in its native haunts, is known to exist. Occasionally it lays in
+confinement a white egg, like other Picarian birds, but it is probably
+from the care with which the species selects its breeding-place
+that it has been so difficult to find their nest and eggs. The only
+naturalist who appears to have discovered the latter appears to be the
+celebrated natural history artist, Mr. Keulemans, who spent nearly
+two years in West Africa, and has written the best account of the
+Grey Parrot in a state of nature,<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> as observed by him on Ilha
+do Principe, or Prince’s Island, in the Bight of Biafra. Here it is
+very common, and breeds in the month of December in the very thickest
+forests. Only one pair breed in each tree, laying five eggs in a hole
+thereof, but a large number nest in close proximity to each other,
+many hundreds breeding in the same area, according to the above-named
+author. Both parents take a share in the rearing of the young birds,
+sitting by turns, the one who is thus relieved bringing food to its
+mate and feeding it out of its crop, which method is also adopted in
+the care of the young birds. The food of the Grey Parrot is stated to
+consist of palm-nuts, the arocat (<i>Laurus persea</i>), the banana (<i>Musa
+paradisea</i>), goyare, mango, and many other fruits of a smaller size;
+but it always gives the preference to palm-nuts. On Prince’s Island,
+writes Mr. Keulemans, there is “a very lofty mountain, reaching some
+1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and called by the natives ‘Pico
+de Papagaio,’ or Peak of the Parrots. On the slope of this mountain,
+and extending far up its side, is a magnificent forest. The trees are
+of great size and height, and their trunks and branches give support
+to the lianas and other climbing plants, which hang about them in
+luxurious folds. The density of the forest is so great that it is only
+with the greatest difficulty and toil that the explorer can force his
+way through it; while to the Parrots who come up there every night it
+presents no obstacle, but gives them, under the shelter of its thick
+foliage, a secure and pleasant resting-place.”</p>
+
+<p>Another observer in West Africa, Dr. Reichenow, found the Grey Parrot
+breeding in West Africa in the low-lands along the streams and groves
+of mangrove, and the great difficulty of traversing these swamps is,
+according to him, the reason why their breeding habits are not better
+known. They are very destructive to the crops of Indian corn, which
+they visit in large flocks, wasting as much as they consume. They
+proceed to roost in flocks, selecting the same route each night; and
+Governor Ussher says that, whilst up the river Addo, near Lagos, he
+has seen them crossing at sunset from their feeding-grounds to their
+roosting-places, when they presented the appearance of one continuous
+flock passing at a great distance overhead, their screams and
+chattering being heard long after darkness has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[Pg 313]</span> set in. They are said
+by some travellers to be very good eating, but by others to be only
+good for soup.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_313a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_313a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT MACAWS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_313a_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Grey Parrot in his native haunts is an unsociable bird, and a
+curious story is told by Dr. Dohrn, and confirmed by Mr. Keulemans,
+respecting the species in Prince’s Island. As has already been stated,
+the Parrots are extremely common there, but not a single Kite is met
+with on the island. On the neighbouring island of St. Thomas there
+is an abundance of Black Kites but not a single Parrot, between whom
+and the Kites a constant warfare is waged, so that, should one of the
+latter get driven over to Prince’s Island he is almost immediately set
+upon by the Parrots and slaughtered; and the compliment is returned if
+a Parrot is so unfortunate as to land uninvited on St. Thomas’s. On
+the coast the chief enemy of the Parrots is the Vulturine Sea-Eagle
+(<i>Gypohierax angolensis</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_313b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_313b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREY PARROT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The colouring of the Grey Parrot is simple, being of a clear
+bluish-grey, with a red tail. About the face the skin is white, and
+covered with a soft, velvety feathering, amongst which there is a
+plentiful supply of white powder, as any one knows who scratches the
+head of “Polly.” This powder is present in most of the family, but not
+to the same degree as in the grey species. The young bird in the nest
+is stated to have the tail dark-grey instead of red, and it is more of
+a brownish-grey colour, not so clear as in the old bird, while the iris
+is grey instead of yellow.</p>
+
+<p id="conures">The C<span class="smaller">ONURES</span> (<i>Conurinæ</i>) are the third sub-family of Parrots,
+and are represented largely in America, only one genus, <i>Palæornis</i>,
+being found in India and Africa. They have the head devoid of a crest,
+with a very long graduated tail, and short and weak tarsi. Amongst the
+best-known species of this sub-family may be mentioned the Great Macaw.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="rose_ringed_parrakeet">THE ROSE-RINGED
+PARRAKEET (<i>Palæornis torquatus</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_314">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_314.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This Parrot is probably the species of which we have the earliest known
+record, as Onesicritus, who was admiral of the fleet of Alexander
+the Great, is said to have brought from Ceylon a specimen of a green
+Parrot with a red neck. Many authors have supposed that the large
+Alexandrine Parrakeet (<i>Palæornis eupatrius</i>, or <i>Alexandri</i>) was the
+species referred to, but the habitat of this bird is now<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[Pg 314]</span> known to be
+the island of Java, and the Rose-ringed Parrakeet is more probably the
+bird intended. Professor Sundevall, the great authority on Aristotle,
+believes that the present bird was the only Parrot known to the
+ancients, being brought into Europe probably from Nubia. Other species
+were not seen in Europe before the end of the Middle Ages, and the
+West African species, such as the Senegal Parrot (<i>P. senegalus</i>), in
+1455, and the Grey Parrot even later; the latter not being described
+before Aldrovandus, about the year 1600. American species were brought
+already in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and many Indian species after
+the circumnavigation of Africa about the year 1500. The present bird is
+common in India and Ceylon, and is, moreover, one of the few species
+of birds which are common to the Indian Peninsula and the continent of
+Africa, as it is a well-known bird in Nubia and Abyssinia, and on one
+occasion a flock has been seen in the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth
+in the extreme south of the continent. According to Dr. Jerdon, it
+is one of the most common and familiar birds in India, frequenting
+cultivated ground and gardens, even in the barest and least wooded
+parts of the country, and it is habitually found about towns and
+villages, constantly perching on the house-top. It is very destructive
+to most kinds of grain, as well as to fruit-gardens. Burgess says
+that they carry off the ears of corn to trees to devour at leisure,
+and Jerdon has observed the same sometimes. When the grains are cut
+and housed it feeds on the ground in the stubble cornfields, also in
+meadows, picking up what seeds it can; and now and then takes long
+flights, hunting for any tree that may be in fruit, skimming close and
+examining every tree; and when it has made a discovery of one in fruit,
+circling round, and sailing with outspread and down-pointing wings
+till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size,
+sometimes in vast numbers, and generally many hundreds roost together
+in some garden or grove. At Saugor all the Parrakeets, Mynahs, Crows,
+Bee-eaters, &amp;c., of the neighbourhood, for some miles around, roost
+in company in a large grove of bamboos; and the deafening noise heard
+there from before sunset till dark, and from the first dawn of day
+till long after sunrise, gives to the listener the idea of numberless
+noisy steam machines at work. Many of the flocks of Parrots are very
+late in returning, and fly along quite low, skimming the ground, and
+just rising over a tree, house, or any obstacle in the way, and, for
+several nights in succession, several Parrakeets flew against the wall
+of a house, on the top of a hill in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[Pg 315]</span> Saugor, and were killed. The
+Rose-ringed Parrakeet breeds both in holes in trees, and very commonly
+in the south of India about houses, in holes in old buildings, pagodas,
+tombs, &amp;c. It lays four white eggs. Its breeding season is from January
+to March. Adams states that he has seen this Parrakeet pillage the
+nests of the Sand Martin; but with what intent he does not guess at.
+Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated strokes of the wings,
+somewhat wavy laterally, or arrowy. It has a harsh cry, which it always
+repeats when in flight, as well as at other times. Mr. Philipps remarks
+that the Kite will sometimes swoop down on them when perched on a tree,
+and carry one off in its talons; also that Owls attack these birds by
+night.<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a></p>
+
+<p>The length of this species is about sixteen inches and a half. It is
+green with a black band extending from under the chin backwards nearly
+to the nape, and having a rose-coloured collar round the hind neck. The
+bill is cherry-red, the feet greyish, and the iris pale yellow. The
+female does not possess the rose-coloured collar, but has instead a
+narrower one of emerald green.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="carolina_conure">THE CAROLINA CONURE (<i>Conurus carolinensis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Conures are inhabitants of the New World, and are very abundant
+in South America, but one species, the Carolina Conure, penetrating
+into the Nearctic region above the line of North Mexico. It is a very
+handsome bird, but is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and becoming
+restricted in its range, so much so, that in places where it was once
+plentiful it is now no longer to be found at all. Even in 1842, when
+Audubon wrote, they were then fast diminishing, and are now confined
+to the Southern and South-western States, as far west as the Missouri
+river. The food of the Carolina Conure is stated to consist chiefly
+of the seeds of the Cockle-burr (<i>Xanthirum strumarium</i>), but it is
+also very partial to fruit of all kinds, and it is owing to the way in
+which it has been shot down that it is now so rare, for Mr. Audubon
+describes the immense damage done by a flock of Conures to stacks of
+grain, which they covered in such numbers that they presented to the
+eye the same effect as if a brilliant-coloured carpet had been thrown
+over them. The farmers resented the attacks on their property to such
+an extent that the same naturalist states that he has seen hundreds
+killed in the course of a few hours, the survivors, after each shot,
+flying round for a few minutes, and then settling again in a place of
+most imminent danger. Even in confinement the birds seem to develop
+their destructive propensities, destroying wood, books, and, in short,
+everything that comes in their way, while from their incapability of
+talk, and their harsh, disagreeable voices, they are not much esteemed
+as pets. As Audubon observes, the woods are the habitation best fitted
+for them, and there the richness of their plumage, their beautiful
+mode of flight, and even their screams, afford welcome intimation that
+the darkest forests and most sequestered swamps are not destitute
+of charms. According to the same observer, they deposit their eggs,
+without making a nest, in the bottoms of such cavities in trees as
+those to which they usually retire at night. Many females deposit their
+eggs together, and he believed that the number laid by each hen bird
+was two; the eggs were greenish-white, and nearly round, and the young
+are at first covered with soft down, such as is seen in nestling Owls.
+The colour of this Parrot is green, the head and neck bright-yellow,
+and the forehead and region of the eye scarlet; the bill is white, the
+feet pale flesh-colour, and the iris hazel; the length of the bird
+being about fourteen inches. The female is like the male, but the young
+bird has the head green instead of yellow.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="parrakeets">THE PARRAKEETS (<i>Platycercinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These form the fourth sub-family, and are remarkable for their slender,
+smooth tarsus, which is formed as in most birds; and the voice is
+more agreeable than in the other genera, the members of which, almost
+without exception, have a harsh and unpleasant cry. They are mostly
+inhabitants of Australia, whence come several of them well known as
+cage-birds, such as the King Parrakeet (<i>Platycercus scapulatus</i>), the
+Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet (<i>P. eximius</i>), and in America they are
+represented by the single genus <i>Bolborhynchus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[Pg 316]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_316">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_316.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">ROSELLA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="owl_parrot">THE OWL PARROT (<i>Strigops</i><a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> <i>habroptilus</i><a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Strigops</i> is the sole representative of the fifth
+sub-family, the <i>Strigopinæ</i>. It is one of the most remarkable of all
+the Parrots, and is met with only in New Zealand. The face shows a disc
+exactly as in the Owls, whence the name, and the wing is very short,
+convex, and rounded. In its habits this bird is chiefly nocturnal, but
+not entirely so; the most remarkable fact connected with it being,
+perhaps, its unwillingness to fly. Thus Dr. Buller, F.R.S., in his
+excellent work on the “Birds of New Zealand,” writes:&mdash;“All who have
+studied the bird in its natural state agree on this point, that the
+wings, although sufficiently large and strong, are perfectly useless
+for purposes of flight, and that the bird merely spreads them to
+break the force of its fall in descending from a higher point to a
+lower, when suddenly surprised; in some instances even this use of
+them is neglected, the bird falling to the ground like a stone. We
+are naturally led to ask how it is that a bird possessing large and
+well-formed wings should be found utterly incapable of flight. On
+removing the skin from the body it is seen that the muscles by means
+of which the movements of these anterior limbs are regulated are very
+well developed, but are largely overlaid with fat. The bird is known to
+be a ground-feeder, with a voracious appetite, and to subsist chiefly
+on vegetable mosses, which, possessing but little nutriment, require
+to be eaten in large quantities; and Dr. Haast informs us that he has
+sometimes seen them with their crops so distended and heavy, that the
+birds were scarcely able to move. These mosses cover the ground and the
+roots or trunks of prostrate trees, requiring to be sought for on foot;
+and the bird’s habit of feeding at night, in a country where there are
+no indigenous predatory quadrupeds, would render flight a superfluous
+exertion, and a faculty of no especial advantage in the struggle for
+existence. Thus it may be reasonably inferred that <i>disuse</i>, under the
+usual operations of the laws of nature, has occasioned this disability
+of wing; for there is no physiological reason why the Kakapo should not
+be as good a flier as any other Parrot.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_317">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_317.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">OWL PARROT. (<i>After Keulemans</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Kakapo, as it is called in New Zealand, meaning a “Night Parrot,”
+is becoming rarer every year, as the places which it affects become
+more and more accessible to the colonists. From the long accounts
+of its habits given in Dr. Buller’s work, the following note of Dr.
+Haast is selected, as it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[Pg 317]</span> gives a good idea of the habits of this
+singular species:&mdash;“So little is known of this solitary inhabitant
+of our primæval forests, that the following short narrative of
+observations, which I was fortunate enough to make during my recent
+West Coast journey, may interest you. Although I was travelling almost
+continuously for several years in the interior of these islands, it was
+only during my last journey that I was enabled to study its natural
+history. I was well acquainted with its call, and had often observed
+its tracks in the sands of the river-beds and in the fresh-fallen snow,
+but I had not actually seen it. The principal reason for this was, that
+formerly I had no dog with me; and consequently it would only be by the
+greatest accident that this bird, not at all rare in those untrodden
+regions, could be obtained. The true habitat of the Kakapo is the mossy
+<i>Fagus</i> forest, near mountain streams, with occasional grassy plots;
+but it also lives both on the hill-sides, amongst enormous blocks of
+rock, mostly overgrown with roots of trees and a deep covering of moss,
+and on wooded flats along the banks of the larger rivers, liable to be
+inundated by heavy rainfalls or by the sudden melting of the snow....
+It is a striking fact, that&mdash;with the exception only of the valley of
+the river Makarora, forming Lake Wanaka&mdash;I never found the Kakapo on
+the eastern side of the Alps, although extensive <i>Fagus</i> forests exist
+there also. It appears to have crossed the main chain at the low wooded
+pass which leads from the source of the Haast to that of the Makarora,
+and reached the mouth of this river at Lake Wanaka, where probably
+the absence of forest put a stop to its farther advance. It is very
+abundant in the valley of the last-mentioned river, and is found even
+in the Makarora bush, notwithstanding that numerous sawyers are at work
+there. When camped on the borders of that forest we continually heard
+its call near our tents; but none of the sawyers had any idea of the
+existence of such a large bird in their neighbourhood, although the
+irregular shrill call had sometimes attracted their attention. It also
+occurs in the valley of the Wilkin, but is less numerous there, which
+may be accounted for by the existence of wild dogs in this locality. We
+may therefore safely assume that from the junction of this river with
+the Makarora the Kakapo ascended toward the sources of the former. In
+the valley of the Hunter, only divided by a mountain-range of great
+altitude but with some low saddles, no sign of it was to be observed,
+although large <i>Fagus</i> forests would appear to offer a propitious
+abode. This bird has hitherto been pronounced to be of true nocturnal
+habits; but I think, from observations I was able to make, that this
+opinion ought to be somewhat modified. It is true that generally an
+hour after sunset, the dense foliage of the forest giving additional
+darkness to the country, its call began to be heard all around us.
+It then commenced to rove about, and, attracted by the glare of our
+camp-fire, frequently came close to our tent, when the heedless bird
+was immediately caught by our dog. But as we met with it on two
+occasions in the daytime, occupied in feeding, and as I observed that
+it knew and understood perfectly well the danger which approached, we
+may assume that it has, at least in this respect, some relation to
+diurnal birds. In order to show why I come to this conclusion, I will
+particularise the two occurrences I have mentioned, as they appear
+to bear directly upon some other important points in the structure
+of this bird. When returning from the West Coast, we observed in the
+afternoon (the sky being clouded) a Kakapo sitting on the prostrate
+trunk of a tree in the open forest. When about ten yards from it, the
+bird observed us, and disappeared instantly in its hole, whence, with
+the aid of the dog, we afterwards took it. It is clear that in this
+case the bird was not overtaken by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[Pg 318]</span> coming day when far from its
+abode, but that it left its retreat voluntarily during daylight. The
+second instance I shall mention is more striking, and shows that the
+Kakapo feeds also during the day. It was towards evening, but still
+broad daylight, when we passed along the hill-side near a deep rocky
+gorge, and saw a large Kakapo sitting on a low fuchsia-tree, about ten
+feet from the ground, feeding on the berries. When close to it, the
+bird saw us, and instantly dropped down as if shot, and disappeared
+amongst the huge fragments of rocks strewed along the hill-side. But
+the most remarkable circumstance was, that the frightened bird did not
+open its wings to break its fall, but dropped as if it did not possess
+any wings at all. In order to see whether they would fly, or even
+flutter, when pursued by an enemy, I placed on the ground a full-grown
+specimen, which had been caught by the dog without being hurt. It was
+on a large shingle-bed, so that the bird had ample room for running
+or rising on the wing, if for this purpose it wanted space. I was not
+a little astonished to observe that it only started running towards
+the nearest point of the forest, where a dark shadow was apparent, and
+it went quicker than I had anticipated, considering the position of
+its toes and its clumsy figure, its gait resembling closely that of
+a Gallinaceous bird in its movements. As I was standing sideways to
+it, I thought that it kept its wings closed upon its body, so little
+were they opened; but my companion, who was equally anxious to see
+how our prisoner would try to escape, and who stood a little behind
+it, observed that it opened its wings slightly, but without flapping
+them in any degree, using them apparently more for keeping its balance
+than for accelerating its movements. This would almost lead to the
+conclusion that the Kakapo does not travel far, especially as I have
+already shown that its whole structure is ill adapted for running.
+But having myself frequently followed its tracks, and found them to
+extend a great distance over the sandy reaches along the river, such
+a conclusion as that suggested above would be erroneous. It must be
+exceedingly fond of water, because in many localities its tracks were
+observed for half a mile over shingle and sand to the banks of the
+river; and I am unable to explain the curious fact, unless the object
+be to mix river water with the enormous mass of pulpy vegetable matter
+which is to be found in its crop. With the exception of two specimens,
+the crops of which were filled with the large berries of a small-leaved
+<i>Coriaria</i>, by which their flesh was flavoured, all the birds examined
+by me had their crops widely distended by a mass of finely-comminuted
+vegetable mosses, weighing many ounces.</p>
+
+<p>“I carefully examined the subterranean abode of this bird. From the
+account given by the natives, I thought that it would be found living
+in well-excavated holes, resembling in their construction those of
+the Fox or Badger; that the entrance would be so small as to enable
+only the inhabitants to enter, and thus to exclude larger animals from
+persecuting it. This, however, is not the case; because, with one
+exception, all the specimens obtained were either in fissures amongst
+rocks, or in cavities formed by huge blocks tumbled one over another,
+and overgrown with moss, or in holes formed by the roots of decayed
+trees. The cavities in the rocks were generally sufficiently large
+to allow of my dog, a good-sized Retriever, freely entering them.
+The openings to the other holes were smaller, and it was sometimes
+necessary to cut away a few roots at the entrance. Inside, the cavity
+was invariably of very large size, because we could plainly hear the
+dog advancing several yards before commencing his scuffle with the
+occupant; and on returning with the bird in his mouth, he always
+emerged head foremost, thus proving that the chamber was large enough
+to enable him to turn himself round. Before he had become accustomed to
+the work, the dog was often punished severely by the bird’s powerful
+beak and claws; but he ultimately became quite an expert, always
+seizing his prey by the head and crushing the skull.</p>
+
+<p>“The holes or abodes of the Kakapo were not only on the mountain sides,
+but also on the flats near the river banks which are liable to be
+overflowed. There can be no doubt that when a sudden inundation takes
+place the bird can save itself upon a bush or neighbouring tree. I do
+not think, however, that it can climb the boles of standing trees,
+because it never resorted to them during the night or when persecuted
+by the dog&mdash;except in one single case, when the bird ascended a leaning
+tree close to our camp, and remained till the dog had given up the
+attempt to obtain it. But, notwithstanding that almost all the abodes
+that came under examination were natural cavities, I met with one hole
+that seemed to have been regularly mined. On the northern bank of the
+river Haast, just below the junction of the river Clarke, a large
+flat occurs, formed by deposits of sand, over which a thin layer of
+vegetable mould is spread, and on which a luxuriant vegetation has
+sprung up. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[Pg 319]</span> river, in washing against these deposits, has in some
+cases formed nearly perpendicular banks, about six to eight feet high.
+At one spot, about two feet below the surface, several rounded holes
+were observed, and the dog tried in vain to enter them. After carefully
+scenting the ground, he began to scratch the surface with his paws, and
+soon succeeded in widening the entrance sufficiently to admit his body,
+and he immediately afterwards emerged with the bird in his mouth. There
+is no doubt in my own mind that this hole at least had been excavated;
+and the burrowing faculty of the bird may be considered so far
+established. On a flat in the valley of the Makarora, the dog brought
+one from the interior of a hollow drift-tree, which was lying amongst
+sedges and grasses in an old river channel. There never was more than
+one individual in the hole, although very often, within twenty or
+thirty yards of it, another specimen would be scented out by the dog,
+the two being generally of opposite sexes. At night-time, in visiting
+our camp fire, they generally came in pairs, the two being successively
+caught by my dog, a single or sometimes a repeated angry growl from
+the bird informing us that he had hold of it. These circumstances lead
+me to conclude that during the day each inhabits separately its own
+hole, and that only after dark do they meet for feeding and for social
+intercourse.”</p>
+
+<p>In size, the Owl Parrot is about twenty-six inches in length, and is of
+a dark sap-green colour, varied and mottled with dark brown and yellow;
+the face is lighter, being darker brown, the ear-coverts mixed with
+yellow; the belly and under tail-coverts, as well as the wing-lining,
+are rather brighter yellow than the rest of the under surface. The tint
+of green varies a good deal: from light yellowish to dark sap-green.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="straight_billed_parrots">THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS (<i>Psittaci
+orthognathi</i>).<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this second section of the Parrots only one family is known, all the
+members of which are easily recognisable by their straightened bills,
+the lower mandible being gently compressed, and not bulged out, with a
+nearly straight tip, the cutting edges with scarcely any indentation.
+With the exception of the Lorikeets (<i>Loriculus</i>), members of which
+are found in India and the Indo-Malayan region, the whole family is
+Australian, being confined to that continent and the adjacent Molucca
+Islands, New Zealand, and the islands of Polynesia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_319">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_319.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LORIKEET.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[Pg 320]</span></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="brush_tongued_parrots">THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS.<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Brush-tongued Lorikeets are all birds of very beautiful colouring,
+and are mostly found in Australia, the Moluccas, some few species
+extending through the Oceanic Islands. All seem to be very similar
+in their habits, an account of which is given by Mr. Gould. He
+says:&mdash;“This arboreal group of honey-eating Lorikeets, if not so
+numerous in species as the seed-feeding Parrakeets, is individually as
+abundant, and more universally dispersed, being found in every part
+of Australia yet visited. In their structure, habits, food, and mode
+of nidification, no two groups of the same family can be more widely
+different than these forms: the pencilled tongue, the diminutive
+stomach, thick skin, tough flesh, and fœtid odour of the <i>Trichoglossi</i>
+presenting a decided contrast to the simple tongue, capacious crop
+and stomach, thin skin, delicate flesh, and freedom from odour of the
+<i>Platycerci</i>; besides which, the <i>Trichoglossi</i> possess a strong <i>os
+furcatorium</i>, which bone is wanting in the <i>Platycerci</i>. Hence, while
+the <i>Trichoglossi</i> are powerful, swift, and arrow-like in their flight,
+the <i>Platycerci</i> are feeble, pass through the air in a succession of
+undulations near the ground, and never fly to any great distance.
+The mode in which the two groups approach, alight upon, and quit the
+trees is also remarkably different&mdash;the <i>Trichoglossi</i> dashing among
+and alighting upon the branches simultaneously and with the utmost
+rapidity, and quitting them in like manner, leaving the deafening
+sound of their thousand voices echoing through the woods; while the
+<i>Platycerci</i> rise to the branch after their undulating flight, and
+leave them again in a quiet manner, no sound being heard but their
+inward piping note. The eggs of the <i>Trichoglossi</i> are from two to four
+in number; those of the others are more numerous.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="nestors">THE NESTORS (<i>Nestor</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These Parrots, which are only found in New Zealand, are generally
+placed with the other Brush-tongued Parrots. “In all Parrots the fleshy
+tongue ends anteriorly in a dilated portion, supported by a narrower
+neck. This tip is much like the end of a human finger, as mentioned by
+most observers; and its function is similar also, for it is employed
+by the bird as a third prehensile organ in connection with the upper
+and lower beak, any solid substance being held by the tongue and upper
+beak, while the mandible is freed to give another bite. Continuing the
+simile of the finger, the tip is directed forwards with the nail-like
+portion downwards, the part corresponding to the free edge of the nail
+appearing along the lower margin of the anterior rounded surface.<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a>
+In the <i>Trichoglossi</i>, this ‘nail,’ or horny plate, is stated to be
+present; but on the superior surface of the tongue, between the lateral
+edges of the unguis, or nail, there is an arrangement of retroverted
+papillæ, forming a spinous covering, and their mechanism is such that
+when the tongue is protruded beyond the mouth to grasp any object,
+the papillæ stand upright, or are even directed somewhat forward. In
+Nestor,” continues Professor Garrod, “there are no papillæ of this
+description; but the tongue is here, as Dr. Buller says, ‘soft, rounded
+on the edges, with a broad central groove,’ and it is as smooth as in
+other Parrots. Therefore, the Kaka Parrot cannot in this point be said
+to approach the <i>Trichoglossini</i> (badly so called). The peculiarity of
+the tongue of <i>Nestor</i> consists in the fact that the interior edge of
+the unguis, or nail, always free (though for a very short distance)
+and jagged in the other birds of the class, is here prolonged forwards
+beyond the tips of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch, as a
+delicate fringe of hairs with a crescentic contour. In the living bird
+the mouth is moist, as in the Lories, and not, as in the Cockatoos and
+others, dry and scaly.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe10" id="i_320">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_320.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TONGUE OF NESTOR.
+  (<i>After Garrod.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The members of the genus <i>Nestor</i> are entirely confined to New Zealand,
+the species of Philip Island (<i>Nestor productus</i>) being now extinct.
+Their habits, like those of all New Zealand birds, are sufficiently
+curious, one of them, known as the “Kea” (<i>N. notabilis</i>), actually
+feeding on raw flesh, as is noticed by Dr. Buller:&mdash;“Those that
+frequent the sheep stations appear to live almost exclusively on
+flesh. They claim the sheep’s heads that are thrown out from the
+slaughter-shed, and pick them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but
+the bones.” An eye-witness described this operation to Dr. Hector as
+follows:&mdash;“Perching itself on the sheep’s head or other offal, the bird
+proceeds to tear off<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[Pg 321]</span> the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after
+the manner of a Hawk; or at other times holding the object down with
+one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after
+the ordinary fashion of Parrots.” Dr. Buller also mentions instances of
+tame Parrots devouring their comrades in captivity; but the Kea is the
+only Parrot known to eat flesh when flying wild.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="kaka_parrot">THE KAKA PARROT (<i>Nestor meridionalis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This Parrot is best described by the above-named ornithologist in the
+work on the Birds of New Zealand, to which frequent reference has been
+made in these pages:&mdash;“Sprightly in its actions, eminently social, and
+more noisy than any other inhabitant of the woods, the Kaka holds a
+prominent place among our native birds. Being semi-nocturnal in its
+habits, it generally remains quiet and concealed during the heat of the
+day. If, however, the sportsman should happen to find a stray one, and
+to wound instead of killing it, its cries of distress will immediately
+rouse the whole fraternity from their slumbers, and all the Kakas
+within hearing will come to the rescue, and make the forest echo with
+their discordant screams. Unless, however, disturbed by some exciting
+cause of this sort, they remain in close cover till the approach of
+the cooler hours. Then they come forth with noisy clamour, and may be
+seen, far above the tree-tops, winging their way to some favourite
+feeding-place; or they may be observed climbing up the rough vine-clad
+boles of the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles, and assuming
+every variety of attitude, or diligently tearing open the dead roots of
+the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and
+their larvæ. In the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild
+blossom and berry, these birds have a prodigality of food, and may be
+seen alternately filling their crops with a variety of juicy berries,
+or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata (<i>Metrosideros
+robusta</i>) by means of their brush-fringed tongues. With the earliest
+streaks of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped in
+darkness, the wild cry of this bird breaks upon the ear with a strange
+effect. It is the sound that wakes the weary traveller encamped in the
+bush; and the announcement of his ever active Maori attendant&mdash;‘Kua
+tangi te Kaka’&mdash;is an intimation that it is time to be active. But
+although habitually recluse during the day, it is not always so.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe39" id="i_321">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_321.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">KAKA PARROT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[Pg 322]</span></p>
+
+<p>“During gloomy weather it is often very active; and sometimes even in
+the bright sunshine a score of them may be seen together, flying and
+circling about high above the tree-tops, uttering their loud screams,
+and apparently bent on convivial amusement. When the shades of evening
+bring a deeper gloom into the depths of the forest, and all sounds are
+hushed, save the low hoot of the waking Morepork, or the occasional
+<i>cheep-cheep</i> of the startled Robin, the Kaka becomes more animated.
