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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/636-h.zip b/636-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..12ce0f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/636-h.zip diff --git a/636-h/636-h.htm b/636-h/636-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4f7560f --- /dev/null +++ b/636-h/636-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10202 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions, by Charles Mackay + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions, by +Charles Mackay + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions + +Author: Charles Mackay + +Release Date: August, 1996 [EBook #636] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + MEMOIRS OF <br />EXTRAORDINARY POPULAR DELUSIONS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles Mackay + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h4> + Author Of + </h4> + <h4> + "The Thames And Its Tributaries," "The Hope Of The World," Etc. <br /> + </h4> + <blockquote> + <p> + "Il est bon de connaitre les delires de l'esprit humain. Chaque people a + ses folies plus ou moins grossieres." MILLOT + </p> + </blockquote> + <h3> + VOL I. <br /> <br /> LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. + PUBLISHER IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY. 1841. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> NATIONAL DELUSIONS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF BUBBLES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> THE TULIPOMANIA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> RELICS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> MODERN PROPHECIES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR + AND BEARD. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> DUELS AND ORDEALS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF + THE TRUE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> THE O.P. MANIA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + NATIONAL DELUSIONS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + N'en deplaise a ces fous nommes sages de Grece; + En ce monde il n'est point de parfaite sagesse; + Tous les hommes sont fous, et malgre tous leurs soins, + Ne different entre eux que du plus ou du moins. + + BOILEAU. +</pre> + <p> + In reading the history of nations, we find that, like individuals, they + have their whims and their peculiarities; their seasons of excitement and + recklessness, when they care not what they do. We find that whole + communities suddenly fix their minds upon one object, and go mad in its + pursuit; that millions of people become simultaneously impressed with one + delusion, and run after it, till their attention is caught by some new + folly more captivating than the first. We see one nation suddenly seized, + from its highest to its lowest members, with a fierce desire of military + glory; another as suddenly becoming crazed upon a religious scruple, and + neither of them recovering its senses until it has shed rivers of blood + and sowed a harvest of groans and tears, to be reaped by its posterity. At + an early age in the annals of Europe its population lost their wits about + the Sepulchre of Jesus, and crowded in frenzied multitudes to the Holy + Land: another age went mad for fear of the Devil, and offered up hundreds + of thousands of victims to the delusion of witchcraft. At another time, + the many became crazed on the subject of the Philosopher's Stone, and + committed follies till then unheard of in the pursuit. It was once thought + a venial offence in very many countries of Europe to destroy an enemy by + slow poison. Persons who would have revolted at the idea of stabbing a man + to the heart, drugged his pottage without scruple. Ladies of gentle birth + and manners caught the contagion of murder, until poisoning, under their + auspices, became quite fashionable. Some delusions, though notorious to + all the world, have subsisted for ages, flourishing as widely among + civilized and polished nations as among the early barbarians with whom + they originated,—that of duelling, for instance, and the belief in + omens and divination of the future, which seem to defy the progress of + knowledge to eradicate entirely from the popular mind. Money, again, has + often been a cause of the delusion of multitudes. Sober nations have all + at once become desperate gamblers, and risked almost their existence upon + the turn of a piece of paper. To trace the history of the most prominent + of these delusions is the object of the present pages. Men, it has been + well said, think in herds; it will be seen that they go mad in herds, + while they only recover their senses slowly, and one by one. + </p> + <p> + In the present state of civilization, society has often shown itself very + prone to run a career of folly from the last-mentioned cases. This + infatuation has seized upon whole nations in a most extraordinary manner. + France, with her Mississippi madness, set the first great example, and was + very soon imitated by England with her South Sea Bubble. At an earlier + period, Holland made herself still more ridiculous in the eyes of the + world, by the frenzy which came over her people for the love of Tulips. + Melancholy as all these delusions were in their ultimate results, their + history is most amusing. A more ludicrous and yet painful spectacle, than + that which Holland presented in the years 1635 and 1636, or France in 1719 + and 1720, can hardly be imagined. Taking them in the order of their + importance, we shall commence our history with John Law and the famous + Mississippi scheme of the years above mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Some in clandestine companies combine; + Erect new stocks to trade beyond the line; + With air and empty names beguile the town, + And raise new credits first, then cry 'em down; + Divide the empty nothing into shares, + And set the crowd together by the ears. + + Defoe. +</pre> + <p> + The personal character and career of one man are so intimately connected + with the great scheme of the years 1719 and 1720, that a history of the + Mississippi madness can have no fitter introduction than a sketch of the + life of its great author, John Law. Historians are divided in opinion as + to whether they should designate him a knave or a madman. Both epithets + were unsparingly applied to him in his lifetime, and while the unhappy + consequences of his projects were still deeply felt. Posterity, however, + has found reason to doubt the justice of the accusation, and to confess + that John Law was neither knave nor madman, but one more deceived than + deceiving; more sinned against than sinning. He was thoroughly acquainted + with the philosophy and true principles of credit. He understood the + monetary question better than any man of his day; and if his system fell + with a crash so tremendous, it was not so much his fault as that of the + people amongst whom he had erected it. He did not calculate upon the + avaricious frenzy of a whole nation; he did not see that confidence, like + mistrust, could be increased, almost ad infinitum, and that hope was as + extravagant as fear. How was he to foretell that the French people, like + the man in the fable, would kill, in their frantic eagerness, the fine + goose he had brought to lay them so many golden eggs? His fate was like + that which may be supposed to have overtaken the first adventurous boatman + who rowed from Erie to Ontario. Broad and smooth was the river on which he + embarked; rapid and pleasant was his progress; and who was to stay him in + his career? Alas for him! the cataract was nigh. He saw, when it was too + late, that the tide which wafted him so joyously along was a tide of + destruction; and when he endeavoured to retrace his way, he found that the + current was too strong for his weak efforts to stem, and that he drew + nearer every instant to the tremendous falls. Down he went over the sharp + rocks, and the waters with him. He was dashed to pieces with his bark, but + the waters, maddened and turned to foam by the rough descent, only boiled + and bubbled for a time, and then flowed on again as smoothly as ever. Just + so it was with Law and the French people. He was the boatman and they were + the waters. + </p> + <p> + John Law was born at Edinburgh in the year 1671. His father was the + younger son of an ancient family in Fife, and carried on the business of a + goldsmith and banker. He amassed considerable wealth in his trade, + sufficient to enable him to gratify the wish, so common among his + countrymen, of adding a territorial designation to his name. He purchased + with this view the estates of Lauriston and Randleston, on the Frith of + Forth on the borders of West and Mid Lothian, and was thenceforth known as + Law of Lauriston. The subject of our memoir, being the eldest son, was + received into his father's counting-house at the age of fourteen, and for + three years laboured hard to acquire an insight into the principles of + banking, as then carried on in Scotland. He had always manifested great + love for the study of numbers, and his proficiency in the mathematics was + considered extraordinary in one of his tender years. At the age of + seventeen he was tall, strong, and well made; and his face, although + deeply scarred with the small-pox, was agreeable in its expression, and + full of intelligence. At this time he began to neglect his business, and + becoming vain of his person, indulged in considerable extravagance of + attire. He was a great favourite with the ladies, by whom he was called + Beau Law, while the other sex, despising his foppery, nicknamed him + Jessamy John. At the death of his father, which happened in 1688, he + withdrew entirely from the desk, which had become so irksome, and being + possessed of the revenues of the paternal estate of Lauriston, he + proceeded to London, to see the world. + </p> + <p> + He was now very young, very vain, good-looking, tolerably rich, and quite + uncontrolled. It is no wonder that, on his arrival in the capital, he + should launch out into extravagance. He soon became a regular frequenter + of the gaming-houses, and by pursuing a certain plan, based upon some + abstruse calculation of chances, he contrived to gain considerable sums. + All the gamblers envied him his luck, and many made it a point to watch + his play, and stake their money on the same chances. In affairs of + gallantry he was equally fortunate; ladies of the first rank smiled + graciously upon the handsome Scotchman—the young, the rich, the + witty, and the obliging. But all these successes only paved the way for + reverses. After he had been for nine years exposed to the dangerous + attractions of the gay life he was leading, he became an irrecoverable + gambler. As his love of play increased in violence, it diminished in + prudence. Great losses were only to be repaired by still greater ventures, + and one unhappy day he lost more than he could repay without mortgaging + his family estate. To that step he was driven at last. At the same time + his gallantry brought him into trouble. A love affair, or slight + flirtation, with a lady of the name of Villiers [Miss Elizabeth Villiers, + afterwards Countess of Orkney] exposed him to the resentment of a Mr. + Wilson, by whom he was challenged to fight a duel. Law accepted, and had + the ill fortune to shoot his antagonist dead upon the spot. He was + arrested the same day, and brought to trial for murder by the relatives of + Mr. Wilson. He was afterwards found guilty, and sentenced to death. The + sentence was commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only + amounted to manslaughter. An appeal being lodged by a brother of the + deceased, Law was detained in the King's Bench, whence, by some means or + other, which he never explained, he contrived to escape; and an action + being instituted against the sheriffs, he was advertised in the Gazette, + and a reward offered for his apprehension. He was described as "Captain + John Law, a Scotchman, aged twenty-six; a very tall, black, lean man; well + shaped, above six feet high, with large pockholes in his face; big nosed, + and speaking broad and loud." As this was rather a caricature than a + description of him, it has been supposed that it was drawn up with a view + to favour his escape. He succeeded in reaching the Continent, where he + travelled for three years, and devoted much of his attention to the + monetary and banking affairs of the countries through which he passed. He + stayed a few months in Amsterdam, and speculated to some extent in the + funds. His mornings were devoted to the study of finance and the + principles of trade, and his evenings to the gaming-house. It is generally + believed that he returned to Edinburgh in the year 1700. It is certain + that he published in that city his "Proposals and Reasons for constituting + a Council of Trade." This pamphlet did not excite much attention. + </p> + <p> + In a short time afterwards he published a project for establishing what he + called a Land-bank [The wits of the day called it a sand-bank, which would + wreck the vessel of the state.], the notes issued by which were never to + exceed the value of the entire lands of the state, upon ordinary interest, + or were to be equal in value to the land, with the right to enter into + possession at a certain time. The project excited a good deal of + discussion in the Scottish parliament, and a motion for the establishment + of such a bank was brought forward by a neutral party, called the + Squadrone, whom Law had interested in his favour. The Parliament + ultimately passed a resolution to the effect, that, to establish any kind + of paper credit, so as to force it to pass, was an improper expedient for + the nation. + </p> + <p> + Upon the failure of this project, and of his efforts to procure a pardon + for the murder of Mr. Wilson, Law withdrew to the Continent, and resumed + his old habits of gaming. For fourteen years he continued to roam about, + in Flanders, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and France. He soon became + intimately acquainted with the extent of the trade and resources of each, + and daily more confirmed in his opinion that no country could prosper + without a paper currency. During the whole of this time he appears to have + chiefly supported himself by successful play. At every gambling-house of + note in the capitals of Europe, he was known and appreciated as one better + skilled in the intricacies of chance than any other man of the day. It is + stated in the "Biographie Universelle" that he was expelled, first from + Venice, and afterwards from Genoa, by the magistrates, who thought him a + visitor too dangerous for the youth of those cities. During his residence + in Paris he rendered himself obnoxious to D'Argenson, the + lieutenant-general of the police, by whom he was ordered to quit the + capital. This did not take place, however, before he had made the + acquaintance in the saloons, of the Duke de Vendome, the Prince de Conti, + and of the gay Duke of Orleans, the latter of whom was destined afterwards + to exercise so much influence over his fate. The Duke of Orleans was + pleased with the vivacity and good sense of the Scottish adventurer, while + the latter was no less pleased with the wit and amiability of a prince who + promised to become his patron. They were often thrown into each other's + society, and Law seized every opportunity to instil his financial + doctrines into the mind of one whose proximity to the throne pointed him + out as destined, at no very distant date, to play an important part in the + government. + </p> + <p> + Shortly before the death of Louis XIV, or, as some say, in 1708, Law + proposed a scheme of finance to Desmarets, the Comptroller. Louis is + reported to have inquired whether the projector were a Catholic, and, on + being answered in the negative, to have declined having anything to do + with him. [This anecdote, which is related in the correspondence of Madame + de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, and mother of the Regent, is discredited + by Lord John Russell, in his "History of the principal States of Europe, + from the Peace of Utrecht;" for what reason he does not inform us. There + is no doubt that Law proposed his scheme to Desmarets, and that Louis + refused to hear of it. The reason given for the refusal is quite + consistent with the character of that bigoted and tyrannical monarch.] + </p> + <p> + It was after this repulse that he visited Italy. His mind being still + occupied with schemes of finance, he proposed to Victor Amadeus, Duke of + Savoy, to establish his land-bank in that country. The Duke replied that + his dominions were too circumscribed for the execution of so great a + project, and that he was by far too poor a potentate to be ruined. He + advised him, however, to try the King of France once more; for he was + sure, if he knew anything of the French character, that the people would + be delighted with a plan, not only so new, but so plausible. + </p> + <p> + Louis XIV died in 1715, and the heir to the throne being an infant only + seven years of age, the Duke of Orleans assumed the reins of government, + as Regent, during his minority. Law now found himself in a more favourable + position. The tide in his affairs had come, which, taken at the flood, was + to waft him on to fortune. The Regent was his friend, already acquainted + with his theory and pretensions, and inclined, moreover, to aid him in any + efforts to restore the wounded credit of France, bowed down to the earth + by the extravagance of the long reign of Louis XIV. + </p> + <p> + Hardly was that monarch laid in his grave ere the popular hatred, + suppressed so long, burst forth against his memory. He who, during his + life, had been flattered with an excess of adulation, to which history + scarcely offers a parallel, was now cursed as a tyrant, a bigot, and a + plunderer. His statues were pelted and disfigured; his effigies torn down, + amid the execrations of the populace, and his name rendered synonymous + with selfishness and oppression. The glory of his arms was forgotten, and + nothing was remembered but his reverses, his extravagance, and his + cruelty. + </p> + <p> + The finances of the country were in a state of the utmost disorder. A + profuse and corrupt monarch, whose profuseness and corruption were + imitated by almost every functionary, from the highest to the lowest + grade, had brought France to the verge of ruin. The national debt amounted + to 3000 millions of livres, the revenue to 145 millions, and the + expenditure to 142 millions per annum; leaving only three millions to pay + the interest upon 3000 millions. The first care of the Regent was to + discover a remedy for an evil of such magnitude, and a council was early + summoned to take the matter into consideration. The Duke de St. Simon was + of opinion that nothing could save the country from revolution but a + remedy at once bold and dangerous. He advised the Regent to convoke the + States-General, and declare a national bankruptcy. The Duke de Noailles, a + man of accommodating principles, an accomplished courtier, and totally + averse from giving himself any trouble or annoyance that ingenuity could + escape from, opposed the project of St. Simon with all his influence. He + represented the expedient as alike dishonest and ruinous. The Regent was + of the same opinion, and this desperate remedy fell to the ground. + </p> + <p> + The measures ultimately adopted, though they promised fair, only + aggravated the evil. The first, and most dishonest measure, was of no + advantage to the state. A recoinage was ordered, by which the currency was + depreciated one-fifth; those who took a thousand pieces of gold or silver + to the mint received back an amount of coin of the same nominal value, but + only four-fifths of the weight of metal. By this contrivance the treasury + gained seventy-two millions of livres, and all the commercial operations + of the country were disordered. A trifling diminution of the taxes + silenced the clamours of the people, and for the slight present advantage + the great prospective evil was forgotten. + </p> + <p> + A chamber of justice was next instituted, to inquire into the + malversations of the loan-contractors and the farmers of the revenues. Tax + collectors are never very popular in any country, but those of France at + this period deserved all the odium with which they were loaded. As soon as + these farmers-general, with all their hosts of subordinate agents, called + maltotiers [From maltote, an oppressive tax.], were called to account for + their misdeeds, the most extravagant joy took possession of the nation. + The Chamber of Justice, instituted chiefly for this purpose, was endowed + with very extensive powers. It was composed of the presidents and councils + of the parliament, the judges of the Courts of Aid and of Requests, and + the officers of the Chamber of Account, under the general presidence of + the minister of finance. Informers were encouraged to give evidence + against the offenders by the promise of one-fifth part of the fines and + confiscations. A tenth of all concealed effects belonging to the guilty + was promised to such as should furnish the means of discovering them. + </p> + <p> + The promulgation of the edict constituting this court caused a degree of + consternation among those principally concerned which can only be + accounted for on the supposition that their peculation had been enormous. + But they met with no sympathy. The proceedings against them justified + their terror. The Bastile was soon unable to contain the prisoners that + were sent to it, and the gaols all over the country teemed with guilty or + suspected persons. An order was issued to all innkeepers and postmasters + to refuse horses to such as endeavoured to seek safety in flight; and all + persons were forbidden, under heavy fines, to harbour them or favour their + evasion. Some were condemned to the pillory, others to the gallies, and + the least guilty to fine and imprisonment. One only, Samuel Bernard, a + rich banker, and farmer-general of a province remote from the capital, was + sentenced to death. So great had been the illegal profits of this man,—looked + upon as the tyrant and oppressor of his district,—that he offered + six millions of livres, or 250,000 pounds sterling, to be allowed to + escape. + </p> + <p> + His bribe was refused, and he suffered the penalty of death. Others, + perhaps more guilty, were more fortunate. Confiscation, owing to the + concealment of their treasures by the delinquents, often produced less + money than a fine. The severity of the government relaxed, and fines, + under the denomination of taxes, were indiscriminately levied upon all + offenders. But so corrupt was every department of the administration, that + the country benefited but little by the sums which thus flowed into the + treasury. Courtiers, and courtiers' wives and mistresses, came in for the + chief share of the spoils. One contractor had been taxed in proportion to + his wealth and guilt, at the sum of twelve millions of livres. The Count * + * *, a man of some weight in the government, called upon him, and offered + to procure a remission of the fine, if he would give him a hundred + thousand crowns. "Vous etes trop tard, mon ami," replied the financier; "I + have already made a bargain with your wife for fifty thousand." [This + anecdote is related by M. de la Hode, in his Life of Philippe of Orleans. + It would have looked more authentic if he had given the names of the + dishonest contractor and the still more dishonest minister. But M. de la + Hode's book is liable to the same objection as most of the French memoirs + of that and of subsequent periods. It is sufficient with most of them that + an anecdote be ben trovato; the veto is but matter of secondary + consideration.] + </p> + <p> + About a hundred and eighty millions of livres were levied in this manner, + of which eighty were applied in payment of the debts contracted by the + government. The remainder found its way into the pockets of the courtiers. + Madame de Maintenon, writing on this subject, says, "We hear every day of + some new grant of the Regent; the people murmur very much at this mode of + employing the money taken from the peculators." The people, who, after the + first burst of their resentment is over, generally express a sympathy for + the weak, were indignant that so much severity should be used to so little + purpose. They did not see the justice of robbing one set of rogues to + fatten another. In a few months all the more guilty had been brought to + punishment, and the chamber of justice looked for victims in humbler walks + of life. Charges of fraud and extortion were brought against tradesmen of + good character, in consequence of the great inducements held out to common + informers. They were compelled to lay open their affairs before this + tribunal in order to establish their innocence. The voice of complaint + resounded from every side, and at the expiration of a year the government + found it advisable to discontinue further proceedings. The chamber of + justice was suppressed, and a general amnesty granted to all against whom + no charges had yet been preferred. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of this financial confusion Law appeared upon the scene. No + man felt more deeply than the Regent the deplorable state of the country, + but no man could be more averse from putting his shoulders manfully to the + wheel. He disliked business; he signed official documents without proper + examination, and trusted to others what he should have undertaken himself. + The cares inseparable from his high office were burdensome to him; he saw + that something was necessary to be done, but he lacked the energy to do + it, and had not virtue enough to sacrifice his case and his pleasures in + the attempt. No wonder that, with this character, he listened favourably + to the mighty projects, so easy of execution, of the clever adventurer + whom he had formerly known, and whose talents he appreciated. + </p> + <p> + When Law presented himself at court, he was most cordially received. He + offered two memorials to the Regent, in which he set forth the evils that + had befallen France, owing to an insufficient currency, at different times + depreciated. He asserted that a metallic currency, unaided by a paper + money, was wholly inadequate to the wants of a commercial country, and + particularly cited the examples of Great Britain and Holland to show the + advantages of paper. He used many sound arguments on the subject of + credit, and proposed, as a means of restoring that of France, then at so + low an ebb among the nations, that he should be allowed to set up a bank, + which should have the management of the royal revenues, and issue notes, + both on that and on landed security. He further proposed that this bank + should be administered in the King's name, but subject to the control of + commissioners, to be named by the States-General. + </p> + <p> + While these memorials were under consideration, Law translated into French + his essay on money and trade, and used every means to extend through the + nation his renown as a financier. He soon became talked of. The confidants + of the Regent spread abroad his praise, and every one expected great + things of Monsieur Lass. [The French pronounced his name in this manner to + avoid the ungallic sound, aw. After the failure of his scheme, the wags + said the nation was lasse de lui, and proposed that he should in future be + known by the name of Monsieur Helas!] + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of May, 1716, a royal edict was published, by which Law was + authorised, in conjunction with his brother, to establish a bank, under + the name of Law and Company, the notes of which should be received in + payment of the taxes. The capital was fixed at six millions of livres, in + twelve thousand shares of five hundred livres each, purchasable one-fourth + in specie and the remainder in billets d'etat. It was not thought + expedient to grant him the whole of the privileges prayed for in his + memorials until experience should have shown their safety and advantage. + </p> + <p> + Law was now on the high road to fortune. The study of thirty years was + brought to guide him in the management of his bank. He made all his notes + payable at sight, and in the coin current at the time they were issued. + This last was a master-stroke of policy, and immediately rendered his + notes more valuable than the precious metals. The latter were constantly + liable to depreciation by the unwise tampering of the government. A + thousand livres of silver might be worth their nominal value one day and + be reduced one-sixth the next, but a note of Law's bank retained its + original value. He publicly declared at the same time that a banker + deserved death if he made issues without having sufficient security to + answer all demands. The consequence was, that his notes advanced rapidly + in public estimation, and were received at one per cent. more than specie. + It was not long before the trade of the country felt the benefit. + Languishing commerce began to lift up her head; the taxes were paid with + greater regularity and less murmuring, and a degree of confidence was + established that could not fail, if it continued, to become still more + advantageous. In the course of a year Law's notes rose to fifteen per + cent. premium, while the billets d'etat, or notes issued by the + government, as security for the debts contracted by the extravagant Louis + XIV, were at a discount of no less than seventy-eight and a half per cent. + The comparison was too great in favour of Law not to attract the attention + of the whole kingdom, and his credit extended itself day by day. Branches + of his bank were almost simultaneously established at Lyons, Rochelle, + Tours, Amiens, and Orleans. + </p> + <p> + The Regent appears to have been utterly astonished at his success, and + gradually to have conceived the idea, that paper, which could so aid a + metallic currency, could entirely supersede it. Upon this fundamental + error he afterwards acted. In the mean time, Law commenced the famous + project which has handed his name down to posterity. He proposed to the + Regent, who could refuse him nothing, to establish a company, that should + have the exclusive privilege of trading to the great river Mississippi and + the province of Louisiana, on its western bank. The country was supposed + to abound in the precious metals, and the company, supported by the + profits of their exclusive commerce, were to be the sole farmers of the + taxes, and sole coiners of money. Letters patent were issued, + incorporating the company, in August 1717. The capital was divided into + two hundred thousand shares of five hundred livres each, the whole of + which might be paid in billets d'etat, at their nominal value, although + worth no more than 160 livres in the market. + </p> + <p> + It was now that the frenzy of speculating began to seize upon the nation. + Law's bank had effected so much good, that any promises for the future + which he thought proper to make were readily believed. The Regent every + day conferred new privileges upon the fortunate projector. The bank + obtained the monopoly of the sale of tobacco; the sole right of refinage + of gold and silver, and was finally erected into the Royal Bank of France. + Amid the intoxication of success, both Law and the Regent forgot the maxim + so loudly proclaimed by the former, that a banker deserved death who made + issues of paper without the necessary funds to provide for them. As soon + as the bank, from a private, became a public institution, the Regent + caused a fabrication of notes to the amount of one thousand millions of + livres. This was the first departure from sound principles, and one for + which Law is not justly blameable. While the affairs of the bank were + under his control, the issues had never exceeded sixty millions. Whether + Law opposed the inordinate increase is not known, but as it took place as + soon as the bank was made a royal establishment, it is but fair to lay the + blame of the change of system upon the Regent. + </p> + <p> + Law found that he lived under a despotic government, but he was not yet + aware of the pernicious influence which such a government could exercise + upon so delicate a framework as that of credit. He discovered it + afterwards to his cost, but in the mean time suffered himself to be + impelled by the Regent into courses which his own reason must have + disapproved. With a weakness most culpable, he lent his aid in inundating + the country with paper money, which, based upon no solid foundation, was + sure to fall, sooner or later. The extraordinary present fortune dazzled + his eyes, and prevented him from seeing the evil day that would burst over + his head, when once, from any cause or other, the alarm was sounded. The + Parliament were from the first jealous of his influence as a foreigner, + and had, besides, their misgivings as to the safety of his projects. As + his influence extended, their animosity increased. D'Aguesseau, the + Chancellor, was unceremoniously dismissed by the Regent for his opposition + to the vast increase of paper money, and the constant depreciation of the + gold and silver coin of the realm. This only served to augment the enmity + of the Parliament, and when D'Argenson, a man devoted to the interests of + the Regent, was appointed to the vacant chancellorship, and made at the + same time minister of finance, they became more violent than ever. The + first measure of the new minister caused a further depreciation of the + coin. In order to extinguish the billets d'etat, it was ordered that + persons bringing to the mint four thousand livres in specie and one + thousand livres in billets d'etat, should receive back coin to the amount + of five thousand livres. D'Argenson plumed himself mightily upon thus + creating five thousand new and smaller livres out of the four thousand old + and larger ones, being too ignorant of the true principles of trade and + credit to be aware of the immense injury he was inflicting upon both. + </p> + <p> + The Parliament saw at once the impolicy and danger of such a system, and + made repeated remonstrances to the Regent. The latter refused to entertain + their petitions, when the Parliament, by a bold, and very unusual stretch + of authority, commanded that no money should be received in payment but + that of the old standard. The Regent summoned a lit de justice, and + annulled the decree. The Parliament resisted, and issued another. Again + the Regent exercised his privilege, and annulled it, till the Parliament, + stung to fiercer opposition, passed another decree, dated August 12th, + 1718, by which they forbade the bank of Law to have any concern, either + direct or indirect, in the administration of the revenue; and prohibited + all foreigners, under heavy penalties, from interfering, either in their + own names, or in that of others, in the management of the finances of the + state. The Parliament considered Law to be the author of all the evil, and + some of the counsellors, in the virulence of their enmity, proposed that + he should be brought to trial, and, if found guilty, be hung at the gates + of the Palais de Justice. + </p> + <p> + Law, in great alarm, fled to the Palais Royal, and threw himself on the + protection of the Regent, praying that measures might be taken to reduce + the Parliament to obedience. The Regent had nothing so much at heart, both + on that account and because of the disputes that had arisen relative to + the legitimation of the Duke of Maine and the Count of Thoulouse, the sons + of the late King. The Parliament was ultimately overawed by the arrest of + their president and two of the counsellors, who were sent to distant + prisons. + </p> + <p> + Thus the first cloud upon Law's prospects blew over: freed from + apprehension of personal danger, he devoted his attention to his famous + Mississippi project, the shares of which were rapidly rising, in spite of + the Parliament. At the commencement of the year 1719 an edict was + published, granting to the Mississippi Company the exclusive privilege of + trading to the East Indies, China, and the South Seas, and to all the + possessions of the French East India Company, established by Colbert. The + Company, in consequence of this great increase of their business, assumed, + as more appropriate, the title of Company of the Indies, and created fifty + thousand new shares. The prospects now held out by Law were most + magnificent. He promised a yearly dividend of two hundred livres upon each + share of five hundred, which, as the shares were paid for in billets + d'etat, at their nominal value, but worth only 100 livres, was at the rate + of about 120 per cent. profit. + </p> + <p> + The public enthusiasm, which had been so long rising, could not resist a + vision so splendid. At least three hundred thousand applications were made + for the fifty thousand new shares, and Law's house in the Rue de + Quincampoix was beset from morning to night by the eager applicants. As it + was impossible to satisfy them all, it was several weeks before a list of + the fortunate new stockholders could be made out, during which time the + public impatience rose to a pitch of frenzy. Dukes, marquises, counts, + with their duchesses, marchionesses, and countesses, waited in the streets + for hours every day before Mr. Law's door to know the result. At last, to + avoid the jostling of the plebeian crowd, which, to the number of + thousands, filled the whole thoroughfare, they took apartments in the + adjoining houses, that they might be continually near the temple whence + the new Plutus was diffusing wealth. Every day the value of the old shares + increased, and the fresh applications, induced by the golden dreams of the + whole nation, became so numerous that it was deemed advisable to create no + less than three hundred thousand new shares, at five thousand livres each, + in order that the Regent might take advantage of the popular enthusiasm to + pay off the national debt. For this purpose, the sum of fifteen hundred + millions of livres was necessary. Such was the eagerness of the nation, + that thrice the sum would have been subscribed if the government had + authorised it. + </p> + <p> + Law was now at the zenith of his prosperity, and the people were rapidly + approaching the zenith of their infatuation. The highest and the lowest + classes were alike filled with a vision of boundless wealth. There was not + a person of note among the aristocracy, with the exception of the Duke of + St. Simon and Marshal Villars, who was not engaged in buying or selling + stock. People of every age and sex, and condition in life, speculated in + the rise and fall of the Mississippi bonds. The Rue de Quincampoix was the + grand resort of the jobbers, and it being a narrow, inconvenient street, + accidents continually occurred in it, from the tremendous pressure of the + crowd. Houses in it, worth, in ordinary times, a thousand livres of yearly + rent, yielded as much as twelve or sixteen thousand. A cobbler, who had a + stall in it, gained about two hundred livres a day by letting it out, and + furnishing writing materials to brokers and their clients. The story goes, + that a hump-backed man who stood in the street gained considerable sums by + lending his hump as a writing-desk to the eager speculators! The great + concourse of persons who assembled to do business brought a still greater + concourse of spectators. These again drew all the thieves and immoral + characters of Paris to the spot, and constant riots and disturbances took + place. At nightfall, it was often found necessary to send a troop of + soldiers to clear the street. + </p> + <p> + Law, finding the inconvenience of his residence, removed to the Place + Vendome, whither the crowd of agioteurs followed him. That spacious square + soon became as thronged as the Rue de Quincampoix: from morning to night + it presented the appearance of a fair. Booths and tents were erected for + the transaction of business and the sale of refreshments, and gamblers + with their roulette tables stationed themselves in the very middle of the + place, and reaped a golden, or rather a paper, harvest from the throng. + The Boulevards and public gardens were forsaken; parties of pleasure took + their walks in preference in the Place Vendome, which became the + fashionable lounge of the idle, as well as the general rendezvous of the + busy. The noise was so great all day, that the Chancellor, whose court was + situated in the square, complained to the Regent and the municipality, + that he could not hear the advocates. Law, when applied to, expressed his + willingness to aid in the removal of the nuisance, and for this purpose + entered into a treaty with the Prince de Carignan for the Hotel de + Soissons, which had a garden of several acres in the rear. A bargain was + concluded, by which Law became the purchaser of the hotel, at an enormous + price, the Prince reserving to himself the magnificent gardens as a new + source of profit. They contained some fine statues and several fountains, + and were altogether laid out with much taste. As soon as Law was installed + in his new abode, an edict was published, forbidding all persons to buy or + sell stock anywhere but in the gardens of the Hotel de Soissons. In the + midst among the trees, about five hundred small tents and pavilions were + erected, for the convenience of the stock-jobbers. Their various colours, + the gay ribands and banners which floated from them, the busy crowds which + passed continually in and out—the incessant hum of voices, the + noise, the music, and the strange mixture of business and pleasure on the + countenances of the throng, all combined to give the place an air of + enchantment that quite enraptured the Parisians. The Prince de Carignan + made enormous profits while the delusion lasted. Each tent was let at the + rate of five hundred livres a month; and, as there were at least five + hundred of them, his monthly revenue from this source alone must have + amounted to 250,000 livres, or upwards of 10,000 pounds sterling. + </p> + <p> + The honest old soldier, Marshal Villars, was so vexed to see the folly + which had smitten his countrymen, that he never could speak with temper on + the subject. Passing one day through the Place Vendome in his carriage, + the choleric gentleman was so annoyed at the infatuation of the people, + that he abruptly ordered his coachman to stop, and, putting his head out + of the carriage window, harangued them for full half an hour on their + "disgusting avarice." This was not a very wise proceeding on his part. + Hisses and shouts of laughter resounded from every side, and jokes without + number were aimed at him. There being at last strong symptoms that + something more tangible was flying through the air in the direction of his + head, Marshal was glad to drive on. He never again repeated the + experiment. + </p> + <p> + Two sober, quiet, and philosophic men of letters, M. de la Motte and the + Abbe Terrason, congratulated each other, that they, at least, were free + from this strange infatuation. A few days afterwards, as the worthy Abbe + was coming out of the Hotel de Soissons, whither he had gone to buy shares + in the Mississippi, whom should he see but his friend La Motte entering + for the same purpose. "Ha!" said the Abbe, smiling, "is that you?" "Yes," + said La Motte, pushing past him as fast as he was able; "and can that be + you?" The next time the two scholars met, they talked of philosophy, of + science, and of religion, but neither had courage for a long time to + breathe one syllable about the Mississippi. At last, when it was + mentioned, they agreed that a man ought never to swear against his doing + any one thing, and that there was no sort of extravagance of which even a + wise man was not capable. + </p> + <p> + During this time, Law, the new Plutus, had become all at once the most + important personage of the state. The ante-chambers of the Regent were + forsaken by the courtiers. Peers, judges, and bishops thronged to the + Hotel de Soissons; officers of the army and navy, ladies of title and + fashion, and every one to whom hereditary rank or public employ gave a + claim to precedence, were to be found waiting in his ante-chambers to beg + for a portion of his India stock. Law was so pestered that he was unable + to see one-tenth part of the applicants, and every manoeuvre that + ingenuity could suggest was employed to gain access to him. Peers, whose + dignity would have been outraged if the Regent had made them wait half an + hour for an interview, were content to wait six hours for the chance of + seeing Monsieur Law. Enormous fees were paid to his servants, if they + would merely announce their names. Ladies of rank employed the + blandishments of their smiles for the same object; but many of them came + day after day for a fortnight before they could obtain an audience. When + Law accepted an invitation, he was sometimes so surrounded by ladies, all + asking to have their names put down in his lists as shareholders in the + new stock, that, in spite of his well-known and habitual gallantry, he was + obliged to tear himself away par force. The most ludicrous stratagems were + employed to have an opportunity of speaking to him. One lady, who had + striven in vain during several days, gave up in despair all attempts to + see him at his own house, but ordered her coachman to keep a strict watch + whenever she was out in her carriage, and if he saw Mr. Law coming, to + drive against a post, and upset her. The coachman promised obedience, and + for three days the lady was driven incessantly through the town, praying + inwardly for the opportunity to be overturned. At last she espied Mr. Law, + and, pulling the string, called out to the coachman, "Upset us now! for + God's sake, upset us now!" The coachman drove against a post, the lady + screamed, the coach was overturned, and Law, who had seen the accident, + hastened to the spot to render assistance. The cunning dame was led into + the Hotel de Soissons, where she soon thought it advisable to recover from + her fright, and, after apologizing to Mr. Law, confessed her stratagem. + Law smiled, and entered the lady in his books as the purchaser of a + quantity of India stock. Another story is told of a Madame de Boucha, who, + knowing that Mr. Law was at dinner at a certain house, proceeded thither + in her carriage, and gave the alarm of fire. The company started from + table, and Law among the rest; but, seeing one lady making all haste into + the house towards him, while everybody else was scampering away, he + suspected the trick, and ran off in another direction. + </p> + <p> + Many other anecdotes are related, which even, though they may be a little + exaggerated, are nevertheless worth preserving, as showing the spirit of + that singular period. [The curious reader may find an anecdote of the + eagerness of the French ladies to retain Law in their company, which will + make him blush or smile according as he happens to be very modest or the + reverse. It is related in the Letters of Madame Charlotte Elizabeth de + Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, vol. ii. p. 274.] The Regent was one day + mentioning, in the presence of D'Argenson, the Abbe Dubois, and some other + persons, that he was desirous of deputing some lady, of the rank at least + of a Duchess, to attend upon his daughter at Modena; "but," added he, "I + do not exactly know where to find one." "No!" replied one, in affected + surprise; "I can tell you where to find every Duchess in France:—you + have only to go to Mr. Law's; you will see them every one in his + ante-chamber." + </p> + <p> + M. de Chirac, a celebrated physician, had bought stock at an unlucky + period, and was very anxious to sell out. Stock, however continued to fall + for two or three days, much to his alarm. His mind was filled with the + subject, when he was suddenly called upon to attend a lady, who imagined + herself unwell. He arrived, was shown up stairs, and felt the lady's + pulse. "It falls! it falls! good God! it falls continually!" said he, + musingly, while the lady looked up in his face, all anxiety for his + opinion. "Oh! M. de Chirac," said she, starting to her feet, and ringing + the bell for assistance; "I am dying! I am dying! it falls! it falls! it + falls!" "What falls?" inquired the doctor, in amazement. "My pulse! my + pulse!" said the lady; "I must be dying." "Calm your apprehensions, my + dear Madam," said M. de Chirac; "I was speaking of the stocks. The truth + is, I have been a great loser, and my mind is so disturbed, I hardly know + what I have been saying." + </p> + <p> + The price of shares sometimes rose ten or twenty per cent. in the course + of a few hours, and many persons in the humbler walks of life, who had + risen poor in the morning, went to bed in affluence. An extensive holder + of stock, being taken ill, sent his servant to sell two hundred and fifty + shares, at eight thousand livres each, the price at which they were then + quoted. The servant went, and, on his arrival in the Jardin de Soissons, + found that in the interval the price had risen to ten thousand livres. The + difference of two thousand livres on the two hundred and fifty shares, + amounting to 500,000 livres, or 20,000 pounds sterling, he very coolly + transferred to his own use, and, giving the remainder to his master, set + out the same evening for another country. Law's coachman in a very short + time made money enough to set up a carriage of his own, and requested + permission to leave his service. Law, who esteemed the man, begged of him + as a favour, that he would endeavour, before he went, to find a substitute + as good as himself. The coachman consented, and in the evening brought two + of his former comrades, telling Mr. Law to choose between them, and he + would take the other. Cookmaids and footmen were now and then as lucky, + and, in the full-blown pride of their easily-acquired wealth, made the + most ridiculous mistakes. Preserving the language and manners of their + old, with the finery of their new station, they afforded continual + subjects for the pity of the sensible, the contempt of the sober, and the + laughter of everybody. But the folly and meanness of the higher ranks of + society were still more disgusting. One instance alone, related by the + Duke de St. Simon, will show the unworthy avarice which infected the whole + of society. A man of the name of Andre, without character or education, + had, by a series of well-timed speculations in Mississippi bonds, gained + enormous wealth, in an incredibly short space of time. As St. Simon + expresses it, "he had amassed mountains of gold." As he became rich, he + grew ashamed of the lowness of his birth, and anxious above all things to + be allied to nobility. He had a daughter, an infant only three years of + age, and he opened a negotiation with the aristocratic and needy family of + D'Oyse, that this child should, upon certain conditions, marry a member of + that house. The Marquis d'Oyse, to his shame, consented, and promised to + marry her himself on her attaining the age of twelve, if the father would + pay him down the sum of a hundred thousand crowns, and twenty thousand + livres every year, until the celebration of the marriage. The Marquis was + himself in his thirty-third year. This scandalous bargain was duly signed + and sealed, the stockjobber furthermore agreeing to settle upon his + daughter, on the marriage-day, a fortune of several millions. The Duke of + Brancas, the head of the family, was present throughout the negotiation, + and shared in all the profits. St. Simon, who treats the matter with the + levity becoming what he thought so good a joke, adds, "that people did not + spare their animadversions on this beautiful marriage," and further + informs us, "that the project fell to the ground some months afterwards by + the overthrow of Law, and the ruin of the ambitious Monsieur Andre." It + would appear, however, that the noble family never had the honesty to + return the hundred thousand crowns. + </p> + <p> + Amid events like these, which, humiliating though they be, partake largely + of the ludicrous, others occurred of a more serious nature. Robberies in + the streets were of daily occurrence, in consequence of the immense sums, + in paper, which people carried about with them. Assassinations were also + frequent. One case in particular fixed the attention of the whole of + France, not only on account of the enormity of the offence, but of the + rank and high connexions of the criminal. + </p> + <p> + The Count d'Horn, a younger brother of the Prince d'Horn, and related to + the noble families of D'Aremberg, De Ligne, and De Montmorency, was a + young man of dissipated character, extravagant to a degree, and + unprincipled as he was extravagant. In connexion with two other young men + as reckless as himself, named Mille, a Piedmontese captain, and one + Destampes, or Lestang, a Fleming, he formed a design to rob a very rich + broker, who was known, unfortunately for himself, to carry great sums + about his person. The Count pretended a desire to purchase of him a number + of shares in the Company of the Indies, and for that purpose appointed to + meet him in a cabaret, or low public-house, in the neighbourhood of the + Place Vendome. The unsuspecting broker was punctual to his appointment; so + were the Count d'Horn and his two associates, whom he introduced as his + particular friends. After a few moments' conversation, the Count d'Horn + suddenly sprang upon his victim, and stabbed him three times in the breast + with a poniard. The man fell heavily to the ground, and, while the Count + was employed in rifling his portfolio of bonds in the Mississippi and + Indian schemes to the amount of one hundred thousand crowns, Mille, the + Piedmontese, stabbed the unfortunate broker again and again, to make sure + of his death. But the broker did not fall without a struggle, and his + cries brought the people of the cabaret to his assistance. Lestang, the + other assassin, who had been set to keep watch at a staircase, sprang from + a window and escaped; but Mille and the Count d'Horn were seized in the + very act. + </p> + <p> + This crime, committed in open day, and in so public a place as a cabaret, + filled Paris with consternation. The trial of the assassins commenced on + the following day, and the evidence being so clear, they were both found + guilty and condemned to be broken alive on the wheel. The noble relatives + of the Count d'Horn absolutely blocked up the ante-chambers of the Regent, + praying for mercy on the misguided youth, and alleging that he was insane. + The Regent avoided them as long as possible, being determined that, in a + case so atrocious, justice should take its course; but the importunity of + these influential suitors was not to be overcome so silently, and they at + last forced themselves into the presence of the Regent, and prayed him to + save their house the shame of a public execution. They hinted that the + Princes d'Horn were allied to the illustrious family of Orleans, and added + that the Regent himself would be disgraced if a kinsman of his should die + by the hands of a common executioner. The Regent, to his credit, was proof + against all their solicitations, and replied to their last argument in the + words of Corneille,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Le crime fait la honte, et non pas l'echafaud:" +</pre> + <p> + adding, that whatever shame there might be in the punishment he would very + willingly share with the other relatives. Day after day they renewed their + entreaties, but always with the same result. At last they thought that if + they could interest the Duke de St. Simon in their layout, a man for whom + the Regent felt sincere esteem, they might succeed in their object. The + Duke, a thorough aristocrat, was as shocked as they were, that a noble + assassin should die by the same death as a plebeian felon, and represented + to the Regent the impolicy of making enemies of so numerous, wealthy, and + powerful a family. He urged, too, that in Germany, where the family of + D'Aremberg had large possessions, it was the law, that no relative of a + person broken on the wheel could succeed to any public office or employ + until a whole generation had passed away. For this reason he thought the + punishment of the guilty Count might be transmuted into beheading, which + was considered all over Europe as much less infamous. The Regent was moved + by this argument, and was about to consent, when Law, who felt peculiarly + interested in the fate of the murdered man, confirmed him in his former + resolution, to let the law take its course. + </p> + <p> + The relatives of D'Horn were now reduced to the last extremity. The Prince + de Robec Montmorency, despairing of other methods, found means to + penetrate into the dungeon of the criminal, and offering him a cup of + poison, implored him to save them from disgrace. The Count d'Horn turned + away his head, and refused to take it. Montmorency pressed him once more, + and losing all patience at his continued refusal, turned on his heel, and + exclaiming, "Die, then, as thou wilt, mean-spirited wretch! thou art fit + only to perish by the hands of the hangman!" left him to his fate. + </p> + <p> + D'Horn himself petitioned the Regent that he might be beheaded, but Law, + who exercised more influence over his mind than any other person, with the + exception of the notorious Abbe Dubois, his tutor, insisted that he could + not in justice succumb to the self-interested views of the D'Horns. The + Regent had from the first been of the same opinion, and within six days + after the commission of their crime, D'Horn and Mille were broken on the + wheel in the Place de Greve. The other assassin, Lestang, was never + apprehended. + </p> + <p> + This prompt and severe justice was highly pleasing to the populace of + Paris; even M. de Quincampoix, as they called Law, came in for a share of + their approbation for having induced the Regent to show no favour to a + patrician. But the number of robberies and assassinations did not + diminish. No sympathy was shown for rich jobbers when they were plundered: + the general laxity of public morals, conspicuous enough before, was + rendered still more so by its rapid pervasion of the middle classes, who + had hitherto remained comparatively pure, between the open vices of the + class above and the hidden crimes of the class below them. The pernicious + love of gambling diffused itself through society, and bore all public, and + nearly all private, virtue before it. + </p> + <p> + For a time, while confidence lasted, an impetus was given to trade, which + could not fail to be beneficial. In Paris, especially, the good results + were felt. Strangers flocked into the capital from every part, bent, not + only upon making money, but on spending it. The Duchess of Orleans, mother + of the Regent, computes the increase of the population during this time, + from the great influx of strangers from all parts of the world, at 305,000 + souls. The housekeepers were obliged to make up beds in garrets, kitchens, + and even stables, for the accommodation of lodgers; and the town was so + full of carriages and vehicles of every description, that they were + obliged in the principal streets to drive at a foot-pace for fear of + accidents. The looms of the country worked with unusual activity, to + supply rich laces, silks, broad-cloth, and velvets, which being paid for + in abundant paper, increased in price four-fold. Provisions shared the + general advance; bread, meat, and vegetables were sold at prices greater + than had ever before been known; while the wages of labour rose in exactly + the same proportion. The artisan, who formerly gained fifteen sous per + diem, now gained sixty. New houses were built in every direction; an + illusory prosperity shone over the land, and so dazzled the eyes of the + whole nation that none could see the dark cloud on the horizon, announcing + the storm that was too rapidly approaching. + </p> + <p> + Law himself, the magician whose wand had wrought so surprising a change, + shared, of course, in the general prosperity. His wife and daughter were + courted by the highest nobility, and their alliance sought by the heirs of + ducal and princely houses. He bought two splendid estates in different + parts of France, and entered into a negotiation with the family of the + Duke de Sully for the purchase of the Marquisate of Rosny. His religion + being an obstacle to his advancement, the Regent promised, if he would + publicly conform to the Catholic faith, to make him comptroller-general of + the finances. Law, who had no more real religion than any other professed + gambler, readily agreed, and was confirmed by the Abbe de Tencin in the + cathedral of Melun, in presence of a great crowd of spectators. + </p> + <p> + [The following squib was circulated on the occasion:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Foin de ton zele seraphique, + Malheureux Abbe de Tencin, + Depuis que Law est Catholique, + Tout le royaume est Capucin +</pre> + <p> + Thus, somewhat weakly and paraphrastically rendered by Justansond, in his + translation of the "Memoirs of Louis XV:"— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Tencin, a curse on thy seraphic zeal, + Which by persuasion hath contrived the means + To make the Scotchman at our altars kneel, + Since which we all are poor as Capucines?] +</pre> + <p> + On the following day he was elected honorary churchwarden of the parish of + St. Roch, upon which occasion he made it a present of the sum of five + hundred thousand livres. His charities, always magnificent, were not + always so ostentatious. He gave away great sums privately, and no tale of + real distress ever reached his ears in vain. + </p> + <p> + At this time, he was by far the most influential person of the state. The + Duke of Orleans had so much confidence in his sagacity, and the success of + his plans, that he always consulted him upon every matter of moment. He + was by no means unduly elevated by his prosperity, but remained the same + simple, affable, sensible man that he had shown himself in adversity. His + gallantry, which was always delightful to the fair objects of it, was of a + nature, so kind, so gentlemanly, and so respectful, that not even a lover + could have taken offence at it. If upon any occasion he showed any + symptoms of haughtiness, it was to the cringing nobles, who lavished their + adulation upon him till it became fulsome. He often took pleasure in + seeing how long he could make them dance attendance upon him for a single + favour. To such of his own countrymen as by chance visited Paris, and + sought an interview with him, he was, on the contrary, all politeness and + attention. When Archibald Campbell, Earl of Islay, and afterwards Duke of + Argyle, called upon him in the Place Vendome, he had to pass through an + ante-chamber crowded with persons of the first distinction, all anxious to + see the great financier, and have their names put down as first on the + list of some new subscription. Law himself was quietly sitting in his + library, writing a letter to the gardener at his paternal estate of + Lauriston about the planting of some cabbages! The Earl stayed for a + considerable time, played a game of piquet with his countryman, and left + him, charmed with his ease, good sense, and good breeding. + </p> + <p> + Among the nobles who, by means of the public credulity at this time, + gained sums sufficient to repair their ruined fortunes, may be mentioned + the names of the Dukes de Bourbon, de Guiche, de la Force [The Duke de la + Force gained considerable sums, not only by jobbing in the stocks, but in + dealing in porcelain, spices, &c. It was debated for a length of time + in the Parliament of Paris whether he had not, in his quality of + spice-merchant, forfeited his rank in the peerage. It was decided in the + negative. A caricature of him was made, dressed as a street porter, + carrying a large bale of spices on his back, with the inscription, + "Admirez La Force."], de Chaulnes, and d'Antin; the Marechal d'Estrees, + the Princes de Rohan, de Poix, and de Leon. The Duke de Bourbon, son of + Louis XIV by Madame de Montespan, was peculiarly fortunate in his + speculations in Mississippi paper. He rebuilt the royal residence of + Chantilly in a style of unwonted magnificence, and, being passionately + fond of horses, he erected a range of stables, which were long renowned + throughout Europe, and imported a hundred and fifty of the finest racers + from England, to improve the breed in France. He bought a large extent of + country in Picardy, and became possessed of nearly all the valuable lands + lying between the Oise and the Somme. + </p> + <p> + When fortunes such as these were gained, it is no wonder that Law should + have been almost worshipped by the mercurial population. Never was monarch + more flattered than he was. All the small poets and litterateurs of the + day poured floods of adulation upon him. According to them he was the + saviour of the country, the tutelary divinity of France; wit was in all + his words, goodness in all his looks, and wisdom in all his actions. So + great a crowd followed his carriage whenever he went abroad, that the + Regent sent him a troop of horse as his permanent escort, to clear the + streets before him. + </p> + <p> + It was remarked at this time, that Paris had never before been so full of + objects of elegance and luxury. Statues, pictures, and tapestries were + imported in great quantities from foreign countries, and found a ready + market. All those pretty trifles in the way of furniture and ornament + which the French excel in manufacturing, were no longer the exclusive + play-things of the aristocracy, but were to be found in abundance in the + houses of traders and the middle classes in general. Jewellery of the most + costly description was brought to Paris as the most favourable mart. Among + the rest, the famous diamond, bought by the Regent, and called by his + name, and which long adorned the crown of France. It was purchased for the + sum of two millions of livres, under circumstances which show that the + Regent was not so great a gainer as some of his subjects, by the impetus + which trade had received. When the diamond was first offered to him, he + refused to buy it, although he desired, above all things, to possess it, + alleging as his reason, that his duty to the country he governed would not + allow him to spend so large a sum of the public money for a mere jewel. + This valid and honourable excuse threw all the ladies of the court into + alarm, and nothing was heard for some days but expressions of regret, that + so rare a gem should be allowed to go out of France; no private individual + being rich enough to buy it. The Regent was continually importuned about + it; but all in vain, until the Duke de St. Simon, who, with all his + ability, was something of a twaddler, undertook the weighty business. His + entreaties, being seconded by Law, the good-natured Regent gave his + consent, leaving to Law's ingenuity to find the means to pay for it. The + owner took security for the payment of the sum of two millions of livres + within a stated period, receiving, in the mean time, the interest of five + per cent. upon that amount, and being allowed, besides, all the valuable + clippings of the gem. St. Simon, in his Memoirs, relates, with no little + complacency, his share in this transaction. After describing the diamond + to be as large as a greengage, of a form nearly round, perfectly white, + and without flaw, and weighing more than five hundred grains, he concludes + with a chuckle, by telling the world, "that he takes great credit to + himself for having induced the Regent to make so illustrious a purchase." + In other words, he was proud that he had induced him to sacrifice his + duty, and buy a bauble for himself, at an extravagant price, out of the + public money. + </p> + <p> + Thus the system continued to flourish till the commencement of the year + 1720. The warnings of the Parliament, that too great a creation of paper + money would, sooner or later, bring the country to bankruptcy, were + disregarded. The Regent, who knew nothing whatever of the philosophy of + finance, thought that a system which had produced such good effects could + never be carried to excess. If five hundred millions of paper had been of + such advantage, five hundred millions additional would be of still greater + advantage. This was the grand error of the Regent, and which Law did not + attempt to dispel. The extraordinary avidity of the people kept up the + delusion; and the higher the price of Indian and Mississippi stock, the + more billets de banque were issued to keep pace with it. The edifice thus + reared might not unaptly be compared to the gorgeous palace erected by + Potemkin, that princely barbarian of Russia, to surprise and please his + imperial mistress: huge blocks of ice were piled one upon another; ionic + pillars, of chastest workmanship, in ice, formed a noble portico; and a + dome, of the same material, shone in the sun, which had just strength + enough to gild, but not to melt it. It glittered afar, like a palace of + crystals and diamonds; but there came one warm breeze from the south, and + the stately building dissolved away, till none were able even to gather up + the fragments. So with Law and his paper system. No sooner did the breath + of popular mistrust blow steadily upon it, than it fell to ruins, and none + could raise it up again. + </p> + <p> + The first slight alarm that was occasioned was early in 1720. The Prince + de Conti, offended that Law should have denied him fresh shares in India + stock, at his own price, sent to his bank to demand payment in specie of + so enormous a quantity of notes, that three waggons were required for its + transport. Law complained to the Regent, and urged on his attention the + mischief that would be done, if such an example found many imitators. The + Regent was but too well aware of it, and, sending for the Prince de Conti, + ordered him, under penalty of his high displeasure, to refund to the Bank + two-thirds of the specie which he had withdrawn from it. The Prince was + forced to obey the despotic mandate. Happily for Law's credit, De Conti + was an unpopular man: everybody condemned his meanness and cupidity, and + agreed that Law had been hardly treated. It is strange, however, that so + narrow an escape should not have made both Law and the Regent more anxious + to restrict their issues. Others were soon found who imitated, from + motives of distrust, the example which had been set by De Conti in + revenge. The more acute stockjobbers imagined justly that prices could not + continue to rise for ever. Bourdon and La Richardiere, renowned for their + extensive operations in the funds, quietly and in small quantities at a + time, converted their notes into specie, and sent it away to foreign + countries. They also bought as much as they could conveniently carry of + plate and expensive jewellery, and sent it secretly away to England or to + Holland. Vermalet, a jobber, who sniffed the coming storm, procured gold + and silver coin to the amount of nearly a million of livres, which he + packed in a farmer's cart, and covered over with hay and cow-dung. He then + disguised himself in the dirty smock-frock, or blouse, of a peasant, and + drove his precious load in safety into Belgium. From thence he soon found + means to transport it to Amsterdam. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto no difficulty had been experienced by any class in procuring + specie for their wants. But this system could not long be carried on + without causing a scarcity. The voice of complaint was heard on every + side, and inquiries being instituted, the cause was soon discovered. The + council debated long on the remedies to be taken, and Law, being called on + for his advice, was of opinion, that an edict should be published, + depreciating the value of coin five per cent. below that of paper. The + edict was published accordingly; but, failing of its intended effect, was + followed by another, in which the depreciation was increased to ten per + cent. The payments of the bank were at the same time restricted to one + hundred livres in gold, and ten in silver. All these measures were + nugatory to restore confidence in the paper, though the restriction of + cash payments within limits so extremely narrow kept up the credit of the + Bank. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding every effort to the contrary, the precious metals + continued to be conveyed to England and Holland. The little coin that was + left in the country was carefully treasured, or hidden until the scarcity + became so great, that the operations of trade could no longer be carried + on. In this emergency, Law hazarded the bold experiment of forbidding the + use of specie altogether. In February 1720 an edict was published, which, + instead of restoring the credit of the paper, as was intended, destroyed + it irrecoverably, and drove the country to the very brink of revolution. + By this famous edict it was forbidden to any person whatever to have more + than five hundred livres (20 pounds sterling) of coin in his possession, + under pain of a heavy fine, and confiscation of the sums found. It was + also forbidden to buy up jewellery, plate, and precious stones, and + informers were encouraged to make search for offenders, by the promise of + one-half the amount they might discover. The whole country sent up a cry + of distress at this unheard-of tyranny. The most odious persecution daily + took place. The privacy of families was violated by the intrusion of + informers and their agents. The most virtuous and honest were denounced + for the crime of having been seen with a louis d'or in their possession. + Servants betrayed their masters, one citizen became a spy upon his + neighbour, and arrests and confiscations so multiplied, that the courts + found a difficulty in getting through the immense increase of business + thus occasioned. It was sufficient for an informer to say that he + suspected any person of concealing money in his house, and immediately a + search-warrant was granted. Lord Stair, the English ambassador, said, that + it was now impossible to doubt of the sincerity of Law's conversion to the + Catholic religion; he had established the inquisition, after having given + abundant evidence of his faith in transubstantiation, by turning so much + gold into paper. + </p> + <p> + Every epithet that popular hatred could suggest was showered upon the + Regent and the unhappy Law. Coin, to any amount above five hundred livres, + was an illegal tender, and nobody would take paper if he could help it. No + one knew to-day what his notes would be worth to-morrow. "Never," says + Duclos, in his Secret Memoirs of the Regency, "was seen a more capricious + government-never was a more frantic tyranny exercised by hands less firm. + It is inconceivable to those who were witnesses of the horrors of those + times, and who look back upon them now as on a dream, that a sudden + revolution did not break out—that Law and the Regent did not perish + by a tragical death. They were both held in horror, but the people + confined themselves to complaints; a sombre and timid despair, a stupid + consternation, had seized upon all, and men's minds were too vile even to + be capable of a courageous crime." It would appear that, at one time, a + movement of the people was organised. Seditious writings were posted up + against the walls, and were sent, in hand-bills, to the houses of the most + conspicuous people. One of them, given in the "Memoires de la Regence," + was to the following effect:—"Sir and Madam,—This is to give + you notice that a St. Bartholomew's Day will be enacted again on Saturday + and Sunday, if affairs do not alter. You are desired not to stir out, nor + you, nor your servants. God preserve you from the flames! Give notice to + your neighbours. Dated Saturday, May 25th, 1720." The immense number of + spies with which the city was infested rendered the people mistrustful of + one another, and beyond some trifling disturbances made in the evening by + an insignificant group, which was soon dispersed, the peace of the capital + was not compromised. + </p> + <p> + The value of shares in the Louisiana, or Mississippi stock, had fallen + very rapidly, and few indeed were found to believe the tales that had once + been told of the immense wealth of that region. A last effort was + therefore tried to restore the public confidence in the Mississippi + project. For this purpose, a general conscription of all the poor wretches + in Paris was made by order of government. Upwards of six thousand of the + very refuse of the population were impressed, as if in time of war, and + were provided with clothes and tools to be embarked for New Orleans, to + work in the gold mines alleged to abound there. They were paraded day + after day through the streets with their pikes and shovels, and then sent + off in small detachments to the out-ports to be shipped for America. + Two-thirds of them never reached their destination, but dispersed + themselves over the country, sold their tools for what they could get, and + returned to their old course of life. In less than three weeks afterwards, + one-half of them were to be found again in Paris. The manoeuvre, however, + caused a trifling advance in Mississippi stock. Many persons of + superabundant gullibility believed that operations had begun in earnest in + the new Golconda, and that gold and silver ingots would again be found in + France. + </p> + <p> + In a constitutional monarchy some surer means would have been found for + the restoration of public credit. In England, at a subsequent period, when + a similar delusion had brought on similar distress, how different were the + measures taken to repair the evil; but in France, unfortunately, the + remedy was left to the authors of the mischief. The arbitrary will of the + Regent, which endeavoured to extricate the country, only plunged it deeper + into the mire. All payments were ordered to be made in paper, and between + the 1st of February and the end of May, notes were fabricated to the + amount of upwards of 1500 millions of livres, or 60,000,000 pounds + sterling. But the alarm once sounded, no art could make the people feel + the slightest confidence in paper which was not exchangeable into metal. + M. Lambert, the President of the Parliament of Paris, told the Regent to + his face that he would rather have a hundred thousand livres in gold or + silver than five millions in the notes of his bank. When such was the + general feeling, the superabundant issues of paper but increased the evil, + by rendering still more enormous the disparity between the amount of + specie and notes in circulation. Coin, which it was the object of the + Regent to depreciate, rose in value on every fresh attempt to diminish it. + In February, it was judged advisable that the Royal Bank should be + incorporated with the Company of the Indies. An edict to that effect was + published and registered by the Parliament. The state remained the + guarantee for the notes of the bank, and no more were to be issued without + an order in council. All the profits of the bank, since the time it had + been taken out of Law's hands and made a national institution, were given + over by the Regent to the Company of the Indies. This measure had the + effect of raising for a short time the value of the Louisiana and other + shares of the company, but it failed in placing public credit on any + permanent basis. + </p> + <p> + A council of state was held in the beginning of May, at which Law, + D'Argenson (his colleague in the administration of the finances), and all + the ministers were present. It was then computed that the total amount of + notes in circulation was 2600 millions of livres, while the coin in the + country was not quite equal to half that amount. It was evident to the + majority of the council that some plan must be adopted to equalise the + currency. Some proposed that the notes should be reduced to the value of + the specie, while others proposed that the nominal value of the specie + should be raised till it was on an equality with the paper. Law is said to + have opposed both these projects, but failing in suggesting any other, it + was agreed that the notes should be depreciated one-half. On the 21st of + May, an edict was accordingly issued, by which it was decreed that the + shares of the Company of the Indies, and the notes of the bank, should + gradually diminish in value, till at the end of a year they should only + pass current for one half of their nominal worth. The Parliament refused + to register the edict—the greatest outcry was excited, and the state + of the country became so alarming, that, as the only means of preserving + tranquillity, the council of the regency was obliged to stultify its own + proceedings, by publishing within seven days another edict, restoring the + notes to their original value. + </p> + <p> + On the same day (the 27th of May) the bank stopped payment in specie. Law + and D'Argenson were both dismissed from the ministry. The weak, + vacillating, and cowardly Regent threw the blame of all the mischief upon + Law, who, upon presenting himself at the Palais Royal, was refused + admitance. At nightfall, however, he was sent for, and admitted into the + palace by a secret door,[Duclos, Memoires Secrets de la Regence.] when the + Regent endeavoured to console him, and made all manner of excuses for the + severity with which in public he had been compelled to treat him. So + capricious was his conduct, that, two days afterwards, he took him + publicly to the opera, where he sat in the royal box, alongside of the + Regent, who treated him with marked consideration in face of all the + people. But such was the hatred against Law that the experiment had well + nigh proved fatal to him. The mob assailed his carriage with stones just + as he was entering his own door; and if the coachman had not made a sudden + jerk into the court-yard, and the domestics closed the gate immediately, + he would, in all probability, have been dragged out and torn to pieces. On + the following day, his wife and daughter were also assailed by the mob as + they were returning in their carriage from the races. When the Regent was + informed of these occurrences he sent Law a strong detachment of Swiss + guards, who were stationed night and day in the court of his residence. + The public indignation at last increased so much, that Law, finding his + own house, even with this guard, insecure, took refuge in the Palais + Royal, in the apartments of the Regent. + </p> + <p> + The Chancellor, D'Aguesseau, who had been dismissed in 1718 for his + opposition to the projects of Law, was now recalled to aid in the + restoration of credit. The Regent acknowledged too late, that he had + treated with unjustifiable harshness and mistrust one of the ablest, and + perhaps the sole honest public man of that corrupt period. He had retired + ever since his disgrace to his country-house at Fresnes, where, in the + midst of severe but delightful philosophic studies, he had forgotten the + intrigues of an unworthy court. Law himself, and the Chevalier de + Conflans, a gentleman of the Regent's household, were despatched in a + post-chaise, with orders to bring the ex-chancellor to Paris along with + them. D'Aguesseau consented to render what assistance he could, contrary + to the advice of his friends, who did not approve that he should accept + any recall to office of which Law was the bearer. On his arrival in Paris, + five counsellors of the Parliament were admitted to confer with the + Commissary of Finance, and on the 1st of June an order was published, + abolishing the law which made it criminal to amass coin to the amount of + more than five hundred livres. Every one was permitted to have as much + specie as he pleased. In order that the bank-notes might be withdrawn, + twenty-five millions of new notes were created, on the security of the + revenues of the city of Paris, at two-and-a-half per cent. The bank-notes + withdrawn were publicly burned in front of the Hotel de Ville. The new + notes were principally of the value of ten livres each; and on the 10th of + June the bank was re-opened, with a sufficiency of silver coin to give in + change for them. + </p> + <p> + These measures were productive of considerable advantage. All the + population of Paris hastened to the bank, to get coin for their small + notes; and silver becoming scarce, they were paid in copper. Very few + complained that this was too heavy, although poor fellows might be + continually seen toiling and sweating along the streets, laden with more + than they could comfortably carry, in the shape of change for fifty + livres. The crowds around the bank were so great, that hardly a day passed + that some one was not pressed to death. On the 9th of July, the multitude + was so dense and clamorous that the guards stationed at the entrance of + the Mazarin Gardens closed the gate, and refused to admit any more. The + crowd became incensed, and flung stones through the railings upon the + soldiers. The latter, incensed in their turn, threatened to fire upon the + people. At that instant one of them was hit by a stone, and, taking up his + piece, he fired into the crowd. One man fell dead immediately, and another + was severely wounded. It was every instant expected that a general attack + would have been commenced upon the bank; but the gates of the Mazarin + Gardens being opened to the crowd, who saw a whole troop of soldiers, with + their bayonets fixed, ready to receive them, they contented themselves by + giving vent to their indignation in groans and hisses. + </p> + <p> + Eight days afterwards the concourse of people was so tremendous, that + fifteen persons were squeezed to death at the doors of the bank. The + people were so indignant that they took three of the bodies on stretchers + before them, and proceeded, to the number of seven or eight thousand, to + the gardens of the Palais Royal, that they might show the Regent the + misfortunes that he and Law had brought upon the country. Law's coachman, + who was sitting on the box of his master's carriage, in the court-yard of + the palace, happened to have more zeal than discretion, and, not liking + that the mob should abuse his master, he said, loud enough to be overheard + by several persons, that they were all blackguards, and deserved to be + hanged. The mob immediately set upon him, and, thinking that Law was in + the carriage, broke it to pieces. The imprudent coachman narrowly escaped + with his life. No further mischief was done; a body of troops making their + appearance, the crowd quietly dispersed, after an assurance had been given + by the Regent that the three bodies they had brought to show him should be + decently buried at his own expense. The Parliament was sitting at the time + of this uproar, and the President took upon himself to go out and see what + was the matter. On his return he informed the councillors, that Law's + carriage had been broken by the mob. All the members rose simultaneously, + and expressed their joy by a loud shout, while one man, more zealous in + his hatred than the rest, exclaimed, "And Law himself, is he torn to + pieces?" [The Duchess of Orleans gives a different version of this story; + but whichever be the true one, the manifestation of such feeling in a + legislative assembly was not very creditable. She says, that the President + was so transported with joy, that he was seized with a rhyming fit, and, + returning into the hall, exclaimed to the members:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Messieurs! Messieurs! bonne nouvelle! + Le carfosse de Lass est reduit en canelle!"] +</pre> + <p> + Much undoubtedly depended on the credit of the Company of the Indies, + which was answerable for so great a sum to the nation. It was, therefore, + suggested in the council of the ministry, that any privileges which could + be granted to enable it to fulfil its engagements, would be productive of + the best results. With this end in view, it was proposed that the + exclusive privilege of all maritime commerce should be secured to it, and + an edict to that effect was published. But it was unfortunately forgotten + that by such a measure all the merchants of the country would be ruined. + The idea of such an immense privilege was generally scouted by the nation, + and petition on petition was presented to the Parliament, that they would + refuse to register the decree. They refused accordingly, and the Regent, + remarking that they did nothing but fan the flame of sedition, exiled them + to Blois. At the intercession of D'Aguesseau, the place of banishment was + changed to Pontoise, and thither accordingly the councillors repaired, + determined to set the Regent at defiance. They made every arrangement for + rendering their temporary exile as agreeable as possible. The President + gave the most elegant suppers, to which he invited all the gayest and + wittiest company of Paris. Every night there was a concert and ball for + the ladies. The usually grave and solemn judges and councillors joined in + cards and other diversions, leading for several weeks a life of the most + extravagant pleasure, for no other purpose than to show the Regent of how + little consequence they deemed their banishment, and that when they willed + it, they could make Pontoise a pleasanter residence than Paris. + </p> + <p> + Of all the nations in the world the French are the most renowned for + singing over their grievances. Of that country it has been remarked with + some truth, that its whole history may be traced in its songs. When Law, + by the utter failure of his best-laid plans, rendered himself obnoxious, + satire of course seized hold upon him, and, while caricatures of his + person appeared in all the shops, the streets resounded with songs, in + which neither he nor the Regent was spared. Many of these songs were far + from decent; and one of them in particular counselled the application of + all his notes to the most ignoble use to which paper can be applied. But + the following, preserved in the letters of the Duchess of Orleans, was the + best and the most popular, and was to be heard for months in all the + carrefours of Paris. The application of the chorus is happy enough:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Aussitot que Lass arriva + Dans notre bonne ville, + Monsieur le Regent publia + Que Lass serait utile + Pour retablir la nation. + La faridondaine! la faridondon. + Mais il nous a tous enrich!, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mort ami! + + Ce parpaillot, pour attirer + Tout l'argent de la France, + Songea d'abord a s'assurer + De notre confiance. + Il fit son abjuration. + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Mais le fourbe s'est converti, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + + Lass, le fils aine de Satan + Nous met tous a l'aumone, + Il nous a pris tout notre argent + Et n'en rend a personne. + Mais le Regent, humain et bon, + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Nous rendra ce qu'on nous a pris, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! +</pre> + <p> + The following smart epigram is of the same date:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lundi, j'achetai des actions; + Mardi, je gagnai des millions; + Mercredi, j'arrangeai mon menage, + Jeudi, je pris un equipage, + Vendredi, je m'en fus au bal, + Et Samedi, a l'Hopital. +</pre> + <p> + Among the caricatures that were abundantly published, and that showed as + plainly as graver matters, that the nation had awakened to a sense of its + folly, was one, a fac-simile of which is preserved in the "Memoires de la + Regence." It was thus described by its author: "The 'Goddess of Shares," + in her triumphal car, driven by the Goddess of Folly. Those who are + drawing the car are impersonations of the Mississippi, with his wooden + leg, the South Sea, the Bank of England, the Company of the West of + Senegal, and of various assurances. Lest the car should not roll fast + enough, the agents of these companies, known by their long fox-tails and + their cunning looks, turn round the spokes of the wheels, upon which are + marked the names of the several stocks, and their value, sometimes high + and sometimes low, according to the turns of the wheel. Upon the ground + are the merchandise, day-books and ledgers of legitimate commerce, crushed + under the chariot of Folly. Behind is an immense crowd of persons, of all + ages, sexes, and conditions, clamoring after Fortune, and fighting with + each other to get a portion of the shares which she distributes so + bountifully among them. In the clouds sits a demon, blowing bubbles of + soap, which are also the objects of the admiration and cupidity of the + crowd, who jump upon one another's backs to reach them ere they burst. + Right in the pathway of the car, and blocking up the passage, stands a + large building, with three doors, through one of which it must pass, if it + proceeds further, and all the crowd along with it. Over the first door are + the words, "Hopital des Foux," over the second, "Hopital des Malades," and + over the third, "Hopital des Gueux." Another caricature represented Law + sitting in a large cauldron, boiling over the flames of popular madness, + surrounded by an impetuous multitude, who were pouring all their gold and + silver into it, and receiving gladly in exchange the bits of paper which + he distributed among them by handsfull. + </p> + <p> + While this excitement lasted, Law took good care not to expose himself + unguarded in the streets. Shut up in the apartments of the Regent, he was + secure from all attack, and, whenever he ventured abroad, it was either + incognito, or in one of the Royal carriages, with a powerful escort. An + amusing anecdote is recorded of the detestation in which he was held by + the people, and the ill treatment he would have met, had he fallen into + their hands. A gentleman, of the name of Boursel, was passing in his + carriage down the Rue St. Antoine, when his further progress was stayed by + a hackneycoach that had blocked up the road. M. Boursel's servant called + impatiently to the hackneycoachman to get out of the way, and, on his + refusal, struck him a blow on the face. A crowd was soon drawn together by + the disturbance, and M. Boursel got out of the carriage to restore order. + The hackney-coachman, imagining that he had now another assailant, + bethought him of an expedient to rid himself of both, and called out as + loudly as he was able, "Help! help! murder! murder! Here are Law and his + servant going to kill me! Help! help!" At this cry, the people came out of + their shops, armed with sticks and other weapons, while the mob gathered + stones to inflict summary vengeance upon the supposed financier. Happily + for M. Boursel and his servant, the door of the church of the Jesuits + stood wide open, and, seeing the fearful odds against them, they rushed + towards it with all speed. They reached the altar, pursued by the people, + and would have been ill treated even there, if, finding the door open + leading to the sacristy, they had not sprang through, and closed it after + them. The mob were then persuaded to leave the church by the alarmed and + indignant priests; and, finding M. Boursel's carriage still in the + streets, they vented their ill-will against it, and did it considerable + damage. + </p> + <p> + The twenty-five millions secured on the municipal revenues of the city of + Paris, bearing so low an interest as two and a half per cent., were not + very popular among the large holders of Mississippi stock. The conversion + of the securities was, therefore, a work of considerable difficulty; for + many preferred to retain the falling paper of Law's Company, in the hope + that a favourable turn might take place. On the 15th of August, with a + view to hasten the conversion, an edict was passed, declaring that all + notes for sums between one thousand and ten thousand livres; should not + pass current, except for the purchase of annuities and bank accounts, or + for the payment of instalments still due on the shares of the company. + </p> + <p> + In October following another edict was passed, depriving these notes of + all value whatever after the month of November next ensuing. The + management of the mint, the farming of the revenue, and all the other + advantages and privileges of the India, or Mississippi Company, were taken + from them, and they were reduced to a mere private company. This was the + deathblow to the whole system, which had now got into the hands of its + enemies. Law had lost all influence in the Council of Finance, and the + company, being despoiled of its immunities, could no longer hold out the + shadow of a prospect of being able to fulfil its engagements. All those + suspected of illegal profits at the time the public delusion was at its + height, were sought out and amerced in heavy fines. It was previously + ordered that a list of the original proprietors should be made out, and + that such persons as still retained their shares should place them in + deposit with the company, and that those who had neglected to complete the + shares for which they had put down their names, should now purchase them + of the company, at the rate of 13,500 livres for each share of 500 livres. + Rather than submit to pay this enormous sum for stock which was actually + at a discount, the shareholders packed up all their portable effects, and + endeavoured to find a refuge in foreign countries. Orders were immediately + issued to the authorities at the ports and frontiers, to apprehend all + travellers who sought to leave the kingdom, and keep them in custody, + until it was ascertained whether they had any plate or jewellery with + them, or were concerned in the late stock-jobbing. Against such few as + escaped, the punishment of death was recorded, while the most arbitrary + proceedings were instituted against those who remained. + </p> + <p> + Law himself, in a moment of despair, determined to leave a country where + his life was no longer secure. He at first only demanded permission to + retire from Paris to one of his country-seats; a permission which the + Regent cheerfully granted. The latter was much affected at the unhappy + turn affairs had taken, but his faith continued unmoved in the truth and + efficacy of Law's financial system. His eyes were opened to his own + errors, and during the few remaining years of his life, he constantly + longed for an opportunity of again establishing the system upon a securer + basis. At Law's last interview with the Prince, he is reported to have + said—"I confess that I have committed many faults; I committed them + because I am a man, and all men are liable to error; but I declare to you + most solemnly that none of them proceeded from wicked or dishonest + motives, and that nothing of the kind will be found in the whole course of + my conduct." + </p> + <p> + Two or three days after his departure the Regent sent him a very kind + letter, permitting him to leave the kingdom whenever he pleased, and + stating that he had ordered his passports to be made ready. He at the same + time offered him any sum of money he might require. Law respectfully + declined the money, and set out for Brussels in a postchaise belonging to + Madame de Prie, the mistress of the Duke of Bourbon, escorted by six + horse-guards. From thence he proceeded to Venice, where he remained for + some months, the object of the greatest curiosity to the people, who + believed him to be the possessor of enormous wealth. No opinion, however, + could be more erroneous. With more generosity than could have been + expected from a man who during the greatest part of his life had been a + professed gambler, he had refused to enrich himself at the expense of a + ruined nation. During the height of the popular frenzy for Mississippi + stock, he had never doubted of the final success of his projects, in + making France the richest and most powerful nation of Europe. He invested + all his gains in the purchase of landed property in France—a sure + proof of his own belief in the stability of his schemes. He had hoarded no + plate or jewellery, and sent no money, like the dishonest jobbers, to + foreign countries. His all, with the exception of one diamond, worth about + five or six thousand pounds sterling, was invested in the French soil; and + when he left that country, he left it almost a beggar. This fact alone + ought to rescue his memory from the charge of knavery, so often and so + unjustly brought against him. + </p> + <p> + As soon as his departure was known, all his estates and his valuable + library were confiscated. Among the rest, an annuity of 200,000 livres, + (8000 pounds sterling,) on the lives of his wife and children, which had + been purchased for five millions of livres, was forfeited, notwithstanding + that a special edict, drawn up for the purpose in the days of his + prosperity, had expressly declared that it should never be confiscated for + any cause whatever. Great discontent existed among the people that Law had + been suffered to escape. The mob and the Parliament would have been + pleased to have seen him hanged. The few who had not suffered by the + commercial revolution, rejoiced that the quack had left the country; but + all those (and they were by far the most numerous class) whose fortunes + were implicated, regretted that his intimate knowledge of the distress of + the country, and of the causes that had led to it, had not been rendered + more available in discovering a remedy. + </p> + <p> + At a meeting of the Council of Finance, and the general council of the + Regency, documents were laid upon the table, from which it appeared that + the amount of notes in circulation was 2700 millions. The Regent was + called upon to explain how it happened that there was a discrepancy + between the dates at which these issues were made, and those of the edicts + by which they were authorised. He might have safely taken the whole blame + upon himself, but he preferred that an absent man should bear a share of + it, and he therefore stated that Law, upon his own authority, had issued + 1200 millions of notes at different times, and that he (the Regent) seeing + that the thing had been irrevocably done, had screened Law, by antedating + the decrees of the council, which authorised the augmentation. It would + have been more to his credit if he had told the whole truth while he was + about it, and acknowledged that it was mainly through his extravagance and + impatience that Law had been induced to overstep the bounds of safe + speculation. It was also ascertained that the national debt, on the 1st of + January, 1721, amounted to upwards of $100 millions of livres, or more + than 124,000,000 pounds sterling, the interest upon which was 3,196,000 + pounds. A commission, or visa, was forthwith appointed to examine into all + the securities of the state creditors, who were to be divided into five + classes, the first four comprising those who had purchased their + securities with real effects, and the latter comprising those who could + give no proofs that the transactions they had entered into were real and + bona fide. The securities of the latter were ordered to be destroyed, + while those of the first four classes were subjected to a most rigid and + jealous scrutiny. The result of the labours of the visa was a report, in + which they counselled the reduction of the interest upon these securities + to fifty-six millions of livres. They justified this advice by a statement + of the various acts of peculation and extortion which they had discovered, + and an edict to that effect was accordingly published and duly registered + by the parliaments of the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Another tribunal was afterwards established, under the title of the + Chambre de l'Arsenal, which took cognizance of all the malversations + committed in the financial departments of the government during the late + unhappy period. A Master of Requests, named Falhonet, together with the + Abbe Clement, and two clerks in their employ, had been concerned in divers + acts of peculation, to the amount of upwards of a million of livres. The + first two were sentenced to be beheaded, and the latter to be hanged; but + their punishment was afterwards commuted into imprisonment for life in the + Bastile. Numerous other acts of dishonesty were discovered, and punished + by fine and imprisonment. + </p> + <p> + D'Argenson shared with Law and the Regent the unpopularity which had + alighted upon all those concerned in the Mississippi madness. He was + dismissed from his post of Chancellor, to make room for D'Aguesseau; but + he retained the title of Keeper of the Seals, and was allowed to attend + the councils whenever he pleased. He thought it better, however, to + withdraw from Paris, and live for a time a life of seclusion at his + country-seat. But he was not formed for retirement, and becoming moody and + discontented, he aggravated a disease under which he had long laboured, + and died in less than a twelvemonth. The populace of of Paris so detested + him, that they carried their hatred even to his grave. As his funeral + procession passed to the church of St. Nicholas du Chardonneret, the + burying-place of his family, it was beset by a riotous mob, and his two + sons, who were following as chief-mourners, were obliged to drive as fast + as they were able down a by-street to escape personal violence. + </p> + <p> + As regards Law, he for some time entertained a hope that he should be + recalled to France, to aid in establishing its credit upon a firmer basis. + The death of the Regent, in 1723, who expired suddenly, as he was sitting + by the fireside conversing with his mistress, the Duchess de Phalaris, + deprived him of that hope, and he was reduced to lead his former life of + gambling. He was more than once obliged to pawn his diamond, the sole + remnant of his vast wealth, but successful play generally enabled him to + redeem it. Being persecuted by his creditors at Rome, he proceeded to + Copenhagen, where he received permission from the English ministry to + reside in his native country, his pardon for the murder of Mr. Wilson + having been sent over to him in 1719. He was brought over in the admiral's + ship, a circumstance which gave occasion for a short debate in the House + of Lords. Earl Coningsby complained that a man, who had renounced both his + country and his religion, should have been treated with such honour, and + expressed his belief that his presence in England, at a time when the + people were so bewildered by the nefarious practices of the South Sea + directors, would be attended with no little danger. He gave notice of a + motion on the subject; but it was allowed to drop, no other member of the + House having the slightest participation in his lordship's fears. Law + remained for about four years in England, and then proceeded to Venice, + where he died in 1729, in very embarrassed circumstances. The following + epitaph was written at the time:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Ci git cet Ecossais celebre, + Ce calculateur sans egal, + Qui, par les regles de l'algebre, + A mis la France a l'Hopital." +</pre> + <p> + His brother, William Law, who had been concerned with him in the + administration both of the Bank and the Louisiana Company, was imprisoned + in the Bastile for alleged malversation, but no guilt was ever proved + against him. He was liberated after fifteen months, and became the founder + of a family, which is still known in France under the title of Marquises + of Lauriston. + </p> + <p> + In the next chapter will be found an account of the madness which infected + the people of England at the same time, and under very similar + circumstances, but which, thanks to the energies and good sense of a + constitutional government, was attended with results far less disastrous + than those which were seen in France. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + At length corruption, like a general flood, + Did deluge all, and avarice creeping on, + Spread, like a low-born mist, and hid the sun. + Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks, + Peeress and butler shared alike the box; + And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town, + And mighty dukes packed cards for half-a-crown: + Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms. + —Pope. +</pre> + <p> + The South Sea Company was originated by the celebrated Harley, Earl of + Oxford, in the year 1711, with the view of restoring public credit, which + had suffered by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and of providing for + the discharge of the army and navy debentures, and other parts of the + floating debt, amounting to nearly ten millions sterling. A company of + merchants, at that time without a name, took this debt upon themselves, + and the government agreed to secure them, for a certain period, the + interest of six per cent. To provide for this interest, amounting to + 600,000 pounds per annum, the duties upon wines, vinegar, India goods, + wrought silks, tobacco, whale-fins, and some other articles, were rendered + permanent. The monopoly of the trade to the South Seas was granted, and + the company, being incorporated by Act of Parliament, assumed the title by + which it has ever since been known. The minister took great credit to + himself for his share in this transaction, and the scheme was always + called by his flatterers "the Earl of Oxford's masterpiece." + </p> + <p> + Even at this early period of its history, the most visionary ideas were + formed by the company and the public of the immense riches of the eastern + coast of South America. Everybody had heard of the gold and silver mines + of Peru and Mexico; every one believed them to be inexhaustible, and that + it was only necessary to send the manufactures of England to the coast, to + be repaid a hundredfold in gold and silver ingots by the natives. A + report, industriously spread, that Spain was willing to concede four + ports, on the coasts of Chili and Peru, for the purposes of traffic, + increased the general confidence; and for many years the South Sea + Company's stock was in high favour. + </p> + <p> + Philip V of Spain, however, never had any intention of admitting the + English to a free trade in the ports of Spanish America. Negotiations were + set on foot, but their only result was the assiento contract, or the + privilege of supplying the colonies with negroes for thirty years, and of + sending once a year a vessel, limited both as to tonnage and value of + cargo, to trade with Mexico, Peru, or Chili. The latter permission was + only granted upon the hard condition, that the King of Spain should enjoy + one-fourth of the profits, and a tax of five per cent. on the remainder. + This was a great disappointment to the Earl of Oxford and his party, who + were reminded much oftener than they found agreeable of the + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus." +</pre> + <p> + But the public confidence in the South Sea Company was not shaken. The + Earl of Oxford declared, that Spain would permit two ships, in addition to + the annual ship, to carry out merchandise during the first year; and a + list was published, in which all the ports and harbours of these coasts + were pompously set forth as open to the trade of Great Britain. The first + voyage of the annual ship was not made till the year 1717, and in the + following year the trade was suppressed by the rupture with Spain. + </p> + <p> + The King's speech, at the opening of the session of 1717, made pointed + allusion to the state of public credit, and recommended that proper + measures should be taken to reduce the national debt. The two great + monetary corporations, the South Sea Company and the Bank of England, made + proposals to Parliament on the 20th of May ensuing. The South Sea Company + prayed that their capital stock of ten millions might be increased to + twelve, by subscription or otherwise, and offered to accept five per cent. + instead of six upon the whole amount. The Bank made proposals equally + advantageous. The House debated for some time, and finally three acts were + passed, called the South Sea Act, the Bank Act, and the General Fund Act. + By the first, the proposals of the South Sea Company were accepted, and + that body held itself ready to advance the sum of two millions towards + discharging the principal and interest of the debt due by the state for + the four lottery funds of the ninth and tenth years of Queen Anne. By the + second act, the Bank received a lower rate of interest for the sum of + 1,775,027 pounds 15 shillings due to it by the state, and agreed to + deliver up to be cancelled as many Exchequer bills as amounted to two + millions sterling, and to accept of an annuity of one hundred thousand + pounds, being after the rate of five per cent, the whole redeemable at one + year's notice. They were further required to be ready to advance, in case + of need, a sum not exceeding 2,500,000 pounds upon the same terms of five + per cent interest, redeemable by Parliament. The General Fund Act recited + the various deficiencies, which were to be made good by the aids derived + from the foregoing sources. + </p> + <p> + The name of the South Sea Company was thus continually before the public. + Though their trade with the South American States produced little or no + augmentation of their revenues, they continued to flourish as a monetary + corporation. Their stock was in high request, and the directors, buoyed up + with success, began to think of new means for extending their influence. + The Mississippi scheme of John Law, which so dazzled and captivated the + French people, inspired them with an idea that they could carry on the + same game in England. The anticipated failure of his plans did not divert + them from their intention. Wise in their own conceit, they imagined they + could avoid his faults, carry on their schemes for ever, and stretch the + cord of credit to its extremest tension, without causing it to snap + asunder. + </p> + <p> + It was while Law's plan was at its greatest height of popularity, while + people were crowding in thousands to the Rue Quincampoix, and ruining + themselves with frantic eagerness, that the South Sea directors laid + before Parliament their famous plan for paying off the national debt. + Visions of boundless wealth floated before the fascinated eyes of the + people in the two most celebrated countries of Europe. The English + commenced their career of extravagance somewhat later than the French; but + as soon as the delirium seized them, they were determined not to be + outdone. Upon the 22nd of January 1720, the House of Commons resolved + itself into a Committee of the whole House, to take into consideration + that part of the King's speech at the opening of the session which related + to the public debts, and the proposal of the South Sea Company towards the + redemption and sinking of the same. The proposal set forth at great + length, and under several heads, the debts of the state, amounting to + 30,981,712 pounds, which the Company were anxious to take upon themselves, + upon consideration of five per cent. per annum, secured to them until + Midsummer 1727; after which time, the whole was to become redeemable at + the pleasure of the legislature, and the interest to be reduced to four + per cent. The proposal was received with great favour; but the Bank of + England had many friends in the House of Commons, who were desirous that + that body should share in the advantages that were likely to accrue. On + behalf of this corporation it was represented, that they had performed + great and eminent services to the state, in the most difficult times, and + deserved, at least, that if any advantage was to be made by public + bargains of this nature, they should be preferred before a company that + had never done any thing for the nation. The further consideration of the + matter was accordingly postponed for five days. In the mean time, a plan + was drawn up by the Governors of the Bank. The South Sea Company, afraid + that the Bank might offer still more advantageous terms to the government + than themselves, reconsidered their former proposal, and made some + alterations in it, which they hoped would render it more acceptable. The + principal change was a stipulation that the government might redeem these + debts at the expiration of four years, instead of seven, as at first + suggested. The Bank resolved not to be outbidden in this singular auction, + and the Governors also reconsidered their first proposal, and sent in a + new one. + </p> + <p> + Thus, each corporation having made two proposals, the House began to + deliberate. Mr. Robert Walpole was the chief speaker in favour of the + Bank, and Mr. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the principal + advocate on behalf of the South Sea Company. It was resolved, on the 2nd + of February, that the proposals of the latter were most advantageous to + the country. They were accordingly received, and leave was given to bring + in a bill to that effect. + </p> + <p> + Exchange Alley was in a fever of excitement. The Company's stock, which + had been at a hundred and thirty the previous day, gradually rose to three + hundred, and continued to rise with the most astonishing rapidity during + the whole time that the bill in its several stages was under discussion. + Mr. Walpole was almost the only statesman in the House who spoke out + boldly against it. He warned them, in eloquent and solemn language, of the + evils that would ensue. It countenanced, he said, "the dangerous practice + of stockjobbing, and would divert the genius of the nation from trade and + industry. It would hold out a dangerous lure to decoy the unwary to their + ruin, by making them part with the earnings of their labour for a prospect + of imaginary wealth." The great principle of the project was an evil of + first-rate magnitude; it was to raise artificially the value of the stock, + by exciting and keeping up a general infatuation, and by promising + dividends out of funds which could never be adequate to the purpose. In a + prophetic spirit he added, that if the plan succeeded, the directors would + become masters of the government, form a new and absolute aristocracy in + the kingdom, and control the resolutions of the legislature. If it failed, + which he was convinced it would, the result would bring general discontent + and ruin upon the country. Such would be the delusion, that when the evil + day came, as come it would, the people would start up, as from a dream, + and ask themselves if these things could have been true. All his eloquence + was in vain. He was looked upon as a false prophet, or compared to the + hoarse raven, croaking omens of evil. His friends, however, compared him + to Cassandra, predicting evils which would only be believed when they came + home to men's hearths, and stared them in the face at their own boards. + Although, in former times, the House had listened with the utmost + attention to every word that fell from his lips, the benches became + deserted when it was known that he would speak on the South Sea question. + </p> + <p> + The bill was two months in its progress through the House of Commons. + During this time every exertion was made by the directors and their + friends, and more especially by the Chairman, the noted Sir John Blunt, to + raise the price of the stock. The most extravagant rumours were in + circulation. Treaties between England and Spain were spoken of, whereby + the latter was to grant a free trade to all her colonies; and the rich + produce of the mines of Potosi-la-Paz was to be brought to England until + silver should become almost as plentiful as iron. For cotton and woollen + goods, with which we could supply them in abundance, the dwellers in + Mexico were to empty their golden mines. The company of merchants trading + to the South Seas would be the richest the world ever saw, and every + hundred pounds invested in it would produce hundreds per annum to the + stockholder. At last the stock was raised by these means to near four + hundred; but, after fluctuating a good deal, settled at three hundred and + thirty, at which price it remained when the bill passed the Commons by a + majority of 172 against 55. + </p> + <p> + In the House of Lords the bill was hurried through all its stages with + unexampled rapidity. On the 4th of April it was read a first time; on the + 5th, it was read a second time; on the 6th, it was committed; and on the + 7th, was read a third time, and passed. + </p> + <p> + Several peers spoke warmly against the scheme; but their warnings fell + upon dull, cold ears. A speculating frenzy had seized them as well as the + plebeians. Lord North and Grey said the bill was unjust in its nature, and + might prove fatal in its consequences, being calculated to enrich the few + and impoverish the many. The Duke of Wharton followed; but, as he only + retailed at second-hand the arguments so eloquently stated by Walpole in + the Lower House, he was not listened to with even the same attention that + had been bestowed upon Lord North and Grey. Earl Cowper followed on the + same side, and compared the bill to the famous horse of the siege of Troy. + Like that, it was ushered in and received with great pomp and acclamations + of joy, but bore within it treachery and destruction. The Earl of + Sunderland endeavoured to answer all objections; and, on the question + being put, there appeared only seventeen peers against, and eighty-three + in favour of the project. The very same day on which it passed the Lords, + it received the Royal assent, and became the law of the land. + </p> + <p> + It seemed at that time as if the whole nation had turned stockjobbers. + Exchange Alley was every day blocked up by crowds, and Cornhill was + impassable for the number of carriages. Everybody came to purchase stock. + "Every fool aspired to be a knave." In the words of a ballad, published at + the time, and sung about the streets, ["A South Sea Ballad; or, Merry + Remarks upon Exchange Alley Bubbles. To a new tune, called 'The Grand + Elixir; or, the Philosopher's Stone Discovered.'"] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Then stars and garters did appear + Among the meaner rabble; + To buy and sell, to see and hear, + The Jews and Gentiles squabble. + + The greatest ladies thither came, + And plied in chariots daily, + Or pawned their jewels for a sum + To venture in the Alley. +</pre> + <p> + The inordinate thirst of gain that had afflicted all ranks of society, was + not to be slaked even in the South Sea. Other schemes, of the most + extravagant kind, were started. The share-lists were speedily filled up, + and an enormous traffic carried on in shares, while, of course, every + means were resorted to, to raise them to an artificial value in the + market. + </p> + <p> + Contrary to all expectation, South Sea stock fell when the bill received + the Royal assent. On the 7th of April the shares were quoted at three + hundred and ten, and on the following day, at two hundred and ninety. + Already the directors had tasted the profits of their scheme, and it was + not likely that they should quietly allow the stock to find its natural + level, without an effort to raise it. Immediately their busy emissaries + were set to work. Every person interested in the success of the project + endeavoured to draw a knot of listeners around him, to whom he expatiated + on the treasures of the South American seas. Exchange Alley was crowded + with attentive groups. One rumour alone, asserted with the utmost + confidence, had an immediate effect upon the stock. It was said, that Earl + Stanhope had received overtures in France from the Spanish Government to + exchange Gibraltar and Port Mahon for some places on the coast of Peru, + for the security and enlargement of the trade in the South Seas. Instead + of one annual ship trading to those ports, and allowing the King of Spain + twenty-five per cent. out of the profits, the Company might build and + charter as many ships as they pleased, and pay no per centage whatever to + any foreign potentate. + </p> + <p> + Visions of ingots danced before their eyes, and stock rose rapidly. On the + 12th of April, five days after the bill had become law, the directors + opened their books for a subscription of a million, at the rate of 300 + pounds for every 100 pounds capital. Such was the concourse of persons, of + all ranks, that this first subscription was found to amount to above two + millions of original stock. It was to be paid at five payments, of 60 + pounds each for every 100 pounds. In a few days the stock advanced to + three hundred and forty, and the subscriptions were sold for double the + price of the first payment. To raise the stock still higher, it was + declared, in a general court of directors, on the 21st of April, that the + midsummer dividend should be ten per cent., and that all subscriptions + should be entitled to the same. These resolutions answering the end + designed, the directors, to improve the infatuation of the monied men, + opened their books for a second subscription of a million, at four hundred + per cent. Such was the frantic eagerness of people of every class to + speculate in these funds, that in the course of a few hours no less than a + million and a half was subscribed at that rate. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, innumerable joint-stock companies started up everywhere. + They soon received the name of Bubbles, the most appropriate that + imagination could devise. The populace are often most happy in the + nicknames they employ. None could be more apt than that of Bubbles. Some + of them lasted for a week, or a fortnight, and were no more heard of, + while others could not even live out that short span of existence. Every + evening produced new schemes, and every morning new projects. The highest + of the aristocracy were as eager in this hot pursuit of gain as the most + plodding jobber in Cornhill. The Prince of Wales became governor of one + company, and is said to have cleared 40,000 pounds by his speculations. + [Coxe's Walpole, Correspondence between Mr. Secretary Craggs and Earl + Stanhope.] The Duke of Bridgewater started a scheme for the improvement of + London and Westminster, and the Duke of Chandos another. There were nearly + a hundred different projects, each more extravagant and deceptive than the + other. To use the words of the "Political State," they were "set on foot + and promoted by crafty knaves, then pursued by multitudes of covetous + fools, and at last appeared to be, in effect, what their vulgar + appellation denoted them to be—bubbles and mere cheats." It was + computed that near one million and a half sterling was won and lost by + these unwarrantable practices, to the impoverishment of many a fool, and + the enriching of many a rogue. + </p> + <p> + Some of these schemes were plausible enough, and, had they been undertaken + at a time when the public mind was unexcited, might have been pursued with + advantage to all concerned. But they were established merely with the view + of raising the shares in the market. The projectors took the first + opportunity of a rise to sell out, and next morning the scheme was at an + end. Maitland, in his History of London, gravely informs us, that one of + the projects which received great encouragement, was for the establishment + of a company "to make deal-boards out of saw-dust." This is, no doubt, + intended as a joke; but there is abundance of evidence to show that dozens + of schemes hardly a whir more reasonable, lived their little day, ruining + hundreds ere they fell. One of them was for a wheel for perpetual motion—capital, + one million; another was "for encouraging the breed of horses in England, + and improving of glebe and church lands, and repairing and rebuilding + parsonage and vicarage houses." Why the clergy, who were so mainly + interested in the latter clause, should have taken so much interest in the + first, is only to be explained on the supposition that the scheme was + projected by a knot of the foxhunting parsons, once so common in England. + The shares of this company were rapidly subscribed for. But the most + absurd and preposterous of all, and which showed, more completely than any + other, the utter madness of the people, was one, started by an unknown + adventurer, entitled "company for carrying on an undertaking of great + advantage, but nobody to know what it is." Were not the fact stated by + scores of credible witnesses, it would be impossible to believe that any + person could have been duped by such a project. The man of genius who + essayed this bold and successful inroad upon public credulity, merely + stated in his prospectus that the required capital was half a million, in + five thousand shares of 100 pounds each, deposit 2 pounds per share. Each + subscriber, paying his deposit, would be entitled to 100 pounds per annum + per share. How this immense profit was to be obtained, he did not + condescend to inform them at that time, but promised, that in a month full + particulars should be duly announced, and a call made for the remaining 98 + pounds of the subscription. Next morning, at nine o'clock, this great man + opened an office in Cornhill. Crowds of people beset his door, and when he + shut up at three o'clock, he found that no less than one thousand shares + had been subscribed for, and the deposits paid. He was thus, in five + hours, the winner of 2,000 pounds. He was philosopher enough to be + contented with his venture, and set off the same evening for the + Continent. He was never heard of again. + </p> + <p> + Well might Swift exclaim, comparing Change Alley to a gulf in the South + Sea,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Subscribers here by thousands float, + And jostle one another down, + Each paddling in his leaky boat, + And here they fish for gold, and drown. + + Now buried in the depths below, + Now mounted up to heaven again, + They reel and stagger to and fro, + At their wit's end, like drunken men + + Meantime, secure on Garraway cliffs, + A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, + Lie waiting for the foundered skiffs, + And strip the bodies of the dead. +</pre> + <p> + Another fraud that was very successful, was that of the "Globe Permits," + as they were called. They were nothing more than square pieces of playing + cards, on which was the impression of a seal, in wax, bearing the sign of + the Globe Tavern, in the neighbourhood of Exchange Alley, with the + inscription of "Sail Cloth Permits." The possessors enjoyed no other + advantage from them than permission to subscribe, at some future time, to + a new sail-cloth manufactory, projected by one who was then known to be a + man of fortune, but who was afterwards involved in the peculation and + punishment of the South Sea directors. These permits sold for as much as + sixty guineas in the Alley. + </p> + <p> + Persons of distinction, of both sexes, were deeply engaged in all these + bubbles, those of the male sex going to taverns and coffee-houses to meet + their brokers, and the ladies resorting for the same purpose to the shops + of milliners and haberdashers. But it did not follow that all these people + believed in the feasibility of the schemes to which they subscribed; it + was enough for their purpose that their shares would, by stock-jobbing + arts, be soon raised to a premium, when they got rid of them with all + expedition to the really credulous. So great was the confusion of the + crowd in the alley, that shares in the same bubble were known to have been + sold at the same instant ten per cent. higher at one end of the alley than + at the other. Sensible men beheld the extraordinary infatuation of the + people with sorrow and alarm. There were some, both in and out of + Parliament, who foresaw clearly the ruin that was impending. Mr. Walpole + did not cease his gloomy forebodings. His fears were shared by all the + thinking few, and impressed most forcibly upon the government. On the 11th + of June, the day the Parliament rose, the King published a proclamation, + declaring that all these unlawful projects should be deemed public + nuisances, and prosecuted accordingly, and forbidding any broker, under a + penalty of five hundred pounds, from buying or selling any shares in them. + Notwithstanding this proclamation, roguish speculators still carried them + on, and the deluded people still encouraged them. On the 12th of July, an + order of the Lords Justices assembled in privy council was published, + dismissing all the petitions that had been presented for patents and + charters, and dissolving all the bubble companies. The following copy of + their lordships' order, containing a list of all these nefarious projects, + will not be deemed uninteresting at the present day, when there is but too + much tendency in the public mind to indulge in similar practices:— + </p> + <p> + "At the Council Chamber, Whitehall, the 12th day of July, 1720. Present, + their Excellencies the Lords Justices in Council. + </p> + <p> + "Their Excellencies, the Lords Justices in council, taking into + consideration the many inconveniences arising to the public from several + projects set on foot for raising of joint stock for various purposes, and + that a great many of his Majesty's subjects have been drawn in to part + with their money on pretence of assurances that their petitions for + patents and charters, to enable them to carry on the same, would be + granted: to prevent such impositions, their Excellencies, this day, + ordered the said several petitions, together with such reports from the + Board of Trade, and from his Majesty's Attorney and Solicitor General, as + had been obtained thereon, to be laid before them, and after mature + consideration thereof, were pleased, by advice of his Majesty's Privy + Council, to order that the said petitions be dismissed, which are as + follow:— + </p> + <p> + "1. Petition of several persons, praying letters patent for carrying on a + fishing trade, by the name of the Grand Fishery of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + "2. Petition of the Company of the Royal Fishery of England, praying + letters patent for such further powers as will effectually contribute to + carry on the said fishery. + </p> + <p> + "3. Petition of George James, on behalf of himself and divers persons of + distinction concerned in a national fishery; praying letters patent of + incorporation to enable them to carry on the same. + </p> + <p> + "4. Petition of several merchants, traders, and others, whose names are + thereunto subscribed, praying to be incorporated for reviving and carrying + on a whale fishery to Greenland and elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + "5. Petition of Sir John Lambert, and others thereto subscribing, on + behalf of themselves and a great number of merchants, praying to be + incorporated for carrying on a Greenland trade, and particularly a whale + fishery in Davis's Straits. + </p> + <p> + "6. Another petition for a Greenland trade. + </p> + <p> + "7. Petition of several merchants, gentlemen, and citizens, praying to be + incorporated, for buying and building of ships to let or freight. + </p> + <p> + "8. Petition of Samuel Antrim and others, praying for letters patent for + sowing hemp and flax. + </p> + <p> + "9. Petition of several merchants, masters of ships, sail-makers, and + manufacturers of sail-cloth, praying a charter of incorporation, to enable + them to carry on and promote the said manufactory by a joint stock. + </p> + <p> + "10. Petition of Thomas Boyd, and several hundred merchants, owners and + masters of ships, sailmakers, weavers, and other traders, praying a + charter of incorporation, empowering them to borrow money for purchasing + lands, in order to the manufacturing sail-cloth and fine Holland. + </p> + <p> + "11. Petition on behalf of several persons interested in a patent granted + by the late King William and Queen Mary, for the making of linen and + sail-cloth, praying that no charter may be granted to any persons + whatsoever for making sail-cloth, but that the privilege now enjoyed by + them may be confirmed, and likewise an additional power to carry on the + cotton and cotton-silk manufactures. + </p> + <p> + "12. Petition of several citizens, merchants, and traders in London, and + others, subscribers to a British stock, for a general insurance from fire + in any part of England, praying to be incorporated for carrying on the + said undertaking. + </p> + <p> + "13. Petition of several of his Majesty's loyal subjects of the city of + London, and other parts of Great Britain, praying to be incorporated, for + carrying on a general insurance from losses by fire within the kingdom of + England. + </p> + <p> + "14. Petition of Thomas Burges, and others his Majesty's subjects thereto + subscribing, in behalf of themselves and others, subscribers to a fund of + 1,200,000 pounds, for carrying on a trade to his Majesty's German + dominions, praying to be incorporated, by the name of the Harburg Company. + </p> + <p> + "15. Petition of Edward Jones, a dealer in timber, on behalf of himself + and others, praying to be incorporated for the importation of timber from + Germany. + </p> + <p> + "16. Petition of several merchants of London, praying a charter of + incorporation for carrying on a salt-work. + </p> + <p> + "17. Petition of Captain Macphedris, of London, merchant, on behalf of + himself and several merchants, clothiers, hatters, dyers, and other + traders, praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them to raise a + sufficient sum of money to purchase lands for planting and rearing a wood + called madder, for the use of dyers. + </p> + <p> + "18. Petition of Joseph Galendo, of London, snuff-maker, praying a patent + for his invention to prepare and cure Virginia tobacco for snuff in + Virginia, and making it into the same in all his Majesty's dominions." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF BUBBLES. + </h2> + <p> + The following Bubble Companies were by the same order declared to be + illegal, and abolished accordingly:— + </p> + <p> + 1. For the importation of Swedish iron. + </p> + <p> + 2. For supplying London with sea-coal. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 3. For building and rebuilding houses throughout all England. Capital, + three millions. + </p> + <p> + 4. For making of muslin. + </p> + <p> + 5. For carrying on and improving the British alum works. + </p> + <p> + 6. For effectually settling the island of Blanco and Sal Tartagus. + </p> + <p> + 7. For supplying the town of Deal with fresh water. + </p> + <p> + 8. For the importation of Flanders lace. + </p> + <p> + 9. For improvement of lands in Great Britain. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 10. For encouraging the breed of horses in England, and improving of glebe + and church lands, and for repairing and rebuilding parsonage and vicarage + houses. + </p> + <p> + 11. For making of iron and steel in Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 12. For improving the land in the county of Flint. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 13. For purchasing lands to build on. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 14. For trading in hair. + </p> + <p> + 15. For erecting salt-works in Holy Island. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 16. For buying and selling estates, and lending money on mortgage. + </p> + <p> + 17. For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to know + what it is. + </p> + <p> + 18. For paving the streets of London. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 19. For furnishing funerals to any part of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 20. For buying and selling lands and lending money at interest. Capital, + five millions. + </p> + <p> + 21. For carrying on the Royal Fishery of Great Britain. Capital, ten + millions. + </p> + <p> + 22. For assuring of seamen's wages. + </p> + <p> + 23. For erecting loan-offices for the assistance and encouragement of the + industrious. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 24. For purchasing and improving leasable lands. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 25. For importing pitch and tar, and other naval stores, from North + Britain and America. + </p> + <p> + 26. For the clothing, felt, and pantile trade. + </p> + <p> + 27. For purchasing and improving a manor and royalty in Essex. + </p> + <p> + 28. For insuring of horses. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 29. For exporting the woollen manufacture, and importing copper, brass, + and iron. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 30. For a grand dispensary. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 31. For erecting mills and purchasing lead mines. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 32. For improving the art of making soap. + </p> + <p> + 33. For a settlement on the island of Santa Cruz. + </p> + <p> + 34. For sinking pits and smelting lead ore in Derbyshire. + </p> + <p> + 35. For making glass bottles and other glass. + </p> + <p> + 36. For a wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 37. For improving of gardens. + </p> + <p> + 38. For insuring and increasing children's fortunes. + </p> + <p> + 39. For entering and loading goods at the custom-house, and for + negotiating business for merchants. + </p> + <p> + 40. For carrying on a woollen manufacture in the north of England. + </p> + <p> + 41. For importing walnut-trees from Virginia. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 42. For making Manchester stuffs of thread and cotton. + </p> + <p> + 43. For making Joppa and Castile soap. + </p> + <p> + 44. For improving the wrought-iron and steel manufactures of this kingdom. + Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 45. For dealing in lace, Hollands, cambrics, lawns, &c. Capital, two + millions. + </p> + <p> + 46. For trading in and improving certain commodities of the produce of + this kingdom, &c. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 47. For supplying the London markets with cattle. + </p> + <p> + 48. For making looking-glasses, coach glasses, &c. Capital, two + millions. + </p> + <p> + 49. For working the tin and lead mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire. + </p> + <p> + 50. For making rape-oil. + </p> + <p> + 51. For importing beaver fur. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 52. For making pasteboard and packing-paper. + </p> + <p> + 53. For importing of oils and other materials used in the woollen + manufacture. + </p> + <p> + 54. For improving and increasing the silk manufactures. + </p> + <p> + 55. For lending money on stock, annuities, tallies, &c. + </p> + <p> + 56. For paying pensions to widows and others, at a small discount. + Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 57. For improving malt liquors. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 58. For a grand American fishery. + </p> + <p> + 59. For purchasing and improving the fenny lands in Lincolnshire. Capital, + two millions. + </p> + <p> + 60. For improving the paper manufacture of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 61. The Bottomry Company. + </p> + <p> + 62. For drying malt by hot air. + </p> + <p> + 63. For carrying on a trade in the river Oronooko. + </p> + <p> + 64. For the more effectual making of baize, in Colchester and other parts + of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 65. For buying of naval stores, supplying the victualling, and paying the + wages of the workmen. + </p> + <p> + 66. For employing poor artificers, and furnishing merchants and others + with watches. + </p> + <p> + 67. For improvement of tillage and the breed of cattle. + </p> + <p> + 68. Another for the improvement of our breed of horses. + </p> + <p> + 69. Another for a horse-insurance. + </p> + <p> + 70. For carrying on the corn trade of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 71. For insuring to all masters and mistresses the losses they may sustain + by servants. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 72. For erecting houses or hospitals, for taking in and maintaining + illegitimate children. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 73. For bleaching coarse sugars, without the use of fire or loss of + substance. + </p> + <p> + 74. For building turnpikes and wharfs in Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 75. For insuring from thefts and robberies. + </p> + <p> + 76. For extracting silver from lead. + </p> + <p> + 77. For making China and Delft ware. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 78. For importing tobacco, and exporting it again to Sweden and the north + of Europe. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 79. For making iron with pit coal. + </p> + <p> + 80. For furnishing the cities of London and Westminster with hay and + straw. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 81. For a sail and packing cloth manufactory in Ireland. + </p> + <p> + 82. For taking up ballast. + </p> + <p> + 83. For buying and fitting out ships to suppress pirates. + </p> + <p> + 84. For the importation of timber from Wales. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 85. For rock-salt. + </p> + <p> + 86. For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal. + </p> + <p> + Besides these bubbles, many others sprang up daily, in spite of the + condemnation of the Government and the ridicule of the still sane portion + of the public. The print-shops teemed with caricatures, and the newspapers + with epigrams and satires, upon the prevalent folly. An ingenious + card-maker published a pack of South Sea playing-cards, which are now + extremely rare, each card containing, besides the usual figures, of a very + small size, in one corner, a caricature of a bubble company, with + appropriate verses underneath. One of the most famous bubbles was + "Puckle's Machine Company," for discharging round and square cannon-balls + and bullets, and making a total revolution in the art of war. Its + pretensions to public favour were thus summed up, on the eight of spades:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A rare invention to destroy the crowd + Of fools at home, instead of fools abroad. + Fear not, my friends, this terrible machine, + They're only wounded who have shares therein. + + The nine of hearts was a caricature of the English Copper and Brass + Company, with the following epigram:— + + The headlong fool that wants to be a swopper + Of gold and silver coin for English copper, + May, in Change Alley, prove himself an ass, + And give rich metal for adulterate brass. + + The eight of diamonds celebrated the Company for the Colonization of + Acadia, with this doggrel:— + + He that is rich and wants to fool away + A good round sum in North America, + Let him subscribe himself a headlong sharer, + And asses' ears shall honour him or bearer. +</pre> + <p> + And in a similar style every card of the pack exposed some knavish scheme, + and ridiculed the persons who were its dupes. It was computed that the + total amount of the sums proposed for carrying on these projects was + upwards of three hundred millions sterling, a sum so immense that it + exceeded the value of all the lands in England at twenty years' purchase. + </p> + <p> + It is time, however, to return to the great South Sea gulf, that swallowed + the fortunes of so many thousands of the avaricious and the credulous. On + the 29th of May, the stock had risen as high as five hundred, and about + two-thirds of the government annuitants had exchanged the securities of + the state for those of the South Sea Company. During the whole of the + month of May the stock continued to rise, and on the 28th it was quoted at + five hundred and fifty. In four days after this it took a prodigious leap, + rising suddenly from five hundred and fifty to eight hundred and ninety. + It was now the general opinion that the stock could rise no higher, and + many persons took that opportunity of selling out, with a view of + realising their profits. Many noblemen and persons in the train of the + King, and about to accompany him to Hanover, were also anxious to sell + out. So many sellers, and so few buyers, appeared in the Alley on the 3rd + of June, that the stock fell at once from eight hundred and ninety to six + hundred and forty. The directors were alarmed, and gave their agents + orders to buy. Their efforts succeeded. Towards evening confidence was + restored, and the stock advanced to seven hundred and fifty. It continued + at this price, with some slight fluctuation, until the company closed + their books on the 22nd of June. + </p> + <p> + It would be needless and uninteresting to detail the various arts employed + by the directors to keep up the price of stock. It will be sufficient to + state that it finally rose to one thousand per cent. It was quoted at this + price in the commencement of August. The bubble was then full-blown, and + began to quiver and shake, preparatory to its bursting. + </p> + <p> + Many of the government annuitants expressed dissatisfaction against the + directors. They accused them of partiality in making out the lists for + shares in each subscription. Further uneasiness was occasioned by its + being generally known that Sir John Blunt, the chairman, and some others, + had sold out. During the whole of the month of August the stock fell, and + on the 2nd of September it was quoted at seven hundred only. + </p> + <p> + The state of things now became alarming. To prevent, if possible, the + utter extinction of public confidence in their proceedings, the directors + summoned a general court of the whole corporation, to meet in Merchant + Tailors' Hall, on the 8th of September. By nine o'clock in the morning, + the room was filled to suffocation; Cheapside was blocked up by a crowd + unable to gain admittance, and the greatest excitement prevailed. The + directors and their friends mustered in great numbers. Sir John Fellowes, + the sub-governor, was called to the chair. He acquainted the assembly with + the cause of their meeting, read to them the several resolutions of the + court of directors, and gave them an account of their proceedings; of the + taking in the redeemable and unredeemable funds, and of the subscriptions + in money. Mr. Secretary Craggs then made a short speech, wherein he + commended the conduct of the directors, and urged that nothing could more + effectually contribute to the bringing this scheme to perfection than + union among themselves. He concluded with a motion for thanking the court + of directors for their prudent and skilful management, and for desiring + them to proceed in such manner as they should think most proper for the + interest and advantage of the corporation. Mr. Hungerford, who had + rendered himself very conspicuous in the House of Commons for his zeal in + behalf of the South Sea Company, and who was shrewdly suspected to have + been a considerable gainer by knowing the right time to sell out, was very + magniloquent on this occasion. He said that he had seen the rise and fall, + the decay and resurrection of many communities of this nature, but that, + in his opinion, none had ever performed such wonderful things in so short + a time as the South Sea Company. They had done more than the crown, the + pulpit, or the bench could do. They had reconciled all parties in one + common interest; they had laid asleep, if not wholly extinguished, all the + domestic jars and animosities of the nation. By the rise of their stock, + monied men had vastly increased their fortunes; country-gentlemen had seen + the value of their lands doubled and trebled in their hands. They had at + the same time done good to the Church, not a few of the reverend clergy + having got great sums by the project. In short, they had enriched the + whole nation, and he hoped they had not forgotten themselves. There was + some hissing at the latter part of this speech, which for the extravagance + of its eulogy was not far removed from satire; but the directors and their + friends, and all the winners in the room, applauded vehemently. The Duke + of Portland spoke in a similar strain, and expressed his great wonder why + anybody should be dissatisfied: of course, he was a winner by his + speculations, and in a condition similar to that of the fat alderman in + Joe Miller's Jests, who, whenever he had eaten a good dinner, folded his + hands upon his paunch, and expressed his doubts whether there could be a + hungry man in the world. + </p> + <p> + Several resolutions were passed at this meeting, but they had no effect + upon the public. Upon the very same evening the stock fell to six hundred + and forty, and on the morrow to five hundred and forty. Day after day it + continued to fall, until it was as low as four hundred. In a letter dated + September 13th, from Mr. Broderick, M.P. to Lord Chancellor Middleton, and + published in Coxo's Walpole, the former says,—"Various are the + conjectures why the South Sea directors have suffered the cloud to break + so early. I made no doubt but they would do so when they found it to their + advantage. They have stretched credit so far beyond what it would bear, + that specie proves insufficient to support it. Their most considerable men + have drawn out, securing themselves by the losses of the deluded, + thoughtless numbers, whose understandings have been overruled by avarice + and the hope of making mountains out of mole-hills. Thousands of families + will be reduced to beggary. The consternation is inexpressible—the + rage beyond description, and the case altogether so desperate that I do + not see any plan or scheme so much as thought of for averting the blow, so + that I cannot pretend to guess what is next to be done." Ten days + afterwards, the stock still falling, he writes,—"The Company have + yet come to no determination, for they are in such a wood that they know + not which way to turn. By several gentlemen lately come to town, I + perceive the very name of a South-Sea-man grows abominable in every + country. A great many goldsmiths are already run off, and more will daily. + I question whether one-third, nay, one-fourth, of them can stand it. From + the very beginning, I founded my judgment of the whole affair upon the + unquestionable maxim, that ten millions (which is more than our running + cash) could not circulate two hundred millions, beyond which our paper + credit extended. That, therefore, whenever that should become doubtful, be + the cause what it would, our noble state machine must inevitably fall to + the ground." + </p> + <p> + On the 12th of September, at the earnest solicitation of Mr. Secretary + Craggs, several conferences were held between the directors of the South + Sea and the directors of the Bank. A report which was circulated, that the + latter had agreed to circulate six millions of the South Sea Company's + bonds, caused the stock to rise to six hundred and seventy; but in the + afternoon, as soon as the report was known to be groundless, the stock + fell again to five hundred and eighty; the next day to five hundred and + seventy, and so gradually to four hundred. [Gay (the poet), in that + disastrous year, had a present from young Craggs of some South Sea stock, + and once supposed himself to be master of twenty thousand pounds. His + friends persuaded him to sell his share, but he dreamed of dignity and + splendour, and could not bear to obstruct his own fortune. He was then + importuned to sell as much as would purchase a hundred a year for life, + "which," says Fenton, "will make you sure of a clean shirt and a shoulder + of mutton every day." This counsel was rejected; the profit and principal + were lost, and Gay sunk under the calamity so low that his life became in + danger.—Johnson's Lives of the Poets.] + </p> + <p> + The ministry were seriously alarmed at the aspect of affairs. The + directors could not appear in the streets without being insulted; + dangerous riots were every moment apprehended. Despatches were sent off to + the King at Hanover, praying his immediate return. Mr. Walpole, who was + staying at his country-seat, was sent for, that he might employ his known + influence with the directors of the Bank of England to induce them to + accept the proposal made by the South Sea Company for circulating a number + of their bonds. + </p> + <p> + The Bank was very unwilling to mix itself up with the affairs of the + Company; it dreaded being involved in calamities which it could not + relieve, and received all overtures with visible reluctance. But the + universal voice of the nation called upon it to come to the rescue. Every + person of note in commercial politics was called in to advise in the + emergency. A rough draft of a contract drawn up by Mr. Walpole was + ultimately adopted as the basis of further negotiations, and the public + alarm abated a little. + </p> + <p> + On the following day, the 20th of September, a general court of the South + Sea Company was held at Merchant Tailors' Hall, in which resolutions were + carried, empowering the directors to agree with the Bank of England, or + any other persons, to circulate the Company's bonds, or make any other + agreement with the Bank which they should think proper. One of the + speakers, a Mr. Pulteney, said it was most surprising to see the + extraordinary panic which had seized upon the people. Men were running to + and fro in alarm and terror, their imaginations filled with some great + calamity, the form and dimensions of which nobody knew. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Black it stood as night— + Fierce as ten furies—terrible as hell." +</pre> + <p> + At a general court of the Bank of England held two days afterwards, the + governor informed them of the several meetings that had been held on the + affairs of the South Sea Company, adding that the directors had not yet + thought fit to come to any decision upon the matter. A resolution was then + proposed, and carried without a dissentient voice, empowering the + directors to agree with those of the South Sea to circulate their bonds, + to what sum, and upon what terms, and for what time, they might think + proper. + </p> + <p> + Thus both parties were at liberty to act as they might judge best for the + public interest. Books were opened at the Bank for a subscription of three + millions for the support of public credit, on the usual terms of 15 pounds + per cent. deposit, per cent. premium, and 5 pounds per cent. interest. So + great was the concourse of people in the early part of the morning, all + eagerly bringing their money, that it was thought the subscription would + be filled that day; but before noon, the tide turned. In spite of all that + could be done to prevent it, the South Sea Company's stock fell rapidly. + Their bonds were in such discredit, that a run commenced upon the most + eminent goldsmiths and bankers, some of whom having lent out great sums + upon South Sea stock were obliged to shut up their shops and abscond. The + Sword-blade Company, who had hitherto been the chief cashiers of the South + Sea Company, stopped payment. This being looked upon as but the beginning + of evil, occasioned a great run upon the Bank, who were now obliged to pay + out money much faster than they had received it upon the subscription in + the morning. The day succeeding was a holiday (the 29th of September), and + the Bank had a little breathing time. They bore up against the storm; but + their former rivals, the South Sea Company, were wrecked upon it. Their + stock fell to one hundred and fifty, and gradually, after various + fluctuations, to one hundred and thirty-five. + </p> + <p> + The Bank, finding they were not able to restore public confidence, and + stem the tide of ruin, without running the risk of being swept away with + those they intended to save, declined to carry out the agreement into + which they had partially entered. They were under no obligation whatever + to continue; for the so called Bank contract was nothing more than the + rough draught of an agreement, in which blanks had been left for several + important particulars, and which contained no penalty for their secession. + "And thus," to use the words of the Parliamentary History, "were seen, in + the space of eight months, the rise, progress, and fall of that mighty + fabric, which, being wound up by mysterious springs to a wonderful height, + had fixed the eyes and expectations of all Europe, but whose foundation, + being fraud, illusion, credulity, and infatuation, fell to the ground as + soon as the artful management of its directors was discovered." + </p> + <p> + In the hey-day of its blood, during the progress of this dangerous + delusion, the manners of the nation became sensibly corrupted. The + Parliamentary inquiry, set on foot to discover the delinquents, disclosed + scenes of infamy, disgraceful alike to the morals of the offenders and the + intellects of the people among whom they had arisen. It is a deeply + interesting study to investigate all the evils that were the result. + Nations, like individuals, cannot become desperate gamblers with impunity. + Punishment is sure to overtake them sooner or later. A celebrated writer + [Smollett.] is quite wrong, when he says, "that such an era as this is the + most unfavourable for a historian; that no reader of sentiment and + imagination can be entertained or interested by a detail of transactions + such as these, which admit of no warmth, no colouring, no embellishment; a + detail of which only serves to exhibit an inanimate picture of tasteless + vice and mean degeneracy." On the contrary, and Smollett might have + discovered it, if he had been in the humour—the subject is capable + of inspiring as much interest as even a novelist can desire. Is there no + warmth in the despair of a plundered people?—no life and animation + in the picture which might be drawn of the woes of hundreds of + impoverished and ruined families? of the wealthy of yesterday become the + beggars of to-day? of the powerful and influential changed into exiles and + outcasts, and the voice of self-reproach and imprecation resounding from + every corner of the land? Is it a dull or uninstructive picture to see a + whole people shaking suddenly off the trammels of reason, and running wild + after a golden vision, refusing obstinately to believe that it is not + real, till, like a deluded hind running after an ignis fatuus, they are + plunged into a quagmire? But in this false spirit has history too often + been written. The intrigues of unworthy courtiers to gain the favour of + still more unworthy kings; or the records of murderous battles and sieges + have been dilated on, and told over and over again, with all the eloquence + of style and all the charms of fancy; while the circumstances which have + most deeply affected the morals and welfare of the people, have been + passed over with but slight notice as dry and dull, and capable of neither + warmth nor colouring. + </p> + <p> + During the progress of this famous bubble, England presented a singular + spectacle. The public mind was in a state of unwholesome fermentation. Men + were no longer satisfied with the slow but sure profits of cautious + industry. The hope of boundless wealth for the morrow made them heedless + and extravagant for to-day. A luxury, till then unheard-of, was + introduced, bringing in its train a corresponding laxity of morals. The + overbearing insolence of ignorant men, who had arisen to sudden wealth by + successful gambling, made men of true gentility of mind and manners, blush + that gold should have power to raise the unworthy in the scale of society. + The haughtiness of some of these "cyphering cits," as they were termed by + Sir Richard Steele, was remembered against them in the day of their + adversity. In the Parliamentary inquiry, many of the directors suffered + more for their insolence than for their peculation. One of them, who, in + the full-blown pride of an ignorant rich man, had said that he would feed + his horse upon gold, was reduced almost to bread and water for himself; + every haughty look, every overbearing speech, was set down, and repaid + them a hundredfold in poverty and humiliation. + </p> + <p> + The state of matters all over the country was so alarming, that George I + shortened his intended stay in Hanover, and returned in all haste to + England. He arrived on the 11th of November, and Parliament was summoned + to meet on the 8th of December. In the mean time, public meetings were + held in every considerable town of the empire, at which petitions were + adopted, praying the vengeance of the Legislature upon the South Sea + directors, who, by their fraudulent practices, had brought the nation to + the brink of ruin. Nobody seemed to imagine that the nation itself was as + culpable as the South Sea Company. Nobody blamed the credulity and avarice + of the people,—the degrading lust of gain, which had swallowed up + every nobler quality in the national character, or the infatuation which + had made the multitude run their heads with such frantic eagerness into + the net held out for them by scheming projectors. These things were never + mentioned. The people were a simple, honest, hard-working people, ruined + by a gang of robbers, who were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered without + mercy. + </p> + <p> + This was the almost unanimous feeling of the country. The two Houses of + Parliament were not more reasonable. Before the guilt of the South Sea + directors was known, punishment was the only cry. The King, in his speech + from the throne, expressed his hope that they would remember that all + their prudence, temper, and resolution were necessary to find out and + apply the proper remedy for their misfortunes. In the debate on the answer + to the address, several speakers indulged in the most violent invectives + against the directors of the South Sea project. The Lord Molesworth was + particularly vehement. "It had been said by some, that there was no law to + punish the directors of the South Sea Company, who were justly looked upon + as the authors of the present misfortunes of the state. In his opinion + they ought, upon this occasion, to follow the example of the ancient + Romans, who, having no law against parricide, because their legislators + supposed no son could be so unnaturally wicked as to embrue his hands in + his father's blood, made a law to punish this heinous crime as soon as it + was committed. They adjudged the guilty wretch to be sown in a sack, and + thrown alive into the Tyber. He looked upon the contrivers and executors + of the villanous South Sea scheme as the parricides of their country, and + should be satisfied to see them tied in like manner in sacks, and thrown + into the Thames." Other members spoke with as much want of temper and + discretion. Mr. Walpole was more moderate. He recommended that their first + care should be to restore public credit. "If the city of London were on + fire, all wise men would aid in extinguishing the flames, and preventing + the spread of the conflagration before they inquired after the + incendiaries. Public credit had received a dangerous wound, and lay + bleeding, and they ought to apply a speedy remedy to it. It was time + enough to punish the assassin afterwards." On the 9th of December an + address, in answer to his Majesty's speech, was agreed upon, after an + amendment, which was carried without a division, that words should be + added expressive of the determination of the House not only to seek a + remedy for the national distresses, but to punish the authors of them. + </p> + <p> + The inquiry proceeded rapidly. The directors were ordered to lay before + the House a full account of all their proceedings. Resolutions were passed + to the effect that the calamity was mainly owing to the vile arts of + stockjobbers, and that nothing could tend more to the re-establishment of + public credit than a law to prevent this infamous practice. Mr. Walpole + then rose, and said, that "as he had previously hinted, he had spent some + time upon a scheme for restoring public credit, but that, the execution of + it depending upon a position which had been laid down as fundamental, he + thought it proper, before he opened out his scheme, to be informed whether + he might rely upon that foundation. It was, whether the subscription of + public debts and encumbrances, money subscriptions, and other contracts, + made with the South Sea Company should remain in the present state?" This + question occasioned an animated debate. It was finally agreed, by a + majority of 259 against 117, that all these contracts should remain in + their present state, unless altered for the relief of the proprietors by a + general court of the South Sea Company, or set aside by due course of law. + On the following day Mr. Walpole laid before a committee of the whole + House his scheme for the restoration of public credit, which was, in + substance, to ingraft nine millions of South Sea stock into the Bank of + England, and the same sum into the East India Company, upon certain + conditions. The plan was favourably received by the House. After some few + objections, it was ordered that proposals should be received from the two + great corporations. They were both unwilling to lend their aid, and the + plan met with a warm but fruitless opposition at the general courts + summoned for the purpose of deliberating upon it. They, however, + ultimately agreed upon the terms on which they would consent to circulate + the South Sea bonds, and their report, being presented to the committee, a + bill was brought in, under the superintendence of Mr. Walpole, and safely + carried through both Houses of Parliament. + </p> + <p> + A bill was at the same time brought in, for restraining the South Sea + directors, governor, sub-governor, treasurer, cashier, and clerks from + leaving the kingdom for a twelvemonth, and for discovering their estates + and effects, and preventing them from transporting or alienating the same. + All the most influential members of the House supported the bill. Mr. + Shippen, seeing Mr. Secretary Craggs in his place, and believing the + injurious rumours that were afloat of that minister's conduct in the South + Sea business, determined to touch him to the quick. He said, he was glad + to see a British House of Commons resuming its pristine vigour and spirit, + and acting with so much unanimity for the public good. It was necessary to + secure the persons and estates of the South Sea directors and their + officers; "but," he added, looking fixedly at Mr. Craggs as he spoke, + "there were other men in high station, whom, in time, he would not be + afraid to name, who were no less guilty than the directors." Mr. Craggs + arose in great wrath, and said, that if the innuendo were directed against + him, he was ready to give satisfaction to any man who questioned him, + either in the House or out of it. Loud cries of order immediately arose on + every side. In the midst of the uproar Lord Molesworth got up, and + expressed his wonder at the boldness of Mr. Craggs in challenging the + whole House of Commons. He, Lord Molesworth, though somewhat old, past + sixty, would answer Mr. Craggs whatever he had to say in the House, and he + trusted there were plenty of young men beside him, who would not be afraid + to look Mr. Craggs in the face, out of the House. The cries of order again + resounded from every side; the members arose simultaneously; everybody + seemed to be vociferating at once. The Speaker in vain called order. The + confusion lasted several minutes, during which Lord Molesworth and Mr. + Craggs were almost the only members who kept their seats. At last the call + for Mr. Craggs became so violent that he thought proper to submit to the + universal feeling of the House, and explain his unparliamentary + expression. He said, that by giving satisfaction to the impugners of his + conduct in that House, he did not mean that he would fight, but that he + would explain his conduct. Here the matter ended, and the House proceeded + to debate in what manner they should conduct their inquiry into the + affairs of the South Sea Company, whether in a grand or a select + committee. Ultimately, a Secret Committee of thirteen was appointed, with + power to send for persons, papers, and records. + </p> + <p> + The Lords were as zealous and as hasty as the Commons. The Bishop of + Rochester said the scheme had been like a pestilence. The Duke of Wharton + said the House ought to show no respect of persons; that, for his part, he + would give up the dearest friend he had, if he had been engaged in the + project. The nation had been plundered in a most shameful and flagrant + manner, and he would go as far as anybody in the punishment of the + offenders. Lord Stanhope said, that every farthing possessed by the + criminals, whether directors or not directors, ought to be confiscated, to + make good the public losses. + </p> + <p> + During all this time the public excitement was extreme. We learn, front + Coxe's Walpole, that the very name of a South Sea director was thought to + be synonymous with every species of fraud and villany. Petitions from + counties, cities, and boroughs, in all parts of the kingdom, were + presented, crying for the justice due to an injured nation and the + punishment of the villanous peculators. Those moderate men, who would not + go to extreme lengths, even in the punishment of the guilty, were accused + of being accomplices, were exposed to repeated insults and virulent + invectives, and devoted, both in anonymous letters and public writings, to + the speedy vengeance of an injured people. The accusations against Mr. + Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Craggs, another member of + the ministry, were so loud, that the House of Lords resolved to proceed at + once into the investigation concerning them. It was ordered, on the 21st + of January, that all brokers concerned in the South Sea scheme should lay + before the House an account of the stock or subscriptions bought or sold + by them for any of the officers of the Treasury or Exchequer, or in trust + for any of them, since Michaelmas 1719. When this account was delivered, + it appeared that large quantities of stock had been transferred to the use + of Mr. Aislabie. Five of the South Sea directors, including Mr. Edward + Gibbon, the grandfather of the celebrated historian, were ordered into the + custody of the black rod. Upon a motion made by Earl Stanhope, it was + unanimously resolved, that the taking in or giving credit for stock + without a valuable consideration actually paid or sufficiently secured; or + the purchasing stock by any director or agent of the South Sea Company, + for the use or benefit of any member of the administration, or any member + of either House of Parliament, during such time as the South Sea Bill was + yet pending in Parliament, was a notorious and dangerous corruption. + Another resolution was passed a few days afterwards, to the effect that + several of the directors and officers of the Company having, in a + clandestine manner, sold their own stock to the Company, had been guilty + of a notorious fraud and breach of trust, and had thereby mainly caused + the unhappy turn of affairs that had so much affected public credit. Mr. + Aislabie resigned his office as Chancellor of the Exchequer, and absented + himself from Parliament until the formal inquiry into his individual guilt + was brought under the consideration of the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, Knight, the treasurer of the Company, and who was + intrusted with all the dangerous secrets of the dishonest directors, + packed up his books and documents, and made his escape from the country. + He embarked in disguise, in a small boat on the river, and proceeding to a + vessel hired for the purpose, was safely conveyed to Calais. The Committee + of Secrecy informed the House of the circumstance, when it was resolved + unanimously that two addresses should be presented to the King; the first + praying that he would issue a proclamation, offering a reward for the + apprehension of Knight; and the second, that he would give immediate + orders to stop the ports, and to take effectual care of the coasts, to + prevent the said Knight, or any other officers of the South Sea Company, + from escaping out of the kingdom. The ink was hardly dry upon these + addresses before they were carried to the King by Mr. Methuen, deputed by + the House for that purpose. The same evening a royal proclamation was + issued, offering a reward of two thousand pounds for the apprehension of + Knight. The Commons ordered the doors of the House to be locked, and the + keys to be placed upon the table. General Ross, one of the members of the + Committee of Secrecy, acquainted them that they had already discovered a + train of the deepest villany and fraud that Hell had ever contrived to + ruin a nation, which in due time they would lay before the House. In the + mean time, in order to a further discovery, the Committee thought it + highly necessary to secure the persons of some of the directors and + principal South Sea officers, and to seize their papers. A motion to this + effect having been made, was carried unanimously. Sir Robert Chaplin, Sir + Theodore Janssen, Mr. Sawbridge, and Mr. F. Eyles, members of the House, + and directors of the South Sea Company, were summoned to appear in their + places, and answer for their corrupt practices. Sir Theodore Janssen and + Mr. Sawbridge answered to their names, and endeavoured to exculpate + themselves. The House heard them patiently, and then ordered them to + withdraw. A motion was then made, and carried nemine contradicente, that + they had been guilty of a notorious breach of trust—had occasioned + much loss to great numbers of his Majesty's subjects, and had highly + prejudiced the public credit. It was then ordered that, for their offence, + they should be expelled the House, and taken into the custody of the + sergeant-at-arms. Sir Robert Chaplin and Mr. Eyles, attending in their + places four days afterwards, were also expelled the House. It was resolved + at the same time to address the King, to give directions to his ministers + at foreign courts to make application for Knight, that he might be + delivered up to the English authorities, in ease he took refuge in any of + their dominions. The King at once agreed, and messengers were despatched + to all parts of the Continent the same night. + </p> + <p> + Among the directors taken into custody, was Sir John Blunt, the man whom + popular opinion has generally accused of having been the original author + and father of the scheme. This man, we are informed by Pope, in his + epistle to Allen, Lord Bathurst, was a dissenter, of a most religious + deportment, and professed to be a great believer. He constantly declaimed + against the luxury and corruption of the age, the partiality of + parliaments, and the misery of party spirit. He was particularly eloquent + against avarice in great and noble persons. He was originally a scrivener, + and afterwards became, not only a director, but the most active manager of + the South Sea Company. Whether it was during his career in this capacity + that he first began to declaim against the avarice of the great, we are + not informed. He certainly must have seen enough of it to justify his + severest anathema; but if the preacher had himself been free from the vice + he condemned, his declamations would have had a better effect. He was + brought up in custody to the bar of the House of Lords, and underwent a + long examination. He refused to answer several important questions. He + said he had been examined already by a committee of the House of Commons, + and as he did not remember his answers, and might contradict himself, he + refused to answer before another tribunal. This declaration, in itself an + indirect proof of guilt, occasioned some commotion in the House. He was + again asked peremptorily whether he had ever sold any portion of the stock + to any member of the administration, or any member of either House of + Parliament, to facilitate the passing of the hill. He again declined to + answer. He was anxious, he said, to treat the House with all possible + respect, but he thought it hard to be compelled to accuse himself. After + several ineffectual attempts to refresh his memory, he was directed to + withdraw. A violent discussion ensued between the friends and opponents of + the ministry. It was asserted that the administration were no strangers to + the convenient taciturnity of Sir John Blunt. The Duke of Wharton made a + reflection upon the Earl Stanhope, which the latter warmly resented. He + spoke under great excitement, and with such vehemence as to cause a sudden + determination of blood to the head. He felt himself so ill that he was + obliged to leave the House and retire to his chamber. He was cupped + immediately, and also let blood on the following morning, but with slight + relief. The fatal result was not anticipated. Towards evening he became + drowsy, and turning himself on his face, expired. The sudden death of this + statesman caused great grief to the nation. George I was exceedingly + affected, and shut himself up for some hours in his closet, inconsolable + for his loss. + </p> + <p> + Knight, the treasurer of the company, was apprehended at Tirlemont, near + Liege, by one of the secretaries of Mr. Leathes, the British resident at + Brussels, and lodged in the citadel of Antwerp. Repeated applications were + made to the court of Austria to deliver him up, but in vain. Knight threw + himself upon the protection of the states of Brabant, and demanded to be + tried in that country. It was a privilege granted to the states of Brabant + by one of the articles of the Joyeuse Entree, that every criminal + apprehended in that country should be tried in that country. The states + insisted on their privilege, and refused to deliver Knight to the British + authorities. The latter did not cease their solicitations; but in the mean + time, Knight escaped from the citadel. + </p> + <p> + On the 16th of February the Committee of Secrecy made their first report + to the House. They stated that their inquiry had been attended with + numerous difficulties and embarrassments; every one they had examined had + endeavoured, as far as in him lay, to defeat the ends of justice. In some + of the books produced before them, false and fictitious entries had been + made; in others, there were entries of money, with blanks for the name of + the stockholders. There were frequent erasures and alterations, and in + some of the books leaves were torn out. They also found that some books of + great importance had been destroyed altogether, and that some had been + taken away or secreted. At the very entrance into their inquiry, they had + observed that the matters referred to them were of great variety and + extent. Many persons had been intrusted with various parts in the + execution of the law, and under colour thereof had acted in an + unwarrantable manner, in disposing of the properties of many thousands of + persons, amounting to many millions of money. They discovered that, before + the South Sea Act was passed, there was an entry in the Company's books of + the sum of 1,259,325 pounds, upon account of stock stated to have been + sold to the amount of 574,500 pounds. This stock was all fictitious, and + had been disposed of with a view to promote the passing of the bill. It + was noted as sold at various days, and at various prices, from 150 to 325 + per cent. Being surprised to see so large an account disposed of, at a + time when the Company were not empowered to increase their capital, the + committee determined to investigate most carefully the whole transaction. + The governor, sub-governor, and several directors were brought before + them, and examined rigidly. They found that, at the time these entries + were made, the Company was not in possession of such a quantity of stock, + having in their own right only a small quantity, not exceeding thirty + thousand pounds at the utmost. Pursuing the inquiry, they found that this + amount of stock, was to be esteemed as taken in or holden by the Company, + for the benefit of the pretended purchasers, although no mutual agreement + was made for its delivery or acceptance at any certain time. No money was + paid down, nor any deposit or security whatever given to the Company by + the supposed purchasers; so that if the stock had fallen, as might have + been expected, had the act not passed, they would have sustained no loss. + If, on the contrary, the price of stock advanced (as it actually did by + the success of the scheme), the difference by the advanced price was to be + made good to them. Accordingly, after the passing of the act, the account + of stock was made up and adjusted with Mr. Knight, and the pretended + purchasers were paid the difference out of the Company's cash. This + fictitious stock, which had been chiefly at the disposal of Sir John + Blunt, Mr. Gibbon, and Mr. Knight, was distributed among several members + of the government and their connexions, by way of bribe, to facilitate the + passing of the bill. To the Earl of Sunderland was assigned 50,000 pounds + of this stock; to the Duchess of Kendal 10,000 pounds; to the Countess of + Platen 10,000 pounds; to her two nieces 10,000 pounds; to Mr. Secretary + Craggs 30,000 pounds; to Mr. Charles Stanhope (one of the Secretaries of + the Treasury) 10,000 pounds; to the Swordblade Company 50,000 pounds. It + also appeared that Mr. Stanhope had received the enormous sum of 250,000 + pounds as the difference in the price of some stock, through the hands of + Turner, Caswall, and Co., but that his name had been partly erased from + their books, and altered to Stangape. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the + Exchequer, had made profits still more abominable. He had an account with + the same firm, who were also South Sea directors, to the amount of 794,451 + pounds. He had, besides, advised the Company to make their second + subscription one million and a half, instead of a million, by their own + authority, and without any warrant. The third subscription had been + conducted in a manner as disgraceful. Mr. Aislabie's name was down for + 70,000 pounds; Mr. Craggs, senior, for 659,000 pounds; the Earl of + Sunderland's for 160,000 pounds; and Mr. Stanhope for 47,000 pounds. This + report was succeeded by six others, less important. At the end of the + last, the committee declared that the absence of Knight, who had been + principally intrusted, prevented them from carrying on their inquiries. + </p> + <p> + The first report was ordered to be printed, and taken into consideration + on the next day but one succeeding. After a very angry and animated + debate, a series of resolutions were agreed to, condemnatory of the + conduct of the directors, of the members of the Parliament and of the + administration concerned with them; and declaring that they ought, each + and all, to make satisfaction out of their own estates for the injury they + had done the public. Their practices were declared to be corrupt, + infamous, and dangerous; and a bill was ordered to be brought in for the + relief of the unhappy sufferers. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Charles Stanhope was the first person brought to account for his share + in these transactions. He urged in his defence that, for some years past, + he had lodged all the money he was possessed of in Mr. Knight's hands, and + whatever stock Mr. Knight had taken in for him, he had paid a valuable + consideration for it. As to the stock that had been bought for him by + Turner, Caswall, and Co. he knew nothing about it. Whatever had been done + in that matter was done without his authority, and he could not be + responsible for it. Turner and Co. took the latter charge upon themselves, + but it was notorious to every unbiased and unprejudiced person that Mr. + Stanhope was a gainer of the 250,000 pounds which lay in the hands of that + firm to his credit. He was, however, acquitted by a majority of three + only. The greatest exertions were made to screen him. Lord Stanhope, the + son of the Earl of Chesterfield, went round to the wavering members, using + all the eloquence he was possessed of to induce them either to vote for + the acquittal or to absent themselves from the house. Many weak-headed + country-gentlemen were led astray by his persuasions, and the result was + as already stated. The acquittal caused the greatest discontent throughout + the country. Mobs of a menacing character assembled in different parts of + London; fears of riots were generally entertained, especially as the + examination of a still greater delinquent was expected by many to have a + similar termination. Mr. Aislabie, whose high office and deep + responsibilities should have kept him honest, even had native principle + been insufficient, was very justly regarded as perhaps the greatest + criminal of all. His case was entered into on the day succeeding the + acquittal of Mr. Starthope. Great excitement prevailed, and the lobbies + and avenues of the house were beset by crowds, impatient to know the + result. The debate lasted the whole day. Mr. Aislabie found few friends: + his guilt was so apparent and so heinous that nobody had courage to stand + up in his favour. It was finally resolved, without a dissentient voice, + that Mr. Aislabie had encouraged and promoted the destructive execution of + the South Sea scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, and had + combined with the directors in their pernicious practices to the ruin of + the public trade and credit of the kingdom: that he should for his + offences be ignominiously expelled from the House of Commons, and + committed a close prisoner to the Tower of London; that he should be + restrained from going out of the kingdom for a whole year, or till the end + of the next session of Parliament; and that he should make out a correct + account of all his estate, in order that it might be applied to the relief + of those who had suffered by his malpractices. + </p> + <p> + This verdict caused the greatest joy. Though it was delivered at half-past + twelve at night, it soon spread over the city. Several persons illuminated + their houses in token of their joy. On the following day, when Mr. + Aislabie was conveyed to the Tower, the mob assembled on Tower-hill with + the intention of hooting and pelting him. Not succeeding in this, they + kindled a large bonfire, and danced around it in the exuberance of their + delight. Several bonfires were made in other places; London presented the + appearance of a holiday, and people congratulated one another as if they + had just escaped from some great calamity. The rage upon the acquittal of + Mr. Stanhope had grown to such a height that none could tell where it + would have ended, had Mr. Aislabie met with the like indulgence. + </p> + <p> + To increase the public satisfaction, Sir George Caswall, of the firm of + Turner, Caswall, & Co. was expelled the House on the following day, + and ordered to refund the sum of 250,000 pounds. + </p> + <p> + That part of the report of the Committee of Secrecy which related to the + Earl of Sunderland was next taken into consideration. Every effort was + made to clear his Lordship from the imputation. As the case against him + rested chiefly on the evidence extorted from Sir John Blunt, great pains + were taken to make it appear that Sir John's word was not to be believed, + especially in a matter affecting the honour of a peer and privy + councillor. All the friends of the ministry rallied around the Earl, it + being generally reported that a verdict of guilty against him would bring + a Tory ministry into power. He was eventually acquitted, by a majority of + 233 against 172; but the country was convinced of his guilt. The greatest + indignation was everywhere expressed, and menacing mobs again assembled in + London. Happily no disturbances took place. + </p> + <p> + This was the day on which Mr. Craggs, the elder, expired. The morrow had + been appointed for the consideration of his case. It was very generally + believed that he had poisoned himself. It appeared, however, that grief + for the loss of his son, one of the Secretaries of the Treasury, who had + died five weeks previously of the small-pox, preyed much on his mind. For + this son, dearly beloved, he had been amassing vast heaps of riches: he + had been getting money, but not honestly; and he for whose sake he had + bartered his honour and sullied his fame, was now no more. The dread of + further exposure increased his trouble of mind, and ultimately brought on + an apoplectic fit, in which he expired. He left a fortune of a million and + a half, which was afterwards confiscated for the benefit of the sufferers + by the unhappy delusion he had been so mainly instrumental in raising. + </p> + <p> + One by one the case of every director of the Company was taken into + consideration. A sum amounting to two millions and fourteen thousand + pounds was confiscated from their estates towards repairing the mischief + they had done, each man being allowed a certain residue, in proportion to + his conduct and circumstances, with which he might begin the world anew. + Sir John Blunt was only allowed 5,000 pounds out of his fortune of upwards + of 183,000 pounds; Sir John Fellows was allowed 10,000 pounds out of + 243,000 pounds; Sir Theodore Janssen, 50,000 pounds out of 243,000 pounds; + Mr. Edward Gibbon, 10,000 pounds out of 106,000 pounds.; Sir John Lambert, + 5000 pounds out of 72,000 pounds. Others, less deeply involved, were + treated with greater liberality. Gibbon, the historian, whose grandfather + was the Mr. Edward Gibbon so severely mulcted, has given, in the Memoirs + of his Life and Writings, an interesting account of the proceedings in + Parliament at this time. He owns that he is not an unprejudiced witness; + but, as all the writers from which it is possible to extract any notice of + the proceedings of these disastrous years, were prejudiced on the other + side, the statements of the great historian become of additional value. If + only on the principle of audi alteram partem, his opinion is entitled to + consideration. "In the year 1716," he says, "my grandfather was elected + one of the directors of the South Sea Company, and his books exhibited the + proof that before his acceptance of that fatal office, he had acquired an + independent fortune of 60,000 pounds. But his fortune was overwhelmed in + the shipwreck of the year twenty, and the labours of thirty years were + blasted in a single day. Of the use or abuse of the South Sea scheme, of + the guilt or innocence of my grandfather and his brother directors, I am + neither a competent nor a disinterested judge. Yet the equity of modern + times must condemn the violent and arbitrary proceedings, which would have + disgraced the cause of justice, and rendered injustice still more odious. + No sooner had the nation awakened from its golden dream, than a popular, + and even a Parliamentary clamour, demanded its victims; but it was + acknowledged on all sides, that the directors, however guilty, could not + be touched by any known laws of the land. The intemperate notions of Lord + Molesworth were not literally acted on; but a bill of pains and penalties + was introduced—a retro-active statute, to punish the offences which + did not exist at the time they were committed. The Legislature restrained + the persons of the directors, imposed an exorbitant security for their + appearance, and marked their character with a previous note of ignominy. + They were compelled to deliver, upon oath, the strict value of their + estates, and were disabled from making any transfer or alienation of any + part of their property. Against a bill of pains and penalties, it is the + common right of every subject to be heard by his counsel at the bar. They + prayed to be heard. Their prayer was refused, and their oppressors, who + required no evidence, would listen to no defence. It had been at first + proposed, that one eighth of their respective estates should be allowed + for the future support of the directors; but it was speciously urged, that + in the various shades of opulence and guilt, such a proportion would be + too light for many, and for some might possibly be too heavy. The + character and conduct of each man were separately weighed; but, instead of + the calm solemnity of a judicial inquiry, the fortune and honour of + thirty-three Englishmen were made the topics of hasty conversation, the + sport of a lawless majority; and the basest member of the committee, by a + malicious word, or a silent vote, might indulge his general spleen or + personal animosity. Injury was aggravated by insult, and insult was + embittered by pleasantry. Allowances of 20 pounds or 1 shilling were + facetiously moved. A vague report that a director had formerly been + concerned in another project, by which some unknown persons had lost their + money, was admitted as a proof of his actual guilt. One man was ruined + because he had dropped a foolish speech, that his horses should feed upon + gold; another, because he was grown so proud, that one day, at the + Treasury, he had refused a civil answer to persons much above him. All + were condemned, absent and unheard, in arbitrary fines and forfeitures, + which swept away the greatest part of their substance. Such bold + oppression can scarcely be shielded by the omnipotence of Parliament. My + grandfather could not expect to be treated with more lenity than his + companions. His Tory principles and connexions rendered him obnoxious to + the ruling powers. His name was reported in a suspicious secret. His + well-known abilities could not plead the excuse of ignorance or error. In + the first proceedings against the South Sea directors, Mr. Gibbon was one + of the first taken into custody, and in the final sentence the measure of + his fine proclaimed him eminently guilty. The total estimate, which he + delivered on oath to the House of Commons, amounted to 106,543 pounds 5 + shillings 6 pence, exclusive of antecedent settlements. Two different + allowances of 15,000 pounds and of 10,000 pounds were moved for Mr. + Gibbon; but, on the question being put, it was carried without a division + for the smaller sum. On these ruins, with the skill and credit of which + Parliament had not been able to despoil him, my grandfather, at a mature + age, erected the edifice of a new fortune. The labours of sixteen years + were amply rewarded; and I have reason to believe that the second + structure was not much inferior to the first." + </p> + <p> + The next consideration of the Legislature, after the punishment of the + directors, was to restore public credit. The scheme of Walpole had been + found insufficient, and had fallen into disrepute. A computation was made + of the whole capital stock of the South Sea Company at the end of the year + 1720. It was found to amount to thirty-seven millions eight hundred + thousand pounds, of which the stock allotted to all the proprietors only + amounted to twenty-four millions five hundred thousand pounds. The + remainder of thirteen millions three hundred thousand pounds belonged to + the Company in their corporate capacity, and was the profit they had made + by the national delusion. Upwards of eight millions of this were taken + from the Company, and divided among the proprietors and subscribers + generally, making a dividend of about 33 pounds 6 shillings 8 pence per + cent. This was a great relief. It was further ordered, that such persons + as had borrowed money from the South Sea Company upon stock actually + transferred and pledged at the time of borrowing to or for the use of the + Company, should be free from all demands, upon payment of ten per cent. of + the sums so borrowed. They had lent about eleven millions in this manner, + at a time when prices were unnaturally raised; and they now received back + one million one hundred thousand, when prices had sunk to their ordinary + level. + </p> + <p> + But it was a long time before public credit was thoroughly restored. + Enterprise, like Icarus, had soared too high, and melted the wax of her + wings; like Icarus, she had fallen into a sea, and learned, while + floundering in its waves, that her proper element was the solid ground. + She has never since attempted so high a flight. + </p> + <p> + In times of great commercial prosperity there has been a tendency to + over-speculation on several occasions since then. The success of one + project generally produces others of a similar kind. Popular imitativeness + will always, in a trading nation, seize hold of such successes, and drag a + community too anxious for profits into an abyss from which extrication is + difficult. Bubble companies, of a kind similar to those engendered by the + South Sea project, lived their little day in the famous year of the panic, + 1825. On that occasion, as in 1720, knavery gathered a rich harvest from + cupidity, but both suffered when the day of reckoning came. The schemes of + the year 1836 threatened, at one time, results as disastrous; but they + were happily averted before it was too late. The South Sea project thus + remains, and, it is to be hoped, always will remain, the greatest example + in British history, of the infatuation of the people for commercial + gambling. From the bitter experience of that period, posterity may learn + how dangerous it is to let speculation riot unrestrained, and to hope for + enormous profits from inadequate causes. Degrading as were the + circumstances, there is wisdom to be gained from the lesson which they + teach. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE TULIPOMANIA. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quis furor o cives!—Lucan. +</pre> + <p> + The tulip,—so named, it is said, from a Turkish word, signifying a + turban,—was introduced into western Europe about the middle of the + sixteenth century. Conrad Gesner, who claims the merit of having brought + it into repute,—little dreaming of the extraordinary commotion it + was to make in the world,—says that he first saw it in the year + 1559, in a garden at Augsburg, belonging to the learned Counsellor + Herwart, a man very famous in his day for his collection of rare exotics. + The bulbs were sent to this gentleman by a friend at Constantinople, where + the flower had long been a favourite. In the course of ten or eleven years + after this period, tulips were much sought after by the wealthy, + especially in Holland and Germany. Rich people at Amsterdam sent for the + bulbs direct to Constantinople, and paid the most extravagant prices for + them. The first roots planted in England were brought from Vienna in 1600. + Until the year 1634 the tulip annually increased in reputation, until it + was deemed a proof of bad taste in any man of fortune to be without a + collection of them. Many learned men, including Pompeius de Angelis and + the celebrated Lipsius of Leyden, the author of the treatise "De + Constantia," were passionately fond of tulips. The rage for possessing + them soon caught the middle classes of society, and merchants and + shopkeepers, even of moderate means, began to vie with each other in the + rarity of these flowers and the preposterous prices they paid for them. A + trader at Harlaem was known to pay one-half of his fortune for a single + root—not with the design of selling it again at a profit, but to + keep in his own conservatory for the admiration of his acquaintance. + </p> + <p> + One would suppose that there must have been some great virtue in this + flower to have made it so valuable in the eyes of so prudent a people as + the Dutch; but it has neither the beauty nor the perfume of the rose—hardly + the beauty of the "sweet, sweet-pea;" neither is it as enduring as either. + Cowley, it is true, is loud in its praise. He says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The tulip next appeared, all over gay, + But wanton, full of pride, and full of play; + The world can't show a dye but here has place; + Nay, by new mixtures, she can change her face; + Purple and gold are both beneath her care— + The richest needlework she loves to wear; + Her only study is to please the eye, + And to outshine the rest in finery." +</pre> + <p> + This, though not very poetical, is the description of a poet. Beckmann, in + his History of Inventions, paints it with more fidelity, and in prose more + pleasing than Cowley's poetry. He says, "There are few plants which + acquire, through accident, weakness, or disease, so many variegations as + the tulip. When uncultivated, and in its natural state, it is almost of + one colour, has large leaves, and an extraordinarily long stem. When it + has been weakened by cultivation, it becomes more agreeable in the eyes of + the florist. The petals are then paler, smaller, and more diversified in + hue; and the leaves acquire a softer green colour. Thus this masterpiece + of culture, the more beautiful it turns, grows so much the weaker, so + that, with the greatest skill and most careful attention, it can scarcely + be transplanted, or even kept alive." + </p> + <p> + Many persons grow insensibly attached to that which gives them a great + deal of trouble, as a mother often loves her sick and ever-ailing child + better than her more healthy offspring. Upon the same principle we must + account for the unmerited encomia lavished upon these fragile blossoms. In + 1634, the rage among the Dutch to possess them was so great that the + ordinary industry of the country was neglected, and the population, even + to its lowest dregs, embarked in the tulip trade. As the mania increased, + prices augmented, until, in the year 1635, many persons were known to + invest a fortune of 100,000 florins in the purchase of forty roots. It + then became necessary to sell them by their weight in perits, a small + weight less than a grain. A tulip of the species called Admiral Liefken, + weighing 400 perits, was worth 4400 florins; an Admiral Von der Eyk, + weighing 446 perits, was worth 1260 florins; a shilder of 106 perits was + worth 1615 florins; a viceroy of 400 perits, 3000 florins, and, most + precious of all, a Semper Augustus, weighing 200 perits, was thought to be + very cheap at 5500 florins. The latter was much sought after, and even an + inferior bulb might command a price of 2000 florins. It is related that, + at one time, early in 1636, there were only two roots of this description + to be had in all Holland, and those not of the best. One was in the + possession of a dealer in Amsterdam, and the other in Harlaem. So anxious + were the speculators to obtain them that one person offered the fee-simple + of twelve acres of building ground for the Harlaem tulip. That of + Amsterdam was bought for 4600 florins, a new carriage, two grey horses, + and a complete suit of harness. Munting, an industrious author of that + day, who wrote a folio volume of one thousand pages upon the tulipomania, + has preserved the following list of the various articles, and their value, + which were delivered for one single root of the rare species called the + viceroy:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + florins. + Two lasts of wheat.............. 448 + Four lasts of rye............... 558 + Four fat oxen................... 480 + Eight fat swine................. 240 + Twelve fat sheep................ 120 + Two hogsheads of wine........... 70 + Four tuns of beer............... 32 + Two tons of butter.............. 192 + One thousand lbs. of cheese..... 120 + A complete bed.................. 100 + A suit of clothes............... 80 + A silver drinking cup........... 60 + ——- + 2500 + ——- +</pre> + <p> + People who had been absent from Holland, and whose chance it was to return + when this folly was at its maximum, were sometimes led into awkward + dilemmas by their ignorance. There is an amusing instance of the kind + related in Blainville's Travels. A wealthy merchant, who prided himself + not a little on his rare tulips, received upon one occasion a very + valuable consignment of merchandise from the Levant. Intelligence of its + arrival was brought him by a sailor, who presented himself for that + purpose at the counting-house, among bales of goods of every description. + The merchant, to reward him for his news, munificently made him a present + of a fine red herring for his breakfast. The sailor had, it appears, a + great partiality for onions, and seeing a bulb very like an onion lying + upon the counter of this liberal trader, and thinking it, no doubt, very + much out of its place among silks and velvets, he slily seized an + opportunity and slipped it into his pocket, as a relish for his herring. + He got clear off with his prize, and proceeded to the quay to eat his + breakfast. Hardly was his back turned when the merchant missed his + valuable Semper Augustus, worth three thousand florins, or about 280 + pounds sterling. The whole establishment was instantly in an uproar; + search was everywhere made for the precious root, but it was not to be + found. Great was the merchant's distress of mind. The search was renewed, + but again without success. At last some one thought of the sailor. + </p> + <p> + The unhappy merchant sprang into the street at the bare suggestion. His + alarmed household followed him. The sailor, simple soul! had not thought + of concealment. He was found quietly sitting on a coil of ropes, + masticating the last morsel of his "onion." Little did he dream that he + had been eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a whole ship's + crew for a twelvemonth; or, as the plundered merchant himself expressed + it, "might have sumptuously feasted the Prince of Orange and the whole + court of the Stadtholder." Anthony caused pearls to be dissolved in wine + to drink the health of Cleopatra; Sir Richard Whittington was as foolishly + magnificent in an entertainment to King Henry V; and Sir Thomas Gresham + drank a diamond, dissolved in wine, to the health of Queen Elizabeth, when + she opened the Royal Exchange: but the breakfast of this roguish Dutchman + was as splendid as either. He had an advantage, too, over his wasteful + predecessors: their gems did not improve the taste or the wholesomeness of + their wine, while his tulip was quite delicious with his red herring. The + most unfortunate part of the business for him was, that he remained in + prison for some months, on a charge of felony, preferred against him by + the merchant. + </p> + <p> + Another story is told of an English traveller, which is scarcely less + ludicrous. This gentleman, an amateur botanist, happened to see a + tulip-root lying in the conservatory of a wealthy Dutchman. Being ignorant + of its quality, he took out his penknife, and peeled off its coats, with + the view of making experiments upon it. When it was by this means reduced + to half its original size, he cut it into two equal sections, making all + the time many learned remarks on the singular appearances of the unknown + bulb. Suddenly the owner pounced upon him, and, with fury in his eyes, + asked him if he knew what he had been doing? "Peeling a most extraordinary + onion," replied the philosopher. "Hundert tausend duyvel," said the + Dutchman; "it's an Admiral Van der E. yck." "Thank you," replied the + traveller, taking out his note-book to make a memorandum of the same; "are + these admirals common in your country?" "Death and the devil," said the + Dutchman, seizing the astonished man of science by the collar; "come + before the syndic, and you shall see." In spite of his remonstrances, the + traveller was led through the streets, followed by a mob of persons. When + brought into the presence of the magistrate, he learned, to his + consternation, that the root upon which he had been experimentalizing was + worth four thousand florins; and, notwithstanding all he could urge in + extenuation, he was lodged in prison until he found securities for the + payment of this sum. + </p> + <p> + The demand for tulips of a rare species increased so much in the year + 1636, that regular marts for their sale were established on the Stock + Exchange of Amsterdam, in Rotterdam, Harlaem, Leyden, Alkmar, Hoorn, and + other towns. Symptoms of gambling now became, for the first time, + apparent. The stockjobbers, ever on the alert for a new speculation, dealt + largely in tulips, making use of all the means they so well knew how to + employ, to cause fluctuations in prices. At first, as in all these + gambling mania, confidence was at its height, and everybody gained. The + tulip-jobbers speculated in the rise and fall of the tulip stocks, and + made large profits by buying when prices fell, and selling out when they + rose. Many individuals grew suddenly rich. A golden bait hung temptingly + out before the people, and, one after the other, they rushed to the tulip + marts, like flies around a honeypot. Every one imagined that the passion + for tulips would last for ever, and that the wealthy from every part of + the world would send to Holland, and pay whatever prices were asked for + them. The riches of Europe would be concentrated on the shores of the + Zuyder Zee, and poverty banished from the favoured clime of Holland. + Nobles, citizens, farmers, mechanics, seamen, footmen, maidservants, even + chimney-sweeps and old clotheswomen, dabbled in tulips. People of all + grades converted their property into cash, and invested it in flowers. + Houses and lands were offered for sale at ruinously low prices, or + assigned in payment of bargains made at the tulip-mart. Foreigners became + smitten with the same frenzy, and money poured into Holland from all + directions. The prices of the necessaries of life rose again by degrees; + houses and lands, horses and carriages, and luxuries of every sort, rose + in value with them, and for some months Holland seemed the very + antechamber of Plutus. The operations of the trade became so extensive and + so intricate, that it was found necessary to draw up a code of laws for + the guidance of the dealers. Notaries and clerks were also appointed, who + devoted themselves exclusively to the interests of the trade. The + designation of public notary was hardly known in some towns, that of tulip + notary usurping its place. In the smaller towns, where there was no + exchange, the principal tavern was usually selected as the "showplace," + where high and low traded in tulips, and confirmed their bargains over + sumptuous entertainments. These dinners were sometimes attended by two or + three hundred persons, and large vases of tulips, in full bloom, were + placed at regular intervals upon the tables and sideboards, for their + gratification during the repast. + </p> + <p> + At last, however, the more prudent began to see that this folly could not + last for ever. Rich people no longer bought the flowers to keep them in + their gardens, but to sell them again at cent. per cent. profit. It was + seen that somebody must lose fearfully in the end. As this conviction + spread, prices fell, and never rose again. Confidence was destroyed, and a + universal panic seized upon the dealers. A had agreed to purchase ten + Sempers Augustines from B, at four thousand florins each, at six weeks + after the signing of the contract. B was ready with the flowers at the + appointed time; but the price had fallen to three or four hundred florins, + and A refused either to pay the difference or receive the tulips. + Defaulters were announced day after day in all the towns of Holland. + Hundreds who, a few months previously, had begun to doubt that there was + such a thing as poverty in the land, suddenly found themselves the + possessors of a few bulbs, which nobody would buy, even though they + offered them at one quarter of the sums they had paid for them. The cry of + distress resounded everywhere, and each man accused his neighbour. The few + who had contrived to enrich themselves hid their wealth from the knowledge + of their fellow-citizens, and invested it in the English or other funds. + Many who, for a brief season, had emerged from the humbler walks of life, + were cast back into their original obscurity. Substantial merchants were + reduced almost to beggary, and many a representative of a noble line saw + the fortunes of his house ruined beyond redemption. + </p> + <p> + When the first alarm subsided, the tulip-holders in the several towns held + public meetings to devise what measures were best to be taken to restore + public credit. It was generally agreed, that deputies should be sent from + all parts to Amsterdam, to consult with the government upon some remedy + for the evil. The Government at first refused to interfere, but advised + the tulip-holders to agree to some plan among themselves. Several meetings + were held for this purpose; but no measure could be devised likely to give + satisfaction to the deluded people, or repair even a slight portion of the + mischief that had been done. The language of complaint and reproach was in + everybody's mouth, and all the meetings were of the most stormy character. + At last, however, after much bickering and ill-will, it was agreed, at + Amsterdam, by the assembled deputies, that all contracts made in the + height of the mania, or prior to the month of November 1636, should be + declared null and void, and that, in those made after that date, + purchasers should be freed from their engagements, on paying ten per cent. + to the vendor. This decision gave no satisfaction. The vendors who had + their tulips on hand were, of course, discontented, and those who had + pledged themselves to purchase, thought themselves hardly treated. Tulips + which had, at one time, been worth six thousand florins, were now to be + procured for five hundred; so that the composition of ten per cent. was + one hundred florins more than the actual value. Actions for breach of + contract were threatened in all the courts of the country; but the latter + refused to take cognizance of gambling transactions. + </p> + <p> + The matter was finally referred to the Provincial Council at the Hague, + and it was confidently expected that the wisdom of this body would invent + some measure by which credit should be restored. Expectation was on the + stretch for its decision, but it never came. The members continued to + deliberate week after week, and at last, after thinking about it for three + months, declared that they could offer no final decision until they had + more information. They advised, however, that, in the mean time, every + vendor should, in the presence of witnesses, offer the tulips in natura to + the purchaser for the sums agreed upon. If the latter refused to take + them, they might be put up for sale by public auction, and the original + contractor held responsible for the difference between the actual and the + stipulated price. This was exactly the plan recommended by the deputies, + and which was already shown to be of no avail. There was no court in + Holland which would enforce payment. The question was raised in Amsterdam, + but the judges unanimously refused to interfere, on the ground that debts + contracted in gambling were no debts in law. + </p> + <p> + Thus the matter rested. To find a remedy was beyond the power of the + government. Those who were unlucky enough to have had stores of tulips on + hand at the time of the sudden reaction were left to bear their ruin as + philosophically as they could; those who had made profits were allowed to + keep them; but the commerce of the country suffered a severe shock, from + which it was many years ere it recovered. + </p> + <p> + The example of the Dutch was imitated to some extent in England. In the + year 1636 tulips were publicly sold in the Exchange of London, and the + jobbers exerted themselves to the utmost to raise them to the fictitious + value they had acquired in Amsterdam. In Paris also the jobbers strove to + create a tulipomania. In both cities they only partially succeeded. + However, the force of example brought the flowers into great favour, and + amongst a certain class of people tulips have ever since been prized more + highly than any other flowers of the field. The Dutch are still notorious + for their partiality to them, and continue to pay higher prices for them + than any other people. As the rich Englishman boasts of his fine + race-horses or his old pictures, so does the wealthy Dutchman vaunt him of + his tulips. + </p> + <p> + In England, in our day, strange as it may appear, a tulip will produce + more money than an oak. If one could be found, rara in tetris, and black + as the black swan alluded to by Juvenal, its price would equal that of a + dozen acres of standing corn. In Scotland, towards the close of the + seventeenth century, the highest price for tulips, according to the + authority of a writer in the supplement to the third edition of the + "Encyclopedia Britannica," was ten guineas. Their value appears to have + diminished from that time till the year 1769, when the two most valuable + species in England were the Don Quevedo and the Valentinier, the former of + which was worth two guineas and the latter two guineas and a half. These + prices appear to have been the minimum. In the year 1800, a common price + was fifteen guineas for a single bulb. In 1835, so foolish were the + fanciers, that a bulb of the species called the Miss Fanny Kemble was sold + by public auction in London for seventy-five pounds. Still more + astonishing was the price of a tulip in the possession of a gardener in + the King's Road, Chelsea. In his catalogues, it was labelled at two + hundred guineas! Thus a flower, which for beauty and perfume was surpassed + by the abundant roses of the garden,—a nosegay of which might be + purchased for a penny,—was priced at a sum which would have provided + an industrious labourer and his family with food, and clothes, and lodging + for six years! Should chickweed and groundsel ever come into fashion, the + wealthy would, no doubt, vie with each other in adorning their gardens + with them, and paying the most extravagant prices for them. In so doing, + they would hardly be more foolish than the admirers of tulips. The common + prices for these flowers at the present time vary from five to fifteen + guineas, according to the rarity of the species. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + RELICS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A fouth o' auld knick-knackets, + Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets, + Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets, + A towmond guid; + An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets, + Afore the flood. + + Burns. +</pre> + <p> + The love for relics is one which will never be eradicated as long as + feeling and affection are denizens of the heart. It is a love which is + most easily excited in the best and kindliest natures, and which few are + callous enough to scoff at. Who would not treasure the lock of hair that + once adorned the brow of the faithful wife, now cold in death, or that + hung down the neck of a beloved infant, now sleeping under the sward? Not + one. They are home-relics, whose sacred worth is intelligible to all; + spoils rescued from the devouring grave, which, to the affectionate, are + beyond all price. How dear to a forlorn survivor the book over whose pages + he has pored with one departed! How much greater its value, if that hand, + now cold, had written a thought, an opinion, or a name, upon the leaf! + Besides these sweet, domestic relics, there are others, which no one can + condemn; relics sanctified by that admiration of greatness and goodness + which is akin to love; such as the copy of Montaigne's Florio, with the + name of Shakspeare upon the leaf, written by the poet of all time himself; + the chair preserved at Antwerp, in which Rubens sat when he painted the + immortal "Descent from the Cross;" or the telescope, preserved in the + Museum of Florence, which aided Galileo in his sublime discoveries. Who + would not look with veneration upon the undoubted arrow of William Tell—the + swords of Wallace or of Hampden—or the Bible whose leaves were + turned by some stern old father of the faith? + </p> + <p> + Thus the principle of reliquism is hallowed and enshrined by love. But + from this germ of purity how numerous the progeny of errors and + superstitions! Men, in their admiration of the great, and of all that + appertained to them, have forgotten that goodness is a component part of + true greatness, and have made fools of themselves for the jaw-bone of a + saint, the toe-nail of an apostle, the handkerchief a king blew his nose + in, or the rope that hanged a criminal. Desiring to rescue some slight + token from the graves of their predecessors, they have confounded the + famous and the infamous, the renowned and the notorious. Great saints, + great sinners; great philosophers, great quacks; great conquerors, great + murderers; great ministers, great thieves; each and all have had their + admirers, ready to ransack earth, from the equator to either pole, to find + a relic of them. + </p> + <p> + The reliquism of modern times dates its origin from the centuries + immediately preceding the Crusades. The first pilgrims to the Holy Land + brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the purchase of + which they had expended all their store. The greatest favourite was the + wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never + diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions of the Romish + Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, first + discovered the veritable "true cross" in her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The + Emperor Theodosius made a present of the greater part of it to St. + Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded with precious stones, and + deposited in the principal church of that city. It was carried away by the + Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted the valuable jewels + it contained. Fragments, purporting to have been cut from it were, in the + eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in almost every church in + Europe, and would, if collected together in one place, have been almost + sufficient to have built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a + sight of one of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the + greatest dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve + from all evils, and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual + pilgrimages were made to the shrines that contained them, and considerable + revenues collected from the devotees. + </p> + <p> + Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour. By + whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrims did not often + inquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy Land, + and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of St. Peter, + were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, which the pious + might wear in their bosoms. After the tears the next most precious relics + were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs. Hair and toe-nails were + also in great repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of + pilgrims annually visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, + to purchase pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them had + no other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many a nail, + cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was sold at a + diamond's price, within six months after its severance from its parent + toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to a saint. Peter's + toes were uncommonly prolific, for there were nails enough in Europe, at + the time of the Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which + were devoutly believed to have grown on the sacred feet of that great + apostle. Some of them are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. + The pious come from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their + eyes upon them. + </p> + <p> + At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the + priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns that + bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by whom it + was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous thorn, + celebrated in the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists, + and which worked the miraculous cure upon Mademoiselle Perrier: by merely + kissing it, she was cured of a disease of the eyes of long standing. + [Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV.] + </p> + <p> + What traveller is unacquainted with the Santa Scala, or Holy Stairs, at + Rome? They were brought from Jerusalem along with the true cross, by the + Empress Helen, and were taken from the house which, according to popular + tradition, was inhabited by Pontius Pilate. They are said to be the steps + which Jesus ascended and descended when brought into the presence of the + Roman governor. They are held in the greatest veneration at Rome: it is + sacrilegious to walk upon them. The knees of the faithful must alone touch + them in ascending or descending, and that only after they have + reverentially kissed them. + </p> + <p> + Europe still swarms with these religious relics. There is hardly a Roman + Catholic church in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, or Belgium, without one + or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches of the villages boast + the possession of miraculous thigh-bones of the innumerable saints of the + Romish calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable chasse, or + thigh-bone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a thighbone of + the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted + relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, the teeth of + St. Gudule. The faithful, who suffered from the tooth-ache, had only to + pray, look at them, and be cured. Some of these holy bones have been + buried in different parts of the Continent. After a certain lapse of time, + water is said to ooze from them, which soon forms a spring, and cures all + the diseases of the faithful. At a church in Halle, there is a famous + thigh-bone, which cures barrenness in women. Of this bone, which is under + the special superintendence of the Virgin, a pleasant story is related by + the incredulous. There resided at Ghent a couple who were blessed with all + the riches of this world, but whose happiness was sore troubled by the + want of children. Great was the grief of the lady, who was both beautiful + and loving, and many her lamentations to her husband. The latter, annoyed + by her unceasing sorrow, advised her to make a pilgrimage to the + celebrated chasse of the Virgin. She went, was absent a week, and returned + with a face all radiant with joy and pleasure. Her lamentations ceased, + and, in nine months afterwards, she brought forth a son. But, oh! the + instability of human joys! The babe, so long desired and so greatly + beloved, survived but a few months. Two years passed over the heads of the + disconsolate couple, and no second child appeared to cheer their + fire-side. A third year passed away with the same result, and the lady + once more began to weep. "Cheer up, my love," said her husband, "and go to + the holy chasse, at Halle; perhaps the Virgin will again listen to your + prayers." The lady took courage at the thought, wiped away her tears, and + proceeded on the morrow towards Halle. She was absent only three days, and + returned home sad, weeping, and sorrow-stricken. "What is the matter?" + said her husband; "is the Virgin unwilling to listen to your prayers?" + "The Virgin is willing enough," said the disconsolate wife, "and will do + what she can for me; but I shall never have any more children! The priest! + the priest!—He is gone from Halle, and nobody knows where to find + him!" + </p> + <p> + It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all + countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any persons who have been + much spoken of, even for their crimes. When William Longbeard, leader of + the populace of London, in the reign of Richard I, was hanged at + Smithfield, the utmost eagerness was shown to obtain a hair from his head, + or a shred from his garments. Women came from Essex, Kent, Suffolk, + Sussex, and all the surrounding counties, to collect the mould at the foot + of his gallows. A hair of his beard was believed to preserve from evil + spirits, and a piece of his clothes from aches and pains. + </p> + <p> + In more modern days, a similar avidity was shown to obtain a relic of the + luckless Masaniello, the fisherman of Naples. After he had been raised by + mob favour to a height of power more despotic than monarch ever wielded, + he was shot by the same populace in the streets, as if he had been a mad + dog. His headless trunk was dragged through the mire for several hours, + and cast at night-fall into the city ditch. On the morrow the tide of + popular feeling turned once more in his favour. His corpse was sought, + arrayed in royal robes, and buried magnificently by torch-light in the + cathedral, ten thousand armed men, and as many mourners, attending at the + ceremony. The fisherman's dress which he had worn was rent into shreds by + the crowd, to be preserved as relics; the door of his hut was pulled off + its hinges by a mob of women, and eagerly cut up into small pieces, to be + made into images, caskets, and other mementos. The scanty furniture of his + poor abode became of more value than the adornments of a palace; the + ground he had walked upon was considered sacred, and, being collected in + small phials, was sold at its weight in gold, and worn in the bosom as an + amulet. + </p> + <p> + Almost as extraordinary was the frenzy manifested by the populace of Paris + on the execution of the atrocious Marchioness de Brinvilliers. There were + grounds for the popular wonder in the case of Masaniello, who was + unstained with personal crimes. But the career of Madame de Brinvilliers + was of a nature to excite no other feelings than disgust and abhorrence. + She was convicted of poisoning several persons, and sentenced to be burned + in the Place de Greve, and to have her ashes scattered to the winds. On + the day of her execution, the populace, struck by her gracefulness and + beauty, inveighed against the severity of her sentence. Their pity soon + increased to admiration, and, ere evening, she was considered a saint. Her + ashes were industriously collected, even the charred wood, which had aided + to consume her, was eagerly purchased by the populace. Her ashes were + thought to preserve from witchcraft. + </p> + <p> + In England many persons have a singular love for the relics of thieves and + murderers, or other great criminals. The ropes with which they have been + hanged are very often bought by collectors at a guinea per foot. Great + sums were paid for the rope which hanged Dr. Dodd, and for those more + recently which did justice upon Mr. Fauntleroy for forgery, and on + Thurtell for the murder of Mr. Weare. The murder of Maria Marten, by + Corder, in the year 1828, excited the greatest interest all over the + country. People came from Wales and Scotland, and even from Ireland, to + visit the barn where the body of the murdered woman was buried. Every one + of them was anxious to carry away some memorial of his visit. Pieces of + the barn-door, tiles from the roof, and, above all, the clothes of the + poor victim, were eagerly sought after. A lock of her hair was sold for + two guineas, and the purchaser thought himself fortunate in getting it so + cheaply. + </p> + <p> + So great was the concourse of people to visit the house in Camberwell + Lane, where Greenacre murdered Hannah Brown, in 1837, that it was found + necessary to station a strong detachment of police on the spot. The crowd + was so eager to obtain a relic of the house of this atrocious criminal, + that the police were obliged to employ force to prevent the tables and + chairs, and even the doors, from being carried away. + </p> + <p> + In earlier times, a singular superstition was attached to the hand of a + criminal who had suffered execution. It was thought that by merely rubbing + the dead hand on the body, the patient afflicted with the king's evil + would be instantly cured. The executioner at Newgate, sixty or seventy + years ago, derived no inconsiderable revenue from this foolish practice. + The possession of the hand was thought to be of still greater efficacy in + the cure of diseases and the prevention of misfortunes. In the time of + Charles II as much as ten guineas was thought a small price for one of + these disgusting relics. + </p> + <p> + When the maniac, Thom, or Courtenay, was shot, in the spring of 1838, the + relic-hunters were immediately in motion to obtain a memento of so + extraordinary an individual. His long, black beard and hair, which were + cut off by the surgeons, fell into the hands of his disciples, by whom + they are treasured with the utmost reverence. A lock of his hair commands + a great price, not only amongst his followers, but among the more wealthy + inhabitants of Canterbury and its neighbourhood. The tree against which he + fell when he was shot, has already been stripped of all its bark by the + curious, and bids fair to be entirely demolished within a twelvemonth. A + letter, with his signature to it, is paid for in gold coins; and his + favourite horse promises to become as celebrated as his master. Parties of + ladies and gentlemen have come to Boughton from a distance of a hundred + and fifty miles, to visit the scene of that fatal affray, and stroke on + the back the horse of the "mad Knight of Malta." If a strict watch had not + been kept over his grave for months, the body would have been disinterred, + and the bones carried away as memorials. + </p> + <p> + Among the Chinese no relics are more valued than the boots which have been + worn by an upright magistrate. In Davis's interesting Description of the + Empire of China, we are informed, that whenever a judge of unusual + integrity resigns his situation, the people all congregate to do him + honour. If he leaves the city where he has presided, the crowd accompany + him from his residence to the gates, where his boots are drawn off with + great ceremony, to be preserved in the hall of justice. Their place is + immediately supplied by a new pair, which, in their turn, are drawn off to + make room for others before he has worn them five minutes, it being + considered sufficient to consecrate them that he should have merely drawn + them on. + </p> + <p> + Among the most favourite relics of modern times, in Europe, are + Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, Napoleon's willow, and the table at Waterloo, + on which the Emperor wrote his despatches. Snuffboxes of Shakspeare's + mulberry-tree, are comparatively rare, though there are doubtless more of + them in the market than were ever made of the wood planted by the great + bard. Many a piece of alien wood passes under this name. The same may be + said of Napoleon's table at Waterloo. The original has long since been + destroyed, and a round dozen of counterfeits along with it. Many preserve + the simple stick of wood; others have them cut into brooches and every + variety of ornament; but by far the greater number prefer them as + snuff-boxes. In France they are made into bonbonnieres, and are much + esteemed by the many thousands whose cheeks still glow, and whose eyes + still sparkle at the name of Napoleon. + </p> + <p> + Bullets from the field of Waterloo, and buttons from the coats of the + soldiers who fell in the fight, are still favourite relics in Europe. But + the same ingenuity which found new tables after the old one was destroyed, + has cast new bullets for the curious. Many a one who thinks himself the + possessor of a bullet which aided in giving peace to the world on that + memorable day, is the owner of a dump, first extracted from the ore a + dozen years afterwards. Let all lovers of genuine relics look well to + their money before they part with it to the ciceroni that swarm in the + village of Waterloo. + </p> + <p> + Few travellers stop at the lonely isle of St. Helena, without cutting a + twig from the willow that droops over the grave of Napoleon. Many of them + have since been planted in different parts of Europe, and have grown into + trees as large as their parent. Relic-hunters, who are unable to procure a + twig of the original, are content with one from these. Several of them are + growing in the neighbourhood of London, more prized by their cultivators + than any other tree in their gardens. But in relics, as in everything + else, there is the use and the abuse. The undoubted relics of great men, + or great events, will always possess attractions for the thinking and + refined. There are few who would not join with Cowley in the extravagant + wish introduced in his lines "written while sitting in a chair made of the + remains of the ship in which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world:"— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And I myself, who now love quiet too, + Almost as much as any chair can do, + Would yet a journey take + An old wheel of that chariot to see, + Which Phaeton so rashly brake. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + MODERN PROPHECIES. + </h2> + <p> + As epidemic terror of the end of the world has several times spread over + the nations. The most remarkable was that which seized Christendom about + the middle of the tenth century. Numbers of fanatics appeared in France, + Germany, and Italy at that time, preaching that the thousand years + prophesied in the Apocalypse as the term of the world's duration, were + about to expire, and that the Son of Man would appear in the clouds to + judge the godly and the ungodly. The delusion appears to have been + discouraged by the church, but it nevertheless spread rapidly among the + people. [See Gibbon and Voltaire for further notice of this subject.] + </p> + <p> + The scene of the last judgment was expected to be at Jerusalem. In the + year 999, the number of pilgrims proceeding eastward, to await the coming + of the Lord in that city, was so great that they were compared to a + desolating army. Most of them sold their goods and possessions before they + quitted Europe, and lived upon the proceeds in the Holy Land. Buildings of + every sort were suffered to fall into ruins. It was thought useless to + repair them, when the end of the world was so near. Many noble edifices + were deliberately pulled down. Even churches, usually so well maintained, + shared the general neglect. Knights, citizens, and serfs, travelled + eastwards in company, taking with them their wives and children, singing + psalms as they went, and looking with fearful eyes upon the sky, which + they expected each minute to open, to let the Son of God descend in his + glory. + </p> + <p> + During the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased. Most of them + were smitten with terror as with a plague. Every phenomenon of nature + filled them with alarm. A thunder-storm sent them all upon their knees in + mid-march. It was the opinion that thunder was the voice of God, + announcing the day of judgment. Numbers expected the earth to open, and + give up its dead at the sound. Every meteor in the sky seen at Jerusalem + brought the whole Christian population into the streets to weep and pray. + The pilgrims on the road were in the same alarm:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lorsque, pendant la nuit, un globe de lumiere + S'echappa quelquefois de la voute des cieux, + Et traca dans sa chute un long sillon de feux, + La troupe suspendit sa marche solitaire. + [Charlemagne. Pomme Epique, par Lucien Buonaparte.] +</pre> + <p> + Fanatic preachers kept up the flame of terror. Every shooting star + furnished occasion for a sermon, in which the sublimity of the approaching + judgment was the principal topic. + </p> + <p> + The appearance of comets has been often thought to foretell the speedy + dissolution of this world. Part of this belief still exists; but the comet + is no longer looked upon as the sign, but the agent of destruction. So + lately as in the year 1832 the greatest alarm spread over the Continent of + Europe, especially in Germany, lest the comet, whose appearance was then + foretold by astronomers, should destroy the earth. The danger of our globe + was gravely discussed. Many persons refrained from undertaking or + concluding any business during that year, in consequence solely of their + apprehension that this terrible comet would dash us and our world to + atoms. + </p> + <p> + During seasons of great pestilence men have often believed the prophecies + of crazed fanatics, that the end of the world was come. Credulity is + always greatest in times of calamity. Prophecies of all sorts are rife on + such occasions, and are readily believed, whether for good or evil. During + the great plague, which ravaged all Europe, between the years 1345 and + 1350, it was generally considered that the end of the world was at hand. + Pretended prophets were to be found in all the principal cities of + Germany, France, and Italy, predicting that within ten years the trump of + the Archangel would sound, and the Saviour appear in the clouds to call + the earth to judgment. + </p> + <p> + No little consternation was created in London in 1736 by the prophecy of + the famous Whiston, that the world would be destroyed in that year, on the + 13th of October. Crowds of people went out on the appointed day to + Islington, Hampstead, and the fields intervening, to see the destruction + of London, which was to be the "beginning of the end." A satirical account + of this folly is given in Swift's Miscellanies, vol. iii. entitled, "A + True and Faithful Narrative of what passed in London on a Rumour of the + Day of Judgment." An authentic narrative of this delusion would be + interesting; but this solemn witticism of Pope and Gay is not to be + depended upon. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1761 the citizens of London were again frightened out of their + wits by two shocks of an earthquake, and the prophecy of a third, which + was to destroy them altogether. The first shock was felt on the 8th of + February, and threw down several chimneys in the neighbourhood of + Limehouse and Poplar; the second happened on the 8th of March, and was + chiefly felt in the north of London, and towards Hampstead and Highgate. + It soon became the subject of general remark, that there was exactly an + interval of a month between the shocks; and a crack-brained fellow, named + Bell, a soldier in the Life Guards, was so impressed with the idea that + there would be a third in another month, that he lost his senses + altogether, and ran about the streets predicting the destruction of London + on the 5th of April. Most people thought that the first would have been a + more appropriate day; but there were not wanting thousands who confidently + believed the prediction, and took measures to transport themselves and + families from the scene of the impending calamity. As the awful day + approached, the excitement became intense, and great numbers of credulous + people resorted to all the villages within a circuit of twenty miles, + awaiting the doom of London. Islington, Highgate, Hampstead, Harrow, and + Blackheath, were crowded with panic-stricken fugitives, who paid + exorbitant prices for accommodation to the housekeepers of these secure + retreats. Such as could not afford to pay for lodgings at any of those + places, remained in London until two or three days before the time, and + then encamped in the surrounding fields, awaiting the tremendous shock + which was to lay their high city all level with the dust. As happened + during a similar panic in the time of Henry VIII, the fear became + contagious, and hundreds who had laughed at the prediction a week before, + packed up their goods, when they saw others doing so, and hastened away. + The river was thought to be a place of great security, and all the + merchant vessels in the port were filled with people, who passed the night + between the 4th and 5th on board, expecting every instant to see St. + Paul's totter, and the towers of Westminster Abbey rock in the wind and + fall amid a cloud of dust. The greater part of the fugitives returned on + the following day, convinced that the prophet was a false one; but many + judged it more prudent to allow a week to elapse before they trusted their + dear limbs in London. Bell lost all credit in a short time, and was looked + upon even by the most credulous as a mere madman. He tried some other + prophecies, but nobody was deceived by them; and, in a few months + afterwards, he was confined in a lunatic asylum. + </p> + <p> + A panic terror of the end of the world seized the good people of Leeds and + its neighbourhood in the year 1806. It arose from the following + circumstances. A hen, in a village close by, laid eggs, on which were + inscribed, in legible characters, the words "Christ is coming." Great + numbers visited the spot, and examined these wondrous eggs, convinced that + the day of judgment was near at hand. Like sailors in a storm, expecting + every instant to go to the bottom, the believers suddenly became + religious, prayed violently, and flattered themselves that they repented + them of their evil courses. But a plain tale soon put them down, and + quenched their religion entirely. Some gentlemen, hearing of the matter, + went one fine morning, and caught the poor hen in the act of laying one of + her miraculous eggs. They soon ascertained beyond doubt that the egg had + been inscribed with some corrosive ink, and cruelly forced up again into + the bird's body. At this explanation, those who had prayed, now laughed, + and the world wagged as merrily as of yore. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the plague in Milan, in 1630, of which so affecting a + description has been left us by Ripamonte, in his interesting work "De + Peste Mediolani", the people, in their distress, listened with avidity to + the predictions of astrologers and other impostors. It is singular enough + that the plague was foretold a year before it broke out. A large comet + appearing in 1628, the opinions of astrologers were divided with regard to + it. Some insisted that it was a forerunner of a bloody war; others + maintained that it predicted a great famine; but the greater number, + founding their judgment upon its pale colour, thought it portended a + pestilence. The fulfilment of their prediction brought them into great + repute while the plague was raging. + </p> + <p> + Other prophecies were current, which were asserted to have been delivered + hundreds of years previously. They had a most pernicious effect upon the + mind of the vulgar, as they induced a belief in fatalism. By taking away + the hope of recovery—that greatest balm in every malady—they + increased threefold the ravages of the disease. One singular prediction + almost drove the unhappy people mad. An ancient couplet, preserved for + ages by tradition, foretold, that in the year 1630 the devil would poison + all Milan. Early one morning in April, and before the pestilence had + reached its height, the passengers were surprised to see that all the + doors in the principal streets of the city were marked with a curious + daub, or spot, as if a sponge, filled with the purulent matter of the + plague-sores, had been pressed against them. The whole population were + speedily in movement to remark the strange appearance, and the greatest + alarm spread rapidly. Every means was taken to discover the perpetrators, + but in vain. At last the ancient prophecy was remembered, and prayers were + offered up in all the churches that the machinations of the Evil One might + be defeated. Many persons were of opinion that the emissaries of foreign + powers were employed to spread infectious poison over the city; but by far + the greater number were convinced that the powers of hell had conspired + against them, and that the infection was spread by supernatural agencies. + In the mean time the plague increased fearfully. Distrust and alarm took + possession of every mind. Everything was believed to have been poisoned by + the devil; the waters of the wells, the standing corn in the fields, and + the fruit upon the trees. It was believed that all objects of touch were + poisoned; the walls of the houses, the pavement of the streets, and the + very handles of the doors. The populace were raised to a pitch of + ungovernable fury. A strict watch was kept for the devil's emissaries, and + any man who wanted to be rid of an enemy, had only to say that he had seen + him besmearing a door with ointment; his fate was certain death at the + hands of the mob. An old man, upwards of eighty years of age, a daily + frequenter of the church of St. Antonio, was seen, on rising from his + knees, to wipe with the skirt of his cloak the stool on which he was about + to sit down. A cry was raised immediately that he was besmearing the seat + with poison. A mob of women, by whom the church was crowded, seized hold + of the feeble old man, and dragged him out by the hair of his head, with + horrid oaths and imprecations. He was trailed in this manner through the + mire to the house of the municipal judge, that he might be put to the + rack, and forced to discover his accomplices; but he expired on the way. + Many other victims were sacrificed to the popular fury. One Mora, who + appears to have been half a chemist and half a barber, was accused of + being in league with the devil to poison Milan. His house was surrounded, + and a number of chemical preparations were found. The poor man asserted, + that they were intended as preservatives against infection; but some + physicians, to whom they were submitted, declared they were poison. Mora + was put to the rack, where he for a long time asserted his innocence. He + confessed at last, when his courage was worn down by torture, that he was + in league with the devil and foreign powers to poison the whole city; that + he had anointed the doors, and infected the fountains of water. He named + several persons as his accomplices, who were apprehended and put to a + similar torture. They were all found guilty, and executed. Mora's house + was rased to the ground, and a column erected on the spot, with an + inscription to commemorate his guilt. + </p> + <p> + While the public mind was filled with these marvellous occurrences, the + plague continued to increase. The crowds that were brought together to + witness the executions, spread the infection among one another. But the + fury of their passions, and the extent of their credulity, kept pace with + the violence of the plague; every wonderful and preposterous story was + believed. One, in particular, occupied them to the exclusion, for a long + time, of every other. The Devil himself had been seen. He had taken a + house in Milan, in which he prepared his poisonous unguents, and furnished + them to his emissaries for distribution. One man had brooded over such + tales till he became firmly convinced that the wild flights of his own + fancy were realities. He stationed himself in the market-place of Milan, + and related the following story to the crowds that gathered round him. He + was standing, he said, at the door of the cathedral, late in the evening, + and when there was nobody nigh, he saw a dark-coloured chariot, drawn by + six milk-white horses, stop close beside him. The chariot was followed by + a numerous train of domestics in dark liveries, mounted on dark-coloured + steeds. In the chariot there sat a tall stranger of a majestic aspect; his + long black hair floated in the wind—fire flashed from his large + black eyes, and a curl of ineffable scorn dwelt upon his lips. The look of + the stranger was so sublime that he was awed, and trembled with fear when + he gazed upon him. His complexion was much darker than that of any man he + had ever seen, and the atmosphere around him was hot and suffocating. He + perceived immediately that he was a being of another world. The stranger, + seeing his trepidation, asked him blandly, yet majestically, to mount + beside him. He had no power to refuse, and before he was well aware that + he had moved, he found himself in the chariot. Onwards they went, with the + rapidity of the wind, the stranger speaking no word, until they stopped + before a door in the high-street of Milan. There was a crowd of people in + the street, but, to his great surprise, no one seemed to notice the + extraordinary equipage and its numerous train. From this he concluded that + they were invisible. The house at which they stopped appeared to be a + shop, but the interior was like a vast half-ruined palace. He went with + his mysterious guide through several large and dimly-lighted rooms. In one + of them, surrounded by huge pillars of marble, a senate of ghosts was + assembled, debating on the progress of the plague. Other parts of the + building were enveloped in the thickest darkness, illumined at intervals + by flashes of lightning, which allowed him to distinguish a number of + gibing and chattering skeletons, running about and pursuing each other, or + playing at leap-frog over one another's backs. At the rear of the mansion + was a wild, uncultivated plot of ground, in the midst of which arose a + black rock. Down its sides rushed with fearful noise a torrent of + poisonous water, which, insinuating itself through the soil, penetrated to + all the springs of the city, and rendered them unfit for use. After he had + been shown all this, the stranger led him into another large chamber, + filled with gold and precious stones, all of which he offered him if he + would kneel down and worship him, and consent to smear the doors and + houses of Milan with a pestiferous salve which he held out to him. He now + knew him to be the Devil, and in that moment of temptation, prayed to God + to give him strength to resist. His prayer was heard—he refused the + bribe. The stranger scowled horribly upon him—a loud clap of thunder + burst over his head—the vivid lightning flashed in his eyes, and the + next moment he found himself standing alone at the porch of the cathedral. + He repeated this strange tale day after day, without any variation, and + all the populace were firm believers in its truth. Repeated search was + made to discover the mysterious house, but all in vain. The man pointed + out several as resembling it, which were searched by the police; but the + Demon of the Pestilence was not to be found, nor the hall of ghosts, nor + the poisonous fountain. But the minds of the people were so impressed with + the idea that scores of witnesses, half crazed by disease, came forward to + swear that they also had seen the diabolical stranger, and had heard his + chariot, drawn by the milk-white steeds, rumbling over the streets at + midnight with a sound louder than thunder. + </p> + <p> + The number of persons who confessed that they were employed by the Devil + to distribute poison is almost incredible. An epidemic frenzy was abroad, + which seemed to be as contagious as the plague. Imagination was as + disordered as the body, and day after day persons came voluntarily forward + to accuse themselves. They generally had the marks of disease upon them, + and some died in the act of confession. + </p> + <p> + During the great plague of London, in 1665, the people listened with + similar avidity to the predictions of quacks and fanatics. Defoe says, + that at that time the people were more addicted to prophecies and + astronomical conjurations, dreams, and old wives' tales than ever they + were before or since. Almanacs, and their predictions, frightened them + terribly. Even the year before the plague broke out, they were greatly + alarmed by the comet which then appeared, and anticipated that famine, + pestilence, or fire would follow. Enthusiasts, while yet the disease had + made but little progress, ran about the streets, predicting that in a few + days London would be destroyed. + </p> + <p> + A still more singular instance of the faith in predictions occurred in + London in the year 1524. The city swarmed at that time with + fortune-tellers and astrologers, who were consulted daily by people of + every class in society on the secrets of futurity. As early as the month + of June 1523, several of them concurred in predicting that, on the 1st day + of February, 1524, the waters of the Thames would swell to such a height + as to overflow the whole city of London, and wash away ten thousand + houses. The prophecy met implicit belief. It was reiterated with the + utmost confidence month after month, until so much alarm was excited that + many families packed up their goods, and removed into Kent and Essex. As + the time drew nigh, the number of these emigrants increased. In January, + droves of workmen might be seen, followed by their wives and children, + trudging on foot to the villages within fifteen or twenty miles, to await + the catastrophe. People of a higher class were also to be seen, in waggons + and other vehicles, bound on a similar errand. By the middle of January, + at least twenty thousand persons had quitted the doomed city, leaving + nothing but the bare walls of their homes to be swept away by the + impending floods. Many of the richer sort took up their abode on the + heights of Highgate, Hampstead, and Blackheath; and some erected tents as + far away as Waltham Abbey, on the north, and Croydon, on the south of the + Thames. Bolton, the prior of St. Bartholomew's, was so alarmed that he + erected, at very great expense, a sort of fortress at Harrow-on-the-Hill, + which he stocked with provisions for two months. On the 24th of January, a + week before the awful day which was to see the destruction of London, he + removed thither, with the brethren and officers of the priory and all his + household. A number of boats were conveyed in waggons to his fortress, + furnished abundantly with expert rowers, in case the flood, reaching so + high as Harrow, should force them to go further for a resting-place. Many + wealthy citizens prayed to share his retreat, but the Prior, with a + prudent forethought, admitted only his personal friends, and those who + brought stores of eatables for the blockade. + </p> + <p> + At last the morn, big with the fate of London, appeared in the east. The + wondering crowds were astir at an early hour to watch the rising of the + waters. The inundation, it was predicted, would be gradual, not sudden; so + that they expected to have plenty of time to escape, as soon as they saw + the bosom of old Thames heave beyond the usual mark. But the majority were + too much alarmed to trust to this, and thought themselves safer ten or + twenty miles off. The Thames, unmindful of the foolish crowds upon its + banks, flowed on quietly as of yore. The tide ebbed at its usual hour, + flowed to its usual height, and then ebbed again, just as if twenty + astrologers had not pledged their words to the contrary. Blank were their + faces as evening approached, and as blank grew the faces of the citizens + to think that they had made such fools of themselves. At last night set + in, and the obstinate river would not lift its waters to sweep away even + one house out of the ten thousand. Still, however, the people were afraid + to go to sleep. Many hundreds remained up till dawn of the next day, lest + the deluge should come upon them like a thief in the night. + </p> + <p> + On the morrow, it was seriously discussed whether it would not be + advisable to duck the false prophets in the river. Luckily for them, they + thought of an expedient which allayed the popular fury. They asserted + that, by an error (a very slight one) of a little figure, they had fixed + the date of this awful inundation a whole century too early. The stars + were right after all, and they, erring mortals, were wrong. The present + generation of cockneys was safe, and London 'would be washed away, not in + 1524, but in 1624. At this announcement, Bolton, the prior, dismantled his + fortress, and the weary emigrants came back. + </p> + <p> + An eye-witness of the great fire of London, in an account preserved among + the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, and recently published in the + Transactions of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, relates another instance + of the credulity of the Londoners. The writer, who accompanied the Duke of + York day by day through the district included between the Fleet-bridge and + the Thames, states that, in their efforts to check the progress of the + flames, they were much impeded by the superstition of the people. Mother + Shipton, in one of her prophecies, had said that London would be reduced + to ashes, and they refused to make any efforts to prevent it. [This + prophecy seems to have been that set forth at length in the popular Life + of Mother Shipton:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When fate to England shall restore + A king to reign as heretofore, + Great death in London shall be though, + And many houses be laid low."] +</pre> + <p> + A son of the noted Sir Kenelm Digby, who was also a pretender to the gifts + of prophecy, persuaded them that no power on earth could prevent the + fulfilment of the prediction; for it was written in the great book of fate + that London was to be destroyed. Hundreds of persons, who might have + rendered valuable assistance, and saved whole parishes from devastation, + folded their arms and looked on. As many more gave themselves up, with the + less compunction, to plunder a city which they could not save. + </p> + <p> + The prophecies of Mother Shipton are still believed in many of the rural + districts of England. In cottages and servants' halls her reputation is + great; and she rules, the most popular of British prophets, among all the + uneducated, or half-educated, portions of the community. She is generally + supposed to have been born at Knaresborough, in the reign of Henry VII, + and to have sold her soul to the Devil for the power of foretelling future + events. Though during her lifetime she was looked upon as a witch, she yet + escaped the witch's fate, and died peaceably in her bed at an extreme old + age, near Clifton in Yorkshire. A stone is said to have been erected to + her memory in the church-yard of that place, with the following epitaph:— + </p> + <p> + "Here lies she who never lied; Whose skill often has been tried: Her + prophecies shall still survive, And ever keep her name alive." + </p> + <p> + "Never a day passed," says her traditionary biography, "wherein she did + not relate something remarkable, and that required the most serious + consideration. People flocked to her from far and near, her fame was so + great. They went to her of all sorts, both old and young, rich and poor, + especially young maidens, to be resolved of their doubts relating to + things to come; and all returned wonderfully satisfied in the explanations + she gave to their questions." Among the rest, went the Abbot of Beverley, + to whom she foretold the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII; his + marriage with Anne Boleyn; the fires for heretics in Smithfield, and the + execution of Mary Queen of Scots. She also foretold the accession of James + I, adding that, with him, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "From the cold North, + Every evil should come forth." +</pre> + <p> + On a subsequent visit she uttered another prophecy, which, in the opinion + of her believers, still remains unfulfilled, but may be expected to be + realised during the present century:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The time shall come when seas of blood + Shall mingle with a greater flood. + Great noise there shall be heard—great shouts and cries, + And seas shall thunder louder than the skies; + Then shall three lions fight with three, and bring + Joy to a people, honour to a king. + That fiery year as soon as o'er, + Peace shall then be as before; + Plenty shall everywhere be found, + And men with swords shall plough the ground." +</pre> + <p> + But the most famous of all her prophecies is one relating to London. + Thousands of persons still shudder to think of the woes that are to burst + over this unhappy realm, when London and Highgate are joined by one + continuous line of houses. This junction, which, if the rage for building + lasts much longer, in the same proportion as heretofore, bids fair to be + soon accomplished, was predicted by her shortly before her death. + Revolutions—the fall of mighty monarchs, and the shedding of much + blood are to signalise that event. The very angels, afflicted by our woes, + are to turn aside their heads, and weep for hapless Britain. + </p> + <p> + But great as is the fame of Mother Shipton, she ranks but second in the + list of British prophets. Merlin, the mighty Merlin, stands alone in his + high pre-eminence—the first and greatest. As old Drayton sings, in + his Poly-olbion:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Of Merlin and his skill what region doth not hear? + The world shall still be full of Merlin every year. + A thousand lingering years his prophecies have run, + And scarcely shall have end till time itself be done." +</pre> + <p> + Spenser, in his divine poem, has given us a powerful description of this + renowned seer— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ".......who had in magic more insight + Than ever him before, or after, living wight. + + "For he by words could call out of the sky + Both sun and moon, and make them him obey; + The land to sea, and sea to mainland dry, + And darksome night he eke could turn to day— + Huge hosts of men he could, alone, dismay. + And hosts of men and meanest things could frame, + Whenso him list his enemies to fray, + That to this day, for terror of his name, + The fiends do quake, when any him to them does name. + + "And soothe men say that he was not the sonne, + Of mortal sire or other living wighte, + But wondrously begotten and begoune + By false illusion of a guileful sprite, + On a faire ladye nun." +</pre> + <p> + In these verses the poet has preserved the popular belief with regard to + Merlin, who is generally supposed to have been a contemporary of + Vortigern. Opinion is divided as to whether he were a real personage, or a + mere impersonation, formed by the poetic fancy of a credulous people. It + seems most probable that such a man did exist, and that, possessing + knowledge as much above the comprehension of his age, as that possessed by + Friar Bacon was beyond the reach of his, he was endowed by the wondering + crowd with the supernatural attributes that Spenser has enumerated. + </p> + <p> + Geoffrey of Monmouth translated Merlin's poetical odes, or prophecies, + into Latin prose, and he was much reverenced, not only by Geoffrey, but by + most of the old annalists. In a "Life of Merlin, with his Prophecies and + Predictions, interpreted and made good by our English Annals," by Thomas + Heywood, published in the reign of Charles I, we find several of these + pretended prophecies. They seem, however, to have been all written by + Heywood himself. They are in terms too plain and positive to allow any one + to doubt for a moment of their having been composed ex post facto. + Speaking of Richard I, he says:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The Lion's heart will 'gainst the Saracen rise, + And purchase from him many a glorious prize; + The rose and lily shall at first unite, + But, parting of the prey prove opposite. + + * * * * + + But while abroad these great acts shall be done; + All things at home shall to disorder run. + Cooped up and caged then shall the Lion be, + But, after sufferance, ransomed and set free." +</pre> + <p> + The sapient Thomas Heywood gravely goes on to inform us, that all these + things actually came to pass. Upon Richard III he is equally luminous. He + says:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A hunch-backed monster, who with teeth is born, + The mockery of art and nature's scorn; + Who from the womb preposterously is hurled, + And, with feet forward, thrust into the world, + Shall, from the lower earth on which he stood, + Wade, every step he mounts, knee-deep in blood. + He shall to th' height of all his hopes aspire, + And, clothed in state, his ugly shape admire; + But, when he thinks himself most safe to stand, + From foreign parts a native whelp shall land." +</pre> + <p> + Another of these prophecies after the event tells us that Henry VIII + should take the power from Rome, "and bring it home unto his British + bower;" that he should "root out from the land all the razored skulls;" + and that he should neither spare "man in his rage nor woman in his lust;" + and that, in the time of his next successor but one, "there should come in + the fagot and the stake." Master Heywood closes Merlin's prophecies at his + own day, and does not give even a glimpse of what was to befall England + after his decease. Many other prophecies, besides those quoted by him, + were, he says, dispersed abroad, in his day, under the name of Merlin; but + he gives his readers a taste of one only, and that is the following:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When hempe is ripe and ready to pull, + Then Englishman beware thy skull." +</pre> + <p> + This prophecy, which, one would think, ought to have put him in mind of + the gallows, the not unusual fate of false prophets, and perchance his + own, he explains thus:—"In this word HEMPE be five letters. Now, by + reckoning the five successive princes from Henry VIII, this prophecy is + easily explained: H signifieth King Henry before named; E, Edward, his + son, the sixth of that name; M, Mary, who succeeded him; P, Philip of + Spain, who, by marrying Queen Mary, participated with her in the English + diadem; and, lastly, E signifieth Queen Elizabeth, after whose death there + was a great feare that some troubles might have arisen about the crown." + As this did not happen, Heywood, who was a sly rogue in a small way, gets + out of the scrape by saying, "Yet proved this augury true, though not + according to the former expectation; for, after the peaceful inauguration + of King James, there was great mortality, not in London only, but through + the whole kingdom, and from which the nation was not quite clean in seven + years after." + </p> + <p> + This is not unlike the subterfuge of Peter of Pontefract, who had + prophesied the death and deposition of King John, and who was hanged by + that monarch for his pains. A very graphic and amusing account of this + pretended prophet is given by Grafton, in his Chronicles of England. There + is so much homely vigour about the style of the old annalist, that it + would be a pity to give the story in other words than his own. [Chronicles + of England, by Richard Grafton; London, 1568, p. 106.] "In the meanwhile," + says he, "the priestes within England had provided them a false and + counterfeated prophet, called Peter Wakefielde, a Yorkshire man, who was + an hermite, an idle gadder about, and a pratlyng marchant. Now to bring + this Peter in credite, and the kyng out of all credite with his people, + diverse vaine persons bruted dayly among the commons of the realme, that + Christe had twice appered unto him in the shape of a childe, betwene the + prieste's handes, once at Yorke, another tyme at Pomfret; and that he had + breathed upon him thrice, saying, 'Peace, peace, peace,' and teachyng many + things, which he anon declared to the bishops, and bid the people amend + their naughtie living. Being rapt also in spirite, they sayde he behelde + the joyes of heaven and sorowes of hell, for scant were there three in the + realme, sayde he, that lived Christainly. + </p> + <p> + "This counterfeated soothsayer prophecied of King John, that he should + reigne no longer than the Ascension-day next followyng, which was in the + yere of our Lord 1211, and was the thirteenth yere from his coronation; + and this, he said, he had by revelation. Then it was of him demanded, + whether he should be slaine or be deposed, or should voluntarily give over + the crowne? He aunswered, that he could not tell; but of this he was sure + (he sayd), that neither he nor any of his stock or lineage should reigne + after that day. + </p> + <p> + "The king hering of this, laughed much at it, and made but a scoff + thereat. 'Tush!' saith he, 'it is but an ideot knave, and such an one as + lacketh his right wittes.' But when this foolish prophet had so escaped + the daunger of the Kinge's displeasure, and that he made no more of it, he + gate him abroad, and prated thereof at large, as he was a very idle + vagabond, and used to trattle and talke more than ynough, so that they + which loved the King caused him anon after to be apprehended as a + malefactor, and to be throwen in prison, the King not yet knowing thereof. + </p> + <p> + "Anone after the fame of this phantasticall prophet went all the realme + over, and his name was knowen everywhere, as foolishnesse is much regarded + of the people, where wisdome is not in place; specially because he was + then imprisoned for the matter, the rumour was the larger, their + wonderynges were the wantoner, their practises the foolisher, their busye + talkes and other idle doinges the greater. Continually from thence, as the + rude manner of people is, olde gossyps tales went abroade, new tales were + invented, fables were added to fables, and lyes grew upon lyes. So that + every daye newe slanders were laide upon the King, and not one of them + true. Rumors arose, blasphemyes were sprede, the enemyes rejoyced, and + treasons by the priestes were mainteyned; and what lykewise was surmised, + or other subtiltye practised, all was then lathered upon this foolish + prophet, as 'thus saith Peter Wakefield;' 'thus hath he prophecied;' 'and + thus it shall come to pass;' yea, many times, when he thought nothing + lesse. And when the Ascension-day was come, which was prophecyed of + before, King John commanded his royal tent to be spread in the open + fielde, passing that day with his noble counseyle and men of honour, in + the greatest solemnitie that ever he did before; solacing himself with + musickale instrumentes and songs, most in sight among his trustie + friendes. When that day was paste in all prosperitie and myrth, his + enemyes being confused, turned all into an allegorical understanding to + make the prophecie good, and sayde, 'he is no longer King, for the Pope + reigneth, and not he.'" [King John was labouring under a sentence of + excommunication at the time.] + </p> + <p> + "Then was the King by his council perswaded that this false prophet had + troubled the realme, perverted the heartes of the people, and raysed the + commons against him; for his wordes went over the sea, by the help of his + prelates, and came to the French King's care, and gave to him a great + encouragement to invade the lande. He had not else done it so sodeinely. + But he was most lowly deceived, as all they are and shall be that put + their trust in such dark drowsye dreames of hipocrites. The King therefore + commanded that he should be hanged up, and his sonne also with him, lest + any more false prophets should arise of that race." + </p> + <p> + Heywood, who was a great stickler for the truth of all sorts of + prophecies, gives a much more favourable account of this Peter of Pomfret, + or Pontefract, whose fate he would, in all probability, have shared, if he + had had the misfortune to have flourished in the same age. He says, that + Peter, who was not only a prophet, but a bard, predicted divers of King + John's disasters, which fell out accordingly. On being taxed for a lying + prophet in having predicted that the King would be deposed before he + entered into the fifteenth year of his reign, he answered him boldly, that + all he had said was justifiable and true; for that, having given up his + crown to the Pope, and paying him an annual tribute, the Pope reigned, and + not he. Heywood thought this explanation to be perfectly satisfactory, and + the prophet's faith for ever established. + </p> + <p> + But to return to Merlin. Of him even to this day it may be said, in the + words which Burns has applied to another notorious personage, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Great was his power and great his fame; + Far kenned and noted is his name? +</pre> + <p> + His reputation is by no means confined to the land of his birth, but + extends through most of the nations of Europe. A very curious volume of + his Life, Prophecies, and Miracles, written, it is supposed, by Robert de + Bosron, was printed at Paris in 1498, which states, that the Devil himself + was his father, and that he spoke the instant he was born, and assured his + mother, a very virtuous young woman, that she should not die in child-bed + with him, as her ill-natured neighbours had predicted. The judge of the + district, hearing of so marvellous an occurrence, summoned both mother and + child to appear before him; and they went accordingly the same day. To put + the wisdom of the young prophet most effectually to the test, the judge + asked him if he knew his own father? To which the infant Merlin replied, + in a clear, sonorous voice, "Yes, my father is the Devil; and I have his + power, and know all things, past, present, and to come." His worship + clapped his hands in astonishment, and took the prudent resolution of not + molesting so awful a child, or its mother either. + </p> + <p> + Early tradition attributes the building of Stonehenge to the power of + Merlin. It was believed that those mighty stones were whirled through the + air, at his command, from Ireland to Salisbury Plain, and that he arranged + them in the form in which they now stand, to commemorate for ever the + unhappy fate of three hundred British chiefs, who were massacred on that + spot by the Saxons. + </p> + <p> + At Abergwylly, near Caermarthen, is still shown the cave of the prophet + and the scene of his incantations. How beautiful is the description of it + given by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene." The lines need no apology for + their repetition here, and any sketch of the great prophet of Britain + would be incomplete without them:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "There the wise Merlin, whilom wont (they say), + To make his wonne low underneath the ground, + In a deep delve far from the view of day, + That of no living wight he mote be found, + Whenso he counselled with his sprites encompassed round. + + "And if thou ever happen that same way + To travel, go to see that dreadful place; + It is a hideous, hollow cave, they say, + Under a rock that lies a little space + From the swift Barry, tumbling down apace + Amongst the woody hills of Dynevoure; + But dare thou not, I charge, in any case, + To enter into that same baleful bower, + For fear the cruel fiendes should thee unwares devour! + + "But, standing high aloft, low lay thine care, + And there such ghastly noise of iron chaines, + And brazen caudrons thou shalt rombling heare, + Which thousand sprites, with long-enduring paines, + Doe tosse, that it will stun thy feeble braines; + And often times great groans and grievous stownds, + When too huge toile and labour them constraines; + And often times loud strokes and ringing sounds + From under that deep rock most horribly rebounds. + + "The cause, they say, is this. A little while + Before that Merlin died, he did intend + A brazen wall in compass, to compile + About Cayr Merdin, and did it commend + Unto these sprites to bring to perfect end; + During which work the Lady of the Lake, + Whom long he loved, for him in haste did send, + Who thereby forced his workmen to forsake, + Them bound till his return their labour not to slake. + + "In the mean time, through that false ladie's traine, + He was surprised, and buried under biere, + Ne ever to his work returned again; + Natheless these fiendes may not their work forbeare, + So greatly his commandement they fear, + But there doe toile and travaile day and night, + Until that brazen wall they up doe reare." + + [Faerie Queene, b. 3. c. 3. s. 6—13.] +</pre> + <p> + Amongst other English prophets, a belief in whose power has not been + entirely effaced by the light of advancing knowledge, is Robert Nixon, the + Cheshire idiot, a contemporary of Mother Shipton. The popular accounts of + this man say, that he was born of poor parents, not far from Vale Royal, + on the edge of the forest of Delamere. He was brought up to the plough, + but was so ignorant and stupid, that nothing could be made of him. + Everybody thought him irretrievably insane, and paid no attention to the + strange, unconnected discourses which he held. Many of his prophecies are + believed to have been lost in this manner. But they were not always + destined to be wasted upon dull and inattentive ears. An incident occurred + which brought him into notice, and established his fame as a prophet of + the first calibre. He was ploughing in a field when he suddenly stopped + from his labour, and, with a wild look and strange gestures, exclaimed, + "Now, Dick! now, Harry! O, ill done, Dick! O, well done, Harry! Harry has + gained the day!" His fellow labourers in the field did not know what to + make of this rhapsody; but the next day cleared up the mystery. News was + brought by a messenger, in hot haste, that at the very instant when Nixon + had thus ejaculated, Richard III had been slain at the battle of Bosworth, + and Henry VII proclaimed King of England. + </p> + <p> + It was not long before the fame of the new prophet reached the ears of the + King, who expressed a wish to see and converse with him. A messenger was + accordingly despatched to bring him to court; but long before he reached + Cheshire, Nixon knew and dreaded the honours that awaited him. Indeed it + was said, that at the very instant the King expressed the wish, Nixon was, + by supernatural means, made acquainted with it, and that he ran about the + town of Over in great distress of mind, calling out, like a madman, that + Henry had sent for him, and that he must go to court, and be clammed; that + is, starved to death. These expressions excited no little wonder; but, on + the third day, the messenger arrived, and carried him to court, leaving on + the minds of the good people of Cheshire an impression that their prophet + was one of the greatest ever born. On his arrival King Henry appeared to + be troubled exceedingly at the loss of a valuable diamond, and asked Nixon + if he could inform him where it was to be found. Henry had hidden the + diamond himself, with a view to test the prophet's skill. Great, + therefore, was his surprise when Nixon answered him in the words of the + old proverb, "Those who hide can find." From that time forth the King + implicitly believed that he had the gift of prophecy, and ordered all his + words to be taken down. + </p> + <p> + During all the time of his residence at court he was in constant fear of + being starved to death, and repeatedly told the King that such would be + his fate, if he were not allowed to depart, and return into his own + country. Henry would not suffer it, but gave strict orders to all his + officers and cooks to give him as much to eat as he wanted. He lived so + well, that for some time he seemed to be thriving like a nobleman's + steward, and growing as fat as an alderman. One day the king went out + hunting, when Nixon ran to the palace gate, and entreated on his knees + that he might not be left behind to be starved. The King laughed, and, + calling an officer, told him to take especial care of the prophet during + his absence, and rode away to the forest. After his departure, the + servants of the palace began to jeer at and insult Nixon, whom they + imagined to be much better treated than he deserved. Nixon complained to + the officer, who, to prevent him from being further molested, locked him + up in the King's own closet, and brought him regularly his four meals a + day. But it so happened that a messenger arrived from the King to this + officer, requiring his immediate presence at Winchester, on a matter of + life and death. So great was his haste to obey the King's command, that he + mounted on the horse behind the messenger, and rode off, without bestowing + a thought upon poor Nixon. He did not return till three days afterwards, + when, remembering the prophet for the first time, he went to the King's + closet, and found him lying upon the floor, starved to death, as he had + predicted. + </p> + <p> + Among the prophecies of his which are believed to have been fulfilled, are + the following, which relate to the times of the Pretender:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A great man shall come into England, + But the son of a King + Shall take from him the victory." + + "Crows shall drink the blood of many nobles, + And the North shall rise against the South." + "The cock of the North shall be made to flee, + And his feather be plucked for his pride, + That he shall almost curse the day that he was born," +</pre> + <p> + All these, say his admirers, are as clear as the sun at noon-day. The + first denotes the defeat of Prince Charles Edward, at the battle of + Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland; the second, the execution of Lords + Derwentwater, Balmerino, and Lovat; and the third, the retreat of the + Pretender from the shores of Britain. Among the prophecies that still + remain to be accomplished, are the following:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Between seven, eight, and nine, + In England wonders shall be seen; + Between nine and thirteen + All sorrow shall be done!" + + "Through our own money and our men + Shall a dreadful war begin. + Between the sickle and the suck + All England shall have a pluck," +</pre> + <p> + "Foreign nations shall invade England with snow on their helmets, and + shall bring plague, famine, and murder in the skirts of their garments." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The town of Nantwich shall be swept away by a flood" +</pre> + <p> + Of the two first of these no explanation has yet been attempted; but some + event or other will doubtless be twisted into such a shape as will fit + them. The third, relative to the invasion of England by a nation with snow + on their helmets, is supposed by the old women to foretell most clearly + the coming war with Russia. As to the last, there are not a few in the + town mentioned who devoutly believe that such will be its fate. Happily + for their peace of mind, the prophet said nothing of the year that was to + witness the awful calamity; so that they think it as likely to be two + centuries hence as now. + </p> + <p> + The popular biographers of Nixon conclude their account of him by saying, + that "his prophecies are by some persons thought fables; yet by what has + come to pass, it is now thought, and very plainly appears, that most of + them have proved, or will prove, true; for which we, on all occasions, + ought not only to exert our utmost might to repel by force our enemies, + but to refrain from our abandoned and wicked course of life, and to make + our continual prayer to God for protection and safety." To this, though a + non sequitur, every one will cry Amen! + </p> + <p> + Besides the prophets, there have been the almanack makers, Lilly, Poor + Robin, Partridge, and Francis Moore, physician, in England, and Matthew + Laensbergh, in France and Belgium. But great as were their pretensions, + they were modesty itself in comparison with Merlin, Shipton, and Nixon, + who fixed their minds upon higher things than the weather, and who were + not so restrained in their flights of fancy as to prophesy for only one + year at a time. After such prophets as they, the almanack makers hardly + deserve to be mentioned; no, not even the renowned Partridge, whose + wonderful prognostications set all England agog in 1708, and whose death, + at a time when he was still alive and kicking, was so pleasantly and + satisfactorily proved by Isaac Bickerstaff. The anti-climax would be too + palpable, and they and their doings must be left uncommemorated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. + </h2> + <p> + Jack. Where shall we find such another set of practical philosophers who, + to a man, are above the fear of death? + </p> + <p> + Wat. Sound men and true! + </p> + <p> + Robin. Of tried courage and indefatigable industry! + </p> + <p> + Ned. Who is there here that would not die for his friend? + </p> + <p> + Harry. Who is there here that would betray him for his interest? + </p> + <p> + Mat. Show me a gang of courtiers that could say as much! + </p> + <p> + Dialogue of thieves in the Beggars' Opera. + </p> + <p> + Whether it be that the multitude, feeling the pangs of poverty, sympathise + with the daring and ingenious depredators who take away the rich man's + superfluity, or whether it be the interest that mankind in general feel + for the records of perilous adventures, it is certain that the populace of + all countries look with admiration upon great and successful thieves. + Perhaps both these causes combine to invest their career with charms in + the popular eye. Almost every country in Europe has its traditional thief, + whose exploits are recorded with all the graces of poetry, and whose + trespasses— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—are cited up in rhymes, + And sung by children in succeeding times." + + [Shakspeare's Rape of Lucretia.] +</pre> + <p> + Those travellers who have made national manners and characteristics their + peculiar study, have often observed and remarked upon this feeling. The + learned Abbe le Blanc, who resided for some time in England at the + commencement of the eighteenth century, says, in his amusing letters on + the English and French nations, that he continually met with Englishmen + who were not less vain in boasting of the success of their highwaymen than + of the bravery of their troops. Tales of their address, their cunning, or + their generosity, were in the mouths of everybody, and a noted thief was a + kind of hero in high repute. He adds that the mob, in all countries, being + easily moved, look in general with concern upon criminals going to the + gallows; but an English mob looked upon such scenes with 'extraordinary + interest: they delighted to see them go through their last trials with + resolution, and applauded those who were insensible enough to die as they + had lived, braving the justice both of God and men: such, he might have + added, as the noted robber Macpherson, of whom the old ballad says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sae rantingly, sae wantonly, + Sae dauntingly gaed he: + He played a spring, and danced it round + Beneath the gallows tree." +</pre> + <p> + Among these traditional thieves the most noted in England, or perhaps in + any country, is Robin Hood, a name which popular affection has encircled + with a peculiar halo. "He robbed the rich to give to the poor;" and his + reward has been an immortality of fame, a tithe of which would be thought + more than sufficient to recompense a benefactor of his species. Romance + and poetry have been emulous to make him all their own; and the forest of + Sherwood, in which he roamed with his merry men, armed with their long + bows, and clad in Lincoln green, has become the resort of pilgrims, and a + classic spot sacred to his memory. The few virtues he had, which would + have ensured him no praise if he had been an honest man, have been + blazoned forth by popular renown during seven successive centuries, and + will never be forgotten while the English tongue endures. His charity to + the poor, and his gallantry and respect for women, have made him the + pre-eminent thief of all the world. + </p> + <p> + Among English thieves of a later date, who has not heard of Claude Duval, + Dick Turpin, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard, those knights of the road + and of the town, whose peculiar chivalry formed at once the dread and the + delight of England during the eighteenth century? Turpin's fame is unknown + to no portion of the male population of England after they have attained + the age of ten. His wondrous ride from London to York has endeared him to + the imagination of millions; his cruelty in placing an old woman upon a + fire, to force her to tell him where she had hidden her money, is regarded + as a good joke; and his proud bearing upon the scaffold is looked upon as + a virtuous action. The Abbe le Blanc, writing in 1737, says he was + continually entertained with stories of Turpin—how, when he robbed + gentlemen, he would generously leave them enough to continue their + journey, and exact a pledge from them never to inform against him, and how + scrupulous such gentlemen were in keeping their word. He was one day told + a story with which the relator was he the highest degree delighted. + Turpin, or some other noted robber, stopped a man whom he knew to be very + rich, with the usual salutation—"Your money or your life!" but not + finding more than five or six guineas about him, he took the liberty of + entreating him, in the most affable manner, never to come out so ill + provided; adding that, if he fell in with him, and he had no more than + such a paltry sum, he would give him a good licking. Another story, told + by one of Turpin's admirers, was of a robbery he had committed upon a Mr. + C. near Cambridge. He took from this gentleman his watch, his snuff-box, + and all his money but two shillings, and, before he left him, required his + word of honour that he would not cause him to be pursued or brought before + a justice. The promise being given, they both parted very courteously. + They afterwards met at Newmarket, and renewed their acquaintance. Mr. C. + kept his word religiously; he not only refrained from giving Turpin into + custody, but made a boast that he had fairly won some of his money back + again in an honest way. Turpin offered to bet with him on some favourite + horse, and Mr. C. accepted the wager with as good a grace as he could have + done from the best gentleman in England. Turpin lost his bet and paid it + immediately, and was so smitten with the generous behaviour of Mr. C. that + he told him how deeply he regretted that the trifling affair which had + happened between them did not permit them to drink together. The narrator + of this anecdote was quite proud that England was the birthplace of such a + highwayman. + </p> + <p> + [The Abbe, in the second volume, in the letter No. 79, dressed to Monsieur + de Buffon, gives the following curious particulars of the robbers of 1757, + which are not without interest at this day, if it were only to show the + vast improvement which has taken place since that period:—"It is + usual, in travelling, to put ten or a dozen guineas in a separate pocket, + as a tribute to the first that comes to demand them: the right of + passport, which custom has established here in favour of the robbers, who + are almost the only highway surveyors in England, has made this necessary; + and accordingly the English call these fellows the 'Gentlemen of the + Road,' the government letting them exercise their jurisdiction upon + travellers without giving them any great molestation. To say the truth, + they content themselves with only taking the money of those who obey + without disputing; but notwithstanding their boasted humanity, the lives + of those who endeavour to get away are not always safe. They are very + strict and severe in levying their impost; and if a man has not + wherewithal to pay them, he may run the chance of getting himself knocked + on the head for his poverty. + </p> + <p> + "About fifteen years ago, these robbers, with the view of maintaining + their rights, fixed up papers at the doors of rich people about London, + expressly forbidding all persons, of whatsoever quality or condition, from + going out of town without ten guineas and a watch about them, on pain of + death. In bad times, when there is little or nothing to be got on the + roads, these fellows assemble in gangs, to raise contributions even in + London itself; and the watchmen seldom trouble themselves to interfere + with them in their vocation."] + </p> + <p> + Not less familiar to the people of England is the career of Jack Sheppard, + as brutal a ruffian as ever disgraced his country, but who has claims upon + the popular admiration which are very generally acknowledged. He did not, + like Robin Hood, plunder the rich to relieve the poor, nor rob with an + uncouth sort of courtesy, like Turpin; but he escaped from Newgate with + the fetters on his limbs. This achievement, more than once repeated, has + encircled his felon brow with the wreath of immortality, and made him + quite a pattern thief among the populace. He was no more than twenty-three + years of age at the time of his execution, and he died much pitied by the + crowd. His adventures were the sole topics of conversation for months; the + print-shops were filled with his effigies, and a fine painting of him was + made by Sir Richard Thornhill. The following complimentary verses to the + artist appeared in the "British Journal" of November 28th, 1724. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Thornhill! 'tis thine to gild with fame + Th' obscure, and raise the humble name; + To make the form elude the grave, + And Sheppard from oblivion save! + + Apelles Alexander drew— + Cesar is to Aurelius due; + Cromwell in Lilly's works doth shine, + And Sheppard, Thornhill, lives in thine!" +</pre> + <p> + So high was Jack's fame that a pantomime entertainment, called "Harlequin + Jack Sheppard," was devised by one Thurmond, and brought out with great + success at Drury Lane Theatre. All the scenes were painted from nature, + including the public-house that the robber frequented in Claremarket, and + the condemned cell from which he had made his escape in Newgate. + </p> + <p> + The Rev. Mr. Villette, the editor of the "Annals of Newgate," published in + 1754, relates a curious sermon which, he says, a friend of his heard + delivered by a street-preacher about the time of Jack's execution. The + orator, after animadverting on the great care men took of their bodies, + and the little care they bestowed upon their souls, continued as follows, + by way of exemplifying the position:—"We have a remarkable instance + of this in a notorious malefactor, well known by the name of Jack + Sheppard. What amazing difficulties has he overcome! what astonishing + things has he performed! and all for the sake of a stinking, miserable + carcass; hardly worth the hanging! How dexterously did he pick the chain + of his padlock with a crooked nail! how manfully he burst his fetters + asunder!—climb up the chimney!—wrench out an iron bar!—break + his way through a stone wall!—make the strong door of a dark entry + fly before him, till he got upon the leads of the prison! then, fixing a + blanket to the wall with a spike, he stole out of the chapel. How + intrepidly did he descend to the top of the turner's house!—how + cautiously pass down the stair, and make his escape to the street door! + </p> + <p> + "Oh! that ye were all like Jack Sheppard! Mistake me not, my brethren; I + don't mean in a carnal, but in a spiritual sense, for I propose to + spiritualise these things. What a shame it would be if we should not think + it worth our while to take as much pains, and employ as many deep + thoughts, to save our souls as he has done to preserve his body! + </p> + <p> + "Let me exhort ye, then, to open the locks of your hearts with the nail of + repentance! Burst asunder the fetters of your beloved lusts!—mount + the chimney of hope!—take from thence the bar of good resolution!—break + through the stone wall of despair, and all the strongholds in the dark + entry of the valley of the shadow of death! Raise yourselves to the leads + of divine meditation!—fix the blanket of faith with the spike of the + church! let yourselves down to the turner's house of resignation, and + descend the stairs of humility! So shall you come to the door of + deliverance from the prison of iniquity, and escape the clutches of that + old executioner the Devil!" + </p> + <p> + But popular as the name of Jack Sheppard was immediately after he had + suffered the last penalty of his crimes, it was as nothing compared to the + vast renown which he has acquired in these latter days, after the lapse of + a century and a quarter. Poets too often, are not fully appreciated till + they have been dead a hundred years, and thieves, it would appear, share + the disadvantage. But posterity is grateful if our contemporaries are not; + and Jack Sheppard, faintly praised in his own day, shines out in ours the + hero of heroes, preeminent above all his fellows. Thornhill made but one + picture of the illustrious robber, but Cruikshank has made dozens, and the + art of the engraver has multiplied them into thousands and tens of + thousands, until the populace of England have become as familiar with + Jack's features as they are with their own. Jack, the romantic, is the + hero of three goodly volumes, and the delight of the circulating + libraries; and the theatres have been smitten with the universal + enthusiasm. Managers have set their playmongers at work, and Jack's story + has been reproduced in the shape of drama, melodrama, and farce, at half a + dozen places of entertainment at once. Never was such a display of popular + regard for a hero as was exhibited in London in 1840 for the renowned Jack + Sheppard: robbery acquired additional lustre in the popular eye, and not + only Englishmen, but foreigners, caught the contagion; and one of the + latter, fired by the example, robbed and murdered a venerable, + unoffending, and too confiding nobleman, whom it was his especial duty to + have obeyed and protected. But he was a coward and a wretch;—it was + a solitary crime—he had not made a daring escape from dungeon walls, + or ridden from London to York, and he died amid the execrations of the + people, affording a melancholy exemplification of the trite remark, that + every man is not great who is desirous of being so. + </p> + <p> + Jonathan Wild, whose name has been immortalised by Fielding, was no + favourite with the people. He had none of the virtues which, combined with + crimes, make up the character of the great thief. He was a pitiful fellow, + who informed against his comrades, and was afraid of death. This meanness + was not to be forgiven by the crowd, and they pelted him with dirt and + stones on his way to Tyburn, and expressed their contempt by every + possible means. How different was their conduct to Turpin and Jack + Sheppard, who died in their neatest attire, with nosegays in their + button-holes, and with the courage that a crowd expects! It was + anticipated that the body of Turpin would have been delivered up to the + surgeons for dissection, and the people seeing some men very busily + employed in removing it, suddenly set upon them, rescued the body, bore it + about the town in triumph, and then buried it in a very deep grave, filled + with quick-lime, to hasten the progress of decomposition. They would not + suffer the corpse of their hero, of the man who had ridden from London to + York in four-and-twenty hours to be mangled by the rude hands of + unmannerly surgeons. + </p> + <p> + The death of Claude Duval would appear to have been no less triumphant. + Claude was a gentlemanly thief. According to Butler, in the famous ode to + his memory, he + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Taught the wild Arabs of the road + To rob in a more gentle mode; + Take prizes more obligingly than those + Who never had breen bred filous; + And how to hang in a more graceful fashion + Than e'er was known before to the dull English nation." +</pre> + <p> + In fact, he was the pink of politeness, and his gallantry to the fair sex + was proverbial. When he was caught at last, pent in "stone walls and + chains and iron grates,"—their grief was in proportion to his rare + merits and his great fame. Butler says, that to his dungeon + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—came ladies from all parts, + To offer up close prisoners their hearts, + Which he received as tribute due— + + * * * * + + Never did bold knight, to relieve + Distressed dames, such dreadful feats achieve, + As feeble damsels, for his sake, + Would have been proud to undertake, + And, bravely ambitious to redeem + The world's loss and their own, + Strove who should have the honour to lay down, + And change a life with him." +</pre> + <p> + Among the noted thieves of France, there is none to compare with the + famous Aimerigot Tetenoire, who flourished in the reign of Charles VI. + This fellow was at the head of four or five hundred men, and possessed two + very strong castles in Limousin and Auvergne. There was a good deal of the + feudal baron about him, although he possessed no revenues but such as the + road afforded him. At his death he left a singular will. "I give and + bequeath," said the robber, "one thousand five hundred francs to St. + George's Chapel, for such repairs as it may need. To my sweet girl who so + tenderly loved me, I give two thousand five hundred; and the surplus I + give to my companions. I hope they will all live as brothers, and divide + it amicably among them. If they cannot agree, and the devil of contention + gets among them, it is no fault of mine; and I advise them to get a good + strong, sharp axe, and break open my strong box. Let them scramble for + what it contains, and the Devil seize the hindmost." The people of + Auvergne still recount with admiration the daring feats of this brigand. + </p> + <p> + Of later years, the French thieves have been such unmitigated scoundrels + as to have left but little room for popular admiration. The famous + Cartouche, whose name has become synonymous with ruffian in their + language, had none of the generosity, courtesy, and devoted bravery which + are so requisite to make a robber-hero. He was born at Paris, towards the + end of the seventeenth century, and broken alive on the wheel in November + 1727. He was, however, sufficiently popular to have been pitied at his + death, and afterwards to have formed the subject of a much admired drama, + which bore his name, and was played with great success in all the theatres + of France during the years 1734, 5, and 6. In our own day the French have + been more fortunate in a robber; Vidocq bids fair to rival the fame of + Turpin and Jack Sheppard. Already he has become the hero of many an + apocryphal tale—already his compatriots boast of his manifold + achievements, and express their doubts whether any other country in Europe + could produce a thief so clever, so accomplished, so gentlemanly, as + Vidocq. + </p> + <p> + Germany has its Schinderhannes, Hungary its Schubry, and Italy and Spain a + whole host of brigands, whose names and exploits are familiar as household + words in the mouths of the children and populace of those countries. The + Italian banditti are renowned over the world; and many of them are not + only very religious (after a fashion), but very charitable. Charity from + such a source is so unexpected, that the people dote upon them for it. One + of them, when he fell into the hands of the police, exclaimed, as they led + him away, "Ho fatto pitt carita!"—"I have given away more in charity + than any three convents in these provinces." And the fellow spoke truth. + </p> + <p> + In Lombardy, the people cherish the memory of two notorious robbers, who + flourished about two centuries ago under the Spanish government. Their + story, according to Macfarlane, is contained in a little book well known + to all the children of the province, and read by them with much more gusto + than their Bibles. + </p> + <p> + Schinderhannes, the robber of the Rhine, is a great favourite on the banks + of the river which he so long kept in awe. Many amusing stories are + related by the peasantry of the scurvy tricks he played off upon rich + Jews, or too-presuming officers of justice—of his princely + generosity, and undaunted courage. In short, they are proud of him, and + would no more consent to have the memory of his achievements dissociated + from their river than they would to have the rock of Ehrenbreitstein blown + to atoms by gunpowder. + </p> + <p> + There is another robber-hero, of whose character and exploits the people + of Germany speak admiringly. Mausch Nadel was captain of a considerable + band that infested the Rhine, Switzerland, Alsatia, and Lorraine during + the years 1824, 5, and 6. Like Jack Sheppard, he endeared himself to the + populace by his most hazardous escape from prison. Being confined, at + Bremen, in a dungeon, on the third story of the prison of that town, he + contrived to let himself down without exciting the vigilance of the + sentinels, and to swim across the Weser, though heavily laden with irons. + When about half way over, he was espied by a sentinel, who fired at him, + and shot him in the calf of the leg: but the undaunted robber struck out + manfully, reached the shore, and was out of sight before the officers of + justice could get ready their boats to follow him. He was captured again + in 1826, tried at Mayence, and sentenced to death. He was a tall, strong, + handsome man, and his fate, villain as he was, excited much sympathy all + over Germany. The ladies especially were loud in their regret that nothing + could be done to save a hero so good-looking, and of adventures so + romantic, from the knife of the headsman. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Macfarlane, in speaking of Italian banditti, remarks, that the abuses + of the Catholic religion, with its confessions and absolutions, have + tended to promote crime of this description. But, he adds, more truly, + that priests and monks have not done half the mischief which has been + perpetrated by ballad-mongers and story-tellers. If he had said + play-wrights also, the list would have been complete. In fact, the + theatre, which can only expect to prosper, in a pecuniary sense, by + pandering to the tastes of the people, continually recurs to the annals of + thieves and banditti for its most favourite heroes. These theatrical + robbers; with their picturesque attire, wild haunts, jolly, reckless, + devil-may-care manners, take a wonderful hold upon the imagination, and, + whatever their advocates may say to the contrary, exercise a very + pernicious influence upon public morals. In the Memoirs of the Duke of + Guise upon the Revolution of Naples in 1647 and 1648, it is stated, that + the manners, dress, and mode of life of the Neapolitan banditti were + rendered so captivating upon the stage, that the authorities found it + absolutely necessary to forbid the representation of dramas in which they + figured, and even to prohibit their costume at the masquerades. So + numerous were the banditti at this time, that the Duke found no difficulty + in raising an army of them, to aid him in his endeavours to seize on the + throne of Naples. He thus describes them; [See also "Foreign Quarterly + Review," vol. iv. p. 398.] + </p> + <p> + "They were three thousand five hundred men, of whom the oldest came short + of five and forty years, and the youngest was above twenty. They were all + tall and well made, with long black hair, for the most part curled, coats + of black Spanish leather, with sleeves of velvet, or cloth of gold, cloth + breeches with gold lace, most of them scarlet; girdles of velvet, laced + with gold, with two pistols on each side; a cutlass hanging at a belt, + suitably trimmed, three fingers broad and two feet long; a hawking-bag at + their girdle, and a powder-flask hung about their neck with a great silk + riband. Some of them carried firelocks, and others blunder-busses; they + had all good shoes, with silk stockings, and every one a cap of cloth of + gold, or cloth of silver, of different colours, on his head, which was + very delightful to the eye." + </p> + <p> + "The Beggars' Opera," in our own country, is another instance of the + admiration that thieves excite upon the stage. Of the extraordinary + success of this piece, when first produced, the following account is given + in the notes to "The Dunciad," and quoted by Johnson in his "Lives of the + Poets." "This piece was received with greater applause than was ever + known. Besides being acted in London sixty-three days without + interruption, and renewed the next season with equal applause, it spread + into all the great towns of England; was played in many places to the + thirtieth and fortieth time; at Bath and Bristol, &c. fifty. It made + its progress into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where it was performed + twenty-four days successively. The ladies carried about with them the + favourite songs of it in fans, and houses were furnished with it in + screens. The fame of it was not confined to the author only. The person + who acted Polly, till then obscure, became all at once the favourite of + the town; [Lavinia Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton.] her pictures + were engraved and sold in great numbers; her life written, books of + letters and verses to her published, and pamphlets made even of her + sayings and jests. Furthermore, it drove out of England, for that season, + the Italian Opera, which had carried all before it for ten years." Dr. + Johnson, in his Life of the Author, says, that Herring, afterwards + Archbishop of Canterbury, censured the opera, as giving encouragement, not + only to vice, but to crimes, by making the highwayman the hero, and + dismissing him at last unpunished; and adds, that it was even said, that + after the exhibition the gangs of robbers were evidently multiplied. The + Doctor doubts the assertion, giving as his reason that highwaymen and + housebreakers seldom frequent the playhouse, and that it was not possible + for any one to imagine that he might rob with safety, because he saw + Macheath reprieved upon the stage. But if Johnson had wished to be + convinced, he might very easily have discovered that highwaymen and + housebreakers did frequent the theatre, and that nothing was more probable + than that a laughable representation of successful villany should induce + the young and the already vicious to imitate it. Besides, there is the + weighty authority of Sir John Fielding, the chief magistrate of Bow + Street, who asserted positively, and proved his assertion by the records + of his office, that the number of thieves was greatly increased at the + time when that opera was so popular. + </p> + <p> + We have another instance of the same result much nearer our own times. + Schiller's "Rauber," that wonderful play, written by a green youth, + perverted the taste and imagination of all the young men in Germany. An + accomplished critic of our own country (Hazlitt), speaking of this play, + says it was the first he ever read, and such was the effect it produced on + him, that "it stunned him, like a blow." After the lapse of + five-and-twenty years he could not forget it; it was still, to use his own + words, "an old dweller in the chambers of his brain," and he had not even + then recovered enough from it, to describe how it was. The high-minded, + metaphysical thief, its hero, was so warmly admired, that several raw + students, longing to imitate a character they thought so noble, actually + abandoned their homes and their colleges, and betook themselves to the + forests and wilds to levy contributions upon travellers. They thought they + would, like Moor, plunder the rich, and deliver eloquent soliloquies to + the setting sun or the rising moon; relieve the poor when they met them, + and drink flasks of Rhenish with their free companions in rugged mountain + passes, or in tents in the thicknesses of the forests. But a little + experience wonderfully cooled their courage; they found that real, + every-day robbers were very unlike the conventional banditti of the stage, + and that three months in prison, with bread and water for their fare, and + damp straw to lie upon, was very well to read about by their own fire + sides, but not very agreeable to undergo in their own proper persons. + </p> + <p> + Lord Byron, with his soliloquising, high-souled thieves, has, in a slight + degree, perverted the taste of the greenhorns and incipient rhymesters of + his country. As yet, however, they have shown more good sense than their + fellows of Germany, and have not taken to the woods or the highways. Much + as they admire Conrad the Corsair, they will not go to sea, and hoist the + black flag in emulation of him. By words only, and not by deeds, they + testify their admiration, and deluge the periodicals and music shops of + the hand with verses describing pirates' and bandits' brides, and robber + adventures of every kind. + </p> + <p> + But it is the play-wright who does most harm; and Byron has fewer sins of + this nature to answer for than Gay or Schiller, and the modern dramatizers + of Jack Sheppard. With the aid of scenery, fine dresses, and music, and + the very false notions they convey, they vitiate the public taste, not + knowing, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—————-vulgaires rimeurs + Quelle force ont les arts pour demolir les moeurs." +</pre> + <p> + In the penny theatres that abound in the poor and populous districts of + London, and which are chiefly frequented by striplings of idle and + dissolute habits, tales of thieves and murderers are more admired, and + draw more crowded audiences, than any other species of representation. + There the footpad, the burglar, and the highwayman are portrayed in + unnatural colours, and give pleasant lessons in crime to their delighted + listeners. There the deepest tragedy and the broadest farce are + represented in the career of the murderer and the thief, and are applauded + in proportion to their depth and their breadth. There, whenever a crime of + unusual atrocity is committed, it is brought out afresh, with all its + disgusting incidents copied from the life, for the amusement of those who + will one day become its imitators. + </p> + <p> + With the mere reader the case is widely different; and most people have a + partiality for knowing the adventures of noted rogues. Even in fiction + they are delightful: witness the eventful story of Gil Blas de Santillane, + and of that great rascal Don Guzman d'Alfarache. Here there is no fear of + imitation. Poets, too, without doing mischief, may sing of such heroes + when they please, wakening our sympathies for the sad fate of Gilderoy, or + Macpherson the Dauntless; or celebrating in undying verse the wrongs and + the revenge of the great thief of Scotland, Rob Roy. If, by the music of + their sweet rhymes, they can convince the world that such heroes are but + mistaken philosophers, born a few ages too late, and having both a + theoretical and practical love for + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The good old rule, the simple plan, + That they should take who have the power, + That they should keep who can," +</pre> + <p> + the world may, perhaps, become wiser, and consent to some better + distribution of its good things, by means of which thieves may become + reconciled to the age, and the age to them. The probability, however, + seems to be, that the charmers will charm in vain, charm they ever so + wisely. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Speak with respect and honour + Both of the beard and the beard's owner. + + HUDIBRAS, +</pre> + <p> + The famous declaration of St. Paul, "that long hair was a shame unto a + man" has been made the pretext for many singular enactments, both of civil + and ecclesiastical governments. The fashion of the hair and the cut of the + beard were state questions in France and England from the establishment of + Christianity until the fifteenth century. + </p> + <p> + We find, too, that in much earlier times men were not permitted to do as + they liked with their own hair. Alexander the Great thought that the + beards of his soldiery afforded convenient handles for the enemy to lay + hold of, preparatory to cutting off their heads; and, with the view of + depriving them of this advantage, he ordered the whole of his army to be + closely shaven. His notions of courtesy towards an enemy were quite + different from those entertained by the North American Indians, amongst + whom it is held a point of honour to allow one "chivalrous lock" to grow, + that the foe, in taking the scalp, may have something to catch hold of. + </p> + <p> + At one time, long hair was the symbol of sovereignty in Europe. We learn + from Gregory of Tours that, among the successors of Clovis, it was the + exclusive privilege of the royal family to have their hair long, and + curled. The nobles, equal to kings in power, would not show any + inferiority in this respect, and wore not only their hair, but their + beards, of an enormous length. This fashion lasted, with but slight + changes, till the time of Louis the Debonnaire, but his successors, up to + Hugh Capet, wore their hair short, by way of distinction. Even the serfs + had set all regulation at defiance, and allowed their locks and beards to + grow. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, the + Normans wore their hair very short. Harold, in his progress towards + Hastings, sent forward spies to view the strength and number of the enemy. + They reported, amongst other things, on their return, that "the host did + almost seem to be priests, because they had all their face and both their + lips shaven." The fashion among the English at the time was to wear the + hair long upon the head and the upper lip, but to shave the chin. When the + haughty victors had divided the broad lands of the Saxon thanes and + franklins among them, when tyranny of every kind was employed to make the + English feel that they were indeed a subdued and broken nation, the latter + encouraged the growth of their hair, that they might resemble as little as + possible their cropped and shaven masters. + </p> + <p> + This fashion was exceedingly displeasing to the clergy, and prevailed to a + considerable extent in France and Germany. Towards the end of the eleventh + century, it was decreed by the Pope, and zealously supported by the + ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, that such persons as wore long + hair should be excommunicated while living, and not be prayed for when + dead. William of Malmesbury relates, that the famous St. Wulstan, Bishop + of Worcester, was peculiarly indignant whenever he saw a man with long + hair. He declaimed against the practice as one highly immoral, criminal, + and beastly. He continually carried a small knife in his pocket, and + whenever anybody, offending in this respect, knelt before him to receive + his blessing, he would whip it out slily, and cut off a handful, and then, + throwing it in his face, tell him to cut off all the rest, or he would go + to hell. + </p> + <p> + But fashion, which at times it is possible to move with a wisp, stands + firm against a lever; and men preferred to run the risk of damnation to + parting with the superfluity of their hair. In the time of Henry I, + Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, found it necessary to republish the + famous decree of excommunication and outlawry against the offenders; but, + as the court itself had begun to patronize curls, the fulminations of the + church were unavailing. Henry I and his nobles wore their hair in long + ringlets down their backs and shoulders, and became a scandalum magnatum + in the eyes of the godly. One Serlo, the King's chaplain, was so grieved + in spirit at the impiety of his master, that he preached a sermon from the + well-known text of St. Paul, before the assembled court, in which he drew + so dreadful a picture of the torments that awaited them in the other + world, that several of them burst into tears, and wrung their hair, as if + they would have pulled it out by the roots. Henry himself was observed to + weep. The priest, seeing the impression he had made, determined to strike + while the iron was hot, and, pulling a pair of scissors from his pocket, + cut the king's hair in presence of them all. Several of the principal + courtiers consented to do the like, and, for a short time, long hair + appeared to be going out of fashion. But the courtiers thought, after the + first glow of their penitence had been cooled by reflection, that the + clerical Dalilah had shorn them of their strength, and, in less than six + months, they were as great sinners as ever. + </p> + <p> + Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been a monk of Bec, in + Normandy, and who had signalized himself at Rouen by his fierce opposition + to long hair, was still anxious to work a reformation in this matter. But + his pertinacity was far from pleasing to the King, who had finally made up + his mind to wear ringlets. There were other disputes, of a more serious + nature, between them; so that when the Archbishop died, the King was so + glad to be rid of him, that he allowed the see to remain vacant for five + years. Still the cause had other advocates, and every pulpit in the land + resounded with anathemas against that disobedient and long-haired + generation. But all was of no avail. Stowe, in writing of this period, + asserts, on the authority of some more ancient chronicler, "that men, + forgetting their birth, transformed themselves, by the length of their + haires, into the semblance of woman kind;" and that when their hair + decayed from age, or other causes, "they knit about their heads certain + rolls and braidings of false hair." At last accident turned the tide of + fashion. A knight of the court, who was exceedingly proud of his beauteous + locks, dreamed one night that, as he lay in bed, the devil sprang upon + him, and endeavoured to choke him with his own hair. He started in + affright, and actually found that he had a great quantity of hair in his + mouth. Sorely stricken in conscience, and looking upon the dream as a + warning from Heaven, he set about the work of reformation, and cut off his + luxuriant tresses the same night. The story was soon bruited abroad; of + course it was made the most of by the clergy, and the knight, being a man + of influence and consideration, and the acknowledged leader of the + fashion, his example, aided by priestly exhortations, was very generally + imitated. Men appeared almost as decent as St. Wulstan himself could have + wished, the dream of a dandy having proved more efficacious than the + entreaties of a saint. But, as Stowe informs us, "scarcely was one year + past, when all that thought themselves courtiers fell into the former + vice, and contended with women in their long haires." Henry, the King, + appears to have been quite uninfluenced by the dreams of others, for even + his own would not induce him a second time to undergo a cropping from + priestly shears. It is said, that he was much troubled at this time by + disagreeable visions. Having offended the church in this and other + respects, he could get no sound refreshing sleep, and used to imagine that + he saw all the bishops, abbots, and monks of every degree, standing around + his bed-side, and threatening to belabour him with their pastoral staves; + which sight, we are told, so frightened him, that he often started naked + out of his bed, and attacked the phantoms sword in hand. Grimbalde, his + physician, who, like most of his fraternity at that day, was an + ecclesiastic, never hinted that his dreams were the result of a bad + digestion, but told him to shave his head, be reconciled to the Church, + and reform himself with alms and prayer. But he would not take this good + advice, and it was not until he had been nearly drowned a year afterwards, + in a violent storm at sea, that he repented of his evil ways, cut his hair + short, and paid proper deference to the wishes of the clergy. + </p> + <p> + In France, the thunders of the Vatican with regard to long curly hair were + hardly more respected than in England. Louis VII. however, was more + obedient than his brother-king, and cropped himself as closely as a monk, + to the great sorrow of all the gallants of his court. His Queen, the gay, + haughty, and pleasure-seeking Eleanor of Guienne, never admired him in + this trim, and continually reproached him with imitating, not only the + headdress, but the asceticism of the monks. From this cause, a coldness + arose between them. The lady proving at last unfaithful to her shaven and + indifferent lord, they were divorced, and the Kings of France lost the + rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou, which were her dowry. She soon after + bestowed her hand and her possessions upon Henry Duke of Normandy, + afterwards Henry II of England, and thus gave the English sovereigns that + strong footing in France which was for so many centuries the cause of such + long and bloody wars between the nations. + </p> + <p> + When the Crusades had drawn all the smart young fellows into Palestine, + the clergy did not find it so difficult to convince the staid burghers who + remained in Europe, of the enormity of long hair. During the absence of + Richard Coeur de Lion, his English subjects not only cut their hair close, + but shaved their faces. William Fitzosbert, or Long-beard, the great + demagogue of that day, reintroduced among the people who claimed to be of + Saxon origin the fashion of long hair. He did this with the view of making + them as unlike as possible to the citizens and the Normans. He wore his + own beard hanging down to his waist, from whence the name by which he is + best known to posterity. + </p> + <p> + The Church never showed itself so great an enemy to the beard as to long + hair on the head. It generally allowed fashion to take its own course, + both with regard to the chin and the upper lip. This fashion varied + continually; for we find that, in little more than a century after the + time of Richard I, when beards were short, that they had again become so + long as to be mentioned in the famous epigram made by the Scots who + visited London in 1327, when David, son of Robert Bruce, was married to + Joan, the sister of King Edward. This epigram, which was stuck on the + church-door of St. Peter Stangate, ran as follows— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Long beards heartlesse, + Painted hoods witlesse, + Gray coats gracelesse, + Make England thriftlesse." +</pre> + <p> + When the Emperor Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, he had no beard. + It was not to be expected that the obsequious parasites who always + surround a monarch, could presume to look more virile than their master. + Immediately all the courtiers appeared beardless, with the exception of + such few grave old men as had outgrown the influence of fashion, and who + had determined to die bearded as they had lived. Sober people in general + saw this revolution with sorrow and alarm, and thought that every manly + virtue would be banished with the beard. It became at the time a common + saying,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma." + We have no longer souls since we have lost our beards. +</pre> + <p> + In France, also, the beard fell into disrepute after the death of Henry + IV, from the mere reason that his successor was too young to have one. + Some of the more immediate friends of the great Bearnais, and his minister + Sully among the rest, refused to part with their beards, notwithstanding + the jeers of the new generation. + </p> + <p> + Who does not remember the division of England into the two great parties + of Roundheads and Cavaliers? In those days, every species of vice and + iniquity was thought by the Puritans to lurk in the long curly tresses of + the Monarchists, while the latter imagined that their opponents were as + destitute of wit, of wisdom, and of virtue, as they were of hair. A man's + locks were the symbol of his creed, both in politics and religion. The + more abundant the hair, the more scant the faith; and the balder the head, + the more sincere the piety. + </p> + <p> + But among all the instances of the interference of governments with men's + hair, the most extraordinary, not only for its daring, but for its success + is that of Peter the Great, in 1705. By this time, fashion had condemned + the beard in every other country in Europe, and with a voice more potent + than Popes or Emperors, had banished it from civilized society. But this + only made the Russians cling more fondly to their ancient ornament, as a + mark to distinguish them from foreigners, whom they hated. Peter, however + resolved that they should be shaven. If he had been a man deeply read in + history, he might have hesitated before he attempted so despotic an attack + upon the time-hallowed customs and prejudices of his countrymen; but he + was not. He did not know or consider the danger of the innovation; he only + listened to the promptings of his own indomitable will, and his fiat went + forth, that not only the army, but all ranks of citizens, from the nobles + to the serfs, should shave their beards. A certain time was given, that + people might get over the first throes of their repugnance, after which + every man who chose to retain his beard was to pay a tax of one hundred + roubles. The priests and the serfs were put on a lower footing, and + allowed to retain theirs upon payment of a copeck every time they passed + the gate of a city. Great discontent existed in consequence, but the + dreadful fate of the Strelitzes was too recent to be forgotten, and + thousands who had the will had not the courage to revolt. As is well + remarked by a writer in the "Encyclopedia Britannica," they thought it + wiser to cut off their beards than to run the risk of incensing a man who + would make no scruple in cutting off their heads. Wiser, too, than the + popes and bishops of a former age, he did not threaten them with eternal + damnation, but made them pay in hard cash the penalty of their + disobedience. For many years, a very considerable revenue was collected + from this source. The collectors gave in receipt for its payment a small + copper coin, struck expressly for the purpose, and called the + "borodovaia," or "the bearded." On one side it bore the figure of a nose, + mouth, and moustachios, with a long bushy beard, surmounted by the words, + "Deuyee Vyeatee," "money received;" the whole encircled by a wreath, and + stamped with the black eagle of Russia. On the reverse, it bore the date + of the year. Every man who chose to wear a beard was obliged to produce + this receipt on his entry into a town. Those who were refractory, and + refused to pay the tax, were thrown into prison. + </p> + <p> + Since that day, the rulers of modern Europe have endeavoured to persuade, + rather than to force, in all matters pertaining to fashion. The Vatican + troubles itself no more about beards or ringlets, and men may become hairy + as bears, if such is their fancy, without fear of excommunication or + deprivation of their political rights. Folly has taken a new start, and + cultivates the moustachio. + </p> + <p> + Even upon this point governments will not let men alone. Religion as yet + has not meddled with it; but perhaps it will; and politics already + influence it considerably. Before the revolution of 1830, neither the + French nor Belgian citizens were remarkable for their moustachios; but, + after that event, there was hardly a shopkeeper either in Paris or + Brussels whose upper lip did not suddenly become hairy with real or mock + moustachios. During a temporary triumph gained by the Dutch soldiers over + the citizens of Louvain, in October 1830, it became a standing joke + against the patriots, that they shaved their faces clean immediately; and + the wits of the Dutch army asserted, that they had gathered moustachios + enough from the denuded lips of the Belgians to stuff mattresses for all + the sick and wounded in their hospital. + </p> + <p> + The last folly of this kind is still more recent. In the German + newspapers, of August 1838, appeared an ordonnance, signed by the King of + Bavaria, forbidding civilians, on any pretence whatever, to wear + moustachios, and commanding the police and other authorities to arrest, + and cause to be shaved, the offending parties. "Strange to say," adds "Le + Droit," the journal from which this account is taken, "moustachios + disappeared immediately, like leaves from the trees in autumn; everybody + made haste to obey the royal order, and not one person was arrested." + </p> + <p> + The King of Bavaria, a rhymester of some celebrity, has taken a good many + poetical licences in his time. His licence in this matter appears neither + poetical nor reasonable. It is to be hoped that he will not take it into + his royal head to make his subjects shave theirs; nothing but that is + wanting to complete their degradation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DUELS AND ORDEALS + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + There was an ancient sage philosopher, + Who swore the world, as he could prove, + Was mad of fighting. * * * + + Hudibras, +</pre> + <p> + Most writers, in accounting for the origin of duelling, derive it from the + warlike habits of those barbarous nations who overran Europe in the early + centuries of the Christian era, and who knew no mode so effectual for + settling their differences as the point of the sword. In fact, duelling, + taken in its primitive and broadest sense, means nothing more than + combatting, and is the universal resort of all wild animals, including + man, to gain or defend their possessions, or avenge their insults. Two + dogs who tear each other for a bone, or two bantams fighting on a dunghill + for the love of some beautiful hen, or two fools on Wimbledon Common, + shooting at each other to satisfy the laws of offended honour, stand on + the same footing in this respect, and are, each and all, mere duellists. + As civilization advanced, the best informed men naturally grew ashamed of + such a mode of adjusting disputes, and the promulgation of some sort of + laws for obtaining redress for injuries was the consequence. Still there + were many cases in which the allegations of an accuser could not be + rebutted by any positive proof on the part of the accused; and in all + these, which must have been exceedingly numerous in the early stages of + European society, the combat was resorted to. From its decision there was + no appeal. God was supposed to nerve the arm of the combatant whose cause + was just, and to grant him the victory over his opponent. As Montesquieu + well remarks, ["Esprit des Loix," liv. xxviii. chap. xvii.] this belief + was not unnatural among a people just emerging from barbarism. Their + manners being wholly warlike, the man deficient in courage, the prime + virtue of his fellows, was not unreasonably suspected of other vices + besides cowardice, which is generally found to be co-existent with + treachery. He, therefore, who showed himself most valiant in the + encounter, was absolved by public opinion from any crime with which he + might be charged. As a necessary consequence, society would have been + reduced to its original elements, if the men of thought, as distinguished + from the men of action, had not devised some means for taming the unruly + passions of their fellows. With this view, governments commenced by + restricting within the narrowest possible limits the cases in which it was + lawful to prove or deny guilt by the single combat. By the law of + Gondebaldus, King of the Burgundians, passed in the year 501, the proof by + combat was allowed in all legal proceedings, in lieu of swearing. In the + time of Charlemagne, the Burgundian practice had spread over the empire of + the Francs, and not only the suitors for justice, but the witnesses, and + even the judges, were obliged to defend their cause, their evidence, or + their decision, at the point of the sword. Louis the Debonnaire, his + successor, endeavoured to remedy the growing evil, by permitting the duel + only in appeals of felony, in civil cases, or issue joined in a writ of + right, and in cases of the court of chivalry, or attacks upon a man's + knighthood. None were exempt from these trials, but women, the sick and + the maimed, and persons under fifteen or above sixty years of age. + Ecclesiastics were allowed to produce champions in their stead. This + practice, in the course of time, extended to all trials of civil and + criminal cases, which had to be decided by battle. + </p> + <p> + The clergy, whose dominion was an intellectual one, never approved of a + system of jurisprudence which tended so much to bring all things under the + rule of the strongest arm. From the first they set their faces against + duelling, and endeavoured, as far as the prejudices of their age would + allow them, to curb the warlike spirit, so alien from the principles of + religion. In the Council of Valentia, and afterwards in the Council of + Trent, they excommunicated all persons engaged in duelling, and not only + them, but even the assistants and spectators, declaring the custom to be + hellish and detestable, and introduced by the Devil for the destruction + both of body and soul. They added, also, that princes who connived at + duels, should be deprived of all temporal power, jurisdiction, and + dominion over the places where they had permitted them to be fought. It + will be seen hereafter that this clause only encouraged the practice which + it was intended to prevent. + </p> + <p> + But it was the blasphemous error of these early ages to expect that the + Almighty, whenever he was called upon, would work a miracle in favour of a + person unjustly accused. The priesthood, in condemning the duel, did not + condemn the principle on which it was founded. They still encouraged the + popular belief of Divine interference in all the disputes or differences + that might arise among nations or individuals. It was the very same + principle that regulated the ordeals, which, with all their influence, + they supported against the duel. By the former, the power of deciding the + guilt or innocence was vested wholly in their hands, while, by the latter, + they enjoyed no power or privilege at all. It is not to be wondered at, + that for this reason, if for no other, they should have endeavoured to + settle all differences by the peaceful mode. While that prevailed, they + were as they wished to be, the first party in the state; but while the + strong arm of individual prowess was allowed to be the judge in all + doubtful cases, their power and influence became secondary to those of + nobility. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it was not the mere hatred of bloodshed which induced them to launch + the thunderbolts excommunication against the combatants; it a desire to + retain the power, which, to do them justice, they were, in those times, + the persons best qualified to wield. The germs of knowledge and + civilization lay within the bounds of their order; for they were the + representatives of the intellectual, as the nobility were of the physical + power of man. To centralize this power in the Church, and make it the + judge of the last resort in all appeals, both in civil and criminal cases, + they instituted five modes of trial, the management of which lay wholly in + their hands. These were the oath upon the Evangelists; the ordeal of the + cross, and the fire ordeal, for persons in the higher ranks; the water + ordeal, for the humbler classes; and, lastly, the Corsned, or bread and + cheese ordeal, for members of their own body. + </p> + <p> + The oath upon the Evangelists was taken in the following manner: the + accused who was received to this proof, says Paul Hay, Count du Chastelet, + in his Memoirs of Bertrand du Guesclin, swore upon a copy of the New + Testament, and on the relics of the holy martyrs, or on their tombs, that + he was innocent of the crime imputed to him. He was also obliged to find + twelve persons, of acknowledged probity, who should take oath at the same + time, that they believed him innocent. This mode of trial led to very + great abuses, especially in cases of disputed inheritance, where the + hardest swearer was certain of the victory. This abuse was one of the + principal causes which led to the preference given to the trial by battle. + It is not all surprising that a feudal baron, or captain of the early + ages, should have preferred the chances of a fair fight with his opponent, + to a mode by which firm perjury would always be successful. + </p> + <p> + The trial by, or judgment of, the cross, which Charlemagne begged his sons + to have recourse to, in case of disputes arising between them, was + performed thus:—When a person accused of any crime had declared his + innocence upon oath, and appealed to the cross for its judgment in his + favour, he was brought into the church, before the altar. The priests + previously prepared two sticks exactly like one another, upon one of which + was carved a figure of the cross. They were both wrapped up with great + care and many ceremonies, in a quantity of fine wool, and laid upon the + altar, or on the relics of the saints. A solemn prayer was then offered up + to God, that he would be pleased to discover, by the judgment of his holy + cross, whether the accused person were innocent or guilty. A priest then + approached the altar, and took up one of the sticks, and the assistants + unswathed it reverently. If it was marked with the cross, the accused + person was innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would be unjust to + assert, that the judgments thus delivered were, in all cases, erroneous; + and it would be absurd to believe that they were left altogether to + chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given, and, in all probability, + most conscientiously; for we cannot but believe that the priests + endeavoured beforehand to convince themselves by secret inquiry and a + strict examination of the circumstances, whether the appellant were + innocent or guilty, and that they took up the crossed or uncrossed stick + accordingly. Although, to all other observers, the sticks, as enfolded in + the wool, might appear exactly similar, those who enwrapped them could, + without any difficulty, distinguish the one from the other. + </p> + <p> + By the fire-ordeal the power of deciding was just as unequivocally left in + their hands. It was generally believed that fire would not burn the + innocent, and the clergy, of course, took care that the innocent, or such + as it was their pleasure or interest to declare so, should be so warned + before undergoing the ordeal, as to preserve themselves without any + difficulty from the fire. One mode of ordeal was to place red-hot + ploughshares on the ground at certain distances, and then, blindfolding + the accused person, make him walk barefooted over them. If he stepped + regularly in the vacant spaces, avoiding the fire, he was adjudged + innocent; if he burned himself, he was declared guilty. As none but the + clergy interfered with the arrangement of the ploughshares, they could + always calculate beforehand the result of the ordeal. To find a person + guilty, they had only to place them at irregular distances, and the + accused was sure to tread upon one of them. When Emma, the wife of King + Ethelred, and mother of Edward the Confessor, was accused of a guilty + familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of Winchester, she cleared her character in + this manner. The reputation, not only of their order, but of a queen, + being at stake, a verdict of guilty was not to be apprehended from any + ploughshares which priests had the heating of. This ordeal was called the + Judicium Dei, and sometimes the Vulgaris Purgatio, and might also be tried + by several other methods. One was to hold in the hand, unhurt, a piece of + red-hot iron, of the weight of one, two, or three pounds. When we read not + only that men with hard hands, but women of softer and more delicate skin, + could do this with impunity, we must be convinced that the hands were + previously rubbed with some preservative, or that the apparently hot iron + was merely cold iron painted red. Another mode was to plunge the naked arm + into a caldron of boiling water. The priests then enveloped it in several + folds of linen and flannel, and kept the patient confined within the + church, and under their exclusive care, for three days. If, at the end of + that time, the arm appeared without a scar, the innocence of the accused + person was firmly established. [Very similar to this is the fire-ordeal of + the modern Hindoos, which is thus described in Forbes's "Oriental + Memoirs," vol. i. c. xi.—"When a man, accused of a capital crime, + chooses to undergo the ordeal trial, he is closely confined for several + days; his right hand and arm are covered with thick wax-cloth, tied up and + sealed, in the presence of proper officers, to prevent deceit. In the + English districts the covering was always sealed with the Company's arms, + and the prisoner placed under an European guard. At the time fixed for the + ordeal, a caldron of oil is placed over a fire; when it boils, a piece of + money is dropped into the vessel; the prisoner's arm is unsealed, and + washed in the presence of his judges and accusers. During this part of the + ceremony, the attendant Brahmins supplicate the Deity. On receiving their + benediction, the accused plunges his hand into the boiling fluid, and + takes out the coin. The arm is afterwards again Sealed up until the time + appointed for a re-examination. The seal is then broken: if no blemish + appears, the prisoner is declared innocent; if the contrary, he suffers + the punishment due to his crime." * * * On this trial the accused thus + addresses the element before plunging his hand into the boiling oil:—"Thou, + O fire! pervadest all things. O cause of purity! who givest evidence of + virtue and of sin, declare the truth in this my hand!" If no juggling were + practised, the decisions by this ordeal would be all the same way; but, as + some are by this means declared guilty, and others innocent, it is clear + that the Brahmins, like the Christian priests of the middle ages, practise + some deception in saving those whom they wish to be thought guiltless.] + </p> + <p> + As regards the water-ordeal, the same trouble was not taken. It was a + trial only for the poor and humble, and, whether they sank or swam, was + thought of very little consequence. Like the witches of more modern times, + the accused were thrown into a pond or river; if they sank, and were + drowned, their surviving friends had the consolation of knowing that they + were innocent; if they swam, they were guilty. In either case society was + rid of them. + </p> + <p> + But of all the ordeals, that which the clergy reserved for themselves was + the one least likely to cause any member of their corps to be declared + guilty. The most culpable monster in existence came off clear when tried + by this method. It was called the Corsned, and was thus performed. A piece + of barley bread and a piece of cheese were laid upon the altar, and the + accused priest, in his full canonicals, and surrounded by all the pompous + adjuncts of Roman ceremony, pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed + with great fervency for several minutes. The burden of his prayer was, + that if he were guilty of the crime laid to his charge, God would send his + angel Gabriel to stop his throat, that he might not be able to swallow the + bread and cheese. There is no instance upon record of a priest having been + choked in this manner. [An ordeal very like this is still practised in + India. Consecrated rice is the article chosen, instead of bread and + cheese. Instances are not rare in which, through the force of imagination, + guilty persons are not able to swallow a single grain. Conscious of their + crime, and fearful of the punishment of Heaven, they feel a suffocating + sensation in their throat when they attempt it, and they fall on their + knees, and confess all that is laid to their charge. The same thing, no + doubt, would have happened with the bread and cheese of the Roman church, + if it had been applied to any others but ecclesiastics. The latter had too + much wisdom to be caught in a trap of their own setting.] + </p> + <p> + When, under Pope Gregory VII, it was debated whether the Gregorian chant + should be introduced into Castile, instead of the Musarabic, given by St. + Isidore, of Seville, to the churches of that kingdom, very much ill + feeling was excited. The churches refused to receive the novelty, and it + was proposed that the affair should be decided by a battle between two + champions, one chosen from each side. The clergy would not consent to a + mode of settlement which they considered impious, but had no objection to + try the merits of each chant by the fire ordeal. A great fire was + accordingly made, and a book of the Gregorian and one of the Musarabic + chant were thrown into it, that the flames might decide which was most + agreeable to God by refusing to burn it. Cardinal Baronius, who says he + was an eye-witness of the miracle, relates, that the book of the Gregorian + chant was no sooner laid upon the fire, than it leaped out uninjured, + visibly, and with a great noise. Every one present thought that the saints + had decided in favour of Pope Gregory. After a slight interval, the fire + was extinguished; but, wonderful to relate! the other book of St. Isidore + was found covered with ashes, but not injured in the slightest degree. The + flames had not even warmed it. Upon this it was resolved, that both were + alike agreeable to God, and that they should be used by turns in all the + churches of Seville? [Histoire de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, par Paul + Hay du Chastelet. Livre i. chap. xix.] + </p> + <p> + If the ordeals had been confined to questions like this, the laity would + have had little or no objection to them; but when they were introduced as + decisive in all the disputes that might arise between man and man, the + opposition of all those whose prime virtue was personal bravery, was + necessarily excited. In fact, the nobility, from a very early period, + began to look with jealous eyes upon them. They were not slow to perceive + their true purport, which was no other than to make the Church the last + court of appeal in all cases, both civil and criminal: and not only did + the nobility prefer the ancient mode of single combat from this cause, in + itself a sufficient one, but they clung to it because an acquittal gained + by those displays of courage and address which the battle afforded, was + more creditable in the eyes of their compeers, than one which it required + but little or none of either to accomplish. To these causes may be added + another, which was, perhaps, more potent than either, in raising the + credit of the judicial combat at the expense of the ordeal. The noble + institution of chivalry was beginning to take root, and, notwithstanding + the clamours of the clergy, war was made the sole business of life, and + the only elegant pursuit of the aristocracy. The fine spirit of honour was + introduced, any attack upon which was only to be avenged in the lists, + within sight of applauding crowds, whose verdict of approbation was far + more gratifying than the cold and formal acquittal of the ordeal. + Lothaire, the son of Louis I, abolished that by fire and the trial of the + cross within his dominions; but in England they were allowed so late as + the time of Henry III, in the early part of whose reign they were + prohibited by an order of council. In the mean time, the Crusades had + brought the institution of chivalry to the full height of perfection. The + chivalric spirit soon achieved the downfall of the ordeal system, and + established the judicial combat on a basis too firm to be shaken. It is + true that with the fall of chivalry, as an institution, fell the + tournament, and the encounter in the lists; but the duel, their offspring, + has survived to this day, defying the efforts of sages and philosophers to + eradicate it. Among all the errors bequeathed to us by a barbarous age, it + has proved the most pertinacious. It has put variance between men's reason + and their honour; put the man of sense on a level with the fool, and made + thousands who condemn it submit to it, or practise it. Those who are + curious to see the manner in which these combats were regulated, may + consult the learned Montesquieu, where they will find a copious summary of + the code of ancient duelling. ["Esprit des Loix," livre xxviii. chap. + xxv.] Truly does he remark, in speaking of the clearness and excellence of + the arrangements, that, as there were many wise matters which were + conducted in a very foolish manner, so there were many foolish matters + conducted very wisely. No greater exemplification of it could be given, + than the wise and religious rules of the absurd and blasphemous trial by + battle. + </p> + <p> + In the ages that intervened between the Crusades and the new era that was + opened out by the invention of gunpowder and printing, a more rational + system of legislation took root. The inhabitants of cities, engaged in the + pursuits of trade and industry, were content to acquiesce in the decisions + of their judges and magistrates whenever any differences arose among them. + Unlike the class above them, their habits and manners did not lead them to + seek the battle-field on every slight occasion. A dispute as to the price + of a sack of corn, a bale of broad-cloth, or a cow, could be more + satisfactorily adjusted before the mayor or bailiff of their district. + Even the martial knights and nobles, quarrelsome as they were, began to + see that the trial by battle would lose its dignity and splendour if too + frequently resorted to. Governments also shared this opinion, and on + several occasions restricted the cases in which it was legal to proceed to + this extremity. In France, before the time of Louis IX, duels were + permitted only in cases of Lese Majesty, Rape, Incendiarism, + Assassination, and Burglary. Louis IX, by taking off all restriction, made + them legal in civil eases. This was not found to work well, and, in 1303, + Philip the Fair judged it necessary to confine them, in criminal matters, + to state offences, rape, and incendiarism; and in civil cases, to + questions of disputed inheritance. Knighthood was allowed to be the best + judge of its own honour, and might defend or avenge it as often as + occasion arose. + </p> + <p> + Among the earliest duels upon record, is a very singular one that took + place in the reign of Louis II (A.D. 878). Ingelgerius, Count of + Gastinois, was one morning discovered by his Countess dead in bed at her + side. Gontran, a relation of the Count, accused the Countess of having + murdered her husband, to whom, he asserted, she had long been unfaithful, + and challenged her to produce a champion to do battle in her behalf, that + he might establish her guilt by killing him.[Memoires de Brantome touchant + les Duels.] All the friends and relatives of the Countess believed in her + innocence; but Gontran was so stout and bold and renowned a warrior, that + no one dared to meet him, for which, as Brantome quaintly says, "Mauvais + et poltrons parens estaient." The unhappy Countess began to despair, when + a champion suddenly appeared in the person of Ingelgerius, Count of Anjou, + a boy of sixteen years of age, who had been held by the Countess on the + baptismal font, and received her husband's name. He tenderly loved his + godmother, and offered to do battle in her cause against any and every + opponent. The King endeavoured to persuade the generous boy from his + enterprise, urging the great strength, tried skill, and invincible courage + of the challenger; but he persisted in his resolution, to the great sorrow + of all the court, who said it was a cruel thing to permit so brave and + beautiful a child to rush to such butchery and death. + </p> + <p> + When the lists were prepared, the Countess duly acknowledged her champion, + and the combatants commenced the onset. Gontran rode so fiercely at his + antagonist, and hit him on the shield with such impetuosity, that he lost + his own balance and rolled to the ground. The young Count, as Gontran + fell, passed his lance through his body, and then dismounting, cut off his + head, which, Brantome says, "he presented to the King, who received it + most graciously, and was very joyful, as much so as if any one had made + him a present of a city." The innocence of the Countess was then + proclaimed with great rejoicings; and she kissed her godson, and wept over + his neck with joy, in the presence of all the assembly. + </p> + <p> + When the Earl of Essex was accused, by Robert de Montfort, before King + Henry II, in 1162, of having traitorously suffered the royal standard of + England to fall from his hands in a skirmish with the Welsh, at Coleshill, + five years previously, the latter offered to prove the truth of the charge + by single combat. The Earl of Essex accepted the challenge, and the lists + were prepared near Reading. An immense concourse of persons assembled to + witness the battle. Essex at first fought stoutly, but, losing his temper + and self-command, he gave an advantage to his opponent, which soon decided + the struggle. He was unhorsed, and so severely wounded, that all present + thought he was dead. At the solicitation of his relatives, the monks of + the Abbey of Reading were allowed to remove the body for interment, and + Montfort was declared the victor. Essex, however, was not dead, but + stunned only, and, under the care of the monks, recovered in a few weeks + from his bodily injuries. The wounds of his mind were not so easily + healed. Though a loyal and brave subject, the whole realm believed him a + traitor and a coward because he had been vanquished. He could not brook to + return to the world deprived of the good opinion of his fellows; he, + therefore, made himself a monk, and passed the remainder of his days + within the walls of the Abbey. + </p> + <p> + Du Chastelet relates a singular duel that was proposed in Spain.[Histoire + de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, livre i. chap. xix.] A Christian + gentleman of Seville sent a challenge to a Moorish cavalier, offering to + prove against him, with whatever weapons he might choose, that the + religion of Jesus Christ was holy and divine, and that of Mahomet impious + and damnable. The Spanish prelates did not choose that Christianity should + be com promised within their jurisdiction by the result of any such + combat, and they commanded the knight, under pain of excommunication, to + withdraw the challenge. + </p> + <p> + The same author relates, that under Otho I a question arose among + jurisconsults, viz. whether grandchildren, who had lost their father, + should share equally with their uncles in the property of their + grandfather, at the death of the latter. The difficulty of this question + was found so insurmountable, that none of the lawyers of that day could + resolve it. It was at last decreed, that it should be decided by single + combat. Two champions were accordingly chosen; one for, and the other + against, the claims of the little ones. After a long struggle, the + champion of the uncles was unhorsed and slain; and it was, therefore, + decided, that the right of the grandchildren was established, and that + they should enjoy the same portion of their grandfather's possessions that + their father would have done had he been alive. + </p> + <p> + Upon pretexts, just as frivolous as these, duels continued to be fought in + most of the countries of Europe during the whole of the fourteenth and + fifteenth centuries. A memorable instance of the slightness of the pretext + on which a man could be forced to fight a duel to the death, occurs in the + Memoirs of the brave Constable, Du Guesclin. The advantage he had + obtained, in a skirmish before Rennes, against William Brembre, an English + captain, so preyed on the spirits of William Troussel, the chosen friend + and companion of the latter, that nothing would satisfy him but a mortal + combat with the Constable. The Duke of Lancaster, to whom Troussel applied + for permission to fight the great Frenchman, forbade the battle, as not + warranted by the circumstances. Troussel nevertheless burned with a fierce + desire to cross his weapon with Du Guesclin, and sought every occasion to + pick a quarrel with him. Having so good a will for it, of course he found + a way. A relative of his had been taken prisoner by the Constable, in + whose hands he remained till he was able to pay his ransom. Troussel + resolved to make a quarrel out of this, and despatched a messenger to Du + Guesclin, demanding the release of his prisoner, and offering a bond, at a + distant date, for the payment of the ransom. Du Guesclin, who had received + intimation of the hostile purposes of the Englishman, sent back word, that + he would not accept his bond, neither would he release his prisoner, until + the full amount of his ransom was paid. As soon as this answer was + received, Troussel sent a challenge to the Constable, demanding reparation + for the injury he had done his honour, by refusing his bond, and offering + a mortal combat, to be fought three strokes with the lance, three with the + sword, and three with the dagger. Du Guesclin, although ill in bed with + the ague, accepted the challenge, and gave notice to the Marshal + d'Andreghem, the King's Lieutenant-General in Lower Normandy, that he + might fix the day and the place of combat. The Marshal made all necessary + arrangements, upon condition that he who was beaten should pay a hundred + florins of gold to feast the nobles and gentlemen who were witnesses of + the encounter. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Lancaster was very angry with his captain, and told him, that + it would be a shame to his knighthood and his nation, if he forced on a + combat with the brave Du Guesclin, at a time when he was enfeebled by + disease and stretched on the couch of suffering. Upon these + representations, Troussel, ashamed of himself, sent notice to Du Guesclin + that he was willing to postpone the duel until such time as he should be + perfectly recovered. Du Guesclin replied, that he could not think of + postponing the combat, after all the nobility had received notice of it; + that he had sufficient strength left, not only to meet, but to conquer + such an opponent as he was; and that, if he did not make his appearance in + the lists at the time appointed, he would publish him everywhere as a man + unworthy to be called a knight, or to wear an honourable sword by his + side. Troussel carried this haughty message to the Duke of Lancaster, who + immediately gave permission for the battle. + </p> + <p> + On the day appointed, the two combatants appeared in the lists, in the + presence of several thousand spectators. Du Guesclin was attended by the + flower of the French nobility, including the Marshal de Beaumanoir, + Olivier de Mauny, Bertrand de Saint Pern, and the Viscount de la Belliere, + while the Englishman appeared with no more than the customary retinue of + two seconds, two squires, two coutilliers, or daggermen, and two + trumpeters. The first onset was unfavourable to the Constable: he received + so heavy a blow on his shield-arm, that he fell forward to the left, upon + his horse's neck, and, being weakened by his fever, was nearly thrown to + the ground. All his friends thought he could never recover himself, and + began to deplore his ill fortune; but Du Guesclin collected his energies + for a decisive effort, and, at the second charge, aimed a blow at the + shoulder of his enemy, which felled him to the earth, mortally wounded. He + then sprang from his horse, sword in hand, with the intention of cutting + off the head of his fallen foe, when the Marshal D'Andreghem threw a + golden wand into the arena, as a signal that hostilities should cease. Du + Guesclin was proclaimed the victor, amid the joyous acclamations of the + crowd, and retiring, left the field to the meaner combatants, who were + afterwards to make sport for the people. Four English and as many French + squires fought for some time with pointless lances, when the French, + gaining the advantage, the sports were declared at an end. + </p> + <p> + In the time of Charles VI, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, a + famous duel was ordered by the Parliament of Paris. The Sieur de Carrouges + being absent in the Holy Land, his lady was violated by the Sieur Legris. + Carrouges, on his return, challenged Legris to mortal combat, for the + twofold crime of violation and slander, inasmuch as he had denied his + guilt, by asserting that the lady was a willing party. The lady's + asseverations of innocence were held to be no evidence by the Parliament, + and the duel was commanded with all the ceremonies. "On the day + appointed," says Brantome, [Memoires de Brantome touchant les Duels.] "the + lady came to witness the spectacle in her chariot; but the King made her + descend, judging her unworthy, because she was criminal in his eyes till + her innocence was proved, and caused her to stand upon a scaffold to await + the mercy of God and this judgment by the battle. After a short struggle, + the Sieur de Carrouges overthrew his enemy, and made him confess both the + rape and the slander. He was then taken to the gallows and hanged in the + presence of the multitude; while the innocence of the lady was proclaimed + by the heralds, and recognized by her husband, the King, and all the + spectators." + </p> + <p> + Numerous battles, of a similar description, constantly took place, until + the unfortunate issue of one encounter of the kind led the French King, + Henry II, to declare solemnly, that he would never again permit any such + encounter, whether it related to a civil or criminal case, or the honour + of a gentleman. + </p> + <p> + This memorable combat was fought in the year 1547. Francois de Vivonne, + Lord of La Chataigneraie, and Guy de Chabot, Lord of Jarnac, had been + friends from their early youth, and were noted at the court of Francis I + for the gallantry of their bearing and the magnificence of their retinue. + Chataigneraie, who knew that his friend's means were not very ample, asked + him one day, in confidence, how it was that he contrived to be so well + provided? Jarnac replied, that his father had married a young and + beautiful woman, who, loving the son far better than the sire, supplied + him with as much money as he desired. La Chataigneraie betrayed the base + secret to the Dauphin, the Dauphin to the King, the King to his courtiers, + and the courtiers to all their acquaintance. In a short time it reached + the ears of the old Lord de Jarnac, who immediately sent for his son, and + demanded to know in what manner the report had originated, and whether he + had been vile enough not only to carry on such a connexion, but to boast + of it? De Jarnac indignantly denied that he had ever said so, or given + reason to the world to say so, and requested his father to accompany him + to court, and confront him with his accuser, that he might see the manner + in which he would confound him. They went accordingly, and the younger De + Jarnac, entering a room where the Dauphin, La Chataigneraie, and several + courtiers were present, exclaimed aloud, "That whoever had asserted, that + he maintained a criminal connexion with his mother-in-law, was a liar and + a coward!" Every eye was turned to the Dauphin and La Chataigneraie, when + the latter stood forward, and asserted, that De Jarnac had himself avowed + that such was the fact, and he would extort from his lips another + confession of it. A case like this could not be met or rebutted by any + legal proof, and the royal council ordered that it should be decided by + single combat. The King, however, set his face against the duel [Although + Francis showed himself in this case an enemy to duelling, yet, in his own + case, he had not the same objection. Every reader of history must remember + his answer to the challenge of the Emperor Charles V. The Emperor wrote + that he had failed in his word, and that he would sustain their quarrel + single-handed against him. Francis replied, that he lied—qu'il en + avait menti par la gorge, and that he was ready to meet him in single + combat whenever and wherever he pleased.] and forbade them both, under + pain of his high displeasure, to proceed any further in the matter. But + Francis died in the following year, and the Dauphin, now Henry II, who was + himself compromised, resolved that the combat should take place. The lists + were prepared in the court-yard of the chateau of St. Germain-en-Laye, and + the 10th of July 1547 was appointed for the encounter. The cartels of the + combatants, which are preserved in the "Memoires de Castelnau," were as + follow:— + </p> + <p> + "Cartel of Francois de Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie. + </p> + <p> + "Sire, + </p> + <p> + "Having learned that Guy Chabot de Jarnac, being lately at Compeigne, + asserted, that whoever had said that he boasted of having criminal + intercourse with his mother-in-law, was wicked and a wretch,—I, + Sire, with your good-will and pleasure, do answer, that he has wickedly + lied, and will lie as many times as he denies having said that which I + affirm he did say; for I repeat, that he told me several times, and + boasted of it, that he had slept with his mother-in-law. + </p> + <p> + "Francois de Vivonne." + </p> + <p> + To this cartel De Jarnac replied:— + </p> + <p> + "Sire, + </p> + <p> + "With your good will and permission, I say, that Francois de Vivonne has + lied in the imputation which he has cast upon me, and of which I spoke to + you at Compeigne. I, therefore, entreat you, Sire, most humbly, that you + be pleased to grant us a fair field, that we may fight this battle to the + death. + </p> + <p> + "Guy Chabot." + </p> + <p> + The preparations were conducted on a scale of the greatest magnificence, + the King having intimated his intention of being present. La Chataigneraie + made sure of the victory, and invited the King and a hundred and fifty of + the principal personages of the court to sup with him in the evening, + after the battle, in a splendid tent, which he had prepared at the + extremity of the lists. De Jarnac was not so confident, though perhaps + more desperate. At noon, on the day appointed, the combatants met, and + each took the customary oath, that he bore no charms or amulets about him, + or made use of any magic, to aid him against his antagonist. They then + attacked each other, sword in hand. La Chataigneraie was a strong, robust + man, and over confident; De Jarnac was nimble, supple, and prepared for + the worst. The combat lasted for some time doubtful, until De Jarnac, + overpowered by the heavy blows of his opponent, covered his head with his + shield, and, stooping down, endeavoured to make amends by his agility for + his deficiency of strength. In this crouching posture he aimed two blows + at the left thigh of La Chataigneraie, who had left it uncovered, that the + motion of his leg might not be impeded. Each blow was successful, and, + amid the astonishment of all the spectators, and to the great regret of + the King, La Chataigneraie rolled over upon the sand. He seized his + dagger, and made a last effort to strike De Jarnac; but he was unable to + support himself, and fell powerless into the arms of the assistants. The + officers now interfered, and De Jarnac being declared the victor, fell + down upon his knees, uncovered his head, and, clasping his hands together, + exclaimed:—"O Domine, non sum dignus!" La Chataigneraie was so + mortified by the result of the encounter, that he resolutely refused to + have his wounds dressed. He tore off the bandages which the surgeons + applied, and expired two days afterwards. Ever since that time, any sly + and unforeseen attack has been called by the French a coup de Jarnac. + Henry was so grieved at the loss of his favourite, that he made the solemn + oath already alluded to, that he would never again, so long as he lived, + permit a due]. Some writers have asserted, and among others, Mezeraie, + that he issued a royal edict forbidding them. This has been doubted by + others, and, as there appears no registry of the edict in any of the + courts, it seems most probable that it was never issued. This opinion is + strengthened by the fact, that two years afterwards, the council ordered + another duel to be fought, with similar forms, but with less magnificence, + on account of the inferior rank of the combatants. It is not anywhere + stated, that Henry interfered to prevent it, notwithstanding his solemn + oath; but that, on the contrary, he encouraged it, and appointed the + Marshal de la Marque to see that it was conducted according to the rules + of chivalry. The disputants were Fendille and D'Aguerre, two gentlemen of + the household, who, quarrelling in the King's chamber, had proceeded from + words to blows. The council, being informed of the matter, decreed that it + could only be decided in the lists. Marshal de la Marque, with the King's + permission, appointed the city of Sedan as the place of combat. Fendille, + who was a bad swordsman, was anxious to avoid an encounter with D'Aguerre, + who was one of the most expert men of the age; but the council + authoritatively commanded that he should fight, or be degraded from all + his honours. D'Aguerre appeared in the field attended by Francois de + Vendome, Count de Chartres, while Fendille was accompanied by the Duke de + Nevers. Fendille appears to have been not only an inexpert swordsman, but + a thorough coward; one who, like Cowley, might have heaped curses on the + man, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "———-(Death's factor sure), who brought + Dire swords into this peaceful world." +</pre> + <p> + On the very first encounter he was thrown from his horse, and, confessing + on the ground all that his victor required of him, slunk away + ignominiously from the arena. + </p> + <p> + One is tempted to look upon the death of Henry II as a judgment upon him + for his perjury in the matter of duelling. In a grand tournament + instituted on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, he broke + several lances in encounters with some of the bravest knights of the time. + Ambitious of still further renown, he would not rest satisfied until he + had also engaged the young Count de Montgomeri. He received a wound in the + eye from the lance of this antagonist, and died from its effects shortly + afterwards, in the forty-first year of his age. + </p> + <p> + In the succeeding reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, the + practice of duelling increased to an alarming extent. Duels were not rare + in the other countries of Europe at the same period; but in France they + were so frequent, that historians, in speaking of that age, designate it + as "l'epoque de la fureur des duels." The Parliament of Paris endeavoured, + as far as in its power lay, to discourage the practice. By a decree dated + the 26th of June 1559, it declared all persons who should be present at + duels, or aiding and abetting in them, to be rebels to the King, + transgressors of the law, and disturbers of the public peace. + </p> + <p> + When Henry III was assassinated at St. Cloud, in 1589, a young gentleman, + named L'isle Marivaut, who had been much beloved by him, took his death so + much to heart, that he resolved not to survive him. Not thinking suicide + an honourable death, and wishing, as he said, to die gloriously in + revenging his King and master, he publicly expressed his readiness to + fight anybody to the death who should assert that Henry's assassination + was not a great misfortune to the community. Another youth, of a fiery + temper and tried courage, named Marolles, took him at his word, and the + day and place of the combat were forthwith appointed. When the hour had + come, and all were ready, Marolles turned to his second, and asked whether + his opponent had a casque or helmet only, or whether he wore a sallade, or + headpiece. Being answered a helmet only, he said gaily, "So much the + better; for, sir, my second, you shall repute me the wickedest man in all + the world, if I do not thrust my lance right through the the middle of his + head and kill him." Truth to say, he did so at the very first onset, and + the unhappy L'isle Marivaut expired without a groan. Brantome, who relates + this story, adds, that the victor might have done as he pleased with the + body, cut off the head, dragged it out of the camp, or exposed it upon an + ass, but that, being a wise and very courteous gentleman, he left it to + the relatives of the deceased to be honourably buried, contenting himself + with the glory of his triumph, by which he gained no little renown and + honour among the ladies of Paris. + </p> + <p> + On the accession of Henry IV that monarch pretended to set his face + against duelling; but such was the influence of early education and the + prejudices of society upon him, that he never could find it in his heart + to punish a man for this offence. He thought it tended to foster a warlike + spirit among his people. When the chivalrous Crequi demanded his + permission to fight Don Philippe de Savoire, he is reported to have said, + "Go, and if I were not a King, I would be your second." It is no wonder + that when such were known to be the King's disposition, his edicts + attracted but small attention. A calculation was made by M. de Lomenie, in + the year 1607, that since the accession of Henry, in 1589, no less than + four thousand French gentlemen had lost their lives in these conflicts, + which, for the eighteen years, would have been at the rate of four or five + in a week, or eighteen per month! Sully, who reports this fact in his + Memoirs, does not throw the slightest doubt upon its exactness, and adds, + that it was chiefly owing to the facility and ill-advised good-nature of + his royal master that the bad example had so empoisoned the court, the + city, and the whole country. This wise minister devoted much of his time + and attention to the subject; for the rage, he says, was such as to cause + him a thousand pangs, and the King also. There was hardly a man moving in + what was called good society, who had not been engaged in a duel either as + principal or second; and if there were such a man, his chief desire was to + free himself from the imputation of non-duelling, by picking a quarrel + with somebody. Sully constantly wrote letters to the King, in which he + prayed him to renew the edicts against this barbarous custom, to aggravate + the punishment against offenders, and never, in any instance, to grant a + pardon, even to a person who had wounded another in a duel, much less to + any one who had taken away life. He also advised, that some sort of + tribunal, or court of honour, should be established, to take cognizance of + injurious and slanderous language, and of all such matters as usually led + to duels; and that the justice to be administered by this court should be + sufficiently prompt and severe to appease the complainant, and make the + offender repent of his aggression. + </p> + <p> + Henry, being so warmly pressed by his friend and minister, called together + an extraordinary council in the gallery of the palace of Fontainebleau, to + take the matter into consideration. When all the members were assembled, + his Majesty requested that some person conversant with the subject would + make a report to him on the origin, progress, and different forms of the + duel. Sully complacently remarks, that none of the counsllors gave the + King any great reason to felicitate them on their erudition. In fact, they + all remained silent. Sully held his peace with the rest; but he looked so + knowing, that the King turned towards him, and said:—"Great master! + by your face I conjecture that you know more of this matter than you would + have us believe. I pray you, and indeed I command, that you tell us what + you think and what you know." The coy minister refused, as he says, out of + mere politeness to his more ignorant colleagues; but, being again pressed + by the King, he entered into a history of duelling both in ancient and + modern times. He has not preserved this history in his Memoirs; and, as + none of the ministers or counsellors present thought proper to do so, the + world is deprived of a discourse which was, no doubt, a learned and + remarkable one. The result was, that a royal edict was issued, which Sully + lost no time in transmitting to the most distant provinces, with a + distinct notification to all parties concerned that the King was in + earnest, and would exert the full rigour of the law in punishment of the + offenders. Sully himself does not inform us what were the provisions of + the new law; but Father Matthias has been more explicit, and from him we + learn, that the Marshals of France were created judges of a court of + chivalry, for the hearing of all causes wherein the honour of a noble or + gentleman was concerned, and that such as resorted to duelling should be + punished by death and confiscation of property, and that the seconds and + assistants should lose their rank, dignity, or offices, and be banished + from the court of their sovereign. [Le Pere Matthias, tome ii. livre iv.] + </p> + <p> + But so strong a hold had the education and prejudice of his age upon the + mind of the King, that though his reason condemned, his sympathies + approved the duel. Notwithstanding this threatened severity, the number of + duels did not diminish, and the wise Sully had still to lament the + prevalence of an evil which menaced society with utter disorganization. In + the succeeding reign the practice prevailed, if possible, to a still + greater extent, until the Cardinal de Richelieu, better able to grapple + with it than Sully had been, made some severe examples in the very highest + classes. Lord Herbert, the English ambassador at the court of Louis XIII + repeats, in his letters, an observation that had been previously made in + the reign of Henry IV, that it was rare to find a Frenchman moving in good + society who had not killed his man in a duel. The Abbe Millot says of this + period, that the duel madness made the most terrible ravages. Men had + actually a frenzy for combatting. Caprice and vanity, as well as the + excitement of passion, imposed the necessity of fighting. Friends were + obliged to enter into the quarrels of their friends, or be themselves + called out for their refusal, and revenge became hereditary in many + families. It was reckoned that in twenty years eight thousand letters of + pardon had been issued to persons who had killed others in single combat. + ["Elemens de l'Histoire de France, vol. iii. p. 219.] + </p> + <p> + Other writers confirm this statement. Amelot de Houssaye, in his Memoirs, + says, upon this subject, that duels were so common in the first years of + the reign of Louis XIII, that the ordinary conversation of persons when + they met in the morning was, "Do you know who fought yesterday?" and after + dinner, "Do you know who fought this morning?" The most infamous duellist + at that period was De Bouteville. It was not at all necessary to quarrel + with this assassin to be forced to fight a duel with him. When he heard + that any one was very brave, he would go to him, and say, "People tell me + that you are brave; you and I must fight together!" Every morning the most + notorious bravos and duellists used to assemble at his house, to take a + breakfast of bread and wine, and practise fencing. M. de Valencay, who was + afterwards elevated to the rank of a cardinal, ranked very high in the + estimation of De Bouteville and his gang. Hardly a day passed but what he + was engaged in some duel or other, either as principal or second; and he + once challenged De Bouteville himself, his best friend, because De + Bouteville had fought a duel without inviting him to become his second. + This quarrel was only appeased on the promise of De Bouteville that, in + his next encounter, he would not fail to avail himself of his services. + For that purpose he went out the same day, and picked a quarrel with the + Marquis des Portes. M. de Valencay, according to agreement, had the + pleasure of serving as his second, and of running through the body M. de + Cavois, the second of the Marquis des Portes, a man who had never done him + any injury, and whom he afterwards acknowledged he had never seen before. + </p> + <p> + Cardinal Richelieu devoted much attention to this lamentable state of + public morals, and seems to have concurred with his great predecessor, + Sully, that nothing but the most rigorous severity could put a stop to the + evil. The subject indeed was painfully forced upon him by his enemies. The + Marquis de Themines, to whom Richelieu, then Bishop of Lucon, had given + offence by some representations he had made to Mary of Medicis, + determined, since he could not challenge an ecclesiastic, to challenge his + brother. An opportunity was soon found. Themines, accosting the Marquis de + Richelieu, complained, in an insulting tone, that the Bishop of Lucon had + broken his faith. The Marquis resented both the manner and matter of his + speech, and readily accepted a challenge. They met in the Rue d'Angouleme, + and the unfortunate Richelieu was stabbed to the heart, and instantly + expired. From that moment the Bishop became the steady foe of the practice + of duelling. Reason and the impulse of brotherly love alike combined to + make him detest it, and when his power in France was firmly established, + he set vigorously about repressing it. In his "Testament Politique," he + has collected his thoughts upon the subject, in the chapter entitled "Des + moyens d'arreter les Duels." In spite of the edicts that he published, the + members of the nobility persisted in fighting upon the most trivial and + absurd pretences. At last Richelieu made a terrible example. The infamous + De Bouteville challenged and fought the Marquis de Beuoron; and, although + the duel itself was not fatal to either, its consequences were fatal to + both. High as they were, Richelieu resolved that the law should reach + them, and they were both tried, found guilty, and beheaded. Thus did + society get rid of one of the most bloodthirsty scoundrels that ever + polluted it. + </p> + <p> + In 1632 two noblemen fought a duel, in which they were both killed. The + officers of justice had notice of the breach of the law, and arrived at + the scene of combat before the friends of the parties had time to remove + the bodies. In conformity with the Cardinal's severe code upon the + subject, the bodies were ignominiously stripped, and hanged upon a + gallows, with their heads downwards, for several hours, within sight of + all the people. [Mercure de France, vol. xiii.] This severity sobered the + frenzy of the nation for a time; but it was soon forgotten. Men's minds + were too deeply imbued with a false notion of honour to be brought to a + right way of thinking: by such examples, however striking, Richelieu was + unable to persuade them to walk in the right path, though he could punish + them for choosing the wrong one. He had, with all his acuteness, + miscalculated the spirit of duelling. It was not death that a duellist + feared: it was shame, and the contempt of his fellows. As Addison remarked + more than eighty years afterwards, "Death was not sufficient to deter men + who made it their glory to despise it; but if every one who fought a duel + were to stand in the pillory, it would quickly diminish the number of + those imaginary men of honour, and put an end to so absurd a practice." + Richelieu never thought of this. + </p> + <p> + Sully says, that in his time the Germans were also much addicted to + duelling. There were three places where it was legal to fight; Witzburg, + in Franconia, and Uspach and Halle, in Swabia. Thither, of course, vast + numbers repaired, and murdered each other under sanction of the law. At an + earlier period, in Germany, it was held highly disgraceful to refuse to + fight. Any one who surrendered to his adversary for a simple wound that + did not disable him, was reputed infamous, and could neither cut his + beard, bear arms, mount on horseback, or hold any Office in the state. He + who fell in a duel was buried with great pomp and splendour. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1652, just after Louis XIV had attained his majority, a + desperate duel was fought between the Dukes de Beaufort and De Nemours, + each attended by four gentlemen. Although brothers-in-law, they had long + been enemies, and their constant dissensions had introduced much + disorganization among the troops which they severally commanded. Each had + long sought an opportunity for combat, which at last arose on a + misunderstanding relative to the places they were to occupy at the council + board. They fought with pistols, and, at the first discharge, the Duke de + Nemours was shot through the body, and almost instantly expired. Upon this + the Marquis de Villars, who seconded Nemours, challenged Hericourt, the + second of the Duke de Beaufort, a man whom he had never before seen; and + the challenge being accepted, they fought even more desperately than their + principals. This combat, being with swords, lasted longer than the first, + and was more exciting to the six remaining gentlemen who stayed to witness + it. The result was fatal to Hericourt, who fell pierced to the heart by + the sword of De Villars. Anything more savage than this can hardly be + imagined. Voltaire says such duels were frequent, and the compiler of the + "Dictionnaire d'Anecdotes" informs us, that the number of seconds was not + fixed. As many as ten, or twelve, or twenty, were not unfrequent, and they + often fought together after their principals were disabled. The highest + mark of friendship one man could manifest towards another, was to choose + him for his second; and many gentlemen were so desirous of serving in this + capacity, that they endeavoured to raise every slight misunderstanding + into a quarrel, that they might have the pleasure of being engaged in it. + The Count de Bussy Rabutin relates an instance of this in his Memoirs. He + says, that as he was one evening coming out of the theatre, a gentleman, + named Bruc, whom he had not before known, stopped him very politely, and, + drawing him aside, asked him if it was true that the Count de Thianges had + called him (Bruc) a drunkard? Bussy replied, that he really did not know, + for he saw the Count very seldom. "Oh! he is your uncle!" replied Bruc; + "and, as I cannot have satisfaction from him, because he lives so far off + in the country, I apply to you." "I see what you are at," replied Bussy, + "and, since you wish to put me in my uncle's place, I answer, that whoever + asserted that he called you a drunkard, told a lie!" "My brother said so," + replied Bruc, "and he is a child." "Horsewhip him, then, for his + falsehood," returned De Bussy. "I will not have my brother called a liar," + returned Bruc, determined to quarrel with him; "so draw, and defend + yourself!" They both drew their swords in the public street, but were + separated by the spectators. They agreed, however, to fight on a future + occasion, and with all regular forms of the duello. A few days afterwards, + a gentleman, whom De Bussy had never before seen, and whom he did not + know, even by name, called upon him, and asked if he might have the + privilege of serving as his second. He added, that he neither knew him nor + Bruc, except by reputation, but, having made up his mind to be second to + one of them, he had decided upon accompanying De Bussy as the braver man + of the two. De Bussy thanked him very sincerely for his politeness, but + begged to be excused, as he had already engaged four seconds to accompany + him, and he was afraid that if he took any more, the affair would become a + battle instead of a duel. + </p> + <p> + When such quarrels as these were looked upon as mere matters of course, + the state of society must have been indeed awful. Louis XIV very early saw + the evil, and as early determined to remedy it. It was not, however, till + the year 1679, when he instituted the "Chambre Ardente," for the trial of + the slow poisoners and pretenders to sorcery, that he published any edict + against duelling. In that year his famous edict was promulgated, in which + he reiterated and confirmed the severe enactments of his predecessors, + Henry IV and Louis XIII, and expressed his determination never to pardon + any offender. By this celebrated ordinance a supreme court of honour was + established, composed of the Marshals of France. They were bound, on + taking the office, to give to every one who brought a well-founded + complaint before them, such reparation as would satisfy the justice of the + case. Should any gentleman against whom complaint was made refuse to obey + the mandate of the court of honour, he might be punished by fine and + imprisonment; and when that was not possible, by reason of his absenting + himself from the kingdom, his estates might be confiscated till his + return. + </p> + <p> + Every man who sent a challenge, be the cause of offence what it might, was + deprived of all redress from the court of honour—suspended three + years from the exercise of any office in the state—was further + imprisoned for two years, and sentenced to pay a fine of half his yearly + income. He who accepted a challenge, was subject to the same punishment. + Any servant, or other person, who knowingly became the bearer of a + challenge, was, if found guilty, sentenced to stand in the pillory and be + publicly whipped for the first offence, and for the second, sent for three + years to the galleys. + </p> + <p> + Any person who actually fought, was to be held guilty of murder, even + though death did not ensue, and was to be punished accordingly. Persons in + the higher ranks of life were to be beheaded, and those of the middle + class hanged upon a gallows, and their bodies refused Christian burial. + </p> + <p> + At the same time that Louis published this severe edict, he exacted a + promise from his principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel + on any pretence whatever. He never swerved from his resolution to pursue + all duellists with the utmost rigour, and many were executed in various + parts of the country. A slight abatement of the evil was the consequence, + and in the course of a few years one duel was not fought where twelve had + been fought previously. A medal was struck to commemorate the + circumstance, by the express command of the King. So much had he this + object at heart, that, in his will, he particularly recommended to his + successor the care of his edict against duelling, and warned him against + any ill-judged lenity to those who disobeyed it. A singular law formerly + existed in Malta with regard to duelling. By this law it was permitted, + but only upon condition that the parties should fight in one particular + street. If they presumed to settle their quarrel elsewhere, they were held + guilty of murder, and punished accordingly. What was also very singular, + they were bound, under heavy penalties, to put up their swords when + requested to do so by a priest, a knight, or a woman. It does not appear, + however, that the ladies or the knights exercised this mild and beneficent + privilege to any great extent; the former were too often themselves the + cause of duels, and the latter sympathised too much in the wounded honour + of the combatants to attempt to separate them. The priests alone were the + great peacemakers. Brydone says, that a cross was always painted on the + wall opposite to the spot where a knight had been killed, and that in the + "street of duels" he counted about twenty of them. [Brydone's "Tour in + Malta." 1772.] + </p> + <p> + In England the private duel was also practised to a scandalous extent, + towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth + centuries. The judicial combat now began to be more rare, but several + instances of it are mentioned in history. One was instituted in the reign + of Elizabeth, and another so late as the time of Charles I. Sir Henry + Spelman gives an account of that which took place in Elizabeth's reign, + which is curious, perhaps the more so when we consider that it was + perfectly legal, and that similar combats remained so till the year 1819. + A proceeding having been instituted in the Court of Common Pleas for the + recovery of certain manorial rights in the county of Kent, the defendant + offered to prove by single combat his right to retain possession. The + plaintiff accepted the challenge, and the Court having no power to stay + the proceedings, agreed to the champions who were to fight in lieu of the + principals. The Queen commanded the parties to compromise; but it being + represented to Her Majesty that they were justified by law in the course + they were pursuing, she allowed them to proceed. On the day appointed, the + Justices of the Common Pleas, and all the council engaged in the cause, + appeared as umpires of the combat, at a place in Tothill-fields, where the + lists had been prepared. The champions were ready for the encounter, and + the plaintiff and defendant were publicly called to come forward and + acknowledge them. The defendant answered to his name, and recognised his + champion with the due formalities, but the plaintiff did not appear. + Without his presence and authority the combat could not take place; and + his absence being considered an abandonment of his claim, he was declared + to be nonsuited, and barred for ever from renewing his suit before any + other tribunal whatever. + </p> + <p> + The Queen appears to have disapproved personally of this mode of settling + a disputed claim, but her judges and legal advisers made no attempt to + alter the barbarous law. The practice of private duelling excited more + indignation, from its being of every-day occurrence. In the time of James + I the English were so infected with the French madness, that Bacon, when + he was Attorney-general, lent the aid of his powerful eloquence to effect + a reformation of the evil. Informations were exhibited in the Star Chamber + against two persons, named Priest and Wright, for being engaged, as + principal and second, in a duel, on which occasion he delivered a charge + that was so highly approved of by the Lords of the Council, that they + ordered it to be printed and circulated over the country, as a thing "very + meet and worthy to be remembered and made known unto the world." He began + by considering the nature and greatness of the mischief of duelling. "It + troubleth peace—it disfurnisheth war—it bringeth calamity upon + private men, peril upon the state, and contempt upon the law. Touching the + causes of it," he observed, "that the first motive of it, no doubt, is a + false and erroneous imagination of honour and credit; but then, the seed + of this mischief being such, it is nourished by vain discourses and green + and unripe conceits. Hereunto may be added, that men have almost lost the + true notion and understanding of fortitude and valour. For fortitude + distinguisheth of the grounds of quarrel whether they be just; and not + only so, but whether they be worthy, and setteth a better price upon men's + lives than to bestow them idly. Nay, it is weakness and disesteem of a + man's self to put a man's life upon such liedger performances. A man's + life is not to be trifled with: it is to be offered up and sacrificed to + honourable services, public merits, good causes, and noble adventures. It + is in expense of blood as it is in expense of money. It is no liberality + to make a profusion of money upon every vain occasion, neither is it + fortitude to make effusion of blood, except the cause of it be worth." + [See "Life and Character of Lord Bacon," by Thomas Martin, + Barrister-at-law.] + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable event connected with duelling in this reign was that + between Lord Sanquir, a Scotch nobleman, and one Turner, a fencing-master. + In a trial of skill between them, his lordship's eye was accidentally + thrust out by the point of Turner's sword. Turner expressed great regret + at the circumstance, and Lord Sanquir bore his loss with as much + philosophy as he was master of, and forgave his antagonist. Three years + afterwards, Lord Sanquir was at Paris, where he was a constant visitor at + the court of Henry IV. One day, in the course of conversation, the affable + monarch inquired how he had lost his eye. Sanquir, who prided himself on + being the most expert swordsman of the age, blushed as he replied that it + was inflicted by the sword of a fencing-master. Henry, forgetting his + assumed character of an antiduellist, carelessly, and as a mere matter of + course, inquired whether the man lived? Nothing more was said, but the + query sank deep into the proud heart of the Scotch baron, who returned + shortly afterwards to England, burning for revenge. His first intent was + to challenge the fencing-master to single combat, but, on further + consideration, he deemed it inconsistent with his dignity to meet him as + an equal in fair and open fight. He therefore hired two bravos, who set + upon the fencing-master, and murdered him in his own house at Whitefriars. + The assassins were taken and executed, and a reward of one thousand pounds + offered for the apprehension of their employer. Lord Sanquir concealed + himself for several days, and then surrendered to take his trial, in the + hope (happily false) that Justice would belie her name, and be lenient to + a murderer because he was a nobleman, who, on a false point of honour, had + thought fit to take revenge into his own hands. The most powerful + intercessions were employed in his favour, but James, to his credit, was + deaf to them all. Bacon, in his character of Attorney-general, prosecuted + the prisoner to conviction; and he died the felon's death, on the 29th of + June, 1612, on a gibbet erected in front of the gate of Westminster Hall. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the public duel, or trial by battle, demanded under the + sanction of the law, to terminate a quarrel which the ordinary course of + justice could with difficulty decide, Bacon was equally opposed to it, and + thought that in no case should it be granted. He suggested that there + should be declared a constant and settled resolution in the state to + abolish it altogether; that care should be taken that the evil be no more + cockered, nor the humour of it fed, but that all persons found guilty + should be rigorously punished by the Star Chamber, and these of eminent + quality banished from the court. + </p> + <p> + In the succeeding reign, when Donald Mackay, the first Lord Reay, accused + David Ramsay of treason, in being concerned with the Marquis of Hamilton + in a design upon the crown of Scotland, he was challenged by the latter to + make good his assertion by single combat. [See "History of the House and + Clan of Mackay."] It had been at first the intention of the government to + try the case by the common law, but Ramsay thought he would stand a better + chance of escape by recurring to the old and almost exploded custom, but + which was still the right of every man in appeals of treason. Lord Reay + readily accepted the challenge, and both were confined in the Tower until + they found security that they would appear on a certain day, appointed by + the court, to determine the question. The management of the affair was + delegated to the Marischal Court of Westminster, and the Earl of Lindsay + was created Lord Constable of England for the purpose. Shortly before the + day appointed, Ramsay confessed in substance all that Lord Reay had laid + to his charge, upon which Charles I put a stop to the proceedings. + </p> + <p> + But in England, about this period, sterner disputes arose among men than + those mere individual matters which generate duels. The men of the + Commonwealth encouraged no practice of the kind, and the subdued + aristocracy carried their habits and prejudices elsewhere, and fought + their duels at foreign courts. Cromwell's Parliament, however,—although + the evil at that time was not so crying,—published an order, in + 1654, for the prevention of duels, and the punishment of all con cerned in + them. Charles II, on his restoration, also issued a proclamation upon the + subject. In his reign an infamous duel was fought—infamous, not only + from its own circumstances, but from the lenity that was shown to the + principal offenders. + </p> + <p> + The worthless Duke of Buckingham, having debauched the Countess of + Shrewsbury, was challenged by her husband to mortal combat, in January + 1668. Charles II endeavoured to prevent the duel, not from any regard to + public morality, but from fear for the life of his favourite. He gave + commands to the Duke of Albemarle to confine Buckingham to his house, or + take some other measures to prevent him flora fighting. Albemarle + neglected the order, thinking that the King himself might prevent the + combat by some surer means. The meeting took place at Barn Elms, the + injured Shrewsbury being attended by Sir John Talbot, his relative, and + Lord Bernard Howard, son of the Earl of Arundel. Buckingham was + accompanied by two of his dependants, Captain Holmes and Sir John Jenkins. + According to the barbarous custom of the age, not only the principals, but + the seconds, engaged each other. Jenkins was pierced to the heart, and + left dead upon the field, and Sir John Talbot severely wounded in both + arms. Buckingham himself escaping with slight wounds, ran his unfortunate + antagonist through the body, and then left the field with the wretched + woman, the cause of all the mischief, who, in the dress of a page, awaited + the issue of the conflict in a neighbouring wood, holding her paramour's + horse to avoid suspicion. Great influence was exerted to save the guilty + parties from punishment, and the master, as base as the favourite, made + little difficulty in granting a free pardon to all concerned. In a royal + proclamation issued shortly afterwards, Charles II formally pardoned the + murderers, but declared his intention never to extend, in future, any + mercy to such offenders. It would be hard after this to say who was the + most infamous, the King, the favourite, or the courtezan. + </p> + <p> + In the reign of Queen Anne, repeated complaints were made of the + prevalence of duelling. Addison, Swift, Steele, and other writers, + employed their powerful pens in reprobation of it. Steele especially, in + the "Tatler" and "Guardian," exposed its impiety and absurdity, and + endeavoured, both by argument and by ridicule, to bring his countrymen to + a right way of thinking. [See "Spectator," Nos. 84. 97, and 99; and + "Tatler," Nos. 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, and 39; and "Guardian," No. 20.] His + comedy of "The Conscious Lovers" contains an admirable exposure of the + abuse of the word honour, which led men into an error so lamentable. + Swift, writing upon the subject, remarked that he could see no harm in + rogues and fools shooting each other. Addison and Steele took higher + ground, and the latter, in the "Guardian," summed up nearly all that could + be said upon the subject in the following impressive words:—"A + Christian and a gentleman are made inconsistent appellations of the same + person. You are not to expect eternal life if you do not forgive injuries, + and your mortal life is rendered uncomfortable if you are not ready to + commit a murder in resentment of an affront; for good sense, as well as + religion, is so utterly banished the world that men glory in their very + passions, and pursue trifles with the utmost vengeance, so little do they + know that to forgive is the most arduous pitch human nature can arrive at. + A coward has often fought—a coward has often conquered, but a coward + never forgave." Steele also published a pamphlet, in which he gave a + detailed account of the edict of Louis XIV, and the measures taken by that + monarch to cure his subjects of their murderous folly. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of May, 1711, Sir Cholmely Deering, M.P. for the county of + Kent, was slain in a duel by Mr. Richard Thornhill, also a member of the + House of Commons. Three days afterwards, Sir Peter King brought the + subject under the notice of the Legislature, and after dwelling at + considerable length on the alarming increase of the practice, obtained + leave to bring in a bill for the prevention and punishment of duelling. It + was read a first time that day, and ordered for a second reading in the + ensuing week. + </p> + <p> + About the same time the attention of the Upper House of Parliament was + also drawn to the subject in the most painful manner. Two of its most + noted members would have fought, had it not been that Queen Anne received + notice of their intention, and exacted a pledge that they would desist; + while a few months afterwards, two other of its members lost their lives + in one of the most remarkable duels upon record. The first affair, which + happily terminated without a meeting, was between the Duke of Marlborough + and the Earl Pawlet. The latter, and fatal encounter, was between the Duke + of Hamilton and Lord Mohun. + </p> + <p> + The first arose out of a debate in the Lords upon the conduct of the Duke + of Ormond, in refusing to hazard a general engagement with the enemy, in + which Earl Pawlet remarked that nobody could doubt the courage of the Duke + of Ormond. "He was not like a certain general, who led troops to the + slaughter, to cause great numbers of officers to be knocked on the head in + a battle, or against stone walls, in order to fill his pockets by + disposing of their commissions." Every one felt that the remark was aimed + at the Duke of Marlborough, but he remained silent, though evidently + suffering in mind. Soon after the House broke up, the Earl Pawlet received + a visit from Lord Mohun, who told him that the Duke of Marlborough was + anxious to come to an explanation with him relative to some expressions he + had made use of in that day's debate, and therefore prayed him to "go and + take a little air in the country." Earl Pawlet did not affect to + misunderstand the hint, but asked him in plain terms whether he brought a + challenge from the Duke. Lord Mohun said his message needed no + explanation, and that he (Lord Mohun) would accompany the Duke of + Marlborough. He then took his leave, and Earl Pawlet returned home and + told his lady that he was going out to fight a duel with the Duke of + Marlborough. His lady, alarmed for her lord's safety, gave notice of his + intention to the Earl of Dartmouth, who immediately, in the Queen's name, + sent to the Duke of Marlborough, and commanded him not to stir abroad. He + also caused Earl Pawlet's house to be guarded by two sentinels; and having + taken these precautions, informed the Queen of the whole affair. Her + Majesty sent at once for the Duke, expressed her abhorrence of the custom + of duelling, and required his word of honour that he would proceed no + further. The Duke pledged his word accordingly, and the affair terminated. + </p> + <p> + The lamentable duel between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun took place + in November 1712, and sprang from the following circumstances. A lawsuit + had been pending for eleven years between these two noblemen, and they + looked upon each other in consequence with a certain degree of coldness. + They met together on the 13th of November in the chambers of Mr. Orlebar, + a Master in Chancery, when, in the course of conversation, the Duke of + Hamilton reflected upon the conduct of one of the witnesses in the cause, + saying that he was a person who had neither truth nor justice in him. Lord + Mohun, somewhat nettled at this remark, applied to a witness favourable to + his side, made answer hastily, that Mr. Whiteworth, the person alluded to, + had quite as much truth and justice in him as the Duke of Hamilton. The + Duke made no reply, and no one present imagined that he took offence at + what was said; and when he went out, of the room, he made a low and + courteous salute to the Lord Mohun. In the evening, General Macartney + called twice upon the Duke with a challenge from Lord Mohun, and failing + in seeing him, sought him a third time at a tavern, where he found him, + and delivered his message. The Duke accepted the challenge, and the day + after the morrow, which was Sunday, the 15th of November, at seven in the + morning, was appointed for the meeting. + </p> + <p> + At that hour they assembled in Hyde Park, the Duke being attended by his + relative, Colonel Hamilton, and the Lord Mohun by General Macartney. They + jumped over a ditch into a place called the Nursery, and prepared for the + combat. The Duke of Hamilton, turning to General Macartney, said, "Sir, + you are the cause of this, let the event be what it will." Lord Mohun did + not wish that the seconds should engage, but the Duke insisted that + "Macartney should have a share in the dance." All being ready, the two + principals took up their positions, and fought with swords so desperately + that, after a short time, they both fell down, mortally wounded. The Lord + Mohun expired upon the spot, and the Duke of Hamilton in the arms of his + servants as they were carrying him to his coach. + </p> + <p> + This unhappy termination caused the greatest excitement, not only in the + metropolis, but all over the country. The Tories, grieved at the loss of + the Duke of Hamilton, charged the fatal combat on the Whig party, whose + leader, the Duke of Marlborough, had so recently set the example of + political duels. They called Lord Mohun the bully of the Whig faction, (he + had already killed three men in duels, and been twice tried for murder), + and asserted openly, that the quarrel was concocted between him and + General Macartney to rob the country of the services of the Duke of + Hamilton by murdering him. It was also asserted, that the wound of which + the Duke died was not inflicted by Lord Mohun, but by Macartney; and every + means was used to propagate this belief. Colonel Hamilton, against whom + and Macartney the coroner's jury had returned a verdict of wilful murder, + surrendered a few days afterwards, and was examined before a privy council + sitting at the house of Lord Dartmouth. He then deposed, that seeing Lord + Mohun fall, and the Duke upon him, he ran to the Duke's assistance, and + that he might with the more ease help him, he flung down both their + swords, and, as he was raising the Duke up, he saw Macartney, make a push + at him. Upon this deposition a royal proclamation was immediately issued, + offering a reward of 500 pounds for the apprehension of Macartney, to + which the Duchess of Hamilton afterwards added a reward of 300 pounds. + </p> + <p> + Upon the further examination of Colonel Hamilton, it was found that + reliance could not be placed on all his statements, and that he + contradicted himself in several important particulars. He was arraigned at + the Old Bailey for the murder of Lord Mohun, the whole political circles + of London being in a fever of excitement for the result. All the Tory + party prayed for his acquittal, and a Tory mob surrounded the doors and + all the avenues leading to the court of justice for many hours before the + trial began. The examination of witnesses lasted seven hours. The criminal + still persisted in accusing General Macartney of the murder of the Duke of + Hamilton, but, in other respects, say the newspapers of the day, + prevaricated foully. He was found guilty of manslaughter. This favourable + verdict was received with universal applause, "not only from the court and + all the gentlemen present, but the common people showed a mighty + satisfaction, which they testified by loud and repeated huzzas." ["Post + Boy," December l3th, 1712.] + </p> + <p> + As the popular delirium subsided, and men began to reason coolly upon the + subject, they disbelieved the assertions of Colonel Hamilton, that + Macartney had stabbed the Duke, although it was universally admitted that + he had been much too busy and presuming. Hamilton was shunned by all his + former companions, and his life rendered so irksome to him, that he sold + out of the Guards, and retired to private life, in which he died + heart-broken four years afterwards. + </p> + <p> + General Macartney surrendered about the same time, and was tried for + murder in the Court of King's Bench. He was, however, found guilty of + manslaughter only. + </p> + <p> + At the opening of the session of Parliament of 1713, the Queen made + pointed allusion in her speech to the frequency of duelling, and + recommended to the Legislature to devise some speedy and effectual remedy + for it. A bill to that effect was brought forward, but thrown out on the + second reading, to the very great regret of all the sensible portion of + the community. + </p> + <p> + A famous duel was fought in 1765 between Lord Byron and Mr. Chaworth. The + dispute arose at a club-dinner, and was relative to which of the two had + the largest quantity of game on his estates. Infuriated by wine and + passion, they retired instantly into an adjoining room, and fought with + swords across a table, by the feeble glimmer of a tallow-candle. Mr. + Chaworth, who was the more expert swordsman of the two, received a mortal + wound, and shortly afterwards expired. Lord Byron was brought to trial for + the murder before the House of Lords; and it appearing clearly, that the + duel was not premeditated, but fought at once, and in the heat of passion, + he was found guilty of manslaughter only, and ordered to be discharged + upon payment of his fees. This was a very bad example for the country, and + duelling of course fell into no disrepute after such a verdict. + </p> + <p> + In France, more severity was exercised. In the year 1769, the Parliament + of Grenoble took cognizance of the delinquency of the Sieur Duchelas, one + of its members, who challenged and killed in a duel a captain of the + Flemish legion. The servant of Duchelas officiated as second, and was + arraigned with his master for the murder of the captain. They were both + found guilty. Duchelas was broken alive on the wheel, and the servant + condemned to the galleys for life. + </p> + <p> + A barbarous and fiercely-contested duel was fought in November 1778, + between two foreign adventurers, at Bath, named Count Rice and the Vicomte + du Barri. Some dispute arose relative to a gambling transaction, in the + course of which Du Barri contradicted an assertion of the other, by + saying, "That is not true!" Count Rice immediately asked him if he knew + the very disagreeable meaning of the words he had employed. Du Barri said + he was perfectly well aware of their meaning, and that Rice might + interpret them just as he pleased. A challenge was immediately given and + accepted. Seconds were sent for, who, arriving with but little delay, the + whole party, though it was not long after midnight, proceeded to a place + called Claverton Down, where they remained with a surgeon until daylight. + They then prepared for the encounter, each being armed with two pistols + and a sword. The ground having been marked out by the seconds, Du Barri + fired first, and wounded his opponent in the thigh. Count Rice then + levelled his pistol, and shot Du Barri mortally in the breast. So angry + were the combatants, that they refused to desist; both stepped back a few + paces, and then rushing forward, discharged their second pistols at each + other. Neither shot took effect, and both throwing away their pistols, + prepared to finish the sanguinary struggle by the sword. They took their + places, and were advancing towards each other, when the Vicomte du Barri + suddenly staggered, grew pale, and, falling to the ground, exclaimed, "Je + vous demande ma vie." His opponent had but just time to answer, that he + granted it, when the unfortunate Du Barri turned upon the grass, and + expired with a heavy groan. The survivor of this savage conflict was then + removed to his lodgings, where he lay for some weeks in a dangerous state. + The coroner's jury, in the mean while, sat upon the body of Du Barri, and + disgraced themselves by returning a verdict of manslaughter only. Count + Rice, upon his recovery, was indicted for the murder notwithstanding this + verdict. On his trial he entered into a long defence of his conduct, + pleading the fairness of the duel, and its unpremeditated nature; and, at + the same time, expressing his deep regret for the unfortunate death of Du + Barri, with whom for many years he had been bound in ties of the strictest + friendship. These considerations appear to have weighed with the jury, and + this fierce duellist was again found guilty of manslaughter only, and + escaped with a merely nominal punishment. + </p> + <p> + A duel, less remarkable from its circumstances, but more so from the rank + of the parties, took place in 1789. The combatants on this occasion were + the Duke of York and Colonel Lenox, the nephew and heir of the Duke of + Richmond. The cause of offence was given by the Duke of York, who had + said, in presence of several officers of the Guards, that words had been + used to Colonel Lenox at Daubigny's to which no gentleman ought to have + submitted. Colonel Lenox went up to the Duke on parade, and asked him + publicly whether he had made such an assertion. The Duke of York, without + answering his question, coldly ordered him to his post. When parade was + over, he took an opportunity of saying publicly in the orderly room before + Colonel Lenox, that he desired no protection from his rank as a prince and + his station as commanding officer; adding that, when he was off duty, he + wore a plain brown coat like a private gentleman, and was ready as such to + give satisfaction. Colonel Lenox desired nothing better than satisfaction; + that is to say, to run the chance of shooting the Duke through the body, + or being himself shot. He accordingly challenged his Royal Highness, and + they met on Wimbledon Common. Colonel Lenox fired first, and the ball + whizzed past the head of his opponent, so near to it as to graze his + projecting curl. The Duke refused to return the fire, and the seconds + interfering, the affair terminated. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Lenox was very shortly afterwards engaged in another duel arising + out of this. A Mr. Swift wrote a pamphlet in reference to the dispute + between him and the Duke of York, at some expressions in which he took so + much offence, as to imagine that nothing but a shot at the writer could + atone for them. They met on the Uxbridge Road, but no damage was done to + either party. + </p> + <p> + The Irish were for a long time renowned for their love of duelling. The + slightest offence which it is possible to imagine that one man could offer + to another, was sufficient to provoke a challenge. Sir Jonah Barrington + relates, in his Memoirs, that, previous to the Union, during the time of a + disputed election in Dublin, it was no unusual thing for three-and-twenty + duels to be fought in a day. Even in times of less excitement, they were + so common as to be deemed unworthy of note by the regular chroniclers of + events, except in cases where one or both of the combatants were killed. + </p> + <p> + In those days, in Ireland, it was not only the man of the military, but of + every profession, who had to work his way to eminence with the sword or + the pistol. Each political party had its regular corps of bullies, or + fire-eaters, as they were called, who qualified themselves for being the + pests of society by spending all their spare time in firing at targets. + They boasted that they could hit an opponent in any part of his body they + pleased, and made up their minds before the encounter began whether they + should kill him, disable, or disfigure him for life—lay him on a bed + of suffering for a twelve-month, or merely graze a limb. + </p> + <p> + The evil had reached an alarming height, when, in the year 1808, an + opportunity was afforded to King George III of showing in a striking + manner his detestation of the practice, and of setting an example to the + Irish that such murders were not to be committed with impunity. A dispute + arose, in the month of June 1807, between Major Campbell and Captain Boyd, + officers of the 21st regiment, stationed in Ireland, about the proper + manner of giving the word of command on parade. Hot words ensued on this + slight occasion, and the result was a challenge from Campbell to Boyd. + They retired into the mess-room shortly afterwards, and each stationed + himself at a corner, the distance obliquely being but seven paces. Here, + without friends or seconds being present, they fired at each other, and + Captain Boyd fell mortally wounded between the fourth and fifth ribs. A + surgeon who came in shortly, found him sitting in a chair, vomiting and + suffering great agony. He was led into another room, Major Campbell + following, in great distress and perturbation of mind. Boyd survived but + eighteen hours; and just before his death, said, in reply to a question + from his opponent, that the duel was not fair, and added, "You hurried me, + Campbell—you're a bad man."