+It may then be heard calling to its fellows in a harsh rasping note,
+something like the syllables ‘<i>t-chrut, t-chrut</i>,’ or indulging in a
+clear musical whistle with a short refrain. It is strictly arboreal
+in its habits, and subsists to a large extent on insects and their
+larvæ, so that it is probably one of our most useful species. Where
+they exist in large numbers they must act very beneficially on the
+timber forests; for in the domain of Nature important results are often
+produced by apparently trivial agencies. Like all the honey-eaters,
+while supplying their own wants, they do good service with their
+brush tongues by fertilising the blossoms of various trees, and thus
+assisting in their propagation; while, on the other hand, the diligent
+search they prosecute for insects and grubs, and the countless numbers
+daily consumed by each individual, must materially affect the economy
+of the native woods. On this latter point Mr. Potts has furnished
+the following valuable note:&mdash;‘Although so often accused of injuring
+trees by stripping down the bark, from careful observation we do
+not believe a flourishing tree is ever damaged by its beak. It is
+the apparently vigorous, but really unsound, tree that is attacked,
+already doomed by the presence of countless multitudes of insects of
+many varieties, of which it is at once the food and refuge, either
+in their perfect or larval state. In the persevering and laborious
+pursuit of this favourite food, the Kaka doubtless lends his assistance
+in hastening the fall of decaying trees; the loosened strips of bark
+dissevered admit to the exposed wood rain and moisture collected from
+dews and mists, to be dried by evaporation by the heat of the sun,
+by the desiccating winds, only to become saturated again. Under this
+alternation the insidious fungi take root, decay rapidly sets in, the
+close-grained timber gives place to a soft spongy texture, branches
+drop off, and gradually the once noble-looking tree succumbs to its
+fate; but its gradual decay and fall, the work of years, has proved
+beneficial to the surrounding plants: the dropping of the branches
+admits light and air to the aspiring saplings, assists in checking the
+undue spread of lichens and epiphytes; and when the old stem falls,
+tottering down from its very rottenness, its place is supplied by
+vigorous successors.’</p>
+
+<p>“In estimating the value of the labours of the Kaka as an insect-eater,
+it should not be forgotten that the family of Woodpeckers is entirely
+absent from our bird-fauna, and that upon this indefatigable climber
+devolves some share of the duty of representing that peculiar group of
+forest birds. How diligently the insects are sought for by the Kaka may
+be judged from the heaps of bark chips that lie beneath the decaying
+trees. Often it may be noticed on the ground tearing away the mossy
+clothing of the huge gnarled roots that spread around; even the soft
+rotten boughs are gnawed to obtain the larvæ of some of the larger bush
+insects.”</p>
+
+<p>The Nestors vary immensely in colour, so that many of the plumages
+now known to be only occasional varieties have been supposed to be
+specifically distinct. They are birds of large size, and have the cere,
+or fleshy portion at the base of the bill, rather strongly developed,
+the bill being large and powerful. The colour is of an olivaceous
+brown, with a dash of dark red, the crown grey, and the ear-coverts
+shaded with orange, the cheeks with dark red, as also are the lower
+back, rump, and upper tail-coverts and abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The structure of the bill of the Parrots is so remarkable as to be
+worthy of a more extended description than could be given to it when it
+was incidentally referred to in our account of the osteology of birds
+in general. The way, however, in which the upper and lower jaws are
+connected with the skull was there explained, and a reference to the
+description on pp. 241&ndash;2 will save the necessity of much repetition
+now. That account embraced all members of the class of birds; here we
+are dealing only with certain peculiar modifications.</p>
+
+<p>If the skull of an adult bird of any familiar type, such as a Crow,
+be examined, it will be seen that the bones of the upper jaw are
+apparently continuous, and form one piece, with those of the forehead
+and sides of the head. There is nothing that looks like a joint, or
+“articulation,” between the bill where it is attached to the forehead
+above, or to the long jugal arch (“quadrato-jugal”) that runs each
+side to reach the quadrate bone, or to the flattened bones that help
+to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[Pg 323]</span> form the palate below. But if the skull of this same bird had been
+carefully examined in an earlier stage of its existence, it would
+have been found that the bones were at first distinctly separate at
+the three points here indicated, and were merely connected by a soft
+membranous substance. In many birds this “inter-osseous” membrane
+connecting the bones of the upper mandible with the skull proper never
+becomes true bone at all, but remains throughout life more or less soft
+and flexible. And by this means a sort of elastic joint is established,
+conferring upon the beak a certain range of up and down motion.</p>
+
+<p>Now in Parrots, more conspicuously than in any other birds, each
+of these joints, not alone that of the beak with the forehead, is
+converted into a true hinge-like articulation, so that the upper
+jaw can be raised to a very considerable extent; and to effect this
+motion the muscles of the palate are developed into a somewhat complex
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>If the figure be examined, the actual relations of the bones can be
+readily made out. At <i>a</i> is seen the line where the bill is articulated
+to the frontal bones. At <i>b</i> is the joint which the bill makes with the
+long jugal bone (<i>j</i>). And at <i>c</i> is its articulation with the palatine
+bone (<i>pl</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17_5" id="i_323">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_323.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SKULL OF THE GREY PARROT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>But it is not this mobility of the upper mandible alone that gives
+the characteristic aspect to the Parrot’s face. There are several
+other points in which Parrots agree, with a wonderful uniformity,
+among themselves, and differ from most other birds. Besides the
+absence of certain important processes, called “basi-pterygoid,”
+the ploughshare-like bone, or “vomer,” is altogether wanting. The
+maxillo-palatines are very largely developed and spongy; they unite
+with one another in the middle line, and with the thick wall of bone
+into which the <i>septum nasi</i> is in Parrots strongly ossified, and thus
+fill up almost the whole base of the beak. The long palatine bones
+proper are remarkably flattened from side to side for most of their
+length; their hinder edges are more or less notched, and quite free
+from any bony attachment; and they are united at about the hinder third
+of their length by a plate-like extension from each. The scoop-like
+lower mandible, with its tip that seems to have been cut off “square,”
+to be out of the way of the strongly-hooked upper jaw, is too familiar
+to call for any particular description.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="s3 center padtop3" id="ZYGODACTYLAE">THE SECOND ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN BIRDS
+SUB-ORDER I.&mdash;ZYGODACTYLÆ.</p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_VIII_V">CHAPTER VIII.<br />
+<span class="s5">CUCKOOS&mdash;HONEY GUIDES&mdash;PLAINTAIN-EATERS&mdash;WOODPECKERS&mdash;TOUCANS&mdash;BARBETS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_SECOND_ORDER_OF_ZYGODACTYLAE_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_CUCKOOS">THE CUCKOOS</a>&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> B<span class="smaller">USH</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOOS</span>&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ARK</span>-<span class="smaller">HEELED</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOOS</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> C<span class="smaller">OUCALS</span>&mdash;T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> C<span class="smaller">UCKOO</span>&mdash;Its
+Characteristics&mdash;Mrs. Blackburn’s Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant&mdash;Breeding Habits&mdash;The Eggs&mdash;The
+Call-notes of Male and Female&mdash;Food&mdash;Its Winter Home&mdash;Its Appearance and Plumage&mdash;<a href="#THE_HONEY_GUIDES">THE HONEY
+GUIDES</a>&mdash;Kirk’s Account of their Habits&mdash;Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against the Bird&mdash;<a href="#THE_PLANTAIN_EATERS">THE
+PLANTAIN-EATERS</a>&mdash;<a href="#white_crested_plantain_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">CRESTED</span> P<span class="smaller">LANTAIN</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#grey_plantain_eater">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">REY</span> P<span class="smaller">LANTAIN</span>-<span class="smaller">EATER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#colies">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OLIES</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#white_backed_coly">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+W<span class="smaller">HITE</span>-<span class="smaller">BACKED</span> C<span class="smaller">OLY</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">THE WOODPECKERS</a>&mdash;How they Climb and Descend Trees&mdash;Their Bill&mdash;Do they
+Damage Sound Trees?&mdash;<a href="#THE_WOODPECKERS">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">RYNECKS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#yaffle">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Y<span class="smaller">AFFLE</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#red_headed_woodpecker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> R<span class="smaller">ED</span>-<span class="smaller">HEADED</span> W<span class="smaller">OODPECKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#spotted_woodpecker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> S<span class="smaller">POTTED</span>
+W<span class="smaller">OODPECKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_TOUCANS">THE TOUCANS</a>&mdash;Mr. Gould’s Account of their Habits&mdash;Mr. Waterton’s Account&mdash;The
+Enormous Bill&mdash;Azara’s Description of the Bird&mdash;Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame Toucan&mdash;<a href="#THE_BARBETS">THE BARBETS</a>&mdash;Messrs.
+Marshall’s Account of the Family&mdash;Mr. Layard on their Habits.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_SECOND_ORDER_OF_ZYGODACTYLAE_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_CUCKOOS"><span class="s4">THE
+SECOND ORDER OF ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.&mdash;THE CUCKOOS (<i>Cuculidæ</i>).</span></h4>
+
+<p>W<span class="smaller">ITHIN</span> the limits of this family are comprised birds of very different
+habits and of very different structure, some being inhabitants of the
+ground and of the thick bush, whilst others are lovers of the open,
+and are birds of very strong flight. Without being able to climb up
+the trunks of trees,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[Pg 324]</span> like our Woodpeckers, the Cuckoos possess the
+zygodactyle foot of the climbing bird in a very perfect degree. They
+differ from others of the Scansorial group by the position of the
+nostrils, which are placed rather low in the upper mandible, not far
+from the cutting edge of it. There are three sub-families of Cuckoos,
+distinguished by the form of the wing: the first of these has the
+wings short, rounded, and with from two to six, or even seven, of the
+primaries slightly indented in the middle. They have the feathers of
+the thigh close-set, and not over-hanging like those of a Hawk, as is
+the case with the true Cuckoos.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="bush_cuckoos">THE BUSH CUCKOOS (<i>Phænicophæinæ</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These birds have representatives in India, Australia, and Africa, and
+even South America. Some of them are of very varied and beautiful
+plumages, and many of them reach the size of a moderate game-bird. The
+first genus of these Bush Cuckoos contains</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="lark_heeled_cuckoos">THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS,
+OR COUCALS (<i>Centropus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>These are remarkable for the form of the hind toe, which is furnished
+with a straight nail or claw, very strong, always equalling and often
+surpassing the length of the hind toe itself. These Lark-heeled Cuckoos
+do not occur in Europe, but are found all over Africa, India, and
+Burmah, to China, and throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia.
+They frequent the thick bush, and have a very similar call-note, which
+has been rendered by some observers as resembling the syllables “<i>bop
+bop</i>,” while on the West Coast of Africa, from their cry “<i>hoot,
+hoot</i>,” they have been nicknamed by the colonists the “Scotchman.”
+Writing of the Eyebrowed Lark-heel, Mr. Thomas Ayres says:&mdash;“This bird
+frequents the dense bush, and principally lives amongst impenetrable
+creepers, where it hunts about in search of the insects which it feeds
+upon; if disturbed, it flies but a short distance. The note is a loud,
+melancholy, cooing noise; they call most in wet weather. They are fond
+of getting up into trees that are covered with creeping plants, and
+sunning themselves; they generally fly on to the lower part, and then
+gradually hop upwards till they gain the top, but they can fly a very
+short distance at a time, and are easily caught if chased out into the
+open grass, though they lie very close, and it requires a good dog to
+find them. If disturbed, they immediately fly to the thickest cover
+near at hand, and commence running, like the Rails.” Mr. Ayres says
+that they feed on Grasshoppers, Caterpillars, and other insects; but
+Mr. Rickard, another excellent field naturalist, in South Africa has
+found a small Snake and Locusts in their stomachs, one having a small
+bird&mdash;a White-eye (<i>Zosterops</i>)&mdash;inside him. The Lark-heeled Cuckoos
+are not parasitic, like the true Cuckoos and many others: that is to
+say, they build their own nests, and do not employ the nests of other
+birds to place their eggs in. When hatched, the young birds are very
+curious, being covered with long hairs and bristles. In colour the
+Lark-heels are for the most part rufous, with black heads, but some
+of them are almost entirely rufous, the shafts of all the feathers
+much stiffened, so that the plumage lies very close, which must be of
+advantage to birds who have to climb a great deal amongst the lianas
+and creepers of tropical forests.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Indian Coucal (<i>Centropus bengalensis</i>) an interesting account
+is given by Mr. Gammie, which affords a very good idea of the habits
+of these Bush Cuckoos. He says:&mdash;“This species has increased largely
+of late. Among grassy scrub, up to 3,500 feet, it is now abundant,
+where, only a few years ago, it was rarely to be found. In the earlier
+part of the rainy season its odd, monotonous notes are to be heard
+in every direction. I am not sure that the male calls, but have shot
+the female&mdash;as I found by dissection&mdash;when calling. It has a call of
+a double series of notes: ‘<i>whoot, whoot, whoot, whoot</i>;’ then, after
+a pause of four or five seconds, ‘<i>kurook, kurook, kurook, kurook</i>.’
+The ‘whoot’ is quite ventriloquistic, sounding as if it came from a
+distance of six or seven yards from the bird. Before calling, it seats
+itself about five feet from the ground; then you see it draw its neck
+and body together, slightly puffing out its body-feathers, raising its
+back, and depressing its tail, and for every ‘whoot’ there is a violent
+throb of the body, as if the bird was in great pain; at the same time
+the motion of the throat is scarcely perceptible, and its bill is
+closed. Then, as if greatly relieved, it stretches itself out, the
+feathers fall smooth, and with open mouth and throbbing throat comes
+the ‘kurook,’ without the slightest attempt at ventriloquism. When
+searching for the caller, one must take no notice of the ‘whoot,’ but
+wait for the ‘kurook.’<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[Pg 325]</span> It feeds almost entirely on Grasshoppers, and
+frequents the open, scrubby tracts only. I have never once seen it in
+larger forests.”<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Malkohas are another remarkable group of the Bush Cuckoos, and are
+found throughout India, Ceylon, the Indo-Malayan region and islands, as
+far as the Celebes. The genera differ principally in the shape of the
+nostril; and although differences of structure are usually considered
+sufficient characters on which to found distinctions of genus, some
+ornithologists are of opinion that the variation in the form of the
+nostril only separates them as species. One of the most remarkable of
+these Bush Cuckoos is the <i>Carpococcyx radiatus</i> of Borneo, which,
+when alive, is stated by Mr. Wallace to resemble a Pheasant in
+appearance and gait. It lives much on the ground, and is often caught
+by the Malays in the snares which they set for Argus Pheasants and
+other game-birds. In Madagascar they are represented by the Couas
+(<i>Sericosomus</i>), of which there are no less than ten species found
+in that island. They are the inhabitants of the Palestrina forests,
+where their monotonous notes are often heard. The cry of the Blue
+Cuckoo is said by Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam to resemble the syllables
+<i>cir-cir-cir</i>, while that of the Crested Coua (<i>S. cristatus</i>) is
+<i>toc-toc-toc</i>. When calling, the latter bird raises its crest and flaps
+its tail and wings. Its flight is difficult and generally descending,
+and the bird never flaps its wings when it flies. It is ordinarily seen
+on the lower branches of the trees, and loves to repose during the
+great heat of the day in the sheltered parts of the trees, resting on
+the branches and puffing out its feathers.</p>
+
+<p>In America there are several allied forms of Bush Cuckoos, many of
+which frequent the ground, one of the most interesting being the
+<i>Geococcyx californianus</i>, which is called the “Road-runner,” and is a
+bird of such powers of running that it is sometimes hunted on horseback
+and pursued with hounds, a test of fleetness in which it is said often
+to make a longer race than its pursuers anticipated.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_cuckoo">THE COMMON CUCKOO (<i>Cuculus canorus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The true Cuckoos, of which the English bird is the type, differ from
+the Bush Cuckoos in being more <i>Accipitrine</i>, or Hawk-like, in their
+appearance, and having long thigh-feathers, like the majority of the
+birds of prey. The nostril is swollen and rounded. It would be easy to
+write a complete book on this mysterious bird, whose habits and cry
+have rendered it an object of interest in all countries and from very
+early times. The popular superstition concerning the nestling&mdash;that the
+young Cuckoo, when sufficiently grown, and having no further use for
+the little foster-parent to whose care it owed its life and well-being,
+used to devour the latter&mdash;has often been held up as an “awful example”
+to ungrateful children who become a burden and a shame to their parents
+when they are unable to provide for them any longer. The idea of the
+young Cuckoo devouring its protector is no doubt erroneous, and,
+as Brehm puts it, has arisen from the oft-recurring spectacle of a
+little Wren or a diminutive Gold-crest placing food in the wide-gaping
+mouth of the young Cuckoo, which, indeed, without much stretch of the
+imagination, might swallow it. In Mr. Gould’s “Birds of Great Britain”
+there is a picture showing the <i>dénouement</i> of the young Cuckoo’s
+story, when, still callow and blind, it is represented as disposing of
+some unfortunate little Tree Pipits which were hatched along with it
+in the same nest. This incident was sketched by Mrs. Hugh Blackburn,
+who thus describes the occurrence:&mdash;“The nest (which we watched last
+June, after finding the Cuckoo’s egg in it) was that of the common
+Meadow Pipit (Titlark, Mosscheeper), and had two Pipit’s eggs besides
+that of the Cuckoo. It was below a heather bush on the declivity of a
+low abrupt bank or highland hill-side, in Moidart. At one visit the
+Pipits were found to be hatched, but not the Cuckoo. At the next visit,
+which was after an interval of forty-eight hours, we found the young
+Cuckoo alone in the nest, and both the young Pipits lying down the
+bank, about ten inches from the margin of the nest, but quite lively
+after being warmed in the hand. They were replaced in the nest beside
+the Cuckoo, which struggled about till it got its back under one of
+them, when it climbed backwards directly up the open side of the nest,
+and hitched the Pipit from its back on to the edge. It then stood quite
+upright on its legs, which were straddled wide apart, with the claws
+firmly fixed half-way down the inside of the nest among the interlacing
+fibres of which the nest was woven, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[Pg 326]</span> stretching its wings apart and
+backwards, it elbowed the Pipit fairly over the margin so far that its
+struggles took it down the bank instead of back into the nest. After
+this the Cuckoo stood a minute or two, feeling back with its wings, as
+if to make sure that the Pipit was fairly overboard, and then subsided
+into the bottom of the nest. As it was getting late, and the Cuckoo
+did not immediately set to work on the other nestling, I replaced the
+ejected one and went home. On returning next day, both nestlings were
+found dead and cold out of the nest. I replaced one of them, but the
+Cuckoo made no effort to get under it and eject it, but seated itself
+contentedly on the top of it. All this I find accords accurately with
+Jenner’s description of what he saw. But what struck me most was this:
+the Cuckoo was perfectly naked, without the vestige of a feather, or
+even a hint of future feathers; its eyes were not yet opened, and its
+neck seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The Pipits
+had well-developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright eyes,
+partially open; yet they seemed quite helpless under the manipulations
+of the Cuckoo, which looked a much less developed creature. The
+Cuckoo’s legs, however, seemed very muscular, and it appeared to feel
+about with its wings, which were absolutely featherless, as with
+hands; the spurious wing (unusually large in proportion) looked like a
+spread-out thumb. The most singular thing of all was the direct purpose
+with which the blind little monster made for the open side of the nest,
+the only part where it could throw its burden down the bank. I think
+all the spectators felt the sort of horror and awe at the apparent
+inadequacy of the creature’s intelligence to its acts that one might
+have felt at seeing a toothless hag raise a ghost by an incantation. It
+was horribly ‘uncanny’ and ‘gruesome!’”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_326">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_326.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON CUCKOO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above account of Mrs. Blackburn’s graphically describes the
+ejection of its foster-brothers and sisters by the nestling Cuckoo;
+and this brings us to the next part of the subject, viz., the breeding
+habits of this curious bird. As is well known of the hen bird, it
+never makes its own nest, but it is believed that during its stay in
+Europe it lays altogether about eight eggs, all of which are deposited<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[Pg 327]</span>
+in the nest of some other bird. The variation in the colour of the
+Cuckoo’s eggs is very great, from a white speckled egg, like that of
+the Water Wagtail, or the dark brown mottled egg of a Lark or Pipit,
+to the blue egg of the Hedge Sparrow; while Mr. Dresser states that he
+has seen even green eggs, and is of opinion that the same female will
+lay similarly coloured eggs. The researches of ornithologists during
+recent years sufficiently prove that the female Cuckoo lays her egg
+upon the ground, and then deposits it in the nest of a bird whose egg
+resembles the one she has just laid; hence it is probable that a hen
+Cuckoo killed with a broken egg in its mouth is the rightful owner of
+the latter, and has not been sucking the eggs of some other bird, as
+the species is often supposed to do. The writer has on many occasions
+found Cuckoos’ eggs in the nest of the Water Wagtail in Berkshire, the
+latter bird being frequently selected by the Cuckoo as her victim; and
+he can affirm that the eggs were in all cases similar to those of the
+Wagtail, but were a little larger in size. In due time the young Cuckoo
+is hatched, the rightful owners of the nest ejected, and for weeks the
+powers of the unhappy foster-parents are exercised to the utmost in
+feeding the gaping and constantly-complaining occupant of their domain.
+Even when the young Cuckoo has outgrown the nest, and is strong enough
+to fly about, he is still attended by his foster-parents. So great is
+the instinct of the young Cuckoo to receive food from other birds, that
+a specimen in the Zoological Gardens which managed to live through
+the winter and put on his full plumage in the following spring, on
+the appearance of a Hedge Sparrow in the same aviary, fluttered down,
+and with drooping wings and open bill solicited food from his small
+companion.</p>
+
+<p>The reason for the parasitic habits of the Cuckoo is hard to discover,
+but it appears probable that the number of males greatly exceeds that
+of the females, and one observer has calculated that the preponderance
+of the former sex over the latter is as much as twenty-five to one.
+This would seem to be too large an estimate, but the proportion is
+probably about five males to one female. The latter may not only be
+distinguished by its somewhat darker plumage, and a certain red colour
+on the chest (which is more apparent when the bird is alive), but has
+a somewhat different note from that of her mate, and calls <i>cuckoo</i>
+in a much sharper and less emphasised way than the male bird. Thus,
+if the call of the female be represented by the syllables <i>cŭck-oo</i>,
+the responsive utterance of the male would be <i>coo-coo</i>. The female
+has also another call-note, which may be described as “whittling,”
+and is well expressed by Brehm as <i>kwikwikwik</i>, the sound of which is
+quite sufficient to set all the male Cuckoos within hearing cuckoo-ing
+with might and main. Thus it happened to the writer, on a still,
+quiet evening in spring a few years ago, to be fishing beneath a
+large elm-tree on the river Thames, when a female Cuckoo flew into
+the topmost boughs and uttered her peculiar note. From four different
+points of the compass she was answered by male birds, who one and
+all directed their flight toward the tree where she was perched. A
+tremendous scrimmage ensued, and apparently a fight took place, but,
+being suddenly alarmed, they all took flight in different directions.
+It is certain that during the breeding season the Cuckoo is a very
+passionate bird, and loves to call until, from sheer hoarseness, he
+is obliged to stop; sometimes his cry comes from the middle of a
+thickly-wooded tree, at other times he will sit on a bare dead branch,
+or swing in the breeze from the top of a fir-tree. The female bird
+is more retiring and keeps nearer the ground, so that it is possible
+to shoot her by hiding behind a tree as she hunts after insects
+near one of their favourite haunts. The same plurality of males has
+been observed by the author during the spring at Avington Park, in
+Hampshire; and on one occasion, when the female was shot, the note of
+the males was scarcely heard again, as if they had disappeared from the
+vicinity.</p>
+
+<p>Brehm remarks:<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> “The note itself, and the manner in which it is
+emitted, are typical of the bird’s habits and character. The same
+abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the same rage, are noticeable in
+its whole conduct. The Cuckoo is a greedy feeder, and a discontented,
+ill-conditioned, passionate fellow: in short, a decidedly unamiable
+bird. Its food consists entirely of insects and their larvæ; young
+Cuckoos, alone, will sometimes eat berries; Cockchafers, Fern-beetles,
+Moths, and Dragon-flies are favourite morsels, and Caterpillars
+(especially the hairy species, which no other birds ever devour)
+being preferred. The hairs of these creatures cling so close to the
+inner membranes of the stomach that the use of the magnifying glass
+is necessary to convince one that they do not form part and parcel of
+that organ. Its keen sight enables the Cuckoo to see Caterpillars from
+a great distance,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[Pg 328]</span> when it flies quickly to the spot, seizes them, and
+returns to its perch, without spending much time over the operation
+or climbing about after them. The bird is so constantly on the move
+that it always manages to obtain sufficient food&mdash;which is saying a
+great deal, for its stomach is large and its powers of digestion almost
+unlimited. Thus it would be a most useful bird, did it not cause so
+much damage while breeding.”</p>
+
+<p>The Cuckoo resembles a Hawk so much in flight that even a practised eye
+sometimes fails to distinguish it from a Kestrel at first sight. There
+is, however, a certain pointed look about the body of the bird which
+distinguishes it from a Hawk; if near enough, the flat, obtuse head of
+the latter making the bird appear as if it had no head at all.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_328">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_328.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lastly, one word as to the winter home of the Cuckoo. It is always
+known in England as the “harbinger of spring,” and with the exception
+of the Swift, who very rarely makes a mistake in the period of his
+advent, there is no bird whose arrival may be considered so certain a
+sign of that genial season of the year. Just as the Swifts, however,
+sometimes come in for some cold weather, which proves fatal to many
+of them, so the Cuckoos have been known to have been detained by cold
+winds in the south of England, where they have remained in flocks until
+the weather was more seasonable and they could distribute themselves
+over the country. They are seldom heard of in the height of summer;
+and, as the old rhyme says, “in June he changes his tune, in August
+go he must.” And it seems certain that this bird leaves England early
+in that month, but not entirely, as young birds&mdash;perhaps the later
+offspring&mdash;are seen as late as September. The old ones arrive in Egypt
+on their way south before the young birds, which are somewhat later;
+and in Berkshire the writer shot three young Cuckoos during the first
+week in August, a few years ago, out of a flock of birds on migration,
+which, like himself, had apparently taken shelter under a wood from
+an approaching thunderstorm. These specimens are now in the British
+Museum, and are of slightly different ages.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[Pg 329]</span> The Cuckoo is a well-known
+bird at the Cape of Good Hope during the English winter, and specimens
+are in the national collection. It is much rarer on the west coast
+of Africa, but was shot by Governor Ussher near Cape Coast Castle,
+evidently on migration. The main route of the birds visiting the Cape
+in winter is, however, evidently down the Nile Valley and along the
+east coast to the Cape Colony and South Africa generally. A second line
+of migration extends to India, and it probably goes further, and has
+been found in the island of Celebes. In Asia, however, and Australia,
+there are several species of Cuckoo, very like the English bird, but
+smaller and differing in voice, which have not been sufficiently
+studied to enable one to say whether they are actually distinct or not.</p>
+
+<p>The Cuckoo when adult is ashy-grey, with a white breast, barred across
+with narrow lines of greyish-black; the tail is long, barred with white
+on the outer feathers, and spotted with white on the centre ones; the
+bill is black, with a little yellow at the gape and at the base of the
+lower mandible; the feet and the eye are yellow; the length of the bird
+is about thirteen inches. The female is a trifle smaller, and has the
+chest slightly tinged with rufous. The young bird is quite different,
+being blackish, mottled with yellow and grey, and having a good deal
+of white about the hind neck. Rarely in England, but more often on the
+Continent, the Cuckoo is red instead of grey, and this is called the
+“hepatic” plumage. It is found also in Owls, Goatsuckers, and a few
+other birds, and exists in almost all the true Cuckoos.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_HONEY_GUIDES"><span class="s4">THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE
+PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE HONEY GUIDES (<i>Indicatoridæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe37_5" id="i_329">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_329.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">HONEY GUIDE. (<i>After Keulemans.</i>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These constitute a small family of Scansorial birds allied to the
+Cuckoos, and, like the latter, they are parasitic, and lay their eggs
+in other birds’ nests. Eleven species are known, of which eight are
+peculiar to Africa, one is found in the Himalaya Mountains, one in the
+Malayan Peninsula, and one in Borneo. The Asiatic members of the group
+are extremely rare, and our knowledge of the habits of these birds is
+derived from a study of the African species: so that it is not yet
+known whether the Asiatic Honey Guides deserve the name of <i>Indicator</i>,
+which is applied to the birds on account of their being “indicators,”
+or “pointers out,” of Bees’ nests containing honey. Dr. Kirk thus
+described their habits in the Zambesi district:&mdash;“The Honey Guide is
+found in forests, and often far from water, even during the dry season.
+On observing a man, it comes fluttering from branch to branch in the
+neighbouring trees, calling attention. If this be responded to&mdash;as the
+natives do by whistling and starting to their feet&mdash;the bird will go
+in a certain direction, and remain at a little distance, hopping from
+one tree to another. On being followed, it goes farther; and so it will
+guide the way to a nest of Bees. When this is reached, it flies about,
+but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is required to discover
+the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known
+this bird, if the man, after taking up the direction for a little,
+then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a
+different part. But if it does not know of two nests, it will remain
+behind. The difficulty is that it will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[Pg 330]</span> point to tame Bees in a bark
+hive as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the Bee
+is the same; the bark hive&mdash;‘Musinga,’ as it is named&mdash;being simply
+fastened up in a tree, and left for the Bees to come to. The object
+the bird has in view is clearly the young Bees. It will guide to nests
+having no honey, and seems equally delighted if the comb containing
+the grubs be torn out, when it is seen pecking at it.” Many of the
+natives of South Africa believe that the bird will occasionally guide
+the traveller, through sheer malice, to a Leopard or an Elephant; but
+on this point there seems some little doubt, to judge from a letter
+of Mrs. Barber, an accomplished lady and good observer in South
+Africa:&mdash;“What I wrote to you in a former letter is the opinion of many
+old bee-hunters in this part of the country, who have no faith in the
+popular belief that leading to the Leopard is done on purpose. My nine
+brothers, who were all brought up in this country, were all of them
+great hunters, as well as sportsmen; and during all the years of their
+experience, while they were living at Tharfield, where Bees’ nests were
+exceedingly plentiful, and where they were constantly in the habit of
+following these birds, never once did the Honey Guide ever lead them
+<i>purposely</i> to any noxious animal. Many times, in following the bird
+through dense woods, have they started various kinds of creatures;
+but if they did not neglect the bird for the purpose of hunting, she
+would continue her flight towards the Bees’ nest, regardless of the
+startled animals. One of my brothers once, while following a Honey
+Guide through a dense forest near the Kowie, passed directly through
+a drove of wild Pigs. They were, of course, more frightened than he
+was, and rushed about in every direction; but my brother knowing the
+popular belief, and wishing to test it, took not the slightest notice
+of the wild Pigs, but passed on, keeping his eye on the bird, who went
+steadily on her way, until she arrived at the nest she intended to
+show, regardless of the Pigs. I have other reasons for not believing
+the story. Why should the Honey Guide waste her time in leading people
+to Leopards, Jackals, Wolves, and so forth? These creatures are not
+her natural enemies; she would gain nothing by doing it&mdash;no advantage
+whatever; and I have ever found that in nature there is nothing done in
+vain, or in an empty, purposeless manner. There is always a reason for
+the peculiar habits and actions of birds and animals of all kinds; and
+therefore, why should a bird which does not even rear her own young,
+and has not the care of a nest, fear or care about these animals? Why
+should the Honey Guide, unlike all animals, do this thing without any
+reason for doing it? And again, when the bird has arrived at the nest
+she intends to show, there is an alteration in the notes of her voice.
+An old bee-hunter knows this in an instant, and knows when he ought
+to commence searching for the nest. Now, this alteration never takes
+place when animals of various kinds are startled in passing through
+the forest while following the bird. Hence I conclude that she does
+not intend to show where these creatures are, or the alteration in her
+voice would take place.” Some of the Indicators are not of the same use
+in guiding to Bees’ nests, and are consequently held in less repute.
+They are all birds of similar coloration, being generally of a dull
+grey, tinged with yellow or olive, and they vary considerably in size,
+the larger species, such as <i>I. major</i> and <i>I. sparrmanni</i>, measuring
+about eight inches in length; while the smallest species, <i>I. exilis</i>,
+from the Gaboon, does not exceed four inches. Although coming very
+close to the Cuckoos in the natural classification, the small bill,
+the thick-set, stout plumage, and the nine primaries in the wing, in
+addition to their peculiar habits, easily distinguish the Honey Guides
+as a separate family.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_PLANTAIN_EATERS"><span class="s4">THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE
+PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE PLANTAIN-EATERS (<i>Musophagidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These may be called a strictly Ethiopian family of birds, every single
+member being found in Africa, and nowhere else. They have very much the
+appearance of game-birds, and are all remarkable for their beautiful
+crests, which they are able to elevate or depress at will. Although
+belonging to the Scansorial, or climbing birds, they do not always
+keep their toes in pairs, but being of a lively disposition they hop
+continually from bough to bough, and the outer toe is seen as often
+placed in front with the others as it is directed backwards along with
+the hind toe. With the exception of the Grey Plantain-eaters, all the
+other species have beautiful red primaries; and the writer was informed
+by the late African traveller, Jules Verreaux, that the bird often gets
+caught in violent showers during the rainy season, when the whole of
+this brilliant red colour in the wing-feathers gets washed out, and the
+quills become pinky-white, and after two or three days the colour is
+renewed, and the wing resumes its former beauty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[Pg 331]</span></p>
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop2 mbot1" id="white_crested_plantain_eater">THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGIDÆ.&mdash;THE
+MUSOPHAGINÆ, OR TRUE PLANTAIN-EATERS.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1">THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER (<i>Corythaix musophaga</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_331">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_331.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is perhaps the best known of the whole family of these curious
+birds, being the commonest species in South Africa, where it is
+plentiful in the forest districts of the Knysna, and the south coast
+as far as Natal, and the wooded districts of the Eastern Transvaal. It
+is known by the name of the Louri, or Lory, and the following brief
+account of its habits is given by Mr. Layard:<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>&mdash;“The Plantain-eater
+feeds on fruits, and frequents the highest trees, rarely, if ever,
+descending to the ground, over which it can, however, travel with great
+rapidity if brought down by a shot. The motions of this species are
+very graceful and light, and performed with an ease and rapidity that
+delight the eye of the beholder. Strange to say, though we inquired
+carefully, we never could obtain any information respecting the
+nidification of this beautiful and common bird. Mr. Atmore, however,
+states that the eggs are white; but this must be from hearsay, as he
+writes: ‘How difficult it is to find these forest birds’ nests! The
+Lories are breeding now, but for the life of me I cannot find a nest.
+The young ones go in troops, and are delicious eating; the old ones in
+pairs. We never shoot specimens out of a troop except for the pot.’
+An old forester told him that the eggs were white, both the latter
+and the nests being like those of Pigeons. Mr. Rickard says: ‘I once
+found an egg in a bird I shot at East London (January 27th); it was
+pure white, and the size of a tame Pigeon’s.’ Mr. Bowker writes: ‘I
+once found a Louri’s nest. It was just like a Dove’s, built of sticks
+laid horizontally, and about the size of a large dinner-plate, placed
+about ten feet from the ground in the centre of a round bush. The old
+bird flew out as I walked up. I found five young birds in the nest;
+they were almost full-grown, but their tails rather short and stumpy,
+crest just showing, but I cannot remember whether the red on the wing
+was showing or not. On my getting up to the nest they all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[Pg 332]</span> flew out,
+and were killed by my Dogs before I could come to the rescue. The
+bush was twenty or thirty yards from the edge of a large forest, and
+I was rather surprised at this nest, as I had been told they built in
+hollow trees.’” In size this species is about nineteen inches long; the
+general colour is green, with a broad white tip to the feathers of the
+crest, the abdomen and vent are blackish, the quills brilliant carmine.</p>
+
+<p>The false Touracoes, as Dr. Sclater calls them, do not possess the red
+colouring of the wings, but are for the most part of a uniform grey
+colour. The best known species is</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="grey_plantain_eater">THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER (<i>Schizorhis concolor</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This is also found in South Africa, but in different districts to the
+White-crested Plantain-eater. Where the range of the latter ceases
+that of the present bird begins, and it is found throughout the
+Matabele country and the Transvaal as far as the Zambesi, and westwards
+through Damara Land to Angola. Mr. Andersson writes:&mdash;“It is partial
+to localities abounding in large trees; and when prominently perched,
+with crest erect, it is not unlike a gigantic Coly. It also climbs
+and flies like the Colies, which it strongly resembles in its general
+habits. It is usually found in small flocks, and feeds on berries and
+seeds, especially those of mistletoe and of other parasitical plants,
+and also on fruits, young shoots, and insects. The Damaras call this
+species ‘Ongoro-oroquena,’ from the extraordinary and almost human
+cry with which it frequently startles the traveller who is passing
+near its perch. It is sometimes very easy to approach these birds,
+whilst at other times they are so shy that they will defy the utmost
+exertions which may be made to obtain them. On January 5th, 1867, I
+obtained three eggs of this species, of a dull bluish-white colour,
+at Omapja, from a boy, who told me that the nest which contained them
+was composed of sticks roughly put together, and situated in a tree
+at some distance from the ground; and on March 1st I met with a nest
+in Ondonga placed in a tree, but at no great elevation, which also
+contained three eggs, much incubated.” Dr. Exton, also, who has been
+through the Matabele country, writes as follows:&mdash;“In travelling
+through the Bechuana country one often comes upon a party of five or
+six of these birds, hiding from the mid-day heats under the sheltered
+portions of dense foliage near the centre of a large tree. Whilst yet
+undisturbed, the crest lies flat on the head, and can only be seen as a
+tuft projecting from the occiput. But their first act on becoming aware
+of an intruder is to run along the branches, either to the summit of
+the tree or to the extremity of a branch commanding a good look-out,
+where, with crest fully erected and well thrown forward, they keep up
+a constant reiteration of their note. If but little alarmed they move
+rapidly from branch to branch, frequently jerking up the crest, and
+assuming an attitude of attention. Again, after flight from one tree
+to another, on alighting, they first rest on a branch, with the body
+somewhat horizontal and the tail drawn nearly to the perpendicular,
+as if assuring themselves of their equilibrium, and then raising
+the body, elongating their neck, and at the same time elevating
+the crest, they seem to take an observation as to the security of
+their new position. So much is this a habit of the bird, that during
+the conversational difficulties of my earlier intercourse with the
+Bechuanas, when inquiring for the nest of Schizorhis (the native name
+of which is ‘Ma-quaai’), as soon as it dawned upon the mind of a native
+what bird I meant he has imitated its note, accompanied by a sudden
+jerking up of the hand, with his fingers extended to the utmost, as
+if at the same time to mimic the elevation of the crest. Dr. Sclater
+mentions that ‘Mr. J. J. Monteiro, speaking of the Grey False Touraco
+(<i>S. concolor</i>), as observed in Benguella, expressly states that the
+crest-feathers are always carried erect.’ In my own experience, the
+observation of Schizorhis was an every-day occurrence; and, as I have
+stated, when undisturbed (also when in flight) very little of the
+crest is to be seen, but is invariably carried erect on the least
+alarm. I may here mention a peculiar scream of <i>S. concolor</i>. I was
+one day walking along a low ridge of rocks, from which I flushed an
+Owl&mdash;the common <i>Bubo maculosus</i>&mdash;that flew to some distance to a clump
+of trees. Presently I heard an agonised scream, such as is made by a
+young Antelope when seized by a Dog; and so exact a repetition of the
+sound was it that even my Dogs were deceived by it, and rushed off in
+the direction whence it came. I also sent a Kaffir boy, and presently
+followed myself, when I discovered it was the frightful scream of
+<i>Schizorhis</i>, of which a party were collected round the Owl I had
+previously disturbed, and whose presence appeared to be the exciting
+cause. At a later period I had a second opportunity of verifying this
+observation.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[Pg 333]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_333">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_333.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COLIES.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="s4 center mtop2 mbot1" id="colies">THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE
+MUSOPHAGIDÆ.&mdash;THE COLIINÆ, OR COLIES.</p>
+
+<p>Like the foregoing sub-family, the Colies are confined to Africa.
+They have decided affinities with the true Plantain-eaters, but are
+distinguished at a glance by their long tails, the feathers of which
+are much pointed, and become smaller and narrower towards the outside
+of the tail. They are most dexterous climbers, as was well seen in the
+captive specimens of the Chestnut-backed Coly, which were brought by
+Cameron from Angola, and lived for some time in the London Zoological
+Gardens.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="white_backed_coly">THE WHITE-BACKED COLY
+(<i>Colius capensis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Colies are known in the Cape Colony by the name of <i>Muisvogel</i>,
+or Mouse-bird, and they are not uncommon, ranging about in small
+families of from six to eight individuals. Mr. Layard says that they
+fly with a rapid, though laboured flight, generally at a lower level
+than the object at which they aim, and on nearing the latter they rise
+upwards with a sudden, abrupt curve. They creep among the branches like
+Parrots, and hang suspended head downwards, without inconvenience; and
+it is said that they invariably sleep in this position, many of them
+congregated in a ball. The nest was found by Mr. Andersson in Damara
+Land, between September and December. It was placed in a small bush,
+and was composed externally of grass and twigs, lined internally with
+softer grass, and the eggs were dull white, and, according to his
+observations, always three in number. Mr. Andersson states that the
+bird “is gregarious in its habits, being found in flocks by day, and
+also when roosting at night. Its flight is short and feeble, seldom
+extending beyond the nearest bush or tree, on reaching which it usually
+perches on one of the lower branches, and then gradually glides and
+creeps upwards through the foliage, using both bill and feet for that
+purpose. It is essentially a fruit-eating bird, but I believe when
+hard pressed for its regular food it does not despise insects and the
+young shoots of plants. Its flesh is palatable.” The Colies as a rule
+are dull-coloured brown birds, but they have a long crest. The present
+species is perhaps the handsomest, being ash-coloured, and having
+the lower back and rump purple glossed with red, while a white line,
+bordered on each side by a broad black one, extends from beneath the
+shoulders to the rump. The bill is bluish-white, and the feet bright
+red. The length of the bird is thirteen or fourteen inches.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[Pg 334]</span></p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_WOODPECKERS"><span class="s4">THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE
+PICARIAN BIRDS.</span>&mdash;THE WOODPECKERS (<i>Picidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These are perhaps the most typical of all the yoke-footed or climbing
+birds, as they are most expert climbers, being aided in the latter
+operation not only by their long toes, which are arranged as usual
+in this order in pairs, but by their stiffened tail, which enables
+them to climb with great rapidity up the perpendicular trunks of
+trees. If they wish to descend a little way they do not turn and come
+down head-foremost, as a Nuthatch would do, but they let themselves
+down by a few jerks, still keeping an oblique position, with the
+tail downwards. The bill in almost every member of the family is
+wedge-shaped, and very powerful, and with this organ a Woodpecker taps
+vigorously at the bark, which he sometimes also prises off to get at
+the grubs or insects underneath. These latter, as they endeavour to
+escape, have little chance against the intruder, who, in addition to
+the stout bill which discloses their place of concealment, possesses
+a peculiar tongue, which is capable of being protruded to a long
+distance, is furnished with minute barbs at the end, and is covered
+with a glutinous fluid from which the insects are unable to free
+themselves. The Woodpeckers nearly all procure their food in the above
+manner, but occasionally frequent the ground, and the Green Woodpecker
+(<i>Gecinus<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> viridis</i>) commits great ravages among ant-hills. The
+resting-place is generally a hole excavated by the bird itself in a
+hollow tree, and the eggs are white. Among the most aberrant of the
+Woodpecker family are the Wrynecks (<i>Iÿnx</i><a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a>), of which one species
+is well known in England under the name of the “Cuckoo’s mate.” The
+Wrynecks are all birds of beautiful mottled plumage, and do not have
+a stiffened tail like a true Woodpecker. They are found in Europe, in
+India, North-Eastern and Southern Africa. Woodpeckers, on the other
+hand, are extremely plentiful in the New World, and are distributed
+all over Africa, Europe, and Asia, but are not found in the Australian
+region, no Woodpecker occurring beyond the Island of Celebes in the
+Moluccas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_334a">
+  <img class="illowe11" src="images/i_334a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe20">Fig. 1.&mdash;“HYOID” BONE OF ADULT FOWL.<br />
+  (<i>After W. K. Parker.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe20"><span class="s5">(<i>ch</i>) Cerato-hyals;
+  (<i>bh</i>) the so-called Basi-hyal; (<i>b.br</i>) Basi-branchial, or Uro-hyal;
+  (<i>c.br</i>, <i>e.br</i>) together form the thyro-hyal.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>One great peculiarity in the anatomy of the Woodpeckers is the
+structure of the tongue, and its relation to the hyoid bone and its
+horns, or cornua. (For a description of this part in the Mammalia,
+see Vol. I., p. 168.) In Birds the hyoid bone is a much more complex
+structure than in the Mammalia. Besides forming the basis of the
+otherwise mainly muscular substance of the tongue, it is continued
+backwards in most birds as a double chain of bones, each pair of which
+bears a separate name significant of its importance; and the whole is
+apparently quite distinct from the skull above and from the larynx
+below. Its composition in the common fowl is best rendered intelligible
+by reference to the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1). It represents the
+entire hyoid apparatus divested of all muscular and other surrounding
+tissues. The upper part of the figure is that nearest to the tip of the
+tongue, and the references to the lettering become clear in the course
+of the subsequent description.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe27" id="i_334b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_334b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;SIDE VIEW OF DISSECTION OF HEAD OF COMMON
+  GREEN WOODPECKER.<br />
+  (<i>Half natural size. After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<i>u</i>, <i>l</i>) Upper and Lower Mandibles; (<i>t</i>) Barbed Tip of Tongue;
+(<i>th.h.</i>) Thyro-hyal Bone of Right Side, with its Muscle and
+Sheath; (<i>o</i>) Right Orbit; (<i>n</i>) Right Nostril; (<i>s.g.</i>) Right
+Salivary Gland; (<i>m</i>, <i>m</i>) Muscles of Neck; (<i>œ</i>) Œsophagus; (<i>tr</i>)
+Trachea; (<i>r.m.</i>) Rectractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another woodcut (Fig. 2) shows a side view of a dissection of the head
+of the common Green Wood<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[Pg 335]</span>pecker (<i>Gecinus viridis</i>), and a reference to
+the explanation of the lettering on it will give a general idea of the
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>The tip of the tongue (<i>t</i>) is a slender, flattened, horny point,
+bearing on its sides and upper surface a number of very delicate
+bristles, or prickles, directed backwards, an arrangement eminently
+useful to the bird for enabling it to extract its insect food from the
+recesses to which its beak, by reason of its size and hardness, could
+not readily, nor with sufficient quickness, gain access. This tip is
+further rendered a more efficient instrument for this purpose by its
+being constantly moistened by a very viscid saliva secreted by two
+particularly large salivary glands (Figs. 2, 3, and 4, <i>s.g.</i>); and it
+was long ago remarked by Sir Charles Bell, in his essay on “The Hand”
+(Bridgewater Treatise, 1837), that the same muscles that effected the
+protrusion of the tongue exerted a simultaneous pressure upon these
+glands, so that the first result of the muscular contraction is to
+lubricate the tongue, while the rest of its force is spent in shooting
+it out with marvellous rapidity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_335a">
+  <img class="illowe10" src="images/i_335a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe16">Fig. 3.&mdash;UPPER VIEW OF SKULL OF GREEN
+  WOODPECKER.<br />
+  (<i>After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe16"><span class="s5">(<i>th.h</i>, <i>th.h.</i>) Thyro-hyal Bones; (<i>i</i>) Point of their insertion;
+(<i>s.g.</i>, <i>s.g.</i>) Salivary Glands.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Behind this barbed and horny tip, the tongue is a slender worm-like
+body, of which the core is the anterior prolongation of the hyoid bone.
+The fore-part of this core, more like a bristle than a bone, is known
+to anatomists as the “glosso-hyal,” and it is immediately succeeded
+posteriorly by the “cerato-hyal.”<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> Behind this is the “basi-hyal
+” (Fig. 1, <i>b.h.</i>), the last bone to enter into the formation of the
+tongue proper. From this basi-hyal springs the pair of bones&mdash;the
+“thyro-hyals”&mdash;which attain the remarkable degree of development for
+which the birds now under consideration are distinguished. From each
+side of the hinder portion, then, of this basi-hyal bone diverge these
+important “thyro-hyals” (Fig. 1, <i>c.br.</i>, <i>e.br.</i>). They, in the
+Woodpeckers (compare Fig. 3, <i>th.h.</i>), extend outwards and backwards to
+pass one on each side of the neck until they curl upwards and forwards,
+converging to meet one another on the upper part of the back of the
+head; thence they run along together, ploughing themselves a furrow
+in the skull-top till they reach almost to the right nostril. Each
+of these curved and highly elastic bones is surrounded by a delicate
+sheath, whose inner surface is kept constantly moist and lubricated
+by its own secretion; and this sheath is attached to the bone of the
+skull at its junction with the upper mandible, as is shown in the
+accompanying woodcut (Fig. 3, <i>i</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" id="i_335b">
+  <img class="illowe14" src="images/i_335b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption illowe20">Fig. 4.&mdash;DISSECTION OF HEAD OF GREEN WOODPECKER
+  VIEWED FROM BELOW.<br />
+  (<i>After Macgillivray.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption illowe23"><span class="s5">(<i>l</i>) Lower Mandible; (<i>f</i>) Base of Tongue; (<i>th.h.</i>,
+<i>th.h.</i>)Thyro-hyals; (<i>s.g.</i>, <i>s.g.</i>) Salivary Glands; (<i>m</i>, <i>m</i>)
+Muscles of Neck; (<i>œ</i>, <i>œ</i>) Œsophagus; (<i>tr</i>) Trachea; (<i>e.m.</i>,
+<i>e.m.</i>) Extrusor Muscles, which thrust out the Tongue; (<i>r.m.</i>)
+Retractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea; (<i>c.tr.</i>, <i>c.tr.</i>)
+Cleido-tracheal Muscles, binding Trachea to Shoulder-girdle.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Enclosed in the sheath here spoken of, and along the concavity of each
+bone, is a muscle which has a fixed attachment to the crura of the
+lower mandible on each side (Fig. 4, <i>e.m.</i>, <i>e.m.</i>). The contraction
+of this muscle shoots the tongue out in two different ways. In the
+Green Woodpecker the extremities of the thyro-hyal bones are themselves
+attached to the mandible, while the curvature of the bones makes a loop
+that hangs low down on each side of the neck (see Fig. 2, <i>th.h.</i>).
+As the muscle is shortened this loop is raised up, and the free tip
+of the tongue is consequently projected; and since the muscle is on
+the inner, or concave, side of the curve, a very small shortening on
+its part makes a great addition to the apparent length of the tongue.
+Sir Charles Bell elucidates this action by comparing the great effect
+on the curve of a fishing-rod’s flexible top that a small tightening
+of the line has. But while this is the case in many species, there
+are others in which the sheath alone is attached to the bones of the
+forehead, and the bones themselves slide along inside together with the
+contracting fibres of the muscle, thus producing the same result as was
+obtained in the other case by the loops hanging low down in the neck.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[Pg 336]</span></p>
+
+<p>The tongue, whose length is thus so extraordinarily increased, is
+drawn back to its original position within the bill by another pair
+of muscles, one on each side, which are attached to the basi-hyal.
+These take their origin from the trachea, around which (as shown in
+Figs. 2 and 4, <i>r.m.</i>), in many species, they are curiously wound in
+their course. And, since the bones are at the point of their greatest
+curvature when at rest, it is obvious that this action of withdrawal
+is materially assisted by the elasticity of the prolongations of the
+hyoid bones themselves; for it is a well-known law that Nature never
+lets power run to waste, but always utilises forces of mere elasticity
+or rigidity when by their means the expenditure of nervous energy and
+muscular contractility can be saved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_336">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_336.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WRYNECK.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It may be observed that this curious development of the bones of
+the tongue is not confined to the Woodpeckers; in the Sun Birds
+(<i>Nectariniidæ</i>) of the Old World, and the Humming-Birds (<i>Trochilidæ</i>)
+of the New, this same adaptation of means to ends obtains. Even in the
+Picidæ themselves many variations have been noticed, in addition to
+those above alluded to; for instance, in the Yellow-billed Woodpecker
+(<i>Sphyrapicus<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> varius</i>) of North America the horns of the hyoid do
+not reach so far as the eye, so that the tongue, with its bushy tip in
+this case, is only extensible in a very slight degree; while in the
+Hairy Woodpecker (<i>Picus villosus</i>) the thyro-hyals curve spirally over
+the right orbit so as to reach entirely around the eye, to be inserted
+at its lower posterior margin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_337">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_337.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER AND GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_337_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="yaffle">Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the damage done by
+Woodpeckers in tapping sound trees, and many a poor bird pays the
+penalty of his life for his supposed destructive propensities. Mr.
+Waterton argues strongly on the side of the bird, and alleges that
+only rotten and unsound trees are attacked for the sake of a nesting
+habitation, or for the purpose of getting insects; but that this is not
+always the case was proved by the writer himself in the spring of 1878,
+when a boy was sent up to a hole in a beech-tree in Avington Park, in
+Hampshire. The tree was still<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[Pg 337]</span> perfectly sound, so sound, indeed,
+that the bird had evidently given up the idea of inhabiting it for
+that year, and had betaken himself elsewhere, after having excavated
+a round hole to the depth of two or three inches. In the same tree,
+a little lower down, was a similar hole, evidently made the previous
+year, when the bird had “tapped” the tree, and it was clear that he
+had returned again in the succeeding season, and had tried a little
+higher up in the trunk, to see if there were any chance of procuring a
+domicile. This proceeding must have injured the tree, and was the work
+of a Green Woodpecker, or Yaffle, whose laughing note was heard from
+another quarter of the park, even as the above examination was being
+conducted. In this part of Hampshire, though the bird is not persecuted
+by the owner of Avington, Mr. Edward Shelley, or by his keepers, the
+Green Woodpecker is rare; but in certain parts of Huntingdonshire the
+writer can remember to have found it very plentiful in his school-days,
+and it was a never-failing object in a country walk, flitting from
+tree to tree in front of the observer, and always keeping a sharp
+look-out from the opposite side of the trunk on which he settled. This
+species appears in old pieces of poetry under the various names of
+Yaffle, Woodwele, or Woodwale, Whetile, and it is in some places called
+“Hewhole,” Woodhacker, &amp;c.<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_337a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_337a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREEN WOODPECKER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“The Skylark in ecstasy sang from a cloud,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">And Chanticleer crowed, and the Yaffil laughed loud.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent10"><span class="mleft10"><i>The Peacock at Home.</i></span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“The Woodwele sang, and would not cease,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">Sitting upon the spray;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">So loud he wakened Robin Hood</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">In the greenwood where he lay.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent10">Ritson’s Edition of <i>Robin Hood</i>, vol. i., p. 115.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[Pg 338]</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“There the Jay and the Throstell</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">The Mavis menyd in her song,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">The Woodwale fard or beryd as a bell</div>
+    <div class="verse indent4">That wode about me rung.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent10"><span class="mleft12"><i>True Thomas.</i></span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="red_headed_woodpecker">Some Woodpeckers seem to make storehouses against the winter, by
+pecking holes in a tree, and an interesting example of a piece of bark,
+in which a Red-headed Woodpecker (<i>Melanerpes formicivorus</i>)<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> had
+placed a store of acorns, is to be seen in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p id="spotted_woodpecker">Another British species, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (<i>Picus<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a>
+minor</i>), is a bird of different habits, frequenting fruit-gardens
+in the autumn, and doing very little damage to trees in the nesting
+season. It generally selects the rotten branch of an old poplar-tree,
+and hollows out a hole in so perilous a situation that it is difficult
+to climb to, and, indeed, the whole bough is often brought down by
+the first gale in the ensuing winter. Here its small wedge-shaped
+bill speedily makes an excavation, and at some little distance down
+in the hollow interior it lays its glossy white eggs on the touchwood
+and decaying wood. Both sexes assist in the preparation of the nest;
+and in mild winters they sometimes begin with the commencement of the
+year to look out for their future home. The selection of this appears
+to be a matter of no small anxiety, for several trees are examined
+in turn, and often at long distances apart. The birds at the time of
+incubation keep up a continual signalling one to the other, which is
+produced by a rapid whining noise caused by tapping on the thinner
+branches of the dead trees. This call-note, if it may be called such,
+is generally heard in the early morning, and ceases as soon as the
+nesting operations have finally commenced. Besides this note, they have
+also one like the “laugh” of the Green Woodpecker, but, of course,
+much reduced in accordance with the difference in the size of the two
+birds. The little Spotted Woodpecker may often be seen hanging on to,
+and climbing round, the slender twigs of the outer branches of a tree,
+and looks much like a Creeper or a Nuthatch, which it does not greatly
+exceed in dimensions.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_TOUCANS" title="THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE
+PICARIAN BIRDS. THE TOUCANS (Rhamphastidæ)."><span class="s4">THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE
+ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE TOUCANS (<i>Rhamphastidæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Toucans, with their clumsy bills, have much the aspect of
+Hornbills, which they may be said to represent in South America, to
+which continent they are entirely confined, but by this time the
+student knows that they have really little to do with each other,
+beyond a certain outward similarity, as the Toucans belong to the
+Scansorial, the Hornbills to the Fissirostral, section of the
+<i>Picariæ</i>. It is not possible to give a long account of the habits of
+individual species of Toucans, and a general sketch of their manners
+and customs is extracted from the monograph of the Toucans written by
+Mr. John Gould.<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> To him the late Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied, an
+excellent observer, during his travels in South America writes:&mdash;“The
+<i>Rhamphastidæ</i> are very common in all parts of the extensive forests of
+the Brazils, and are killed in great numbers at the cooler portion of
+the year, for the purposes of the table. To the stranger they are of
+even greater interest than to the natives, from their remarkable form,
+and from the rich and strongly-contrasted style of their colouring,
+their black or green bodies being adorned with markings of the most
+brilliant hues&mdash;red, orange, blue and white&mdash;the naked parts of the
+body dyed with brilliant colours, the legs blue or green, the irides
+blue, yellow, &amp;c., and the large bill of a different colour in every
+species, and in many instances very gaily marked. The colouring of the
+soft parts is, however, so evanescent, that, to determine the species
+with accuracy, they must be depicted during life or immediately after
+the birds are killed. Common as these birds are in their native wilds,
+it is exceedingly difficult to detect their breeding-places; it is
+certain that they deposit their eggs in the hollow limbs and holes of
+the colossal trees so abundant in the tropical forests, but I never
+was so fortunate as to discover them. The stomachs of the specimens I
+examined contained nothing but the remains of fruits, principally of
+the softer kinds, for which, indeed, they have such a liking that they
+resort in great numbers to the plantations in the vicinity of their
+native haunts, and commit sad havoc among their favourite delicacies.