——"Good God!" replied + Campbell, "will you mention before these gentlemen, was not everything + fair? Did you not say that you were ready?" Boyd answered faintly, "Oh, + no! you know I wanted you to wait and have friends." On being again asked + whether all was fair, the dying man faintly murmured "Yes:" but in a + minute after, he said, "You're a bad man!" Campbell was now in great + agitation, and wringing his hands convulsively, he exclaimed, "Oh, Boyd! + you are the happiest man of the two! Do you forgive me?" Boyd replied, "I + forgive you—I feel for you, as I know you do for me." He shortly + afterwards expired, and Major Campbell made his escape from Ireland, and + lived for some months with his family under an assumed name, in the + neighbourhood of Chelsea. He was, however, apprehended, and brought to + trial at Armagh, in August 1808. He said while in prison, that, if found + guilty of murder, he should suffer as an example to duellists in Ireland; + but he endeavoured to buoy himself up, with the hope that the jury would + only convict him of manslaughter. It was proved in evidence upon the + trial, that the duel was not fought immediately after the offence was + given, but that Major Campbell went home and drank tea with his family, + before he sought Boyd for the fatal encounter. The jury returned a verdict + of wilful murder against him, but recommended him to mercy on the ground + that the duel had been a fair one. He was condemned to die on the Monday + following, but was afterwards respited for a few days longer. In the mean + time the greatest exertions were made in his behalf. His unfortunate wife + went upon her knees before the Prince of Wales, to move him to use his + influence with the King, in favour of her unhappy husband. Everything a + fond wife and a courageous woman could do, she tried, to gain the royal + clemency; but George III was inflexible, in consequence of the + representations of the Irish Viceroy that an example was necessary. The + law was therefore allowed to take its course, and the victim of a false + spirit of honour died the death of a felon. + </p> + <p> + The most inveterate duellists of the present day are the students in the + Universities of Germany. They fight on the most frivolous pretences, and + settle with swords and pistols the schoolboy disputes which in other + countries are arranged by the more harmless medium of the fisticuffs. It + was at one time the custom among these savage youths to prefer the sword + combat, for the facility it gave them of cutting off the noses of their + opponents. To disfigure them in this manner was an object of ambition, and + the German duellists reckoned the number of these disgusting trophies + which they had borne away, with as much satisfaction as a successful + general the provinces he had reduced or the cities he had taken. + </p> + <p> + But it would be wearisome to enter into the minute detail of all the duels + of modern times. If an examination were made into the general causes which + produced them, it would be found that in every case they had been either + of the most trivial or the most unworthy nature. Parliamentary duels were + at one time very common, and amongst the names of those who have soiled a + great reputation by conforming to the practice, may be mentioned those of + Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, Wilkes, Pitt, Fox, Grattan, Curran, + Tierney, and Canning. So difficult is it even for the superior mind to + free itself from the trammels with which foolish opinion has enswathed it—not + one of these celebrated persons who did not in his secret soul condemn the + folly to which he lent himself. The bonds of reason, though iron-strong, + are easily burst through; but those of folly, though lithe and frail as + the rushes by a stream, defy the stoutest heart to snap them asunder. + Colonel Thomas, an officer of the Guards, who was killed in a duel, added + the following clause to his will the night before he died:—"In the + first place, I commit my soul to Almighty God, in hope of his mercy and + pardon for the irreligious step I now (in compliance with the + unwarrantable customs of this wicked world) put myself under the necessity + of taking." How many have been in the same state of mind as this wise, + foolish man! He knew his error, and abhorred it, but could not resist it, + for fear of the opinion of the prejudiced and unthinking. No other could + have blamed him for refusing to fight a duel. + </p> + <p> + The list of duels that have sprung from the most degrading causes might be + stretched out to an almost indefinite extent. Sterne's father fought a + duel about a goose; and the great Raleigh about a tavern bill. [Raleigh, + at one period of his life, appeared to be an inveterate duellist, and it + was said of him that he had been engaged in more encounters of the kind + than any man of note among his contemporaries. More than one + fellow-creature he had deprived of life; but he lived long enough to be + convinced of the sinfulness of his conduct, and made a solemn vow never to + fight another duel. The following anecdote of his forbearance is well + known, but it will bear repetition:— + </p> + <p> + A dispute arose in a coffee-house between him and a young man on some + trivial point, and the latter, losing his temper, impertinently spat in + the face of the veteran. Sir Walter, instead of running him through the + body, as many would have done, or challenging him to mortal combat, coolly + took out his handkerchief, wiped his face, and said, "Young man, if I + could as easily wipe from my conscience the stain of killing you, as I can + this spittle from my face, you should not live another minute." The young + man immediately begged his pardon.] Scores of duels (many of them fatal) + have been fought from disputes at cards, or a place at a theatre, while + hundreds of challenges, given and accepted over-night, in a fit of + drunkenness, have been fought out the next morning to the death of one or + both of the antagonists. + </p> + <p> + Two of the most notorious duels of modern times had their origin in causes + no more worthy than the quarrel of a dog and the favour of a prostitute: + that between Macnamara and Montgomery arising from the former; and that + between Best and Lord Camelford, from the latter. The dog of Montgomery + attacked a dog belonging to Macnamara, and each master interfering in + behalf of his own animal, high words ensued. The result was the giving and + accepting a challenge to mortal combat. The parties met on the following + day, when Montgomery was shot dead, and his antagonist severely wounded. + This affair created a great sensation at the time, and Heaviside, the + surgeon who attended at the fatal field to render his assistance, if + necessary, was arrested as an accessory to the murder, and committed to + Newgate. + </p> + <p> + In the duel between Best and Lord Camelford, two pistols were used which + were considered to be the best in England. One of them was thought + slightly superior to the other, and it was agreed that the belligerents + should toss up a piece of money to decide the choice of weapons. Best + gained it, and, at the first discharge, Lord Camelford fell, mortally + wounded. But little sympathy was expressed for his fate; he was a + confirmed duellist, had been engaged in many meetings of the kind, and the + blood of more than one fellow-creature lay at his door. As he had sowed, + so did he reap; and the violent man met an appropriate death. + </p> + <p> + It now only remains to notice the means that have been taken to stay the + prevalence of this madness of false honour in the various countries of the + civilized world. The efforts of the governments of France and England have + already been mentioned, and their want of success is but too well known. + The same efforts have been attended with the same results elsewhere. In + despotic countries, where the will of the monarch has been strongly + expressed and vigorously supported, a diminution of the evil has for a + while resulted, but only to be increased again, when death relaxed the + iron grasp, and a successor appeared of less decided opinions upon the + subject. This was the case in Prussia under the great Frederick, of whose + aversion to duelling a popular anecdote is recorded. It is stated of him + that he permitted duelling in his army, but only upon the condition that + the combatants should fight in presence of a whole battalion of infantry, + drawn up on purpose, to see fair play. The latter received strict orders, + when one of the belligerents fell, to shoot the other immediately. It is + added, that the known determination of the King effectually put a stop to + the practice. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor Joseph II of Austria was as firm as Frederick, although the + measures he adopted were not so singular. The following letter explains + his views on the subject:— + </p> + <p> + "To GENERAL * * * * * + </p> + <p> + "MY GENERAL, + </p> + <p> + "You will immediately arrest the Count of K. and Captain W. The Count is + young, passionate, and influenced by wrong notions of birth and a false + spirit of honour. Captain W. is an old soldier, who will adjust every + dispute with the sword and pistol, and who has received the challenge of + the young Count with unbecoming warmth. + </p> + <p> + "I will suffer no duelling in my army. I despise the principles of those + who attempt to justify the practice, and who would run each other through + the body in cold blood. + </p> + <p> + "When I have officers who bravely expose themselves to every danger in + facing the enemy—who at all times exhibit courage, valour, and + resolution in attack and defence, I esteem them highly. The coolness with + which they meet death on such occasions is serviceable to their country, + and at the same time redounds to their own honour; but should there be men + amongst them who are ready to sacrifice everything to their vengeance and + hatred, I despise them. I consider such a man as no better than a Roman + gladiator. + </p> + <p> + "Order a court-martial to try the two officers. Investigate the subject of + their dispute with that impartiality which I demand from every judge; and + he that is guilty, let him be a sacrifice to his fate and the laws. + </p> + <p> + "Such a barbarous custom, which suits the age of the Tamerlanes and + Bajazets, and which has often had such melancholy effects on single + families, I will have suppressed and punished, even if it should deprive + me of one half of my officers. There are still men who know how to unite + the character of a hero with that of a good subject; and he only can be so + who respects the laws. + </p> + <p> + "JOSEPH." + </p> + <p> + "August 1771." + </p> + <p> + [Vide the Letters of Joseph II to distinguished Princes and Statesmen, + published for the first time in England in "The Pamphleteer" for 1821. + They were originally published in Germany a few years previously, and + throw a great light upon the character of that monarch and the events of + his reign.] + </p> + <p> + In the United States of America the code varies considerably. In one or + two of the still wild and simple States of the Far West, where no duel has + yet been fought, there is no specific law upon the subject beyond that in + the Decalogue, which says, "Thou shalt do no murder." But duelling + everywhere follows the steps of modern civilization, and by the time the + backwoodsman is transformed into the citizen, he has imbibed the false + notions of honour which are prevalent in Europe, and around him, and is + ready, like his progenitors, to settle his differences with the pistol. In + the majority of the States the punishment for challenging, fighting, or + acting as second, is solitary imprisonment and hard labour for any period + less than a year, and disqualification for serving any public office for + twenty years. In Vermont the punishment is total disqualification for + office, deprivation of the rights of citizenship, and a fine; in fatal + cases, the same punishment as that of murderers. In Rhode Island, the + combatant, though death does not ensue, is liable to be carted to the + gallows, with a rope about his neck, and to sit in this trim for an hour, + exposed to the peltings of the mob. He may be further imprisoned for a + year, at the option of the magistrate. In Connecticut the punishment is + total disqualification for office or employ, and a fine, varying from one + hundred to a thousand dollars. The laws of Illinois require certain + officers of the state to make oath, previous to their instalment, that + they have never been, nor ever will be, concerned in a duel. + ["Encyclopedia Americana," art. Duelling.] + </p> + <p> + Amongst the edicts against duelling promulgated at various times in + Europe, may be mentioned that of Augustus King of Poland, in 1712, which + decreed the punishment of death against principals and seconds, and minor + punishments against the bearers of a challenge. An edict was also + published at Munich, in 1773, according to which both principals and + seconds, even in duels where no one was either killed or wounded, should + be hanged, and their bodies buried at the foot of the gallows. The King of + Naples issued an ordinance against duelling in 1838, in which the + punishment of death is decreed against all concerned in a fatal duel. The + bodies of those killed, and of those who may be executed in consequence, + are to be buried in unconsecrated ground, and without any religious + ceremony; nor is any monument to be erected on the spot. The punishment + for duels in which either, or both, are wounded, and for those in which no + damage whatever is done, varies according to the case, and consists of + fine, imprisonment, loss of rank and honours, and incapacity for filling + any public situation. Bearers of challenges may also be punished with fine + and imprisonment. + </p> + <p> + It might be imagined that enactments so severe all over the civilized + world would finally eradicate a custom, the prevalence of which every wise + and good man must deplore. But the frowns of the law never yet have + taught, and never will teach, men to desist from this practice, as long as + it is felt that the lawgiver sympathises with it in his heart. The stern + judge upon the bench may say to the unfortunate wight who has been called + a liar by some unmannerly opponent, "If you challenge him, you meditate + murder, and are guilty of murder!" but the same judge, divested of his + robes of state, and mixing in the world with other men, would say, "If you + do not challenge him, if you do not run the risk of making yourself a + murderer, you will be looked upon as a mean-spirited wretch, unfit to + associate with your fellows, and deserving nothing but their scorn and + their contempt!" It is society, and not the duellist, who is to blame. + Female influence, too, which is so powerful in leading men either to good + or to evil, takes, in this case, the evil part. Mere animal bravery has, + unfortunately, such charms in the female eye, that a successful duellist + is but too often regarded as a sort of hero; and the man who refuses to + fight, though of truer courage, is thought a poltroon, who may be trampled + on. Mr. Graves, a member of the American Legislature, who, early in 1838, + killed a Mr. Cilley in a duel, truly and eloquently said, on the floor of + the House of Representatives, when lamenting the unfortunate issue of that + encounter, that society was more to blame than he was. "Public opinion," + said the repentant orator, "is practically the paramount law of the land. + Every other law, both human and divine, ceases to be observed; yea, + withers and perishes in contact with it. It was this paramount law of this + nation, and of this House, that forced me, under the penalty of dishonour, + to subject myself to the code, which impelled me unwillingly into this + tragical affair. Upon the heads of this nation, and at the doors of this + House, rests the blood with which my unfortunate hands have been stained!" + </p> + <p> + As long as society is in this mood; as long as it thinks that the man who + refuses to resent an insult, deserved that insult, and should be scouted + accordingly, so long, it is to be feared, will duelling exist, however + severe the laws may be. Men must have redress for injuries inflicted, and + when those injuries are of such a nature that no tribunal will take + cognizance of them, the injured will take the law into their own hands, + and right themselves in the opinion of their fellows, at the hazard of + their lives. Much as the sage may affect to despise the opinion of the + world, there are few who would not rather expose their lives a hundred + times than be condemned to live on, in society, but not of it—a + by-word of reproach to all who know their history, and a mark for scorn to + point his finger at. + </p> + <p> + The only practicable means for diminishing the force of a custom which is + the disgrace of civilization, seems to be the establishment of a court of + honour, which should take cognizance of all those delicate and almost + intangible offences which yet wound so deeply. The court established by + Louis XIV might be taken as a model. No man now fights a duel when a fit + apology has been offered, and it should be the duty of this court to weigh + dispassionately the complaint of every man injured in his honour, either + by word or deed, and to force the offender to make a public apology. If he + refused the apology, he would be the breaker of a second law; an offender + against a high court, as well as against the man he had injured, and might + be punished with fine and imprisonment, the latter to last until he saw + the error of his conduct, and made the concession which the court + demanded. + </p> + <p> + If, after the establishment of this tribunal, men should be found of a + nature so bloodthirsty as not to be satisfied with its peaceful decisions, + and should resort to the old and barbarous mode of an appeal to the + pistol, some means might be found of dealing with them. To hang them as + murderers would be of no avail; for to such men death would have few + terrors. Shame alone would bring them to reason. The following code, it is + humbly suggested to all future legislators upon the subject, would, in + conjunction with the establishment of a court of honour, do much towards + eradicating this blot from society. Every man who fought a duel, even + though he did not wound his opponent, should be tried, and, upon proof of + the fact, be sentenced to have his right hand cut off. The world would + then know his true character as long as he lived. If his habits of + duelling were so inveterate, and he should learn to fire a pistol with his + left hand, he should, upon conviction of a second offence, lose that hand + also. This law, which should allow no commutation of the punishment, under + any circumstances, would lend strength and authority to the court of + honour. In the course of a few years duelling would be ranked amongst + exploded follies, and men would begin to wonder that a custom so barbarous + and so impious had ever existed amongst them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE. + </h2> + <p> + "Well, son John," said the old woman, "and what wonderful things did you + meet with all the time you were at sea?"—"Oh! mother," replied John, + "I saw many strange things."—"Tell us all about them," replied his + mother, "for I long to hear your adventures."—"Well, then," said + John, "as we were sailing over the Line, what do you think we saw?"—"I + can't imagine," replied his mother.—"Well, we saw a fish rise out of + the sea, and fly over our ship!" "Oh! John! John! what a liar you are!" + said his mother, shaking her head, and smiling incredulously. "True as + death? said John; "and we saw still more wonderful things than that."—"Let + us hear them," said his mother, shaking her head again; "and tell the + truth, John, if you can."—"Believe it, or believe it not, as you + please," replied her son; "but as we were sailing up the Red Sea, our + captain thought he should like some fish for dinner; so he told us to + throw our nets, and catch some."—"Well," inquired his mother, seeing + that he paused in his story. "Well," rejoined her son, "we did throw them, + and, at the very first haul, we brought up a chariot-wheel, made all of + gold, and inlaid with diamonds!" "Lord bless us!" said his mother, "and + what did the captain say?"—"Why, he said it was one of the wheels of + Pharaoh's chariot, that had lain in the Red Sea ever since that wicked + King was drowned, with all his host, while pursuing the Israelites."—"Well, + well," said his mother, lifting up her hands in admiration; "now, that's + very possible, and I think the captain was a very sensible man. Tell me + such stories as that, and I'll believe you; but never talk to me of such + things as flying fish! No, no, John, such stories won't go down with me, I + can assure you!" + </p> + <p> + Such old women as the sailor's mother, in the above well-known anecdote, + are by no means rare in the world. Every age and country has produced + them. They have been found in high places, and have sat down among the + learned of the earth. Instances must be familiar to every reader in which + the same person was willing, with greedy credulity, to swallow the most + extravagant fiction, and yet refuse credence to a philosophical fact. The + same Greeks who believed readily that Jupiter wooed Leda in the form of a + swan, denied stoutly that there were any physical causes for storms and + thunder, and treated as impious those who attempted to account for them on + true philosophical principles. + </p> + <p> + The reasons that thus lead mankind to believe the marvellously false, and + to disbelieve the marvellously true, may be easily gathered. Of all the + offspring of Time, Error is the most ancient, and is so old and familiar + an acquaintance, that Truth, when discovered, comes upon most of us like + an intruder, and meets the intruder's welcome. We all pay an involuntary + homage to antiquity—a "blind homage," as Bacon calls it in his + "Novum Organum," which tends greatly to the obstruction of truth. To the + great majority of mortal eyes, Time sanctifies everything that he does not + destroy. The mere fact of anything being spared by the great foe makes it + a favourite with us, who are sure to fall his victims. To call a prejudice + "time-hallowed," is to open a way for it into hearts where it never before + penetrated. Some peculiar custom may disgrace the people amongst whom it + flourishes; yet men of a little wisdom refuse to aid in its extirpation, + merely because it is old. Thus it is with human belief, and thus it is we + bring shame upon our own intellect. + </p> + <p> + To this cause may be added another, also mentioned by Lord Bacon—a + misdirected zeal in matters of religion, which induces so many to decry a + newly-discovered truth, because the Divine records contain no allusion to + it, or because, at first sight, it appears to militate, not against + religion, but against some obscure passage which has never been fairly + interpreted. The old woman in the story could not believe that there was + such a creature as a flying-fish, because her Bible did not tell her so, + but she believed that her son had drawn up the golden and bejewelled wheel + from the Red Sea, because her Bible informed her that Pharaoh was drowned + there. + </p> + <p> + Upon a similar principle the monks of the inquisition believed that the + devil appeared visibly among men, that St. Anthony pulled his nose with a + pair of red-hot pincers, and that the relics of the saints worked + miracles; yet they would not believe Galileo, when he proved that the + earth turned round the sun. + </p> + <p> + Keppler, when he asserted the same fact, could gain no bread, and little + credence; but when he pretended to tell fortunes and cast nativities, the + whole town flocked to him, and paid him enormous fees for his falsehood. + </p> + <p> + When Roger Bacon invented the telescope and the magic-lantern, no one + believed that the unaided ingenuity of man could have done it; but when + some wiseacres asserted that the devil had appeared to him, and given him + the knowledge which he turned to such account, no one was bold enough to + assert that it was improbable. His hint that saltpetre, sulphur, and + charcoal, mixed in certain proportions, would produce effects similar to + thunder and lightning, was disregarded or disbelieved; but the legend of + the brazen head which delivered oracles, was credited for many ages. + </p> + <p> + [Godwin, in his "Lives of the Necromancers," gives the following version + of this legend. Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay entertained the project of + enclosing England with a wall, so as to render it inaccessible to any + invader. They accordingly raised the devil, as the person best able to + inform them how this was to be done. The devil advised them to make a + brazen head, with all the internal structure and organs of a human head. + The construction would cost them much time, and they must wait with + patience till the faculty of speech descended upon it. Finally, however, + it would become an oracle, and, if the question were propounded to it, + would teach them the solution of their problem. The friars spent seven + years in bringing the subject to perfection, and waited day after day in + expectation that it would utter articulate sounds. At length nature became + exhausted in them, and they lay down to sleep, having first given it + strictly in charge to a servant of theirs, clownish in nature, but of + strict fidelity, that he should awaken them the moment the image began to + speak. That period arrived. The head uttered sounds, but such as the clown + judged unworthy of notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was taken, and a + long pause ensued. "Time was!"—a similar pause, and no notice. "Time + is passed!" The moment these words were uttered, a tremendous storm + ensued, with thunder and lightning, and the head was shivered into a + thousand pieces. Thus the experiment of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay came + to nothing.] + </p> + <p> + Solomon De Cans, who, in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, conceived the + idea of a steam-engine, was shut up in the Bastille as a madman, because + the idea of such an extraordinary instrument was too preposterous for the + wise age that believed in all the absurdities of witchcraft. + </p> + <p> + When Harvey first proved the circulation of the blood, every tongue was + let loose against him. The thing was too obviously an imposition, and an + attempt to deceive that public who believed that a king's touch had power + to cure the scrofula. That a dead criminal's hand, rubbed against a wen, + would cure it, was reasonable enough; but that the blood flowed through + the veins was beyond all probability. + </p> + <p> + In our own day, a similar fate awaited the beneficent discovery of Dr. + Jenner. That vaccination could abate the virulence of, or preserve from, + the smallpox, was quite incredible; none but a cheat and a quack could + assert it: but that the introduction of the vaccine matter into the human + frame could endow men with the qualities of a cow, was quite probable. + Many of the poorer people actually dreaded that their children would grow + hairy and horned as cattle, if they suffered them to be vaccinated. + </p> + <p> + The Jesuit, Father Labat, the shrewd and learned traveller in South + America, relates an experiment which he made upon the credulity of some + native Peruvians. Holding a powerful lens in his hand, and concentrating + the rays of the sun upon the naked arm of an admiring savage, he soon made + him roar with pain. All the tribe looked on, first with wonder, and then + with indignation and wonder both combined. In vain the philosopher + attempted to explain the cause of the phenomenon—in vain he offered + to convince them that there was nothing devilish in the experiment—he + was thought to be in league with the infernal gods to draw down the fire + from Heaven, and was looked upon, himself, as an awful and supernatural + being. Many attempts were made to gain possession of the lens, with the + view of destroying it, and thereby robbing the Western stranger of the + means of bringing upon them the vengeance of his deities. + </p> + <p> + Very similar was the conduct of that inquiring Brahmin, which is related + by Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs. The Brahmin had a mind better + cultivated than his fellows; he was smitten with a love for the knowledge + of Europe—read English books—pored over the pages of the + Encyclopedia, and profited by various philosophical instruments; but on + religious questions the Brahmin was firm to the faith of his caste and the + doctrine of the Metempsychosis. Lest he might sacrilegiously devour his + progenitors, he abstained from all animal food; and thinking that he ate + nothing which enjoyed life, he supported himself, like his brethren, upon + fruits and vegetables. All the knowledge that did not run counter to this + belief, he sought after with avidity, and bade fair to become the wisest + of his race. In an evil hour, his English friend and instructor exhibited + a very powerful solar microscope, by means of which he showed him that + every drop of water that he drank teemed with life—that every fruit + was like a world, covered with innumerable animalculae, each of which was + fitted by its organization for the sphere in which it moved, and had its + wants, and the capability of supplying them as completely as visible + animals millions of times its bulk. The English philosopher expected that + his Hindoo friend would be enraptured at the vast field of knowledge thus + suddenly opened out to him, but he was deceived. The Brahmin from that + time became an altered man—thoughtful, gloomy, reserved, and + discontented. He applied repeatedly to his friend that he would make him a + present of the microscope; but as it was the only one of its kind in + India, and the owner set a value upon it for other reasons, he constantly + refused the request, but offered him the loan of it for any period he + might require. But nothing short of an unconditional gift of the + instrument would satisfy the Brahmin, who became at last so importunate + that the patience of the Englishman was exhausted, and he gave it him. A + gleam of joy shot across the care-worn features of the Hindoo as he + clutched it, and bounding with an exulting leap into the garden, he seized + a large stone, and dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces. When + called upon to explain his extraordinary conduct, he said to his friend, + "Oh that I had remained in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first + found me! Yet will I confess that, as my knowledge increased, so did my + pleasure, until I beheld the last wonders of the microscope; from that + moment I have been tormented by doubt and perplexed by mystery: my mind, + overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest, nor how to + extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue to be + so, until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a solitary + individual among fifty millions of people, all educated in the same belief + with myself—all happy in their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I + shall keep the secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my peace + and break my rest. But I shall have some satisfaction in knowing that I + alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed the instrument, might + have been extensively communicated, and rendered thousands miserable! + Forgive me, my valuable friend! and oh, convey no more implements of + knowledge and destruction!" + </p> + <p> + Many a learned man may smile at the ignorance of the Peruvian and the + Hindoo, unconscious that he himself is just as ignorant and as prejudiced. + Who does not remember the outcry against the science of geology, which has + hardly yet subsided? Its professors were impiously and absurdly accused of + designing to "hurl the Creator from his throne." They were charged with + sapping the foundations of religion, and of propping atheism by the aid of + a pretended science. + </p> + <p> + The very same principle which leads to the rejection of the true, leads to + the encouragement of the false. Thus we may account for the success which + has attended great impostors, at times when the truth, though not half so + wondrous as their impositions, has been disregarded as extravagant and + preposterous. The man who wishes to cheat the people, must needs found his + operations upon some prejudice or belief that already exists. Thus the + philosophic pretenders who told fortunes by the stars cured all diseases + by one nostrum, and preserved from evil by charms and amulets, ran with + the current of popular belief. Errors that were consecrated by time and + long familiarity, they heightened and embellished, and succeeded to their + hearts' content; but the preacher of truth had a foundation to make as + well as a superstructure, a difficulty which did not exist for the + preacher of error. Columbus preached a new world, but was met with + distrust and incredulity; had he preached with as much zeal and + earnestness the discovery of some valley in the old one, where diamonds + hung upon the trees, or a herb grew that cured all the ills incidental to + humanity, he would have found a warm and hearty welcome—might have + sold dried cabbage leaves for his wonderful herb, and made his fortune. + </p> + <p> + In fact, it will be found in the history of every generation and race of + men, that whenever a choice of belief between the "Wondrously False" and + the "Wondrously True" is given to ignorance or prejudice, that their + choice will be fixed upon the first, for the reason that it is most akin + to their own nature. The great majority of mankind, and even of the wisest + among us, are still in the condition of the sailor's mother—believing + and disbelieving on the same grounds that she did—protesting against + the flying fish, but cherishing the golden wheels. Thousands there are + amongst us, who, rather than pin their faith in the one fish, would + believe not only in the wheel of gold, but the chariot—not only in + the chariot, but in the horses and the driver. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + La faridondaine—la faridondon, + Vive la faridondaine! + + BERANGER. +</pre> + <p> + The popular humours of a great city are a never-failing source of + amusement to the man whose sympathies are hospitable enough to embrace all + his kind, and who, refined though he may be himself, will not sneer at the + humble wit or grotesque peculiarities of the boozing mechanic, the squalid + beggar, the vicious urchin, and all the motley group of the idle, the + reckless, and the imitative that swarm in the alleys and broadways of a + metropolis. He who walks through a great city to find subjects for + weeping, may, God knows, find plenty at every corner to wring his heart; + but let such a man walk on his course, and enjoy his grief alone—we + are not of those who would accompany him. The miseries of us poor + earth-dwellers gain no alleviation from the sympathy of those who merely + hunt them out to be pathetic over them. The weeping philosopher too often + impairs his eyesight by his woe, and becomes unable from his tears to see + the remedies for the evils which he deplores. Thus it will often be found + that the man of no tears is the truest philanthropist, as he is the best + physician who wears a cheerful face, even in the worst of cases. + </p> + <p> + So many pens have been employed to point out the miseries, and so many to + condemn the crimes and vices, and more serious follies of the multitude, + that our's shall not increase the number, at least in this chapter. Our + present task shall be less ungracious, and wandering through the busy + haunts of great cities, we shall seek only for amusement, and note as we + pass a few of the harmless follies and whimsies of the poor. + </p> + <p> + And, first of all, walk where we will, we cannot help hearing from every + side a phrase repeated with delight, and received with laughter, by men + with hard hands and dirty faces—by saucy butcher lads and + errand-boys—by loose women—by hackney coachmen, cabriolet + drivers, and idle fellows who loiter at the corners of streets. Not one + utters this phrase without producing a laugh from all within hearing. It + seems applicable to every circumstance, and is the universal answer to + every question; in short, it is the favourite slang phrase of the day, a + phrase that, while its brief season of popularity lasts, throws a dash of + fun and frolicsomeness over the existence of squalid poverty and + ill-requited labour, and gives them reason to laugh as well as their more + fortunate fellows in a higher stage of society. + </p> + <p> + London is peculiarly fertile in this sort of phrases, which spring up + suddenly, no one knows exactly in what spot, and pervade the whole + population in a few hours, no one knows how. Many years ago the favourite + phrase (for, though but a monosyllable, it was a phrase in itself) was + Quoz. This odd word took the fancy of the multitude in an extraordinary + degree, and very soon acquired an almost boundless meaning. When vulgar + wit wished to mark its incredulity and raise a laugh at the same time, + there was no resource so sure as this popular piece of slang. When a man + was asked a favour which he did not choose to grant, he marked his sense + of the suitor's unparalleled presumption by exclaiming Quoz! When a + mischievous urchin wished to annoy a passenger, and create mirth for his + chums, he looked him in the face, and cried out Quoz! and the exclamation + never failed in its object. When a disputant was desirous of throwing a + doubt upon the veracity of his opponent, and getting summarily rid of an + argument which he could not overturn, he uttered the word Quoz, with a + contemptuous curl of his lip and an impatient shrug of his shoulders. The + universal monosyllable conveyed all his meaning, and not only told his + opponent that he lied, but that he erred egregiously if he thought that + any one was such a nincompoop as to believe him. Every alehouse resounded + with Quoz; every street corner was noisy with it, and every wall for miles + around was chalked with it. + </p> + <p> + But, like all other earthly things, Quoz had its season, and passed away + as suddenly as it arose, never again to be the pet and the idol of the + populace. A new claimant drove it from its place, and held undisputed sway + till, in its turn, it was hurled from its pre-eminence, and a successor + appointed in its stead. + </p> + <p> + "What a shocking bad hat!" was the phrase that was next in vogue. No + sooner had it become universal, than thousands of idle but sharp eyes were + on the watch for the passenger whose hat showed any signs, however slight, + of ancient service. Immediately the cry arose, and, like the what-whoop of + the Indians, was repeated by a hundred discordant throats. He was a wise + man who, finding himself under these circumstances "the observed of all + observers," bore his honours meekly. He who showed symptoms of ill-feeling + at the imputations cast upon his hat, only brought upon himself redoubled + notice. The mob soon perceive whether a man is irritable, and, if of their + own class, they love to make sport of him. When such a man, and with such + a hat, passed in those days through a crowded neighbourhood, he might + think himself fortunate if his annoyances were confined to the shouts and + cries of the populace. The obnoxious hat was often snatched from his head, + and thrown into the gutter by some practical joker, and then raised, + covered with mud, upon the end of a stick, for the admiration of the + spectators, who held their sides with laughter, and exclaimed in the + pauses of their mirth, "Oh! what a shocking bad hat!... What a shocking + bad hat!" Many a nervous, poor man, whose purse could but ill spare the + outlay, doubtless purchased a new hat before the time, in order to avoid + exposure in this manner. + </p> + <p> + The origin of this singular saying, which made fun for the metropolis for + months, is not involved in the same obscurity as that which shrouds the + origin of Quoz and some others. There had been a hotly-contested election + for the borough of Southwark, and one of the candidates was an eminent + hatter. This gentleman, in canvassing the electors, adopted a somewhat + professional mode of conciliating their good-will, and of bribing them + without letting them perceive that they were bribed. Whenever he called + upon or met a voter whose hat was not of the best material, or, being so, + had seen its best days, he invariably said, "What a shocking bad hat you + have got; call at my warehouse, and you shall have a new one!" Upon the + day of election this circumstance was remembered, and his opponents made + the most of it, by inciting the crowd to keep up an incessant cry of "What + a shocking bad hat!" all the time the honourable candidate was addressing + them. From Southwark the phrase spread over all London, and reigned, for a + time, the supreme slang of the season. + </p> + <p> + Hookey Walker, derived from the chorus of a popular ballad, was also high + in favour at one time, and served, like its predecessor, Quoz, to answer + all questions. In the course of time the latter word alone became the + favourite, and was uttered with a peculiar drawl upon the first syllable, + and a sharp turn upon the last. If a lively servant girl was importuned + for a kiss by a fellow she did not care about, she cocked her little nose, + and cried "Walker!" If a dustman asked his friend for the loan of a + shilling, and his friend was either unable or unwilling to accommodate + him, the probable answer he would receive was "Walker!" If a drunken man + was reeling along the streets, and a boy pulled his coat-tails, or a man + knocked his hat over his eyes to make fun of him, the joke was always + accompanied by the same exclamation. This lasted for two or three months, + and "Walker!" walked off the stage, never more to be revived for the + entertainment of that or any future generation. + </p> + <p> + The next phrase was a most preposterous one. Who invented it, how it + arose, or where it was first heard, are alike unknown. Nothing about it is + certain, but that for months it was the slang par excellence of the + Londoners, and afforded them a vast gratification. "There he goes with his + eye out!" or "There she goes with her eye out!" as the sex of the party + alluded to might be, was in the mouth of everybody who knew the town. The + sober part of the community were as much puzzled by this unaccountable + saying as the vulgar were delighted with it. The wise thought it very + foolish, but the many thought it very funny, and the idle amused + themselves by chalking it upon walls, or scribbling it upon monuments. + But, "all that's bright must fade," even in slang. The people grew tired + of their hobby, and "There he goes with his eye out!" was heard no more in + its accustomed haunts. + </p> + <p> + Another very odd phrase came into repute in a brief space afterwards, in + the form of the impertinent and not universally apposite query, "Has your + mother sold her mangle?" But its popularity was not of that boisterous and + cordial kind which ensures a long continuance of favour. What tended to + impede its progress was, that it could not be well applied to the older + portions of society. It consequently ran but a brief career, and then sank + into oblivion. Its successor enjoyed a more extended fame, and laid its + foundations so deep, that years and changing fashions have not sufficed to + eradicate it. This phrase was "Flare up!" and it is, even now, a + colloquialism in common use. It took its rise in the time of the Reform + riots, when Bristol was nearly half burned by the infuriated populace. The + flames were said to have flared up in the devoted city. Whether there was + anything peculiarly captivating in the sound, or in the idea of these + words, is hard to say; but whatever was the reason, it tickled the + mob-fancy mightily, and drove all other slang out of the field before it. + Nothing was to be heard all over London but "flare up!" It answered all + questions, settled all disputes, was applied to all persons, all things, + and all circumstances, and became suddenly the most comprehensive phrase + in the English language. The man who had overstepped the bounds of decorum + in his speech was said to have flared up; he who had paid visits too + repeated to the gin-shop, and got damaged in consequence, had flared up. + To put one's-self into a passion; to stroll out on a nocturnal frolic, and + alarm a neighbourhood, or to create a disturbance in any shape, was to + flare up. A lovers' quarrel was a fare up; so was a boxing-match between + two blackguards in the streets, and the preachers of sedition and + revolution recommended the English nation to flare up, like the French. So + great a favourite was the word, that people loved to repeat it for its + very sound. They delighted apparently in hearing their own organs + articulate it; and labouring men, when none who could respond to the call + were within hearing, would often startle the aristocratic echoes of the + West by the well-known slang phrase of the East. Even in the dead hours of + the night, the ears of those who watched late, or who could not sleep, + were saluted with the same sound. The drunkard reeling home showed that he + was still a man and a citizen, by calling "flare up" in the pauses of his + hiccough. Drink had deprived him of the power of arranging all other + ideas; his intellect was sunk to the level of the brute's; but he clung to + humanity by the one last link of the popular cry. While he could + vociferate that sound, he had rights as an Englishman, and would not sleep + in a gutter, like a dog! Onwards he went, disturbing quiet streets and + comfortable people by his whoop, till exhausted nature could support him + no more, and he rolled powerless into the road. When, in due time + afterwards, the policeman stumbled upon him as he lay, that guardian of + the peace turned the full light of his lantern on his face, and exclaimed, + "Here's a poor devil who's been flaring up!" Then came the stretcher, on + which the victim of deep potations was carried to the watchhouse, and + pitched into a dirty cell, among a score of wretches about as far gone as + himself, who saluted their new comrade by a loud, long shout of flare up! + </p> + <p> + So universal was this phrase, and so enduring seemed its popularity, that + a speculator, who knew not the evanescence of slang, established a weekly + newspaper under its name. But he was like the man who built his house upon + the sand; his foundation gave way under him, and the phrase and the + newspaper were washed into the mighty sea of the things that were. The + people grew at last weary of the monotony, and "flare up" became vulgar + even among them. Gradually it was left to little boys who did not know the + world, and in process of time sank altogether into neglect. It is now + heard no more as a piece of popular slang; but the words are still used to + signify any sudden outburst either of fire, disturbance, or ill-nature. + </p> + <p> + The next phrase that enjoyed the favour of the million was less concise, + and seems to have been originally aimed against precocious youths who gave + themselves the airs of manhood before their time. "Does your mother know + you're out?" was the provoking query addressed to young men of more than + reasonable swagger, who smoked cigars in the streets, and wore false + whiskers to look irresistible. We have seen many a conceited fellow who + could not suffer a woman to pass him without staring her out of + countenance, reduced at once into his natural insignificance by the mere + utterance of this phrase. Apprentice lads and shopmen in their Sunday + clothes held the words in abhorrence, and looked fierce when they were + applied to them. Altogether the phrase had a very salutary effect, and in + a thousand instances showed young Vanity, that it was not half so pretty + and engaging as it thought itself. What rendered it so provoking was the + doubt it implied as to the capability of self-guidance possessed by the + individual to whom it was addressed. "Does your mother know you're out?" + was a query of mock concern and solicitude, implying regret and concern + that one so young and inexperienced in the ways of a great city should be + allowed to wander abroad without the guidance of a parent. Hence the great + wrath of those who verged on manhood, but had not reached it, whenever + they were made the subject of it. Even older heads did not like it; and + the heir of a ducal house, and inheritor of a warrior's name, to whom they + were applied by a cabriolet driver, who was ignorant of his rank, was so + indignant at the affront, that he summoned the offender before the + magisterial bench. The fellow had wished to impose upon his Lordship by + asking double the fare he was entitled to, and when his Lordship resisted + the demand, he was insultingly asked "if his mother knew he was out?" All + the drivers on the stand joined in the query, and his Lordship was fain to + escape their laughter by walking away with as much haste as his dignity + would allow. The man pleaded ignorance that his customer was a Lord, but + offended justice fined him for his mistake. + </p> + <p> + When this phrase had numbered its appointed days, it died away, like its + predecessors, and "Who are you?" reigned in its stead. This new favourite, + like a mushroom, seems to have sprung up in a night, or, like a frog in + Cheapside, to have come down in a sudden shower. One day it was unheard, + unknown, uninvented; the next it pervaded London; every alley resounded + with it; every highway was musical with it, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "And street to street, and lane to lane flung back + The one unvarying cry." +</pre> + <p> + The phrase was uttered quickly, and with a sharp sound upon the first and + last words, leaving the middle one little more than an aspiration. Like + all its compeers which had been extensively popular, it was applicable to + almost every variety of circumstance. The lovers of a plain answer to a + plain question did not like it at all. Insolence made use of it to give + offence; ignorance, to avoid exposing itself; and waggery, to create + laughter. Every new comer into an alehouse tap-room was asked + unceremoniously, "Who are you?" and if he looked foolish, scratched his + head, and did not know what to reply, shouts of boisterous merriment + resounded on every side. An authoritative disputant was not unfrequently + put down, and presumption of every kind checked by the same query. When + its popularity was at its height, a gentleman, feeling the hand of a thief + in his pocket, turned suddenly round, and caught him in the act, + exclaiming, "Who are you?" The mob which gathered round applauded to the + very echo, and thought it the most capital joke they had ever heard—the + very acme of wit—the very essence of humour. Another circumstance, + of a similar kind, gave an additional fillip to the phrase, and infused + new life and vigour into it, just as it was dying away. The scene occurred + in the chief criminal court of the kingdom. A prisoner stood at the bar; + the offence with which he had been charged was clearly proved against him; + his counsel had been heard, not in his defence, but in extenuation, + insisting upon his previous good life and character, as reasons for the + lenity of the court. "And where are your witnesses?" inquired the learned + judge who presided. "Please you, my Lord, I knows the prisoner at the bar, + and a more honester feller never breathed," said a rough voice in the + gallery. The officers of the court looked aghast, and the strangers + tittered with ill-suppressed laughter. "Who are you?" said the Judge, + looking suddenly up, but with imperturbable gravity. The court was + convulsed; the titter broke out into a laugh, and it was several minutes + before silence and decorum could be restored. When the Ushers recovered + their self-possession, they made diligent search for the profane + transgressor; but he was not to be found. Nobody knew him; nobody had seen + him. After a while the business of the court again proceeded. The next + prisoner brought up for trial augured favourably of his prospects when he + learned that the solemn lips of the representative of justice had uttered + the popular phrase as if he felt and appreciated it. There was no fear + that such a judge would use undue severity; his heart was with the people; + he understood their language and their manners, and would make allowances + for the temptations which drove them into crime. So thought many of the + prisoners, if we may infer it from the fact, that the learned judge + suddenly acquired an immense increase of popularity. The praise of his wit + was in every mouth, and "Who are you?" renewed its lease, and remained in + possession of public favour for another term in consequence. + </p> + <p> + But it must not be supposed that there were no interregni between the + dominion of one slang phrase and another. They did not arise in one long + line of unbroken succession, but shared with song the possession of + popular favour. Thus, when the people were in the mood for music, slang + advanced its claims to no purpose, and, when they were inclined for slang, + the sweet voice of music wooed them in vain. About twenty years ago London + resounded with one chorus, with the love of which everybody seemed to be + smitten. Girls and boys, young men and old, maidens and wives, and widows, + were all alike musical. There was an absolute mania for singing, and the + worst of it was, that, like good Father Philip, in the romance of "The + Monastery," they seemed utterly unable to change their tune. "Cherry + ripe!" "Cherry ripe!" was the universal cry of all the idle in the town. + Every unmelodious voice gave utterance to it; every crazy fiddle, every + cracked flute, every wheezy pipe, every street organ was heard in the same + strain, until studious and quiet men stopped their ears in desperation, or + fled miles away into the fields or woodlands, to be at peace. This plague + lasted for a twelvemonth, until the very name of cherries became an + abomination in the land. At last the excitement wore itself away, and the + tide of favour set in a new direction. Whether it was another song or a + slang phrase, is difficult to determine at this distance of time; but + certain it is, that very shortly afterwards, people went mad upon a + dramatic subject, and nothing was to be heard of but "Tom and Jerry." + Verbal wit had amused the multitude long enough, and they became more + practical in their recreation. Every youth on the town was seized with the + fierce desire of distinguishing himself, by knocking down the "charlies," + being locked up all night in a watchhouse, or kicking up a row among loose + women and blackguard men in the low dens of St. Giles's. Imitative boys + vied with their elders in similar exploits, until this unworthy passion, + for such it was, had lasted, like other follies, its appointed time, and + the town became merry after another fashion. It was next thought the + height of vulgar wit to answer all questions by placing the point of the + thumb upon the tip of the nose, and twirling the fingers in the air. If + one man wished to insult or annoy another, he had only to make use of this + cabalistic sign in his face, and his object was accomplished. At every + street corner where a group was assembled, the spectator who was curious + enough to observe their movements, would be sure to see the fingers of + some of them at their noses, either as a mark of incredulity, surprise, + refusal, or mockery, before he had watched two minutes. There is some + remnant of this absurd custom to be seen to this day; but it is thought + low, even among the vulgar. + </p> + <p> + About six years ago, London became again most preposterously musical. The + vox populi wore itself hoarse by singing the praises of "The Sea, the + Sea!" If a stranger (and a philosopher) had walked through London, and + listened to the universal chorus, he might have constructed a very pretty + theory upon the love of the English for the sea-service, and our + acknowledged superiority over all other nations upon that element. "No + wonder," he might have said, "that this people is invincible upon the + ocean. The love of it mixes with their daily thoughts: they celebrate it + even in the market-place: their street-minstrels excite charity by it; and + high and low, young and old, male and female, chant Io paeans in its + praise. Love is not honoured in the national songs of this warlike race—Bacchus + is no god to them; they are men of sterner mould, and think only of 'the + Sea, the Sea!' and the means of conquering upon it." + </p> + <p> + Such would, doubtless, have been his impression if he had taken the + evidence only of his ears. Alas! in those days for the refined ears that + were musical! great was their torture when discord, with its thousand + diversities of tone, struck up this appalling anthem—there was no + escape from it. The migratory minstrels of Savoy caught the strain, and + pealed it down the long vistas of quiet streets, till their innermost and + snuggest apartments re-echoed with the sound. Men were obliged to endure + this crying evil for full six months, wearied to desperation, and made + sea-sick on the dry land. + </p> + <p> + Several other songs sprang up in due succession afterwards, but none of + them, with the exception of one, entitled "All round my Hat," enjoyed any + extraordinary share of favour, until an American actor introduced a vile + song called "Jim Crow." The singer sang his verses in appropriate costume, + with grotesque gesticulations, and a sudden whirl of his body at the close + of each verse. It took the taste of the town immediately, and for months + the ears of orderly people were stunned by the senseless chorus— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Turn about and wheel about, + And do just so— + Turn about and wheel about, + And jump, Jim Crow!" +</pre> + <p> + Street-minstrels blackened their faces in order to give proper effect to + the verses; and fatherless urchins, who had to choose between thieving and + singing for their livelihood, took the latter course, as likely to be the + more profitable, as long as the public taste remained in that direction. + The uncouth dance, its accompaniment, might be seen in its full perfection + on market nights in any great thoroughfare; and the words of the song + might be heard, piercing above all the din and buzz of the ever-moving + multitude. He, the calm observer, who during the hey-day popularity of + this doggrel, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sate beside the public way, + Thick strewn with summer dust, and saw the stream + Of people there was hurrying to and fro, + Numerous as gnats upon the evening gleam," +</pre> + <p> + might have exclaimed with Shelley, whose fine lines we quote, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The million, with fierce song and maniac dance, + Did rage around." +</pre> + <p> + The philosophic theorist we have already supposed soliloquising upon the + English character, and forming his opinion of it from their exceeding love + for a sea-song, might, if he had again dropped suddenly into London, have + formed another very plausible theory to account for our unremitting + efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. "Benevolent people!" he + might have said, "how unbounded are your sympathies! Your unhappy brethren + of Africa, differing from you only in the colour of their skins, are so + dear to you, and you begrudge so little the twenty millions you have paid + on their behalf, that you love to have a memento of them continually in + your sight. Jim Crow is the representative of that injured race, and as + such is the idol of your populace! See how they all sing his praises!—how + they imitate his peculiarities!—how they repeat his name in their + moments of leisure and relaxation! They even carve images of him to adorn + their hearths, that his cause and his sufferings may never be forgotten! + Oh, philanthropic England!—oh, vanguard of civilization!" + </p> + <p> + Such are a few of the peculiarities of the London multitude, when no riot, + no execution, no murder, no balloon, disturbs the even current of their + thoughts. These are the whimseys of the mass—the harmless follies by + which they unconsciously endeavour to lighten the load of care which + presses upon their existence. The wise man, even though he smile at them, + will not altogether withhold his sympathy, and will say, "Let them enjoy + their slang phrases and their choruses if they will; and if they cannot be + happy, at least let them be merry." To the Englishman, as well as to the + Frenchman of whom Beranger sings, there may be some comfort in so small a + thing as a song, and we may, own with him that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Au peuple attriste + Ce qui rendra la gaite, + C'est la GAUDRIOLE! + O gue! + C'est la GAUDRIOLE!" +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE O.P. MANIA. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And these things bred a great combustion in the town. + Wagstaffe's "Apparition of Mother Haggis." +</pre> + <p> + The acrimonious warfare carried on for a length of time by the playgoers + of London against the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, is one of the + most singular instances upon record of the small folly which will + sometimes pervade a multitude of intelligent men. Carried on at first from + mere obstinacy by a few, and afterwards for mingled obstinacy and frolic + by a greater number, it increased at last to such a height, that the sober + dwellers in the provinces held up their hands in astonishment, and + wondered that the people of London should be such fools. As much firmness + and perseverance displayed in a better cause, might have achieved + important triumphs; and we cannot but feel regret, in recording this + matter, that so much good and wholesome energy should have been thrown + away on so unworthy an object. But we will begin with the beginning, and + trace the O. P. mania from its source. + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 20th of September, 1808, the old theatre of + Covent-Garden was totally destroyed by fire. Preparations were immediately + made for the erection of a more splendid edifice, and the managers, Harris + and the celebrated John Philip Kemble, announced that the new theatre + should be without a rival in Europe. In less than three months, the + rubbish of the old building was cleared away, and the foundation-stone of + the new one laid with all due ceremony by the Duke of Sussex. With so much + celerity were the works carried on that, in nine months more, the edifice + was completed, both without and within. The opening night was announced + for the 18th of September 1809, within two days of a twelvemonth since the + destruction of the original building. + </p> + <p> + But the undertaking had proved more expensive than the Committee + anticipated. To render the pit entrance more commodious, it had been + deemed advisable to remove a low public-house that stood in the way. This + turned out a matter of no little difficulty, for the proprietor was a man + well skilled in driving a hard bargain. The more eager the Committee + showed themselves to come to terms with him for his miserable pot-house, + the more grasping he became in his demands for compensation. They were + ultimately obliged to pay him an exorbitant sum. Added to this, the + interior decorations were on the most costly scale; and Mrs. Siddons, and + other members of the Kemble family, together with the celebrated Italian + singer, Madame Catalani, had been engaged at very high salaries. As the + night of opening drew near, the Committee found that they had gone a + little beyond their means; and they issued a notice, stating that, in + consequence of the great expense they had been at in building the theatre, + and the large salaries they had agreed to pay, to secure the services of + the most eminent actors, they were under the necessity of fixing the + prices of admission at seven shillings to the boxes and four shillings to + the pit, instead of six shillings and three and sixpence, as heretofore. + </p> + <p> + This announcement created the greatest dissatisfaction. The boxes might + have borne the oppression, but the dignity of the pit was wounded. A + war-cry was raised immediately. For some weeks previous to the opening, a + continual clatter was kept up in clubs and coffee-rooms, against what was + considered a most unconstitutional aggression on the rights of play-going + man. The newspapers assiduously kept up the excitement, and represented, + day after day, to the managers the impolicy of the proposed advance. The + bitter politics of the time were disregarded, and Kemble and Covent-Garden + became as great sources of interest as Napoleon and France. Public + attention was the more fixed upon the proceedings at Covent-Garden, since + it was the only patent theatre then in existence, Drury-Lane theatre + having also been destroyed by fire in the month of February previous. But + great as was the indignation of the lovers of the drama at that time, no + one could have anticipated the extraordinary lengths to which opposition + would be carried. + </p> + <p> + First Night, September 20th.—The performances announced were the + tragedy of "Macbeth" and the afterpiece of "The Quaker." The house was + excessively crowded (the pit especially) with persons who had gone for no + other purpose than to make a disturbance. They soon discovered another + grievance to add to the list. The whole of the lower, and three-fourths of + the upper tier of boxes, were let out for the season; so that those who + had paid at the door for a seat in the boxes, were obliged to mount to a + level with the gallery. Here they were stowed into boxes which, from their + size and shape, received the contemptuous, and not inappropriate + designation of pigeon-holes. This was considered in the light of a new + aggression upon established rights; and long before the curtain drew up, + the managers might have heard in their green-room the indignant shouts of + "Down with the pigeon-holes!"—"Old prices for ever!" Amid this din + the curtain rose, and Mr. Kemble stood forward to deliver a poetical + address in honour of the occasion. The riot now began in earnest; not a + word of the address was audible, from the stamping and groaning of the + people in the pit. This continued, almost without intermission, through + the five acts of the tragedy. Now and then, the sublime acting of Mrs. + Siddons, as "the awful woman," hushed the noisy multitude into silence, in + spite of themselves: but it was only for a moment; the recollection of + their fancied wrongs made them ashamed of their admiration, and they + shouted and hooted again more vigorously than before. The comedy of Munden + in the afterpiece met with no better reception; not a word was listened + to, and the curtain fell amid still increasing uproar and shouts of "Old + prices!" Some magistrates, who happened to be present, zealously came to + the rescue, and appeared on the stage with copies of the Riot Act. This + ill-judged proceeding made the matter worse. The men of the pit were + exasperated by the indignity, and strained their lungs to express how + deeply they felt it. Thus remained the war till long after midnight, when + the belligerents withdrew from sheer exhaustion. + </p> + <p> + Second Night.—The crowd was not so great; all those who had gone on + the previous evening to listen to the performances, now stayed away, and + the rioters had it nearly all to themselves. With the latter, "the play + was not the thing," and Macheath and Polly sang in "The Beggar's Opera" in + vain. The actors and the public appeared to have changed sides—the + audience acted, and the actors listened. A new feature of this night's + proceedings was the introduction of placards. Several were displayed from + the pit and boxes, inscribed in large letters with the words, "Old + prices." With a view of striking terror, the constables who had been + plentifully introduced into the house, attacked the placard-bearers, and + succeeded, after several severe battles, in dragging off a few of them to + the neighbouring watch-house, in Bow Street. Confusion now became worse + and worse confounded. The pitites screamed themselves hoarse; while, to + increase the uproar, some mischievous frequenters of the upper regions + squeaked through dozens of cat-calls, till the combined noise was enough + to blister every tympanum in the house. + </p> + <p> + Third Night.—The appearance of several gentlemen in the morning at + the bar of the Bow Street police office, to answer for their riotous + conduct, had been indignantly commented upon during the day. All augured + ill for the quiet of the night. The performances announced were "Richard + the Third" and "The Poor Soldier," but the popularity of the tragedy could + not obtain it a hearing. The pitites seemed to be drawn into closer union + by the attacks made upon them, and to act more in concert than on the + previous nights. The placards were, also, more numerous; not only the pit, + but the boxes and galleries exhibited them. Among the most conspicuous, + was one inscribed, "John Bull against John Kemble.—Who'll win?" + Another bore "King George for ever! but no King Kemble." A third was + levelled against Madame Catalani, whose large salary was supposed to be + one of the causes of the increased prices, and was inscribed "No + foreigners to tax us—we're taxed enough already." This last was a + double-barrelled one, expressing both dramatic and political discontent, + and was received with loud cheers by the pitites. + </p> + <p> + The tragedy and afterpiece were concluded full two hours before their + regular time; and the cries for Mr. Kemble became so loud, that the + manager thought proper to obey the summons. Amid all these scenes of + uproar he preserved his equanimity, and was never once betrayed into any + expression of petulance or anger. With some difficulty he obtained a + hearing. He entered into a detail of the affairs of the theatre, assuring + the audience at the same time of the solicitude of the proprietors to + accommodate themselves to the public wish. This was received with some + applause, as it was thought at first to manifest a willingness to come + back to the old prices, and the pit eagerly waited for the next sentence, + that was to confirm their hopes. That sentence was never uttered, for Mr. + Kemble, folding his arms majestically, added, in his deep tragic voice, + "Ladies and Gentlemen, I wait here to know what you want!" Immediately the + uproar was renewed, and became so tremendous and so deafening, that the + manager, seeing the uselessness of further parley, made his bow and + retired. + </p> + <p> + A gentleman then rose in the boxes and requested a hearing. He obtained it + without difficulty. He began by inveighing in severe terms against the + pretended ignorance of Mr. Kemble, in asking them so offensively what they + wanted, and concluded by exhorting the people never to cease their + opposition until they brought down the prices to their old level. The + speaker, whose name was understood to be Leigh, then requested a cheer for + the actors, to show that no disrespect was intended them. The cheer was + given immediately. + </p> + <p> + A barrister of the name of Smythe then rose to crave another hearing for + Mr. Kemble. The manager stood forth again, calm, unmoved, and severe. + "Ladies and gentlemen," said he, "I wait here to know your wishes." Mr. + Leigh, who took upon himself, "for that night only," the character of + popular leader, said, the only reply he could give was one in three words, + "the old prices." Hereat the shouts of applause again rose, till the + building rang. Still serene amid the storm, the manager endeavoured to + enter into explanations. The men of the pit would hear nothing of the + sort. They wanted entire and absolute acquiescence. Less would not satisfy + them; and, as Mr. Kemble only wished to explain, they would not hear a + word. He finally withdrew amid a noise to which Babel must have been + comparatively silent. + </p> + <p> + Fourth night.—The rioters were more obstinate than ever. The noises + were increased by the addition of whistles, bugle-horns, and watchmen's + rattles, sniffling, snorting, and clattering from all parts of the house. + Human lungs were taxed to the uttermost, and the stamping on the floor + raised such a dust as to render all objects but dimly visible. In + placards, too, there was greater variety. The loose wits of the town had + all day been straining their ingenuity to invent new ones. Among them + were, "Come forth, O Kemble! come forth and tremble!" "Foolish John + Kemble, we'll make you tremble!" and "No cats! no Catalani! English actors + for ever!" + </p> + <p> + Those who wish to oppose a mob successfully, should never lose their + temper. It is a proof of weakness which masses of people at once perceive, + and never fail to take advantage of. Thus, when the managers unwisely + resolved to fight the mob with their own weapons, it only increased the + opposition it was intended to allay. A dozen pugilists, commanded by a + notorious boxer of the day, were introduced into the pit, to use the + argumentum ad hominem to the rioters. Continual scuffles ensued: but the + invincible resolution of the playgoers would not allow them to quail; it + rather aroused them to renewed opposition, and a determination never to + submit or yield. It also strengthened their cause, by affording them + further ground of complaint against the managers. + </p> + <p> + The performances announced on the bills were the opera of "Love in a + Village," and "Who wins?" but the bills had it all to themselves, for + neither actors nor public were much burthened with them. The latter, + indeed, afforded some sport. The title was too apt to the occasion to + escape notice, and shouts of "Who wins? who wins?" displaced for a time + the accustomed cry of old prices. + </p> + <p> + After the fall of the curtain, Mr. Leigh, with another gentleman, again + spoke, complaining bitterly of the introduction of the prize-fighters, and + exhorting the public never to give in. Mr. Kemble was again called + forward; but when he came, the full tide of discord ran so strongly + against him that, being totally unable to stem it, he withdrew. Each man + seemed to shout as if he had been a Stentor; and when his lungs were + wearied, took to his feet and stamped, till all the black coats in his + vicinity became grey with dust. At last the audience were tired out, and + the theatre was closed before eleven o'clock. + </p> + <p> + Fifth night.—The play was Coleman's amusing comedy of "John Bull." + There was no diminution of the uproar. Every note on the diapason of + discord was run through. The prize-fighters, or hitites as they were + called, mustered in considerable numbers, and the battles between them and + the pitites were fierce and many. It was now, for the first time, that the + letters O.P. came into general use as an abbreviation of the accustomed + watchword of old prices. Several placards were thus inscribed; and, as + brevity is so desirable in shouting, the mob adopted the emendation. As + usual, the manager was called for. After some delay he came forward, and + was listened to with considerable patience. He repeated, in respectful + terms, the great loss that would be occasioned to the proprietors by a + return to the old prices, and offered to submit a statement of their + accounts to the eminent lawyers, Sir Vicary Gibbs and Sir Thomas Plumer; + the eminent merchants, Sir Francis Baring and Mr. Angerstein; and Mr. + Whitmore, the Governor of the Bank of England. By their decision as to the + possibility of carrying on the theatre at the old prices, he would consent + to be governed, and he hoped the public would do the same. This reasonable + proposition was scouted immediately. Not even the high and reputable names + he had mentioned were thought to afford any guarantee for impartiality. + The pitites were too wrong-headed to abate one iota of their pretensions; + and they had been too much insulted by the prize-fighters in the manager's + pay, to show any consideration for him, or agree to any terms he might + propose. They wanted full acquiescence, and nothing less. Thus the + conference broke off, and the manager retired amid a storm of hisses. + </p> + <p> + An Irish gentleman, named O'Reilly, then stood up in one of the boxes. + With true Irish gallantry, he came to the rescue of an ill-used lady. He + said he was disgusted at the attacks made upon Madame Catalani, the finest + singer in the world, and a lady inestimable in private life. It was + unjust, unmanly, and un-English to make the innocent suffer for the + guilty; and he hoped this blot would be no longer allowed to stain a fair + cause. As to the quarrel with the manager, he recommended them to + persevere. They were not only wronged by his increased prices, but + insulted by his boxers, and he hoped, that before they had done with him, + they would teach him a lesson he would not soon forget. The gallant + Hibernian soon became a favourite, and sat down amid loud cheers. + </p> + <p> + Sixth night.—No signs of a cessation of hostilities on the one side, + or of a return to the old prices on the other. The playgoers seemed to + grow more united as the managers grew more obstinate. The actors had by + far the best time of it; for they were spared nearly all the labour of + their parts, and merely strutted on the stage to see how matters went on, + and then strutted off again. Notwithstanding the remonstrance of Mr. + O'Reilly on the previous night, numerous placards reflecting upon Madame + Catalani were exhibited. One was inscribed with the following doggrel:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Seventeen thousand a-year goes pat, + To Kemble, his sister, and Madame Cat." +</pre> + <p> + On another was displayed, in large letters, "No compromise, old prices, + and native talent!" Some of these were stuck against the front of the + boxes, and others were hoisted from the pit on long poles. The following + specimens will suffice to show the spirit of them; wit they had none, or + humour either, although when they were successively exhibited, they + elicited roars of laughter:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "John Kemble alone is the cause of this riot; + When he lowers his prices, John Bull will be quiet." + + "John Kemble be damn'd, + We will not be cramm'd." + + "Squire Kemble + Begins to tremble." +</pre> + <p> + The curtain fell as early as nine o'clock, when there being loud calls for + Mr. Kemble, he stood forward. He announced that Madame Catalani, against + whom so unjustifiable a prejudice had been excited, had thrown up her + engagement rather than stand in the way of any accommodation of existing + differences. This announcement was received with great applause. Mr. + Kemble then went on to vindicate himself and co-proprietors from the + charge of despising public opinion. No assertion, he assured them, could + be more unjust. They were sincerely anxious to bring these unhappy + differences to a close, and he thought he had acted in the most fair and + reasonable manner in offering to submit the accounts to an impartial + committee, whose decision, and the grounds for it, should be fully + promulgated. This speech was received with cheering, but interrupted at + the close by some individuals, who objected to any committee of the + manager's nomination. This led to a renewal of the uproar, and it was some + time before silence could be obtained. When, at last, he was able to make + himself heard, he gave notice, that until the decision of the committee + had been drawn up, the theatre should remain closed. Immediately every + person in the pit stood up, and a long shout of triumph resounded through + the house, which was heard at the extremity of Bow Street. As if this + result had been anticipated, a placard was at the same moment hoisted, + inscribed, "Here lies the body of NEW PRICE, an ugly brat and base born, + who expired on the 23rd of September 1809, aged six days.—Requiescat + in pace!" + </p> + <p> + Mr. Kemble then retired, and the pitites flung up their hats in the air, + or sprang over the benches, shouting and hallooing in the exuberance of + their joy; and thus ended the first act of this popular farce. + </p> + <p> + The committee ultimately chosen differed from that first named, Alderman + Sir Charles Price, Bart. and Mr. Silvester, the Recorder of London, being + substituted for Sir Francis Baring and Sir Vicary Gibbs. In a few days + they had examined the multitudinous documents of the theatre, and agreed + to a report which was published in all the newspapers, and otherwise + distributed. They stated the average profits of the six preceding years at + 6 and 3/8 per cent, being only 1 and 3/8 per cent. beyond the legal + interest of money, to recompense the proprietors for all their care and + enterprise. Under the new prices they would receive 3 and 1/2 per cent. + profit; but if they returned to the old prices, they would suffer a loss + of fifteen shillings per cent. upon their capital. Under these + circumstances, they could do no other than recommend the proprietors to + continue the new prices. + </p> + <p> + This report gave no satisfaction. It certainly convinced the reasonable, + but they, unfortunately, were in a minority of one to ten. The managers, + disregarding the outcry that it excited, advertised the recommencement of + the performances for Wednesday the 4th of October following. They + endeavoured to pack the house with their friends, but the sturdy O.P. men + were on the alert, and congregated in the pit in great numbers. The play + was "The Beggar's Opera," but, as on former occasions, it was wholly + inaudible. The noises were systematically arranged, and the actors, seeing + how useless it was to struggle against the popular feeling, hurried over + their parts as quickly as they could, and the curtain fell shortly after + nine o'clock. Once more the manager essayed the difficult task of + convincing madness by appealing to reason. As soon as the din of the + rattles and post-horns would permit him to speak, he said, he would throw + himself on the fairness of the most enlightened metropolis in the world. + He was sure, however strongly they might feel upon the subject, they would + not be accessory to the ruin of the theatre, by insisting upon a return to + the former prices. Notwithstanding the little sop he had thrown out to + feed the vanity of this roaring Cerberus, the only answer he received was + a renewal of the noise, intermingled with shouts of "Hoax! hoax! + imposition!" Mr. O'Reilly, the gallant friend of Madame Catalani, + afterwards addressed the pit, and said no reliance could be placed on the + report of the committee. The profits of the theatre were evidently great: + they had saved the heavy salary of Madame Catalani; and by shutting out + the public from all the boxes but the pigeon-holes, they made large sums. + The first and second tiers were let at high rents to notorious courtesans, + several of whom he then saw in the house; and it was clear that the + managers preferred a large revenue from this impure source to the + reasonable profits they would receive from respectable people. Loud cheers + greeted this speech; every eye was turned towards the boxes, and the few + ladies in them immediately withdrew. At the same moment, some inveterate + petite hoisted a large placard, on which was inscribed, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "We lads of the pit + Will never submit." +</pre> + <p> + Several others were introduced. One of them was a caricature likeness of + Mr. Kemble, asking, "What do you want?" with a pitite replying, "The old + prices, and no pigeon-holes!" Others merely bore the drawing of a large + key, in allusion to a notorious house in the neighbourhood, the denizens + of which were said to be great frequenters of the private boxes. These + appeared to give the managers more annoyance than all the rest, and the + prize-fighters made vigorous attacks upon the holders of them. Several + persons were, on this night, and indeed nearly every night, taken into + custody, and locked up in the watchhouse. On their appearance the + following morning, they were generally held to bail in considerable sums + to keep the peace. This proceeding greatly augmented the animosity of the + pit. + </p> + <p> + It would be useless to detail the scenes of confusion which followed night + after night. For about three weeks the war continued with unabated fury. + Its characteristics were nearly always the same. Invention was racked to + discover new noises, and it was thought a happy idea when one fellow got + into the gallery with a dustman's bell, and rang it furiously. Dogs were + also brought into the boxes, to add their sweet voices to the general + uproar. The animals seemed to join in it con amore, and one night a large + mastiff growled and barked so loudly, as to draw down upon his exertions + three cheers from the gratified pitites. + </p> + <p> + So strong did the popular enthusiasm run in favour of the row, that + well-dressed ladies appeared in the boxes with the letters O. P. on their + bonnets. O. P. hats for the gentlemen were still more common, and some + were so zealous in the cause, as to sport waistcoats with an O embroidered + upon one flap and a P on the other. O.P. toothpicks were also in fashion; + and gentlemen and ladies carried O.P. handkerchiefs, which they waved + triumphantly whenever the row was unusually deafening. The latter + suggested the idea of O. P. flags, which were occasionally unfurled from + the gallery to the length of a dozen feet. Sometimes the first part of the + night's performances were listened to with comparative patience, a + majority of the manager's friends being in possession of the house. But as + soon as the half-price commenced, the row began again in all its pristine + glory. At the fall of the curtain it soon became customary to sing "God + save the King," the whole of the O.P.'s joining in loyal chorus. Sometimes + this was followed by "Rule Britannia;" and, on two or three occasions, by + a parody of the national anthem, which excited great laughter. A verse may + not be uninteresting as a specimen. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "O Johnny Bull, be true, + Confound the prices new, + And make them fall! + Curse Kemble's politics, + Frustrate his knavish tricks, + On thee our hopes we fix, + T' upset them all!" +</pre> + <p> + This done, they scrambled over the benches, got up sham fights in the pit, + or danced the famous O.P. dance. The latter may as well be described here: + half a dozen, or a dozen fellows formed in a ring, and stamped alternately + with the right and left foot, calling out at regular intervals, O. P.—O. + P. with a drawling and monotonous sound. This uniformly lasted till the + lights were put out, when the rioters withdrew, generally in gangs of ten + or twenty, to defend themselves from sudden attacks on the part of the + constables. + </p> + <p> + An idea seemed about this time to break in upon them, that notwithstanding + the annoyance they caused the manager, they were aiding to fill his + coffers. This was hinted at in some of the newspapers, and the consequence + was, that many stayed away to punish him, if possible, under the silent + system. But this did not last long. The love of mischief was as great an + incentive to many of them as enmity to the new prices. Accidental + circumstances also contributed to disturb the temporary calm. At the + Westminster quarter-sessions, on the 27th of October, bills of indictment + were preferred against forty-one persons for creating a disturbance and + interrupting the performances of the theatre. The grand jury ignored + twenty-seven of the bills, left two undecided, and found true bills + against twelve. The latter exercised their right of traverse till the + ensuing sessions. The preferment of these bills had the effect of + re-awakening the subsiding excitement. Another circumstance about the same + time gave a still greater impetus to it, and furnished the rioters with a + chief, round whom they were eager to rally. Mr. Clifford, a barrister, + appeared in the pit on the night of the 31st of October, with the letters + O. P. on his hat. Being a man of some note, he was pounced upon by the + constables, and led off to Bow Street police office, where Brandon, the + box-keeper, charged him with riotous and disorderly conduct. This was + exactly what Clifford wanted. He told the presiding magistrate, a Mr. + Read, that he had purposely displayed the letters on his hat, in order + that the question of right might be determined before a competent + tribunal. He denied that he had committed any offence, and seemed to + manifest so intimate an acquaintance with the law upon the subject, that + the magistrate, convinced by his reasoning, ordered his immediate + dismissal, and stated that he had been taken into custody without the + slightest grounds. The result was made known in the theatre a few minutes + afterwards, where Mr. Clifford, on his appearance victorious, was received + with reiterated huzzas. On his leaving the house, he was greeted by a mob + of five or six hundred persons, who had congregated outside to do him + honour as he passed. From that night the riots may be said to have + recommenced, and "Clifford and O. P." became the rallying cry of the + party. The officious box-keeper became at the same time the object of the + popular dislike, and the contempt with which the genius and fine qualities + of Mr. Kemble would not permit them to regard him, was fastened upon his + underling. So much ill-feeling was directed towards the latter, that at + this time a return to the old prices, unaccompanied by his dismissal, + would not have made the manager's peace with the pitites. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the few succeeding weeks, during which the riots + continued with undiminished fury, O. P. medals were struck, and worn in + great numbers in the theatre. A few of the ultra-zealous even wore them in + the streets. A new fashion also came into favour for hats, waistcoats, and + handkerchiefs, on which the mark, instead of the separate letters O and P, + was a large O, with a small P in the middle of it: thus, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + xxxxxxxxx + x x + x xxx x + x x x x + x xxx x + x x x + x x x + x x + xxxxxxxxx +</pre> + <p> + The managers, seeing that Mr. Clifford was so identified with the rioters, + determined to make him responsible. An action was accordingly brought + against him and other defendants in the Court of King's Bench. On the 20th + of November, the Attorney-general moved, before Lord Ellenborough, for a + rule to show cause why a criminal information should not be filed against + Clifford for unlawfully conspiring with certain others to intimidate the + proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, and force them, to their loss and + detriment, to lower their prices of admission. The rule was granted, and + an early day fixed for the trial. In the mean time, these proceedings kept + up the acerbity of the O. P.s, and every night at the fall of the curtain, + three groans were given for John Kemble and three cheers for John Bull. + </p> + <p> + It was during this year that the national Jubilee was celebrated, in + honour of the fiftieth year of the reign of George III. When the riots had + reached their fiftieth night, the O. P.s also determined to have a + jubilee. All their previous efforts in the way of roaring, great as they + were, were this night outdone, and would have continued long after "the + wee short hour," had not the managers wisely put the extinguisher upon + them and the lights about eleven o'clock. + </p> + <p> + Pending the criminal prosecution against himself, Mr. Clifford brought an + action for false imprisonment against Brandon. The cause was fixed for + trial in the Court of Common Pleas, on the 5th of December, before Lord + Chief-Justice Mansfield. From an early hour in the morning all the avenues + leading to the court were thronged with an eager multitude; all London was + in anxiety for the resuit. So dense was the crowd, that counsel found the + greatest difficulty in making their way into court. Mr. Sergeant Best was + retained on the part of the plaintiff, and Mr. Sergeant Shepherd for the + defence. The defendant put two pleas upon the record; first, that he was + not guilty, and secondly, that he was justified. Sergeant Best, in stating + the plaintiff's case, blamed the managers for all the disturbances that + had taken place, and contended that his client, in affixing the letters O. + P. to his hat, was not guilty of any offence. Even if he had joined in the + noises, which he had not, his so doing would not subject him to the + penalties for rioting. Several witnesses were then called to prove the + capture of Mr. Clifford, the hearing of the case before the magistrate at + Bow Street, and his ultimate dismissal. Sergeant Shepherd was heard at + great length on the other side, and contended that his client was + perfectly justified in taking into custody a man who was inciting others + to commit a breach of the peace. + </p> + <p> + The Lord Chief-Justice summed up, with an evident bias in favour of the + defendant. He said an undue apprehension of the rights of an audience had + got abroad. Even supposing the object of the rioters to be fair and legal, + they were not authorized to carry it by unfair means. In order to + constitute a riot, it was not necessary that personal violence should be + committed, and it seemed to him that the defendant had not acted in an + improper manner in giving into custody a person who, by the display of a + symbol, was encouraging others to commit a riot. + </p> + <p> + The jury retired to consider their verdict. The crowd without and within + the court awaited the result in feverish suspense. Half an hour elapsed, + when the jury returned with a verdict for the plaintiff—Damages, + five pounds. The satisfaction of the spectators was evident upon their + countenances, that of the judge expressed the contrary feeling. Turning to + the foreman of the jury, his Lordship asked upon which of the two points + referred to them, namely, the broad question, whether a riot had been + committed, and, if committed, whether the plaintiff had participated in + it, they had found their verdict? + </p> + <p> + The foreman stated, that they were all of opinion generally that the + plaintiff had been illegally arrested. This vague answer did not satisfy + his Lordship, and he repeated his question. He could not, however, obtain + a more satisfactory reply. Evidently vexed at what he deemed the + obtuseness or partiality of the jury, he turned to the bar, and said, that + a spirit of a mischievous and destructive nature was abroad, which, if not + repressed, threatened awful consequences. The country would be lost, he + said, and the government overturned, if such a spirit were encouraged; it + was impossible it could end in good. Time, the destroyer and fulfiller of + predictions, has proved that his Lordship was a false prophet. The + harmless O. P. war has been productive of no such dire results. + </p> + <p> + It was to be expected that after this triumph, the war in the pit would + rage with redoubled acrimony. A riot beginning at half-price would not + satisfy the excited feelings of the O. P.s on the night of such a victory. + Long before the curtain drew up, the house was filled with them, and + several placards were exhibited, which the constables and friends of the + managers strove, as usual, to tear into shreds. One of them, which met + this fate, was inscribed, "Success to O.P.! A British jury for ever!" It + was soon replaced by another of a similar purport. It is needless to + detail the uproar that ensued; the jumping, the fighting, the roaring, and + the howling. For nine nights more the same system was continued; but the + end was at hand. + </p> + <p> + On the 14th a grand dinner was given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, to + celebrate the victory of Mr. Clifford. "The reprobators of managerial + insolence," as they called themselves, attended in considerable numbers; + and Mr. Clifford was voted to the chair. The cloth had been removed, and a + few speeches made, when the company were surprised by a message that their + arch-enemy himself solicited the honour of an audience. It was some time + ere they could believe that Mr. Kemble had ventured to such a place. After + some parley the manager was admitted, and a conference was held. A treaty + was ultimately signed and sealed, which put an end to the long-contested + wars of O.P., and restored peace to the drama. + </p> + <p> + All this time the disturbance proceeded at the theatre with its usual + spirit. It was now the sixty-sixth night of its continuance, and the + rioters were still untired—still determined to resist to the last. + In the midst of it a gentleman arrived from the Crown and Anchor, and + announced to the pit that Mr. Kemble had attended the dinner, and had + yielded at last to the demand of the public. He stated, that it had been + agreed upon between him and the Committee for defending the persons under + prosecution, that the boxes should remain at the advanced price; that the + pit should be reduced to three shillings and sixpence; that the private + boxes should be done away with; and that all prosecutions, on both sides, + should be immediately stayed. This announcement was received with + deafening cheers. As soon as the first burst of enthusiasm was over, the + O. P.s became anxious for a confirmation of the intelligence, and + commenced a loud call for Mr. Kemble. He had not then returned from the + Crown and Anchor; but of this the pitites were not aware, and for nearly + half an hour they kept up a most excruciating din. At length the great + actor made his appearance, in his walking dress, with his cane in hand, as + he had left the tavern. It was a long time before he could obtain silence. + He apologized in the most respectful terms for appearing before them in + such unbecoming costume, which was caused solely by his ignorance that he + should have to appear before them that night. After announcing, as well as + occasional interruptions would allow, the terms that had been agreed upon, + he added, "In order that no trace or recollection of the past differences, + which had unhappily prevailed so long, should remain, he was instructed by + the proprietors to say, that they most sincerely lamented the course that + had been pursued, and engaged that, on their parts, all legal proceedings + should forthwith be put a stop to." The cheering which greeted this speech + was interrupted at the close by loud cries from the pit of "Dismiss + Brandon," while one or two exclaimed, "We want old prices generally,—six + shillings for the boxes." After an ineffectual attempt to address them + again upon this point, Mr. Kemble made respectful and repeated obeisances, + and withdrew. The noises still continued, until Munden stood forward, + leading by the hand the humbled box-keeper, contrition in his looks, and + in his hands a written apology, which he endeavoured to read. The uproar + was increased threefold by his presence, and, amid cries of "We won't hear + him!" "Where's his master?" he was obliged to retire. Mr. Harris, the son + of Kemble's co-manager, afterwards endeavoured to propitiate the audience + in his favour; but it was of no avail; nothing less than his dismissal + would satisfy the offended majesty of the pit. Amid this uproar the + curtain finally fell, and the O. P. dance was danced for the last time + within the walls of Covent Garden. + </p> + <p> + On the following night it was announced that Brandon had resigned his + situation. This turned the tide of popular ill-will. The performances were + "The Wheel of Fortune," and an afterpiece. The house was crowded to + excess; a desire to be pleased was manifest on every countenance, and when + Mr. Kemble, who took his favourite character of Penruddock, appeared upon + the stage, he was greeted with the most vehement applause. The noises + ceased entirely, and the symbols of opposition disappeared. The audience, + hushed into attention, gave vent to no sounds but those of admiration for + the genius of the actor. When, in the course of his part, he repeated the + words, "So! I am in London again!" the aptness of the expression to the + circumstances of the night, was felt by all present, and acknowledged by a + round of boisterous and thrice repeated cheering. It was a triumphant + scene for Mr. Kemble after his long annoyances. He had achieved a double + victory. He had, not only as a manager, soothed the obstinate opposition + of the play-goers, but as an actor he had forced from one of the largest + audiences he had ever beheld, approbation more cordial and unanimous than + he had ever enjoyed before. The popular favour not only turned towards + him; it embraced everybody connected with the theatre, except the poor + victim, Brandon. Most of the favourite actors were called before the + curtain to make their bow, and receive the acclamations of the pit. At the + close of the performances, a few individuals, implacable and stubborn, got + up a feeble cry of "Old prices for the boxes;" but they were quickly + silenced by the reiterated cheers of the majority, or by cries of "Turn + them out!" A placard, the last of its race, was at the same time exhibited + in the front of the pit, bearing, in large letters, the words "We are + satisfied." + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the famous wars of O. P., which, for a period of nearly three + months, had kept the metropolis in an uproar. And after all, what was the + grand result? As if the whole proceeding had been a parody upon the more + destructive, but scarcely more sensible wars recorded in history, it was + commenced in injustice, carried on in bitterness of spirit, and ended, + like the labour of the mountain, in a mouse. The abatement of sixpence in + the price of admission to the pit, and the dismissal of an unfortunate + servant, whose only fault was too much zeal in the service of his + employers,—such were the grand victories of the O. P.'s. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Orribili favelle—parole di dolor.—DANTE. +</pre> + <p> + Among the black deeds which Superstition has imposed as duties upon her + wretched votaries, none are more horrible than the practices of the + murderers, who, under the name of Thugs, or Phansigars, have so long been + the scourge of India. For ages they have pursued their dark and dreadful + calling, moulding assassination into a science, or extolling it as a + virtue, worthy only to be practised by a race favoured of Heaven. Of late + years this atrocious delusion has excited much attention, both in this + country and in India; an attention which, it is to be hoped, will speedily + lead to the uprooting of a doctrine so revolting and anti-human. Although + the British Government has extended over Hindostan for so long a period, + it does not appear that Europeans even suspected the existence of this + mysterious sect until the commencement of the present century. In the year + 1807, a gang of Thugs, laden with the plunder of murdered travellers, was + accidentally discovered. The inquiries then set on foot revealed to the + astonished Government a system of iniquity unparalleled in the history of + man. Subsequent investigation extended the knowledge; and by throwing + light upon the peculiar habits of the murderers, explained the reason why + their crimes had remained so long undiscovered. In the following pages + will be found an epitome of all the information which has reached Europe + concerning them, derived principally from Dr. Sherwood's treatise upon the + subject, published in 1816, and the still more valuable and more recent + work of Mr. Sleeman, entitled the "Ramaseeana; or, Vocabulary of the + peculiar Language of the Thugs." + </p> + <p> + The followers of this sect are called Thugs, or T'hugs, and their + profession Thuggee. In the south of India they are called Phansigars: the + former word signifying "a deceiver;" and the latter, "a strangler." They + are both singularly appropriate. The profession of Thuggee is hereditary, + and embraces, it is supposed, in every part of India, a body of at least + ten thousand individuals, trained to murder from their childhood; carrying + it on in secret and in silence, yet glorying in it, and holding the + practice of it higher than any earthly honour. During the winter months, + they usually follow some reputable calling, to elude suspicion; and in the + summer, they set out in gangs over all the roads of India, to plunder and + destroy. These gangs generally contain from ten to forty Thugs, and + sometimes as many as two hundred. Each strangler is provided with a noose, + to despatch the unfortunate victim, as the Thugs make it a point never to + cause death by any other means. When the gangs are very large, they divide + into smaller bodies; and each taking a different route, they arrive at the + same general place of rendezvous to divide the spoil. They sometimes + travel in the disguise of respectable traders; sometimes as sepoys or + native soldiers; and at others, as government officers. If they chance to + fall in with an unprotected wayfarer, his fate is certain. One Thug + approaches him from behind, and throws the end of a sash round his neck; + the other end is seized by a second at the same instant, crossed behind + the neck, and drawn tightly, while with their other hand the two Thugs + thrust his head forward to expedite the strangulation: a third Thug seizes + the traveller by the legs at the same moment, and he is thrown to the + ground, a corpse before he reaches it. + </p> + <p> + But solitary travellers are not the prey they are anxious to seek. A + wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals has not unfrequently been + destroyed by them; not one soul being permitted to escape. Indeed, there + is hardly an instance upon record of any one's escape from their hands, so + surely are their measures taken, and so well do they calculate beforehand + all the risks and difficulties of the undertaking. Each individual of the + gang has his peculiar duty allotted to him. Upon-approaching a town, or + serai, two or three, known as the Soothaes, or "inveiglers," are sent in + advance to ascertain if any travellers are there; to learn, if possible, + the amount of money or merchandize they carry with them, their hours of + starting in the morning, or any other particulars that may be of use. If + they can, they enter into conversation with them, pretend to be travelling + to the same place, and propose, for mutual security, to travel with them. + This intelligence is duly communicated to the remainder of the gang. The + place usually chosen for the murder is some lonely part of the road in the + vicinity of a jungle, and the time, just before dusk. At given signals, + understood only by themselves, the scouts of the party station themselves + in the front, in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surprise. A + strangler and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place + themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the victim, + without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose is twisted, + drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the traveller, in a + few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, twenty, and in some + instances, sixty persons have been thus despatched at the same moment. + Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their hands, he falls into + those of the scouts who are stationed within hearing, who run upon him and + soon overpower him. + </p> + <p> + Their next care is to dispose of the bodies. So cautious are they to + prevent detection, that they usually break all the joints to hasten + decomposition. They then cut open the body to prevent it swelling in the + grave and causing fissures in the soil above, by which means the jackals + might be attracted to the spot, and thereby lead to discovery. When + obliged to bury the body in a frequented district, they kindle a fire over + the grave to obliterate the traces of the newly turned earth. Sometimes + the grave-diggers of the party, whose office, like that of all the rest, + is hereditary, are despatched to make the graves in the morning at some + distant spot, by which it is known the travellers will pass. The + stranglers, in the mean time, journey quietly with their victims, + conversing with them in the most friendly manner. Towards nightfall they + approach the spot selected for their murder; the signal is given, and they + fall into the graves that have been ready for them since day-break. On one + occasion, related by Captain Sleeman, a party of fifty-nine people, + consisting of fifty-two men and seven women, were thus simultaneously + strangled, and thrown into the graves prepared for them in the morning. + Some of these travellers were on horseback and well armed, but the Thugs, + who appear to have been upwards of two hundred in a gang, had provided + against all risk of failure. The only one left alive of all that numerous + party, was an infant four years old, who was afterwards initiated into all + the mysteries of Thuggee. + </p> + <p> + If they cannot find a convenient opportunity for disposing of the bodies, + they carry them for many miles, until they come to a spot secure from + intrusion, and to a soil adapted to receive them. If fear of putrefaction + admonishes them to use despatch, they set up a large screen or tent, as + other travellers do, and bury the body within the enclosure, pretending, + if inquiries are made, that their women are within. But this only happens + when they fall in with a victim unexpectedly. In murders which they have + planned previously, the finding of a place of sepulture is never left to + hazard. + </p> + <p> + Travellers who have the misfortune to lodge in the same choultry or + hostelry, as the Thugs, are often murdered during the night. It is either + against their creed to destroy a sleeper, or they find a difficulty in + placing the noose round the neck of a person in a recumbent position. When + this is the case, the slumberer is suddenly aroused by the alarm of a + snake or a scorpion. He starts to his feet, and finds the fatal sash + around his neck.