+I was informed that they frequently steal and eat young birds, but no
+instance of their doing so came under my own observation, and I never<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[Pg 339]</span>
+detected the remains of animal food in their stomachs. Mr. Waterton’s
+opinion agrees with mine, that they feed solely upon fruits; but Azara,
+among others, states that they also feed upon animal substances. The
+specimens we saw in a state of domestication were very voracious and
+perfectly omnivorous, but they seem to be purely frugivorous in a state
+of nature, a fact which was, indeed, confirmed by the Brazilian natives
+whom we questioned on the subject. In their manners the <i>Rhamphastidæ</i>
+offer some resemblance to the Crows, and especially to the Magpies;
+like them they are very troublesome to the birds of prey, particularly
+to the Owls, whom they surround and annoy by making a great noise, all
+the while jerking their tails upwards and downwards. The flight of
+these birds is easy and graceful, and they sweep with facility over
+the loftiest trees of their native forests, their strangely-developed
+bills, contrary to expectation, being no encumbrance to them. The voice
+of the Toucans is short and unmelodious, and is somewhat different
+in every species. The feathers are used by the Indians for personal
+decoration, especially the yellow breasts of the birds, which they
+affix to their heads on each side near the temple, and also to the ends
+of their bows.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe38" id="i_340">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_340.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TOUCAN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Waterton, in one of his Essays, has the following remarks:&mdash;“There
+are three species of Toucan in Demerara, and three diminutives, which
+may be called Toucanets. The largest of the former frequents the
+mangrove-trees on the sea-coast. It is never seen in the interior
+until you reach Macoushia, where it is found in the neighbourhood
+of the river Tacatou; the other two species are very common. They
+feed entirely on the fruits of the forest, and, though of the Pie
+kind, never kill the young of other birds or eat carrion. The larger
+is called <i>Bouradi</i> by the Indians (which means <i>nose</i>), the other
+<i>Scirou</i>. They seem partial to each other’s company, and often resort
+to the same feeding tree, and retire to the same shady noon-day
+retreat. They are very noisy in rainy weather at all hours of the
+day, and in fair weather at morn and eve. The sound the <i>Bouradi</i>
+makes is like the clear yelping of a puppy-dog, and you fancy he
+says ‘<i>Pia-po-o-co</i>,’ and thus the South American Spaniards call him
+<i>Piapoco</i>. All the Toucanets feed on the same trees on which the Toucan
+feeds, and every species of this family of enormous bill lays its eggs
+in the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregarious. You may
+sometimes see eight or ten in company, and from this you may suppose
+they are gregarious, but upon a closer examination you find it is only
+a dinner party, which breaks up and disperses towards roosting-time.
+You will be at a loss to conjecture for what end Nature has overloaded
+the head of this bird with such an enormous bill. It cannot be for
+the offensive, as it has no need to wage war with any of the tribes
+of animated nature, for its food is fruits and seed, and those are
+in superabundance throughout the whole year in the regions where the
+Toucan is found. It cannot be for the defensive, as the Toucan is
+preyed upon by no bird in South America, and, were it obliged to be
+at war, the texture of the bill is ill-adapted to give or receive
+blows, as you will see by dissecting it. The flight of the Toucan is
+by jerks. In the action of flying it seems incommoded by this huge,
+disproportionate feature, and the head seems as if bowed down to the
+earth by it against its will. If the extraordinary size and form of
+the bill expose the Toucan to ridicule, its colours make it amends.
+Were a specimen of each species of Toucan presented to you, you would
+pronounce the bill of the <i>Bouradi</i> the most rich and beautiful one.
+It is worthy of remark that all these brilliant colours of the bill
+are to be found in the plumage of the body and the bare skin around
+the eye.” Space will not permit of a long extract from the works of
+d’Azara (the only field naturalist of any fame that Portugal has yet
+produced), but a few notes of this traveller, made in Paraguay, differ
+from the foregoing accounts, and show that in the southern portion
+of their range the habits of some of the Toucans vary to a great
+extent. So voracious does d’Azara consider them, that on this account
+he places them among the birds of prey, and writes:&mdash;“The Toucans,
+contrary to all appearances, destroy a great number of birds, and,
+on account of their long and strong beak, are respected and feared
+by all species. They attack and drive them from their nests, and in
+their very presence eat their eggs and young; these they draw from
+the holes with the long beak, or throw down nest and all together. It
+is credibly reported that the Toucans do not even respect the eggs or
+young of the ‘Aras’ (Macaws) and Caracaras, and if the fledglings are
+too large or too strong to be lifted from the nest, they dash them
+to the ground, as if it were their nature not only to devour, but to
+uselessly destroy. The bird, in flying, presents the point of his bill
+against the wind, so that it does not offer more resistance than that
+of other birds in which the head and superficies are equal in extent;
+besides which, the conformation and specific lightness of this long
+beak cannot impede flight, because the highest points<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[Pg 340]</span> of the bird
+being the bill itself and the anterior portion of the body, they form
+no obstacle, the wind first taking effect upon the point of the bill.
+When in a state of repose, the Toucan carries its bill rather more
+elevated than a horizontal line that would pass through the eyes, and
+when closely looked at, it looks like a false bill, because its base
+exceeds the breadth of the head, which presents the appearance of being
+enclosed in a case. In addition to these singularities, the nostrils
+are placed behind the aforesaid base. The tongue is very narrow and of
+an equal thickness throughout. It is entirely osseous, and resembles
+somewhat a feather two lines in width, furnished with an osseous
+fringe, which is directed from behind forwards, so that the tongue,
+stiff and unyielding, takes no part in the direction of the food nor in
+the formation of the note, which, in the first two Paraguayan species,
+is confined to the single syllable ‘<i>rae</i>.’ The mandibles are very
+distinctly dentated at their edges, these dentations not corresponding
+at all above and below, nor are they even relatively symmetrical. The
+beak itself is a thin osseous sheath, filled with a number of empty
+cellules. The eye is large, and surrounded by a triangular naked
+space, puffed up, and very pretty. The foot is very short and stout,
+and covered nearly to the heel with long scales, harsh to the touch.
+The outer toe, as well before as behind, is the longest. The claws
+are much flattened and curved, as in the Woodpeckers. The tail is
+composed of ten feathers. The Toucan flies at a moderate height, and
+in a straight horizontal line, flapping its wings occasionally with
+some noise. The flight is quicker than the smallness of the wings
+would lead one to believe. It perches towards the top of the highest
+trees, and though unable to climb after the manner of Woodpeckers, it
+still progresses with speed, hopping from branch to branch. It pays
+great attention to all that takes place in its vicinity, advancing
+with fear and diffidence, like the ‘Uruca’ and the ‘Acahes.’ There is
+no perceptible difference between the two sexes, nor do I believe that
+the species exists towards the south beyond 28°, nor that it drinks.
+It rarely settles on the ground. The Toucan hops obliquely and very
+awkwardly, with the legs separated about a hand’s breadth. When it
+takes young birds from the nest, pieces of meat or fruit, it throws
+them in the air, as a juggler his balls, and by a quick movement of the
+beak repeats this action until the food is in a favourable position for
+being swallowed, and then by another movement gulps it down its large
+throat. If the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[Pg 341]</span> mouthful be larger than the orifice of the gullet, the
+Toucan abandons it without seeking to divide it.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe27" id="i_341">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_341.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BILL OF TOUCAN.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Bates, in his “Naturalist on the River Amazon,” makes some further
+allusions to the Toucans and their bill, which will be found well worth
+the reading. He also gives the following history of a tame bird (Vol.
+ii., p. 341):&mdash;“One day, whilst walking along the principal pathway
+in the woods near Ega, I saw one of these Toucans seated gravely on
+a low branch close to the road, and had no difficulty in seizing it
+with my hand. It turned out to be a runaway pet bird; no one, however,
+came to own it, although I kept it in my house for several months. The
+bird was in a half-starved and sickly condition, but after a few days
+of good living it recovered health and spirits, and became one of the
+most amusing pets imaginable. Many excellent accounts of the habits of
+tame Toucans have been published, and therefore I need not describe
+them in detail; but I do not recollect to have seen any notice of
+their intelligence and confiding disposition under domestication, in
+which qualities my pet seemed to be almost equal to Parrots. I allowed
+Tocáno to go free about the house, contrary to my usual practice with
+pet animals. He never, however, mounted my working-table after a
+smart correction, which he received the first time he did so. He used
+to sleep on the top of a box in a corner of the room, in the usual
+position of these birds&mdash;namely, with the long tail laid right over on
+the back and the beak thrust underneath the wing. He ate of everything
+that we eat (beef, turtle, fish, farina, fruit), and was a constant
+attendant at our table&mdash;a cloth spread on a mat. His appetite was most
+ravenous, and his powers of digestion quite wonderful. He got to know
+the meal-hours to a nicety, and we found it very difficult, after the
+first week or two, to keep him away from the dining-room, where he
+had become very impudent and troublesome. We tried to shut him out by
+enclosing him in the back yard, which was separated by a high fence
+from the street on which our front door opened; but he used to climb
+the fence and hop round by a long circuit to the dining-room, making
+his appearance with the greatest punctuality as the meal was placed
+on the table. He acquired the habit afterwards of rambling about the
+street near our house, and one day he was stolen, so we gave him up for
+lost. But two days afterwards he stepped through the open doorway at
+dinner-hour, with his old gait, and sly, magpie-like expression, having
+escaped from the house where he had been guarded by the person who had
+stolen him, which was situated at the farther end of the village.”</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_BARBETS" title="THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE
+ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS. THE BARBETS (Capitonidæ)."><span class="s4">THE SEVENTH FAMILY
+OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE BARBETS (<i>Capitonidæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe35" id="i_342">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_342.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PEARL-SPOTTED BARBET.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are climbing birds of somewhat brilliant coloration, distributed
+over the tropical portions of both hemispheres, but absent in Europe,
+Northern Asia, Australia, and the Moluccas southwards from the Sunda
+Islands. “Though strictly arboreal in their habits,” write Messrs.
+Marshall, in their exhaustive work on the family,<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> “and living
+only in forest districts or open countries interspersed with groves
+of trees, they are neither shy nor difficult to approach. When
+the districts in which they are found happen to be at all thickly
+populated, the Barbets show no disposition to retreat to more secluded
+quarters, but take up their abode in gardens, and frequently breed
+in trees close to the houses. They usually keep to the tops of the
+trees, but may occasionally be seen creeping among the branches of
+small bushes and underwood. Their food is fruit, seeds, buds, and
+occasionally insects; these latter are very seldom resorted to in Asia,
+more frequently in Africa, and with some American species they form
+the staple food. They are not gregarious, though a great number may
+sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[Pg 342]</span> be seen together in a fig-tree at the fruit season. They
+live in pairs during the breeding season, which is in the spring, and
+commence moulting in September. They rarely, if ever, descend to the
+ground, and appear to move from tree to tree only when compelled to do
+so in search of food, or when disturbed by an intruder. Their flight
+is powerful, but heavy and undulating, like that of a Woodpecker. A
+curious instance of their disinclination to travel is seen in the fact
+of the Himalayan Lineated Barbet (<i>Megalæma hodgsoni</i>) and the Hoary
+Jungle Barbet (<i>M. caniceps</i>) never crossing the narrow valley of the
+Deyra Doon, though both are abundant in their respective boundaries;
+also that the Blue-faced Barbet (<i>M. asiatica</i>) is confined to the
+valley of the Jumna, in the district between Mussooree and Simla,
+though there are many other valleys apparently equally suitable. When
+not in pursuit of food, the Barbets sit motionless among the foliage
+near the tops of the trees, and exhibit none of that vivacity which
+is so marked a characteristic of the Passerine birds, amongst which
+they have been sometimes erroneously classed. Their voice is loud and
+ringing, consisting almost always of one, two, or three syllables,
+given out with extraordinary power, and may be heard at midday or
+on a moonlight night when all other sounds are hushed. Some of the
+American species have, in common with the Toucans, the habit of jerking
+their tail up over their back when they utter their call. The male
+and female sometimes keep up what appears to be a ‘calling-match’
+for about ten minutes, and then suddenly cease. As far as is known,
+they all build in holes of trees, which they make for themselves in
+soft or decayed branches. No lining is needed for the nest, a few of
+the broken chips being left at the bottom of a hole. The entrance is
+circular and neatly bevelled, resembling that of a Woodpecker. The
+hole is generally about eight or ten inches deep, varying, of course,
+with the size of the bird. They lay three or four shining white eggs,
+with rather thin shells, and rather elongated, blunt, oval in shape,
+both ends being nearly similar. They are laid in the latter end of
+April and beginning of May in Northern India. Barbets are occasionally
+caged, but they are very seldom brought to England, and do not bear
+confinement very well; consequently, little is known of them in this
+country, except to ornithologists. An interesting account of one of
+them (<i>Megalæma zeylanica</i>) in captivity, by Mr. Layard, will be found
+quoted below. Their plumage, though very brilliant, is tasteless and
+too gaudy, and their shape is heavy and ugly, which will account for
+their skins not yet having been promoted to the positions with which
+pretty birds’ feathers are generally associated in the minds of the
+non-ornithological public.” Mr. Layard’s account is as follows:&mdash;“The
+Brown-headed Barbet is common in Ceylon, and universally distributed.
+It feeds on fruits and berries of all kinds, which it swallows entire.
+It does not, that I know of, devour<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[Pg 343]</span> small birds when in a state of
+nature, but one kept in a large aviary at Colombo destroyed all the
+little <i>Amadinæ</i> placed with it. Not content with snapping them up when
+within his reach, he would lie in wait for them behind a thick bush or
+the feeding-trough, pounce upon them unawares, and, after beating them
+a little on the ground or perch, swallow them whole. When this cannibal
+came into my possession he was confined in a smaller cage than that
+in which he had at first been secured. This seemed to displease him,
+and he went to work to find some means of escape. He narrowly examined
+every side and corner to discover a weak spot, and having detected one,
+applied himself vigorously to bore a hole through it, as a Woodpecker
+would have done. Grasping the bars with his feet, he swung himself
+round, bringing his whole weight to bear upon his bill, which he used
+as a pickaxe, till the house resounded with his rapid and well-aimed
+blows. On being checked from exercising his ingenuity in this manner,
+he became sulky, and refused to eat or offer his call of recognition
+when I approached him. In a day or two, however, he apparently thought
+better of the matter, resumed his labours upon another spot, and fed as
+voraciously as ever, devouring huge slices of bananas, jungle fruits,
+the bodies of any small birds I skinned, &amp;c.”</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="s3 center padtop3" id="FISSIROSTRES">THE SECOND ORDER.&mdash;PICARIAN BIRDS.
+SUB-ORDER II.&mdash;FISSIROSTRES.</p>
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_IX_V">CHAPTER IX.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_JACAMARS">THE JACAMARS</a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_SECOND_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_PUFF_BIRDS">THE PUFF BIRDS</a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_THIRD_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_KINGFISHERS">THE KINGFISHERS</a>&mdash;Characters&mdash;<a href="#common_kingfisher">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Its
+Cry&mdash;Habits&mdash;After its Prey&mdash;Its own Nest-builder&mdash;Mr. Rowley’s Note on the Subject&mdash;Nest in the
+British Museum&mdash;Superstitions concerning the Kingfisher&mdash;Colour&mdash;Various Species&mdash;<a href="#crested_kingfisher">C<span class="smaller">RESTED</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#crested_kingfisher">P<span class="smaller">IED</span>
+K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account of its Habits&mdash;New World Representatives&mdash;<a href="#omnivorous_kingfishers">O<span class="smaller">MNIVOROUS</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHERS</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#omnivorous_kingfishers">T<span class="smaller">HE</span>
+A<span class="smaller">USTRALIAN</span> C<span class="smaller">INNAMON</span>-<span class="smaller">BREASTED</span> K<span class="smaller">INGFISHER</span></a>&mdash;Macgillivray’s Account of its Habits&mdash;<a href="#laughing_jackass">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">AUGHING</span>
+J<span class="smaller">ACKASS</span></a> of Australia&mdash;Its Discordant Laugh&mdash;The “The Bushman’s Clock”&mdash;Colour&mdash;Habits&mdash;<a href="#THE_FOURTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HORNBILLS">THE HORNBILLS</a>&mdash;Character&mdash;Their
+Heavy Flight&mdash;Noise produced when on the Wing&mdash;Food&mdash;Extraordinary Habit of
+Imprisoning the Female&mdash;Native Testimony&mdash;Exception&mdash;Fed by the Male Bird&mdash;Dr. Livingstone’s Observations
+on the point, and Mr. Bartlett’s Remarks&mdash;Strange Gizzard Sacs&mdash;Dr. Murie’s Remarks&mdash;Mr. Wallace’s Description
+of the Habits of the Hornbills&mdash;Capture of a Young One in Sumatra&mdash;<a href="#ground_hornbills">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> G<span class="smaller">ROUND</span> H<span class="smaller">ORNBILLS</span></a>&mdash;South
+African Species&mdash;Kaffir Superstition regarding it&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mr. Ayres’ Account of the Natal Species&mdash;How it Kills
+Snakes&mdash;The Call&mdash;Habits&mdash;Mr. Monteiro’s Description of the Angola Form&mdash;Turkey-like Manner&mdash;Wariness&mdash;Food&mdash;<a href="#THE_FIFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HOOPOES">THE
+HOOPOES</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;<a href="#common_hoopoe">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> H<span class="smaller">OOPOE</span></a>&mdash;Habits&mdash;The Name&mdash;How does it
+Produce its Note?&mdash;<a href="#wood_hoopoes">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> W<span class="smaller">OOD</span> H<span class="smaller">OOPOES</span></a>&mdash;Habits.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_JACAMARS" title="THE
+FIRST FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS. THE JACAMARS
+(Galbulidæ)."><span class="s4">THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL
+PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE JACAMARS (<i>Galbulidæ</i>).<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></h4>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HESE</span> birds are usually of metallic green plumage, with long beaks and
+wedge-shaped tails, and are found only in Central and Southern America,
+where they seem to represent the Bee-eaters of the Old World. Not many
+notices have appeared of their habits, the best being that given by Mr.
+Waterton, in his “Wanderings” in Demerara:&mdash;“A bird called Jacamar is
+often taken for a Kingfisher, but it has no relationship to that tribe:
+it frequently sits in the trees over the water, and as its beak bears
+some resemblance to that of the Kingfisher, this may probably account
+for its being taken for one. It feeds entirely upon insects. It sits on
+a branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a Fly, Butterfly, or
+Moth passes by, it darts at it, and returns to the branch it had just
+left. It seems an indolent, sedentary bird, shunning the society of all
+others in the forest. It never visits the plantations, but is found at
+all times of the year in the woods. There are four species of Jacamar
+in Demerara; they are all beautiful, the largest rich and superb in the
+extreme. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue and golden green,
+that it may be ranked with the choicest of the Humming Birds. Nature
+has denied it a song, but given a costly garment in lieu of it. The
+smallest species of Jacamar is very common in the dry savannas. The
+second size, all golden green in the back, must be looked for in the
+Wallaba Forest; the third is found throughout the whole extent of these
+wilds; and the fourth, which is the largest, frequents the interior,
+where you begin to perceive stones in the ground.”</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[Pg 344]</span></p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_SECOND_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_PUFF_BIRDS"><span class="s4">THE
+SECOND FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE PUFF BIRDS (<i>Bucconidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In general form the Puff Birds are not unlike Kingfishers, some of
+which they resemble in their habits, feeding chiefly on insects,
+which they catch in the air. In many respects also they resemble the
+Bee-eaters (<i>Meropidæ</i>), and may be considered as representing the
+last-named family in South and Central America, to which countries they
+are entirely confined. Of the Long-winged Puff Birds (<i>Chelidoptera
+tenebrosa</i>) the late Prince Maximilian of Neuwied gives the following
+account:&mdash;“It is not rare in most provinces of South Brazil, and very
+common in many of them. It is found in certain spots sitting still and
+immovable upon the high isolated branches of the forest trees. From
+time to time it flies after an insect in the air, and falls back again
+to its place like a true Fly-catcher. It is a stupid, still, melancholy
+bird, but likes to sit high, and not low and near the ground, like
+other Puff Birds. As in form and colour it rather resembles a Swallow,
+the Brazilians call it <i>Andurinha do mato</i> (Wood Swallow). The
+resemblance is greatest when the bird sits upon the ground, for its
+feet are little adapted for walking, and it consequently shuffles along
+as a Swallow does. Its flight is light and undulating. Sitting upon a
+high point, whence it can overlook the neighbourhood, it often emits
+a short call-note. It is anything but timid, and very easy to shoot.
+It is usually found where the woods are varied with open country, on
+the edges of the woods, but likewise in the interior of them. The
+food of these birds consists of insects, of which I have found the
+remains in their stomachs. On the Rio Grande del Belmonte I observed
+how these birds nest. In the month of August I saw them enter a round
+hole in a perpendicular sand-bank on the river, like a Kingfisher’s.
+After digging about two feet in a horizontal direction, we found two
+milk-white eggs upon a bad lining of a few feathers.”<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_THIRD_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_KINGFISHERS"><span class="s4">THE
+THIRD FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE KINGFISHERS (<i>Alcedinidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Kingfishers are a very varied family, including within their limits
+birds of very different form and habits. The bill is always long and
+powerful for the size of the bird, producing, in some of the smaller
+species, a top-heavy and ungainly aspect; but this organ is modified
+according to the habits of the birds, and is strictly in accordance
+with the functions which it has to perform. The foot is similar in all
+Kingfishers, the sole being very flat, and the toes joined together for
+the greater part of their length, so that the birds always have a very
+firm support to their bodies. The legs are very short and weak, the
+wings powerful, and the gape very wide. The Kingfishers may be divided
+into two sub-families, distinguished by the form of the bill, which is
+long and compressed in the fish-eating Kingfishers (<i>Alcedininæ</i>), of
+which the European bird is a type, with a distinct ridge or keel along
+the upper mandible; while in the <i>Daceloninæ</i>, which have a stouter and
+flatter bill, with a smooth and rounded culmen, the food is varied,
+consisting more of insects than of fish.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_kingfisher">THE COMMON KINGFISHER
+(<i>Alcedo</i><a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>
+<i>ispida</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe33" id="i_345">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_345.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON KINGFISHER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is, perhaps, the most brilliantly-coloured bird there is in
+England, but by reason of its shy habits and wonderfully quick flight
+it is not often observed, excepting as a flash of bright blue on
+the river side, appearing for an instant and gone the next. It is,
+however, by no means uncommon in many of the rivers in the south of
+England, particularly during the month of October, when a partial
+migration of the species evidently takes place. At this season of
+the year, the writer once observed a Kingfisher on the ornamental
+water in St. James’s Park. Beyond the British Islands it is found in
+most parts of the European continent, being replaced in the East by
+the little Indian Kingfisher (<i>A. bengalensis</i>), a miniature of the
+English bird, but with a much longer bill. The following account of the
+habits of this bird, the result of several years’ close acquaintance
+with the species on the river Thames, is taken from the author’s work
+on this subject<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>:&mdash;“When in a wild state, flying along the banks
+of a stream, or sitting patiently at watch for its finny prey, the
+Kingfisher is a beautiful sight. Often has it been our good fortune to
+witness the bird at close quarters, but this is by no means easy to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[Pg 345]</span>
+accomplish, owing to the extreme wariness of the bird from repeated
+persecution. The presence of the Kingfisher in one’s neighbourhood
+can be detected from some distance by the faint cry which falls upon
+the ear from afar. This note, which is a shrill, but not unmusical,
+scream, generally consists of two syllables, but is very difficult
+to render in language. Naumann gives it as <i>ti-ti</i>, which is by no
+means a bad representation of the cry; and these syllables are quickly
+repeated as the bird leaves its perch and skims over the stream. The
+flight is rapid and very direct, the bird speeding like a bullet a
+little height above the surface of the water. When suddenly disturbed,
+it utters its cry shortly after leaving its perch, and then flies
+for some distance in silence; but when passing unmolested from one
+resting-place to another, its shrill note may be heard at frequent
+intervals. Just before perching, the cry is uttered three or four
+times successively&mdash;<i>ti-ti-ti</i>. When resting, it sits uprightly,
+with the glance directed downwards, motionlessly scanning the stream
+beneath, intent on the capture of any fish or water insect which may
+come within its reach. Its unerring dive seldom proves fruitless; and
+when secured, a few smart raps on its perch, to which the bird always
+returns, deprive the victim of life, after which it is immediately
+swallowed. Except in the early morning, it seldom chooses a very open
+position for its resting-place; but in the autumn, when the migration
+is in progress, at break of day it is not unusual to see two, or even
+three, birds in company on a rail or on the side of a punt; in the
+day-time, however, it loves solitude, and seldom more than one can
+be seen at once, and then it affects more shady and secluded haunts.
+In general it is a lonely bird, jealous of intrusion, especially
+from individuals of its own species. Each pair appears to choose and
+maintain a particular hunting-ground, and should one Kingfisher enter
+upon the domain of another, it is speedily and effectually ousted by
+the rightful owner with cries of rage. So fierce is the animosity
+displayed by these birds, that when excited in combat they fly heedless
+of obstacles, and thus occasionally meet their death in their headlong
+career.” An instance is on record of two Kingfishers flying with such
+violence against a window that both pursuer and pursued met their death
+on the spot. The present species does not always pounce on its prey
+from a perch, but will occasionally fly out over the mid-stream, and
+hover in the air like a Kestrel Hawk; and after making an unsuccessful
+plunge, will repeat its hovering position over the same spot, until its
+efforts are rewarded with success. It has been seen also to dash into
+the water several times in succession, which movement has been supposed
+to be for the purpose of attracting fish to the spot by disturbing the
+water; it is, however, more probable that in this exercise the bird is
+taking a bath. The young have exactly the same cry as their parents,
+but the note is less shrill. On leaving the nest, they often congregate
+in some well-shaded locality by the side of the stream, where food is
+brought to them by their parents, and the presence of the nestlings<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[Pg 346]</span> is
+often betrayed by their shrill pipings. The bill in the young birds is
+very short, and has a little white tip to it; in the adult male it is
+entirely black; but the female may always be distinguished by the base
+of the lower mandible being red.</p>
+
+<p>That the Kingfisher makes its own hole is now an ascertained fact,
+and the following note on the subject was published in 1866 by Mr. G.
+Dawson Rowley:&mdash;“Though the subject of the Kingfisher (<i>Alcedo ispida</i>)
+is somewhat stale, yet, in consequence of the remarks which I have
+just read in the October <i>Quarterly</i> on ‘Homes without Hands,’ I send
+you the following notes, made this spring, in order to set at rest, if
+possible, a mistake regarding the breeding of this bird. Modern writers
+on the Kingfisher are hardly more free from error than even Ovid or
+Pliny. The bird is a true miner, and makes a nest of fish-bones; but,
+as no rule is without an exception, when it cannot find a suitable bank
+to bore in, it has been known to nidificate in abnormal situations; and
+when abundance of proper fish are not to be caught it is obliged to do
+without bones.</p>
+
+<p>“From many years’ constant watching, I can exactly tell the probable
+position of the hole, and the day it will be begun. Accordingly, on
+Thursday, March 29, I sent two witnesses to a particular spot on the
+River Ouse, St. Neots, Huntingdonshire. They observed that there was
+on that day positively no hole of any kind, no vestige of hole, in
+that bank. On Easter Monday, April 2, I sent a keeper to the place.
+He reported the hole as begun. On the same day I went in a boat,
+and, putting a reed up, found it by actual measurement about fifteen
+inches deep, the moulds being quite fresh outside. Droppings of the
+bird (which was seen constantly leaving the hole) were visible in two
+places. There was also a shallow hole a little to the left of the
+above-mentioned one. This was a failure&mdash;either from caprice or some
+other cause abandoned. We observe the same in Woodpeckers, which will
+sometimes bore in three or four places before they get one to their
+liking, a circumstance I particularly remarked in a pair of the Greater
+Spotted Woodpeckers (<i>P. major</i>) last spring. Between March 29 and
+April 2 the Kingfisher had made two holes. I thought it best now to
+leave the place, only receiving from the keeper each morning a report,
+as he went by in his boat, how the bird was going on.</p>
+
+<p>“Saturday, April 7, I made a memorandum: ‘I again observe fresh moulds,
+but not, as we consider, to-day’s, but yesterday’s: hence I suppose
+the hole to be nearly finished, if not quite.’ Here, I should say,
+after taking these nests constantly for nearly thirty years, I find
+twenty-one days is the correct time, from the commencement of the
+excavation to the end of laying seven eggs. I never had the luck to
+find eight; Mr. Gould, however, informs me he once did. ‘Saturday,
+April 21. Opened the hole situated in the perpendicular bank to keep
+off Water-rats. Found by measurement the entrance was twelve inches
+from the surface of the ground, and about five feet from the water. The
+length of the ascending gallery was eight inches and a half, and the
+oval chamber six inches in diameter more. The top of the chamber was
+nine inches from the surface of the ground. It contained the usual nest
+of fish-bones, which was one inch and a half deep; and the same, with
+the seven fresh eggs, are now before me, with two other nests from the
+same locality. The bird flew off after the first dig, which I commonly
+made so as to cover up the hole again without disturbance if the
+full number of eggs had not been laid. There was no excrement in the
+chamber, but much just outside in the gallery.’ The size of the chamber
+is just sufficient for the owners to turn round pleasantly. When the
+young birds, which I have seen in every stage, have been some time in
+the nest, of course the hole gets very foul. Here, then, is a case,
+capable of being attested by two or three witnesses step by step&mdash;and
+concerning which there can be no doubt&mdash;where the Kingfisher is proved
+to have made its own hole. I have known it when driven from one bank by
+floods to revert to an old hole of its own making in the previous year;
+but never has there been an instance of its taking up with the abode of
+its most deadly enemy, the Water-rat. It is hard to prove a negative,
+but it is certainly a most unlikely thing for a Kingfisher to enter a
+rat-hole. No one who has seen the eggs of this species <i>in situ</i> as
+often as I have can deny that the fish-bones are placed with the design
+of making a nest.”</p>
+
+<p>In the British Museum may be seen a nest of the Kingfisher, which was
+taken by Mr. Gould under the following circumstances:&mdash;“On the 18th
+of April, 1859, during one of my fishing excursions on the Thames,
+I saw a hole in a precipitous bank, which I felt assured was the
+nesting-place of a Kingfisher; and on passing a spare top of my fly
+rod to the extremity, a distance of nearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[Pg 347]</span> three feet, I brought out
+some freshly-cast bones of fish, convincing me that I was right in
+my surmise. The day following I again visited the spot with a spade,
+and, after removing nearly two feet square of the turf, dug down to
+the nest without disturbing the passage which led to it. Here I found
+four eggs placed on the usual layer of fish-bones. These I removed with
+care, and then replaced the earth, beating it down as hard as the bank
+itself, and restored the turfy sod. A fortnight after the bird was seen
+to leave the hole again, and my suspicions were aroused that she had
+taken to her old breeding quarters a second time. I again visited the
+place on the twenty-first day from the date of my former exploration,
+and upon passing the top of my fly rod up the hole, found, not only
+that it was of the former length, but that the female was within. I
+then took a large mass of cotton-wool from my collecting-box, and
+stuffed it to the extremity, in order to preserve the eggs from damage
+during my again laying it open from above. On removing the sod and
+digging down as before, I came to the cotton-wool, and beneath it was
+formed a nest of fish-bones the size of a small saucer, the walls of
+which were fully half an inch thick, together with eight translucent
+pinky-white eggs, and the old female herself. This nest I removed with
+the greatest care; and it is now deposited in the proper place for so
+interesting an object&mdash;the British Museum. This mass of bones, then
+weighing 700 grains, had been cast up and deposited by the bird and
+its mate in the short space of twenty-one days. Ornithologists are
+divided in opinion as to whether the fish-bones are to be considered
+in the light of a nest. Some are disposed to believe them to be the
+castings and fæces of the young brood of the year, and that the same
+hole being frequented for a succession of years, a great mass is at
+length formed; while others suppose that they are deposited by the
+parents as a platform for the eggs, constituting, in fact, a nest;
+and I think, from what I have adduced, we may fairly conclude this is
+the case: in fact, nothing could be better adapted to defend the eggs
+from the damp earth.” In ancient times there was a legend that when
+the Kingfishers made their nests&mdash;which were supposed to float upon
+the top of the sea&mdash;fine weather was always allowed to prevail.<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> A
+custom used formerly to be in vogue in England of turning a Kingfisher
+into a weathercock; and, according to the late M. Jules Verreaux,
+this practice is pursued in France even in the present day, where the
+bird is mummified and suspended by a thread with extended wings in
+order to show the direction of the wind. Mr. Harting alludes to these
+superstitions in his “Ornithology of Shakespeare” (p. 275). It was
+formerly believed that during the time the Halcyon, or Kingfisher, was
+engaged in hatching her eggs, the water, in kindness to her, remained
+so smooth and calm that the mariner might venture on the sea with the
+happy certainty of not being exposed to storms or tempests; this period
+was therefore called, by Pliny and Aristotle, “the halcyon days.”</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Expect Saint Martin’s summer, <i>halcyon</i> days.”</div>
+    <div class="verse indent10"><span class="mleft6"><i>Henry VI.</i>, Part i., Act i., sc. 2.</span></div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was also supposed that the dead bird, carefully balanced and
+suspended by a single thread, would always turn its beak towards that
+point of the compass from which the wind blew. Kent, in <i>King Lear</i>
+(Act ii. sc. 2), speaks of rogues who&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent10">“Turn their <i>halcyon</i> beaks</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">With every gale and vary of their masters.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>And, after Shakspere, Marlowe, in his <i>Jew of Malta</i>, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“But how now stands the wind?</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Into what corner peers my <i>halcyon’s</i> bill?”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Common Kingfisher measures about seven inches from the tip of his
+bill to the end of his tail. The colour of the upper parts is blue,
+greener on the mantle and scapulars, and beautiful rich cobalt on the
+back, rump, and upper tail-coverts; the head is blue, barred with
+black, the wings blue, with spots of brighter cobalt on the coverts; in
+front of the eye is a spot of rufous, this being also the colour of the
+eye-coverts and under parts; the throat is white, and there is a patch
+of white on each side of the neck; the cheeks and sides of the breast
+are blue, the bill is black, the feet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[Pg 349]</span> red. The female is coloured
+like the male, but can always be told by the red colour at the base of
+the under mandible. This is also present in young birds of both sexes,
+but the latter can readily be distinguished by their shorter bills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32_5" id="i_348">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_348.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">PIED KINGFISHER.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_348_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="crested_kingfisher">Species of the genus <i>Alcedo</i> are distributed over the greater part
+of the Old World, extending even into the Molucca Islands, but in
+Australia and the Papuan group they are represented by the genus
+<i>Alcyone</i>, comprising Kingfishers of similar form to the English bird,
+but distinguished by the absence of the inner toe. In Africa and
+Madagascar some beautiful little crested Kingfishers (<i>Corythornis</i>)
+are met with, the largest of which scarcely exceeds five inches in
+length. A very familiar species on the banks of the Nile is the Pied
+Kingfisher (<i>Ceryle</i><a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> <i>rudis</i>), one of the commonest birds in Africa
+and India, and of this species Dr. von Heuglin writes<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>:&mdash;“It
+lives in pairs, is sociable, and, except during the breeding season,
+more friendly with members of its own species than other Kingfishers,
+and often several pairs dwell in the same neighbourhood. It sits and
+watches along the shore on overhanging branches, on roofs, walls,
+brickets, rocks, and even on the ground, but seldom pounces from the
+latter on its prey. From time to time it takes a flight over shallow
+clear water, also right across the river or from one island to another,
+sometimes very low, generally, however, several fathoms above the
+surface. Its flight is not very swift, but straight, and steadied
+by quick, fluttering motions of the wing&mdash;not rushing, like that of
+<i>Alcedo ispida</i>&mdash;and it rises and falls according to will and with
+great agility. One often sees it, after taking a start by several
+quick flaps of the wing, and gliding on for a distance, suddenly, with
+one quick movement, alter the direction of the flight and suddenly
+stop and hover. When hovering, the bill is held straight down, and
+the hind part of the body and tail also rather lowered. Directly it
+catches sight of its scaly prey it turns up, lays its feathers close
+to the body, and drops like a stone into the water, remaining often
+over ten seconds below the surface. It seldom misses its mark, and
+devours the fish it has captured either on the wing or at one of its
+resting-places. The voice is a shrill whistle, at the same time chirpy,
+or at times snickery. During the pairing time the males often fight on
+the wing, and roll together, calling loudly, nearly to the surface of
+the water. In Egypt the breeding season is our spring; according to
+Adams, as early as December. The nest, consisting of a small heap of
+clean dry grass, is placed in a horizontal hole about arm’s depth in
+a steep bank, and contains four to six pure white roundish eggs, the
+shell of which is rather rough compared with that of <i>Alcedo ispida</i>.
+Often several nest-holes are close together. The plumage of the young
+much resembles that of the adult. There is scarcely any bird on the
+Nile tamer than the Black and White Kingfisher.” The genus <i>Ceryle</i>,
+to which the foregoing species belongs, is largely represented in the
+New World, one of the best known being the Belted Kingfisher of North
+America, and an unusual circumstance in fish-eating Kingfishers is
+characteristic of the genus, viz., a difference in the colouring of the
+sexes. The Stork-billed Kingfishers (<i>Pelargopsis</i><a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a>) are the most
+powerful members of the sub-family, some of them measuring nearly a
+foot and a half in length.</p>
+
+<p id="omnivorous_kingfishers">More difference in form and size is perceptible in the omnivorous
+Kingfishers (<i>Daceloninæ</i>), where some of the little three-toed species
+of <i>Ceyx</i> do not exceed five inches in length, whereas the Great
+Laughing Jackasses of Australia (<i>Dacelo</i>) attain the dimensions of
+more than a foot and a half. The smaller birds of this section feed
+almost entirely on insects, and the Rose-cheeked Kingfisher of Africa
+(<i>Ispidina<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> picta</i>) feeds principally on Grasshoppers and small
+Locusts, while its representative in Natal (<i>I. natalensis</i>) is said to
+feed entirely on Butterflies and insects caught on the wing. They are
+often found along the banks of rivers, but never catch fish. The large
+genus <i>Halcyon</i> is distributed all over Africa, and ranges throughout
+Southern Asia, through China, to Japan, inhabiting also the islands
+of the Malay Archipelago and the entire Continent of Australia. These
+birds prefer a mixed diet, and, in addition to an occasional fish, they
+will also eat crustacea, small reptiles, and insects. Perhaps the most
+beautiful of all the Kingfisher family are the <i>Tanysipteræ</i>,<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a>
+which are found only in New Guinea, the adjacent Moluccas, and
+the north-east peninsula of Australia. These birds have only ten
+tail-feathers, the middle pair being very much longer than the rest,
+and ending in a spatule or racket. They live entirely in the forests,
+feeding on insects, and they are said to roost in the holes of rocks by
+the side of small streams. The best known species of <i>Tanysiptera</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[Pg 350]</span> is
+the Australian Cinnamon-breasted Kingfisher (<i>T. sylvia</i>), which was
+discovered by the late Mr. John Macgillivray, who gives the following
+account of its habits:&mdash;“This pretty <i>Tanysiptera</i> is rather plentiful
+in the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense bushes,
+and is especially fond of resorting to the sunny openings in the
+woods, attracted, probably, by the greater abundance of insect food
+found in such places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and
+usually was first made aware of its presence by the glancing of its
+bright colours as it darted past with a rapid arrow-like flight, and
+disappeared in an instant amongst the dense foliage. Its cry, which
+may be represented by <i>whee-whe-whee</i> and <i>wheet-wheet-wheet</i>, is
+usually uttered when the bird is perched on a bare, transverse branch,
+or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out station, and
+whence it makes short dashes at any passing insect or small Lizard,
+generally returning to the same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird,
+and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter, who
+may follow it for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as
+keen an eye as a native, to whom I was indebted for first pointing
+it out to me. According to the natives, who know it by the name of
+<i>Quatawur</i>, it lays three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of
+the large ant-hills of red clay which form so remarkable a feature in
+the neighbourhood, some of them being as much as ten feet in height,
+with numerous buttresses and pinnacles. I believe that the bird also
+inhabits New Guinea; for at Redscar Bay, on the south-east of that
+great island, in long. 146° 15′ E., a head strung upon a necklace was
+procured from the natives.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_350">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_350.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LAUGHING JACKASS.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p id="laughing_jackass">The largest of all the Kingfishers are the Laughing Jackasses of
+Australia, this curious name being given to the bird from its strange
+note and peculiar look, both of which can be appreciated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[Pg 351]</span> by any
+visitor to the London Zoological Gardens, where there is generally one,
+if not two, out of the seven species known. Of the bird in its native
+haunts a very good idea is given us by the “Old Bushman,” the late Mr.
+Henry Wheelwright, which is here taken from a little work called the
+“Bush Wanderings of a Naturalist.” “About an hour before sunrise the
+bushman is awakened by the most discordant sounds, as if a troop of
+fiends were shouting, whooping, and laughing around him in one wild
+chorus: this is the morning song of the ‘Laughing Jackass,’ warning his
+feathered mates that daybreak is at hand. At noon the same wild laugh
+is heard, and as the sun sinks into the west it again rings through the
+forest. I shall never forget the first night I slept in the open bush
+in this country. It was in the Black Forest. I woke about daybreak,
+after a confused sleep, and for some minutes I could not remember
+where I was, such were the extraordinary sounds that greeted my ears;
+the fiendish laugh of the Jackass, the clear, flute-like note of the
+Magpie, the hoarse cackle of the Wattle-birds, the jargon of flocks
+of Leatherheads, and the screaming of thousands of Parrots as they
+dashed through the forest, all joining chorus, formed one of the most
+extraordinary concerts I have ever heard, and seemed at the moment to
+have been got up for the purpose of welcoming the stranger to this land
+of wonders on that eventful morning. I have heard it hundreds of times
+since, but never with the same feelings that I listened to it then. The
+Laughing Jackass is the bushman’s clock, and being by no means shy,
+of a companionable nature, a constant attendant about the bush-tent,
+and a destroyer of Snakes, is regarded, like the Robin at home, as a
+sacred bird in the Australian forests. It is an uncouth-looking bird, a
+huge species of land Kingfisher, nearly the size of a Crow, of a rich
+chestnut brown and dirty white colour; the wings slightly chequered
+with light blue, after the manner of the British Jay; the tail-feathers
+long, rather pointed, and barred with brown. It has the foot of a
+Kingfisher; a very formidable, long, pointed beak, and a large mouth;
+it has also a kind of crest, which it erects when angry or frightened,
+and this gives it a very ferocious appearance. It is a common bird in
+all the forest throughout the year; breeds in a hole of a tree, and the
+eggs are white; generally seen in pairs, and by no means shy. Their
+principal food appears to be small reptiles, grubs, and caterpillars.
+As I said before, it destroys Snakes. I never but once saw them at
+this game: a pair of Jackasses had disabled a Carpet-Snake under an
+old gum-tree, and they sat on a dead branch above it, every now and
+then darting down and pecking it, and by their antics and chattering
+seemed to consider it a capital joke. I can’t say whether they ate the
+Snake&mdash;I fancy not; at least the only reptiles I have ever found in
+their stomachs have been small Lizards. The first sight that struck me
+on landing in London was a poor old Laughing Jackass moped up in a cage
+in Ratcliffe Highway. I never saw a more miserable, woe-begone object.
+I quite pitied my poor old friend, as he sat dejected on his perch;
+and the thought struck me at the time that we were probably neither of
+us benefited in changing the quiet freedom of the bush for the noise
+and bustle of the modern Babylon.” The Common Laughing Jackass has the
+sexes alike, but in all the other species the male has a blue tail and
+the female a red one.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_FOURTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HORNBILLS"><span class="s4">THE
+FOURTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE HORNBILLS (<i>Bucerotidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These birds are found in Africa, India, and throughout the Malayan
+region and Molucca Islands, as far as New Guinea. They are birds of
+rather ungainly appearance, nearly every species having a casque, or
+helmet, which is developed in every variety of shape, and in some of
+them reaches an extraordinary size. The flat soles which were alluded
+to in the Kingfishers are here developed in a greater degree, and the
+toes are united together in exactly the same way. The flight, however,
+of the Hornbills is very different from that of the Kingfishers,
+being heavy and performed with an abundance of noise: so much so that
+some explorers in South-eastern New Guinea have been led to speak
+of a bird whose wings, when flying, produced a noise “resembling
+a locomotive,” but which was doubtless made by the large Hornbill
+(<i>Buceros<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> ruficollis</i>), which frequents that part of the world.
+They are generally found on very lofty trees and at a great height,
+which makes them difficult to shoot; and Governor Ussher says that
+in ascending the lonely forest-clad rivers of North-western Borneo
+the only sign of life is often a solitary Hornbill flying across at a
+great height in the air. Wallace states that the Rhinoceros Hornbill
+(<i>Buceros rhinoceros</i>), a native of the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[Pg 352]</span>
+finds the exertion of flying so great that it is compelled to rest at
+intervals of about a mile; and the same author says that he heard the
+Great Hornbill (<i>Dichoceros bicornis</i>) more than a mile off, so that
+the amazement caused by one of these large birds to the travellers in
+New Guinea, as mentioned above, does not seem so very inexplicable. The
+voice of the last-named species is said to be very harsh and grating,
+and the noise it makes is compared by Wallace to something between the
+bray of a Jackass and the shriek of a locomotive, and is not to be
+surpassed, probably, in power by any sound that an animal is capable
+of making. Tickell says that its roar re-echoes through the hills to
+such a degree that it is difficult to assign the noise to a bird;
+and Wallace observes that this is kept up so continuously as to be
+absolutely unbearable. The flight is heavy, and performed by repeated
+flappings of its huge wings. It usually flies in a straight line, and
+sails only when about to alight upon some tree.<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_352">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_352.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GREAT HORNBILL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The food of the Hornbills consists principally of fruits, but under
+certain circumstances they become to a great extent omnivorous, and
+will devour anything, some of the species searching the ground for
+Lizards, which they devour readily, both when wild and in confinement;
+and the Pied Hornbill (<i>Anthracoceros malabaricus</i>) is stated by Mr.
+Inglis to be very fond of live fish, which it catches in shallow pools.
+The way he discovered this predilection for an abnormal diet was as
+follows: he possessed a tame Otter and three tame Hornbills; at feeding
+time the Otter was placed in a tub<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[Pg 353]</span> containing live fish, and these,
+when closely pressed, would jump out to escape from their pursuer,
+and were immediately swallowed by the Hornbills. Mr. Inglis has also
+found bones of fish in the stomachs of birds which he had shot; and the
+natives of the Naga Hills affirm that when these Hornbills are intent
+on fishing they can be approached sufficiently close to be killed by a
+stick.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most curious habit belonging to these birds is that which
+takes place during the breeding season, when the male bird plasters
+the female into a hollow tree, there to hatch her eggs, nor does he
+release her until the young ones are nearly full grown. It is scarcely
+possible to conceive a practice more detrimental to the well-being of
+any bird than this. The exertion of feeding himself as well as his
+wife and nestlings must entail a serious strain upon the male, while
+the destruction of the latter must inevitably ensure the starvation of
+the female and of the young birds. This curious habit has been well
+attested by observers in Asia as well as in Africa; and the writer once
+received from an old negro collector on the West Coast of Africa, who
+rejoiced in the name of St. Thomas David Aubinn, and styled himself
+“Royal Hunter to the King of Denkera,” an adult female of the Black
+Hornbill (<i>Sphagolobus atratus</i>), together with a nearly full-grown
+young one, which, he said, had been taken by him together out of the
+hole of a tree; and the habits of the Hornbill in this respect were
+given by him in the following words: “When the female go to sit, the
+male he her shut in tree. If he no bring food, then she angry. If he no
+then bring food, then she more angry&mdash;swear. If he no then bring food,
+then she curse him for die. Man&mdash;beef&mdash;beefy&mdash;beef!”</p>
+
+<p>If the last sentence is intended to represent the enraged Hornbill,
+it is evident that the noises produced by the bird are not of that
+startling character ascribed to the Eastern species by Wallace, as
+mentioned above. All accounts seem to agree that the female is shut
+in the hollow of a tree; but Dr. Kirk noted an exception, on native
+authority, and therefore one which must be confirmed by future
+research. This is the Crested Hornbill (<i>Bycanistes cristatus</i>), which
+is a common bird on the river Shiré, where it goes in large flocks, and
+roosts regularly in the same places. “The natives say that the female
+hatches her eggs in a hole underground, in which she is fastened by
+the male.” Our astonishment at the imprisonment of the female Hornbill
+is not lessened when it is found that the male bird keeps her supplied
+with food by a most curious process, which accounts for the statement
+of Dr. Livingstone<a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>:&mdash;“The first time I saw this bird was at
+Kolobeng, where I had gone to the forest for some timber. Standing by
+a tree, a native looked behind me and exclaimed, ‘There is the nest of
+Korwe.’ I saw a slit only, about half an inch wide and three or four
+inches long, in a slight hollow of a tree. Thinking the word Korwe
+denoted some small animal, I waited with interest to see what he would
+extract. He broke the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into
+the hole, and brought out a Tockus, or Red-beaked Hornbill, which he
+killed. He informed me that when the female enters her nest she submits
+to a real confinement. The male plasters up the entrance, leaving
+only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate, and which exactly suits
+the form of his beak. The female makes a nest, of her own feathers,
+lays her eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till they are
+fully fledged. During all this time, which is stated to be two or
+three months, the male continues to feed her and the young family. The
+prisoner generally becomes quite fat, and is esteemed a very dainty
+morsel by the natives; while the poor slave of a husband gets so lean
+that on the sudden lowering of the temperature, which sometimes happens
+after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls down, and dies.” At a
+meeting of the Zoological Society on the 25th February, 1869, Mr. A.
+D. Bartlett produced a curious envelope, which had been thrown by a
+Wrinkled Hornbill (<i>Anorrhinus corrugatus</i>) in the Zoological Gardens
+of London, which was found to contain plums or grapes well packed
+together; and Mr. Bartlett came to the conclusion that it was by means
+of fruit packed together in such a wrapper that the male fed the female
+during her confinement in the hollow tree. In 1874, Dr. Murie exhibited
+to the same society some similar envelopes, or, as he more properly
+called them, gizzard sacs, which had been thrown up by a specimen of
+Sclater’s Hornbill (<i>Bycanistes subcylindricus</i>) in the same way as by
+the previous bird. On examination, these gizzard sacs proved to be the
+interior lining of the bird’s stomach; and it was evident, from the
+short time that elapsed between the throwing up of the envelopes, that,
+as Dr. Murie observed, the bird in the interval had made a new one, and
+got rid of it also, without apparently being any the worse. One can
+readily imagine, however, that this process, being continued during the
+long period that the female is shut up in the bole of the tree, must
+tend<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[Pg 354]</span> greatly to weaken the bird. The habit of feeding his mate seems
+to be inherent in every Hornbill, even in captivity, for Mr. Bartlett
+observes:&mdash;“The tame male Hornbill is particularly distinguished at all
+seasons by this habit of throwing up his food, which he not only offers
+to the female, but to the keepers and others who are known to him.
+The male Concave Hornbill (<i>Buceros cavatus</i>) now in the Gardens will
+frequently throw up grapes, and, holding them in the point of the bill,
+thrust them into the mouth of the keeper, if he is not on the alert to
+prevent or avoid this distinguished mark of his kindness.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wallace thus describes the habits of the Hornbills, as observed
+by him during his travels in the East, and he points out certain
+peculiarities, proving that the old systematic position of these birds
+near the Toucans of America is erroneous:&mdash;“From an examination of
+the structure of the feet and toes, and from a consideration of their
+habits, we are led to conclude that the Hornbills are Fissirostral
+birds, though of a very abnormal form. Their very short legs and united
+toes, with a broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the
+Kingfishers. They have powerful wings, but their heavy bodies oblige
+them to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid,
+though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in the
+Indian Archipelago, at least) entirely frugivorous, and it is curious
+to observe how their structure modifies their mode of feeding. They are
+far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the manner of the Trogons;
+they cannot even fly quickly from branch to branch, picking up a fruit
+here and a fruit there; neither have they strength or agility enough to
+venture on the more slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets; but
+they alight heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then,
+looking cautiously round them, pick off any fruits that may be within
+reach, and jerk them down their throats by a motion similar to that
+used by the Toucans, which has been erroneously described as throwing
+the fruit up in the air before swallowing it. When they have gathered
+all within their reach they move sideways along the branch by short
+jumps, or, rather, a kind of shuffle, and the smaller species even hop
+across to other branches, when they again gather what is within their
+reach. When in this way they have progressed as far as the bough will
+safely carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree,
+where they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon
+exhaust all the fruit within their reach; and long after they have
+left a tree the Barbets and <i>Eurylaimi</i> find abundance of food on the
+slender branches and extreme twigs. We see, therefore, that their very
+short legs and syndactyle feet remove them completely from the vicinity
+of the Toucans, in which the legs are actively employed in moving about
+after their food. Their wings, too, are as powerful as those of the
+Toucans are weak; and it is only the great weight of their bodies that
+prevents them from being capable of rapid and extensive flight. As it
+is, their strength of wing is shown by the great force with which they
+beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can be
+distinctly heard a mile off, and is even louder than that made by the
+flight of the great Muscovy Duck.” Mr. Wallace<a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> also describes the
+capture of a young Hornbill in Sumatra:&mdash;“I returned to Palembang by
+water, and while staying a day at a village while a boat was being made
+water-tight, I had the good fortune to obtain a male, female, and young
+bird of one of the large Hornbills. I had sent my hunters to shoot,
+and while I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me a fine large
+male of the <i>Buceros bicornis</i>, which one of them assured me he had
+shot while feeding the female, which was shut up in a hole in a tree. I
+had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to the
+place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream
+and a bog, we found a large tree leaning over some water, and on its
+lower side, at a height of about twenty feet, appeared a small hole,
+and what looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been
+used in stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh
+cry of a bird inside, and could see the white extremity of its beak put
+out. I offered a rupee to any one who would go up and get out the bird,
+with the egg or young one, but they all declared it was too difficult,
+and they were afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away.
+In about an hour afterwards, much to my surprise, a tremendous loud,
+hoarse screaming was heard, and the bird was brought me, together
+with a young one, which had been found in the hole. This was a most
+curious object, as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage
+on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[Pg 355]</span> and with a
+semi-transparent skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with
+head and feet stuck on, than like a real bird.”</p>
+
+<p>One genus of these Hornbills is so remarkable as to demand a special
+notice.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="ground_hornbills">THE GROUND HORNBILLS (<i>Bucorax</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe48" id="i_355">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_355.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">GROUND HORNBILLS OF ABYSSINIA.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are an African form, of which there are two or three kinds,
+distinguished by the casque, which is open in the birds from Abyssinia,
+compressed and shut in the South African species (<i>B. cafer</i>). Of the
+habits of the latter bird several accounts have been written, from
+which a few extracts are made; and the first is from a letter sent by
+Mr. Henry Bowker to Mr. Layard, after the publication of the latter’s
+“Birds of South Africa”<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a>:&mdash;“There are many superstitions connected
+with the ‘Bromvogel.’ The bird is held sacred by the Kaffirs, and is
+killed only in times of severe drought, when one is killed by order
+of the ‘rain-doctor,’ and its body thrown into a pool in a river. The
+idea is that the bird has so offensive a smell that it will ‘make
+the water sick,’ and that the only way of getting rid of this is to
+wash it away to the sea, which can only be done by heavy rains and
+flooding of the river. The ground where they feed is considered good
+for cattle, and in settling in a new country, spots frequented by these
+birds are chosen by the wealthy people. Should the birds, however, by
+some chance, fly over a cattle kraal, the kraal is moved to some other
+place. They are mostly found in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[Pg 356]</span> groups of from three to six or seven,
+and build their nests in hollow trees, or in the hollow formed by three
+or four branches striking off from the same spot. They roost in tall
+yellow-wood trees, and commence calling about daylight. I never saw one
+eating carrion, as stated in your book, though I have frequently seen
+them near the bones of dead cattle, picking up beetles and worms. They
+will eat meat, mice, and small birds, and swallow them by throwing them
+suddenly in the air, and letting them drop down the throat in falling.