—He never escapes. + </p> + <p> + In addition to these Thugs who frequent the highways, there are others, + who infest the rivers, and are called Pungoos. They do not differ in + creed, but only in a few of their customs, from their brethren on shore. + They go up and down the rivers in their own boats, pretending to be + travellers of consequence, or pilgrims, proceeding to, or returning from + Benares, Allahabad, or other sacred places. The boatmen, who are also + Thugs, are not different in appearance from the ordinary boatmen on the + river. The artifices used to entice victims on board are precisely similar + to those employed by the highway Thugs. They send out their "inveiglers" + to scrape acquaintance with travellers, and find out the direction in + which they are journeying. They always pretend to be bound for the same + place, and vaunt the superior accommodation of the boat by which they are + going. The travellers fall into the snare, are led to the Thug captain, + who very often, to allay suspicion, demurs to take them, but eventually + agrees for a moderate sum. The boat strikes off into the middle of the + stream; the victims are amused and kept in conversation for hours by their + insidious foes, until three taps are given on the deck above. This is a + signal from the Thugs on the look-out that the coast is clear. In an + instant the fatal noose is ready, and the travellers are no more. The + bodies are then thrown, warm and palpitating, into the river, from a hole + in the side of the boat, contrived expressly for the purpose. + </p> + <p> + A river Thug, who was apprehended, turned approver, to save his own life, + and gave the following evidence relative to the practices of his + fraternity:—"We embarked at Rajmahul. The travellers sat on one side + of the boat, and the Thugs on the other; while we three (himself and two + "stranglers,") were placed in the stern, the Thugs on our left, and the + travellers on our right. Some of the Thugs, dressed as boatmen, were above + deck, and others walking along the bank of the river, and pulling the boat + by the joon, or rope, and all, at the same time, on the look-out. We came + up with a gentleman's pinnace and two baggage-boats, and were obliged to + stop, and let them go on. The travellers seemed anxious; but were quieted + by being told that the men at the rope were tired, and must take some + refreshment. They pulled out something, and began to eat; and when the + pinnace had got on a good way, they resumed their work, and our boat + proceeded. It was now afternoon; and, when a signal was given above, that + all was clear, the five Thugs who sat opposite the travellers sprang in + upon them, and, with the aid of others, strangled them. Having done this, + they broke their spinal bones, and then threw them out of a hole made at + the side, into the river, and kept on their course; the boat being all + this time pulled along by the men on the bank." + </p> + <p> + That such atrocities as these should have been carried on for nearly two + centuries without exciting the attention of the British Government, seems + incredible. But our wonder will be diminished when we reflect upon the + extreme caution of the Thugs, and the ordinary dangers of travelling in + India. The Thugs never murder a man near his own home, and they never + dispose of their booty near the scene of the murder. They also pay, in + common with other and less atrocious robbers, a portion of their gains to + the Polygars, or native authorities of the districts in which they reside, + to secure protection. The friends and relatives of the victims, perhaps a + thousand miles off, never surmise their fate till a period has elapsed + when all inquiry would be fruitless, or, at least, extremely difficult. + They have no clue to the assassins, and very often impute to the wild + beasts of the jungles the slaughter committed by that wilder beast, man. + </p> + <p> + There are several gradations through which every member of the fraternity + must regularly pass before he arrives at the high office of a Bhurtote, or + strangler. He is first employed as a scout—then as a sexton—then + as a Shumseea, or holder of hands, and lastly as a Bhurtote. When a man + who is not of Thug lineage, or who has not been brought up from his + infancy among them, wishes to become a strangler, he solicits the oldest, + and most pious and experienced Thug, to take him under his protection and + make him his disciple; and under his guidance he is regularly initiated. + When he has acquired sufficient experience in the lower ranks of the + profession, he applies to his Gooroo, or preceptor, to give the finishing + grace to his education, and make a strangler of him. An opportunity is + found when a solitary traveller is to be murdered; and the tyro, with his + preceptor, having seen that the proposed victim is asleep, and in safe + keeping till their return, proceed to a neighbouring field and perform + several religious ceremonies, accompanied by three or four of the oldest + and steadiest members of the gang. The Gooroo first offers up a prayer to + the goddess, saying, "Oh, Kalee! Kun-kalee! Bhud-kalee! Oh, Kalee! + Maha-kalee! Calkutta Walee! if it seems fit to thee that the traveller now + at our lodging should die by the hands of this thy slave, vouchsafe us thy + good omen." They then sit down and watch for the good omen; and if they + receive it within half an hour, conclude that their goddess is favourable + to the claims of the new candidate for admission. If they have a bad omen, + or no omen at all, some other Thug must put the traveller to death, and + the aspirant must wait a more favourable opportunity, purifying himself in + the mean time by prayer and humiliation for the favour of the goddess. If + the good omen has been obtained, they return to their quarters; and the + Gooroo takes a handkerchief and, turning his face to the west, ties a knot + at one end of it, inserting a rupee, or other piece of silver. This knot + is called the goor khat, or holy knot, and no man who has not been + properly ordained is allowed to tie it. The aspirant receives it + reverently in his right hand from his Gooroo, and stands over the sleeping + victim, with a Shumseea, or holder of hands, at his side. The traveller is + aroused, the handkerchief is passed around his neck, and, at a signal from + the Gooroo, is drawn tight till the victim is strangled; the Shumseea + holding his hands to prevent his making any resistance. The work being now + completed, the Bhurtote (no longer an aspirant, but an admitted member) + bows down reverently in the dust before his Gooroo, and touches his feet + with both his hands, and afterwards performs the same respect to his + relatives and friends who have assembled to witness the solemn ceremony. + He then waits for another favourable omen, when he unties the knot and + takes out the rupee, which he gives to his Gooroo, with any other silver + which he may have about him. The Gooroo adds some of his own money, with + which he purchases what they call goor, or consecrated sugar, when a + solemn sacrifice is performed, to which all the gang are invited. The + relationship between the Gooroo and his disciple is accounted the most + holy that can be formed, and subsists to the latest period of life. A Thug + may betray his father, but never his Gooroo. + </p> + <p> + Dark and forbidding as is the picture already drawn, it will become still + darker and more repulsive, when we consider the motives which prompt these + men to systematic murder. Horrible as their practices would be, if love of + plunder alone incited them, it is infinitely more horrible to reflect that + the idea of duty and religion is joined to the hope of gain, in making + them the scourges of their fellows. If plunder were their sole object, + there would be reason to hope, that when a member of the brotherhood grew + rich, he would rest from his infernal toils; but the dismal superstition + which he cherishes tells him never to desist. He was sent into the world + to be a slayer of men, and he religiously works out his destiny. As + religiously he educates his children to pursue the same career, instilling + into their minds, at the earliest age, that Thuggee is the noblest + profession a man can follow, and that the dark goddess they worship will + always provide rich travellers for her zealous devotees. + </p> + <p> + The following is the wild and startling legend upon which the Thugs found + the divine origin of their sect. They believe that, in the earliest ages + of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and devoured mankind as + soon as they were created. He was of so tall a stature, that when he + strode through the most unfathomable depths of the great sea, the waves, + even in tempest, could not reach above his middle. His insatiable appetite + for human flesh almost unpeopled the world, until Bhawanee, Kalee, or + Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, determined to save mankind by the + destruction of the monster. Nerving herself for the encounter, she armed + herself with an immense sword; and, meeting with the demon, she ran him + through the body. His blood flowed in torrents as he fell dead at her + feet; but from every drop there sprang up another monster, as rapacious + and as terrible as the first. Again the goddess upraised her massive + sword, and hewed down the hellish brood by hundreds; but the more she + slew, the more numerous they became. Every drop of their blood generated a + demon; and, although the goddess endeavoured to lap up the blood ere it + sprang into life, they increased upon her so rapidly, that the labour of + killing became too great for endurance. The perspiration rolled down her + arms in large drops, and she was compelled to think of some other mode of + exterminating them. In this emergency, she created two men out of the + perspiration of her body, to whom she confided the holy task of delivering + the earth from the monsters. To each of the men she gave a handkerchief, + and showed them how to kill without shedding blood. From her they learned + to tie the fatal noose; and they became, under her tuition, such expert + stranglers, that, in a very short space of time, the race of demons became + extinct. + </p> + <p> + When there were no more to slay, the two men sought the great goddess, in + order to return the handkerchiefs. The grateful Bhawanee desired that they + would retain them, as memorials of their heroic deeds; and in order that + they might never lose the dexterity that they had acquired in using them, + she commanded that, from thenceforward, they should strangle men. These + were the two first Thugs, and from them the whole race have descended. To + the early Thugs the goddess was more direct in her favours, than she has + been to their successors. At first, she undertook to bury the bodies of + all the men they slew and plundered, upon the condition that they should + never look back to see what she was doing. The command was religiously + observed for many ages, and the Thugs relied with implicit faith upon the + promise of Bhawanee; but as men became more corrupt, the ungovernable + curiosity of a young Thug offended the goddess, and led to the withdrawal + of a portion of her favour. This youth, burning with a desire to see how + she made her graves, looked back, and beheld her in the act, not of + burying, but of devouring, the body of a man just strangled. Half of the + still palpitating remains was dangling over her lips. She was so highly + displeased that she condemned the Thugs, from that time forward, to bury + their victims themselves. Another account states that the goddess was + merely tossing the body in the air; and that, being naked, her anger was + aggravated by the gaze of mortal eyes upon her charms. Before taking a + final leave of her devotees, she presented them with one of her teeth for + a pickaxe, one of her ribs for a knife, and the hem of her garment for a + noose. She has not since appeared to human eyes. + </p> + <p> + The original tooth having been lost in the lapse of ages, new pickaxes + have been constructed, with great care and many ceremonies, by each + considerable gang of Thugs, to be used in making the graves of strangled + travellers. The pickaxe is looked upon with the utmost veneration by the + tribe. A short account of the process of making it, and the rites + performed, may be interesting, as showing still further their gloomy + superstition. In the first place, it is necessary to fix upon a lucky day. + The chief Thug then instructs a smith to forge the holy instrument: no + other eye is permitted to see the operation. The smith must engage in no + other occupation until it is completed, and the chief Thug never quits his + side during the process. When the instrument is formed, it becomes + necessary to consecrate it to the especial service of Bhawnee. Another + lucky day is chosen for this ceremony, care being had in the mean time + that the shadow of no earthly thing fall upon the pickaxe, as its efficacy + would be for ever destroyed. A learned Thug then sits down; and turning + his face to the west, receives the pickaxe in a brass dish. After + muttering some incantation, he throws it into a pit already prepared for + it, where it is washed in clear water. It is then taken out, and washed + again three times; the first time in sugar and water, the second in sour + milk, and the third in spirits. It is then dried, and marked from the head + to the point with seven red spots. This is the first part of the ceremony: + the second consists in its purification by fire. The pickaxe is again + placed upon the brass dish, along with a cocoa-nut, some sugar, cloves, + white sandal-wood, and other articles. A fire of the mango tree, mixed + with dried cow-dung, is then kindled; and the officiating Thug, taking the + pickaxe with both hands, passes it seven times through the flames. + </p> + <p> + It now remains to be ascertained whether the goddess is favourable to her + followers. For this purpose, the cocoa-nut is taken from the dish and + placed upon the ground. The officiating Thug, turning to the spectators, + and holding the axe uplifted, asks, "Shall I strike?" Assent being given, + he strikes the nut with the but-end of the axe, exclaiming, "All hail! + mighty Davee! great mother of us all!" The spectators respond, "All hail! + mighty Davee! and prosper thy children, the Thugs!" + </p> + <p> + If the nut is severed at the first blow, the goddess is favourable; if + not, she is unpropitious: all their labour is thrown away, and the + ceremony must be repeated upon some more fitting occasion. But if the sign + be favourable, the axe is tied carefully in a white cloth and turned + towards the west, all the spectators prostrating themselves before it. It + is then buried in the earth, with its point turned in the direction the + gang wishes to take on their approaching expedition. If the goddess + desires to warn them that they will be unsuccessful, or that they have not + chosen the right track, the Thugs believe that the point of the axe will + veer round, and point to the better way. During an expedition, it is + entrusted to the most prudent and exemplary Thug of the party: it is his + care to hold it fast. If by any chance he should let it fall, + consternation spreads through the gang: the goddess is thought to be + offended; the enterprise is at once abandoned; and the Thugs return home + in humiliation and sorrow, to sacrifice to their gloomy deity, and win + back her estranged favour. So great is the reverence in which they hold + the sacred axe, that a Thug will never break an oath that he has taken + upon it. He fears that, should he perjure himself, his neck would be so + twisted by the offended Bhawanee as to make his face turn to his back; and + that, in the course of a few days, he would expire in the most + excruciating agonies. + </p> + <p> + The Thugs are diligent observers of signs and omens. No expedition is ever + undertaken before the auspices are solemnly taken. Upon this subject + Captain Sleeman says, "Even the most sensible approvers, who have been + with me for many years, as well Hindoos as Mussulmans, believe that their + good or ill success depended upon the skill with which the omens were + discovered and interpreted, and the strictness with which they were + observed and obeyed. One of the old Sindouse stock told me, in presence of + twelve others, from Hydrabad, Behar, the Dooah, Oude, Rajpootana, and + Bundelcund, that, had they not attended to these omens, they never could + have thrived as they did. In ordinary cases of murder, other men seldom + escaped punishment, while they and their families had, for ten + generations, thrived, although they had murdered hundreds of people. + 'This,' said the Thug,' could never have been the case had we not attended + to omens, and had not omens been intended for us. There were always signs + around us to guide us to rich booty, and warn us of danger, had we been + always wise enough to discern them and religious enough to attend to + them.' Every Thug present concurred with him from his soul." + </p> + <p> + A Thug, of polished manners and great eloquence, being asked by a native + gentleman, in the presence of Captain Sleeman, whether he never felt + compunction in murdering innocent people, replied with a smile that he did + not. "Does any man," said he, "feel compunction in following his trade? + and are not all our trades assigned us by Providence?" He was then asked + how many people he had killed with his own hands in the course of his + life? "I have killed none," was the reply. "What! and have you not been + describing a number of murders in which you were concerned?" "True; but do + you suppose that I committed them? Is any man killed by man's killing? Is + it not the hand of God that kills, and are we not the mere instruments in + the hands of God?" + </p> + <p> + Upon another occasion, Sahib, an approver, being asked if he had never + felt any pity or compunction at murdering old men or young children, or + persons with whom he had sat and conversed, and who had told him, + perchance, of their private affairs—their hopes and their fears, + their wives and their little ones? replied unhesitatingly that he never + did. From the time that the omens were favourable, the Thugs considered + all the travellers they met as victims thrown into their hands by their + divinity to be killed. The Thugs were the mere instruments in the hands of + Bhawanee to destroy them. "If we did not kill them," said Sahib, "the + goddess would never again be propitious to us, and we and our families + would be involved in misery and want. If we see or hear a bad omen, it is + the order of the goddess not to kill the travellers we are in pursuit of, + and we dare not disobey." + </p> + <p> + As soon as an expedition has been planned, the goddess is consulted. On + the day chosen for starting, which is never during the unlucky months of + July, September, and December, nor on a Wednesday or Thursday; the chief + Thug of the party fills a brass jug with water, which he carries in his + right hand by his side. With his left, he holds upon his breast the sacred + pickaxe, wrapped carefully in a white cloth, along with five knots of + turmeric, two copper, and one silver coin. He then moves slowly on, + followed by the whole of the gang, to some field or retired place, where + halting, with his countenance turned in the direction they wish to pursue, + he lifts up his eyes to heaven, saying, "Great goddess! universal mother! + if this, our meditated expedition, be fitting in thy sight, vouchsafe to + help us, and give us the signs of thy approbation." All the Thugs present + solemnly repeat the prayer after their leader, and wait in silence for the + omen. If within half an hour they see Pilhaoo, or good omen on the left, + it signifies that the goddess has taken them by the left hand to lead them + on; if they see the Thibaoo, or omen on the right, it signifies that she + has taken them by the right hand also. The leader then places the brazen + pitcher on the ground and sits down beside it, with his face turned in the + same direction for seven hours, during which time his followers make all + the necessary preparations for the journey. If, during this interval, no + unfavourable signs are observed, the expedition advances slowly, until it + arrives at the bank of the nearest stream, when they all sit down and eat + of the goor, or consecrated sugar. Any evil omens that are perceived after + this ceremony may be averted by sacrifices; but any evil omens before, + would at once put an end to the expedition. + </p> + <p> + Among the evil omens are the following:—If the brazen pitcher drops + from the hand of the Jemadar or leader, it threatens great evil either to + him or to the gang—sometimes to both. If they meet a funeral + procession, a blind man, a lame man, an oil-vender, a carpenter, a potter, + or a dancing-master, the expedition will be dangerous. In like manner it + is unlucky to sneeze, to meet a woman with an empty pail, a couple of + jackals, or a hare. The crossing of their path by the latter is considered + peculiarly inauspicious. Its cry at night on the left is sometimes a good + omen, but if they hear it on the right it is very bad; a warning sent to + them from Bhawanee that there is danger if they kill. Should they + disregard this warning, and led on by the hope of gain, strangle any + traveller, they would either find no booty on him, or such booty as would + eventually lead to the ruin and dispersion of the gang. Bhawanee would be + wroth with her children; and causing them to perish in the jungle, would + send the hares to drink water out of their skulls. + </p> + <p> + The good omens are quite as numerous as the evil. It promises a fortunate + expedition, if, on the first day, they pass through a village where there + is a fair. It is also deemed fortunate, if they hear wailing for the dead + in any village but their own. To meet a woman with a pitcher full of water + upon her head, bodes a prosperous journey and a safe return. The omen is + still more favourable if she be in a state of pregnancy. It is said of the + Thugs of the Jumaldehee and Lodaha tribes, that they always make the + youngest Thug of the party kick the body of the first person they + strangle, five times on the back, thinking that it will bring them good + luck. This practice, however, is not general. If they hear an ass bray on + the left at the commencement of an expedition, and an another soon + afterwards on the right, they believe that they shall be supereminently + successful, that they shall strangle a multitude of travellers, and find + great booty. + </p> + <p> + After every murder a solemn sacrifice, called the Tuponee, is performed by + all the gang. The goor, or consecrated sugar, is placed upon a large cloth + or blanket, which is spread upon the grass. Beside it is deposited the + sacred pickaxe, and a piece of silver for an offering. The Jemadar, or + chief of the party, together with all the oldest and most prudent Thugs, + take their places upon the cloth, and turn their faces to the west. Those + inferior Thugs who cannot find room upon the privileged cloth, sit round + as close to it as possible. A pit is then dug, into which the Jemadar + pours a small quantity of the goor, praying at the same time that the + goddess will always reward her followers with abundant spoils. All the + Thugs repeat the prayer after him. He then sprinkles water upon the + pickaxe, and puts a little of the goor upon the head of every one who has + obtained a seat beside him on the cloth. A short pause ensues, when the + signal for strangling is given, as if a murder were actually about to be + committed, and each Thug eats his goor in solemn silence. So powerful is + the impression made upon their imagination by this ceremony, that it + almost drives them frantic with enthusiasm. Captain Sleeman relates, that + when he reproached a Thug for his share in a murder of great atrocity, and + asked him whether he never felt pity; the man replied, "We all feel pity + sometimes; but the goor of the Tuponee changes our nature; it would change + the nature of a horse. Let any man once taste of that goor, and he will be + a Thug, though he know all the trades and have all the wealth in the + world. I never was in want of food; my mother's family was opulent, and + her relations high in office. I have been high in office myself, and + became so great a favourite wherever I went that I was sure of promotion; + yet I was always miserable when absent from my gang, and obliged to return + to Thuggee. My father made me taste of that fatal goor, when I was yet a + mere boy; and if I were to live a thousand years I should never be able to + follow any other trade." + </p> + <p> + The possession of wealth, station in society, and the esteem of his + fellows, could not keep this man from murder. From his extraordinary + confession we may judge of the extreme difficulty of exterminating a sect + who are impelled to their horrid practises, not only by the motives of + self-interest which govern mankind in general, but by a fanaticism which + fills up the measure of their whole existence. Even severity seems thrown + away upon the followers of this brutalizing creed. To them, punishment is + no example; they have no sympathy for a brother Thug who is hung at his + own door by the British Government, nor have they any dread of his fate. + Their invariable idea is, that their goddess only suffers those Thugs to + fall into the hands of the law, who have contravened the peculiar + observances of Thuggee, and who have neglected the omens she sent them for + their guidance. + </p> + <p> + To their neglect of the warnings of the goddess they attribute all the + reverses which have of late years befallen their sect. It is expressly + forbidden, in the creed of the old Thugs, to murder women or cripples. The + modern Thugs have become unscrupulous upon this point, murdering women, + and even children, with unrelenting barbarity. Captain Sleeman reports + several conversations upon this subject, which he held at different times + with Thugs, who had been taken prisoners, or who had turned approvers. One + of them, named Zolfukar, said, in reply to the Captain, who accused him of + murdering women, "Yes, and was not the greater part of Feringeea's and my + gang seized, after we had murdered the two women and the little girl, at + Manora, in 1830? and were we not ourselves both seized soon after? How + could we survive things like that? Our ancestors never did such things." + Lalmun, another Thug, in reply to a similar question, said, "Most of our + misfortunes have come upon us for the murder of women. We all knew that + they would come upon us some day, for this and other great sins. We were + often admonished, but we did not take warning; and we deserve our fates." + In speaking of the supposed protection which their goddess had extended to + them in former times, Zolfukar said:—"Ah! we had some regard for + religion then! We have lost it since. All kinds of men have been made + Thugs, and all classes of people murdered, without distinction; and little + attention has been paid to omens. How, after this, could we think to + escape? * * * * Davee never forsook us till we neglected her!" + </p> + <p> + It might be imagined that men who spoke in this manner of the anger of the + goddess, and who, even in custody, showed so much veneration for their + unhappy calling, would hesitate before they turned informers, and laid + bare the secrets and exposed the haunts of their fellows:—among the + more civilized ruffians of Europe, we often find the one chivalrous trait + of character, which makes them scorn a reward that must be earned by the + blood of their accomplices: but in India there is no honour among thieves. + When the approvers are asked, if they, who still believe in the power of + the terrible goddess Davee, are not afraid to incur her displeasure by + informing of their fellows, they reply, that Davee has done her worst in + abandoning them. She can inflict no severer punishment, and therefore + gives herself no further concern about her degenerate children. This + cowardly doctrine is, however, of advantage to the Government that seeks + to put an end to the sect, and has thrown a light upon their practices, + which could never have been obtained from other sources. + </p> + <p> + Another branch of the Thug abomination has more recently been discovered + by the indefatigable Captain Sleeman. The followers of this sect are + called MEGPUNNAS, and they murder travellers, not to rob them of their + wealth, but of their children, whom they afterwards sell into slavery. + They entertain the same religious opinions as the Thugs, and have carried + on their hideous practices, and entertained their dismal superstition, for + about a dozen years with impunity. The report of Captain Sleeman states, + that the crime prevails almost exclusively in Delhi and the native + principalities, or Rajpootana of Ulwar and Bhurtpore; and that it first + spread extensively after the siege of Bhurtpore in 1826. + </p> + <p> + The original Thugs never or rarely travel with their wives; but the + Megpunnas invariably take their families with them, the women and children + being used to inveigle the victims. Poor travellers are always chosen by + the Megpunnas as the objects of their murderous traffic. The females and + children are sent on in advance to make acquaintance with emigrants or + beggars on the road, travelling with their families, whom they entice to + pass the night in some secluded place, where they are afterwards set upon + by the men, and strangled. The women take care of the children. Such of + them as are beautiful are sold at a high price to the brothels of Delhi, + or other large cities; while the boys and ill-favoured girls are sold for + servants at a more moderate rate. These murders are perpetrated perhaps + five hundred miles from the homes of the unfortunate victims; and the + children thus obtained, deprived of all their relatives, are never + inquired after. Even should any of their kin be alive, they are too far + off and too poor to institute inquiries. One of the members, on being + questioned, said the Megpunnas made more money than the other Thugs; it + was more profitable to kill poor people for the sake of their children, + than rich people for their wealth. Megpunnaism is supposed by its votaries + to be, like Thuggee, under the immediate protection of the great goddess + Davee, or Kalee, whose favour is to be obtained before the commencement of + every expedition, and whose omens, whether of good or evil, are to be + diligently sought on all occasions. The first apostle to whom she + communicated her commands for the formation of the new sect, and the rules + and ordinances by which it was to be guided, was called Kheama Jemadar. He + was considered so holy a man, that the Thugs and Megpunnas considered it + an extreme felicity to gaze upon and touch him. At the moment of his + arrest by the British authorities, a fire was raging in the village, and + the inhabitants gathered round him and implored him to intercede with his + god, that the flames might be extinguished. The Megpunna, says the + tradition, stretched forth his hand to heaven, prayed, and the fire ceased + immediately. + </p> + <p> + There now only remain to be considered the exertions that have been made + to remove from the face of India this purulent and disgusting sore. From + the year 1807 until 1826, the proceedings against Thuggee were not carried + on with any extraordinary degree of vigour; but, in the latter year, the + Government seems to have begun to act upon a settled determination to + destroy it altogether. From 1826 to 1855, both included, there were + committed to prison, in the various Presidencies, 1562 persons accused of + this crime. Of these, 328 were hanged; 999 transported; 77 imprisoned for + life; 71 imprisoned for shorter periods; 21 held to bail; and only 21 + acquitted. Of the remainder, 31 died in prison, before they were brought + to trial, 11 escaped, and 49 turned approvers. + </p> + <p> + One Feringeea, a Thug leader of great notoriety, was delivered up to + justice in the year 1830, in consequence of the reward of five hundred + rupees offered for his apprehension by the Government. He was brought + before Captain Sleeman, at Sangir, in the December of that year, and + offered, if his life were spared, to give such information as would lead + to the arrest of several extensive gangs which had carried on their + murderous practices undetected for several years. He mentioned the place + of rendezvous, for the following February, of some well organized gangs, + who were to proceed into Guzerat and Candeish. Captain Sleeman appeared to + doubt his information; but accompanied the Thug to a mango grove, two + stages from Sangir, on the road to Seronage. They reached this place in + the evening, and in the morning Feringeea pointed out three places in + which he and his gang had, at different intervals, buried the bodies of + three parties of travellers whom they had murdered. The sward had grown + over all the spots, and not the slightest traces were to be seen that it + had ever been disturbed. Under the sod of Captain Sleeman's tent were + found the bodies of the first party, consisting of a pundit and his six + attendants, murdered in 1818. Another party of five, murdered in 1824, + were under the ground at the place where the Captain's horses had been + tied up for the night; and four Brahmin carriers of the Ganges water, with + a woman, were buried under his sleeping tent. Before the ground was moved, + Captain Sleeman expressed some doubts; but Feringeea, after looking at the + position of some neighbouring trees, said he would risk his life on the + accuracy of his remembrance. The workmen dug five feet without discovering + the bodies; but they were at length found a little beyond that depth, + exactly as the Thug had described them. With this proof of his knowledge + of the haunts of his brethren, Feringeea was promised his liberty and + pardon if he would aid in bringing to justice the many large gangs to + which he had belonged, and which were still prowling over the country. + They were arrested in the February following, at the place of rendezvous + pointed out by the approver, and most of them condemned and executed. + </p> + <p> + So far we learn from Captain Sleeman, who only brought down his tables to + the close of the year 1835. A writer in the "Foreign Quarterly Review" + furnishes an additional list of 241 persons, committed to prison in 1836, + for being concerned in the murder and robbery of 474 individuals. Of these + criminals, 91 were sentenced to death, and 22 to imprisonment for life, + leaving 306, who were sentenced to transportation for life, or shorter + periods of imprisonment, or who turned approvers, or died in gaol. Not one + of the whole number was acquitted. + </p> + <p> + Great as is this amount of criminals who have been brought to justice, it + is to be feared that many years must elapse before an evil so deeply + rooted can be eradicated. The difficulty is increased by the utter + hopelessness of reformation as regards the survivors. Their numbers are + still calculated to amount to ten thousand persons, who, taking the + average of three murders annually for each, as calculated by Captain + Sleeman and other writers, murder every year thirty thousand of their + fellow creatures. This average is said to be under the mark; but even if + we were to take it at only a third of this calculation, what a frightful + list it would be! When religion teaches men to go astray, they go far + astray indeed! + </p> + <p> + END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular +Delusions, by Charles Mackay + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 636-h.htm or 636-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/636/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions + +Author: Charles Mackay + +Release Date: August, 1996 [EBook #636] +Last Updated: July 29, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + + + +MEMOIRS OF EXTRAORDINARY POPULAR DELUSIONS + +By Charles Mackay + + + +Author Of + +"The Thames And Its Tributaries," "The Hope Of The World," Etc. + +"Il est bon de connaitre les delires de l'esprit humain. Chaque people a +ses folies plus ou moins grossieres." MILLOT + + +VOL I. + +LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. PUBLISHER IN ORDINARY TO +HER MAJESTY. 1841. + + +CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME + + THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + THE TULIPOMANIA + RELICS + MODERN PROPHECIES + POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES + INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD + DUELS AND ORDEALS + THE LOVE OF THE MARVELOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE + POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + THE O. P. MANIA + THE THUGS, OR PHANSIGARS + + + + + +NATIONAL DELUSIONS. + + N'en deplaise a ces fous nommes sages de Grece; + En ce monde il n'est point de parfaite sagesse; + Tous les hommes sont fous, et malgre tous leurs soins, + Ne different entre eux que du plus ou du moins. + + BOILEAU. + + +In reading the history of nations, we find that, like individuals, they +have their whims and their peculiarities; their seasons of excitement +and recklessness, when they care not what they do. We find that whole +communities suddenly fix their minds upon one object, and go mad in its +pursuit; that millions of people become simultaneously impressed with +one delusion, and run after it, till their attention is caught by some +new folly more captivating than the first. We see one nation suddenly +seized, from its highest to its lowest members, with a fierce desire +of military glory; another as suddenly becoming crazed upon a religious +scruple, and neither of them recovering its senses until it has shed +rivers of blood and sowed a harvest of groans and tears, to be reaped +by its posterity. At an early age in the annals of Europe its population +lost their wits about the Sepulchre of Jesus, and crowded in frenzied +multitudes to the Holy Land: another age went mad for fear of the Devil, +and offered up hundreds of thousands of victims to the delusion of +witchcraft. At another time, the many became crazed on the subject of +the Philosopher's Stone, and committed follies till then unheard of in +the pursuit. It was once thought a venial offence in very many countries +of Europe to destroy an enemy by slow poison. Persons who would have +revolted at the idea of stabbing a man to the heart, drugged his pottage +without scruple. Ladies of gentle birth and manners caught the +contagion of murder, until poisoning, under their auspices, became quite +fashionable. Some delusions, though notorious to all the world, have +subsisted for ages, flourishing as widely among civilized and polished +nations as among the early barbarians with whom they originated,--that +of duelling, for instance, and the belief in omens and divination of +the future, which seem to defy the progress of knowledge to eradicate +entirely from the popular mind. Money, again, has often been a cause +of the delusion of multitudes. Sober nations have all at once become +desperate gamblers, and risked almost their existence upon the turn of +a piece of paper. To trace the history of the most prominent of these +delusions is the object of the present pages. Men, it has been well +said, think in herds; it will be seen that they go mad in herds, while +they only recover their senses slowly, and one by one. + +In the present state of civilization, society has often shown itself +very prone to run a career of folly from the last-mentioned cases. +This infatuation has seized upon whole nations in a most extraordinary +manner. France, with her Mississippi madness, set the first great +example, and was very soon imitated by England with her South Sea +Bubble. At an earlier period, Holland made herself still more ridiculous +in the eyes of the world, by the frenzy which came over her people for +the love of Tulips. Melancholy as all these delusions were in their +ultimate results, their history is most amusing. A more ludicrous and +yet painful spectacle, than that which Holland presented in the years +1635 and 1636, or France in 1719 and 1720, can hardly be imagined. +Taking them in the order of their importance, we shall commence our +history with John Law and the famous Mississippi scheme of the years +above mentioned. + + + + +THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + + Some in clandestine companies combine; + Erect new stocks to trade beyond the line; + With air and empty names beguile the town, + And raise new credits first, then cry 'em down; + Divide the empty nothing into shares, + And set the crowd together by the ears. + + Defoe. + + +The personal character and career of one man are so intimately connected +with the great scheme of the years 1719 and 1720, that a history of the +Mississippi madness can have no fitter introduction than a sketch of the +life of its great author, John Law. Historians are divided in opinion as +to whether they should designate him a knave or a madman. Both epithets +were unsparingly applied to him in his lifetime, and while the unhappy +consequences of his projects were still deeply felt. Posterity, however, +has found reason to doubt the justice of the accusation, and to confess +that John Law was neither knave nor madman, but one more deceived +than deceiving; more sinned against than sinning. He was thoroughly +acquainted with the philosophy and true principles of credit. He +understood the monetary question better than any man of his day; and if +his system fell with a crash so tremendous, it was not so much his +fault as that of the people amongst whom he had erected it. He did not +calculate upon the avaricious frenzy of a whole nation; he did not see +that confidence, like mistrust, could be increased, almost ad infinitum, +and that hope was as extravagant as fear. How was he to foretell that +the French people, like the man in the fable, would kill, in their +frantic eagerness, the fine goose he had brought to lay them so many +golden eggs? His fate was like that which may be supposed to have +overtaken the first adventurous boatman who rowed from Erie to Ontario. +Broad and smooth was the river on which he embarked; rapid and pleasant +was his progress; and who was to stay him in his career? Alas for him! +the cataract was nigh. He saw, when it was too late, that the tide which +wafted him so joyously along was a tide of destruction; and when he +endeavoured to retrace his way, he found that the current was too strong +for his weak efforts to stem, and that he drew nearer every instant to +the tremendous falls. Down he went over the sharp rocks, and the +waters with him. He was dashed to pieces with his bark, but the waters, +maddened and turned to foam by the rough descent, only boiled and +bubbled for a time, and then flowed on again as smoothly as ever. Just +so it was with Law and the French people. He was the boatman and they +were the waters. + +John Law was born at Edinburgh in the year 1671. His father was the +younger son of an ancient family in Fife, and carried on the business +of a goldsmith and banker. He amassed considerable wealth in his trade, +sufficient to enable him to gratify the wish, so common among his +countrymen, of adding a territorial designation to his name. He +purchased with this view the estates of Lauriston and Randleston, on +the Frith of Forth on the borders of West and Mid Lothian, and was +thenceforth known as Law of Lauriston. The subject of our memoir, being +the eldest son, was received into his father's counting-house at the +age of fourteen, and for three years laboured hard to acquire an insight +into the principles of banking, as then carried on in Scotland. He +had always manifested great love for the study of numbers, and his +proficiency in the mathematics was considered extraordinary in one of +his tender years. At the age of seventeen he was tall, strong, and well +made; and his face, although deeply scarred with the small-pox, was +agreeable in its expression, and full of intelligence. At this time he +began to neglect his business, and becoming vain of his person, indulged +in considerable extravagance of attire. He was a great favourite +with the ladies, by whom he was called Beau Law, while the other sex, +despising his foppery, nicknamed him Jessamy John. At the death of his +father, which happened in 1688, he withdrew entirely from the desk, +which had become so irksome, and being possessed of the revenues of the +paternal estate of Lauriston, he proceeded to London, to see the world. + +He was now very young, very vain, good-looking, tolerably rich, and +quite uncontrolled. It is no wonder that, on his arrival in the capital, +he should launch out into extravagance. He soon became a regular +frequenter of the gaming-houses, and by pursuing a certain plan, +based upon some abstruse calculation of chances, he contrived to gain +considerable sums. All the gamblers envied him his luck, and many made +it a point to watch his play, and stake their money on the same chances. +In affairs of gallantry he was equally fortunate; ladies of the first +rank smiled graciously upon the handsome Scotchman--the young, the rich, +the witty, and the obliging. But all these successes only paved the way +for reverses. After he had been for nine years exposed to the dangerous +attractions of the gay life he was leading, he became an irrecoverable +gambler. As his love of play increased in violence, it diminished +in prudence. Great losses were only to be repaired by still greater +ventures, and one unhappy day he lost more than he could repay without +mortgaging his family estate. To that step he was driven at last. At +the same time his gallantry brought him into trouble. A love affair, or +slight flirtation, with a lady of the name of Villiers [Miss Elizabeth +Villiers, afterwards Countess of Orkney] exposed him to the resentment +of a Mr. Wilson, by whom he was challenged to fight a duel. Law +accepted, and had the ill fortune to shoot his antagonist dead upon the +spot. He was arrested the same day, and brought to trial for murder +by the relatives of Mr. Wilson. He was afterwards found guilty, and +sentenced to death. The sentence was commuted to a fine, upon the ground +that the offence only amounted to manslaughter. An appeal being lodged +by a brother of the deceased, Law was detained in the King's Bench, +whence, by some means or other, which he never explained, he contrived +to escape; and an action being instituted against the sheriffs, he was +advertised in the Gazette, and a reward offered for his apprehension. He +was described as "Captain John Law, a Scotchman, aged twenty-six; a +very tall, black, lean man; well shaped, above six feet high, with large +pockholes in his face; big nosed, and speaking broad and loud." As this +was rather a caricature than a description of him, it has been supposed +that it was drawn up with a view to favour his escape. He succeeded in +reaching the Continent, where he travelled for three years, and devoted +much of his attention to the monetary and banking affairs of the +countries through which he passed. He stayed a few months in Amsterdam, +and speculated to some extent in the funds. His mornings were devoted +to the study of finance and the principles of trade, and his evenings to +the gaming-house. It is generally believed that he returned to Edinburgh +in the year 1700. It is certain that he published in that city his +"Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council of Trade." This +pamphlet did not excite much attention. + +In a short time afterwards he published a project for establishing what +he called a Land-bank [The wits of the day called it a sand-bank, which +would wreck the vessel of the state.], the notes issued by which +were never to exceed the value of the entire lands of the state, upon +ordinary interest, or were to be equal in value to the land, with the +right to enter into possession at a certain time. The project excited a +good deal of discussion in the Scottish parliament, and a motion for +the establishment of such a bank was brought forward by a neutral +party, called the Squadrone, whom Law had interested in his favour. +The Parliament ultimately passed a resolution to the effect, that, to +establish any kind of paper credit, so as to force it to pass, was an +improper expedient for the nation. + +Upon the failure of this project, and of his efforts to procure a pardon +for the murder of Mr. Wilson, Law withdrew to the Continent, and resumed +his old habits of gaming. For fourteen years he continued to roam about, +in Flanders, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and France. He soon +became intimately acquainted with the extent of the trade and resources +of each, and daily more confirmed in his opinion that no country could +prosper without a paper currency. During the whole of this time he +appears to have chiefly supported himself by successful play. At every +gambling-house of note in the capitals of Europe, he was known and +appreciated as one better skilled in the intricacies of chance than any +other man of the day. It is stated in the "Biographie Universelle" that +he was expelled, first from Venice, and afterwards from Genoa, by the +magistrates, who thought him a visitor too dangerous for the youth +of those cities. During his residence in Paris he rendered himself +obnoxious to D'Argenson, the lieutenant-general of the police, by whom +he was ordered to quit the capital. This did not take place, however, +before he had made the acquaintance in the saloons, of the Duke de +Vendome, the Prince de Conti, and of the gay Duke of Orleans, the latter +of whom was destined afterwards to exercise so much influence over his +fate. The Duke of Orleans was pleased with the vivacity and good sense +of the Scottish adventurer, while the latter was no less pleased with +the wit and amiability of a prince who promised to become his patron. +They were often thrown into each other's society, and Law seized every +opportunity to instil his financial doctrines into the mind of one whose +proximity to the throne pointed him out as destined, at no very distant +date, to play an important part in the government. + +Shortly before the death of Louis XIV, or, as some say, in 1708, Law +proposed a scheme of finance to Desmarets, the Comptroller. Louis is +reported to have inquired whether the projector were a Catholic, and, on +being answered in the negative, to have declined having anything to +do with him. [This anecdote, which is related in the correspondence +of Madame de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, and mother of the Regent, +is discredited by Lord John Russell, in his "History of the principal +States of Europe, from the Peace of Utrecht;" for what reason he +does not inform us. There is no doubt that Law proposed his scheme to +Desmarets, and that Louis refused to hear of it. The reason given for +the refusal is quite consistent with the character of that bigoted and +tyrannical monarch.] + +It was after this repulse that he visited Italy. His mind being still +occupied with schemes of finance, he proposed to Victor Amadeus, Duke of +Savoy, to establish his land-bank in that country. The Duke replied that +his dominions were too circumscribed for the execution of so great a +project, and that he was by far too poor a potentate to be ruined. He +advised him, however, to try the King of France once more; for he was +sure, if he knew anything of the French character, that the people would +be delighted with a plan, not only so new, but so plausible. + +Louis XIV died in 1715, and the heir to the throne being an infant only +seven years of age, the Duke of Orleans assumed the reins of government, +as Regent, during his minority. Law now found himself in a more +favourable position. The tide in his affairs had come, which, taken at +the flood, was to waft him on to fortune. The Regent was his friend, +already acquainted with his theory and pretensions, and inclined, +moreover, to aid him in any efforts to restore the wounded credit of +France, bowed down to the earth by the extravagance of the long reign of +Louis XIV. + +Hardly was that monarch laid in his grave ere the popular hatred, +suppressed so long, burst forth against his memory. He who, during his +life, had been flattered with an excess of adulation, to which history +scarcely offers a parallel, was now cursed as a tyrant, a bigot, and +a plunderer. His statues were pelted and disfigured; his effigies +torn down, amid the execrations of the populace, and his name rendered +synonymous with selfishness and oppression. The glory of his arms +was forgotten, and nothing was remembered but his reverses, his +extravagance, and his cruelty. + +The finances of the country were in a state of the utmost disorder. +A profuse and corrupt monarch, whose profuseness and corruption were +imitated by almost every functionary, from the highest to the lowest +grade, had brought France to the verge of ruin. The national debt +amounted to 3000 millions of livres, the revenue to 145 millions, and +the expenditure to 142 millions per annum; leaving only three millions +to pay the interest upon 3000 millions. The first care of the Regent was +to discover a remedy for an evil of such magnitude, and a council was +early summoned to take the matter into consideration. The Duke de St. +Simon was of opinion that nothing could save the country from revolution +but a remedy at once bold and dangerous. He advised the Regent to +convoke the States-General, and declare a national bankruptcy. The +Duke de Noailles, a man of accommodating principles, an accomplished +courtier, and totally averse from giving himself any trouble or +annoyance that ingenuity could escape from, opposed the project of St. +Simon with all his influence. He represented the expedient as alike +dishonest and ruinous. The Regent was of the same opinion, and this +desperate remedy fell to the ground. + +The measures ultimately adopted, though they promised fair, only +aggravated the evil. The first, and most dishonest measure, was of no +advantage to the state. A recoinage was ordered, by which the currency +was depreciated one-fifth; those who took a thousand pieces of gold or +silver to the mint received back an amount of coin of the same nominal +value, but only four-fifths of the weight of metal. By this contrivance +the treasury gained seventy-two millions of livres, and all the +commercial operations of the country were disordered. A trifling +diminution of the taxes silenced the clamours of the people, and for the +slight present advantage the great prospective evil was forgotten. + +A chamber of justice was next instituted, to inquire into the +malversations of the loan-contractors and the farmers of the revenues. +Tax collectors are never very popular in any country, but those of +France at this period deserved all the odium with which they were +loaded. As soon as these farmers-general, with all their hosts of +subordinate agents, called maltotiers [From maltote, an oppressive +tax.], were called to account for their misdeeds, the most extravagant +joy took possession of the nation. The Chamber of Justice, instituted +chiefly for this purpose, was endowed with very extensive powers. It was +composed of the presidents and councils of the parliament, the judges +of the Courts of Aid and of Requests, and the officers of the Chamber +of Account, under the general presidence of the minister of finance. +Informers were encouraged to give evidence against the offenders by the +promise of one-fifth part of the fines and confiscations. A tenth of all +concealed effects belonging to the guilty was promised to such as should +furnish the means of discovering them. + +The promulgation of the edict constituting this court caused a degree +of consternation among those principally concerned which can only +be accounted for on the supposition that their peculation had been +enormous. But they met with no sympathy. The proceedings against them +justified their terror. The Bastile was soon unable to contain the +prisoners that were sent to it, and the gaols all over the country +teemed with guilty or suspected persons. An order was issued to all +innkeepers and postmasters to refuse horses to such as endeavoured +to seek safety in flight; and all persons were forbidden, under heavy +fines, to harbour them or favour their evasion. Some were condemned to +the pillory, others to the gallies, and the least guilty to fine +and imprisonment. One only, Samuel Bernard, a rich banker, and +farmer-general of a province remote from the capital, was sentenced to +death. So great had been the illegal profits of this man,--looked +upon as the tyrant and oppressor of his district,--that he offered six +millions of livres, or 250,000 pounds sterling, to be allowed to escape. + +His bribe was refused, and he suffered the penalty of death. Others, +perhaps more guilty, were more fortunate. Confiscation, owing to the +concealment of their treasures by the delinquents, often produced less +money than a fine. The severity of the government relaxed, and fines, +under the denomination of taxes, were indiscriminately levied upon all +offenders. But so corrupt was every department of the administration, +that the country benefited but little by the sums which thus flowed into +the treasury. Courtiers, and courtiers' wives and mistresses, came in +for the chief share of the spoils. One contractor had been taxed in +proportion to his wealth and guilt, at the sum of twelve millions of +livres. The Count * * *, a man of some weight in the government, called +upon him, and offered to procure a remission of the fine, if he would +give him a hundred thousand crowns. "Vous etes trop tard, mon ami," +replied the financier; "I have already made a bargain with your wife for +fifty thousand." [This anecdote is related by M. de la Hode, in his Life +of Philippe of Orleans. It would have looked more authentic if he had +given the names of the dishonest contractor and the still more dishonest +minister. But M. de la Hode's book is liable to the same objection as +most of the French memoirs of that and of subsequent periods. It is +sufficient with most of them that an anecdote be ben trovato; the veto +is but matter of secondary consideration.] + +About a hundred and eighty millions of livres were levied in this +manner, of which eighty were applied in payment of the debts contracted +by the government. The remainder found its way into the pockets of the +courtiers. Madame de Maintenon, writing on this subject, says, "We hear +every day of some new grant of the Regent; the people murmur very much +at this mode of employing the money taken from the peculators." +The people, who, after the first burst of their resentment is over, +generally express a sympathy for the weak, were indignant that so much +severity should be used to so little purpose. They did not see the +justice of robbing one set of rogues to fatten another. In a few months +all the more guilty had been brought to punishment, and the chamber of +justice looked for victims in humbler walks of life. Charges of fraud +and extortion were brought against tradesmen of good character, in +consequence of the great inducements held out to common informers. They +were compelled to lay open their affairs before this tribunal in order +to establish their innocence. The voice of complaint resounded from +every side, and at the expiration of a year the government found it +advisable to discontinue further proceedings. The chamber of justice was +suppressed, and a general amnesty granted to all against whom no charges +had yet been preferred. + +In the midst of this financial confusion Law appeared upon the scene. +No man felt more deeply than the Regent the deplorable state of the +country, but no man could be more averse from putting his shoulders +manfully to the wheel. He disliked business; he signed official +documents without proper examination, and trusted to others what he +should have undertaken himself. The cares inseparable from his high +office were burdensome to him; he saw that something was necessary to +be done, but he lacked the energy to do it, and had not virtue enough +to sacrifice his case and his pleasures in the attempt. No wonder that, +with this character, he listened favourably to the mighty projects, so +easy of execution, of the clever adventurer whom he had formerly known, +and whose talents he appreciated. + +When Law presented himself at court, he was most cordially received. +He offered two memorials to the Regent, in which he set forth the +evils that had befallen France, owing to an insufficient currency, +at different times depreciated. He asserted that a metallic currency, +unaided by a paper money, was wholly inadequate to the wants of a +commercial country, and particularly cited the examples of Great +Britain and Holland to show the advantages of paper. He used many +sound arguments on the subject of credit, and proposed, as a means of +restoring that of France, then at so low an ebb among the nations, that +he should be allowed to set up a bank, which should have the management +of the royal revenues, and issue notes, both on that and on landed +security. He further proposed that this bank should be administered +in the King's name, but subject to the control of commissioners, to be +named by the States-General. + +While these memorials were under consideration, Law translated into +French his essay on money and trade, and used every means to extend +through the nation his renown as a financier. He soon became talked of. +The confidants of the Regent spread abroad his praise, and every one +expected great things of Monsieur Lass. [The French pronounced his name +in this manner to avoid the ungallic sound, aw. After the failure of his +scheme, the wags said the nation was lasse de lui, and proposed that he +should in future be known by the name of Monsieur Helas!] + +On the 5th of May, 1716, a royal edict was published, by which Law was +authorised, in conjunction with his brother, to establish a bank, under +the name of Law and Company, the notes of which should be received in +payment of the taxes. The capital was fixed at six millions of livres, +in twelve thousand shares of five hundred livres each, purchasable +one-fourth in specie and the remainder in billets d'etat. It was not +thought expedient to grant him the whole of the privileges prayed for +in his memorials until experience should have shown their safety and +advantage. + +Law was now on the high road to fortune. The study of thirty years was +brought to guide him in the management of his bank. He made all his +notes payable at sight, and in the coin current at the time they +were issued. This last was a master-stroke of policy, and immediately +rendered his notes more valuable than the precious metals. The latter +were constantly liable to depreciation by the unwise tampering of the +government. A thousand livres of silver might be worth their nominal +value one day and be reduced one-sixth the next, but a note of Law's +bank retained its original value. He publicly declared at the same time +that a banker deserved death if he made issues without having sufficient +security to answer all demands. The consequence was, that his notes +advanced rapidly in public estimation, and were received at one per +cent. more than specie. It was not long before the trade of the country +felt the benefit. Languishing commerce began to lift up her head; the +taxes were paid with greater regularity and less murmuring, and a degree +of confidence was established that could not fail, if it continued, to +become still more advantageous. In the course of a year Law's notes rose +to fifteen per cent. premium, while the billets d'etat, or notes +issued by the government, as security for the debts contracted by the +extravagant Louis XIV, were at a discount of no less than seventy-eight +and a half per cent. The comparison was too great in favour of Law not +to attract the attention of the whole kingdom, and his credit extended +itself day by day. Branches of his bank were almost simultaneously +established at Lyons, Rochelle, Tours, Amiens, and Orleans. + +The Regent appears to have been utterly astonished at his success, and +gradually to have conceived the idea, that paper, which could so aid a +metallic currency, could entirely supersede it. Upon this fundamental +error he afterwards acted. In the mean time, Law commenced the famous +project which has handed his name down to posterity. He proposed to +the Regent, who could refuse him nothing, to establish a company, +that should have the exclusive privilege of trading to the great river +Mississippi and the province of Louisiana, on its western bank. The +country was supposed to abound in the precious metals, and the company, +supported by the profits of their exclusive commerce, were to be the +sole farmers of the taxes, and sole coiners of money. Letters patent +were issued, incorporating the company, in August 1717. The capital was +divided into two hundred thousand shares of five hundred livres each, +the whole of which might be paid in billets d'etat, at their nominal +value, although worth no more than 160 livres in the market. + +It was now that the frenzy of speculating began to seize upon the +nation. Law's bank had effected so much good, that any promises for the +future which he thought proper to make were readily believed. The Regent +every day conferred new privileges upon the fortunate projector. The +bank obtained the monopoly of the sale of tobacco; the sole right of +refinage of gold and silver, and was finally erected into the Royal Bank +of France. Amid the intoxication of success, both Law and the Regent +forgot the maxim so loudly proclaimed by the former, that a banker +deserved death who made issues of paper without the necessary funds to +provide for them. As soon as the bank, from a private, became a public +institution, the Regent caused a fabrication of notes to the amount of +one thousand millions of livres. This was the first departure from sound +principles, and one for which Law is not justly blameable. While +the affairs of the bank were under his control, the issues had never +exceeded sixty millions. Whether Law opposed the inordinate increase +is not known, but as it took place as soon as the bank was made a royal +establishment, it is but fair to lay the blame of the change of system +upon the Regent. + +Law found that he lived under a despotic government, but he was not yet +aware of the pernicious influence which such a government could exercise +upon so delicate a framework as that of credit. He discovered it +afterwards to his cost, but in the mean time suffered himself to be +impelled by the Regent into courses which his own reason must have +disapproved. With a weakness most culpable, he lent his aid in +inundating the country with paper money, which, based upon no solid +foundation, was sure to fall, sooner or later. The extraordinary present +fortune dazzled his eyes, and prevented him from seeing the evil day +that would burst over his head, when once, from any cause or other, the +alarm was sounded. The Parliament were from the first jealous of his +influence as a foreigner, and had, besides, their misgivings as to +the safety of his projects. As his influence extended, their animosity +increased. D'Aguesseau, the Chancellor, was unceremoniously dismissed by +the Regent for his opposition to the vast increase of paper money, and +the constant depreciation of the gold and silver coin of the realm. +This only served to augment the enmity of the Parliament, and when +D'Argenson, a man devoted to the interests of the Regent, was appointed +to the vacant chancellorship, and made at the same time minister of +finance, they became more violent than ever. The first measure of the +new minister caused a further depreciation of the coin. In order to +extinguish the billets d'etat, it was ordered that persons bringing +to the mint four thousand livres in specie and one thousand livres in +billets d'etat, should receive back coin to the amount of five thousand +livres. D'Argenson plumed himself mightily upon thus creating five +thousand new and smaller livres out of the four thousand old and larger +ones, being too ignorant of the true principles of trade and credit to +be aware of the immense injury he was inflicting upon both. + +The Parliament saw at once the impolicy and danger of such a system, +and made repeated remonstrances to the Regent. The latter refused to +entertain their petitions, when the Parliament, by a bold, and very +unusual stretch of authority, commanded that no money should be received +in payment but that of the old standard. The Regent summoned a lit de +justice, and annulled the decree. The Parliament resisted, and issued +another. Again the Regent exercised his privilege, and annulled it, +till the Parliament, stung to fiercer opposition, passed another decree, +dated August 12th, 1718, by which they forbade the bank of Law to have +any concern, either direct or indirect, in the administration of the +revenue; and prohibited all foreigners, under heavy penalties, from +interfering, either in their own names, or in that of others, in the +management of the finances of the state. The Parliament considered Law +to be the author of all the evil, and some of the counsellors, in the +virulence of their enmity, proposed that he should be brought to trial, +and, if found guilty, be hung at the gates of the Palais de Justice. + +Law, in great alarm, fled to the Palais Royal, and threw himself on the +protection of the Regent, praying that measures might be taken to reduce +the Parliament to obedience. The Regent had nothing so much at heart, +both on that account and because of the disputes that had arisen +relative to the legitimation of the Duke of Maine and the Count of +Thoulouse, the sons of the late King. The Parliament was ultimately +overawed by the arrest of their president and two of the counsellors, +who were sent to distant prisons. + +Thus the first cloud upon Law's prospects blew over: freed from +apprehension of personal danger, he devoted his attention to his famous +Mississippi project, the shares of which were rapidly rising, in spite +of the Parliament. At the commencement of the year 1719 an edict was +published, granting to the Mississippi Company the exclusive privilege +of trading to the East Indies, China, and the South Seas, and to all the +possessions of the French East India Company, established by Colbert. +The Company, in consequence of this great increase of their business, +assumed, as more appropriate, the title of Company of the Indies, and +created fifty thousand new shares. The prospects now held out by Law +were most magnificent. He promised a yearly dividend of two hundred +livres upon each share of five hundred, which, as the shares were +paid for in billets d'etat, at their nominal value, but worth only 100 +livres, was at the rate of about 120 per cent. profit. + +The public enthusiasm, which had been so long rising, could not resist +a vision so splendid. At least three hundred thousand applications were +made for the fifty thousand new shares, and Law's house in the Rue de +Quincampoix was beset from morning to night by the eager applicants. +As it was impossible to satisfy them all, it was several weeks before a +list of the fortunate new stockholders could be made out, during which +time the public impatience rose to a pitch of frenzy. Dukes, marquises, +counts, with their duchesses, marchionesses, and countesses, waited +in the streets for hours every day before Mr. Law's door to know the +result. At last, to avoid the jostling of the plebeian crowd, which, +to the number of thousands, filled the whole thoroughfare, they took +apartments in the adjoining houses, that they might be continually near +the temple whence the new Plutus was diffusing wealth. Every day the +value of the old shares increased, and the fresh applications, induced +by the golden dreams of the whole nation, became so numerous that it +was deemed advisable to create no less than three hundred thousand new +shares, at five thousand livres each, in order that the Regent might +take advantage of the popular enthusiasm to pay off the national debt. +For this purpose, the sum of fifteen hundred millions of livres was +necessary. Such was the eagerness of the nation, that thrice the sum +would have been subscribed if the government had authorised it. + +Law was now at the zenith of his prosperity, and the people were rapidly +approaching the zenith of their infatuation. The highest and the lowest +classes were alike filled with a vision of boundless wealth. There was +not a person of note among the aristocracy, with the exception of the +Duke of St. Simon and Marshal Villars, who was not engaged in buying +or selling stock. People of every age and sex, and condition in life, +speculated in the rise and fall of the Mississippi bonds. The Rue de +Quincampoix was the grand resort of the jobbers, and it being a narrow, +inconvenient street, accidents continually occurred in it, from the +tremendous pressure of the crowd. Houses in it, worth, in ordinary +times, a thousand livres of yearly rent, yielded as much as twelve or +sixteen thousand. A cobbler, who had a stall in it, gained about two +hundred livres a day by letting it out, and furnishing writing materials +to brokers and their clients. The story goes, that a hump-backed man who +stood in the street gained considerable sums by lending his hump as a +writing-desk to the eager speculators! The great concourse of persons +who assembled to do business brought a still greater concourse of +spectators. These again drew all the thieves and immoral characters of +Paris to the spot, and constant riots and disturbances took place. At +nightfall, it was often found necessary to send a troop of soldiers to +clear the street. + +Law, finding the inconvenience of his residence, removed to the Place +Vendome, whither the crowd of agioteurs followed him. That spacious +square soon became as thronged as the Rue de Quincampoix: from morning +to night it presented the appearance of a fair. Booths and tents were +erected for the transaction of business and the sale of refreshments, +and gamblers with their roulette tables stationed themselves in the very +middle of the place, and reaped a golden, or rather a paper, harvest +from the throng. The Boulevards and public gardens were forsaken; +parties of pleasure took their walks in preference in the Place Vendome, +which became the fashionable lounge of the idle, as well as the general +rendezvous of the busy. The noise was so great all day, that the +Chancellor, whose court was situated in the square, complained to the +Regent and the municipality, that he could not hear the advocates. Law, +when applied to, expressed his willingness to aid in the removal of the +nuisance, and for this purpose entered into a treaty with the Prince de +Carignan for the Hotel de Soissons, which had a garden of several acres +in the rear. A bargain was concluded, by which Law became the purchaser +of the hotel, at an enormous price, the Prince reserving to himself the +magnificent gardens as a new source of profit. They contained some fine +statues and several fountains, and were altogether laid out with much +taste. As soon as Law was installed in his new abode, an edict was +published, forbidding all persons to buy or sell stock anywhere but +in the gardens of the Hotel de Soissons. In the midst among the trees, +about five hundred small tents and pavilions were erected, for the +convenience of the stock-jobbers. Their various colours, the gay ribands +and banners which floated from them, the busy crowds which passed +continually in and out--the incessant hum of voices, the noise, +the music, and the strange mixture of business and pleasure on the +countenances of the throng, all combined to give the place an air of +enchantment that quite enraptured the Parisians. The Prince de Carignan +made enormous profits while the delusion lasted. Each tent was let at +the rate of five hundred livres a month; and, as there were at least +five hundred of them, his monthly revenue from this source alone must +have amounted to 250,000 livres, or upwards of 10,000 pounds sterling. + +The honest old soldier, Marshal Villars, was so vexed to see the folly +which had smitten his countrymen, that he never could speak with +temper on the subject. Passing one day through the Place Vendome in his +carriage, the choleric gentleman was so annoyed at the infatuation of +the people, that he abruptly ordered his coachman to stop, and, putting +his head out of the carriage window, harangued them for full half an +hour on their "disgusting avarice." This was not a very wise proceeding +on his part. Hisses and shouts of laughter resounded from every side, +and jokes without number were aimed at him. There being at last strong +symptoms that something more tangible was flying through the air in +the direction of his head, Marshal was glad to drive on. He never again +repeated the experiment. + +Two sober, quiet, and philosophic men of letters, M. de la Motte and the +Abbe Terrason, congratulated each other, that they, at least, were free +from this strange infatuation. A few days afterwards, as the worthy +Abbe was coming out of the Hotel de Soissons, whither he had gone to buy +shares in the Mississippi, whom should he see but his friend La Motte +entering for the same purpose. "Ha!" said the Abbe, smiling, "is that +you?" "Yes," said La Motte, pushing past him as fast as he was able; +"and can that be you?" The next time the two scholars met, they talked +of philosophy, of science, and of religion, but neither had courage for +a long time to breathe one syllable about the Mississippi. At last, when +it was mentioned, they agreed that a man ought never to swear against +his doing any one thing, and that there was no sort of extravagance of +which even a wise man was not capable. + +During this time, Law, the new Plutus, had become all at once the most +important personage of the state. The ante-chambers of the Regent were +forsaken by the courtiers. Peers, judges, and bishops thronged to the +Hotel de Soissons; officers of the army and navy, ladies of title and +fashion, and every one to whom hereditary rank or public employ gave a +claim to precedence, were to be found waiting in his ante-chambers to +beg for a portion of his India stock. Law was so pestered that he was +unable to see one-tenth part of the applicants, and every manoeuvre that +ingenuity could suggest was employed to gain access to him. Peers, whose +dignity would have been outraged if the Regent had made them wait half +an hour for an interview, were content to wait six hours for the chance +of seeing Monsieur Law. Enormous fees were paid to his servants, if +they would merely announce their names. Ladies of rank employed the +blandishments of their smiles for the same object; but many of them came +day after day for a fortnight before they could obtain an audience. When +Law accepted an invitation, he was sometimes so surrounded by ladies, +all asking to have their names put down in his lists as shareholders in +the new stock, that, in spite of his well-known and habitual gallantry, +he was obliged to tear himself away par force. The most ludicrous +stratagems were employed to have an opportunity of speaking to him. One +lady, who had striven in vain during several days, gave up in despair +all attempts to see him at his own house, but ordered her coachman to +keep a strict watch whenever she was out in her carriage, and if he saw +Mr. Law coming, to drive against a post, and upset her. The coachman +promised obedience, and for three days the lady was driven incessantly +through the town, praying inwardly for the opportunity to be overturned. +At last she espied Mr. Law, and, pulling the string, called out to the +coachman, "Upset us now! for God's sake, upset us now!" The coachman +drove against a post, the lady screamed, the coach was overturned, +and Law, who had seen the accident, hastened to the spot to render +assistance. The cunning dame was led into the Hotel de Soissons, where +she soon thought it advisable to recover from her fright, and, after +apologizing to Mr. Law, confessed her stratagem. Law smiled, and entered +the lady in his books as the purchaser of a quantity of India stock. +Another story is told of a Madame de Boucha, who, knowing that Mr. Law +was at dinner at a certain house, proceeded thither in her carriage, and +gave the alarm of fire. The company started from table, and Law among +the rest; but, seeing one lady making all haste into the house towards +him, while everybody else was scampering away, he suspected the trick, +and ran off in another direction. + +Many other anecdotes are related, which even, though they may be a +little exaggerated, are nevertheless worth preserving, as showing the +spirit of that singular period. [The curious reader may find an anecdote +of the eagerness of the French ladies to retain Law in their company, +which will make him blush or smile according as he happens to be very +modest or the reverse. It is related in the Letters of Madame Charlotte +Elizabeth de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, vol. ii. p. 274.] The Regent +was one day mentioning, in the presence of D'Argenson, the Abbe Dubois, +and some other persons, that he was desirous of deputing some lady, of +the rank at least of a Duchess, to attend upon his daughter at Modena; +"but," added he, "I do not exactly know where to find one." "No!" +replied one, in affected surprise; "I can tell you where to find every +Duchess in France:--you have only to go to Mr. Law's; you will see them +every one in his ante-chamber." + +M. de Chirac, a celebrated physician, had bought stock at an unlucky +period, and was very anxious to sell out. Stock, however continued to +fall for two or three days, much to his alarm. His mind was filled with +the subject, when he was suddenly called upon to attend a lady, who +imagined herself unwell. He arrived, was shown up stairs, and felt the +lady's pulse. "It falls! it falls! good God! it falls continually!" said +he, musingly, while the lady looked up in his face, all anxiety for his +opinion. "Oh! M. de Chirac," said she, starting to her feet, and ringing +the bell for assistance; "I am dying! I am dying! it falls! it falls! it +falls!" "What falls?" inquired the doctor, in amazement. "My pulse! my +pulse!" said the lady; "I must be dying." "Calm your apprehensions, my +dear Madam," said M. de Chirac; "I was speaking of the stocks. The truth +is, I have been a great loser, and my mind is so disturbed, I hardly +know what I have been saying." + +The price of shares sometimes rose ten or twenty per cent. in the course +of a few hours, and many persons in the humbler walks of life, who had +risen poor in the morning, went to bed in affluence. An extensive holder +of stock, being taken ill, sent his servant to sell two hundred and +fifty shares, at eight thousand livres each, the price at which they +were then quoted. The servant went, and, on his arrival in the Jardin de +Soissons, found that in the interval the price had risen to ten thousand +livres. The difference of two thousand livres on the two hundred and +fifty shares, amounting to 500,000 livres, or 20,000 pounds sterling, he +very coolly transferred to his own use, and, giving the remainder to his +master, set out the same evening for another country. Law's coachman in +a very short time made money enough to set up a carriage of his own, and +requested permission to leave his service. Law, who esteemed the man, +begged of him as a favour, that he would endeavour, before he went, to +find a substitute as good as himself. The coachman consented, and in the +evening brought two of his former comrades, telling Mr. Law to choose +between them, and he would take the other. Cookmaids and footmen +were now and then as lucky, and, in the full-blown pride of their +easily-acquired wealth, made the most ridiculous mistakes. Preserving +the language and manners of their old, with the finery of their new +station, they afforded continual subjects for the pity of the sensible, +the contempt of the sober, and the laughter of everybody. But the folly +and meanness of the higher ranks of society were still more disgusting. +One instance alone, related by the Duke de St. Simon, will show the +unworthy avarice which infected the whole of society. A man of the name +of Andre, without character or education, had, by a series of well-timed +speculations in Mississippi bonds, gained enormous wealth, in an +incredibly short space of time. As St. Simon expresses it, "he had +amassed mountains of gold." As he became rich, he grew ashamed of the +lowness of his birth, and anxious above all things to be allied to +nobility. He had a daughter, an infant only three years of age, and he +opened a negotiation with the aristocratic and needy family of D'Oyse, +that this child should, upon certain conditions, marry a member of that +house. The Marquis d'Oyse, to his shame, consented, and promised to +marry her himself on her attaining the age of twelve, if the father +would pay him down the sum of a hundred thousand crowns, and twenty +thousand livres every year, until the celebration of the marriage. The +Marquis was himself in his thirty-third year. This scandalous bargain +was duly signed and sealed, the stockjobber furthermore agreeing to +settle upon his daughter, on the marriage-day, a fortune of several +millions. The Duke of Brancas, the head of the family, was present +throughout the negotiation, and shared in all the profits. St. Simon, +who treats the matter with the levity becoming what he thought so good +a joke, adds, "that people did not spare their animadversions on this +beautiful marriage," and further informs us, "that the project fell to +the ground some months afterwards by the overthrow of Law, and the ruin +of the ambitious Monsieur Andre." It would appear, however, that the +noble family never had the honesty to return the hundred thousand +crowns. + +Amid events like these, which, humiliating though they be, partake +largely of the ludicrous, others occurred of a more serious nature. +Robberies in the streets were of daily occurrence, in consequence of +the immense sums, in paper, which people carried about with them. +Assassinations were also frequent. One case in particular fixed the +attention of the whole of France, not only on account of the enormity of +the offence, but of the rank and high connexions of the criminal. + +The Count d'Horn, a younger brother of the Prince d'Horn, and related +to the noble families of D'Aremberg, De Ligne, and De Montmorency, was +a young man of dissipated character, extravagant to a degree, and +unprincipled as he was extravagant. In connexion with two other young +men as reckless as himself, named Mille, a Piedmontese captain, and one +Destampes, or Lestang, a Fleming, he formed a design to rob a very rich +broker, who was known, unfortunately for himself, to carry great sums +about his person. The Count pretended a desire to purchase of him a +number of shares in the Company of the Indies, and for that purpose +appointed to meet him in a cabaret, or low public-house, in the +neighbourhood of the Place Vendome. The unsuspecting broker was punctual +to his appointment; so were the Count d'Horn and his two associates, +whom he introduced as his particular friends. After a few moments' +conversation, the Count d'Horn suddenly sprang upon his victim, and +stabbed him three times in the breast with a poniard. The man fell +heavily to the ground, and, while the Count was employed in rifling his +portfolio of bonds in the Mississippi and Indian schemes to the amount +of one hundred thousand crowns, Mille, the Piedmontese, stabbed the +unfortunate broker again and again, to make sure of his death. But the +broker did not fall without a struggle, and his cries brought the people +of the cabaret to his assistance. Lestang, the other assassin, who had +been set to keep watch at a staircase, sprang from a window and escaped; +but Mille and the Count d'Horn were seized in the very act. + +This crime, committed in open day, and in so public a place as a +cabaret, filled Paris with consternation. The trial of the assassins +commenced on the following day, and the evidence being so clear, they +were both found guilty and condemned to be broken alive on the wheel. +The noble relatives of the Count d'Horn absolutely blocked up the +ante-chambers of the Regent, praying for mercy on the misguided youth, +and alleging that he was insane. The Regent avoided them as long as +possible, being determined that, in a case so atrocious, justice should +take its course; but the importunity of these influential suitors was +not to be overcome so silently, and they at last forced themselves into +the presence of the Regent, and prayed him to save their house the shame +of a public execution. They hinted that the Princes d'Horn were allied +to the illustrious family of Orleans, and added that the Regent himself +would be disgraced if a kinsman of his should die by the hands of a +common executioner. The Regent, to his credit, was proof against all +their solicitations, and replied to their last argument in the words of +Corneille,-- + + "Le crime fait la honte, et non pas l'echafaud:" + +adding, that whatever shame there might be in the punishment he would +very willingly share with the other relatives. Day after day they +renewed their entreaties, but always with the same result. At last +they thought that if they could interest the Duke de St. Simon in +their layout, a man for whom the Regent felt sincere esteem, they might +succeed in their object. The Duke, a thorough aristocrat, was as shocked +as they were, that a noble assassin should die by the same death as a +plebeian felon, and represented to the Regent the impolicy of making +enemies of so numerous, wealthy, and powerful a family. He urged, too, +that in Germany, where the family of D'Aremberg had large possessions, +it was the law, that no relative of a person broken on the wheel could +succeed to any public office or employ until a whole generation had +passed away. For this reason he thought the punishment of the guilty +Count might be transmuted into beheading, which was considered all over +Europe as much less infamous. The Regent was moved by this argument, and +was about to consent, when Law, who felt peculiarly interested in the +fate of the murdered man, confirmed him in his former resolution, to let +the law take its course. + +The relatives of D'Horn were now reduced to the last extremity. The +Prince de Robec Montmorency, despairing of other methods, found means +to penetrate into the dungeon of the criminal, and offering him a cup of +poison, implored him to save them from disgrace. The Count d'Horn turned +away his head, and refused to take it. Montmorency pressed him once +more, and losing all patience at his continued refusal, turned on his +heel, and exclaiming, "Die, then, as thou wilt, mean-spirited wretch! +thou art fit only to perish by the hands of the hangman!" left him to +his fate. + +D'Horn himself petitioned the Regent that he might be beheaded, but Law, +who exercised more influence over his mind than any other person, with +the exception of the notorious Abbe Dubois, his tutor, insisted that +he could not in justice succumb to the self-interested views of the +D'Horns. The Regent had from the first been of the same opinion, and +within six days after the commission of their crime, D'Horn and Mille +were broken on the wheel in the Place de Greve. The other assassin, +Lestang, was never apprehended. + +This prompt and severe justice was highly pleasing to the populace of +Paris; even M. de Quincampoix, as they called Law, came in for a share +of their approbation for having induced the Regent to show no favour +to a patrician. But the number of robberies and assassinations did +not diminish. No sympathy was shown for rich jobbers when they were +plundered: the general laxity of public morals, conspicuous enough +before, was rendered still more so by its rapid pervasion of the middle +classes, who had hitherto remained comparatively pure, between the open +vices of the class above and the hidden crimes of the class below them. +The pernicious love of gambling diffused itself through society, and +bore all public, and nearly all private, virtue before it. + +For a time, while confidence lasted, an impetus was given to trade, +which could not fail to be beneficial. In Paris, especially, the good +results were felt. Strangers flocked into the capital from every part, +bent, not only upon making money, but on spending it. The Duchess of +Orleans, mother of the Regent, computes the increase of the population +during this time, from the great influx of strangers from all parts of +the world, at 305,000 souls. The housekeepers were obliged to make up +beds in garrets, kitchens, and even stables, for the accommodation of +lodgers; and the town was so full of carriages and vehicles of every +description, that they were obliged in the principal streets to drive at +a foot-pace for fear of accidents. The looms of the country worked with +unusual activity, to supply rich laces, silks, broad-cloth, and velvets, +which being paid for in abundant paper, increased in price four-fold. +Provisions shared the general advance; bread, meat, and vegetables were +sold at prices greater than had ever before been known; while the wages +of labour rose in exactly the same proportion. The artisan, who formerly +gained fifteen sous per diem, now gained sixty. New houses were built +in every direction; an illusory prosperity shone over the land, and so +dazzled the eyes of the whole nation that none could see the dark cloud +on the horizon, announcing the storm that was too rapidly approaching. + +Law himself, the magician whose wand had wrought so surprising a change, +shared, of course, in the general prosperity. His wife and daughter were +courted by the highest nobility, and their alliance sought by the +heirs of ducal and princely houses. He bought two splendid estates +in different parts of France, and entered into a negotiation with the +family of the Duke de Sully for the purchase of the Marquisate of Rosny. +His religion being an obstacle to his advancement, the Regent promised, +if he would publicly conform to the Catholic faith, to make him +comptroller-general of the finances. Law, who had no more real religion +than any other professed gambler, readily agreed, and was confirmed by +the Abbe de Tencin in the cathedral of Melun, in presence of a great +crowd of spectators. + +[The following squib was circulated on the occasion:-- + + "Foin de ton zele seraphique, + Malheureux Abbe de Tencin, + Depuis que Law est Catholique, + Tout le royaume est Capucin + +Thus, somewhat weakly and paraphrastically rendered by Justansond, in +his translation of the "Memoirs of Louis XV:"-- + + "Tencin, a curse on thy seraphic zeal, + Which by persuasion hath contrived the means + To make the Scotchman at our altars kneel, + Since which we all are poor as Capucines?] + +On the following day he was elected honorary churchwarden of the parish +of St. Roch, upon which occasion he made it a present of the sum of five +hundred thousand livres. His charities, always magnificent, were not +always so ostentatious. He gave away great sums privately, and no tale +of real distress ever reached his ears in vain. + +At this time, he was by far the most influential person of the state. +The Duke of Orleans had so much confidence in his sagacity, and the +success of his plans, that he always consulted him upon every matter +of moment. He was by no means unduly elevated by his prosperity, but +remained the same simple, affable, sensible man that he had shown +himself in adversity. His gallantry, which was always delightful to the +fair objects of it, was of a nature, so kind, so gentlemanly, and so +respectful, that not even a lover could have taken offence at it. If +upon any occasion he showed any symptoms of haughtiness, it was to the +cringing nobles, who lavished their adulation upon him till it became +fulsome. He often took pleasure in seeing how long he could make them +dance attendance upon him for a single favour. To such of his own +countrymen as by chance visited Paris, and sought an interview with him, +he was, on the contrary, all politeness and attention. When Archibald +Campbell, Earl of Islay, and afterwards Duke of Argyle, called upon him +in the Place Vendome, he had to pass through an ante-chamber crowded +with persons of the first distinction, all anxious to see the great +financier, and have their names put down as first on the list of some +new subscription. Law himself was quietly sitting in his library, +writing a letter to the gardener at his paternal estate of Lauriston +about the planting of some cabbages! The Earl stayed for a considerable +time, played a game of piquet with his countryman, and left him, charmed +with his ease, good sense, and good breeding. + +Among the nobles who, by means of the public credulity at this time, +gained sums sufficient to repair their ruined fortunes, may be mentioned +the names of the Dukes de Bourbon, de Guiche, de la Force [The Duke de +la Force gained considerable sums, not only by jobbing in the stocks, +but in dealing in porcelain, spices, &c. It was debated for a length of +time in the Parliament of Paris whether he had not, in his quality of +spice-merchant, forfeited his rank in the peerage. It was decided in +the negative. A caricature of him was made, dressed as a street porter, +carrying a large bale of spices on his back, with the inscription, +"Admirez La Force."], de Chaulnes, and d'Antin; the Marechal d'Estrees, +the Princes de Rohan, de Poix, and de Leon. The Duke de Bourbon, son +of Louis XIV by Madame de Montespan, was peculiarly fortunate in his +speculations in Mississippi paper. He rebuilt the royal residence of +Chantilly in a style of unwonted magnificence, and, being passionately +fond of horses, he erected a range of stables, which were long renowned +throughout Europe, and imported a hundred and fifty of the finest racers +from England, to improve the breed in France. He bought a large extent +of country in Picardy, and became possessed of nearly all the valuable +lands lying between the Oise and the Somme. + +When fortunes such as these were gained, it is no wonder that Law should +have been almost worshipped by the mercurial population. Never was +monarch more flattered than he was. All the small poets and litterateurs +of the day poured floods of adulation upon him. According to them he was +the saviour of the country, the tutelary divinity of France; wit was in +all his words, goodness in all his looks, and wisdom in all his actions. +So great a crowd followed his carriage whenever he went abroad, that the +Regent sent him a troop of horse as his permanent escort, to clear the +streets before him. + +It was remarked at this time, that Paris had never before been so full +of objects of elegance and luxury. Statues, pictures, and tapestries +were imported in great quantities from foreign countries, and found +a ready market. All those pretty trifles in the way of furniture and +ornament which the French excel in manufacturing, were no longer the +exclusive play-things of the aristocracy, but were to be found in +abundance in the houses of traders and the middle classes in general. +Jewellery of the most costly description was brought to Paris as the +most favourable mart. Among the rest, the famous diamond, bought by +the Regent, and called by his name, and which long adorned the crown of +France. It was purchased for the sum of two millions of livres, under +circumstances which show that the Regent was not so great a gainer as +some of his subjects, by the impetus which trade had received. When +the diamond was first offered to him, he refused to buy it, although he +desired, above all things, to possess it, alleging as his reason, that +his duty to the country he governed would not allow him to spend +so large a sum of the public money for a mere jewel. This valid and +honourable excuse threw all the ladies of the court into alarm, and +nothing was heard for some days but expressions of regret, that so rare +a gem should be allowed to go out of France; no private individual being +rich enough to buy it. The Regent was continually importuned about it; +but all in vain, until the Duke de St. Simon, who, with all his ability, +was something of a twaddler, undertook the weighty business. His +entreaties, being seconded by Law, the good-natured Regent gave his +consent, leaving to Law's ingenuity to find the means to pay for it. The +owner took security for the payment of the sum of two millions of livres +within a stated period, receiving, in the mean time, the interest of +five per cent. upon that amount, and being allowed, besides, all the +valuable clippings of the gem. St. Simon, in his Memoirs, relates, with +no little complacency, his share in this transaction. After describing +the diamond to be as large as a greengage, of a form nearly round, +perfectly white, and without flaw, and weighing more than five hundred +grains, he concludes with a chuckle, by telling the world, "that he +takes great credit to himself for having induced the Regent to make +so illustrious a purchase." In other words, he was proud that he had +induced him to sacrifice his duty, and buy a bauble for himself, at an +extravagant price, out of the public money. + +Thus the system continued to flourish till the commencement of the year +1720. The warnings of the Parliament, that too great a creation of paper +money would, sooner or later, bring the country to bankruptcy, were +disregarded. The Regent, who knew nothing whatever of the philosophy +of finance, thought that a system which had produced such good effects +could never be carried to excess. If five hundred millions of paper had +been of such advantage, five hundred millions additional would be of +still greater advantage. This was the grand error of the Regent, and +which Law did not attempt to dispel. The extraordinary avidity of the +people kept up the delusion; and the higher the price of Indian and +Mississippi stock, the more billets de banque were issued to keep pace +with it. The edifice thus reared might not unaptly be compared to the +gorgeous palace erected by Potemkin, that princely barbarian of Russia, +to surprise and please his imperial mistress: huge blocks of ice were +piled one upon another; ionic pillars, of chastest workmanship, in ice, +formed a noble portico; and a dome, of the same material, shone in the +sun, which had just strength enough to gild, but not to melt it. It +glittered afar, like a palace of crystals and diamonds; but there came +one warm breeze from the south, and the stately building dissolved away, +till none were able even to gather up the fragments. So with Law and his +paper system. No sooner did the breath of popular mistrust blow steadily +upon it, than it fell to ruins, and none could raise it up again. + +The first slight alarm that was occasioned was early in 1720. The Prince +de Conti, offended that Law should have denied him fresh shares in India +stock, at his own price, sent to his bank to demand payment in specie +of so enormous a quantity of notes, that three waggons were required for +its transport. Law complained to the Regent, and urged on his attention +the mischief that would be done, if such an example found many +imitators. The Regent was but too well aware of it, and, sending for the +Prince de Conti, ordered him, under penalty of his high displeasure, to +refund to the Bank two-thirds of the specie which he had withdrawn from +it. The Prince was forced to obey the despotic mandate. Happily for +Law's credit, De Conti was an unpopular man: everybody condemned his +meanness and cupidity, and agreed that Law had been hardly treated. It +is strange, however, that so narrow an escape should not have made both +Law and the Regent more anxious to restrict their issues. Others were +soon found who imitated, from motives of distrust, the example which had +been set by De Conti in revenge. The more acute stockjobbers imagined +justly that prices could not continue to rise for ever. Bourdon and +La Richardiere, renowned for their extensive operations in the funds, +quietly and in small quantities at a time, converted their notes into +specie, and sent it away to foreign countries. They also bought as much +as they could conveniently carry of plate and expensive jewellery, and +sent it secretly away to England or to Holland. Vermalet, a jobber, who +sniffed the coming storm, procured gold and silver coin to the amount +of nearly a million of livres, which he packed in a farmer's cart, and +covered over with hay and cow-dung. He then disguised himself in the +dirty smock-frock, or blouse, of a peasant, and drove his precious load +in safety into Belgium. From thence he soon found means to transport it +to Amsterdam. + +Hitherto no difficulty had been experienced by any class in procuring +specie for their wants. But this system could not long be carried on +without causing a scarcity. The voice of complaint was heard on every +side, and inquiries being instituted, the cause was soon discovered. The +council debated long on the remedies to be taken, and Law, being called +on for his advice, was of opinion, that an edict should be published, +depreciating the value of coin five per cent. below that of paper. The +edict was published accordingly; but, failing of its intended effect, +was followed by another, in which the depreciation was increased to ten +per cent. The payments of the bank were at the same time restricted to +one hundred livres in gold, and