+I once had a tame one, and noticed this particularly. It is very weak
+on the wing, and when required by the ‘doctor,’ the bird is caught
+by the men of a number of kraals turning out at the same time, and a
+particular bird is followed from one hill to another by those on the
+look-out. After three or four flights it can be run down and caught by
+a good runner.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Ayres’ account of the species in Natal, though often referred
+to by other writers, is so excellent that no work treating of South
+African birds can omit it, and is therefore reproduced here in its
+entirety:&mdash;“In the stomach of the male were snakes, beetles, and other
+insects. These birds are gregarious, and to be found here all the year
+round, but are not very plentiful, generally three or four, sometimes
+more, being found together. They are very fond of hunting for their
+food on ground from which the grass has been burnt; with their strong
+bills they peck up the hard ground and turn over lumps in search of
+insects, making the dust fly again. Having found an insect or other
+food they take it up, and giving their head a toss, the bill pointing
+upward, appear to let the food roll down their throat. They also kill
+large snakes in the following manner, viz.:&mdash;On discovering a snake,
+three or four of the birds advance sideways towards it with their
+wings stretched out, and with their quills flap at and irritate the
+snake till he seizes them by the wing-feathers, when they immediately
+all close round and give him violent pecks with their long and sharp
+bills, quickly withdrawing again when the snake leaves his hold. This
+they repeat till the snake is dead. If the reptile advances on them
+they place both wings in front of them, completely covering the heads
+and most vulnerable parts. Their call, which consists of but one note
+repeated&mdash;a deep and sonorous <i>coo-coo</i>&mdash;may be heard at a great
+distance. I have myself heard it, under favourable circumstances, at
+a distance of nearly two miles. The call of the female is exactly the
+same <i>coo-coo</i>, only pitched one note higher than the male. The latter
+invariably calls first, the female immediately answering, and they
+continue this perhaps for five or ten minutes, every now and then, as
+they are feeding. Their flight is heavy, and when disturbed, although
+very shy, they seldom fly more than half a mile before they alight
+again. At a distance they would easily be mistaken for Turkeys, their
+body being deep and rather compressed, similarly to those birds, with
+the wings carried well on the back. The little pouch on the throat
+they are able to fill with air at pleasure, the male bird sent to me
+to London doing this before he died. I think their principal range of
+country is on the coast and from twenty to thirty miles inland. They
+roost on trees at night, but always feed on the ground.”</p>
+
+<p>In Angola, where the bird is called by the natives <i>Engungoashito</i>,
+Mr. Monteiro had great difficulty in procuring specimens, on account
+of the superstitious dread in which they are held by the natives. He
+says:&mdash;“They are found sparingly nearly everywhere in Angola, becoming
+abundant, however, only towards the interior. In the mountain range in
+which Pungo Andongo is situated, and running nearly north and south,
+they are common, and it was near the base of these mountains that I
+shot these two specimens. They are seen in flocks of six or eight (the
+natives say always in equal numbers of males and females). Farther in
+the interior I was credibly informed that they are found in flocks of
+from one to two hundred individuals. The males raise up and open and
+close their tails exactly in the manner of a Turkey, and filling out
+their bright cockscomb-red, bladder-like wattle on their necks, and
+with wings dropping on the ground, make quite a grand appearance. They
+do not present a less extraordinary appearance as they walk slowly
+with an awkward gait, and peer from side to side with their great eyes
+in quest of food in the short grass, poking their large bills at any
+frog, snake, &amp;c., that may come in their way. Their flight is feeble
+and not long sustained. When alarmed, they generally fly up to the
+nearest large tree, preferring such as have thick branches with but
+little foliage, as the <i>Adansonia</i>, ‘Muenzo’ (a wild fig). Here they
+squat close on the branches, and, if further alarmed, raise themselves
+quite upright on their legs in an attitude of listening, with wide open
+bills. The first to notice a person at once utters the customary cry,
+and all fly off to the next tree. They are very wary, and the grass
+near the mountains being comparatively<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[Pg 357]</span> short, with but little scrub
+or birch, it is very difficult to approach without being observed by
+them from the high trees. I followed a flock of six for upwards of two
+hours, crawling flat on my stomach, negro fashion, before I obtained
+a chance of a shot, when I was so fortunate as to break the wing of
+a male without otherwise injuring it. It was quickly captured by the
+blacks. They are omnivorous in their food; reptiles, birds, eggs,
+beetles, and all other insects, mandioca roots, ginguba or ground-nuts,
+constitute their food in the wild state. In confinement I have fed this
+bird upon the same food, also upon fresh fish, which it showed itself
+very fond of, as well as on entrails of fowls, &amp;c. On letting it loose
+in Loanda in a yard where there were several fowls with chickens, it
+immediately gulped down its throat six of the latter, and finished
+its breakfast with several eggs! The note or cry of the male is like
+the hoarse blast of a horn, repeated short three times, and answered
+by the female in a lower note. It is very loud, and can be heard at a
+considerable distance, particularly at night. They are said to build
+their nests on the very highest <i>Adansonias</i>, in the hollow or cavity
+formed at the base or junction of the branches with the trunk.”</p>
+
+<p>The present species is of a very large size, measuring about forty
+inches in length, and about nineteen inches in the wing. It is entirely
+black, with the exception of the primary quills, which are white; the
+bill and legs are black, but the bare skin on the neck and round the
+eye is bright red in the male, but blue in the female.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_FIFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HOOPOES"><span class="s4">THE
+FIFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE HOOPOES (<i>Upupidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Different as these birds are in appearance and habits, ornithologists
+now agree that from their structure they must be placed in close
+alliance with the Hornbills, with which they are more particularly
+connected by the Wood Hoopoes. Instead of the ungainly figures and
+top-heavy-looking casques of the Hornbills, the Hoopoes are remarkable
+for their graceful carriage and elegant figure, in which the beautiful
+crest plays an important part. They are particularly at home in the
+desert countries, where their sandy-coloured plumage is no doubt a
+great protection to them; and a story is told that the Hoopoe, if it
+sees a Hawk approaching, will throw itself flat on the ground, and by
+twisting its wings round in front and remaining motionless, with its
+bill pointing upwards, it will look like a piece of old rag, and thus
+escape detection.</p>
+
+<p id="common_hoopoe">Not more than five species of Hoopoe are known, all inhabitants of
+the Old World, and the most widely distributed is the Common Hoopoe
+(<i>Upupa epops</i>) of Europe, which visits England during the spring and
+autumn migration, and at least one instance of its breeding in that
+country is known. Mr. Howard Saunders states<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a>:&mdash;“In the year 1847
+a pair of Hoopoes nested in a hole of an old yew-tree in a shrubbery
+of an old-fashioned garden at Leatherhead, Surrey. The proprietor was
+very anxious that the birds should not be disturbed, and a strict veto
+was placed upon any bird’s-nesting in the shrubbery&mdash;a severe trial
+to our boyish propensities; but we were afterwards rewarded by seeing
+the parent birds with their young strutting about upon the lawn. As
+well as I remember, there were five young ones besides the two old
+birds.” The species is found all over central and southern Europe in
+summer, being in some places very plentiful; but it is a rare visitor
+to the northern parts, and has disappeared from some countries, like
+Denmark, for instance, where the felling of the old and hollow forest
+trees has deprived it of its accustomed breeding-places. In some places
+the bird is disliked, and in Scandinavia, where it occurs only in the
+southern and central portions, it bears a bad name among the peasantry,
+who suppose it to be a foreboder of war and hard times, and from this
+circumstance its name of Härfugel or “army bird,” is derived. The
+Chinese also have an objection to them, branding them by the name of
+“Coffin-bird,” as they often breed in the holes of exposed Chinese
+coffins. On the other hand, according to Canon Tristram, in the Sahara
+the Arabs have a superstitious veneration for the Hoopoe, and its
+magical properties enter largely into the arcana of the Arab “hakeem.”
+He says that great numbers of Hoopoes resort to the M’zab cities and
+frequent oases in winter, where they strut about the courtyards and
+round the tents with the familiarity of barn-door fowls. Mons. Favier
+says, that in Tangier the superstitious Jews and Mahomedans both
+believe that the heart and feathers of the Hoopoe are charms against
+the machinations of evil spirits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[Pg 358]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_358">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_358.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON HOOPOE.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ordinary name of Hoopoe is derived from the note of the bird, and
+in most European languages the latter suggests the vernacular names.
+Thus, in Bulgaria it is called <i>Poo-poo</i>, in Valentia <i>Put-Put</i>,
+<i>Bubbula</i>, &amp;c., in Italy, <i>Poupa</i> in Portugal, and so on. Mr. Swinhoe
+writes of the bird and its note as follows:&mdash;“I have already described
+the peculiar way in which the Hoopoe produces its notes&mdash;by puffing out
+the sides of its neck, and hammering on the ground at the production
+of each note, thereby exhausting the air at the end of the series of
+three, which makes up its song. Before it repeats its call, it repeats
+the puffing of the neck with a slight gurgling noise. When it is able
+to strike its bill, the sound is the correct <i>hoo-hoo-hoo</i>; but when
+perched on a rope, and only jerking out the song with nods of the
+head, the notes more resemble the syllables <i>hoh-hoh-hoh</i>. Mr. Darwin
+makes use of this last fact to show that some birds have instrumental
+means to produce their music. It is not to this point, however, that
+I wish to call attention, but to the fact of the bird’s puffing out
+the sides of its neck. It is generally supposed that the song of a
+bird is produced by actions of the lower larynx on air passing up the
+bronchial tubes onwards and outwards through the main tube, or trachea.
+The trachea of the Hoopoe is not dilatable, but its œsophagus is; and
+the puffing of the neck is caused by the bulging of the œsophagus with
+swallowed air. There is no connection between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[Pg 359]</span> œsophagus and the
+trachea, and apparently no organ at the entrance to the former that
+could modify sound. What action, then, can this swallowed air be made
+to take in the production of the bird’s notes? Pigeons have strikingly
+large air-crops, which they empty with each <i>coo</i>, and refill before
+they <i>coo</i> again. Many birds swell out the throat when calling or
+singing, and others move it up and down. These actions must also be
+caused by the swallowed air in the œsophagus, and must modify the
+sounds in some way, as variously used, adding power and richness in
+some cases, or giving ventriloquistic effect in others. This question
+seems never to have been enquired into before, and I throw out the
+hint in hopes that others may help to elucidate the matter with their
+investigations.”</p>
+
+<p>The length of the Common Hoopoe is about one foot; the upper surface
+is greyish-brown, the wings and shoulders black barred with white, the
+rump being pure white; on the head, which is tawny-coloured, is an
+enormous crest, the feathers of which have a black tip, before which
+is a narrow white bar; the tail is black; with a white band at about a
+third of its length from the end; underneath the body is pale cinnamon,
+white on the abdomen and under tail coverts, the flanks striped with
+brown. The sexes are alike in colour, excepting that the female is a
+little paler.</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="wood_hoopoes">THE WOOD HOOPOES (<i>Irrisor</i>).</p>
+
+<p>All the birds belonging to this section of the Hoopoes are remarkable
+for their very long and strongly graduated tails, for their brilliant
+metallic plumage, which is always dark, and inclining more or less to
+black&mdash;instead of a sandy colour, as in the true Hoopoes&mdash;and most
+of them for their very curved, scimitar-like bills. They are all
+natives of Africa, and have a remarkably loud, chattering note; and
+from its harsh and resounding voice the Red-billed Wood Hoopoe (<i>I.
+erythrorhynchus</i>) is known among the Dutch at the Cape as “Cackala,”
+or the “Chatterer.” The late M. Jules Verreaux told the writer that
+the noise made by these birds is tremendous, and that on one occasion
+he was attracted by an uproar, which seemed to indicate that something
+unusual was the matter. On proceeding to the place whence the noise
+came, he was astonished to find on the low branch of a tree three of
+these birds, perched one on the back of the other, betokening by their
+drooping wings and repeated chatterings the utmost consternation and
+fright. The cause of this was not far to seek, for just below the birds
+was a cobra, balancing himself in an erect attitude, and perfectly
+motionless, the only indication of life being the incessant flicking
+of the animal’s tongue. The cacklings of the birds became feebler and
+feebler, until at last the bottom one fell off the perch and dropped
+into the extended jaws of the snake, which were ready to receive it;
+while the other two birds, apparently freed from the spell of the
+reptile’s eye, took to instant flight. Having his gun in his hand,
+M. Verreaux shot the snake immediately; but on going to rescue the
+bird, found that the latter was quite dead. Mr. Thomas Ayres, who has
+studied the species in Natal, says:&mdash;“The food of these birds consists
+almost entirely of a species of cockroach, which they take from the
+crevices of rough-barked trees, and in search of which they creep
+about the trunk and branches somewhat similarly to the Woodpeckers.
+In this manner their tail-feathers frequently become much worn. From
+four to eight of these birds are generally together, and frequent busby
+country. They have a loud chattering note, and are extremely restless
+in their habits. They have a peculiarly powerful and disagreeable
+smell.” Mr. Andersson’s account of the species is as follows:&mdash;“It
+lives in small flocks&mdash;probably consisting of entire families&mdash;which
+frequent trees, chiefly of the larger kinds, and examine them most
+assiduously in search of insects and their larvæ, which they extract
+from crevices in the wood and from beneath the bark. These birds climb
+like Woodpeckers; and their long tails come into constant contact with
+the rough surface of the trees, by which the tail-feathers are much
+injured. When they have finished their examination of one tree they
+move to the next convenient one, but not all together, as a short
+interval generally elapses after the departure of each individual.
+The moment flight is decided on, they utter harsh discordant cries or
+chatterings, which are continued until they are all safely lodged in
+their new quarters. These harsh notes are also heard when they conceive
+themselves in danger from either man, beast, or bird; and they thus
+often betray their presence.”</p>
+
+<p>The present species measures about seventeen inches, the tail being
+about ten out of that number, and being thus three inches longer than
+the body of the bird. The colour is black, glossed with green on the
+head, back, and under surface, with blue on the throat, purple on the
+wings and tail,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[Pg 360]</span> and having a bronzy gloss on the shoulders. All the
+tail feathers, except the two centre ones, have a white spot near the
+tip and across the wings a white bar. The bill and legs are bright
+coral red.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h3 class="padtop1" id="CHAPTER_X_V">CHAPTER X.<br />
+<span class="s5">THE BEE-EATERS&mdash;MOTMOTS&mdash;ROLLERS&mdash;TROGONS&mdash;NIGHTJARS, OR
+GOATSUCKERS&mdash;SWIFTS&mdash;HUMMING BIRDS.</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="hang2"><a href="#THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_BEE_EATERS">THE BEE-EATERS</a>&mdash;Their Brilliant Plumage&mdash;Colonel Irby’s Account of the Bird in Spain&mdash;Shot for Fashion’s sake&mdash;<a href="#THE_SEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_MOTMOTS">THE
+MOTMOTS</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Mr. Waterton on the Houtou&mdash;Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail&mdash;Mr. O.
+Salvin’s Observations on this point&mdash;Mr. Bartlett’s Evidence&mdash;<a href="#THE_EIGHTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_ROLLERS">THE ROLLERS</a>&mdash;Why so called&mdash;Canon Tristram’s
+Account of their Habits&mdash;Colour&mdash;Other Species&mdash;<a href="#THE_NINTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_TROGONS">THE TROGONS</a>&mdash;Where found&mdash;Peculiar Foot&mdash;Tender Skin&mdash;Inability
+to Climb&mdash;Their Food&mdash;<a href="#quesal">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> L<span class="smaller">ONG</span>-<span class="smaller">TAILED</span> T<span class="smaller">ROGON</span>, <span class="smaller">OR</span> Q<span class="smaller">UESAL</span></a>&mdash;Mr. Salvin’s Account of its Habits&mdash;Its
+Magnificent Colour&mdash;How they are Hunted&mdash;<a href="#THE_TENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_NIGHTJARS">THE NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS</a>&mdash;Appearance&mdash;Distribution&mdash;The
+Guacharo, or Oil-bird&mdash;“Frog-mouths”&mdash;Mr. Gould’s Account of the Habits of the Tawny-shouldered
+Podargus&mdash;How it Builds its Nest&mdash;Mr. Waterton’s Vindication of the Goatsucker&mdash;What Services the Bird does
+really render Cattle, Goats, and Sheep&mdash;Its Cry&mdash;<a href="#common_goatsucker">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span> G<span class="smaller">OATSUCKER</span></a>&mdash;<a href="#THE_ELEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_SWIFTS">THE SWIFTS</a>&mdash;<a href="#common_swift">T<span class="smaller">HE</span> C<span class="smaller">OMMON</span>
+S<span class="smaller">WIFT</span></a>&mdash;Migration&mdash;Their Home in the Air&mdash;Where they Breed&mdash;Nest&mdash;T<span class="smaller">REE</span> S<span class="smaller">WIFTS</span>&mdash;The Edible-Nest Swiftlets&mdash;Mr.
+E. L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet&mdash;<a href="#THE_TWELFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HUMMING_BIRDS">THE HUMMING BIRDS</a>&mdash;Number of Species&mdash;Distribution&mdash;Professor
+Newton’s Description of the Bird&mdash;Mr. Wallace on their Habits&mdash;Wilson on the North
+American Species.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h4 id="THE_SIXTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_BEE_EATERS"><span class="s4">THE
+SIXTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE BEE-EATERS (<i>Meropidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+<p>T<span class="smaller">HE</span> Bee-eaters are among the most brightly plumaged of the Picarian
+birds, and are distributed over the whole of Africa, India, the
+Moluccas, and Australia. One species (<i>Merops apiaster</i>) visits Europe
+in the summer, being, however, nowhere so common as in the countries of
+the Mediterranean basin, though they occasionally wander to England.
+Colonel Irby<a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a> gives the following account of the Bee-eater in
+Southern Spain:&mdash;“The bird did not appear to me to be quite so common
+in Morocco at the end of April as on the Spanish side of the Strait,
+where, during April, May, June, and July, it is one of the most
+conspicuous birds in the country; at that season, Andalusia without
+Bee-eaters would be like London without Sparrows. Everywhere they are
+to be seen; and their single note, <i>teerp</i>, heard continually repeated,
+magnifies their numbers in imagination. Occasionally, they venture into
+the centre of towns when on passage, hovering round the orange-trees
+and flowers in some patio or garden. Crossing the Strait for the most
+part in the early part of the day, flight follows flight for hours in
+succession. When passing at Gibraltar, they sometimes skim low down to
+settle for a moment on a bush or a tree, but generally go straight on,
+often almost out of sight; but their cry always betrays their presence
+in the air. In some places they nest in large colonies; in others there
+are, perhaps, only two or three holes. When there are no river-banks
+or barrancos in which to bore holes, they tunnel down into the ground,
+where the soil is suitable, in a vertical direction, generally on some
+slight elevated mound. The shafts to these nests are not usually so
+long as those in banks of rivers, which sometimes reach to a distance
+of eight or nine feet in all; the end is enlarged into a round sort
+of chamber, on the bare soil of which the usual four or five shining
+white eggs are placed. After a little they become discoloured from the
+castings of the old birds, the nest being, as it were, lined with the
+wings and undigested parts of Bees and Wasps. Vast numbers of eggs and
+young must be annually destroyed by Snakes and Lizards. The latter are
+often seen sunning themselves at the entrance of a hole among a colony
+of Bee-eaters; and frequently have I avenged the birds by treating the
+yellow reptile to a charge of shot. The bills of Bee-eaters, after
+boring out their habitations, are sometimes worn away to less than half
+their usual length; but as newly-arrived birds never have these stumpy
+bills, it is evident that they grow again to their ordinary length. It
+has often been a source of wonder to me how they have the exertion to
+make these long tunnels: the amount of exertion must be enormous; but
+when one considers the boles of the Sand-Martin, it is perhaps not so
+surprising after all. During my stay at Gibraltar, Bee-eaters decreased
+very much in the neighbourhood, being continually shot on account
+of their bright plumage, to put in ladies’ hats. Owing to this sad
+fashion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[Pg 361]</span> I saw no less than seven hundred skins, all shot at Tangier
+in the spring of 1874, which were consigned by Olcese to some dealer in
+London. However, the enormous injury these birds do to the peasants who
+keep Bees fully merits any amount of punishment, but, at the same time,
+they destroy quantities of Wasps. After being fired at once or twice,
+they become very wary and shy at the breeding-places; and the best way
+to shoot them is to hide near the <i>colmenares</i>, or groups of <i>corchos</i>,
+or cork bee-hives, which in Spain are placed in rows, sometimes to
+the number of seventy or eighty together; and it is no unusual thing
+to see as many Bee-eaters whirling round and swooping down, even
+seizing the bees at the very entrance of their hives. The reason of
+their early departure in August is to be accounted for by the simple
+fact that bees cease to work when there are no flowers, and by that
+time all vegetation is scorched up.” The Bee-eater suffers probably
+less from the fashionable rage after its plumes than do some of the
+bright-coloured birds, as it goes in winter to South Africa, where it
+rears another brood of young ones.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_361a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_361a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">AUSTRALIAN BEE-EATER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_SEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_MOTMOTS"><span class="s4">THE
+SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE MOTMOTS (<i>Momotidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe17" id="i_361b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_361b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BILL OF MOTMOT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>These birds are peculiar to the New World, being found from Mexico
+southwards through the whole of Central America and the South American
+continent. Their general plumage is green, and the majority of the
+species have a large racket at the end of the centre tail-feathers,
+formed by the bird itself, as detailed below. Mr. Waterton gives an
+account of the Motmots in Demerara, and he was the first to point out
+that the racket in the tail was produced by the bird’s own action.
+He writes:&mdash;“The Houtou ranks high in beauty amongst the birds of
+Demerara. His body is green, with a bluish cast in the wings and tail;
+his crown, which he erects at pleasure, consists of black in the
+centre, surrounded with lovely blue of two different shades; he has a
+triangular black spot, edged with blue, behind the eye, extending to
+the ear; and on his breast a sable tuft, consisting of nine feathers,
+edged also with blue. This bird seems to suppose that its beauty can
+be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same operation
+as one’s hair in a barber’s shop, only with this difference, that it
+uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors.
+As soon as his tail is full-grown, he begins about an inch from the
+extremity of the two longest feathers in it, and cuts away the web on
+both sides of the shaft, making a gap about an inch long. Both male
+and female adonise their tails in this manner, which gives them a
+remarkable appearance amongst all other birds. While we consider the
+tail of the Houtou blemished and defective, were he to come amongst us,
+he would probably consider our heads, cropped and bald, in no better
+light. He who wishes to observe this handsome bird<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[Pg 362]</span> in his native
+haunts must be in the forest at the morning’s dawn. The Houtou shuns
+the society of man; the plantations and cultivated parts are too much
+disturbed to engage it to settle there. The thick and gloomy forests
+are the places preferred by the solitary Houtou. In those far-extending
+wilds, about day-break, you hear him articulate, in a distinct and
+mournful tone, ‘Houtou, houtou.’ Move cautiously on to where the sound
+proceeds from, and you will see him sitting in the underwood, about
+a couple of yards from the ground, his tail moving up and down every
+time he articulates ‘houtou.’ He lives on insects and the berries among
+the underwood; and very rarely is seen in the lofty trees, except the
+bastard Siloabali-tree, the fruit of which is grateful to him. He makes
+no nest, but rears his young in a hole in the sand, generally on the
+side of a hill.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe20" id="i_362">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_362.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOTMOT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In confirmation of Mr. Waterton’s remarks, a paper was published by Mr.
+Osbert Salvin in the “Proceedings of the Zoological Society” for 1873
+(p. 429):&mdash;“Some years ago (1860) this Society possessed a specimen of
+<i>Momotus subrufescens</i>, which lived in one of the large cages of the
+parrot-house all by itself. I have a very distinct recollection of the
+bird; for I used every time I saw it to cheer it up a bit by whistling
+such of its notes as I had picked up in the forests of America. The
+bird always seemed to appreciate this attention; for though it never
+replied, it became at once animated, hopped about the cage, and swung
+its tail from side to side like the pendulum of a clock. For a long
+time its tail had perfect spatules; but towards the end of its life
+I noticed that the median feathers were no longer trimmed with such
+precision; and on looking at its beak I noticed that from some cause or
+other it did not <i>close properly</i>, but gaped slightly at the tip, and
+had thus become unfitted for removing the vanes of the feathers. Since
+the subject has been revived by Dr. Murie, it occurred to me that Mr.
+Bartlett could hardly have failed to watch this bird during its moults,
+and whilst the tail-feathers were growing. I accordingly wrote to him,
+and received the following reply:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>‘D<span class="smaller">EAR</span> S<span class="smaller">IR</span>,&mdash;During the several years the Motmot lived here I
+had many opportunities of watching its habits; and <i>I have seen the
+bird in the act of picking off the webs of the central feathers of its
+tail</i>, and have taken from the bottom of the cage the fragments of web
+that fell from the bird’s bill. As the bird<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[Pg 363]</span> lived here for some years,
+its bill got rather out of order, that is, it did not close properly
+at the point; and consequently the picking off the web at last was
+imperfectly performed, and the two sides of the tail-feather presented
+an unequal and unfinished appearance. I noticed also that the Motmot
+frequently threw up castings, after the manner of the Kingfishers and
+other birds that swallow indigestible substances.&mdash;Yours faithfully,
+A. D. B<span class="smaller">ARTLETT</span>.’</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe42" id="i_363">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_363.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TAIL-FEATHERS OF MOTMOT. (<i>From the Proceedings of the
+  Zoological Society.</i>)</div>
+  <div class="caption"><span class="s5">(<span class="smaller">A</span>) Tail of
+  <i>M. lessoni</i>: two Central Rectrices shaded; (<span class="smaller">B</span>)
+  Tail of <i>M. mexicanus</i>: the Central Rectrices, not fully grown, are shaded;
+  (<span class="smaller">C</span>) Tail of <i>M. lessoni</i>, with stems of
+  Central Rectrices partially denuded; (<span class="smaller">D</span>) Tail of
+  <i>P. platyrhynchus</i>, with Central Rectrices not symmetrical.</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The point is further elucidated by the examination of skins in our
+collection. We have a number of specimens of various species in which
+the central tail-feathers were growing when the birds were shot. The
+drawings now exhibited show some of them. Figure <span class="smaller">A</span> represents
+the tail of a young <i>Momotus lessoni</i> in its first plumage. The central
+tail-feathers are here untouched; they merely show the reduction in the
+breadth of the web in the part which is subsequently denuded. Of this
+more anon. Figure <span class="smaller">B</span> shows the growing feathers of the tail
+of a specimen of <i>Momotus mexicanus</i>; in this a few vanes have been
+removed from the left-hand feather. Figure <span class="smaller">C</span> shows the process
+of denudation still further advanced. In all these three birds it will
+be noticed that the feathers in question have grown symmetrically, both
+being of nearly equal length. Figure <span class="smaller">D</span> represents the tail of
+a <i>Prionirhynchus platyrhynchus</i>, where these feathers have not grown
+symmetrically, but the left-hand one has been developed sooner than
+the right-hand one. What has happened? The bird expecting to find two
+feathers upon which to operate has commenced to nibble not only the
+left central rectrix, but also the next rectrix on the right-hand side!
+But it seems to have not felt very certain about the state of its tail,
+for it has wandered off to one of the others, and commenced nibbling
+it also. When, however, the proper right-hand feather appeared, these
+mistakes have been discovered, and the work recommenced in the usual
+way. I can interpret in no other way the state in which the feathers on
+the right-hand side of the tail of this bird appear.”</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_EIGHTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_ROLLERS"><span class="s4">THE
+EIGHTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE ROLLERS (<i>Coraciadæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These birds constitute a family of birds which are strictly denizens
+of the Old World, and are remarkable for their bright plumage. The
+vernacular name of Roller is given to them from their habit of mounting
+or “rolling” in the air. Canon Tristram, in describing the habits of
+the European species (<i>Coracias garrula</i>) in Palestine, writes as
+follows:&mdash;“On the 12th of April I reached Ain Sultan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[Pg 364]</span> (Jericho) alone,
+and remained there in solitude for several days, during which I had
+many opportunities of observing the grotesque habits of the Roller. For
+several successive evenings, great flocks of Rollers mustered shortly
+before sunset on some <i>dôm</i> trees near the fountain, with all the noise
+but without the decorum of the Rooks. After a volley of discordant
+screams, from the sound of which it derives its Arabic trivial name of
+‘Schurkrak,’ a few birds would start from their perch, and commence a
+series of somersaults overhead, somewhat after the fashion of Tumbler
+Pigeons. In a moment or two they would be followed by the whole flock,
+and these gambols would be repeated for a dozen times or more. Every
+where it takes its perch on some conspicuous branch or on the top of
+a rock, where it can see and be seen. The bare tops of the fig-trees,
+before they put forth their leaves, are, in the cultivated terraces,
+a particularly favourite resort. In the barren Ghor I have often
+watched it perched unconcernedly on a knot of gravel or marl in the
+plain, watching apparently for the emergence of beetles from the sand.
+Elsewhere I have not seen it settle on the ground. Like Europeans in
+the East, it can make itself happy without chairs and tables in the
+desert, but prefers a comfortable easy-chair when it is to be found.
+Its nest I have seen in ruins, in holes in rocks, in burrows, in steep
+sand-cliffs, but far more generally in hollow trees. The colony in
+the Wady Kelt used burrows excavated by themselves; and many a hole
+did they relinquish, owing to the difficulty of working it. But so
+cunningly were the nests placed under a crumbling treacherous ledge,
+overhanging a chasm of perhaps one or two hundred feet, that we were
+completely foiled in our siege. We obtained a nest of six eggs, quite
+fresh, in a hollow tree in Bashan, near Gadara, on the 6th of May.
+It is noticed by Russell among the birds of Aleppo.” The colour of
+the Common Roller is very beautiful, and we can well understand the
+significance of the Turkish name “Alla Carga,” or Beautiful Crow. The
+back is pale cinnamon-brown; the wing-coverts pale blue, excepting
+those on the edge of the wing, which are rich ultramarine; the quills
+brownish-black, deep ultramarine underneath; the secondaries with more
+blue on the outer web; the forehead white; the crown of the head and
+back of the neck pale blue; the lower back and rump ultramarine; the
+upper tail-coverts greenish-blue; the tail blackish-brown, the feathers
+blue at the base, the two centre feathers dull green; cheeks and throat
+pale blue, streaked with silvery blue; the under surface of the body
+pale greenish-blue. The total length is twelve inches. One curious
+feature about the European bird is that the outer tail-feather tends
+towards a point at the tip, as if there was an inclination to become
+elongated; and in Africa there is a species which actually differs from
+the European Roller only in having the outer tail-feathers elongated to
+an extent of several inches.</p>
+
+<p>In Madagascar, that wonderful island which produces so many peculiar
+forms of bird life, there are found the Ground Rollers (<i>Atelornis</i>),
+extraordinary birds which live entirely on the ground, and only come
+out at dusk. Their flight is said by M. Grandidier to be very weak,
+so that the birds are never found above the lowest branches. They are
+rather local in their habitat, but where they do occur seem not to be
+uncommon. The Cyrombo Roller (<i>Leptosoma discolor</i>) is also a native
+of Madagascar, and has at first sight much the appearance of a Cuckoo,
+of which family of birds it was for many years considered to be a
+member. The head is extremely large in this bird, and the region of
+the nostrils densely plumed; but the latter, instead of being placed
+near the base of the bill, as in most Rollers, are situated nearly
+in the middle of the upper mandible. Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam give
+an interesting account of this bird in their notes on the “Birds of
+Madagascar”:&mdash;“The natives of the north-west of Madagascar give this
+bird the name of Cyrombo. It has the curious habit of hovering in the
+air, and uttering a very loud note, striking its wings against its body
+as it calls. This cry, resembling the syllables <i>tu-hou</i>, <i>tu-hou</i>,
+<i>tu-hou</i>, goes on increasing in force. Nowhere have we found this bird
+in greater numbers than in the forests in the neighbourhood of the
+bays of Boény and Jongony, in the south-western portion of the island
+of Mayotte. The racket that they make during the whole journey is
+truly wearisome. Although very active as criers, these birds are lazy
+and stupid. As soon as they are perched on the branch of a tree, they
+remain, so to speak, immovable, and in perpendicular position, so that
+it is easy to see them and knock them over. When seen in this position,
+they look like birds impaled. We suppose that they live in polyandry,
+because one always sees three times as many males as females; often
+we have seen three males in company with one single female, and all
+allowed themselves to be killed one after the other. In fact, when one
+is killed, the others do not fly away, but content themselves with
+merely moving from one branch to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[Pg 365]</span> another. These birds live principally
+on Grasshoppers, but they devour also Chameleons and Lizards, which
+gives to their flesh a disagreeable odour, like that we observe in the
+Common Cuckoo. In preparing these birds we often found them with a
+species of large parasite of the family of the Ornithomyiæ, of a dirty
+green colour. We were never able to study the propagation of this bird;
+but while in Mayotte we saw an individual make a nest of rushes in the
+hole of a great ‘Badamier’ (<i>Terminalia Catappa</i>). These birds when
+they cry puff out the throat, so that this portion of the body has the
+appearance of a pendent bag. When wounded, they erect the feathers of
+the forehead and ears as well as those of the throat, all the while
+distributing well-aimed blows with the beak. The Cyrombo plays a great
+part in the chants and religious recitations of the Malagasy natives.
+The French colonists of Mayotte call this bird the ‘Parrot.’ It is
+common at Madagascar and Mayotte, and has, according to Mr. Sclater,
+been found in the island of Anjounan.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_365">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_365.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">BLUE ROLLER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_NINTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_TROGONS"><span class="s4">THE
+NINTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span>&mdash;THE
+TROGONS (<i>Trogonidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These beautiful birds are found both in the Old World and the New, but
+are inhabitants of the tropical latitudes only. In Africa two species
+only are known, nor does another species occur until the coast of
+India is reached, and then in the forests of the peninsula and of the
+Himalayas there are some beautiful red-breasted representatives of the
+family, whence throughout the Malayan peninsula and the Sunda Islands
+some of the handsomest Trogons occur. But it is in America, from Mexico
+southwards, that the larger number of species is met with, no less
+than thirty-three out of a total of forty-six Trogons being peculiar
+to the New World. Their habits vary somewhat, as all the Old World
+members are insectivorous, while the American species principally feed
+on fruit, and only devour insects in a secondary manner. The Trogons
+may be distinguished not only by their broadened bill, but by the foot,
+where the first and second toes are turned permanently, two in front
+and two behind. This is a different arrangement to that of the Cuckoos
+and other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[Pg 366]</span> climbing <i>Picariæ</i>, where the fourth toe is permanently or
+temporarily turned backwards as well as the first. The skin of these
+birds is remarkably thin and tender, so that their preparation is by
+no means an easy matter, and their appearance is also detracted from
+by a scantiness of plumage on the nape, where a great want of feathers
+takes place. Mr. Wallace, writing of the birds of this present family,
+remarks:&mdash;“As an instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use
+their feet for anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons
+of South America feed principally on fruit, which one would think they
+would get by climbing or walking after, if they could. But no; they
+take their station on a bare branch about the middle of the tree, and
+having fixed their attention on some particularly tempting fruit, they
+dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing, and return to their
+original seat. Often, while waiting under a fruit-tree for Chatterers
+or Pigeons, have we received the first intimation of the presence of a
+Trogon by the <i>whir-r-r</i> of its wings as it darted after a fruit. It is
+curious that this habit seems confined to the Trogons of America. In
+the East I have never yet observed it, and in the numerous specimens I
+have opened, nothing has been found but insects. The African Trogons
+also appear to be wholly insectivorous.”</p>
+
+<p>Again, in his “Naturalist in Nicaragua” (p. 122) Mr. Belt writes:&mdash;“The
+Trogons are general feeders. I have taken from their crops the remains
+of fruits, grasshoppers, beetles, termites, and even small crabs
+and land shells. The largest species, the Massena Trogon (<i>Trogon
+massena</i>), is one foot in length, dark bronze-green above, with the
+smaller wing-feathers speckled white and black, and the belly of a
+beautiful carmine. Sometimes it sits on a branch above where the army
+of ants are foraging below, and when a grasshopper or other large
+insect flies up and alights on a leaf it darts after it, picks it up,
+and returns to its perch. I sometimes found them breaking into the,
+nests of the termites with their strong bills, and eating the large
+soft-bodied workers, and it was from the crop of this species that I
+took the remains of a small crab and land shell (<i>Helicina</i>). They take
+short, quick, jerking flights, and are often met with along with flocks
+of other birds&mdash;Flycatchers, Tanagers, Creepers, Woodpeckers, &amp;c., that
+hunt together, traversing the forests in flocks of hundreds, belonging
+to more than a score of different species, so that while they are
+passing over the trees seem alive with them. Mr. Bates has mentioned
+similar gregarious flocks met with by him in Brazil; and I never went
+any distance into the woods around St. Domingo without seeing them.
+The reason of their association together may be partly for protection,
+as no rapacious bird or mammal could approach the flock without being
+discovered by one or other of them; but the principal reason appears
+to be that they play into each other’s hands in their search for
+food. Creepers and Woodpeckers and others drive the insects out of
+their hiding-places under bark, amongst moss and withered leaves. The
+Flycatchers sit on branches and fly after the larger insects, the
+Flycatchers taking them on the wing, the Trogons from the leaves on
+which they have settled.”</p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="quesal">THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL (<i>Pharomacrus<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> mocinno</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This beautiful species is mentioned in Willughby’s Ornithology, which
+was published some two hundred years ago, in which book an appendix is
+devoted to such birds as the author suspected to be “fabulous;” and
+the Quetzaltototl of Hernandez was placed in this category, nor was it
+till the French traveller Delattre visited Guatemala, and published
+his account of the habits of the bird in 1843, that it was restored
+to its proper position as one of the most beautiful of the feathered
+tribe: it is now by no means rare in collections. The best account
+of the habits of this species&mdash;and, indeed, of any Trogon&mdash;is that
+given by Mr. Osbert Salvin, in his paper entitled “Quesal-shooting in
+Vera Paz,”<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> in Guatemala. He writes from his diary:&mdash;“Off to the
+mountains at last, with a fine day and a fair prospect of success.
+The road, after crossing the river, strikes off to the northward&mdash;a
+mountain track winding among the hills. Soon after entering the forest,
+a river crosses the path&mdash;a foaming torrent&mdash;a fall into which gives
+no hope of escape. A felled tree, one of the largest of the forest,
+forms the bridge, over which, slippery with moss and foam, we have
+to pass. For ourselves it is nothing; but I must say I tremble for
+the Indians, each of whom carries his 75 lbs. of cargo. In the worst
+and most slippery part, the foothold is somewhat improved by the tree
+being notched with a ‘machete;’ but still it is as dangerous a pass
+as I ever crossed. After half-an-hour’s delay, we reach the other
+bank. One ‘mozo’ only turned faint-hearted, and another carried his
+pack across. From<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[Pg 367]</span> the river the path becomes very precipitous, and
+we continue to climb till we reach the foot of a rock, where we find
+a deserted rancho, and take possession. A fire having been made to
+heat the pixtones, we dine, and afterwards start for the forest close
+by to look for Quesals. On entering, the path takes the unpleasant
+form of a succession of felled trees, which are slippery from recent
+rains, and render progress slow. My companions are ahead, and I am
+just balancing myself along the last trunk, when Filipe comes back
+to say that they have heard a Quesal. Of course, being especially
+anxious to watch as well as to shoot one of these birds myself, I
+immediately hurry to the spot. I sit down upon my wide-awake in most
+approved style close to Cipriano, who is calling the bird, and wait,
+all eyes and ears, for the result. I have not to wait long. A distant
+clattering note indicates that the bird is on the wing. He settles&mdash;a
+splendid male&mdash;on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from where we
+are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, but I keep him
+back, wishing to risk the chance of losing a specimen rather than miss
+such an opportunity of seeing the bird in its living state, and of
+watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the
+body remaining in the same position, the head only moving slowly from
+side to side. The tail does not hang quite perpendicularly, the angle
+between the true tail and the vertical being perhaps as much as fifteen
+or twenty degrees. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed
+again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the long tail-coverts
+to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the
+Quesal’s eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, plucks
+the berry, and returns to his former position. This is done with a
+degree of elegance that defies description. The remark has often been
+made by persons looking at stuffed Humming-birds, ‘What lovely little
+things these must look in life, when they are flying about!’ But they
+do not. Place a Humming-bird twenty yards from you, and what do you see
+of its colours, except in the most favourable position and light? This
+is not the case with the Quesal. The rich metallic green of the head,
+back, and tail-coverts reflects its colour in every position, whilst
+the deep scarlet of the breast and the white of the tail show vividly
+at a distance, and contrast with the principal colour of the body.
+The living Quesal strikes the eye by its colour at once. It stands
+unequalled for splendour among birds of the New World, and is hardly
+surpassed among those of the Old. Such are my reflections, when a low
+whistle from Cipriano calls the bird nearer, and a moment afterwards it
+is in my hand&mdash;the first Quesal I have seen and shot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_367">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_367.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_367_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The cries of the Quesal are various. They consist principally of a low
+double note, ‘<i>whe-oo</i>, <i>whe-oo</i>,’ which the bird repeats, whistling
+it softly at first, and then gradually swelling it into a loud but not
+unmelodious cry. This is often succeeded by a long note, which begins
+low, and after swelling, dies away as it began. Both these notes can be
+easily imitated by the human voice. The bird’s other cries are harsh
+and discordant. They are best imitated by doubling a pliant leaf over
+the first fingers, which must be held about two inches apart. The two
+edges of the leaf being then placed in the mouth, and the breath drawn
+in, the required sound is produced. Cipriano was an adept at imitating
+these cries, but I failed in producing them for want of practice.
+When searching for Quesals, the hunter whistles as he walks along,
+here and there sitting down and repeating the other notes. As soon as
+he hears a bird answering at a distance he stops, and imitates the
+bird’s cries until it has approached near enough to enable him either
+to shoot it from where he stands, or to creep up to within shot. The
+female generally flies up first, and perches on a tree near the hunter,
+who takes no notice of her, but continues calling till the male, who
+usually quickly follows the female, appears. Should the male not show
+himself, the hunter will sometimes shoot the female. Thus it is that
+so large a proportion of males are shot. The flight of the Quesal is
+rapid and straight; the long tail-feathers, which never seem to be in
+his way, stream after him. The bird is never found except in forests
+composed of the highest trees, the lower branches of which (<i>i.e.</i>,
+those at about two-thirds of the height of the tree from the ground)
+seem to be its favourite resort. Its food consists principally of
+fruit, but occasionally a caterpillar may be found in its stomach.”</p>
+
+<p>The distinguishing character of this fine Trogon is the long tail of
+the male bird, which measures about three feet in length. The colour of
+the upper parts is golden green, as well as the throat and fore neck;
+the breast is bright scarlet, and is overshadowed by some beautiful
+drooping plumes, which spring from the shoulders, and hang gracefully
+over the wings; the outer tail-feathers are white, with black bases,
+and the bill is yellow. The female has a black bill, and is much
+smaller, and she does not possess the long tail and decorative plumes
+of the male.</p>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[Pg 368]</span></p>
+
+<h4 id="THE_TENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_NIGHTJARS"><span class="s4">THE
+TENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span>&mdash;THE
+NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS (<i>Caprimulgidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_368a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_368a.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">MOUTH OF GOATSUCKER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the adjoining woodcut it will be seen that a Nightjar is
+indeed a Fissirostral, or wide-gaping bird, and this large mouth is
+characteristic of the whole family. Their soft mottled plumage, their
+large eyes, and their habit of flying by night, have induced many
+naturalists to place them in close proximity to the Owls, with which
+family of birds, however, they have nothing further in common. Members
+of the family of Goatsuckers are distributed nearly all over the world,
+with the exception of the islands of Oceania, and a great difference
+is observable in their size and form, and to some extent in their
+habits. Thus the Guacharo, or Oil-bird (<i>Steatornis<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> caripensis</i>),
+is met with only in the island of Trinidad, where it is also called
+<i>Diablotin</i>, and where it inhabits the inmost recesses of caverns,
+either by the sea or inland. The birds spend the entire day in these
+dark recesses, and come out only at night to procure their food, which
+consists of the fruits of different palms, the seeds of which are
+rejected, and form, with the droppings of the birds, a thick flooring
+of guano in some of the caves. Sometimes the bird forms a huge cradle
+of this deposit, apparently for the greater security of its young
+ones; and one of these singular nests, if such they may be called, is
+exhibited in the British Museum. The nestlings become very fat, and
+are sometimes eaten, but according to M. Léotand, in his work on the
+Birds of Trinidad, there is a certain odour about them which makes them
+unpalatable to the appetite of most people.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_368b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_368b.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">OIL-BIRD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In India and in the Malayan Archipelago is found a group of Nightjars
+belonging to the genus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[Pg 369]</span> <i>Batrachostomus</i><a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> popularly known as
+“Frog-mouths;” their place is taken in Australia and New Guinea by the
+giants of the family&mdash;the <i>Podargi</i>, examples of which are generally
+to be seen in the London Zoological Gardens. Of the Tawny-shouldered
+<i>Podargus</i> (<i>P. strigoides</i><a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a>) Mr. Gould gives the following
+account:&mdash;“Like the rest of this genus, this species is strictly
+nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in
+an upright position across, and never parallel to, the branch, which
+it so nearly resembles as scarcely to be distinguished from it. I have
+occasionally seen it beneath the thick foliage of the <i>Casuarinæ</i>, and
+I have been informed that it sometimes shelters itself in the hollow
+trunks of the <i>Eucalypti</i>, but I could never detect one in such a
+situation; I mostly found them in pairs, perched near each other on
+the branches of the gums, in situations not at all sheltered from the
+beams of the midday sun. So lethargic are its slumbers, that it is
+almost impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently shot one without
+disturbing its mate, sitting close by; it may also be knocked off
+with sticks or stones, and sometimes it is even taken with the hand.
+When aroused, it flies lazily off, with heavy flapping wings, to a
+neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the approach
+of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been
+previously dull and stupid. The stomach of one I dissected induced
+me to believe that it does not usually capture its prey while on the
+wing, or subsist on nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the
+habit of creeping among the branches in search of such as are in a
+state of repose. The power it possesses of shifting the position of the
+outer toe backwards, as circumstances may require, is a very singular
+feature, and may also tend to assist them in their progress among the
+branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, in the middle of the night, had
+the stomach filled with fresh-captured Mantis and Locusts (<i>Phasmidæ</i>
+and <i>Cicadæ</i>), which seldom move at night, and the latter of which are
+generally resting against the upright boles of the trees. In other
+specimens I found the remains of small Coleoptera, intermingled with
+the fibres of the roots of what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such
+as would be found in decayed and hollow trees. The whole contour of the
+bird shows that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing
+those rapid evolutions that are necessary for the capture of its prey
+in the air: the wing being short and concave in comparison with those
+of the true aërial Nightjars, and particularly with the Australian
+form, to which I have given the name of <i>Eurostopodus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_369">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_369.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON GOATSUCKER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[Pg 370]</span></p>
+
+<p>“Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, having
+seen many pairs breeding during my rambles in the woods. It makes
+a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks, carelessly interwoven
+together, and placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient
+size to ensure its safety; the trees most frequently chosen are the
+<i>Eucalypti</i>, but I have occasionally seen the nest on an appletree
+(<i>Angophora</i>) or a swamp-oak (<i>Casuarina</i>). In every instance one
+of the birds was sitting on the eggs, and the other perched on a
+neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep. That the male participates
+in the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the
+nest, which, on dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally
+two in number, of a beautiful immaculate white, and of a long oval
+form, one inch and ten lines in length by one inch and three lines in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe47" id="i_370">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_370.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WHIP-POOR-WILL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Like the other species of the genus, it is subject to considerable
+variation in its colouring, the young, which assume the adult livery at
+an early age, being somewhat darker in all their markings. In some a
+rich tawny colour predominates, while others are more grey. The night
+call of this species is a hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct
+sounds, which cannot correctly be described. The stomach is thick and
+muscular, and is lined with a hair-like substance, like that of the
+common Cuckoo.”</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Waterton gives the following notes on Goatsuckers in his
+“Wanderings” (p. 139):&mdash;“When the sun has sunk in the western woods,
+no longer agitated by the breeze, when you can only see a straggler or
+two of the feathered tribe hastening to join its mate, already at its
+roosting-place, then it is that the Goatsucker comes out of the forest,
+where it has sat all day long in slumbering ease, unmindful of the gay
+and busy scenes around it. Its eyes are too delicately formed to bear
+the light, and thus it is forced to shun the flaming face of day, and
+wait in patience till night invites him to partake of the pleasures her
+dusky presence brings. The harmless, unoffending Goatsucker, from the
+time of Aristotle down to the present day, has been in disgrace with
+man. Father has handed it down to son, and author to author, that this
+nocturnal thief subsists by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[Pg 371]</span> milking the flocks. Poor injured little
+bird of night, how sadly hast thou suffered, and how foul a stain has
+inattention to facts put upon thy character! Thou hast never robbed man
+of any part of his property, nor deprived the kid of a drop of milk.</p>
+
+<p>“When the moon shines bright you may have a fair opportunity of
+examining the Goatsucker. You will see it close by the Cows, Goats,
+and Sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies. Approach
+a little nearer&mdash;he is not shy: ‘he fears no danger, for he knows no
+sin.’ See how the nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd, and with
+what dexterity he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight on
+the bellies, legs, and udders of the animals. Observe how quiet they
+stand, and how sensible they seem of his good offices, for they neither
+strike at him nor hit him with their tails, nor tread on him, nor try
+to drive him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect him and
+inspect his stomach, you would find no milk there. It is full of the
+flies which have been annoying the herd.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe21" id="i_371">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_371.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">LYRE-TAILED NIGHTJAR.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>“The pretty mottled plumage of the Goatsucker, like that of the Owl,
+wants the lustre which is observed in the feathers of the birds of day.
+This at once marks him as a lover of the pale moon’s nightly beams.
+There are nine species here (Demerara); the largest appears nearly the
+size of the English Wood Owl. Its cry is so remarkable that, having
+once heard it, you will never forget it. When night reigns over these
+immeasurable wilds, whilst lying in your hammock, you will hear this
+Goatsucker lamenting like one in deep distress. A stranger would never
+conceive it to be the cry of a bird; he would say it was the departing
+voice of a midnight murdered victim, or the last wailing of Niobe for
+her poor children before she was turned into stone. Suppose yourself
+in hopeless sorrow, begin with a high loud note, and pronounce ‘Ha,
+ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha!’ each note lower and lower, till the last
+is scarcely heard, pausing a moment or two betwixt every note,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[Pg 372]</span> and
+you will have some idea of the moaning of the largest Goatsucker in
+Demerara. Four other species of the Goatsucker articulate some words
+so distinctly that they have received their names from the sentences
+they utter, and absolutely bewilder the stranger on his arrival in
+these parts. The most common one sits down close by your door, and
+flies, and alights three or four yards before you as you walk along
+the road, crying ‘Who are you, who-who-who-are-you.’ Another bids
+you ‘Work away, work-work-work-away.’ A third cries mournfully,
+‘Willy-come-go, willy-willy-willy-come-go.’ And high up in the country
+a fourth tells you to ‘Whip-poor-will, whip-whip-whip-poor-will.’ You
+will never persuade the negro to destroy these birds, or get the Indian
+to let fly his arrows at them. They are birds of omen and reverential
+dread. Jumbo, the demon of Africa, has them under his command, and
+they equally obey the Yabahou, or Demeraran Indian Devil. They are
+receptacles for departed souls who come back again to earth, unable to
+rest for crimes done in their days of nature; or they are expressly
+sent by Jumbo or Yabahou to haunt cruel or hard-hearted monsters, and
+retaliate injuries received from them. If the largest Goatsucker chance
+to cry near the white man’s door, sorrow and grief will soon be inside;
+and they expect to see the master waste away with a slow consuming
+sickness. If it be heard close to the negro’s or Indian’s hut, from
+that night misfortune sits brooding over it, and they await the event
+in terrible suspense.”</p>
+
+<p id="common_goatsucker">The common Goatsucker, which is also popularly known as the “Fern Owl,”
+or “Nightjar,” visits England only in the spring, when it arrives from
+Southern Africa, and distributes itself over the country. It is by
+no means an uncommon bird, but is rarely seen, owing to its habit of
+coming out only at night, or at least in the twilight. They may then
+often be disturbed from the ground in a country road, when they take
+to flight in a heavy manner, often making a flapping noise, which
+appears to be caused by bringing the wings sharply together above the
+body of the bird. The call-note may be described as “churring,” and
+is disagreeable in sound; it is generally uttered by the Goatsucker
+when sitting on a low branch of a tree or on a railing. It should be
+mentioned that the Caprimulgidæ do not, as a rule, sit crosswise on a
+branch, but always along the latter; their favourite haunt, however,
+is generally the ground, and it is supposed by some naturalists that
+the curious pectinated claw is used by the Goatsucker for scratching
+the ground. Dr. Günther, F.R.S., who kept one of these birds alive,
+says that it frequently used its comb-like claw for this purpose. Other
+people have thought that its claw was intended for clearing away the
+<i>débris</i> of moths and other insects, which would clog the bristles on
+the bill. The true use of this comb-like appendage on the foot has not
+yet, however, been thoroughly determined.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe12_5" id="i_372">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_372.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">FOOT OF THE COMMON GOATSUCKER.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_ELEVENTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_SWIFTS"><span class="s4">THE
+ELEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span><br />
+THE SWIFTS (<i>Cypselidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These birds, with the Humming-birds, are separated from the other
+Fissirostral <i>Picariæ</i> by many anatomical characters, the chief being
+the arrangement of the feather-tracts on the body, which are quite
+peculiar; the muscles are also unlike those of the other families, and
+hence these two groups are often divided off by modern naturalists
+under the name of <i>Macrochires</i>.<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center mtop2 mbot1" id="common_swift">THE COMMON SWIFT (<i>Cypselus apus</i>).<a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of May the Common Swift comes to Great Britain and
+the rest of Europe, after passing his winter sojourn in South Africa.
+He is one of the latest arrivals, as he comes only when summer has
+fairly begun and fine weather is pretty well assured; again, in autumn,
+he is almost the first of the summer migrants to take his departure,
+and the absence of the Swifts from their accustomed haunts is a sure
+sign of the approach of the fall of the year. So incumbent does this
+early migration seem to be upon the species, that the Swifts have been
+known to leave their young to perish of starvation rather than delay
+their departure if cold weather suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[Pg 373]</span> approaches. All birds appear
+to have at times a failure of instinct, and the Swift is no exception
+to the rule, for sometimes they are caught in some cold weather on
+their arrival, and it is not uncommon to find them benumbed with cold,
+and fluttering helplessly or even lying dead on the ground. In this
+latter position they are peculiarly helpless, their little legs being
+unable to raise them so as to give them the proper momentum to rise
+into the air again, while their long wings are much in the way, and
+only assist in their entire discomfiture. The home of the Swift, then,
+is in the air, and here his evolutions are most rapid, and performed
+with extreme quickness and yet with consummate ease. For his breeding
+home he often selects water-spouts on lofty buildings, such as the
+English cathedrals, or else places his nest under the roofs of houses,
+to the edge of which he is able to shuffle, and then to launch himself
+suddenly down, after which his course is easy. In the evening there
+is generally a little gathering of Swifts together, when they fly
+screaming round and round the buildings in which their nests have been
+placed, separating again for a few moments to rejoin in an excited
+flock, which passes with incredible swiftness and much noise round the
+edges of the towers or homesteads. When about to migrate, however, they
+are silent, and the flocks which may be seen coursing along the sides
+of the downs in the southern counties of England in August utter no
+sound, as if impressed with the gravity of the long journey they are
+about to undertake.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe34" id="i_373">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_373.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON SWIFT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Macgillivray describes the nest of the Common Swift as follows:&mdash;“It is
+very rudely constructed, flattened, about six inches in diameter and
+half an inch thick; composed of particles of Aira cæspitosa, straws
+of oats, wheat, and grasses, intermixed with fibrous roots, moss,
+wool, cotton, hair, and feathers of the domestic fowl, partridge, and
+rook. These materials are confusedly felted and agglutinated, the
+glueing matter being of a gelatinous, not of a resinous, nature, and
+in extremely thin shreds, which crackle, but do not readily burn,
+when flame is applied to them. There is, however, a small quantity of
+the membranous scales of the Scotch fir, together with some resinous
+matter, in one of these nests.” The eggs are generally two in number,
+of a long oval shape, and entirely white.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_374">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_374.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">TREE SWIFT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe50" id="i_375">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_375.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTLETS.</div>
+  <div class="linkedimage"><a href="images/i_375_large.jpg" rel="nofollow">⇒<br />
+  LARGER IMAGE</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Swifts appear to be found all over the world, the most graceful being
+perhaps the Tree Swifts (<i>Dendrochelidon</i>), which inhabit India and
+the Malayan region. In this same part of the world are also found the
+Edible-nest Swiftlets (<i>Collocalia</i>), which breed in caves, their
+nests being eaten by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[Pg 374]</span> Chinese and other Asiatic people. Dr. Jerdon
+says:&mdash;“The nest, when pure and of the first make, is composed entirely
+of inspissated mucus from the large salivary glands of the bird.
+It is very small, bluntly triangular in form, and slightly concave
+within; of a semi-transparent, fibrous sort of texture, bluish-white
+in colour, and with the fibres, as it were, crossed and interlaced.
+When the nests of the first make are taken away, the second nests are
+mixed with feathers, and occasionally other foreign substances. The
+eggs are two in number, and pure white.” Mr. E. L. Layard gives the
+following account of a visit to a cave inhabited by the Indian Swiftlet
+in Ceylon:&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[Pg 376]</span>“I have at last visited the cave in which <i>Collocalia
+nidifica</i><a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a> builds, and will now, with the aid of my journal, give
+all the information I can, sending you birds skinned and in spirit,
+and a young nestling taken from the nest with my own hand. The cave is
+situated at a place called Havissay, about thirty-five miles from the
+sea and twenty from the river, and about 500 feet up a fine wood-clad
+hill, called Diagallagoolawa, or Hoonoomooloocota. Its dimensions are
+as follows:&mdash;Length between fifty and sixty feet, about twenty-six
+broad, and twenty high. It is a mass of limestone rock, which has
+cracked off the hill-side, and slipped down on to some boulders below
+its original position, forming a hollow triangle. There are three
+entrances to the cave; one at each end, and one very small one in the
+centre. The floor consists of large boulders, covered to the depth of
+two or three inches with the droppings of the birds, old and young,
+and the bits of grass they bring in to fabricate their nests. The only
+light which penetrates the cavern from the entrances above mentioned is
+very dim. When my eyes, however, got accustomed to the light, I could
+see many hundreds of nests glued to the side of the fallen rock, but
+none to the other side, or hill itself. This I attribute to the fact
+of the face of the main rock being evidently subject to the influence
+of the weather, and perhaps to the heavy dews off the trees; but for
+this, the side in question would have been far more convenient for
+the birds to have built on, as it sloped gently outward, whereas the
+other was much overhung, and caused the birds to build their nests of
+an awkward shape, besides taking up more substance. I was at the spot
+a few days before Christmas, and fancy that must be about the time
+to see the nests in perfection. This is corroborated by the fact of
+my finding young birds in all the nests taken by me, and by what the
+old Chinaman said, that the ‘take’ came on in October. I find that
+they have three different qualities of nests, and send two for your
+inspection. The best is very clean, white as snow, and thin, and is
+also very expensive. The most inferior are composed of dry grasses,
+hair, &amp;c., but I could not detect anything like the bloody secretion,
+as described (‘though only under peculiar circumstances of exhaustion’)
+by Mr. Barbe, even in a fresh nest. I was in the cave late (after 5
+<span class="smaller">P.M.</span>) in the evening of a day which threatened rain, but the
+old birds were still flying round the summit of the mountain at a vast
+altitude, occasionally dashing down into the cave with food for their
+nestlings. By daylight next morning I was on foot, but the birds were
+before me, hawking on the plain below and all about the hills. I have
+found the birds here, in Colombo, in Kandy, and all along the road we
+went. I could learn nothing of the number of eggs laid, nor of their
+colour. I found one bird in each nest. The Chinese who live on the
+spot pretend not to understand anything asked them, and the apathetic
+Cingalese have never taken the trouble to see for themselves, so they
+could give me no information. The aspect of the country, broken and
+rugged, coupled with the numerous flocks of birds I saw flying round
+the various hills, leads me to think there must be many breeding-places
+yet undiscovered. One, however, was pointed out, but we had not time to
+visit it. I could not hear of any other kind of <i>Swift</i> breeding there,
+but have just received such information as leads me to suppose that <i>C.
+fuciphaga</i> builds near Jaffna on some rocks overhanging the sea. I may
+further add that there were no Bats in the cave with <i>C. nidifica</i>, nor
+did I see any bird of prey, save a fine <i>Hæmatornis</i>, which I shot. The
+Cingalese name for <i>C. nidifica</i> is <i>Wahlæna</i>.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe32" id="i_376">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_376.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WHITE-THROATED SPINE-TAILED SWIFT.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+
+<h4 id="THE_TWELFTH_FAMILY_OF_THE_FISSIROSTRAL_PICARIAN_BIRDS_THE_HUMMING_BIRDS"><span class="s4">THE
+TWELFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.</span>&mdash;THE
+HUMMING BIRDS (<i>Trochilidæ</i>).</h4>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>These exquisite little creatures are perhaps the largest family of
+birds known, numbering, at the present day, nearly five hundred
+species. It is simply impossible in a work like the present to do<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[Pg 377]</span>
+more than allude to a family, the full description of which by Mr.
+Gould has occupied five large folio volumes. An immense variety of form
+and colour is presented to us. All the birds are of small size, some
+of them being no larger than Hawk-moths, to which in their manner of
+flight they bear considerable resemblance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe44" id="i_377">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_377.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">SWORD-BILL HUMMING BIRD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In some countries Humming-birds are tolerably common, but some
+species are of extreme rarity, such, for instance, as the <i>Loddigesia
+mirabilis</i>, which was discovered forty years ago, and still remains
+represented by a single specimen in the collection of the late Mr.
+George Loddiges, and of which a reward of fifty pounds, offered by Mr.
+Gould, has not succeeded in obtaining a second example. As a rule,
+Humming-birds are a Neotropical family, that is to say, the vast
+majority of the species occur in South America, and do not wander
+above the line of Northern Mexico; but a few species are found in
+the Southern United States, while one occurs in summer even in North
+America, ranging as far as, and even breeding in, Canada. Professor
+Newton writes:&mdash;“Wilson, Audubon, Mr. Gosse, and several others gifted
+with the ‘pen of a ready writer,’ have so fully described, as far
+as words will admit, the habits of different members of the family
+<i>Trochilidæ</i>, that it is unnecessary to say much on this score.
+Their appearance is so entirely unlike that of any other birds that
+it is hopeless to attempt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[Pg 378]</span> in any way to bring a just conception
+of it to the ideas of those who have not crossed the Atlantic; and
+even the comparison so often made between them and the <i>Sphingidæ</i>,
+though doubtless in the main true, is much to the advantage of the
+latter. One is admiring the clustering stars of a scarlet <i>Cordia</i>,
+the snowy cornucopias of a <i>Portlandia</i>, or some other brilliant and
+beautiful flower, when between the blossoms and one’s eye suddenly
+appears a small dark object, suspended as it were between four short
+black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows
+in front of the flower; an instant more it steadies itself, and one
+perceives the space between each pair of threads occupied by a grey
+film; again another instant, and, emitting a momentary flash of emerald
+and sapphire light, it is vanishing, lessening in the distance as it
+shoots away, to a speck that the eye cannot take note of&mdash;and all this
+so rapidly that the word on one’s lips is still unspoken, scarcely the
+thought in one’s mind changed. It was a bold man or an ignorant one
+who first ventured to depict Humming birds flying; but it cannot be
+denied that representations of them are often of special use to the
+ornithologist. The peculiar action of one, and probably of many or all
+other species of the family, is such, that at times in flying it makes
+the wings almost meet, both in front and behind, at each vibration.
+Thus, when a bird chances to enter a room it will generally go buzzing
+along the cornice. Standing beneath where it is, one will find that
+the axis of the body is vertical, and each wing is describing a nearly
+perfect semicircle. As might be expected, the pectoral muscles are
+very large; indeed, the sternum of this bird is a good deal bigger
+than that of the common Chimney Swallow (<i>Hirundo rustica</i>). But the
+extraordinary rapidity with which the vibrations are effected seems to
+be chiefly caused by these powerful muscles acting on the very short
+wingbones, which are not half the length of the same parts in the
+Swallow; and accordingly, great as this alar action is, and in spite
+of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr. Gosse, it is yet sometimes
+wanting in power, owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage
+thus obtained; and the old authors must be credited who speak of
+cobwebs catching Humming birds. On the 3rd of May, 1857, a bird of this
+species flew into the room where I was sitting, and after fluttering
+for some minutes against the ceiling, came in contact with a deserted
+spider’s web, in which it got entangled, and remained suspended and
+perfectly helpless for more than a minute, when by a violent effort it
+freed itself. I soon after caught it, still having fragments of the web
+on its head, neck, and wings; and I feel pretty sure, that had this
+web been inhabited and in good repair, instead of being deserted and
+dilapidated, the bird would never have escaped.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe41_25" id="i_378">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_378.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">WHITE-BOOTED RACKET TAIL.</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe49" id="i_379">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_379.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">COMMON TOPAZ HUMMING BIRD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. A. R. Wallace has written the following account of the habits of
+Humming birds on the River Amazon:&mdash;“The greater number of species
+that frequent flowers do so, I am convinced, for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[Pg 379]</span> the small insects
+found there, and not for the nectar. In dozens, and perhaps hundreds,
+of common flower-frequenting species which I have examined, the crop,
+stomach, and intestines have been filled with minute beetles, ants, and
+spiders, which abound in most flowers in South America. Very rarely
+indeed have I found a trace of honey or of any liquid in the crop or
+stomach. The flowers they most frequent are the various species of
+<i>Inga</i> and the papilionaceous flowers of many large forest trees. I
+have never seen them at the bignonias, or any flowers but those which
+grow in large masses, covering a whole tree or shrub, as they visit
+perhaps a hundred flowers in a minute and never stop at a single one.
+The little Emerald Hummer I have seen in gardens and at the common
+orange (<i>Asclepias</i>), which often covers large spaces of waste ground
+in the tropics. But there are many, such as <i>Phaëthornis eremita</i> and
+some larger allied species, which I have never seen at flowers. These
+inhabit the gloomy forest-shades, where they dart about among the
+foliage; and I have distinctly observed them visit in rapid succession
+every leaf on a branch, balancing themselves vertically in the air,
+passing their beak closely over the under surface of each leaf, and
+thus capturing, no doubt, any small insects that may be upon them.
+While doing this, the two long feathers of the tail have a vibrating
+motion, apparently serving as a rudder to assist them in performing
+the delicate operation. I have seen others searching up and down stems
+and dead sticks in the same manner, every now and then picking off
+something, exactly as a Bush Shrike or Tree Creeper does, with this
+exception, that the Humming-bird is continually on the wing. They also
+capture insects in the true Fissirostral fashion. How often may they
+be seen perched on the dead twig of a lofty tree&mdash;the station that is
+chosen by the tyrant Flycatchers and the Jacamars&mdash;from which, like
+those birds, they dart off a short distance, and after a few whirls and
+balancings return to the identical twig they had left. In the evening,
+too, just after sunset, when the Goatsuckers are beginning their search
+after insects over the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[Pg 380]</span> rivers, I have seen Humming birds come out of
+the forest and remain a long time on the wing&mdash;now stationary, now
+darting about with the greatest rapidity, imitating in a limited space
+the evolutions of their companions the Goatsuckers, and evidently for
+the same end and purpose.”</p>
+
+<p>Wilson, the poet-naturalist, observes of the North American species as
+follows:&mdash;“Nature in every department of her works seems to delight
+in variety, and the present subject is almost as singular for its
+minuteness, beauty, want of song, and manner of feeding, as the Mocking
+Bird is for unrivalled excellence of note and plainness of plumage.
+This is one of the few birds that are universally beloved, and amidst
+the sweet dewy serenity of a summer’s morning his appearance amongst
+the arbours of honeysuckles and beds of flowers is truly interesting.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“‘When morning dawns, and the blest sun again</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Lifts his red glories from the Eastern main,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">The flower-fed Humming bird his round pursues;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Sips with inserted tube the honied blooms,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">And chirps his gratitude as round he roams;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">While richest roses, though in crimson drest,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly!</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Each rapid movement gives a different dye:</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Now sink to shade, now to a furnace glow.’”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowe25" id="i_380">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_380.jpg"  alt="" />
+  <div class="caption">CRESTED HUMMING BIRD.</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center padtop3"><span class="bt">P<span class="smaller">RINTED BY</span> C<span class="smaller">ASSELL</span>
+&amp; C<span class="smaller">OMPANY</span>, L<span class="smaller">IMITED</span>,
+L<span class="smaller">A</span> B<span class="smaller">ELLE</span>
+S<span class="smaller">AUVAGE</span>, L<span class="smaller">ONDON</span>,
+E.C.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p class="s2 center padtop1">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> The genus <i>Ovis</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> <i>Ovis Poli.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The genus <i>Capra</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> “Falling from a height, it protects its whole body,
+between its horns, from shock, and receives upon its horns the
+concussion of the huge stones.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> The genus <i>Gazella</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> <i>Saïga tartarica.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> <i>Panthalops Hodgsoni.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> <i>Æpyceros melampus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> <i>Antilope bezoartica.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> The genus <i>Cephalophus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> The genus <i>Tetraceros</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> The genus <i>Eleotragus</i> and its allies.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> <i>Oreas canna.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> <i>Strepsiceros kudu.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> <i>Euryceros Angasii.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> The genus <i>Tragelaphus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> The <i>Damalidæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> The genus <i>Catoblepas</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> <i>Rupicapra tragus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> The genus <i>Oryx</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> <i>Portax picta.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> <i>Ovibos moschatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> <i>Bos taurus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> The genus <i>Bison</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The genus <i>Bubalus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> <i>Antilocapra americana.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> <i>Moschus moschiferus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> <i>Camelopardalis giraffa.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> <i>Alces machlis.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The restricted genus <i>Cervus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <i>Cervus elaphus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> The genera <i>Pseudaxis</i> and <i>Dama</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> <i>Dama mesopotamica.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The genus <i>Rusa</i> and its allies.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> <i>Rusa Alfredi.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> <i>Rucervus Duvaucelli.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> <i>Rucervus Eldi.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> The genus <i>Cervulus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> <i>Capreolus caprea.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> <i>Hydropotes inermis.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> <i>Elaphurus Davidianus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> <i>Transactions of the Zoological Society</i>, Vol. VII. p.
+333.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> <i>Rangifer tarandus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> <i>Tragulidæ.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> <i>Camelus dromedarius.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> <i>Camelus bactrianus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> <i>Auchenia.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> In the young there are four of these small additional
+teeth, but the outer pair disappear after a short time.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> The upper teeth always constitute a larger segment of a
+smaller circle than the lower ones.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> The genus <i>Heliophobius</i> among the Mole Rats is described
+as having six molars on each side in both jaws; but the number in this
+genus appears to be variable, the sixth molar being often undeveloped.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> See Note on p. 83.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Having the hind feet hand-like.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> See <i>Arvicola rutilus</i>, p. 117.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Dr. Coues has proposed this generic name for the American
+Jumping Mouse, as the names <i>Jaculus</i> and <i>Meriones</i>, given to the
+genus by various authors, had been previously used for other groups.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Described almost at the same time by M. Bravard under the
+name of <i>Typotherium</i>. We here employ M. Serres’ name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Waterton’s “Wanderings,” pp. 161, 284.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> <i>Arctopithecus castaniceps.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> <i>Bradypus torquatus</i>, or <i>Bradypus crinitus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> <i>Arctopithecus flaccidus.</i>&mdash;<i>Arctopithecus Ai.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> <i>Cholœpus didactylus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> <i>Cholœpus Hoffmanni.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> <i>Orycteropus capensis</i> (Geoffroy).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> The uterus is double, and the placenta is disc-shaped,
+and is cast off (deciduate). There are chest and inguinal. teats.
+The vertebræ are&mdash;seven cervical, thirteen dorsal, eight lumbar, six
+sacral, twenty-five caudal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> The muscle called pronator quadratus is a fleshy band,
+four-sided in shape more or less. One side is attached to one of the
+bones of the fore-arm, the ulna in front above the wrist; and the other
+and opposite side adheres to the radius. The ulna being motionless, the
+muscle contracts and pulls the radius over, so as to turn the back of
+the wrist forwards, or upwards. The prone position is thus produced,
+and hence the name of the muscle. The other muscle which produces this
+movement is fixed to the fore-arm in front, near the inner elbow, and
+it is long, having a tendon which is implanted on the radius. As this
+muscle contracts, it pulls the radius over the ulna, and makes the
+wrist take up a prone position. It is called the pronator teres.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Genus <i>Manis</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> <i>Manis tetradactyla</i> (Linn.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> <i>Manis gigantea</i> (Illiger).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> <i>Manis brachyura.</i>&mdash;<i>Manis pentadactyla</i> (Linn.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> <i>Myrmecophaga jubata.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> It is certainly remarkable that the brain of this animal
+should present numerous convolutions, whilst the brain of the Sloth has
+barely any. The commissures of the brain are large, especially that of
+the centre, or corpus callosum, and also the anterior. The uterus is
+simple, the os is double, and the placenta is said to be discoidal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> <i>Tamandua tetradactyla.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> <i>Cyclothurus didactylus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> <i>Dasypus gigas</i> (Cuvier).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> <i>Dasypus Tatouay</i> (Desmarest).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> <i>Dasypus sexcintus</i> (Linn.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> <i>Dasypus villosus</i> (Desmarest).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> <i>Dasypus minutus</i> (Desmarest).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> <i>Dasypus Peba</i> (Desmarest).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> <i>Dasypus (Tolypeutes) apar</i> (Geoffroy).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> <i>Chlamydophorus truncatus</i> (Harlan).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> The <i>Macropodidæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> <i>Macropus giganteus</i> (Shaw).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> The presence of the pouch, or marsupium, containing the
+teats, involves many structural and physiological peculiarities which
+separate the Marsupialia, in a classificatory sense, from the rest
+of the Mammalia. The Great Kangaroo, which may be considered a fair
+example of the Marsupials, has in the female a set of skin muscles,
+around the pouch, beneath the skin, which close it. The milk, or
+mammary gland, has four long, slender teats in the pouch, and beneath
+the skin of it is a muscle called the cremaster, which is largely
+developed. It spreads over the surface of the gland, and its action
+is to squeeze it and to force out the milk through the teat. There
+is thus protection for the young, and milk is given forth, without
+the effort of the young in sucking. The reason for this is obvious.
+The Great Kangaroo, which is often as tall as a man, is pregnant for
+about thirty-nine days only, and then a little one, not bigger than a
+thumb, is born; it is not completely formed, and is blind and cannot
+move itself. The mother places it in her pouch, and it fixes on to a
+teat, where it hangs for about eight months, and then it begins to look
+out of the pouch. The duration of the life of the young in the womb
+is thus very small, and it has no placenta there, which in the other
+and non-marsupial Mammalia forms the life-union between the mother
+and the offspring before its birth. Thus, the Marsupials form one
+great group of Mammalia which are “implacentalia,” without placentas
+or “after-births,” and all the other Mammalia are “placentalia,”
+and have this link between mother and young. In all the Mammalia
+hitherto described the young come into the world by a single passage.
+In those now under consideration (the Marsupialia) there is a double
+passage, and the womb is separated into two portions, being double;
+so they are termed Didelphia. The marsupium has two remarkable bones
+more or less in relation to it, and all animals thus furnished are
+termed Marsupialia, and they form two sections or sub-orders&mdash;(1) The
+Marsupiata proper, with marsupial bones, mostly with pouches, and with
+inflected lower jaws. (2) The Monotremata, which have marsupial bones,
+depressions in the skin, when suckling, like ill-developed pouches, and
+beak-like jaws in front, which are not inflected.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> See Footnote 83 on previous page.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Waterhouse’s “Natural History of the Mammalia,” order
+Marsupiata, from which much of this description of the order has been
+taken.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> R. Owen, “Marsupialia;” “Todd’s Cyclopædia of Anatomy and
+Physiology.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> See also Vol. I., page 58, Note.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> Mr. Gould’s works on Australian animals, occasionally
+quoted by me.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> <i>Macropus leporoides</i> (Gould).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> <i>Macropus rufus</i> (Desm.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> <i>Macropus agilis</i> (Gould, sp.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> <i>Dendrolagus ursinus</i> (Müll.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Sub-genus <i>Hypsiprymnus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> <i>Hypsiprymnus rufescens.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> <i>Hypsiprymnus penicillatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> <i>Hypsiprymnus murinus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> Description by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., and communication
+from Sir R. Owen to Linnean Society, London.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> <i>Phascolomys wombat</i> (Peron and Lesson). φάσκωλος, a
+pouch, and μῦς, a mouse.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> <i>Phascolarctus</i> (pouched-bear) <i>cinereus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> <i>Phalangista ursina.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> <i>Phalangista (Cuscus) maculatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> <i>Phalangista vulpina.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> <i>Phalangista fuliginosa.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> <i>Phalangista Nana.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> <i>Petaurus sciureus</i> (Shaw).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> <i>Petaurus ariel.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> <i>Petaurus breviceps.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> <i>Petaurus pygmæus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> <i>Tarsipes rostratus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> <i>Perameles lagotis.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Perameles Gunnii.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <i>Perameles fasciata.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> <i>Perameles doreyanus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> <i>Perameles moresbyensis</i> (Rams.).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <i>Chœropus castanotis</i>&mdash;χοῖρος, a hog; and πούς, a foot.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> <i>Myrmecobius fasciatus</i>&mdash;μύρμηξ, ant; βίος, life.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> <i>Dasyurus ursinus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> <i>Dasyurus macrurus</i>, or <i>maculatus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> <i>Dasyurus Maugei</i> (Geoffroy).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> θύλακος, a pouch.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> <i>Thylacinus cynocephalus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> <i>Phascogale penicillata.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> <i>Didelphys virginianum.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> <i>Didelphys D’Azaræ.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> <i>Didelphys cancrivora.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> <i>Didelphys crassicaudatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> <i>Chironectes variegatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> The sub-genera Halmaturus and Heteropus, Osphranter,
+Lagorchestes, and Petrogale, are included in Macropus, and many other
+sub-genera relating to the other families merely complicate the
+classification. Bettongia, Potoroiis, are sub-genera or artificial
+groups of the genus Hypsiprymnus; Cuscus, Trichosurus, Pseudochirus,
+and Dromicia, are groups of Phalangistidæ; Petaurista, Belideus, and
+Acrobata are divisions of the genus Petaurus; Macrotis is a sub-genus
+of Perameles; Antechinus is a division of the genus Phascogale;
+Sarcophilus is a sub-genus of Dasyurus. These are unnecessary
+sub-divisions.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> μόνος, one; τρῆμα, opening.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> <i>Echidna hystrix</i> (Cuvier). Much confusion has been
+produced by Illiger, who changed the generic title to Tachyglossus,
+ταχύς, quick, and γλῶσσα, tongue; but the name given by Cuvier
+must stand, except in the minds of those zoologists who delight in
+novelties, and believe that the use of long words carries wisdom.
+Lately more confusion has been produced by the introduction of the
+generic term <i>Acanthoglossus</i>, which we do not admit or use.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> <i>Ornithorhynchus anatinus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Dr. Brehm: “Bird-life,” pp. 503, 504.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Huxley, “Anatomy of Vertebrates,” p. 274.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> παλαιός, old; ἄρκτος, north: <i>i.e.</i>, the northern
+division of the <i>Old</i> World.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> νέος, new; ἄρκτος, north: <i>i.e.</i>, the northern division
+of the <i>New</i> World.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> νέος, new; τροπικός, tropical: <i>i.e.</i>, the tropical
+division of the <i>New</i> World.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> Dr. Sclater, F.R.S., originated, in 1858, this scheme of
+the six zoogeographical divisions of the globe.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> In the preparation of this chapter, the author begs to
+acknowledge the assistance he has received from his friend Professor F.
+Jeffrey Bell, B.A.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> These lines are thus translated by Mr. Hayward:&mdash;“I
+hurry on to drink his everlasting light&mdash;the day before me and the
+night behind&mdash;the heavens above, and under me the waves. A glorious
+dream! as it is passing, he is gone. Alas! no bodily wing will so
+easily keep pace with the wings of the mind! Yet it is the inborn
+tendency of our being for feeling to strive upwards and onwards; when,
+over us, lost in the blue expanse the lark sings its thrilling lay;
+when, over rugged pine-covered heights, the out-spread eagle soars;
+and, over marsh and sea, the crane struggles onward to her home.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> These plates may become united with one another in the
+middle line, and the birds that possess this arrangement have been
+called <i>Desmognathæ</i> (δεσμός, “a bond;” γνάθος, “jaw”); or they may be
+separated by a more or less narrow cleft, in which case the birds in
+which this is found are called <i>Schizognathæ</i> (σχίζω, “I cleave”). As a
+matter of fact, the term Schizognathous is confined to those birds in
+which the above-mentioned vomer is pointed in front, while where it is
+truncated the birds are called <i>Ægithognathæ</i> (αἴγιθος, “a sparrow,” as
+the character is seen in these birds). In these groups, however, the
+Ostriches, or running birds, which are distinguished by having no keel
+to their sternum, are not included; nor in them is the vomer narrow
+behind. This broad character of the hinder end of the vomer is seen
+also in one group of birds with a keeled sternum&mdash;the Tinamous&mdash;which
+are consequently distinguished from other “Carinate” birds by the term
+<i>Dromæognathæ</i> (<i>Dromæus</i>, the Emu).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> The presence or absence of it, or of the other muscles,
+is used as a means for arranging the smaller divisions of the larger
+groups into which the two first-named sub-classes are, by the aid of
+other anatomical facts, divided. One striking advantage of this system,
+as suggested by the late Prof. A. H. Garrod, is that the characters of
+the <i>ambiens</i> have been observed to go hand in hand with certain other
+characters. Thus, the cæca found at the end of the small intestine
+are always present in the Homalogonatæ, or birds having the normal
+arrangement of knee-muscles; but in this connection there is another
+structure to be mentioned, namely, the so-called oil-gland, or gland
+by the secretion of which the bird “preens” its feathers, and which is
+always set in the skin in the region of the tail. Now this “uropygial,”
+or oil-gland, may or may not be provided with a tuft of feathers, and
+as there may or may not be cæca to the intestine, it follows that&mdash;(1)
+the gland may be tufted and there may be cæca, or (2) the gland may
+have no feathers and cæca may be present, or (3) there may be no
+cæca and a tufted gland, or (4) there may be no cæca and no tufts
+(the possible arrangement of neither being present is found in a few
+Pigeons). But this is not the place to follow out the details of this
+classification.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the proposition made by a French observer, M. Alix,
+that birds should be divided into the Homœomyarii, Entomyarii, and
+Ectomyarii, according to the character of certain of the flexor muscles
+at the back of the leg, it seems only necessary to remark that so far
+anatomical investigations have not supported his views, while his
+system would separate birds which seem to be closely allied.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Compare Vol. I., p. 213</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> <i>Accipitres diurni</i> of authors.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> <i>Accipitres nocturni</i> of authors.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> <i>Machærhamphus Anderssoni.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> <i>Accipitrinæ.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> <i>Falco</i>, a Falcon.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Πανδίων, a Greek mythological name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> στρίγξ, an Owl.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> “Song of Hiawatha,” Book XIX.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> “Essays on Natural History,” 1866, p. 17.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> “Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and the adjacent
+countries of South-west Africa,” 1872, p. 3.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> 1864, p. 307.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> 1859, p. 277.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> <i>Vultur monachus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> <i>Gyps fulvus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> J. H. Gurney: “Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial
+Birds in the Norfolk and Norwich Museum.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> οὖς, ὠτός, an ear; γύψ, a vulture.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> <i>Auricularis</i>, having ears.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> A mythological name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> περκνός, dark-coloured; πτερόν, a wing; so called from
+the colour of its wings.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 31.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> σάρξ, flesh; ῤάμφος, a bill; so called on account of the
+fleshy wattles on the base of the bill.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> <i>Gryphus</i>, a mythological name, a Griffon.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> καθαρτής, a scavenger.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> <i>Papa</i>, a pope.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> D’Orbigny, “Voyage dans l’Amérique Meridionale,” p. 30.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> ῤίν (ῤίς), ῤινός, a nose; _gryphus_, as before, a
+Griffon, or Vulture; so called on account of its peculiar perforated nose.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> <i>Helotarsus ecaudatus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> <i>Serpentarius</i>, a devourer of Serpents.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> <i>Secretarius</i>, a secretary.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>, 1856, p. 348.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Gymnogene: from two Greek words (γυμνός, bare, naked;
+γένυς, a cheek).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> <i>Polyboroides</i>: like a <i>Polyborus</i> or Caracara.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> Col. Irby, “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p.
+34.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> μικρός, small; <i>astur</i>, a Goshawk. See “Lawrence’s Birds
+of Western and North-Western Mexico.” “Memoirs of the Boston Soc. of
+Nat. Hist.,” Vol. ii., p. 299.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> μέλι honey; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> <i>Rete</i>, Lat., a net, so called on account of the network
+pattern.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> <i>Buteo</i>, Lat., a Buzzard.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> “Birds of the West of Scotland,” p. 46.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> θράσος, daring; ἀετός, an Eagle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> ἄρπη, a bird of prey.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> “Sketches of Nature in the Alps.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> οὐρά, a tail; ἀετός, an Eagle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> <i>Audax</i>, bold.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> Newton Ed., Yarrell’s “British Birds,” i., p. 19.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> “Rough Notes on Indian Ornithology,” p. 145.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> χρυσός, gold; ἀετός, an Eagle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> νέος, new; πούς, a foot: meaning that there was
+something novel and extraordinary about its foot.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> “Birds of Ceylon,” p. 49.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> κίρκος, a Harrier; ἀετός, an Eagle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Ibis, 1865, p. 253.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> ἕλω (αἱρέω), to lift; ταρσός, a tarsus.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Ecaudatus, Latin, meaning “without tail,” on account of
+its shortness.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> ἁλιάετος, a Sea Eagle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 47.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> ἰκτῖνος, a Kite.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> “Bird-life,” p. 543.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> μάχαιρα, a sharp knife; ῥάμφος, a bill.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Andersson’s “Birds of Damara Land.” Edited by J. H.
+Gurney, 1872, p. 22.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Lit., like a Cuckoo.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> μικρός, small, tiny; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> A wanderer.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> μέλας, black; γένυς, a cheek.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> <i>Nigriceps</i>, black-headed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 93.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> ἱερός, sacred; <i>falco</i>, a Falcon; <i>candicans</i>, white.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> κερχνηίς, or κέρχνη, Gr., a Kestrel; <i>tinnunculus</i>,
+Lat., a Hawk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> pp. 82, 95.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Ornithology of Shakspere.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” &amp;c., p. 56.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> “Essays on Natural History,” p. 8.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> <i>Ketupa</i>, a “barbarous” name, with no meaning.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> σκότος, darkness; πέλεια, a Dove, with a covert allusion
+to the name of the discoverer (Sclater).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Ibis, 1859, p. 447.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <i>Bubo</i>, a Horned Owl (Vergil); <i>ignavus</i>, dastardly&mdash;an
+inappropriate title for so fine a bird.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> νύκτιος, nightly, <i>i.e.</i>, a bird of night&mdash;a most
+inappropriate title for the Snowy Owl, which is a day-flier.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> <i>Scandiaca</i>, Scandinavian.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> A proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> A “barbarous” name, of no meaning.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> From γλαυκός, blue or grey.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Passerine, or Sparrow-like: <i>i.e.</i>, of the size of a
+Sparrow.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> A proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Σύρνιον, a proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> νυκταλός, nocturnal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> Like a Hawk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> ὦτος, long-eared Owl.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> στρίγξ, an Owl.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> Fiery; flame-coloured.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Newton’s edition of Yarrell’s “British Birds,” Vol. I.,
+p. 147.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> From <i>Picus</i>, a Woodpecker.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> <i>Fissus</i>, cleft; <i>rostrum</i>, a beak.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> ζυγόν, a yoke; δάκτυλος, a toe.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, a jaw.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> κάμπτω, to bend; λόφος, a crest.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> μικρός, small; γλῶσσα, a tongue.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Very black.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> ἀνήρ, a man; γλῶσσα, a tongue.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> χρυσός, gold; οὖς, an ear.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> “Birds of Jamaica,” p. 266.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> G. D. Rowley, “Ornithological Miscellany,” Vol. I, p.
+175.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> “Natural History of Cage-birds,” Part I.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Jerdon, “Birds of India,” I., p. 258.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> στρίγξ, an Owl; ὤψ, a face, <i>i.e.</i>, having the
+appearance of an Owl.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> ἁβρός, soft; πτίλον, feather.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, jaw.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> <i>Trichoglossi.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Professor Garrod in <i>Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society for 1872</i>, p. 787.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> “Stray Feathers,” 1877, p. 385.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> “Bird-life,” p. 595.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> Sharpe’s edition of Layard’s “Birds of South Africa,” p.
+141.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> γῆ, earth, and κινέω, I shake; <i>viridis</i>, green.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> The classical Greek name, from its double note sounding
+like the exclamation ἰΰ, hence the verb ἰΰζω, I cry out.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> Compare Fig. 1, <i>ch.</i>; this bone usually exists in a
+paired condition, but in Woodpeckers and some other birds it appears
+single by the confluence of its members. In many birds the “basi-hyal”
+is succeeded by the “uro-hyal” (Fig. 1, <i>b. br.</i>), a bone altogether
+absent whenever the tongue is capable of extraordinary protrusion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> σφῦρα, a hammer; <i>picus</i>, a woodpecker.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> Yarrell, “British Birds,” vol. ii., p. 137.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> μέλας, black; ἕρπω, I creep; <i>formicivorus</i>, ant-eating.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Linnæus. A proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> From ῥάμφος, a bill.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> “Monograph of the <i>Rhamphastidæ</i>, or Family of Toucans,”
+by John Gould, F.R.S. Introduction.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> From <i>Capito</i>, the principal genus: a proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> “A Monograph of the Capitonidæ, or Scansorial Barbets,”
+by C. H. T. Marshall and G. F. L. Marshall (1871).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> <i>Galbula</i>, a proper name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> Sclater, “Synopsis of the Fissirostral Family
+Bucconidæ,” 8vo, 1854.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> <i>Alcedo</i>, a Kingfisher.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Sharpe’s “Monograph of the Alcedinidæ, or Kingfishers.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indent2">“Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore septem</div>
+    <div class="verse indent2">Incubat alcyone pendentibus æquore nidis.”&mdash;Ovid, <i>Met.</i> xi. 745.</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> κηρύλος, a sea-bird of the halcyon kind.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> “Ornithologie Nord Ost Afrikas,” p. 185.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> πελαργός, a stork; ὤψ, a face.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> Diminutive of <i>Ispida</i>, a Kingfisher.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> τανύω, to stretch; πτερόν, a wing.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> βούκερως, having the horn (κέρας) of a cow (βοῦς).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> Elliot: “Monograph of the Bucerotidæ, or family of the
+Hornbills,” Part IV.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> “Missionary Travels in South Africa.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> “Malay Archipelago,” Vol. I., p. 212.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> See Sharpe’s Edition of Layard’s “Birds of South
+Africa,” p. 122.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> Sharpe and Dresser, “Birds of Europe,” Part VII., 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 66.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> φᾶρος, a mantle; μακρός, large.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> Ibis, 1861, p. 138.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> στέαρ, στέατος, fat; ὄρνις, a bird.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> βάτραχος, a frog; στόμα, a mouth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> Owl-like.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> μακρός, long; χείρ, a hand, in the sense of a wing of a
+bird.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> Cypselus, a swift; α, not; πούς, a foot.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Nest-building.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of
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