ten in silver. All these measures were +nugatory to restore confidence in the paper, though the restriction of +cash payments within limits so extremely narrow kept up the credit of +the Bank. + +Notwithstanding every effort to the contrary, the precious metals +continued to be conveyed to England and Holland. The little coin that +was left in the country was carefully treasured, or hidden until the +scarcity became so great, that the operations of trade could no longer +be carried on. In this emergency, Law hazarded the bold experiment of +forbidding the use of specie altogether. In February 1720 an edict was +published, which, instead of restoring the credit of the paper, as was +intended, destroyed it irrecoverably, and drove the country to the very +brink of revolution. By this famous edict it was forbidden to any person +whatever to have more than five hundred livres (20 pounds sterling) of +coin in his possession, under pain of a heavy fine, and confiscation of +the sums found. It was also forbidden to buy up jewellery, plate, +and precious stones, and informers were encouraged to make search for +offenders, by the promise of one-half the amount they might discover. +The whole country sent up a cry of distress at this unheard-of tyranny. +The most odious persecution daily took place. The privacy of families +was violated by the intrusion of informers and their agents. The most +virtuous and honest were denounced for the crime of having been seen +with a louis d'or in their possession. Servants betrayed their +masters, one citizen became a spy upon his neighbour, and arrests and +confiscations so multiplied, that the courts found a difficulty in +getting through the immense increase of business thus occasioned. It +was sufficient for an informer to say that he suspected any person of +concealing money in his house, and immediately a search-warrant was +granted. Lord Stair, the English ambassador, said, that it was now +impossible to doubt of the sincerity of Law's conversion to the Catholic +religion; he had established the inquisition, after having given +abundant evidence of his faith in transubstantiation, by turning so much +gold into paper. + +Every epithet that popular hatred could suggest was showered upon the +Regent and the unhappy Law. Coin, to any amount above five hundred +livres, was an illegal tender, and nobody would take paper if he could +help it. No one knew to-day what his notes would be worth to-morrow. +"Never," says Duclos, in his Secret Memoirs of the Regency, "was seen a +more capricious government-never was a more frantic tyranny exercised by +hands less firm. It is inconceivable to those who were witnesses of the +horrors of those times, and who look back upon them now as on a dream, +that a sudden revolution did not break out--that Law and the Regent did +not perish by a tragical death. They were both held in horror, but the +people confined themselves to complaints; a sombre and timid despair, a +stupid consternation, had seized upon all, and men's minds were too vile +even to be capable of a courageous crime." It would appear that, at one +time, a movement of the people was organised. Seditious writings were +posted up against the walls, and were sent, in hand-bills, to the houses +of the most conspicuous people. One of them, given in the "Memoires de +la Regence," was to the following effect:--"Sir and Madam,--This is to +give you notice that a St. Bartholomew's Day will be enacted again on +Saturday and Sunday, if affairs do not alter. You are desired not to +stir out, nor you, nor your servants. God preserve you from the flames! +Give notice to your neighbours. Dated Saturday, May 25th, 1720." The +immense number of spies with which the city was infested rendered the +people mistrustful of one another, and beyond some trifling disturbances +made in the evening by an insignificant group, which was soon dispersed, +the peace of the capital was not compromised. + +The value of shares in the Louisiana, or Mississippi stock, had fallen +very rapidly, and few indeed were found to believe the tales that had +once been told of the immense wealth of that region. A last effort was +therefore tried to restore the public confidence in the Mississippi +project. For this purpose, a general conscription of all the poor +wretches in Paris was made by order of government. Upwards of six +thousand of the very refuse of the population were impressed, as if in +time of war, and were provided with clothes and tools to be embarked +for New Orleans, to work in the gold mines alleged to abound there. +They were paraded day after day through the streets with their pikes and +shovels, and then sent off in small detachments to the out-ports to be +shipped for America. Two-thirds of them never reached their destination, +but dispersed themselves over the country, sold their tools for what +they could get, and returned to their old course of life. In less than +three weeks afterwards, one-half of them were to be found again in +Paris. The manoeuvre, however, caused a trifling advance in Mississippi +stock. Many persons of superabundant gullibility believed that +operations had begun in earnest in the new Golconda, and that gold and +silver ingots would again be found in France. + +In a constitutional monarchy some surer means would have been found for +the restoration of public credit. In England, at a subsequent period, +when a similar delusion had brought on similar distress, how +different were the measures taken to repair the evil; but in France, +unfortunately, the remedy was left to the authors of the mischief. +The arbitrary will of the Regent, which endeavoured to extricate the +country, only plunged it deeper into the mire. All payments were ordered +to be made in paper, and between the 1st of February and the end of +May, notes were fabricated to the amount of upwards of 1500 millions of +livres, or 60,000,000 pounds sterling. But the alarm once sounded, no +art could make the people feel the slightest confidence in paper which +was not exchangeable into metal. M. Lambert, the President of the +Parliament of Paris, told the Regent to his face that he would rather +have a hundred thousand livres in gold or silver than five millions +in the notes of his bank. When such was the general feeling, the +superabundant issues of paper but increased the evil, by rendering still +more enormous the disparity between the amount of specie and notes in +circulation. Coin, which it was the object of the Regent to depreciate, +rose in value on every fresh attempt to diminish it. In February, it +was judged advisable that the Royal Bank should be incorporated with +the Company of the Indies. An edict to that effect was published and +registered by the Parliament. The state remained the guarantee for the +notes of the bank, and no more were to be issued without an order in +council. All the profits of the bank, since the time it had been taken +out of Law's hands and made a national institution, were given over by +the Regent to the Company of the Indies. This measure had the effect of +raising for a short time the value of the Louisiana and other shares +of the company, but it failed in placing public credit on any permanent +basis. + +A council of state was held in the beginning of May, at which Law, +D'Argenson (his colleague in the administration of the finances), and +all the ministers were present. It was then computed that the total +amount of notes in circulation was 2600 millions of livres, while the +coin in the country was not quite equal to half that amount. It was +evident to the majority of the council that some plan must be adopted to +equalise the currency. Some proposed that the notes should be reduced to +the value of the specie, while others proposed that the nominal value of +the specie should be raised till it was on an equality with the +paper. Law is said to have opposed both these projects, but failing in +suggesting any other, it was agreed that the notes should be depreciated +one-half. On the 21st of May, an edict was accordingly issued, by which +it was decreed that the shares of the Company of the Indies, and the +notes of the bank, should gradually diminish in value, till at the end +of a year they should only pass current for one half of their nominal +worth. The Parliament refused to register the edict--the greatest outcry +was excited, and the state of the country became so alarming, that, as +the only means of preserving tranquillity, the council of the regency +was obliged to stultify its own proceedings, by publishing within seven +days another edict, restoring the notes to their original value. + +On the same day (the 27th of May) the bank stopped payment in specie. +Law and D'Argenson were both dismissed from the ministry. The weak, +vacillating, and cowardly Regent threw the blame of all the mischief +upon Law, who, upon presenting himself at the Palais Royal, was refused +admitance. At nightfall, however, he was sent for, and admitted into the +palace by a secret door,[Duclos, Memoires Secrets de la Regence.] when +the Regent endeavoured to console him, and made all manner of excuses +for the severity with which in public he had been compelled to treat +him. So capricious was his conduct, that, two days afterwards, he took +him publicly to the opera, where he sat in the royal box, alongside of +the Regent, who treated him with marked consideration in face of all the +people. But such was the hatred against Law that the experiment had well +nigh proved fatal to him. The mob assailed his carriage with stones +just as he was entering his own door; and if the coachman had not made +a sudden jerk into the court-yard, and the domestics closed the gate +immediately, he would, in all probability, have been dragged out and +torn to pieces. On the following day, his wife and daughter were also +assailed by the mob as they were returning in their carriage from the +races. When the Regent was informed of these occurrences he sent Law a +strong detachment of Swiss guards, who were stationed night and day in +the court of his residence. The public indignation at last increased so +much, that Law, finding his own house, even with this guard, insecure, +took refuge in the Palais Royal, in the apartments of the Regent. + +The Chancellor, D'Aguesseau, who had been dismissed in 1718 for his +opposition to the projects of Law, was now recalled to aid in the +restoration of credit. The Regent acknowledged too late, that he had +treated with unjustifiable harshness and mistrust one of the ablest, +and perhaps the sole honest public man of that corrupt period. He had +retired ever since his disgrace to his country-house at Fresnes, where, +in the midst of severe but delightful philosophic studies, he had +forgotten the intrigues of an unworthy court. Law himself, and the +Chevalier de Conflans, a gentleman of the Regent's household, were +despatched in a post-chaise, with orders to bring the ex-chancellor to +Paris along with them. D'Aguesseau consented to render what assistance +he could, contrary to the advice of his friends, who did not approve +that he should accept any recall to office of which Law was the bearer. +On his arrival in Paris, five counsellors of the Parliament were +admitted to confer with the Commissary of Finance, and on the 1st of +June an order was published, abolishing the law which made it criminal +to amass coin to the amount of more than five hundred livres. Every one +was permitted to have as much specie as he pleased. In order that the +bank-notes might be withdrawn, twenty-five millions of new notes were +created, on the security of the revenues of the city of Paris, at +two-and-a-half per cent. The bank-notes withdrawn were publicly burned +in front of the Hotel de Ville. The new notes were principally of +the value of ten livres each; and on the 10th of June the bank was +re-opened, with a sufficiency of silver coin to give in change for them. + +These measures were productive of considerable advantage. All the +population of Paris hastened to the bank, to get coin for their small +notes; and silver becoming scarce, they were paid in copper. Very few +complained that this was too heavy, although poor fellows might be +continually seen toiling and sweating along the streets, laden with +more than they could comfortably carry, in the shape of change for fifty +livres. The crowds around the bank were so great, that hardly a day +passed that some one was not pressed to death. On the 9th of July, the +multitude was so dense and clamorous that the guards stationed at the +entrance of the Mazarin Gardens closed the gate, and refused to admit +any more. The crowd became incensed, and flung stones through the +railings upon the soldiers. The latter, incensed in their turn, +threatened to fire upon the people. At that instant one of them was hit +by a stone, and, taking up his piece, he fired into the crowd. One man +fell dead immediately, and another was severely wounded. It was every +instant expected that a general attack would have been commenced upon +the bank; but the gates of the Mazarin Gardens being opened to the +crowd, who saw a whole troop of soldiers, with their bayonets fixed, +ready to receive them, they contented themselves by giving vent to their +indignation in groans and hisses. + +Eight days afterwards the concourse of people was so tremendous, that +fifteen persons were squeezed to death at the doors of the bank. +The people were so indignant that they took three of the bodies on +stretchers before them, and proceeded, to the number of seven or eight +thousand, to the gardens of the Palais Royal, that they might show the +Regent the misfortunes that he and Law had brought upon the country. +Law's coachman, who was sitting on the box of his master's carriage, +in the court-yard of the palace, happened to have more zeal than +discretion, and, not liking that the mob should abuse his master, he +said, loud enough to be overheard by several persons, that they were +all blackguards, and deserved to be hanged. The mob immediately set upon +him, and, thinking that Law was in the carriage, broke it to pieces. The +imprudent coachman narrowly escaped with his life. No further mischief +was done; a body of troops making their appearance, the crowd quietly +dispersed, after an assurance had been given by the Regent that the +three bodies they had brought to show him should be decently buried at +his own expense. The Parliament was sitting at the time of this uproar, +and the President took upon himself to go out and see what was the +matter. On his return he informed the councillors, that Law's carriage +had been broken by the mob. All the members rose simultaneously, and +expressed their joy by a loud shout, while one man, more zealous in +his hatred than the rest, exclaimed, "And Law himself, is he torn to +pieces?" [The Duchess of Orleans gives a different version of this +story; but whichever be the true one, the manifestation of such feeling +in a legislative assembly was not very creditable. She says, that the +President was so transported with joy, that he was seized with a rhyming +fit, and, returning into the hall, exclaimed to the members:-- + + "Messieurs! Messieurs! bonne nouvelle! + Le carfosse de Lass est reduit en canelle!"] + +Much undoubtedly depended on the credit of the Company of the Indies, +which was answerable for so great a sum to the nation. It was, +therefore, suggested in the council of the ministry, that any privileges +which could be granted to enable it to fulfil its engagements, would be +productive of the best results. With this end in view, it was proposed +that the exclusive privilege of all maritime commerce should be +secured to it, and an edict to that effect was published. But it was +unfortunately forgotten that by such a measure all the merchants of +the country would be ruined. The idea of such an immense privilege was +generally scouted by the nation, and petition on petition was presented +to the Parliament, that they would refuse to register the decree. They +refused accordingly, and the Regent, remarking that they did nothing but +fan the flame of sedition, exiled them to Blois. At the intercession +of D'Aguesseau, the place of banishment was changed to Pontoise, and +thither accordingly the councillors repaired, determined to set the +Regent at defiance. They made every arrangement for rendering their +temporary exile as agreeable as possible. The President gave the most +elegant suppers, to which he invited all the gayest and wittiest company +of Paris. Every night there was a concert and ball for the ladies. The +usually grave and solemn judges and councillors joined in cards +and other diversions, leading for several weeks a life of the most +extravagant pleasure, for no other purpose than to show the Regent of +how little consequence they deemed their banishment, and that when they +willed it, they could make Pontoise a pleasanter residence than Paris. + +Of all the nations in the world the French are the most renowned for +singing over their grievances. Of that country it has been remarked with +some truth, that its whole history may be traced in its songs. When Law, +by the utter failure of his best-laid plans, rendered himself obnoxious, +satire of course seized hold upon him, and, while caricatures of his +person appeared in all the shops, the streets resounded with songs, in +which neither he nor the Regent was spared. Many of these songs were far +from decent; and one of them in particular counselled the application of +all his notes to the most ignoble use to which paper can be applied. But +the following, preserved in the letters of the Duchess of Orleans, was +the best and the most popular, and was to be heard for months in all the +carrefours of Paris. The application of the chorus is happy enough:-- + + Aussitot que Lass arriva + Dans notre bonne ville, + Monsieur le Regent publia + Que Lass serait utile + Pour retablir la nation. + La faridondaine! la faridondon. + Mais il nous a tous enrich!, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mort ami! + + Ce parpaillot, pour attirer + Tout l'argent de la France, + Songea d'abord a s'assurer + De notre confiance. + Il fit son abjuration. + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Mais le fourbe s'est converti, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + + Lass, le fils aine de Satan + Nous met tous a l'aumone, + Il nous a pris tout notre argent + Et n'en rend a personne. + Mais le Regent, humain et bon, + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Nous rendra ce qu'on nous a pris, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + +The following smart epigram is of the same date:-- + + Lundi, j'achetai des actions; + Mardi, je gagnai des millions; + Mercredi, j'arrangeai mon menage, + Jeudi, je pris un equipage, + Vendredi, je m'en fus au bal, + Et Samedi, a l'Hopital. + +Among the caricatures that were abundantly published, and that showed +as plainly as graver matters, that the nation had awakened to a sense of +its folly, was one, a fac-simile of which is preserved in the "Memoires +de la Regence." It was thus described by its author: "The 'Goddess of +Shares," in her triumphal car, driven by the Goddess of Folly. Those +who are drawing the car are impersonations of the Mississippi, with his +wooden leg, the South Sea, the Bank of England, the Company of the West +of Senegal, and of various assurances. Lest the car should not roll fast +enough, the agents of these companies, known by their long fox-tails and +their cunning looks, turn round the spokes of the wheels, upon which are +marked the names of the several stocks, and their value, sometimes high +and sometimes low, according to the turns of the wheel. Upon the ground +are the merchandise, day-books and ledgers of legitimate commerce, +crushed under the chariot of Folly. Behind is an immense crowd of +persons, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, clamoring after Fortune, +and fighting with each other to get a portion of the shares which she +distributes so bountifully among them. In the clouds sits a demon, +blowing bubbles of soap, which are also the objects of the admiration +and cupidity of the crowd, who jump upon one another's backs to reach +them ere they burst. Right in the pathway of the car, and blocking up +the passage, stands a large building, with three doors, through one of +which it must pass, if it proceeds further, and all the crowd along +with it. Over the first door are the words, "Hopital des Foux," over the +second, "Hopital des Malades," and over the third, "Hopital des Gueux." +Another caricature represented Law sitting in a large cauldron, +boiling over the flames of popular madness, surrounded by an impetuous +multitude, who were pouring all their gold and silver into it, and +receiving gladly in exchange the bits of paper which he distributed +among them by handsfull. + +While this excitement lasted, Law took good care not to expose himself +unguarded in the streets. Shut up in the apartments of the Regent, he +was secure from all attack, and, whenever he ventured abroad, it was +either incognito, or in one of the Royal carriages, with a powerful +escort. An amusing anecdote is recorded of the detestation in which he +was held by the people, and the ill treatment he would have met, had +he fallen into their hands. A gentleman, of the name of Boursel, was +passing in his carriage down the Rue St. Antoine, when his further +progress was stayed by a hackneycoach that had blocked up the road. M. +Boursel's servant called impatiently to the hackneycoachman to get out +of the way, and, on his refusal, struck him a blow on the face. A crowd +was soon drawn together by the disturbance, and M. Boursel got out of +the carriage to restore order. The hackney-coachman, imagining that he +had now another assailant, bethought him of an expedient to rid himself +of both, and called out as loudly as he was able, "Help! help! murder! +murder! Here are Law and his servant going to kill me! Help! help!" +At this cry, the people came out of their shops, armed with sticks +and other weapons, while the mob gathered stones to inflict summary +vengeance upon the supposed financier. Happily for M. Boursel and his +servant, the door of the church of the Jesuits stood wide open, and, +seeing the fearful odds against them, they rushed towards it with all +speed. They reached the altar, pursued by the people, and would have +been ill treated even there, if, finding the door open leading to the +sacristy, they had not sprang through, and closed it after them. The +mob were then persuaded to leave the church by the alarmed and indignant +priests; and, finding M. Boursel's carriage still in the streets, they +vented their ill-will against it, and did it considerable damage. + +The twenty-five millions secured on the municipal revenues of the city +of Paris, bearing so low an interest as two and a half per cent., were +not very popular among the large holders of Mississippi stock. The +conversion of the securities was, therefore, a work of considerable +difficulty; for many preferred to retain the falling paper of Law's +Company, in the hope that a favourable turn might take place. On the +15th of August, with a view to hasten the conversion, an edict was +passed, declaring that all notes for sums between one thousand and ten +thousand livres; should not pass current, except for the purchase of +annuities and bank accounts, or for the payment of instalments still due +on the shares of the company. + +In October following another edict was passed, depriving these notes +of all value whatever after the month of November next ensuing. The +management of the mint, the farming of the revenue, and all the other +advantages and privileges of the India, or Mississippi Company, were +taken from them, and they were reduced to a mere private company. This +was the deathblow to the whole system, which had now got into the hands +of its enemies. Law had lost all influence in the Council of Finance, +and the company, being despoiled of its immunities, could no longer hold +out the shadow of a prospect of being able to fulfil its engagements. +All those suspected of illegal profits at the time the public delusion +was at its height, were sought out and amerced in heavy fines. It was +previously ordered that a list of the original proprietors should be +made out, and that such persons as still retained their shares should +place them in deposit with the company, and that those who had neglected +to complete the shares for which they had put down their names, should +now purchase them of the company, at the rate of 13,500 livres for each +share of 500 livres. Rather than submit to pay this enormous sum for +stock which was actually at a discount, the shareholders packed up all +their portable effects, and endeavoured to find a refuge in foreign +countries. Orders were immediately issued to the authorities at the +ports and frontiers, to apprehend all travellers who sought to leave the +kingdom, and keep them in custody, until it was ascertained whether +they had any plate or jewellery with them, or were concerned in the late +stock-jobbing. Against such few as escaped, the punishment of death was +recorded, while the most arbitrary proceedings were instituted against +those who remained. + +Law himself, in a moment of despair, determined to leave a country where +his life was no longer secure. He at first only demanded permission to +retire from Paris to one of his country-seats; a permission which the +Regent cheerfully granted. The latter was much affected at the unhappy +turn affairs had taken, but his faith continued unmoved in the truth +and efficacy of Law's financial system. His eyes were opened to his own +errors, and during the few remaining years of his life, he constantly +longed for an opportunity of again establishing the system upon a +securer basis. At Law's last interview with the Prince, he is reported +to have said--"I confess that I have committed many faults; I committed +them because I am a man, and all men are liable to error; but I +declare to you most solemnly that none of them proceeded from wicked +or dishonest motives, and that nothing of the kind will be found in the +whole course of my conduct." + +Two or three days after his departure the Regent sent him a very kind +letter, permitting him to leave the kingdom whenever he pleased, and +stating that he had ordered his passports to be made ready. He at +the same time offered him any sum of money he might require. Law +respectfully declined the money, and set out for Brussels in a +postchaise belonging to Madame de Prie, the mistress of the Duke of +Bourbon, escorted by six horse-guards. From thence he proceeded to +Venice, where he remained for some months, the object of the greatest +curiosity to the people, who believed him to be the possessor of +enormous wealth. No opinion, however, could be more erroneous. With +more generosity than could have been expected from a man who during the +greatest part of his life had been a professed gambler, he had refused +to enrich himself at the expense of a ruined nation. During the height +of the popular frenzy for Mississippi stock, he had never doubted of +the final success of his projects, in making France the richest and most +powerful nation of Europe. He invested all his gains in the purchase +of landed property in France--a sure proof of his own belief in the +stability of his schemes. He had hoarded no plate or jewellery, and sent +no money, like the dishonest jobbers, to foreign countries. His all, +with the exception of one diamond, worth about five or six thousand +pounds sterling, was invested in the French soil; and when he left that +country, he left it almost a beggar. This fact alone ought to rescue +his memory from the charge of knavery, so often and so unjustly brought +against him. + +As soon as his departure was known, all his estates and his valuable +library were confiscated. Among the rest, an annuity of 200,000 livres, +(8000 pounds sterling,) on the lives of his wife and children, which +had been purchased for five millions of livres, was forfeited, +notwithstanding that a special edict, drawn up for the purpose in the +days of his prosperity, had expressly declared that it should never be +confiscated for any cause whatever. Great discontent existed among the +people that Law had been suffered to escape. The mob and the Parliament +would have been pleased to have seen him hanged. The few who had not +suffered by the commercial revolution, rejoiced that the quack had +left the country; but all those (and they were by far the most numerous +class) whose fortunes were implicated, regretted that his intimate +knowledge of the distress of the country, and of the causes that had led +to it, had not been rendered more available in discovering a remedy. + +At a meeting of the Council of Finance, and the general council of the +Regency, documents were laid upon the table, from which it appeared that +the amount of notes in circulation was 2700 millions. The Regent was +called upon to explain how it happened that there was a discrepancy +between the dates at which these issues were made, and those of the +edicts by which they were authorised. He might have safely taken the +whole blame upon himself, but he preferred that an absent man should +bear a share of it, and he therefore stated that Law, upon his own +authority, had issued 1200 millions of notes at different times, and +that he (the Regent) seeing that the thing had been irrevocably done, +had screened Law, by antedating the decrees of the council, which +authorised the augmentation. It would have been more to his credit if he +had told the whole truth while he was about it, and acknowledged that +it was mainly through his extravagance and impatience that Law had +been induced to overstep the bounds of safe speculation. It was also +ascertained that the national debt, on the 1st of January, 1721, +amounted to upwards of $100 millions of livres, or more than 124,000,000 +pounds sterling, the interest upon which was 3,196,000 pounds. A +commission, or visa, was forthwith appointed to examine into all the +securities of the state creditors, who were to be divided into five +classes, the first four comprising those who had purchased their +securities with real effects, and the latter comprising those who could +give no proofs that the transactions they had entered into were real and +bona fide. The securities of the latter were ordered to be destroyed, +while those of the first four classes were subjected to a most rigid and +jealous scrutiny. The result of the labours of the visa was a report, +in which they counselled the reduction of the interest upon these +securities to fifty-six millions of livres. They justified this advice +by a statement of the various acts of peculation and extortion which +they had discovered, and an edict to that effect was accordingly +published and duly registered by the parliaments of the kingdom. + +Another tribunal was afterwards established, under the title of the +Chambre de l'Arsenal, which took cognizance of all the malversations +committed in the financial departments of the government during the late +unhappy period. A Master of Requests, named Falhonet, together with +the Abbe Clement, and two clerks in their employ, had been concerned +in divers acts of peculation, to the amount of upwards of a million of +livres. The first two were sentenced to be beheaded, and the latter +to be hanged; but their punishment was afterwards commuted into +imprisonment for life in the Bastile. Numerous other acts of dishonesty +were discovered, and punished by fine and imprisonment. + +D'Argenson shared with Law and the Regent the unpopularity which had +alighted upon all those concerned in the Mississippi madness. He was +dismissed from his post of Chancellor, to make room for D'Aguesseau; but +he retained the title of Keeper of the Seals, and was allowed to attend +the councils whenever he pleased. He thought it better, however, to +withdraw from Paris, and live for a time a life of seclusion at his +country-seat. But he was not formed for retirement, and becoming moody +and discontented, he aggravated a disease under which he had long +laboured, and died in less than a twelvemonth. The populace of of Paris +so detested him, that they carried their hatred even to his grave. +As his funeral procession passed to the church of St. Nicholas du +Chardonneret, the burying-place of his family, it was beset by a riotous +mob, and his two sons, who were following as chief-mourners, were +obliged to drive as fast as they were able down a by-street to escape +personal violence. + +As regards Law, he for some time entertained a hope that he should be +recalled to France, to aid in establishing its credit upon a firmer +basis. The death of the Regent, in 1723, who expired suddenly, as he +was sitting by the fireside conversing with his mistress, the Duchess +de Phalaris, deprived him of that hope, and he was reduced to lead +his former life of gambling. He was more than once obliged to pawn +his diamond, the sole remnant of his vast wealth, but successful play +generally enabled him to redeem it. Being persecuted by his creditors at +Rome, he proceeded to Copenhagen, where he received permission from the +English ministry to reside in his native country, his pardon for the +murder of Mr. Wilson having been sent over to him in 1719. He was +brought over in the admiral's ship, a circumstance which gave occasion +for a short debate in the House of Lords. Earl Coningsby complained that +a man, who had renounced both his country and his religion, should +have been treated with such honour, and expressed his belief that his +presence in England, at a time when the people were so bewildered by the +nefarious practices of the South Sea directors, would be attended with +no little danger. He gave notice of a motion on the subject; but it +was allowed to drop, no other member of the House having the slightest +participation in his lordship's fears. Law remained for about four years +in England, and then proceeded to Venice, where he died in 1729, in +very embarrassed circumstances. The following epitaph was written at the +time:-- + + "Ci git cet Ecossais celebre, + Ce calculateur sans egal, + Qui, par les regles de l'algebre, + A mis la France a l'Hopital." + +His brother, William Law, who had been concerned with him in the +administration both of the Bank and the Louisiana Company, was +imprisoned in the Bastile for alleged malversation, but no guilt was +ever proved against him. He was liberated after fifteen months, and +became the founder of a family, which is still known in France under the +title of Marquises of Lauriston. + +In the next chapter will be found an account of the madness which +infected the people of England at the same time, and under very similar +circumstances, but which, thanks to the energies and good sense of a +constitutional government, was attended with results far less disastrous +than those which were seen in France. + + + + +THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + + At length corruption, like a general flood, + Did deluge all, and avarice creeping on, + Spread, like a low-born mist, and hid the sun. + Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks, + Peeress and butler shared alike the box; + And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town, + And mighty dukes packed cards for half-a-crown: + Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms. + --Pope. + +The South Sea Company was originated by the celebrated Harley, Earl +of Oxford, in the year 1711, with the view of restoring public credit, +which had suffered by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and of +providing for the discharge of the army and navy debentures, and other +parts of the floating debt, amounting to nearly ten millions sterling. +A company of merchants, at that time without a name, took this debt +upon themselves, and the government agreed to secure them, for a certain +period, the interest of six per cent. To provide for this interest, +amounting to 600,000 pounds per annum, the duties upon wines, vinegar, +India goods, wrought silks, tobacco, whale-fins, and some other +articles, were rendered permanent. The monopoly of the trade to the +South Seas was granted, and the company, being incorporated by Act of +Parliament, assumed the title by which it has ever since been known. The +minister took great credit to himself for his share in this transaction, +and the scheme was always called by his flatterers "the Earl of Oxford's +masterpiece." + +Even at this early period of its history, the most visionary ideas +were formed by the company and the public of the immense riches of the +eastern coast of South America. Everybody had heard of the gold +and silver mines of Peru and Mexico; every one believed them to be +inexhaustible, and that it was only necessary to send the manufactures +of England to the coast, to be repaid a hundredfold in gold and silver +ingots by the natives. A report, industriously spread, that Spain was +willing to concede four ports, on the coasts of Chili and Peru, for +the purposes of traffic, increased the general confidence; and for many +years the South Sea Company's stock was in high favour. + +Philip V of Spain, however, never had any intention of admitting the +English to a free trade in the ports of Spanish America. Negotiations +were set on foot, but their only result was the assiento contract, or +the privilege of supplying the colonies with negroes for thirty years, +and of sending once a year a vessel, limited both as to tonnage and +value of cargo, to trade with Mexico, Peru, or Chili. The latter +permission was only granted upon the hard condition, that the King of +Spain should enjoy one-fourth of the profits, and a tax of five per +cent. on the remainder. This was a great disappointment to the Earl of +Oxford and his party, who were reminded much oftener than they found +agreeable of the + + "Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus." + +But the public confidence in the South Sea Company was not shaken. The +Earl of Oxford declared, that Spain would permit two ships, in addition +to the annual ship, to carry out merchandise during the first year; +and a list was published, in which all the ports and harbours of these +coasts were pompously set forth as open to the trade of Great Britain. +The first voyage of the annual ship was not made till the year 1717, +and in the following year the trade was suppressed by the rupture with +Spain. + +The King's speech, at the opening of the session of 1717, made pointed +allusion to the state of public credit, and recommended that proper +measures should be taken to reduce the national debt. The two great +monetary corporations, the South Sea Company and the Bank of England, +made proposals to Parliament on the 20th of May ensuing. The South +Sea Company prayed that their capital stock of ten millions might be +increased to twelve, by subscription or otherwise, and offered to accept +five per cent. instead of six upon the whole amount. The Bank made +proposals equally advantageous. The House debated for some time, and +finally three acts were passed, called the South Sea Act, the Bank Act, +and the General Fund Act. By the first, the proposals of the South Sea +Company were accepted, and that body held itself ready to advance the +sum of two millions towards discharging the principal and interest of +the debt due by the state for the four lottery funds of the ninth and +tenth years of Queen Anne. By the second act, the Bank received a lower +rate of interest for the sum of 1,775,027 pounds 15 shillings due to it +by the state, and agreed to deliver up to be cancelled as many Exchequer +bills as amounted to two millions sterling, and to accept of an annuity +of one hundred thousand pounds, being after the rate of five per cent, +the whole redeemable at one year's notice. They were further required +to be ready to advance, in case of need, a sum not exceeding 2,500,000 +pounds upon the same terms of five per cent interest, redeemable by +Parliament. The General Fund Act recited the various deficiencies, which +were to be made good by the aids derived from the foregoing sources. + +The name of the South Sea Company was thus continually before the +public. Though their trade with the South American States produced +little or no augmentation of their revenues, they continued to flourish +as a monetary corporation. Their stock was in high request, and the +directors, buoyed up with success, began to think of new means for +extending their influence. The Mississippi scheme of John Law, which +so dazzled and captivated the French people, inspired them with an +idea that they could carry on the same game in England. The anticipated +failure of his plans did not divert them from their intention. Wise in +their own conceit, they imagined they could avoid his faults, carry on +their schemes for ever, and stretch the cord of credit to its extremest +tension, without causing it to snap asunder. + +It was while Law's plan was at its greatest height of popularity, while +people were crowding in thousands to the Rue Quincampoix, and ruining +themselves with frantic eagerness, that the South Sea directors laid +before Parliament their famous plan for paying off the national debt. +Visions of boundless wealth floated before the fascinated eyes of the +people in the two most celebrated countries of Europe. The English +commenced their career of extravagance somewhat later than the French; +but as soon as the delirium seized them, they were determined not to be +outdone. Upon the 22nd of January 1720, the House of Commons resolved +itself into a Committee of the whole House, to take into consideration +that part of the King's speech at the opening of the session which +related to the public debts, and the proposal of the South Sea Company +towards the redemption and sinking of the same. The proposal set forth +at great length, and under several heads, the debts of the state, +amounting to 30,981,712 pounds, which the Company were anxious to take +upon themselves, upon consideration of five per cent. per annum, secured +to them until Midsummer 1727; after which time, the whole was to become +redeemable at the pleasure of the legislature, and the interest to be +reduced to four per cent. The proposal was received with great favour; +but the Bank of England had many friends in the House of Commons, who +were desirous that that body should share in the advantages that were +likely to accrue. On behalf of this corporation it was represented, that +they had performed great and eminent services to the state, in the most +difficult times, and deserved, at least, that if any advantage was to be +made by public bargains of this nature, they should be preferred before +a company that had never done any thing for the nation. The further +consideration of the matter was accordingly postponed for five days. +In the mean time, a plan was drawn up by the Governors of the Bank. +The South Sea Company, afraid that the Bank might offer still more +advantageous terms to the government than themselves, reconsidered their +former proposal, and made some alterations in it, which they hoped would +render it more acceptable. The principal change was a stipulation that +the government might redeem these debts at the expiration of four years, +instead of seven, as at first suggested. The Bank resolved not to be +outbidden in this singular auction, and the Governors also reconsidered +their first proposal, and sent in a new one. + +Thus, each corporation having made two proposals, the House began to +deliberate. Mr. Robert Walpole was the chief speaker in favour of the +Bank, and Mr. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the principal +advocate on behalf of the South Sea Company. It was resolved, on the 2nd +of February, that the proposals of the latter were most advantageous +to the country. They were accordingly received, and leave was given to +bring in a bill to that effect. + +Exchange Alley was in a fever of excitement. The Company's stock, which +had been at a hundred and thirty the previous day, gradually rose to +three hundred, and continued to rise with the most astonishing rapidity +during the whole time that the bill in its several stages was under +discussion. Mr. Walpole was almost the only statesman in the House who +spoke out boldly against it. He warned them, in eloquent and solemn +language, of the evils that would ensue. It countenanced, he said, "the +dangerous practice of stockjobbing, and would divert the genius of the +nation from trade and industry. It would hold out a dangerous lure to +decoy the unwary to their ruin, by making them part with the earnings of +their labour for a prospect of imaginary wealth." The great principle +of the project was an evil of first-rate magnitude; it was to raise +artificially the value of the stock, by exciting and keeping up a +general infatuation, and by promising dividends out of funds which could +never be adequate to the purpose. In a prophetic spirit he added, +that if the plan succeeded, the directors would become masters of the +government, form a new and absolute aristocracy in the kingdom, and +control the resolutions of the legislature. If it failed, which he was +convinced it would, the result would bring general discontent and ruin +upon the country. Such would be the delusion, that when the evil day +came, as come it would, the people would start up, as from a dream, and +ask themselves if these things could have been true. All his eloquence +was in vain. He was looked upon as a false prophet, or compared to the +hoarse raven, croaking omens of evil. His friends, however, compared him +to Cassandra, predicting evils which would only be believed when they +came home to men's hearths, and stared them in the face at their own +boards. Although, in former times, the House had listened with the +utmost attention to every word that fell from his lips, the benches +became deserted when it was known that he would speak on the South Sea +question. + +The bill was two months in its progress through the House of Commons. +During this time every exertion was made by the directors and their +friends, and more especially by the Chairman, the noted Sir John Blunt, +to raise the price of the stock. The most extravagant rumours were in +circulation. Treaties between England and Spain were spoken of, whereby +the latter was to grant a free trade to all her colonies; and the rich +produce of the mines of Potosi-la-Paz was to be brought to England until +silver should become almost as plentiful as iron. For cotton and woollen +goods, with which we could supply them in abundance, the dwellers +in Mexico were to empty their golden mines. The company of merchants +trading to the South Seas would be the richest the world ever saw, and +every hundred pounds invested in it would produce hundreds per annum +to the stockholder. At last the stock was raised by these means to +near four hundred; but, after fluctuating a good deal, settled at three +hundred and thirty, at which price it remained when the bill passed the +Commons by a majority of 172 against 55. + +In the House of Lords the bill was hurried through all its stages with +unexampled rapidity. On the 4th of April it was read a first time; on +the 5th, it was read a second time; on the 6th, it was committed; and on +the 7th, was read a third time, and passed. + +Several peers spoke warmly against the scheme; but their warnings fell +upon dull, cold ears. A speculating frenzy had seized them as well +as the plebeians. Lord North and Grey said the bill was unjust in its +nature, and might prove fatal in its consequences, being calculated to +enrich the few and impoverish the many. The Duke of Wharton followed; +but, as he only retailed at second-hand the arguments so eloquently +stated by Walpole in the Lower House, he was not listened to with even +the same attention that had been bestowed upon Lord North and Grey. Earl +Cowper followed on the same side, and compared the bill to the famous +horse of the siege of Troy. Like that, it was ushered in and received +with great pomp and acclamations of joy, but bore within it treachery +and destruction. The Earl of Sunderland endeavoured to answer all +objections; and, on the question being put, there appeared only +seventeen peers against, and eighty-three in favour of the project. +The very same day on which it passed the Lords, it received the Royal +assent, and became the law of the land. + +It seemed at that time as if the whole nation had turned stockjobbers. +Exchange Alley was every day blocked up by crowds, and Cornhill was +impassable for the number of carriages. Everybody came to purchase +stock. "Every fool aspired to be a knave." In the words of a ballad, +published at the time, and sung about the streets, ["A South Sea Ballad; +or, Merry Remarks upon Exchange Alley Bubbles. To a new tune, called +'The Grand Elixir; or, the Philosopher's Stone Discovered.'"] + + Then stars and garters did appear + Among the meaner rabble; + To buy and sell, to see and hear, + The Jews and Gentiles squabble. + + The greatest ladies thither came, + And plied in chariots daily, + Or pawned their jewels for a sum + To venture in the Alley. + +The inordinate thirst of gain that had afflicted all ranks of society, +was not to be slaked even in the South Sea. Other schemes, of the most +extravagant kind, were started. The share-lists were speedily filled up, +and an enormous traffic carried on in shares, while, of course, every +means were resorted to, to raise them to an artificial value in the +market. + +Contrary to all expectation, South Sea stock fell when the bill received +the Royal assent. On the 7th of April the shares were quoted at three +hundred and ten, and on the following day, at two hundred and ninety. +Already the directors had tasted the profits of their scheme, and it was +not likely that they should quietly allow the stock to find its natural +level, without an effort to raise it. Immediately their busy emissaries +were set to work. Every person interested in the success of the +project endeavoured to draw a knot of listeners around him, to whom he +expatiated on the treasures of the South American seas. Exchange Alley +was crowded with attentive groups. One rumour alone, asserted with the +utmost confidence, had an immediate effect upon the stock. It was said, +that Earl Stanhope had received overtures in France from the Spanish +Government to exchange Gibraltar and Port Mahon for some places on the +coast of Peru, for the security and enlargement of the trade in the +South Seas. Instead of one annual ship trading to those ports, and +allowing the King of Spain twenty-five per cent. out of the profits, the +Company might build and charter as many ships as they pleased, and pay +no per centage whatever to any foreign potentate. + +Visions of ingots danced before their eyes, and stock rose rapidly. +On the 12th of April, five days after the bill had become law, the +directors opened their books for a subscription of a million, at the +rate of 300 pounds for every 100 pounds capital. Such was the concourse +of persons, of all ranks, that this first subscription was found to +amount to above two millions of original stock. It was to be paid at +five payments, of 60 pounds each for every 100 pounds. In a few days the +stock advanced to three hundred and forty, and the subscriptions were +sold for double the price of the first payment. To raise the stock still +higher, it was declared, in a general court of directors, on the 21st of +April, that the midsummer dividend should be ten per cent., and that +all subscriptions should be entitled to the same. These resolutions +answering the end designed, the directors, to improve the infatuation +of the monied men, opened their books for a second subscription of a +million, at four hundred per cent. Such was the frantic eagerness of +people of every class to speculate in these funds, that in the course +of a few hours no less than a million and a half was subscribed at that +rate. + +In the mean time, innumerable joint-stock companies started up +everywhere. They soon received the name of Bubbles, the most appropriate +that imagination could devise. The populace are often most happy in the +nicknames they employ. None could be more apt than that of Bubbles. Some +of them lasted for a week, or a fortnight, and were no more heard of, +while others could not even live out that short span of existence. +Every evening produced new schemes, and every morning new projects. The +highest of the aristocracy were as eager in this hot pursuit of gain +as the most plodding jobber in Cornhill. The Prince of Wales became +governor of one company, and is said to have cleared 40,000 pounds by +his speculations. [Coxe's Walpole, Correspondence between Mr. Secretary +Craggs and Earl Stanhope.] The Duke of Bridgewater started a scheme +for the improvement of London and Westminster, and the Duke of Chandos +another. There were nearly a hundred different projects, each more +extravagant and deceptive than the other. To use the words of the +"Political State," they were "set on foot and promoted by crafty knaves, +then pursued by multitudes of covetous fools, and at last appeared to +be, in effect, what their vulgar appellation denoted them to be--bubbles +and mere cheats." It was computed that near one million and a half +sterling was won and lost by these unwarrantable practices, to the +impoverishment of many a fool, and the enriching of many a rogue. + +Some of these schemes were plausible enough, and, had they been +undertaken at a time when the public mind was unexcited, might have +been pursued with advantage to all concerned. But they were established +merely with the view of raising the shares in the market. The projectors +took the first opportunity of a rise to sell out, and next morning +the scheme was at an end. Maitland, in his History of London, gravely +informs us, that one of the projects which received great encouragement, +was for the establishment of a company "to make deal-boards out of +saw-dust." This is, no doubt, intended as a joke; but there is +abundance of evidence to show that dozens of schemes hardly a whir more +reasonable, lived their little day, ruining hundreds ere they fell. +One of them was for a wheel for perpetual motion--capital, one million; +another was "for encouraging the breed of horses in England, and +improving of glebe and church lands, and repairing and rebuilding +parsonage and vicarage houses." Why the clergy, who were so mainly +interested in the latter clause, should have taken so much interest in +the first, is only to be explained on the supposition that the scheme +was projected by a knot of the foxhunting parsons, once so common in +England. The shares of this company were rapidly subscribed for. But the +most absurd and preposterous of all, and which showed, more completely +than any other, the utter madness of the people, was one, started by an +unknown adventurer, entitled "company for carrying on an undertaking +of great advantage, but nobody to know what it is." Were not the fact +stated by scores of credible witnesses, it would be impossible to +believe that any person could have been duped by such a project. The +man of genius who essayed this bold and successful inroad upon public +credulity, merely stated in his prospectus that the required capital was +half a million, in five thousand shares of 100 pounds each, deposit 2 +pounds per share. Each subscriber, paying his deposit, would be entitled +to 100 pounds per annum per share. How this immense profit was to +be obtained, he did not condescend to inform them at that time, but +promised, that in a month full particulars should be duly announced, +and a call made for the remaining 98 pounds of the subscription. Next +morning, at nine o'clock, this great man opened an office in Cornhill. +Crowds of people beset his door, and when he shut up at three o'clock, +he found that no less than one thousand shares had been subscribed for, +and the deposits paid. He was thus, in five hours, the winner of 2,000 +pounds. He was philosopher enough to be contented with his venture, and +set off the same evening for the Continent. He was never heard of again. + +Well might Swift exclaim, comparing Change Alley to a gulf in the South +Sea,-- + + Subscribers here by thousands float, + And jostle one another down, + Each paddling in his leaky boat, + And here they fish for gold, and drown. + + Now buried in the depths below, + Now mounted up to heaven again, + They reel and stagger to and fro, + At their wit's end, like drunken men + + Meantime, secure on Garraway cliffs, + A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, + Lie waiting for the foundered skiffs, + And strip the bodies of the dead. + +Another fraud that was very successful, was that of the "Globe Permits," +as they were called. They were nothing more than square pieces of +playing cards, on which was the impression of a seal, in wax, bearing +the sign of the Globe Tavern, in the neighbourhood of Exchange Alley, +with the inscription of "Sail Cloth Permits." The possessors enjoyed no +other advantage from them than permission to subscribe, at some future +time, to a new sail-cloth manufactory, projected by one who was then +known to be a man of fortune, but who was afterwards involved in the +peculation and punishment of the South Sea directors. These permits sold +for as much as sixty guineas in the Alley. + +Persons of distinction, of both sexes, were deeply engaged in all these +bubbles, those of the male sex going to taverns and coffee-houses to +meet their brokers, and the ladies resorting for the same purpose to +the shops of milliners and haberdashers. But it did not follow that all +these people believed in the feasibility of the schemes to which they +subscribed; it was enough for their purpose that their shares would, by +stock-jobbing arts, be soon raised to a premium, when they got rid +of them with all expedition to the really credulous. So great was the +confusion of the crowd in the alley, that shares in the same bubble were +known to have been sold at the same instant ten per cent. higher at +one end of the alley than at the other. Sensible men beheld the +extraordinary infatuation of the people with sorrow and alarm. There +were some, both in and out of Parliament, who foresaw clearly the ruin +that was impending. Mr. Walpole did not cease his gloomy forebodings. +His fears were shared by all the thinking few, and impressed most +forcibly upon the government. On the 11th of June, the day the +Parliament rose, the King published a proclamation, declaring that +all these unlawful projects should be deemed public nuisances, and +prosecuted accordingly, and forbidding any broker, under a penalty +of five hundred pounds, from buying or selling any shares in them. +Notwithstanding this proclamation, roguish speculators still carried +them on, and the deluded people still encouraged them. On the 12th of +July, an order of the Lords Justices assembled in privy council was +published, dismissing all the petitions that had been presented for +patents and charters, and dissolving all the bubble companies. The +following copy of their lordships' order, containing a list of all these +nefarious projects, will not be deemed uninteresting at the present day, +when there is but too much tendency in the public mind to indulge in +similar practices:-- + +"At the Council Chamber, Whitehall, the 12th day of July, 1720. Present, +their Excellencies the Lords Justices in Council. + +"Their Excellencies, the Lords Justices in council, taking into +consideration the many inconveniences arising to the public from several +projects set on foot for raising of joint stock for various purposes, +and that a great many of his Majesty's subjects have been drawn in to +part with their money on pretence of assurances that their petitions +for patents and charters, to enable them to carry on the same, would +be granted: to prevent such impositions, their Excellencies, this day, +ordered the said several petitions, together with such reports from the +Board of Trade, and from his Majesty's Attorney and Solicitor General, +as had been obtained thereon, to be laid before them, and after mature +consideration thereof, were pleased, by advice of his Majesty's Privy +Council, to order that the said petitions be dismissed, which are as +follow:-- + +"1. Petition of several persons, praying letters patent for carrying on +a fishing trade, by the name of the Grand Fishery of Great Britain. + +"2. Petition of the Company of the Royal Fishery of England, praying +letters patent for such further powers as will effectually contribute to +carry on the said fishery. + +"3. Petition of George James, on behalf of himself and divers persons of +distinction concerned in a national fishery; praying letters patent of +incorporation to enable them to carry on the same. + +"4. Petition of several merchants, traders, and others, whose names +are thereunto subscribed, praying to be incorporated for reviving and +carrying on a whale fishery to Greenland and elsewhere. + +"5. Petition of Sir John Lambert, and others thereto subscribing, on +behalf of themselves and a great number of merchants, praying to be +incorporated for carrying on a Greenland trade, and particularly a whale +fishery in Davis's Straits. + +"6. Another petition for a Greenland trade. + +"7. Petition of several merchants, gentlemen, and citizens, praying to +be incorporated, for buying and building of ships to let or freight. + +"8. Petition of Samuel Antrim and others, praying for letters patent for +sowing hemp and flax. + +"9. Petition of several merchants, masters of ships, sail-makers, and +manufacturers of sail-cloth, praying a charter of incorporation, to +enable them to carry on and promote the said manufactory by a joint +stock. + +"10. Petition of Thomas Boyd, and several hundred merchants, owners +and masters of ships, sailmakers, weavers, and other traders, praying a +charter of incorporation, empowering them to borrow money for purchasing +lands, in order to the manufacturing sail-cloth and fine Holland. + +"11. Petition on behalf of several persons interested in a patent +granted by the late King William and Queen Mary, for the making of linen +and sail-cloth, praying that no charter may be granted to any persons +whatsoever for making sail-cloth, but that the privilege now enjoyed by +them may be confirmed, and likewise an additional power to carry on the +cotton and cotton-silk manufactures. + +"12. Petition of several citizens, merchants, and traders in London, +and others, subscribers to a British stock, for a general insurance from +fire in any part of England, praying to be incorporated for carrying on +the said undertaking. + +"13. Petition of several of his Majesty's loyal subjects of the city of +London, and other parts of Great Britain, praying to be incorporated, +for carrying on a general insurance from losses by fire within the +kingdom of England. + +"14. Petition of Thomas Burges, and others his Majesty's subjects +thereto subscribing, in behalf of themselves and others, subscribers +to a fund of 1,200,000 pounds, for carrying on a trade to his Majesty's +German dominions, praying to be incorporated, by the name of the Harburg +Company. + +"15. Petition of Edward Jones, a dealer in timber, on behalf of himself +and others, praying to be incorporated for the importation of timber +from Germany. + +"16. Petition of several merchants of London, praying a charter of +incorporation for carrying on a salt-work. + +"17. Petition of Captain Macphedris, of London, merchant, on behalf +of himself and several merchants, clothiers, hatters, dyers, and other +traders, praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them to raise +a sufficient sum of money to purchase lands for planting and rearing a +wood called madder, for the use of dyers. + +"18. Petition of Joseph Galendo, of London, snuff-maker, praying a +patent for his invention to prepare and cure Virginia tobacco for +snuff in Virginia, and making it into the same in all his Majesty's +dominions." + + + + +LIST OF BUBBLES. + +The following Bubble Companies were by the same order declared to be +illegal, and abolished accordingly:-- + +1. For the importation of Swedish iron. + +2. For supplying London with sea-coal. Capital, three millions. + +3. For building and rebuilding houses throughout all England. Capital, +three millions. + +4. For making of muslin. + +5. For carrying on and improving the British alum works. + +6. For effectually settling the island of Blanco and Sal Tartagus. + +7. For supplying the town of Deal with fresh water. + +8. For the importation of Flanders lace. + +9. For improvement of lands in Great Britain. Capital, four millions. + +10. For encouraging the breed of horses in England, and improving of +glebe and church lands, and for repairing and rebuilding parsonage and +vicarage houses. + +11. For making of iron and steel in Great Britain. + +12. For improving the land in the county of Flint. Capital, one million. + +13. For purchasing lands to build on. Capital, two millions. + +14. For trading in hair. + +15. For erecting salt-works in Holy Island. Capital, two millions. + +16. For buying and selling estates, and lending money on mortgage. + +17. For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to +know what it is. + +18. For paving the streets of London. Capital, two millions. + +19. For furnishing funerals to any part of Great Britain. + +20. For buying and selling lands and lending money at interest. Capital, +five millions. + +21. For carrying on the Royal Fishery of Great Britain. Capital, ten +millions. + +22. For assuring of seamen's wages. + +23. For erecting loan-offices for the assistance and encouragement of +the industrious. Capital, two millions. + +24. For purchasing and improving leasable lands. Capital, four millions. + +25. For importing pitch and tar, and other naval stores, from North +Britain and America. + +26. For the clothing, felt, and pantile trade. + +27. For purchasing and improving a manor and royalty in Essex. + +28. For insuring of horses. Capital, two millions. + +29. For exporting the woollen manufacture, and importing copper, brass, +and iron. Capital, four millions. + +30. For a grand dispensary. Capital, three millions. + +31. For erecting mills and purchasing lead mines. Capital, two millions. + +32. For improving the art of making soap. + +33. For a settlement on the island of Santa Cruz. + +34. For sinking pits and smelting lead ore in Derbyshire. + +35. For making glass bottles and other glass. + +36. For a wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million. + +37. For improving of gardens. + +38. For insuring and increasing children's fortunes. + +39. For entering and loading goods at the custom-house, and for +negotiating business for merchants. + +40. For carrying on a woollen manufacture in the north of England. + +41. For importing walnut-trees from Virginia. Capital, two millions. + +42. For making Manchester stuffs of thread and cotton. + +43. For making Joppa and Castile soap. + +44. For improving the wrought-iron and steel manufactures of this +kingdom. Capital, four millions. + +45. For dealing in lace, Hollands, cambrics, lawns, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +46. For trading in and improving certain commodities of the produce of +this kingdom, &c. Capital, three millions. + +47. For supplying the London markets with cattle. + +48. For making looking-glasses, coach glasses, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +49. For working the tin and lead mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire. + +50. For making rape-oil. + +51. For importing beaver fur. Capital, two millions. + +52. For making pasteboard and packing-paper. + +53. For importing of oils and other materials used in the woollen +manufacture. + +54. For improving and increasing the silk manufactures. + +55. For lending money on stock, annuities, tallies, &c. + +56. For paying pensions to widows and others, at a small discount. +Capital, two millions. + +57. For improving malt liquors. Capital, four millions. + +58. For a grand American fishery. + +59. For purchasing and improving the fenny lands in Lincolnshire. +Capital, two millions. + +60. For improving the paper manufacture of Great Britain. + +61. The Bottomry Company. + +62. For drying malt by hot air. + +63. For carrying on a trade in the river Oronooko. + +64. For the more effectual making of baize, in Colchester and other +parts of Great Britain. + +65. For buying of naval stores, supplying the victualling, and paying +the wages of the workmen. + +66. For employing poor artificers, and furnishing merchants and others +with watches. + +67. For improvement of tillage and the breed of cattle. + +68. Another for the improvement of our breed of horses. + +69. Another for a horse-insurance. + +70. For carrying on the corn trade of Great Britain. + +71. For insuring to all masters and mistresses the losses they may +sustain by servants. Capital, three millions. + +72. For erecting houses or hospitals, for taking in and maintaining +illegitimate children. Capital, two millions. + +73. For bleaching coarse sugars, without the use of fire or loss of +substance. + +74. For building turnpikes and wharfs in Great Britain. + +75. For insuring from thefts and robberies. + +76. For extracting silver from lead. + +77. For making China and Delft ware. Capital, one million. + +78. For importing tobacco, and exporting it again to Sweden and the +north of Europe. Capital, four millions. + +79. For making iron with pit coal. + +80. For furnishing the cities of London and Westminster with hay and +straw. Capital, three millions. + +81. For a sail and packing cloth manufactory in Ireland. + +82. For taking up ballast. + +83. For buying and fitting out ships to suppress pirates. + +84. For the importation of timber from Wales. Capital, two millions. + +85. For rock-salt. + +86. For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal. + +Besides these bubbles, many others sprang up daily, in spite of the +condemnation of the Government and the ridicule of the still sane +portion of the public. The print-shops teemed with caricatures, and +the newspapers with epigrams and satires, upon the prevalent folly. An +ingenious card-maker published a pack of South Sea playing-cards, which +are now extremely rare, each card containing, besides the usual figures, +of a very small size, in one corner, a caricature of a bubble company, +with appropriate verses underneath. One of the most famous bubbles +was "Puckle's Machine Company," for discharging round and square +cannon-balls and bullets, and making a total revolution in the art of +war. Its pretensions to public favour were thus summed up, on the eight +of spades:-- + + A rare invention to destroy the crowd + Of fools at home, instead of fools abroad. + Fear not, my friends, this terrible machine, + They're only wounded who have shares therein. + + The nine of hearts was a caricature of the English Copper and Brass + Company, with the following epigram:-- + + The headlong fool that wants to be a swopper + Of gold and silver coin for English copper, + May, in Change Alley, prove himself an ass, + And give rich metal for adulterate brass. + + The eight of diamonds celebrated the Company for the Colonization of + Acadia, with this doggrel:-- + + He that is rich and wants to fool away + A good round sum in North America, + Let him subscribe himself a headlong sharer, + And asses' ears shall honour him or bearer. + +And in a similar style every card of the pack exposed some knavish +scheme, and ridiculed the persons who were its dupes. It was computed +that the total amount of the sums proposed for carrying on these +projects was upwards of three hundred millions sterling, a sum so +immense that it exceeded the value of all the lands in England at twenty +years' purchase. + +It is time, however, to return to the great South Sea gulf, that +swallowed the fortunes of so many thousands of the avaricious and the +credulous. On the 29th of May, the stock had risen as high as five +hundred, and about two-thirds of the government annuitants had exchanged +the securities of the state for those of the South Sea Company. During +the whole of the month of May the stock continued to rise, and on the +28th it was quoted at five hundred and fifty. In four days after this it +took a prodigious leap, rising suddenly from five hundred and fifty to +eight hundred and ninety. It was now the general opinion that the stock +could rise no higher, and many persons took that opportunity of selling +out, with a view of realising their profits. Many noblemen and persons +in the train of the King, and about to accompany him to Hanover, were +also anxious to sell out. So many sellers, and so few buyers, appeared +in the Alley on the 3rd of June, that the stock fell at once from eight +hundred and ninety to six hundred and forty. The directors were alarmed, +and gave their agents orders to buy. Their efforts succeeded. Towards +evening confidence was restored, and the stock advanced to seven hundred +and fifty. It continued at this price, with some slight fluctuation, +until the company closed their books on the 22nd of June. + +It would be needless and uninteresting to detail the various arts +employed by the directors to keep up the price of stock. It will be +sufficient to state that it finally rose to one thousand per cent. It +was quoted at this price in the commencement of August. The bubble +was then full-blown, and began to quiver and shake, preparatory to its +bursting. + +Many of the government annuitants expressed dissatisfaction against the +directors. They accused them of partiality in making out the lists for +shares in each subscription. Further uneasiness was occasioned by +its being generally known that Sir John Blunt, the chairman, and some +others, had sold out. During the whole of the month of August the stock +fell, and on the 2nd of September it was quoted at seven hundred only. + +The state of things now became alarming. To prevent, if possible, +the utter extinction of public confidence in their proceedings, the +directors summoned a general court of the whole corporation, to meet in +Merchant Tailors' Hall, on the 8th of September. By nine o'clock in the +morning, the room was filled to suffocation; Cheapside was blocked up +by a crowd unable to gain admittance, and the greatest excitement +prevailed. The directors and their friends mustered in great numbers. +Sir John Fellowes, the sub-governor, was called to the chair. He +acquainted the assembly with the cause of their meeting, read to them +the several resolutions of the court of directors, and gave them an +account of their proceedings; of the taking in the redeemable and +unredeemable funds, and of the subscriptions in money. Mr. Secretary +Craggs then made a short speech, wherein he commended the conduct of the +directors, and urged that nothing could more effectually contribute to +the bringing this scheme to perfection than union among themselves. He +concluded with a motion for thanking the court of directors for their +prudent and skilful management, and for desiring them to proceed in such +manner as they should think most proper for the interest and advantage +of the corporation. Mr. Hungerford, who had rendered himself very +conspicuous in the House of Commons for his zeal in behalf of the South +Sea Company, and who was shrewdly suspected to have been a considerable +gainer by knowing the right time to sell out, was very magniloquent on +this occasion. He said that he had seen the rise and fall, the decay +and resurrection of many communities of this nature, but that, in his +opinion, none had ever performed such wonderful things in so short a +time as the South Sea Company. They had done more than the crown, the +pulpit, or the bench could do. They had reconciled all parties in one +common interest; they had laid asleep, if not wholly extinguished, all +the domestic jars and animosities of the nation. By the rise of their +stock, monied men had vastly increased their fortunes; country-gentlemen +had seen the value of their lands doubled and trebled in their hands. +They had at the same time done good to the Church, not a few of the +reverend clergy having got great sums by the project. In short, they +had enriched the whole nation, and he hoped they had not forgotten +themselves. There was some hissing at the latter part of this speech, +which for the extravagance of its eulogy was not far removed from +satire; but the directors and their friends, and all the winners in +the room, applauded vehemently. The Duke of Portland spoke in a +similar strain, and expressed his great wonder why anybody should be +dissatisfied: of course, he was a winner by his speculations, and in +a condition similar to that of the fat alderman in Joe Miller's Jests, +who, whenever he had eaten a good dinner, folded his hands upon his +paunch, and expressed his doubts whether there could be a hungry man in +the world. + +Several resolutions were passed at this meeting, but they had no effect +upon the public. Upon the very same evening the stock fell to six +hundred and forty, and on the morrow to five hundred and forty. Day +after day it continued to fall, until it was as low as four hundred. +In a letter dated September 13th, from Mr. Broderick, M.P. to Lord +Chancellor Middleton, and published in Coxo's Walpole, the former +says,--"Various are the conjectures why the South Sea directors have +suffered the cloud to break so early. I made no doubt but they would do +so when they found it to their advantage. They have stretched credit +so far beyond what it would bear, that specie proves insufficient +to support it. Their most considerable men have drawn out, securing +themselves by the losses of the deluded, thoughtless numbers, whose +understandings have been overruled by avarice and the hope of making +mountains out of mole-hills. Thousands of families will be reduced +to beggary. The consternation is inexpressible--the rage beyond +description, and the case altogether so desperate that I do not see any +plan or scheme so much as thought of for averting the blow, so that I +cannot pretend to guess what is next to be done." Ten days afterwards, +the stock still falling, he writes,--"The Company have yet come to no +determination, for they are in such a wood that they know not which way +to turn. By several gentlemen lately come to town, I perceive the very +name of a South-Sea-man grows abominable in every country. A great many +goldsmiths are already run off, and more will daily. I question +whether one-third, nay, one-fourth, of them can stand it. From the +very beginning, I founded my judgment of the whole affair upon the +unquestionable maxim, that ten millions (which is more than our running +cash) could not circulate two hundred millions, beyond which our paper +credit extended. That, therefore, whenever that should become doubtful, +be the cause what it would, our noble state machine must inevitably fall +to the ground." + +On the 12th of September, at the earnest solicitation of Mr. Secretary +Craggs, several conferences were held between the directors of the South +Sea and the directors of the Bank. A report which was circulated, +that the latter had agreed to circulate six millions of the South Sea +Company's bonds, caused the stock to rise to six hundred and seventy; +but in the afternoon, as soon as the report was known to be groundless, +the stock fell again to five hundred and eighty; the next day to five +hundred and seventy, and so gradually to four hundred. [Gay (the poet), +in that disastrous year, had a present from young Craggs of some South +Sea stock, and once supposed himself to be master of twenty thousand +pounds. His friends persuaded him to sell his share, but he dreamed of +dignity and splendour, and could not bear to obstruct his own fortune. +He was then importuned to sell as much as would purchase a hundred a +year for life, "which," says Fenton, "will make you sure of a clean +shirt and a shoulder of mutton every day." This counsel was rejected; +the profit and principal were lost, and Gay sunk under the calamity so +low that his life became in danger.--Johnson's Lives of the Poets.] + +The ministry were seriously alarmed at the aspect of affairs. The +directors could not appear in the streets without being insulted; +dangerous riots were every moment apprehended. Despatches were sent off +to the King at Hanover, praying his immediate return. Mr. Walpole, who +was staying at his country-seat, was sent for, that he might employ his +known influence with the directors of the Bank of England to induce them +to accept the proposal made by the South Sea Company for circulating a +number of their bonds. + +The Bank was very unwilling to mix itself up with the affairs of the +Company; it dreaded being involved in calamities which it could not +relieve, and received all overtures with visible reluctance. But the +universal voice of the nation called upon it to come to the rescue. +Every person of note in commercial politics was called in to advise in +the emergency. A rough draft of a contract drawn up by Mr. Walpole was +ultimately adopted as the basis of further negotiations, and the public +alarm abated a little. + +On the following day, the 20th of September, a general court of +the South Sea Company was held at Merchant Tailors' Hall, in which +resolutions were carried, empowering the directors to agree with the +Bank of England, or any other persons, to circulate the Company's +bonds, or make any other agreement with the Bank which they should think +proper. One of the speakers, a Mr. Pulteney, said it was most surprising +to see the extraordinary panic which had seized upon the people. Men +were running to and fro in alarm and terror, their imaginations filled +with some great calamity, the form and dimensions of which nobody knew. + + "Black it stood as night-- + Fierce as ten furies--terrible as hell." + +At a general court of the Bank of England held two days afterwards, the +governor informed them of the several meetings that had been held on the +affairs of the South Sea Company, adding that the directors had not yet +thought fit to come to any decision upon the matter. A resolution was +then proposed, and carried without a dissentient voice, empowering the +directors to agree with those of the South Sea to circulate their bonds, +to what sum, and upon what terms, and for what time, they might think +proper. + +Thus both parties were at liberty to act as they might judge best for +the public interest. Books were opened at the Bank for a subscription of +three millions for the support of public credit, on the usual terms of +15 pounds per cent. deposit, per cent. premium, and 5 pounds per cent. +interest. So great was the concourse of people in the early part of +the morning, all eagerly bringing their money, that it was thought the +subscription would be filled that day; but before noon, the tide +turned. In spite of all that could be done to prevent it, the South Sea +Company's stock fell rapidly. Their bonds were in such discredit, that a +run commenced upon the most eminent goldsmiths and bankers, some of whom +having lent out great sums upon South Sea stock were obliged to shut up +their shops and abscond. The Sword-blade Company, who had hitherto been +the chief cashiers of the South Sea Company, stopped payment. This being +looked upon as but the beginning of evil, occasioned a great run upon +the Bank, who were now obliged to pay out money much faster than they +had received it upon the subscription in the morning. The day succeeding +was a holiday (the 29th of September), and the Bank had a little +breathing time. They bore up against the storm; but their former rivals, +the South Sea Company, were wrecked upon it. Their stock fell to one +hundred and fifty, and gradually, after various fluctuations, to one +hundred and thirty-five. + +The Bank, finding they were not able to restore public confidence, and +stem the tide of ruin, without running the risk of being swept away with +those they intended to save, declined to carry out the agreement into +which they had partially entered. They were under no obligation whatever +to continue; for the so called Bank contract was nothing more than the +rough draught of an agreement, in which blanks had been left for +several important particulars, and which contained no penalty for their +secession. "And thus," to use the words of the Parliamentary History, +"were seen, in the space of eight months, the rise, progress, and fall +of that mighty fabric, which, being wound up by mysterious springs to a +wonderful height, had fixed the eyes and expectations of all Europe, +but whose foundation, being fraud, illusion, credulity, and infatuation, +fell to the ground as soon as the artful management of its directors was +discovered." + +In the hey-day of its blood, during the progress of this dangerous +delusion, the manners of the nation became sensibly corrupted. The +Parliamentary inquiry, set on foot to discover the delinquents, +disclosed scenes of infamy, disgraceful alike to the morals of the +offenders and the intellects of the people among whom they had arisen. +It is a deeply interesting study to investigate all the evils that were +the result. Nations, like individuals, cannot become desperate gamblers +with impunity. Punishment is sure to overtake them sooner or later. A +celebrated writer [Smollett.] is quite wrong, when he says, "that such +an era as this is the most unfavourable for a historian; that no reader +of sentiment and imagination can be entertained or interested by a +detail of transactions such as these, which admit of no warmth, no +colouring, no embellishment; a detail of which only serves to exhibit +an inanimate picture of tasteless vice and mean degeneracy." On the +contrary, and Smollett might have discovered it, if he had been in the +humour--the subject is capable of inspiring as much interest as even a +novelist can desire. Is there no warmth in the despair of a plundered +people?--no life and animation in the picture which might be drawn of +the woes of hundreds of impoverished and ruined families? of the +wealthy of yesterday become the beggars of to-day? of the powerful +and influential changed into exiles and outcasts, and the voice of +self-reproach and imprecation resounding from every corner of the land? +Is it a dull or uninstructive picture to see a whole people shaking +suddenly off the trammels of reason, and running wild after a golden +vision, refusing obstinately to believe that it is not real, till, like +a deluded hind running after an ignis fatuus, they are plunged into a +quagmire? But in this false spirit has history too often been written. +The intrigues of unworthy courtiers to gain the favour of still more +unworthy kings; or the records of murderous battles and sieges have +been dilated on, and told over and over again, with all the eloquence +of style and all the charms of fancy; while the circumstances which have +most deeply affected the morals and welfare of the people, have been +passed over with but slight notice as dry and dull, and capable of +neither warmth nor colouring. + +During the progress of this famous bubble, England presented a singular +spectacle. The public mind was in a state of unwholesome fermentation. +Men were no longer satisfied with the slow but sure profits of cautious +industry. The hope of boundless wealth for the morrow made them +heedless and extravagant for to-day. A luxury, till then unheard-of, was +introduced, bringing in its train a corresponding laxity of morals. The +overbearing insolence of ignorant men, who had arisen to sudden wealth +by successful gambling, made men of true gentility of mind and manners, +blush that gold should have power to raise the unworthy in the scale of +society. The haughtiness of some of these "cyphering cits," as they were +termed by Sir Richard Steele, was remembered against them in the day +of their adversity. In the Parliamentary inquiry, many of the directors +suffered more for their insolence than for their peculation. One of +them, who, in the full-blown pride of an ignorant rich man, had said +that he would feed his horse upon gold, was reduced almost to bread and +water for himself; every haughty look, every overbearing speech, was set +down, and repaid them a hundredfold in poverty and humiliation. + +The state of matters all over the country was so alarming, that George +I shortened his intended stay in Hanover, and returned in all haste to +England. He arrived on the 11th of November, and Parliament was summoned +to meet on the 8th of December. In the mean time, public meetings were +held in every considerable town of the empire, at which petitions were +adopted, praying the vengeance of the Legislature upon the South Sea +directors, who, by their fraudulent practices, had brought the nation to +the brink of ruin. Nobody seemed to imagine that the nation itself was +as culpable as the South Sea Company. Nobody blamed the credulity and +avarice of the people,--the degrading lust of gain, which had swallowed +up every nobler quality in the national character, or the infatuation +which had made the multitude run their heads with such frantic eagerness +into the net held out for them by scheming projectors. These things were +never mentioned. The people were a simple, honest, hard-working people, +ruined by a gang of robbers, who were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered +without mercy. + +This was the almost unanimous feeling of the country. The two Houses of +Parliament were not more reasonable. Before the guilt of the South +Sea directors was known, punishment was the only cry. The King, in his +speech from the throne, expressed his hope that they would remember that +all their prudence, temper, and resolution were necessary to find out +and apply the proper remedy for their misfortunes. In the debate on the +answer to the address, several speakers indulged in the most violent +invectives against the directors of the South Sea project. The Lord +Molesworth was particularly vehement. "It had been said by some, that +there was no law to punish the directors of the South Sea Company, who +were justly looked upon as the authors of the present misfortunes of +the state. In his opinion they ought, upon this occasion, to follow the +example of the ancient Romans, who, having no law against parricide, +because their legislators supposed no son could be so unnaturally wicked +as to embrue his hands in his father's blood, made a law to punish this +heinous crime as soon as it was committed. They adjudged the guilty +wretch to be sown in a sack, and thrown alive into the Tyber. He looked +upon the contrivers and executors of the villanous South Sea scheme as +the parricides of their country, and should be satisfied to see them +tied in like manner in sacks, and thrown into the Thames." Other members +spoke with as much want of temper and discretion. Mr. Walpole was more +moderate. He recommended that their first care should be to restore +public credit. "If the city of London were on fire, all wise men would +aid in extinguishing the flames, and preventing the spread of the +conflagration before they inquired after the incendiaries. Public credit +had received a dangerous wound, and lay bleeding, and they ought to +apply a speedy remedy to it. It was time enough to punish the assassin +afterwards." On the 9th of December an address, in answer to his +Majesty's speech, was agreed upon, after an amendment, which was +carried without a division, that words should be added expressive of the +determination of the House not only to seek a remedy for the national +distresses, but to punish the authors of them. + +The inquiry proceeded rapidly. The directors were ordered to lay before +the House a full account of all their proceedings. Resolutions were +passed to the effect that the calamity was mainly owing to the vile +arts of stockjobbers, and that nothing could tend more to the +re-establishment of public credit than a law to prevent this infamous +practice. Mr. Walpole then rose, and said, that "as he had previously +hinted, he had spent some time upon a scheme for restoring public +credit, but that, the execution of it depending upon a position which +had been laid down as fundamental, he thought it proper, before he +opened out his scheme, to be informed whether he might rely upon +that foundation. It was, whether the subscription of public debts and +encumbrances, money subscriptions, and other contracts, made with the +South Sea Company should remain in the present state?" This question +occasioned an animated debate. It was finally agreed, by a majority of +259 against 117, that all these contracts should remain in their present +state, unless altered for the relief of the proprietors by a general +court of the South Sea Company, or set aside by due course of law. On +the following day Mr. Walpole laid before a committee of the whole +House his scheme for the restoration of public credit, which was, in +substance, to ingraft nine millions of South Sea stock into the Bank +of England, and the same sum into the East India Company, upon certain +conditions. The plan was favourably received by the House. After some +few objections, it was ordered that proposals should be received from +the two great corporations. They were both unwilling to lend their aid, +and the plan met with a warm but fruitless opposition at the general +courts summoned for the purpose of deliberating upon it. They, however, +ultimately agreed upon the terms on which they would consent to +circulate the South Sea bonds, and their report, being presented to +the committee, a bill was brought in, under the superintendence of Mr. +Walpole, and safely carried through both Houses of Parliament. + +A bill was at the same time brought in, for restraining the South Sea +directors, governor, sub-governor, treasurer, cashier, and clerks from +leaving the kingdom for a twelvemonth, and for discovering their estates +and effects, and preventing them from transporting or alienating the +same. All the most influential members of the House supported the bill. +Mr. Shippen, seeing Mr. Secretary Craggs in his place, and believing +the injurious rumours that were afloat of that minister's conduct in the +South Sea business, determined to touch him to the quick. He said, he +was glad to see a British House of Commons resuming its pristine vigour +and spirit, and acting with so much unanimity for the public good. +It was necessary to secure the persons and estates of the South Sea +directors and their officers; "but," he added, looking fixedly at Mr. +Craggs as he spoke, "there were other men in high station, whom, in +time, he would not be afraid to name, who were no less guilty than +the directors." Mr. Craggs arose in great wrath, and said, that if the +innuendo were directed against him, he was ready to give satisfaction to +any man who questioned him, either in the House or out of it. Loud cries +of order immediately arose on every side. In the midst of the uproar +Lord Molesworth got up, and expressed his wonder at the boldness of Mr. +Craggs in challenging the whole House of Commons. He, Lord Molesworth, +though somewhat old, past sixty, would answer Mr. Craggs whatever he +had to say in the House, and he trusted there were plenty of young men +beside him, who would not be afraid to look Mr. Craggs in the face, out +of the House. The cries of order again resounded from every side; the +members arose simultaneously; everybody seemed to be vociferating at +once. The Speaker in vain called order. The confusion lasted several +minutes, during which Lord Molesworth and Mr. Craggs were almost the +only members who kept their seats. At last the call for Mr. Craggs +became so violent that he thought proper to submit to the universal +feeling of the House, and explain his unparliamentary expression. He +said, that by giving satisfaction to the impugners of his conduct in +that House, he did not mean that he would fight, but that he would +explain his conduct. Here the matter ended, and the House proceeded to +debate in what manner they should conduct their inquiry into the affairs +of the South Sea Company, whether in a grand or a select committee. +Ultimately, a Secret Committee of thirteen was appointed, with power to +send for persons, papers, and records. + +The Lords were as zealous and as hasty as the Commons. The Bishop +of Rochester said the scheme had been like a pestilence. The Duke of +Wharton said the House ought to show no respect of persons; that, for +his part, he would give up the dearest friend he had, if he had been +engaged in the project. The nation had been plundered in a most shameful +and flagrant manner, and he would go as far as anybody in the punishment +of the offenders. Lord Stanhope said, that every farthing possessed +by the criminals, whether directors or not directors, ought to be +confiscated, to make good the public losses. + +During all this time the public excitement was extreme. We learn, front +Coxe's Walpole, that the very name of a South Sea director was thought +to be synonymous with every species of fraud and villany. Petitions +from counties, cities, and boroughs, in all parts of the kingdom, were +presented, crying for the justice due to an injured nation and the +punishment of the villanous peculators. Those moderate men, who would +not go to extreme lengths, even in the punishment of the guilty, were +accused of being accomplices, were exposed to repeated insults and +virulent invectives, and devoted, both in anonymous letters and public +writings, to the speedy vengeance of an injured people. The accusations +against Mr. Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Craggs, +another member of the ministry, were so loud, that the House of Lords +resolved to proceed at once into the investigation concerning them. It +was ordered, on the 21st of January, that all brokers concerned in the +South Sea scheme should lay before the House an account of the stock +or subscriptions bought or sold by them for any of the officers of the +Treasury or Exchequer, or in trust for any of them, since Michaelmas +1719. When this account was delivered, it appeared that large quantities +of stock had been transferred to the use of Mr. Aislabie. Five of the +South Sea directors, including Mr. Edward Gibbon, the grandfather of the +celebrated historian, were ordered into the custody of the black rod. +Upon a motion made by Earl Stanhope, it was unanimously resolved, +that the taking in or giving credit for stock without a valuable +consideration actually paid or sufficiently secured; or the purchasing +stock by any director or agent of the South Sea Company, for the use +or benefit of any member of the administration, or any member of either +House of Parliament, during such time as the South Sea Bill was yet +pending in Parliament, was a notorious and dangerous corruption. Another +resolution was passed a few days afterwards, to the effect that several +of the directors and officers of the Company having, in a clandestine +manner, sold their own stock to the Company, had been guilty of a +notorious fraud and breach of trust, and had thereby mainly caused the +unhappy turn of affairs that had so much affected public credit. +Mr. Aislabie resigned his office as Chancellor of the Exchequer, and +absented himself from Parliament until the formal inquiry into his +individual guilt was brought under the consideration of the Legislature. + +In the mean time, Knight, the treasurer of the Company, and who was +intrusted with all the dangerous secrets of the dishonest directors, +packed up his books and documents, and made his escape from the country. +He embarked in disguise, in a small boat on the river, and proceeding +to a vessel hired for the purpose, was safely conveyed to Calais. The +Committee of Secrecy informed the House of the circumstance, when it was +resolved unanimously that two addresses should be presented to the King; +the first praying that he would issue a proclamation, offering a reward +for the apprehension of Knight; and the second, that he would give +immediate orders to stop the ports, and to take effectual care of the +coasts, to prevent the said Knight, or any other officers of the South +Sea Company, from escaping out of the kingdom. The ink was hardly +dry upon these addresses before they were carried to the King by Mr. +Methuen, deputed by the House for that purpose. The same evening a royal +proclamation was issued, offering a reward of two thousand pounds for +the apprehension of Knight. The Commons ordered the doors of the House +to be locked, and the keys to be placed upon the table. General Ross, +one of the members of the Committee of Secrecy, acquainted them that +they had already discovered a train of the deepest villany and fraud +that Hell had ever contrived to ruin a nation, which in due time they +would lay before the House. In the mean time, in order to a further +discovery, the Committee thought it highly necessary to secure the +persons of some of the directors and principal South Sea officers, and +to seize their papers. A motion to this effect having been made, was +carried unanimously. Sir Robert Chaplin, Sir Theodore Janssen, Mr. +Sawbridge, and Mr. F. Eyles, members of the House, and directors of the +South Sea Company, were summoned to appear in their places, and answer +for their corrupt practices. Sir Theodore Janssen and Mr. Sawbridge +answered to their names, and endeavoured to exculpate themselves. The +House heard them patiently, and then ordered them to withdraw. A motion +was then made, and carried nemine contradicente, that they had been +guilty of a notorious breach of trust--had occasioned much loss to great +numbers of his Majesty's subjects, and had highly prejudiced the public +credit. It was then ordered that, for their offence, they should be +expelled the House, and taken into the custody of the sergeant-at-arms. +Sir Robert Chaplin and Mr. Eyles, attending in their places four days +afterwards, were also expelled the House. It was resolved at the same +time to address the King, to give directions to his ministers at foreign +courts to make application for Knight, that he might be delivered up +to the English authorities, in ease he took refuge in any of their +dominions. The King at once agreed, and messengers were despatched to +all parts of the Continent the same night. + +Among the directors taken into custody, was Sir John Blunt, the man whom +popular opinion has generally accused of having been the original author +and father of the scheme. This man, we are informed by Pope, in his +epistle to Allen, Lord Bathurst, was a dissenter, of a most religious +deportment, and professed to be a great believer. He constantly +declaimed against the luxury and corruption of the age, the partiality +of parliaments, and the misery of party spirit. He was particularly +eloquent against avarice in great and noble persons. He was originally +a scrivener, and afterwards became, not only a director, but the most +active manager of the South Sea Company. Whether it was during his +career in this capacity that he first began to declaim against the +avarice of the great, we are not informed. He certainly must have seen +enough of it to justify his severest anathema; but if the preacher had +himself been free from the vice he condemned, his declamations would +have had a better effect. He was brought up in custody to the bar of the +House of Lords, and underwent a long examination. He refused to answer +several important questions. He said he had been examined already by +a committee of the House of Commons, and as he did not remember his +answers, and might contradict himself, he refused to answer before +another tribunal. This declaration, in itself an indirect proof of +guilt, occasioned some commotion in the House. He was again asked +peremptorily whether he had ever sold any portion of the stock to +any member of the administration, or any member of either House of +Parliament, to facilitate the passing of the hill. He again declined to +answer. He was anxious, he said, to treat the House with all possible +respect, but he thought it hard to be compelled to accuse himself. After +several ineffectual attempts to refresh his memory, he was directed to +withdraw. A violent discussion ensued between the friends and opponents +of the ministry. It was asserted that the administration were no +strangers to the convenient taciturnity of Sir John Blunt. The Duke +of Wharton made a reflection upon the Earl Stanhope, which the latter +warmly resented. He spoke under great excitement, and with such +vehemence as to cause a sudden determination of blood to the head. He +felt himself so ill that he was obliged to leave the House and retire +to his chamber. He was cupped immediately, and also let blood on the +following morning, but with slight relief. The fatal result was not +anticipated. Towards evening he became drowsy, and turning himself on +his face, expired. The sudden death of this statesman caused great grief +to the nation. George I was exceedingly affected, and shut himself up +for some hours in his closet, inconsolable for his loss. + +Knight, the treasurer of the company, was apprehended at Tirlemont, near +Liege, by one of the secretaries of Mr. Leathes, the British resident +at Brussels, and lodged in the citadel of Antwerp. Repeated applications +were made to the court of Austria to deliver him up, but in vain. Knight +threw himself upon the protection of the states of Brabant, and demanded +to be tried in that country. It was a privilege granted to the states +of Brabant by one of the articles of the Joyeuse Entree, that every +criminal apprehended in that country should be tried in that country. +The states insisted on their privilege, and refused to deliver Knight to +the British authorities. The latter did not cease their solicitations; +but in the mean time, Knight escaped from the citadel. + +On the 16th of February the Committee of Secrecy made their first report +to the House. They stated that their inquiry had been attended with +numerous difficulties and embarrassments; every one they had examined +had endeavoured, as far as in him lay, to defeat the ends of justice. In +some of the books produced before them, false and fictitious entries had +been made; in others, there were entries of money, with blanks for the +name of the stockholders. There were frequent erasures and alterations, +and in some of the books leaves were torn out. They also found that some +books of great importance had been destroyed altogether, and that +some had been taken away or secreted. At the very entrance into their +inquiry, they had observed that the matters referred to them were of +great variety and extent. Many persons had been intrusted with various +parts in the execution of the law, and under colour thereof had acted +in an unwarrantable manner, in disposing of the properties of many +thousands of persons, amounting to many millions of money. They +discovered that, before the South Sea Act was passed, there was an entry +in the Company's books of the sum of 1,259,325 pounds, upon account of +stock stated to have been sold to the amount of 574,500 pounds. This +stock was all fictitious, and had been disposed of with a view to +promote the passing of the bill. It was noted as sold at various days, +and at various prices, from 150 to 325 per cent. Being surprised to see +so large an account disposed of, at a time when the Company were +not empowered to increase their capital, the committee determined +to investigate most carefully the whole transaction. The governor, +sub-governor, and several directors were brought before them, and +examined rigidly. They found that, at the time these entries were made, +the Company was not in possession of such a quantity of stock, having +in their own right only a small quantity, not exceeding thirty thousand +pounds at the utmost. Pursuing the inquiry, they found that this amount +of stock, was to be esteemed as taken in or holden by the Company, for +the benefit of the pretended purchasers, although no mutual agreement +was made for its delivery or acceptance at any certain time. No money +was paid down, nor any deposit or security whatever given to the Company +by the supposed purchasers; so that if the stock had fallen, as might +have been expected, had the act not passed, they would have sustained no +loss. If, on the contrary, the price of stock advanced (as it actually +did by the success of the scheme), the difference by the advanced price +was to be made good to them. Accordingly, after the passing of the act, +the account of stock was made up and adjusted with Mr. Knight, and the +pretended purchasers were paid the difference out of the Company's cash. +This fictitious stock, which had been chiefly at the disposal of Sir +John Blunt, Mr. Gibbon, and Mr. Knight, was distributed among several +members of the government and their connexions, by way of bribe, to +facilitate the passing of the bill. To the Earl of Sunderland was +assigned 50,000 pounds of this stock; to the Duchess of Kendal 10,000 +pounds; to the Countess of Platen 10,000 pounds; to her two nieces +10,000 pounds; to Mr. Secretary Craggs 30,000 pounds; to Mr. Charles +Stanhope (one of the Secretaries of the Treasury) 10,000 pounds; to the +Swordblade Company 50,000 pounds. It also appeared that Mr. Stanhope +had received the enormous sum of 250,000 pounds as the difference in the +price of some stock, through the hands of Turner, Caswall, and Co., but +that his name had been partly erased from their books, and altered to +Stangape. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, had made profits +still more abominable. He had an account with the same firm, who were +also South Sea directors, to the amount of 794,451 pounds. He had, +besides, advised the Company to make their second subscription one +million and a half, instead of a million, by their own authority, and +without any warrant. The third subscription had been conducted in a +manner as disgraceful. Mr. Aislabie's name was down for 70,000 pounds; +Mr. Craggs, senior, for 659,000 pounds; the Earl of Sunderland's for +160,000 pounds; and Mr. Stanhope for 47,000 pounds. This report was +succeeded by six others, less important. At the end of the last, the +committee declared that the absence of Knight, who had been principally +intrusted, prevented them from carrying on their inquiries. + +The first report was ordered to be printed, and taken into consideration +on the next day but one succeeding. After a very angry and animated +debate, a series of resolutions were agreed to, condemnatory of the +conduct of the directors, of the members of the Parliament and of the +administration concerned with them; and declaring that they ought, each +and all, to make satisfaction out of their own estates for the injury +they had done the public. Their practices were declared to be corrupt, +infamous, and dangerous; and a bill was ordered to be brought in for the +relief of the unhappy sufferers. + +Mr. Charles Stanhope was the first person brought to account for his +share in these transactions. He urged in his defence that, for some +years past, he had lodged all the money he was possessed of in Mr. +Knight's hands, and whatever stock Mr. Knight had taken in for him, he +had paid a valuable consideration for it. As to the stock that had been +bought for him by Turner, Caswall, and Co. he knew nothing about it. +Whatever had been done in that matter was done without his authority, +and he could not be responsible for it. Turner and Co. took the latter +charge upon themselves, but it was notorious to every unbiased and +unprejudiced person that Mr. Stanhope was a gainer of the 250,000 pounds +which lay in the hands of that firm to his credit. He was, however, +acquitted by a majority of three only. The greatest exertions were made +to screen him. Lord Stanhope, the son of the Earl of Chesterfield, went +round to the wavering members, using all the eloquence he was possessed +of to induce them either to vote for the acquittal or to absent +themselves from the house. Many weak-headed country-gentlemen were led +astray by his persuasions, and the result was as already stated. The +acquittal caused the greatest discontent throughout the country. Mobs +of a menacing character assembled in different parts of London; fears +of riots were generally entertained, especially as the examination of +a still greater delinquent was expected by many to have a similar +termination. Mr. Aislabie, whose high office and deep responsibilities +should have kept him honest, even had native principle been +insufficient, was very justly regarded as perhaps the greatest criminal +of all. His case was entered into on the day succeeding the acquittal of +Mr. Starthope. Great excitement prevailed, and the lobbies and avenues +of the house were beset by crowds, impatient to know the result. The +debate lasted the whole day. Mr. Aislabie found few friends: his guilt +was so apparent and so heinous that nobody had courage to stand up in +his favour. It was finally resolved, without a dissentient voice, that +Mr. Aislabie had encouraged and promoted the destructive execution of +the South Sea scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, and had +combined with the directors in their pernicious practices to the ruin +of the public trade and credit of the kingdom: that he should for +his offences be ignominiously expelled from the House of Commons, and +committed a close prisoner to the Tower of London; that he should be +restrained from going out of the kingdom for a whole year, or till the +end of the next session of Parliament; and that he should make out a +correct account of all his estate, in order that it might be applied to +the relief of those who had suffered by his malpractices. + +This verdict caused the greatest joy. Though it was delivered at +half-past twelve at night, it soon spread over the city. Several persons +illuminated their houses in token of their joy. On the following day, +when Mr. Aislabie was conveyed to the Tower, the mob assembled on +Tower-hill with the intention of hooting and pelting him. Not succeeding +in this, they kindled a large bonfire, and danced around it in the +exuberance of their delight. Several bonfires were made in other places; +London presented the appearance of a holiday, and people congratulated +one another as if they had just escaped from some great calamity. The +rage upon the acquittal of Mr. Stanhope had grown to such a height that +none could tell where it would have ended, had Mr. Aislabie met with the +like indulgence. + +To increase the public satisfaction, Sir George Caswall, of the firm of +Turner, Caswall, & Co. was expelled the House on the following day, and +ordered to refund the sum of 250,000 pounds. + +That part of the report of the Committee of Secrecy which related to the +Earl of Sunderland was next taken into consideration. Every effort was +made to clear his Lordship from the imputation. As the case against him +rested chiefly on the evidence extorted from Sir John Blunt, great +pains were taken to make it appear that Sir John's word was not to be +believed, especially in a matter affecting the honour of a peer and +privy councillor. All the friends of the ministry rallied around the +Earl, it being generally reported that a verdict of guilty against him +would bring a Tory ministry into power. He was eventually acquitted, +by a majority of 233 against 172; but the country was convinced of his +guilt. The greatest indignation was everywhere expressed, and menacing +mobs again assembled in London. Happily no disturbances took place. + +This was the day on which Mr. Craggs, the elder, expired. The morrow had +been appointed for the consideration of his case. It was very generally +believed that he had poisoned himself. It appeared, however, that grief +for the loss of his son, one of the Secretaries of the Treasury, who had +died five weeks previously of the small-pox, preyed much on his mind. +For this son, dearly beloved, he had been amassing vast heaps of riches: +he had been getting money, but not honestly; and he for whose sake he +had bartered his honour and sullied his fame, was now no more. The +dread of further exposure increased his trouble of mind, and ultimately +brought on an apoplectic fit, in which he expired. He left a fortune of +a million and a half, which was afterwards confiscated for the +benefit of the sufferers by the unhappy delusion he had been so mainly +instrumental in raising. + +One by one the case of every director of the Company was taken into +consideration. A sum amounting to two millions and fourteen thousand +pounds was confiscated from their estates towards repairing the mischief +they had done, each man being allowed a certain residue, in proportion +to his conduct and circumstances, with which he might begin the world +anew. Sir John Blunt was only allowed 5,000 pounds out of his fortune +of upwards of 183,000 pounds; Sir John Fellows was allowed 10,000 +pounds out of 243,000 pounds; Sir Theodore Janssen, 50,000 pounds out of +243,000 pounds; Mr. Edward Gibbon, 10,000 pounds out of 106,000 pounds.; +Sir John Lambert, 5000 pounds out of 72,000 pounds. Others, less deeply +involved, were treated with greater liberality. Gibbon, the historian, +whose grandfather was the Mr. Edward Gibbon so severely mulcted, has +given, in the Memoirs of his Life and Writings, an interesting account +of the proceedings in Parliament at this time. He owns that he is not an +unprejudiced witness; but, as all the writers from which it is possible +to extract any notice of the proceedings of these disastrous years, +were prejudiced on the other side, the statements of the great historian +become of additional value. If only on the principle of audi alteram +partem, his opinion is entitled to consideration. "In the year 1716," he +says, "my grandfather was elected one of the directors of the South Sea +Company, and his books exhibited the proof that before his acceptance +of that fatal office, he had acquired an independent fortune of 60,000 +pounds. But his fortune was overwhelmed in the shipwreck of the year +twenty, and the labours of thirty years were blasted in a single day. Of +the use or abuse of the South Sea scheme, of the guilt or innocence of +my grandfather and his brother directors, I am neither a competent nor +a disinterested judge. Yet the equity of modern times must condemn the +violent and arbitrary proceedings, which would have disgraced the cause +of justice, and rendered injustice still more odious. No sooner had +the nation awakened from its golden dream, than a popular, and even a +Parliamentary clamour, demanded its victims; but it was acknowledged on +all sides, that the directors, however guilty, could not be touched by +any known laws of the land. The intemperate notions of Lord Molesworth +were not literally acted on; but a bill of pains and penalties was +introduced--a retro-active statute, to punish the offences which did not +exist at the time they were committed. The Legislature restrained the +persons of the directors, imposed an exorbitant security for their +appearance, and marked their character with a previous note of ignominy. +They were compelled to deliver, upon oath, the strict value of their +estates, and were disabled from making any transfer or alienation of any +part of their property. Against a bill of pains and penalties, it is +the common right of every subject to be heard by his counsel at the bar. +They prayed to be heard. Their prayer was refused, and their oppressors, +who required no evidence, would listen to no defence. It had been at +first proposed, that one eighth of their respective estates should be +allowed for the future support of the directors; but it was speciously +urged, that in the various shades of opulence and guilt, such a +proportion would be too light for many, and for some might possibly +be too heavy. The character and conduct of each man were separately +weighed; but, instead of the calm solemnity of a judicial inquiry, the +fortune and honour of thirty-three Englishmen were made the topics of +hasty conversation, the sport of a lawless majority; and the basest +member of the committee, by a malicious word, or a silent vote, might +indulge his general spleen or personal animosity. Injury was aggravated +by insult, and insult was embittered by pleasantry. Allowances of 20 +pounds or 1 shilling were facetiously moved. A vague report that a +director had formerly been concerned in another project, by which some +unknown persons had lost their money, was admitted as a proof of his +actual guilt. One man was ruined because he had dropped a foolish +speech, that his horses should feed upon gold; another, because he was +grown so proud, that one day, at the Treasury, he had refused a civil +answer to persons much above him. All were condemned, absent and +unheard, in arbitrary fines and forfeitures, which swept away the +greatest part of their substance. Such bold oppression can scarcely +be shielded by the omnipotence of Parliament. My grandfather could not +expect to be treated with more lenity than his companions. His Tory +principles and connexions rendered him obnoxious to the ruling powers. +His name was reported in a suspicious secret. His well-known abilities +could not plead the excuse of ignorance or error. In the first +proceedings against the South Sea directors, Mr. Gibbon was one of the +first taken into custody, and in the final sentence the measure of +his fine proclaimed him eminently guilty. The total estimate, which he +delivered on oath to the House of Commons, amounted to 106,543 pounds +5 shillings 6 pence, exclusive of antecedent settlements. Two different +allowances of 15,000 pounds and of 10,000 pounds were moved for Mr. +Gibbon; but, on the question being put, it was carried without a +division for the smaller sum. On these ruins, with the skill and credit +of which Parliament had not been able to despoil him, my grandfather, +at a mature age, erected the edifice of a new fortune. The labours of +sixteen years were amply rewarded; and I have reason to believe that the +second structure was not much inferior to the first." + +The next consideration of the Legislature, after the punishment of the +directors, was to restore public credit. The scheme of Walpole had been +found insufficient, and had fallen into disrepute. A computation was +made of the whole capital stock of the South Sea Company at the end of +the year 1720. It was found to amount to thirty-seven millions eight +hundred thousand pounds, of which the stock allotted to all the +proprietors only amounted to twenty-four millions five hundred thousand +pounds. The remainder of thirteen millions three hundred thousand pounds +belonged to the Company in their corporate capacity, and was the profit +they had made by the national delusion. Upwards of eight millions of +this were taken from the Company, and divided among the proprietors and +subscribers generally, making a dividend of about 33 pounds 6 shillings +8 pence per cent. This was a great relief. It was further ordered, that +such persons as had borrowed money from the South Sea Company upon stock +actually transferred and pledged at the time of borrowing to or for the +use of the Company, should be free from all demands, upon payment of ten +per cent. of the sums so borrowed. They had lent about eleven millions +in this manner, at a time when prices were unnaturally raised; and they +now received back one million one hundred thousand, when prices had sunk +to their ordinary level. + +But it was a long time before public credit was thoroughly restored. +Enterprise, like Icarus, had soared too high, and melted the wax of +her wings; like Icarus, she had fallen into a sea, and learned, while +floundering in its waves, that her proper element was the solid ground. +She has never since attempted so high a flight. + +In times of great commercial prosperity there has been a tendency to +over-speculation on several occasions since then. The success of +one project generally produces others of a similar kind. Popular +imitativeness will always, in a trading nation, seize hold of such +successes, and drag a community too anxious for profits into an abyss +from which extrication is difficult. Bubble companies, of a kind similar +to those engendered by the South Sea project, lived their little day +in the famous year of the panic, 1825. On that occasion, as in 1720, +knavery gathered a rich harvest from cupidity, but both suffered when +the day of reckoning came. The schemes of the year 1836 threatened, at +one time, results as disastrous; but they were happily averted before +it was too late. The South Sea project thus remains, and, it is to be +hoped, always will remain, the greatest example in British history, of +the infatuation of the people for commercial gambling. From the bitter +experience of that period, posterity may learn how dangerous it is to +let speculation riot unrestrained, and to hope for enormous profits from +inadequate causes. Degrading as were the circumstances, there is wisdom +to be gained from the lesson which they teach. + + + + +THE TULIPOMANIA. + + Quis furor o cives!--Lucan. + +The tulip,--so named, it is said, from a Turkish word, signifying a +turban,--was introduced into western Europe about the middle of the +sixteenth century. Conrad Gesner, who claims the merit of having brought +it into repute,--little dreaming of the extraordinary commotion it was +to make in the world,--says that he first saw it in the year 1559, in a +garden at Augsburg, belonging to the learned Counsellor Herwart, a man +very famous in his day for his collection of rare exotics. The bulbs +were sent to this gentleman by a friend at Constantinople, where the +flower had long been a favourite. In the course of ten or eleven +years after this period, tulips were much sought after by the wealthy, +especially in Holland and Germany. Rich people at Amsterdam sent for the +bulbs direct to Constantinople, and paid the most extravagant prices +for them. The first roots planted in England were brought from Vienna +in 1600. Until the year 1634 the tulip annually increased in reputation, +until it was deemed a proof of bad taste in any man of fortune to be +without a collection of them. Many learned men, including Pompeius de +Angelis and the celebrated Lipsius of Leyden, the author of the +treatise "De Constantia," were passionately fond of tulips. The rage for +possessing them soon caught the middle classes of society, and merchants +and shopkeepers, even of moderate means, began to vie with each other +in the rarity of these flowers and the preposterous prices they paid for +them. A trader at Harlaem was known to pay one-half of his fortune for a +single root--not with the design of selling it again at a profit, but to +keep in his own conservatory for the admiration of his acquaintance. + +One would suppose that there must have been some great virtue in this +flower to have made it so valuable in the eyes of so prudent a people +as the Dutch; but it has neither the beauty nor the perfume of the +rose--hardly the beauty of the "sweet, sweet-pea;" neither is it as +enduring as either. Cowley, it is true, is loud in its praise. He says-- + + "The tulip next appeared, all over gay, + But wanton, full of pride, and full of play; + The world can't show a dye but here has place; + Nay, by new mixtures, she can change her face; + Purple and gold are both beneath her care-- + The richest needlework she loves to wear; + Her only study is to please the eye, + And to outshine the rest in finery." + +This, though not very poetical, is the description of a poet. Beckmann, +in his History of Inventions, paints it with more fidelity, and in prose +more pleasing than Cowley's poetry. He says, "There are few plants which +acquire, through accident, weakness, or disease, so many variegations as +the tulip. When uncultivated, and in its natural state, it is almost of +one colour, has large leaves, and an extraordinarily long stem. When it +has been weakened by cultivation, it becomes more agreeable in the eyes +of the florist. The petals are then paler, smaller, and more diversified +in hue; and the leaves acquire a softer green colour. Thus this +masterpiece of culture, the more beautiful it turns, grows so much the +weaker, so that, with the greatest skill and most careful attention, it +can scarcely be transplanted, or even kept alive." + +Many persons grow insensibly attached to that which gives them a great +deal of trouble, as a mother often loves her sick and ever-ailing child +better than her more healthy offspring. Upon the same principle we must +account for the unmerited encomia lavished upon these fragile blossoms. +In 1634, the rage among the Dutch to possess them was so great that the +ordinary industry of the country was neglected, and the population, +even to its lowest dregs, embarked in the tulip trade. As the mania +increased, prices augmented, until, in the year 1635, many persons were +known to invest a fortune of 100,000 florins in the purchase of forty +roots. It then became necessary to sell them by their weight in perits, +a small weight less than a grain. A tulip of the species called Admiral +Liefken, weighing 400 perits, was worth 4400 florins; an Admiral Von +der Eyk, weighing 446 perits, was worth 1260 florins; a shilder of 106 +perits was worth 1615 florins; a viceroy of 400 perits, 3000 florins, +and, most precious of all, a Semper Augustus, weighing 200 perits, was +thought to be very cheap at 5500 florins. The latter was much sought +after, and even an inferior bulb might command a price of 2000 florins. +It is related that, at one time, early in 1636, there were only two +roots of this description to be had in all Holland, and those not of the +best. One was in the possession of a dealer in Amsterdam, and the other +in Harlaem. So anxious were the speculators to obtain them that one +person offered the fee-simple of twelve acres of building ground for +the Harlaem tulip. That of Amsterdam was bought for 4600 florins, a new +carriage, two grey horses, and a complete suit of harness. Munting, an +industrious author of that day, who wrote a folio volume of one thousand +pages upon the tulipomania, has preserved the following list of the +various articles, and their value, which were delivered for one single +root of the rare species called the viceroy:-- + + florins. + Two lasts of wheat.............. 448 + Four lasts of rye............... 558 + Four fat oxen................... 480 + Eight fat swine................. 240 + Twelve fat sheep................ 120 + Two hogsheads of wine........... 70 + Four tuns of beer............... 32 + Two tons of butter.............. 192 + One thousand lbs. of cheese..... 120 + A complete bed.................. 100 + A suit of clothes............... 80 + A silver drinking cup........... 60 + ----- + 2500 + ----- + +People who had been absent from Holland, and whose chance it was to +return when this folly was at its maximum, were sometimes led into +awkward dilemmas by their ignorance. There is an amusing instance of +the kind related in Blainville's Travels. A wealthy merchant, who prided +himself not a little on his rare tulips, received upon one occasion a +very valuable consignment of merchandise from the Levant. Intelligence +of its arrival was brought him by a sailor, who presented himself +for that purpose at the counting-house, among bales of goods of every +description. The merchant, to reward him for his news, munificently made +him a present of a fine red herring for his breakfast. The sailor had, +it appears, a great partiality for onions, and seeing a bulb very like +an onion lying upon the counter of this liberal trader, and thinking it, +no doubt, very much out of its place among silks and velvets, he slily +seized an opportunity and slipped it into his pocket, as a relish for +his herring. He got clear off with his prize, and proceeded to the +quay to eat his breakfast. Hardly was his back turned when the merchant +missed his valuable Semper Augustus, worth three thousand florins, or +about 280 pounds sterling. The whole establishment was instantly in an +uproar; search was everywhere made for the precious root, but it was not +to be found. Great was the merchant's distress of mind. The search was +renewed, but again without success. At last some one thought of the +sailor. + +The unhappy merchant sprang into the street at the bare suggestion. His +alarmed household followed him. The sailor, simple soul! had not +thought of concealment. He was found quietly sitting on a coil of ropes, +masticating the last morsel of his "onion." Little did he dream that he +had been eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a whole ship's +crew for a twelvemonth; or, as the plundered merchant himself expressed +it, "might have sumptuously feasted the Prince of Orange and the whole +court of the Stadtholder." Anthony caused pearls to be dissolved in +wine to drink the health of Cleopatra; Sir Richard Whittington was +as foolishly magnificent in an entertainment to King Henry V; and Sir +Thomas Gresham drank a diamond, dissolved in wine, to the health of +Queen Elizabeth, when she opened the Royal Exchange: but the breakfast +of this roguish Dutchman was as splendid as either. He had an advantage, +too, over his wasteful predecessors: their gems did not improve the +taste or the wholesomeness of their wine, while his tulip was quite +delicious with his red herring. The most unfortunate part of the +business for him was, that he remained in prison for some months, on a +charge of felony, preferred against him by the merchant. + +Another story is told of an English traveller, which is scarcely less +ludicrous. This gentleman, an amateur botanist, happened to see a +tulip-root lying in the conservatory of a wealthy Dutchman. Being +ignorant of its quality, he took out his penknife, and peeled off its +coats, with the view of making experiments upon it. When it was by +this means reduced to half its original size, he cut it into two equal +sections, making all the time many learned remarks on the singular +appearances of the unknown bulb. Suddenly the owner pounced upon him, +and, with fury in his eyes, asked him if he knew what he had been doing? +"Peeling a most extraordinary onion," replied the philosopher. "Hundert +tausend duyvel," said the Dutchman; "it's an Admiral Van der E. yck." +"Thank you," replied the traveller, taking out his note-book to make +a memorandum of the same; "are these admirals common in your country?" +"Death and the devil," said the Dutchman, seizing the astonished man of +science by the collar; "come before the syndic, and you shall see." In +spite of his remonstrances, the traveller was led through the streets, +followed by a mob of persons. When brought into the presence of the +magistrate, he learned, to his consternation, that the root upon which +he had been experimentalizing was worth four thousand florins; and, +notwithstanding all he could urge in extenuation, he was lodged in +prison until he found securities for the payment of this sum. + +The demand for tulips of a rare species increased so much in the year +1636, that regular marts for their sale were established on the Stock +Exchange of Amsterdam, in Rotterdam, Harlaem, Leyden, Alkmar, Hoorn, +and other towns. Symptoms of gambling now became, for the first time, +apparent. The stockjobbers, ever on the alert for a new speculation, +dealt largely in tulips, making use of all the means they so well knew +how to employ, to cause fluctuations in prices. At first, as in all +these gambling mania, confidence was at its height, and everybody +gained. The tulip-jobbers speculated in the rise and fall of the tulip +stocks, and made large profits by buying when prices fell, and selling +out when they rose. Many individuals grew suddenly rich. A golden bait +hung temptingly out before the people, and, one after the other, they +rushed to the tulip marts, like flies around a honeypot. Every one +imagined that the passion for tulips would last for ever, and that the +wealthy from every part of the world would send to Holland, and pay +whatever prices were asked for them. The riches of Europe would be +concentrated on the shores of the Zuyder Zee, and poverty banished from +the favoured clime of Holland. Nobles, citizens, farmers, mechanics, +seamen, footmen, maidservants, even chimney-sweeps and old clotheswomen, +dabbled in tulips. People of all grades converted their property into +cash, and invested it in flowers. Houses and lands were offered for sale +at ruinously low prices, or assigned in payment of bargains made at the +tulip-mart. Foreigners became smitten with the same frenzy, and money +poured into Holland from all directions. The prices of the necessaries +of life rose again by degrees; houses and lands, horses and carriages, +and luxuries of every sort, rose in value with them, and for some months +Holland seemed the very antechamber of Plutus. The operations of the +trade became so extensive and so intricate, that it was found necessary +to draw up a code of laws for the guidance of the dealers. Notaries and +clerks were also appointed, who devoted themselves exclusively to the +interests of the trade. The designation of public notary was hardly +known in some towns, that of tulip notary usurping its place. In the +smaller towns, where there was no exchange, the principal tavern was +usually selected as the "showplace," where high and low traded in +tulips, and confirmed their bargains over sumptuous entertainments. +These dinners were sometimes attended by two or three hundred persons, +and large vases of tulips, in full bloom, were placed at regular +intervals upon the tables and sideboards, for their gratification during +the repast. + +At last, however, the more prudent began to see that this folly could +not last for ever. Rich people no longer bought the flowers to keep them +in their gardens, but to sell them again at cent. per cent. profit. +It was seen that somebody must lose fearfully in the end. As this +conviction spread, prices fell, and never rose again. Confidence was +destroyed, and a universal panic seized upon the dealers. A had agreed +to purchase ten Sempers Augustines from B, at four thousand florins +each, at six weeks after the signing of the contract. B was ready with +the flowers at the appointed time; but the price had fallen to three +or four hundred florins, and A refused either to pay the difference or +receive the tulips. Defaulters were announced day after day in all the +towns of Holland. Hundreds who, a few months previously, had begun to +doubt that there was such a thing as poverty in the land, suddenly found +themselves the possessors of a few bulbs, which nobody would buy, even +though they offered them at one quarter of the sums they had paid for +them. The cry of distress resounded everywhere, and each man accused +his neighbour. The few who had contrived to enrich themselves hid their +wealth from the knowledge of their fellow-citizens, and invested it in +the English or other funds. Many who, for a brief season, had emerged +from the humbler walks of life, were cast back into their original +obscurity. Substantial merchants were reduced almost to beggary, and +many a representative of a noble line saw the fortunes of his house +ruined beyond redemption. + +When the first alarm subsided, the tulip-holders in the several towns +held public meetings to devise what measures were best to be taken to +restore public credit. It was generally agreed, that deputies should be +sent from all parts to Amsterdam, to consult with the government upon +some remedy for the evil. The Government at first refused to interfere, +but advised the tulip-holders to agree to some plan among themselves. +Several meetings were held for this purpose; but no measure could be +devised likely to give satisfaction to the deluded people, or repair +even a slight portion of the mischief that had been done. The language +of complaint and reproach was in everybody's mouth, and all the +meetings were of the most stormy character. At last, however, after much +bickering and ill-will, it was agreed, at Amsterdam, by the assembled +deputies, that all contracts made in the height of the mania, or prior +to the month of November 1636, should be declared null and void, and +that, in those made after that date, purchasers should be freed from +their engagements, on paying ten per cent. to the vendor. This decision +gave no satisfaction. The vendors who had their tulips on hand were, of +course, discontented, and those who had pledged themselves to purchase, +thought themselves hardly treated. Tulips which had, at one time, been +worth six thousand florins, were now to be procured for five hundred; so +that the composition of ten per cent. was one hundred florins more than +the actual value. Actions for breach of contract were threatened in all +the courts of the country; but the latter refused to take cognizance of +gambling transactions. + +The matter was finally referred to the Provincial Council at the Hague, +and it was confidently expected that the wisdom of this body would +invent some measure by which credit should be restored. Expectation +was on the stretch for its decision, but it never came. The members +continued to deliberate week after week, and at last, after thinking +about it for three months, declared that they could offer no final +decision until they had more information. They advised, however, that, +in the mean time, every vendor should, in the presence of witnesses, +offer the tulips in natura to the purchaser for the sums agreed upon. If +the latter refused to take them, they might be put up for sale by public +auction, and the original contractor held responsible for the difference +between the actual and the stipulated price. This was exactly the plan +recommended by the deputies, and which was already shown to be of no +avail. There was no court in Holland which would enforce payment. The +question was raised in Amsterdam, but the judges unanimously refused to +interfere, on the ground that debts contracted in gambling were no debts +in law. + +Thus the matter rested. To find a remedy was beyond the power of the +government. Those who were unlucky enough to have had stores of tulips +on hand at the time of the sudden reaction were left to bear their +ruin as philosophically as they could; those who had made profits were +allowed to keep them; but the commerce of the country suffered a severe +shock, from which it was many years ere it recovered. + +The example of the Dutch was imitated to some extent in England. In the +year 1636 tulips were publicly sold in the Exchange of London, and the +jobbers exerted themselves to the utmost to raise them to the fictitious +value they had acquired in Amsterdam. In Paris also the jobbers strove +to create a tulipomania. In both cities they only partially succeeded. +However, the force of example brought the flowers into great favour, +and amongst a certain class of people tulips have ever since been prized +more highly than any other flowers of the field. The Dutch are still +notorious for their partiality to them, and continue to pay higher +prices for them than any other people. As the rich Englishman boasts of +his fine race-horses or his old pictures, so does the wealthy Dutchman +vaunt him of his tulips. + + +In England, in our day, strange as it may appear, a tulip will produce +more money than an oak. If one could be found, rara in tetris, and black +as the black swan alluded to by Juvenal, its price would equal that of +a dozen acres of standing corn. In Scotland, towards the close of the +seventeenth century, the highest price for tulips, according to the +authority of a writer in the supplement to the third edition of the +"Encyclopedia Britannica," was ten guineas. Their value appears to have +diminished from that time till the year 1769, when the two most valuable +species in England were the Don Quevedo and the Valentinier, the former +of which was worth two guineas and the latter two guineas and a half. +These prices appear to have been the minimum. In the year 1800, a common +price was fifteen guineas for a single bulb. In 1835, so foolish were +the fanciers, that a bulb of the species called the Miss Fanny Kemble +was sold by public auction in London for seventy-five pounds. Still more +astonishing was the price of a tulip in the possession of a gardener +in the King's Road, Chelsea. In his catalogues, it was labelled at +two hundred guineas! Thus a flower, which for beauty and perfume was +surpassed by the abundant roses of the garden,--a nosegay of which might +be purchased for a penny,--was priced at a sum which would have provided +an industrious labourer and his family with food, and clothes, and +lodging for six years! Should chickweed and groundsel ever come into +fashion, the wealthy would, no doubt, vie with each other in adorning +their gardens with them, and paying the most extravagant prices for +them. In so doing, they would hardly be more foolish than the admirers +of tulips. The common prices for these flowers at the present time vary +from five to fifteen guineas, according to the rarity of the species. + + + + +RELICS. + + A fouth o' auld knick-knackets, + Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets, + Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets, + A towmond guid; + An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets, + Afore the flood. + + Burns. + +The love for relics is one which will never be eradicated as long as +feeling and affection are denizens of the heart. It is a love which is +most easily excited in the best and kindliest natures, and which few are +callous enough to scoff at. Who would not treasure the lock of hair that +once adorned the brow of the faithful wife, now cold in death, or that +hung down the neck of a beloved infant, now sleeping under the sward? +Not one. They are home-relics, whose sacred worth is intelligible +to all; spoils rescued from the devouring grave, which, to the +affectionate, are beyond all price. How dear to a forlorn survivor the +book over whose pages he has pored with one departed! How much greater +its value, if that hand, now cold, had written a thought, an opinion, or +a name, upon the leaf! Besides these sweet, domestic relics, there are +others, which no one can condemn; relics sanctified by that admiration +of greatness and goodness which is akin to love; such as the copy of +Montaigne's Florio, with the name of Shakspeare upon the leaf, written +by the poet of all time himself; the chair preserved at Antwerp, in +which Rubens sat when he painted the immortal "Descent from the Cross;" +or the telescope, preserved in the Museum of Florence, which aided +Galileo in his sublime discoveries. Who would not look with veneration +upon the undoubted arrow of William Tell--the swords of Wallace or of +Hampden--or the Bible whose leaves were turned by some stern old father +of the faith? + +Thus the principle of reliquism is hallowed and enshrined by love. +But from this germ of purity how numerous the progeny of errors and +superstitions! Men, in their admiration of the great, and of all that +appertained to them, have forgotten that goodness is a component part of +true greatness, and have made fools of themselves for the jaw-bone of a +saint, the toe-nail of an apostle, the handkerchief a king blew his nose +in, or the rope that hanged a criminal. Desiring to rescue some slight +token from the graves of their predecessors, they have confounded the +famous and the infamous, the renowned and the notorious. Great saints, +great sinners; great philosophers, great quacks; great conquerors, great +murderers; great ministers, great thieves; each and all have had their +admirers, ready to ransack earth, from the equator to either pole, to +find a relic of them. + +The reliquism of modern times dates its origin from the centuries +immediately preceding the Crusades. The first pilgrims to the Holy Land +brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the purchase +of which they had expended all their store. The greatest favourite was +the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never +diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions of the Romish +Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, +first discovered the veritable "true cross" in her pilgrimage to +Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present of the greater part of +it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded with precious +stones, and deposited in the principal church of that city. It was +carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted +the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments, purporting to have been +cut from it were, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in +almost every church in Europe, and would, if collected together in one +place, have been almost sufficient to have built a cathedral. Happy +was the sinner who could get a sight of one of them; happier he who +possessed one! To obtain them the greatest dangers were cheerfully +braved. They were thought to preserve from all evils, and to cure the +most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages were made to the shrines +that contained them, and considerable revenues collected from the +devotees. + +Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour. By +whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrims did not often +inquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy +Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of +St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, +which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the tears the next +most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs. +Hair and toe-nails were also in great repute, and were sold at +extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims annually visited Palestine in +the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to purchase pretended relics for the +home market. The majority of them had no other means of subsistence than +the profits thus obtained. Many a nail, cut from the filthy foot of some +unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was sold at a diamond's price, within six +months after its severance from its parent toe, upon the supposition +that it had once belonged to a saint. Peter's toes were uncommonly +prolific, for there were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the +Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which were devoutly +believed to have grown on the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of +them are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come +from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon them. + +At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the +priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns that +bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by whom +it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous thorn, +celebrated in the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists, +and which worked the miraculous cure upon Mademoiselle Perrier: by +merely kissing it, she was cured of a disease of the eyes of long +standing. [Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV.] + +What traveller is unacquainted with the Santa Scala, or Holy Stairs, at +Rome? They were brought from Jerusalem along with the true cross, by the +Empress Helen, and were taken from the house which, according to popular +tradition, was inhabited by Pontius Pilate. They are said to be the +steps which Jesus ascended and descended when brought into the presence +of the Roman governor. They are held in the greatest veneration at Rome: +it is sacrilegious to walk upon them. The knees of the faithful must +alone touch them in ascending or descending, and that only after they +have reverentially kissed them. + +Europe still swarms with these religious relics. There is hardly a Roman +Catholic church in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, or Belgium, without +one or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches of the villages +boast the possession of miraculous thigh-bones of the innumerable +saints of the Romish calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable +chasse, or thigh-bone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a +thighbone of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be +undoubted relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, +the teeth of St. Gudule. The faithful, who suffered from the tooth-ache, +had only to pray, look at them, and be cured. Some of these holy bones +have been buried in different parts of the Continent. After a certain +lapse of time, water is said to ooze from them, which soon forms a +spring, and cures all the diseases of the faithful. At a church in +Halle, there is a famous thigh-bone, which cures barrenness in women. Of +this bone, which is under the special superintendence of the Virgin, a +pleasant story is related by the incredulous. There resided at Ghent +a couple who were blessed with all the riches of this world, but whose +happiness was sore troubled by the want of children. Great was the +grief of the lady, who was both beautiful and loving, and many her +lamentations to her husband. The latter, annoyed by her unceasing +sorrow, advised her to make a pilgrimage to the celebrated chasse of +the Virgin. She went, was absent a week, and returned with a face all +radiant with joy and pleasure. Her lamentations ceased, and, in nine +months afterwards, she brought forth a son. But, oh! the instability of +human joys! The babe, so long desired and so greatly beloved, survived +but a few months. Two years passed over the heads of the disconsolate +couple, and no second child appeared to cheer their fire-side. A third +year passed away with the same result, and the lady once more began to +weep. "Cheer up, my love," said her husband, "and go to the holy chasse, +at Halle; perhaps the Virgin will again listen to your prayers." The +lady took courage at the thought, wiped away her tears, and proceeded on +the morrow towards Halle. She was absent only three days, and returned +home sad, weeping, and sorrow-stricken. "What is the matter?" said +her husband; "is the Virgin unwilling to listen to your prayers?" "The +Virgin is willing enough," said the disconsolate wife, "and will do what +she can for me; but I shall never have any more children! The priest! +the priest!--He is gone from Halle, and nobody knows where to find him!" + +It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all +countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any persons who have +been much spoken of, even for their crimes. When William Longbeard, +leader of the populace of London, in the reign of Richard I, was hanged +at Smithfield, the utmost eagerness was shown to obtain a hair from +his head, or a shred from his garments. Women came from Essex, Kent, +Suffolk, Sussex, and all the surrounding counties, to collect the mould +at the foot of his gallows. A hair of his beard was believed to preserve +from evil spirits, and a piece of his clothes from aches and pains. + +In more modern days, a similar avidity was shown to obtain a relic of +the luckless Masaniello, the fisherman of Naples. After he had been +raised by mob favour to a height of power more despotic than monarch +ever wielded, he was shot by the same populace in the streets, as if he +had been a mad dog. His headless trunk was dragged through the mire for +several hours, and cast at night-fall into the city ditch. On the morrow +the tide of popular feeling turned once more in his favour. His +corpse was sought, arrayed in royal robes, and buried magnificently +by torch-light in the cathedral, ten thousand armed men, and as many +mourners, attending at the ceremony. The fisherman's dress which he had +worn was rent into shreds by the crowd, to be preserved as relics; the +door of his hut was pulled off its hinges by a mob of women, and eagerly +cut up into small pieces, to be made into images, caskets, and other +mementos. The scanty furniture of his poor abode became of more value +than the adornments of a palace; the ground he had walked upon was +considered sacred, and, being collected in small phials, was sold at its +weight in gold, and worn in the bosom as an amulet. + +Almost as extraordinary was the frenzy manifested by the populace of +Paris on the execution of the atrocious Marchioness de Brinvilliers. +There were grounds for the popular wonder in the case of Masaniello, +who was unstained with personal crimes. But the career of Madame de +Brinvilliers was of a nature to excite no other feelings than disgust +and abhorrence. She was convicted of poisoning several persons, and +sentenced to be burned in the Place de Greve, and to have her ashes +scattered to the winds. On the day of her execution, the populace, +struck by her gracefulness and beauty, inveighed against the severity of +her sentence. Their pity soon increased to admiration, and, ere evening, +she was considered a saint. Her ashes were industriously collected, even +the charred wood, which had aided to consume her, was eagerly purchased +by the populace. Her ashes were thought to preserve from witchcraft. + +In England many persons have a singular love for the relics of thieves +and murderers, or other great criminals. The ropes with which they have +been hanged are very often bought by collectors at a guinea per foot. +Great sums were paid for the rope which hanged Dr. Dodd, and for those +more recently which did justice upon Mr. Fauntleroy for forgery, and +on Thurtell for the murder of Mr. Weare. The murder of Maria Marten, +by Corder, in the year 1828, excited the greatest interest all over the +country. People came from Wales and Scotland, and even from Ireland, to +visit the barn where the body of the murdered woman was buried. Every +one of them was anxious to carry away some memorial of his visit. Pieces +of the barn-door, tiles from the roof, and, above all, the clothes of +the poor victim, were eagerly sought after. A lock of her hair was sold +for two guineas, and the purchaser thought himself fortunate in getting +it so cheaply. + +So great was the concourse of people to visit the house in Camberwell +Lane, where Greenacre murdered Hannah Brown, in 1837, that it was found +necessary to station a strong detachment of police on the spot. The +crowd was so eager to obtain a relic of the house of this atrocious +criminal, that the police were obliged to employ force to prevent the +tables and chairs, and even the doors, from being carried away. + +In earlier times, a singular superstition was attached to the hand of +a criminal who had suffered execution. It was thought that by merely +rubbing the dead hand on the body, the patient afflicted with the king's +evil would be instantly cured. The executioner at Newgate, sixty or +seventy years ago, derived no inconsiderable revenue from this foolish +practice. The possession of the hand was thought to be of still greater +efficacy in the cure of diseases and the prevention of misfortunes. In +the time of Charles II as much as ten guineas was thought a small price +for one of these disgusting relics. + +When the maniac, Thom, or Courtenay, was shot, in the spring of 1838, +the relic-hunters were immediately in motion to obtain a memento of so +extraordinary an individual. His long, black beard and hair, which were +cut off by the surgeons, fell into the hands of his disciples, by +whom they are treasured with the utmost reverence. A lock of his hair +commands a great price, not only amongst his followers, but among the +more wealthy inhabitants of Canterbury and its neighbourhood. The tree +against which he fell when he was shot, has already been stripped of all +its bark by the curious, and bids fair to be entirely demolished within +a twelvemonth. A letter, with his signature to it, is paid for in gold +coins; and his favourite horse promises to become as celebrated as his +master. Parties of ladies and gentlemen have come to Boughton from a +distance of a hundred and fifty miles, to visit the scene of that fatal +affray, and stroke on the back the horse of the "mad Knight of Malta." +If a strict watch had not been kept over his grave for months, the body +would have been disinterred, and the bones carried away as memorials. + +Among the Chinese no relics are more valued than the boots which have +been worn by an upright magistrate. In Davis's interesting Description +of the Empire of China, we are informed, that whenever a judge of +unusual integrity resigns his situation, the people all congregate to +do him honour. If he leaves the city where he has presided, the crowd +accompany him from his residence to the gates, where his boots are drawn +off with great ceremony, to be preserved in the hall of justice. Their +place is immediately supplied by a new pair, which, in their turn, are +drawn off to make room for others before he has worn them five minutes, +it being considered sufficient to consecrate them that he should have +merely drawn them on. + +Among the most favourite relics of modern times, in Europe, are +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, Napoleon's willow, and the table at +Waterloo, on which the Emperor wrote his despatches. Snuffboxes of +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, are comparatively rare, though there are +doubtless more of them in the market than were ever made of the wood +planted by the great bard. Many a piece of alien wood passes under this +name. The same may be said of Napoleon's table at Waterloo. The original +has long since been destroyed, and a round dozen of counterfeits along +with it. Many preserve the simple stick of wood; others have them cut +into brooches and every variety of ornament; but by far the greater +number prefer them as snuff-boxes. In France they are made into +bonbonnieres, and are much esteemed by the many thousands whose cheeks +still glow, and whose eyes still sparkle at the name of Napoleon. + +Bullets from the field of Waterloo, and buttons from the coats of the +soldiers who fell in the fight, are still favourite relics in Europe. +But the same ingenuity which found new tables after the old one was +destroyed, has cast new bullets for the curious. Many a one who thinks +himself the possessor of a bullet which aided in giving peace to the +world on that memorable day, is the owner of a dump, first extracted +from the ore a dozen years afterwards. Let all lovers of genuine relics +look well to their money before they part with it to the ciceroni that +swarm in the village of Waterloo. + +Few travellers stop at the lonely isle of St. Helena, without cutting +a twig from the willow that droops over the grave of Napoleon. Many +of them have since been planted in different parts of Europe, and have +grown into trees as large as their parent. Relic-hunters, who are unable +to procure a twig of the original, are content with one from these. +Several of them are growing in the neighbourhood of London, more prized +by their cultivators than any other tree in their gardens. But in +relics, as in everything else, there is the use and the abuse. The +undoubted relics of great men, or great events, will always possess +attractions for the thinking and refined. There are few who would +not join with Cowley in the extravagant wish introduced in his lines +"written while sitting in a chair made of the remains of the ship in +which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world:"-- + + And I myself, who now love quiet too, + Almost as much as any chair can do, + Would yet a journey take + An old wheel of that chariot to see, + Which Phaeton so rashly brake. + + + + +MODERN PROPHECIES. + +As epidemic terror of the end of the world has several times spread over +the nations. The most remarkable was that which seized Christendom about +the middle of the tenth century. Numbers of fanatics appeared in France, +Germany, and Italy at that time, preaching that the thousand years +prophesied in the Apocalypse as the term of the world's duration, were +about to expire, and that the Son of Man would appear in the clouds +to judge the godly and the ungodly. The delusion appears to have been +discouraged by the church, but it nevertheless spread rapidly among the +people. [See Gibbon and Voltaire for further notice of this subject.] + +The scene of the last judgment was expected to be at Jerusalem. In +the year 999, the number of pilgrims proceeding eastward, to await the +coming of the Lord in that city, was so great that they were compared to +a desolating army. Most of them sold their goods and possessions before +they quitted Europe, and lived upon the proceeds in the Holy Land. +Buildings of every sort were suffered to fall into ruins. It was thought +useless to repair them, when the end of the world was so near. Many +noble edifices were deliberately pulled down. Even churches, usually +so well maintained, shared the general neglect. Knights, citizens, and +serfs, travelled eastwards in company, taking with them their wives and +children, singing psalms as they went, and looking with fearful eyes +upon the sky, which they expected each minute to open, to let the Son of +God descend in his glory. + +During the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased. Most of +them were smitten with terror as with a plague. Every phenomenon of +nature filled them with alarm. A thunder-storm sent them all upon their +knees in mid-march. It was the opinion that thunder was the voice of +God, announcing the day of judgment. Numbers expected the earth to +open, and give up its dead at the sound. Every meteor in the sky seen +at Jerusalem brought the whole Christian population into the streets to +weep and pray. The pilgrims on the road were in the same alarm:-- + + Lorsque, pendant la nuit, un globe de lumiere + S'echappa quelquefois de la voute des cieux, + Et traca dans sa chute un long sillon de feux, + La troupe suspendit sa marche solitaire. + [Charlemagne. Pomme Epique, par Lucien Buonaparte.] + +Fanatic preachers kept up the flame of terror. Every shooting star +furnished occasion for a sermon, in which the sublimity of the +approaching judgment was the principal topic. + +The appearance of comets has been often thought to foretell the speedy +dissolution of this world. Part of this belief still exists; but +the comet is no longer looked upon as the sign, but the agent of +destruction. So lately as in the year 1832 the greatest alarm spread +over the Continent of Europe, especially in Germany, lest the comet, +whose appearance was then foretold by astronomers, should destroy the +earth. The danger of our globe was gravely discussed. Many persons +refrained from undertaking or concluding any business during that year, +in consequence solely of their apprehension that this terrible comet +would dash us and our world to atoms. + +During seasons of great pestilence men have often believed the +prophecies of crazed fanatics, that the end of the world was come. +Credulity is always greatest in times of calamity. Prophecies of all +sorts are rife on such occasions, and are readily believed, whether for +good or evil. During the great plague, which ravaged all Europe, between +the years 1345 and 1350, it was generally considered that the end of +the world was at hand. Pretended prophets were to be found in all the +principal cities of Germany, France, and Italy, predicting that within +ten years the trump of the Archangel would sound, and the Saviour appear +in the clouds to call the earth to judgment. + +No little consternation was created in London in 1736 by the prophecy of +the famous Whiston, that the world would be destroyed in that year, on +the 13th of October. Crowds of people went out on the appointed day to +Islington, Hampstead, and the fields intervening, to see the destruction +of London, which was to be the "beginning of the end." A satirical +account of this folly is given in Swift's Miscellanies, vol. iii. +entitled, "A True and Faithful Narrative of what passed in London on a +Rumour of the Day of Judgment." An authentic narrative of this delusion +would be interesting; but this solemn witticism of Pope and Gay is not +to be depended upon. + +In the year 1761 the citizens of London were again frightened out of +their wits by two shocks of an earthquake, and the prophecy of a third, +which was to destroy them altogether. The first shock was felt on the +8th of February, and threw down several chimneys in the neighbourhood of +Limehouse and Poplar; the second happened on the 8th of March, and was +chiefly felt in the north of London, and towards Hampstead and Highgate. +It soon became the subject of general remark, that there was exactly +an interval of a month between the shocks; and a crack-brained fellow, +named Bell, a soldier in the Life Guards, was so impressed with the idea +that there would be a third in another month, that he lost his senses +altogether, and ran about the streets predicting the destruction of +London on the 5th of April. Most people thought that the first would +have been a more appropriate day; but there were not wanting thousands +who confidently believed the prediction, and took measures to transport +themselves and families from the scene of the impending calamity. As the +awful day approached, the excitement became intense, and great numbers +of credulous people resorted to all the villages within a circuit +of twenty miles, awaiting the doom of London. Islington, Highgate, +Hampstead, Harrow, and Blackheath, were crowded with panic-stricken +fugitives, who paid exorbitant prices for accommodation to the +housekeepers of these secure retreats. Such as could not afford to pay +for lodgings at any of those places, remained in London until two or +three days before the time, and then encamped in the surrounding fields, +awaiting the tremendous shock which was to lay their high city all level +with the dust. As happened during a similar panic in the time of Henry +VIII, the fear became contagious, and hundreds who had laughed at the +prediction a week before, packed up their goods, when they saw others +doing so, and hastened away. The river was thought to be a place of +great security, and all the merchant vessels in the port were filled +with people, who passed the night between the 4th and 5th on board, +expecting every instant to see St. Paul's totter, and the towers of +Westminster Abbey rock in the wind and fall amid a cloud of dust. The +greater part of the fugitives returned on the following day, convinced +that the prophet was a false one; but many judged it more prudent to +allow a week to elapse before they trusted their dear limbs in London. +Bell lost all credit in a short time, and was looked upon even by the +most credulous as a mere madman. He tried some other prophecies, but +nobody was deceived by them; and, in a few months afterwards, he was +confined in a lunatic asylum. + +A panic terror of the end of the world seized the good people of Leeds +and its neighbourhood in the year 1806. It arose from the following +circumstances. A hen, in a village close by, laid eggs, on which were +inscribed, in legible characters, the words "Christ is coming." Great +numbers visited the spot, and examined these wondrous eggs, convinced +that the day of judgment was near at hand. Like sailors in a storm, +expecting every instant to go to the bottom, the believers suddenly +became religious, prayed violently, and flattered themselves that they +repented them of their evil courses. But a plain tale soon put them +down, and quenched their religion entirely. Some gentlemen, hearing of +the matter, went one fine morning, and caught the poor hen in the act +of laying one of her miraculous eggs. They soon ascertained beyond doubt +that the egg had been inscribed with some corrosive ink, and cruelly +forced up again into the bird's body. At this explanation, those who had +prayed, now laughed, and the world wagged as merrily as of yore. + +At the time of the plague in Milan, in 1630, of which so affecting a +description has been left us by Ripamonte, in his interesting work "De +Peste Mediolani", the people, in their distress, listened with avidity +to the predictions of astrologers and other impostors. It is singular +enough that the plague was foretold a year before it broke out. A large +comet appearing in 1628, the opinions of astrologers were divided with +regard to it. Some insisted that it was a forerunner of a bloody war; +others maintained that it predicted a great famine; but the greater +number, founding their judgment upon its pale colour, thought it +portended a pestilence. The fulfilment of their prediction brought them +into great repute while the plague was raging. + +Other prophecies were current, which were asserted to have been +delivered hundreds of years previously. They had a most pernicious +effect upon the mind of the vulgar, as they induced a belief in +fatalism. By taking away the hope of recovery--that greatest balm in +every malady--they increased threefold the ravages of the disease. One +singular prediction almost drove the unhappy people mad. An ancient +couplet, preserved for ages by tradition, foretold, that in the year +1630 the devil would poison all Milan. Early one morning in April, +and before the pestilence had reached its height, the passengers were +surprised to see that all the doors in the principal streets of the city +were marked with a curious daub, or spot, as if a sponge, filled with +the purulent matter of the plague-sores, had been pressed against them. +The whole population were speedily in movement to remark the strange +appearance, and the greatest alarm spread rapidly. Every means was taken +to discover the perpetrators, but in vain. At last the ancient prophecy +was remembered, and prayers were offered up in all the churches that +the machinations of the Evil One might be defeated. Many persons were +of opinion that the emissaries of foreign powers were employed to spread +infectious poison over the city; but by far the greater number were +convinced that the powers of hell had conspired against them, and that +the infection was spread by supernatural agencies. In the mean time the +plague increased fearfully. Distrust and alarm took possession of every +mind. Everything was believed to have been poisoned by the devil; the +waters of the wells, the standing corn in the fields, and the fruit upon +the trees. It was believed that all objects of touch were poisoned; the +walls of the houses, the pavement of the streets, and the very handles +of the doors. The populace were raised to a pitch of ungovernable fury. +A strict watch was kept for the devil's emissaries, and any man who +wanted to be rid of an enemy, had only to say that he had seen him +besmearing a door with ointment; his fate was certain death at the +hands of the mob. An old man, upwards of eighty years of age, a daily +frequenter of the church of St. Antonio, was seen, on rising from his +knees, to wipe with the skirt of his cloak the stool on which he was +about to sit down. A cry was raised immediately that he was besmearing +the seat with poison. A mob of women, by whom the church was crowded, +seized hold of the feeble old man, and dragged him out by the hair of +his head, with horrid oaths and imprecations. He was trailed in this +manner through the mire to the house of the municipal judge, that he +might be put to the rack, and forced to discover his accomplices; but +he expired on the way. Many other victims were sacrificed to the popular +fury. One Mora, who appears to have been half a chemist and half a +barber, was accused of being in league with the devil to poison Milan. +His house was surrounded, and a number of chemical preparations were +found. The poor man asserted, that they were intended as preservatives +against infection; but some physicians, to whom they were submitted, +declared they were poison. Mora was put to the rack, where he for a long +time asserted his innocence. He confessed at last, when his courage was +worn down by torture, that he was in league with the devil and foreign +powers to poison the whole city; that he had anointed the doors, +and infected the fountains of water. He named several persons as his +accomplices, who were apprehended and put to a similar torture. They +were all found guilty, and executed. Mora's house was rased to the +ground, and a column erected on the spot, with an inscription to +commemorate his guilt. + +While the public mind was filled with these marvellous occurrences, the +plague continued to increase. The crowds that were brought together to +witness the executions, spread the infection among one another. But the +fury of their passions, and the extent of their credulity, kept pace +with the violence of the plague; every wonderful and preposterous story +was believed. One, in particular, occupied them to the exclusion, for a +long time, of every other. The Devil himself had been seen. He had +taken a house in Milan, in which he prepared his poisonous unguents, and +furnished them to his emissaries for distribution. One man had brooded +over such tales till he became firmly convinced that the wild flights of +his own fancy were realities. He stationed himself in the market-place +of Milan, and related the following story to the crowds that gathered +round him. He was standing, he said, at the door of the cathedral, late +in the evening, and when there was nobody nigh, he saw a dark-coloured +chariot, drawn by six milk-white horses, stop close beside him. The +chariot was followed by a numerous train of domestics in dark liveries, +mounted on dark-coloured steeds. In the chariot there sat a tall +stranger of a majestic aspect; his long black hair floated in the +wind--fire flashed from his large black eyes, and a curl of ineffable +scorn dwelt upon his lips. The look of the stranger was so sublime +that he was awed, and trembled with fear when he gazed upon him. His +complexion was much darker than that of any man he had ever seen, +and the atmosphere around him was hot and suffocating. He perceived +immediately that he was a being of another world. The stranger, seeing +his trepidation, asked him blandly, yet majestically, to mount beside +him. He had no power to refuse, and before he was well aware that he +had moved, he found himself in the chariot. Onwards they went, with the +rapidity of the wind, the stranger speaking no word, until they stopped +before a door in the high-street of Milan. There was a crowd of people +in the street, but, to his great surprise, no one seemed to notice the +extraordinary equipage and its numerous train. From this he concluded +that they were invisible. The house at which they stopped appeared to +be a shop, but the interior was like a vast half-ruined palace. He went +with his mysterious guide through several large and dimly-lighted rooms. +In one of them, surrounded by huge pillars of marble, a senate of ghosts +was assembled, debating on the progress of the plague. Other parts +of the building were enveloped in the thickest darkness, illumined at +intervals by flashes of lightning, which allowed him to distinguish a +number of gibing and chattering skeletons, running about and pursuing +each other, or playing at leap-frog over one another's backs. At the +rear of the mansion was a wild, uncultivated plot of ground, in the +midst of which arose a black rock. Down its sides rushed with fearful +noise a torrent of poisonous water, which, insinuating itself through +the soil, penetrated to all the springs of the city, and rendered them +unfit for use. After he had been shown all this, the stranger led him +into another large chamber, filled with gold and precious stones, all of +which he offered him if he would kneel down and worship him, and consent +to smear the doors and houses of Milan with a pestiferous salve which he +held out to him. He now knew him to be the Devil, and in that moment of +temptation, prayed to God to give him strength to resist. His prayer was +heard--he refused the bribe. The stranger scowled horribly upon him--a +loud clap of thunder burst over his head--the vivid lightning flashed +in his eyes, and the next moment he found himself standing alone at the +porch of the cathedral. He repeated this strange tale day after day, +without any variation, and all the populace were firm believers in its +truth. Repeated search was made to discover the mysterious house, but +all in vain. The man pointed out several as resembling it, which were +searched by the police; but the Demon of the Pestilence was not to be +found, nor the hall of ghosts, nor the poisonous fountain. But the minds +of the people were so impressed with the idea that scores of witnesses, +half crazed by disease, came forward to swear that they also had +seen the diabolical stranger, and had heard his chariot, drawn by the +milk-white steeds, rumbling over the streets at midnight with a sound +louder than thunder. + +The number of persons who confessed that they were employed by the +Devil to distribute poison is almost incredible. An epidemic frenzy was +abroad, which seemed to be as contagious as the plague. Imagination was +as disordered as the body, and day after day persons came voluntarily +forward to accuse themselves. They generally had the marks of disease +upon them, and some died in the act of confession. + +During the great plague of London, in 1665, the people listened with +similar avidity to the predictions of quacks and fanatics. Defoe says, +that at that time the people were more addicted to prophecies and +astronomical conjurations, dreams, and old wives' tales than ever they +were before or since. Almanacs, and their predictions, frightened them +terribly. Even the year before the plague broke out, they were greatly +alarmed by the comet which then appeared, and anticipated that famine, +pestilence, or fire would follow. Enthusiasts, while yet the disease had +made but little progress, ran about the streets, predicting that in a +few days London would be destroyed. + +A still more singular instance of the faith in predictions occurred +in London in the year 1524. The city swarmed at that time with +fortune-tellers and astrologers, who were consulted daily by people of +every class in society on the secrets of futurity. As early as the month +of June 1523, several of them concurred in predicting that, on the 1st +day of February, 1524, the waters of the Thames would swell to such +a height as to overflow the whole city of London, and wash away ten +thousand houses. The prophecy met implicit belief. It was reiterated +with the utmost confidence month after month, until so much alarm was +excited that many families packed up their goods, and removed into +Kent and Essex. As the time drew nigh, the number of these emigrants +increased. In January, droves of workmen might be seen, followed by +their wives and children, trudging on foot to the villages within +fifteen or twenty miles, to await the catastrophe. People of a higher +class were also to be seen, in waggons and other vehicles, bound on +a similar errand. By the middle of January, at least twenty thousand +persons had quitted the doomed city, leaving nothing but the bare walls +of their homes to be swept away by the impending floods. Many of the +richer sort took up their abode on the heights of Highgate, Hampstead, +and Blackheath; and some erected tents as far away as Waltham Abbey, on +the north, and Croydon, on the south of the Thames. Bolton, the prior +of St. Bartholomew's, was so alarmed that he erected, at very great +expense, a sort of fortress at Harrow-on-the-Hill, which he stocked with +provisions for two months. On the 24th of January, a week before +the awful day which was to see the destruction of London, he removed +thither, with the brethren and officers of the priory and all his +household. A number of boats were conveyed in waggons to his fortress, +furnished abundantly with expert rowers, in case the flood, reaching +so high as Harrow, should force them to go further for a resting-place. +Many wealthy citizens prayed to share his retreat, but the Prior, with +a prudent forethought, admitted only his personal friends, and those who +brought stores of eatables for the blockade. + +At last the morn, big with the fate of London, appeared in the east. The +wondering crowds were astir at an early hour to watch the rising of the +waters. The inundation, it was predicted, would be gradual, not sudden; +so that they expected to have plenty of time to escape, as soon as +they saw the bosom of old Thames heave beyond the usual mark. But the +majority were too much alarmed to trust to this, and thought themselves +safer ten or twenty miles off. The Thames, unmindful of the foolish +crowds upon its banks, flowed on quietly as of yore. The tide ebbed at +its usual hour, flowed to its usual height, and then ebbed again, just +as if twenty astrologers had not pledged their words to the contrary. +Blank were their faces as evening approached, and as blank grew +the faces of the citizens to think that they had made such fools of +themselves. At last night set in, and the obstinate river would not lift +its waters to sweep away even one house out of the ten thousand. Still, +however, the people were afraid to go to sleep. Many hundreds remained +up till dawn of the next day, lest the deluge should come upon them like +a thief in the night. + +On the morrow, it was seriously discussed whether it would not be +advisable to duck the false prophets in the river. Luckily for them, +they thought of an expedient which allayed the popular fury. They +asserted that, by an error (a very slight one) of a little figure, they +had fixed the date of this awful inundation a whole century too early. +The stars were right after all, and they, erring mortals, were wrong. +The present generation of cockneys was safe, and London 'would be washed +away, not in 1524, but in 1624. At this announcement, Bolton, the prior, +dismantled his fortress, and the weary emigrants came back. + +An eye-witness of the great fire of London, in an account preserved +among the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, and recently published +in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, relates another +instance of the credulity of the Londoners. The writer, who accompanied +the Duke of York day by day through the district included between the +Fleet-bridge and the Thames, states that, in their efforts to check the +progress of the flames, they were much impeded by the superstition of +the people. Mother Shipton, in one of her prophecies, had said that +London would be reduced to ashes, and they refused to make any efforts +to prevent it. [This prophecy seems to have been that set forth at +length in the popular Life of Mother Shipton:-- + + "When fate to England shall restore + A king to reign as heretofore, + Great death in London shall be though, + And many houses be laid low."] + +A son of the noted Sir Kenelm Digby, who was also a pretender to the +gifts of prophecy, persuaded them that no power on earth could prevent +the fulfilment of the prediction; for it was written in the great book +of fate that London was to be destroyed. Hundreds of persons, who +might have rendered valuable assistance, and saved whole parishes +from devastation, folded their arms and looked on. As many more gave +themselves up, with the less compunction, to plunder a city which they +could not save. + +The prophecies of Mother Shipton are still believed in many of the rural +districts of England. In cottages and servants' halls her reputation is +great; and she rules, the most popular of British prophets, among all +the uneducated, or half-educated, portions of the community. She is +generally supposed to have been born at Knaresborough, in the reign +of Henry VII, and to have sold her soul to the Devil for the power of +foretelling future events. Though during her lifetime she was looked +upon as a witch, she yet escaped the witch's fate, and died peaceably +in her bed at an extreme old age, near Clifton in Yorkshire. A stone +is said to have been erected to her memory in the church-yard of that +place, with the following epitaph:-- + +"Here lies she who never lied; Whose skill often has been tried: Her +prophecies shall still survive, And ever keep her name alive." + +"Never a day passed," says her traditionary biography, "wherein she +did not relate something remarkable, and that required the most serious +consideration. People flocked to her from far and near, her fame was so +great. They went to her of all sorts, both old and young, rich and poor, +especially young maidens, to be resolved of their doubts relating +to things to come; and all returned wonderfully satisfied in the +explanations she gave to their questions." Among the rest, went +the Abbot of Beverley, to whom she foretold the suppression of the +monasteries by Henry VIII; his marriage with Anne Boleyn; the fires for +heretics in Smithfield, and the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. She +also foretold the accession of James I, adding that, with him, + + "From the cold North, + Every evil should come forth." + +On a subsequent visit she uttered another prophecy, which, in the +opinion of her believers, still remains unfulfilled, but may be expected +to be realised during the present century:-- + + "The time shall come when seas of blood + Shall mingle with a greater flood. + Great noise there shall be heard--great shouts and cries, + And seas shall thunder louder than the skies; + Then shall three lions fight with three, and bring + Joy to a people, honour to a king. + That fiery year as soon as o'er, + Peace shall then be as before; + Plenty shall everywhere be found, + And men with swords shall plough the ground." + +But the most famous of all her prophecies is one relating to London. +Thousands of persons still shudder to think of the woes that are to +burst over this unhappy realm, when London and Highgate are joined by +one continuous line of houses. This junction, which, if the rage for +building lasts much longer, in the same proportion as heretofore, bids +fair to be soon accomplished, was predicted by her shortly before her +death. Revolutions--the fall of mighty monarchs, and the shedding of +much blood are to signalise that event. The very angels, afflicted by +our woes, are to turn aside their heads, and weep for hapless Britain. + +But great as is the fame of Mother Shipton, she ranks but second in the +list of British prophets. Merlin, the mighty Merlin, stands alone in his +high pre-eminence--the first and greatest. As old Drayton sings, in his +Poly-olbion:-- + + "Of Merlin and his skill what region doth not hear? + The world shall still be full of Merlin every year. + A thousand lingering years his prophecies have run, + And scarcely shall have end till time itself be done." + +Spenser, in his divine poem, has given us a powerful description of this +renowned seer-- + + ".......who had in magic more insight + Than ever him before, or after, living wight. + + "For he by words could call out of the sky + Both sun and moon, and make them him obey; + The land to sea, and sea to mainland dry, + And darksome night he eke could turn to day-- + Huge hosts of men he could, alone, dismay. + And hosts of men and meanest things could frame, + Whenso him list his enemies to fray, + That to this day, for terror of his name, + The fiends do quake, when any him to them does name. + + "And soothe men say that he was not the sonne, + Of mortal sire or other living wighte, + But wondrously begotten and begoune + By false illusion of a guileful sprite, + On a faire ladye nun." + +In these verses the poet has preserved the popular belief with regard +to Merlin, who is generally supposed to have been a contemporary of +Vortigern. Opinion is divided as to whether he were a real personage, or +a mere impersonation, formed by the poetic fancy of a credulous people. +It seems most probable that such a man did exist, and that, possessing +knowledge as much above the comprehension of his age, as that possessed +by Friar Bacon was beyond the reach of his, he was endowed by the +wondering crowd with the supernatural attributes that Spenser has +enumerated. + +Geoffrey of Monmouth translated Merlin's poetical odes, or prophecies, +into Latin prose, and he was much reverenced, not only by Geoffrey, but +by most of the old annalists. In a "Life of Merlin, with his Prophecies +and Predictions, interpreted and made good by our English Annals," by +Thomas Heywood, published in the reign of Charles I, we find several of +these pretended prophecies. They seem, however, to have been all written +by Heywood himself. They are in terms too plain and positive to allow +any one to doubt for a moment of their having been composed ex post +facto. Speaking of Richard I, he says:-- + + "The Lion's heart will 'gainst the Saracen rise, + And purchase from him many a glorious prize; + The rose and lily shall at first unite, + But, parting of the prey prove opposite. + + * * * * + + But while abroad these great acts shall be done; + All things at home shall to disorder run. + Cooped up and caged then shall the Lion be, + But, after sufferance, ransomed and set free." + +The sapient Thomas Heywood gravely goes on to inform us, that all these +things actually came to pass. Upon Richard III he is equally luminous. +He says:-- + + "A hunch-backed monster, who with teeth is born, + The mockery of art and nature's scorn; + Who from the womb preposterously is hurled, + And, with feet forward, thrust into the world, + Shall, from the lower earth on which he stood, + Wade, every step he mounts, knee-deep in blood. + He shall to th' height of all his hopes aspire, + And, clothed in state, his ugly shape admire; + But, when he thinks himself most safe to stand, + From foreign parts a native whelp shall land." + +Another of these prophecies after the event tells us that Henry VIII +should take the power from Rome, "and bring it home unto his British +bower;" that he should "root out from the land all the razored skulls;" +and that he should neither spare "man in his rage nor woman in his +lust;" and that, in the time of his next successor but one, "there +should come in the fagot and the stake." Master Heywood closes Merlin's +prophecies at his own day, and does not give even a glimpse of what +was to befall England after his decease. Many other prophecies, besides +those quoted by him, were, he says, dispersed abroad, in his day, under +the name of Merlin; but he gives his readers a taste of one only, and +that is the following:-- + + "When hempe is ripe and ready to pull, + Then Englishman beware thy skull." + +This prophecy, which, one would think, ought to have put him in mind of +the gallows, the not unusual fate of false prophets, and perchance his +own, he explains thus:--"In this word HEMPE be five letters. Now, by +reckoning the five successive princes from Henry VIII, this prophecy is +easily explained: H signifieth King Henry before named; E, Edward, his +son, the sixth of that name; M, Mary, who succeeded him; P, Philip of +Spain, who, by marrying Queen Mary, participated with her in the English +diadem; and, lastly, E signifieth Queen Elizabeth, after whose death +there was a great feare that some troubles might have arisen about the +crown." As this did not happen, Heywood, who was a sly rogue in a small +way, gets out of the scrape by saying, "Yet proved this augury true, +though not according to the former expectation; for, after the peaceful +inauguration of King James, there was great mortality, not in London +only, but through the whole kingdom, and from which the nation was not +quite clean in seven years after." + +This is not unlike the subterfuge of Peter of Pontefract, who had +prophesied the death and deposition of King John, and who was hanged by +that monarch for his pains. A very graphic and amusing account of this +pretended prophet is given by Grafton, in his Chronicles of England. +There is so much homely vigour about the style of the old annalist, +that it would be a pity to give the story in other words than his own. +[Chronicles of England, by Richard Grafton; London, 1568, p. 106.] "In +the meanwhile," says he, "the priestes within England had provided them +a false and counterfeated prophet, called Peter Wakefielde, a Yorkshire +man, who was an hermite, an idle gadder about, and a pratlyng marchant. +Now to bring this Peter in credite, and the kyng out of all credite with +his people, diverse vaine persons bruted dayly among the commons of +the realme, that Christe had twice appered unto him in the shape of a +childe, betwene the prieste's handes, once at Yorke, another tyme at +Pomfret; and that he had breathed upon him thrice, saying, 'Peace, +peace, peace,' and teachyng many things, which he anon declared to the +bishops, and bid the people amend their naughtie living. Being rapt also +in spirite, they sayde he behelde the joyes of heaven and sorowes of +hell, for scant were there three in the realme, sayde he, that lived +Christainly. + +"This counterfeated soothsayer prophecied of King John, that he should +reigne no longer than the Ascension-day next followyng, which was in the +yere of our Lord 1211, and was the thirteenth yere from his coronation; +and this, he said, he had by revelation. Then it was of him demanded, +whether he should be slaine or be deposed, or should voluntarily give +over the crowne? He aunswered, that he could not tell; but of this he +was sure (he sayd), that neither he nor any of his stock or lineage +should reigne after that day. + +"The king hering of this, laughed much at it, and made but a scoff +thereat. 'Tush!' saith he, 'it is but an ideot knave, and such an one as +lacketh his right wittes.' But when this foolish prophet had so escaped +the daunger of the Kinge's displeasure, and that he made no more of it, +he gate him abroad, and prated thereof at large, as he was a very idle +vagabond, and used to trattle and talke more than ynough, so that +they which loved the King caused him anon after to be apprehended as +a malefactor, and to be throwen in prison, the King not yet knowing +thereof. + +"Anone after the fame of this phantasticall prophet went all the realme +over, and his name was knowen everywhere, as foolishnesse is much +regarded of the people, where wisdome is not in place; specially because +he was then imprisoned for the matter, the rumour was the larger, their +wonderynges were the wantoner, their practises the foolisher, their +busye talkes and other idle doinges the greater. Continually from +thence, as the rude manner of people is, olde gossyps tales went +abroade, new tales were invented, fables were added to fables, and lyes +grew upon lyes. So that every daye newe slanders were laide upon the +King, and not one of them true. Rumors arose, blasphemyes were sprede, +the enemyes rejoyced, and treasons by the priestes were mainteyned; and +what lykewise was surmised, or other subtiltye practised, all was then +lathered upon this foolish prophet, as 'thus saith Peter Wakefield;' +'thus hath he prophecied;' 'and thus it shall come to pass;' yea, many +times, when he thought nothing lesse. And when the Ascension-day was +come, which was prophecyed of before, King John commanded his royal +tent to be spread in the open fielde, passing that day with his noble +counseyle and men of honour, in the greatest solemnitie that ever he did +before; solacing himself with musickale instrumentes and songs, most +in sight among his trustie friendes. When that day was paste in all +prosperitie and myrth, his enemyes being confused, turned all into an +allegorical understanding to make the prophecie good, and sayde, 'he +is no longer King, for the Pope reigneth, and not he.'" [King John was +labouring under a sentence of excommunication at the time.] + +"Then was the King by his council perswaded that this false prophet had +troubled the realme, perverted the heartes of the people, and raysed the +commons against him; for his wordes went over the sea, by the help of +his prelates, and came to the French King's care, and gave to him a +great encouragement to invade the lande. He had not else done it so +sodeinely. But he was most lowly deceived, as all they are and shall +be that put their trust in such dark drowsye dreames of hipocrites. The +King therefore commanded that he should be hanged up, and his sonne also +with him, lest any more false prophets should arise of that race." + +Heywood, who was a great stickler for the truth of all sorts of +prophecies, gives a much more favourable account of this Peter of +Pomfret, or Pontefract, whose fate he would, in all probability, have +shared, if he had had the misfortune to have flourished in the same age. +He says, that Peter, who was not only a prophet, but a bard, predicted +divers of King John's disasters, which fell out accordingly. On being +taxed for a lying prophet in having predicted that the King would be +deposed before he entered into the fifteenth year of his reign, he +answered him boldly, that all he had said was justifiable and true; for +that, having given up his crown to the Pope, and paying him an annual +tribute, the Pope reigned, and not he. Heywood thought this explanation +to be perfectly satisfactory, and the prophet's faith for ever +established. + +But to return to Merlin. Of him even to this day it may be said, in the +words which Burns has applied to another notorious personage, + + "Great was his power and great his fame; + Far kenned and noted is his name? + +His reputation is by no means confined to the land of his birth, but +extends through most of the nations of Europe. A very curious volume of +his Life, Prophecies, and Miracles, written, it is supposed, by Robert +de Bosron, was printed at Paris in 1498, which states, that the Devil +himself was his father, and that he spoke the instant he was born, and +assured his mother, a very virtuous young woman, that she should not die +in child-bed with him, as her ill-natured neighbours had predicted. The +judge of the district, hearing of so marvellous an occurrence, summoned +both mother and child to appear before him; and they went accordingly +the same day. To put the wisdom of the young prophet most effectually +to the test, the judge asked him if he knew his own father? To which the +infant Merlin replied, in a clear, sonorous voice, "Yes, my father is +the Devil; and I have his power, and know all things, past, present, and +to come." His worship clapped his hands in astonishment, and took the +prudent resolution of not molesting so awful a child, or its mother +either. + +Early tradition attributes the building of Stonehenge to the power of +Merlin. It was believed that those mighty stones were whirled through +the air, at his command, from Ireland to Salisbury Plain, and that he +arranged them in the form in which they now stand, to commemorate +for ever the unhappy fate of three hundred British chiefs, who were +massacred on that spot by the Saxons. + +At Abergwylly, near Caermarthen, is still shown the cave of the prophet +and the scene of his incantations. How beautiful is the description of +it given by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene." The lines need no apology +for their repetition here, and any sketch of the great prophet of +Britain would be incomplete without them:-- + + "There the wise Merlin, whilom wont (they say), + To make his wonne low underneath the ground, + In a deep delve far from the view of day, + That of no living wight he mote be found, + Whenso he counselled with his sprites encompassed round. + + "And if thou ever happen that same way + To travel, go to see that dreadful place; + It is a hideous, hollow cave, they say, + Under a rock that lies a little space + From the swift Barry, tumbling down apace + Amongst the woody hills of Dynevoure; + But dare thou not, I charge, in any case, + To enter into that same baleful bower, + For fear the cruel fiendes should thee unwares devour! + + "But, standing high aloft, low lay thine care, + And there such ghastly noise of iron chaines, + And brazen caudrons thou shalt rombling heare, + Which thousand sprites, with long-enduring paines, + Doe tosse, that it will stun thy feeble braines; + And often times great groans and grievous stownds, + When too huge toile and labour them constraines; + And often times loud strokes and ringing sounds + From under that deep rock most horribly rebounds. + + "The cause, they say, is this. A little while + Before that Merlin died, he did intend + A brazen wall in compass, to compile + About Cayr Merdin, and did it commend + Unto these sprites to bring to perfect end; + During which work the Lady of the Lake, + Whom long he loved, for him in haste did send, + Who thereby forced his workmen to forsake, + Them bound till his return their labour not to slake. + + "In the mean time, through that false ladie's traine, + He was surprised, and buried under biere, + Ne ever to his work returned again; + Natheless these fiendes may not their work forbeare, + So greatly his commandement they fear, + But there doe toile and travaile day and night, + Until that brazen wall they up doe reare." + + [Faerie Queene, b. 3. c. 3. s. 6--13.] + +Amongst other English prophets, a belief in whose power has not been +entirely effaced by the light of advancing knowledge, is Robert Nixon, +the Cheshire idiot, a contemporary of Mother Shipton. The popular +accounts of this man say, that he was born of poor parents, not far from +Vale Royal, on the edge of the forest of Delamere. He was brought up to +the plough, but was so ignorant and stupid, that nothing could be +made of him. Everybody thought him irretrievably insane, and paid no +attention to the strange, unconnected discourses which he held. Many of +his prophecies are believed to have been lost in this manner. But they +were not always destined to be wasted upon dull and inattentive ears. +An incident occurred which brought him into notice, and established his +fame as a prophet of the first calibre. He was ploughing in a field when +he suddenly stopped from his labour, and, with a wild look and strange +gestures, exclaimed, "Now, Dick! now, Harry! O, ill done, Dick! O, well +done, Harry! Harry has gained the day!" His fellow labourers in the +field did not know what to make of this rhapsody; but the next day +cleared up the mystery. News was brought by a messenger, in hot haste, +that at the very instant when Nixon had thus ejaculated, Richard III had +been slain at the battle of Bosworth, and Henry VII proclaimed King of +England. + +It was not long before the fame of the new prophet reached the ears of +the King, who expressed a wish to see and converse with him. A messenger +was accordingly despatched to bring him to court; but long before he +reached Cheshire, Nixon knew and dreaded the honours that awaited him. +Indeed it was said, that at the very instant the King expressed the +wish, Nixon was, by supernatural means, made acquainted with it, and +that he ran about the town of Over in great distress of mind, calling +out, like a madman, that Henry had sent for him, and that he must go +to court, and be clammed; that is, starved to death. These expressions +excited no little wonder; but, on the third day, the messenger arrived, +and carried him to court, leaving on the minds of the good people of +Cheshire an impression that their prophet was one of the greatest ever +born. On his arrival King Henry appeared to be troubled exceedingly at +the loss of a valuable diamond, and asked Nixon if he could inform him +where it was to be found. Henry had hidden the diamond himself, with +a view to test the prophet's skill. Great, therefore, was his surprise +when Nixon answered him in the words of the old proverb, "Those who hide +can find." From that time forth the King implicitly believed that he had +the gift of prophecy, and ordered all his words to be taken down. + +During all the time of his residence at court he was in constant fear of +being starved to death, and repeatedly told the King that such would +be his fate, if he were not allowed to depart, and return into his own +country. Henry would not suffer it, but gave strict orders to all his +officers and cooks to give him as much to eat as he wanted. He lived +so well, that for some time he seemed to be thriving like a nobleman's +steward, and growing as fat as an alderman. One day the king went out +hunting, when Nixon ran to the palace gate, and entreated on his knees +that he might not be left behind to be starved. The King laughed, and, +calling an officer, told him to take especial care of the prophet during +his absence, and rode away to the forest. After his departure, the +servants of the palace began to jeer at and insult Nixon, whom they +imagined to be much better treated than he deserved. Nixon complained to +the officer, who, to prevent him from being further molested, locked him +up in the King's own closet, and brought him regularly his four meals a +day. But it so happened that a messenger arrived from the King to this +officer, requiring his immediate presence at Winchester, on a matter of +life and death. So great was his haste to obey the King's command, that +he mounted on the horse behind the messenger, and rode off, without +bestowing a thought upon poor Nixon. He did not return till three days +afterwards, when, remembering the prophet for the first time, he went to +the King's closet, and found him lying upon the floor, starved to death, +as he had predicted. + +Among the prophecies of his which are believed to have been fulfilled, +are the following, which relate to the times of the Pretender:-- + + "A great man shall come into England, + But the son of a King + Shall take from him the victory." + + "Crows shall drink the blood of many nobles, + And the North shall rise against the South." + "The cock of the North shall be made to flee, + And his feather be plucked for his pride, + That he shall almost curse the day that he was born," + +All these, say his admirers, are as clear as the sun at noon-day. The +first denotes the defeat of Prince Charles Edward, at the battle of +Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland; the second, the execution of Lords +Derwentwater, Balmerino, and Lovat; and the third, the retreat of the +Pretender from the shores of Britain. Among the prophecies that still +remain to be accomplished, are the following:-- + + "Between seven, eight, and nine, + In England wonders shall be seen; + Between nine and thirteen + All sorrow shall be done!" + + "Through our own money and our men + Shall a dreadful war begin. + Between the sickle and the suck + All England shall have a pluck," + +"Foreign nations shall invade England with snow on their helmets, and +shall bring plague, famine, and murder in the skirts of their garments." + + "The town of Nantwich shall be swept away by a flood" + +Of the two first of these no explanation has yet been attempted; but +some event or other will doubtless be twisted into such a shape as will +fit them. The third, relative to the invasion of England by a nation +with snow on their helmets, is supposed by the old women to foretell +most clearly the coming war with Russia. As to the last, there are not +a few in the town mentioned who devoutly believe that such will be its +fate. Happily for their peace of mind, the prophet said nothing of the +year that was to witness the awful calamity; so that they think it as +likely to be two centuries hence as now. + +The popular biographers of Nixon conclude their account of him by +saying, that "his prophecies are by some persons thought fables; yet by +what has come to pass, it is now thought, and very plainly appears, +that most of them have proved, or will prove, true; for which we, on all +occasions, ought not only to exert our utmost might to repel by force +our enemies, but to refrain from our abandoned and wicked course +of life, and to make our continual prayer to God for protection and +safety." To this, though a non sequitur, every one will cry Amen! + +Besides the prophets, there have been the almanack makers, Lilly, Poor +Robin, Partridge, and Francis Moore, physician, in England, and Matthew +Laensbergh, in France and Belgium. But great as were their pretensions, +they were modesty itself in comparison with Merlin, Shipton, and Nixon, +who fixed their minds upon higher things than the weather, and who were +not so restrained in their flights of fancy as to prophesy for only one +year at a time. After such prophets as they, the almanack makers hardly +deserve to be mentioned; no, not even the renowned Partridge, whose +wonderful prognostications set all England agog in 1708, and whose +death, at a time when he was still alive and kicking, was so pleasantly +and satisfactorily proved by Isaac Bickerstaff. The anti-climax would be +too palpable, and they and their doings must be left uncommemorated. + + + + +POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. + + +Jack. Where shall we find such another set of practical philosophers +who, to a man, are above the fear of death? + +Wat. Sound men and true! + +Robin. Of tried courage and indefatigable industry! + +Ned. Who is there here that would not die for his friend? + +Harry. Who is there here that would betray him for his interest? + +Mat. Show me a gang of courtiers that could say as much! + +Dialogue of thieves in the Beggars' Opera. + +Whether it be that the multitude, feeling the pangs of poverty, +sympathise with the daring and ingenious depredators who take away the +rich man's superfluity, or whether it be the interest that mankind in +general feel for the records of perilous adventures, it is certain +that the populace of all countries look with admiration upon great and +successful thieves. Perhaps both these causes combine to invest their +career with charms in the popular eye. Almost every country in Europe +has its traditional thief, whose exploits are recorded with all the +graces of poetry, and whose trespasses-- + + "--are cited up in rhymes, + And sung by children in succeeding times." + + [Shakspeare's Rape of Lucretia.] + +Those travellers who have made national manners and characteristics +their peculiar study, have often observed and remarked upon this +feeling. The learned Abbe le Blanc, who resided for some time in England +at the commencement of the eighteenth century, says, in his amusing +letters on the English and French nations, that he continually met with +Englishmen who were not less vain in boasting of the success of their +highwaymen than of the bravery of their troops. Tales of their address, +their cunning, or their generosity, were in the mouths of everybody, and +a noted thief was a kind of hero in high repute. He adds that the mob, +in all countries, being easily moved, look in general with concern upon +criminals going to the gallows; but an English mob looked upon such +scenes with 'extraordinary interest: they delighted to see them go +through their last trials with resolution, and applauded those who were +insensible enough to die as they had lived, braving the justice both of +God and men: such, he might have added, as the noted robber Macpherson, +of whom the old ballad says-- + + "Sae rantingly, sae wantonly, + Sae dauntingly gaed he: + He played a spring, and danced it round + Beneath the gallows tree." + +Among these traditional thieves the most noted in England, or perhaps in +any country, is Robin Hood, a name which popular affection has encircled +with a peculiar halo. "He robbed the rich to give to the poor;" and +his reward has been an immortality of fame, a tithe of which would be +thought more than sufficient to recompense a benefactor of his species. +Romance and poetry have been emulous to make him all their own; and the +forest of Sherwood, in which he roamed with his merry men, armed with +their long bows, and clad in Lincoln green, has become the resort of +pilgrims, and a classic spot sacred to his memory. The few virtues he +had, which would have ensured him no praise if he had been an honest +man, have been blazoned forth by popular renown during seven successive +centuries, and will never be forgotten while the English tongue endures. +His charity to the poor, and his gallantry and respect for women, have +made him the pre-eminent thief of all the world. + +Among English thieves of a later date, who has not heard of Claude +Duval, Dick Turpin, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard, those knights of +the road and of the town, whose peculiar chivalry formed at once the +dread and the delight of England during the eighteenth century? Turpin's +fame is unknown to no portion of the male population of England after +they have attained the age of ten. His wondrous ride from London to York +has endeared him to the imagination of millions; his cruelty in placing +an old woman upon a fire, to force her to tell him where she had hidden +her money, is regarded as a good joke; and his proud bearing upon the +scaffold is looked upon as a virtuous action. The Abbe le Blanc, +writing in 1737, says he was continually entertained with stories of +Turpin--how, when he robbed gentlemen, he would generously leave them +enough to continue their journey, and exact a pledge from them never to +inform against him, and how scrupulous such gentlemen were in keeping +their word. He was one day told a story with which the relator was +he the highest degree delighted. Turpin, or some other noted +robber, stopped a man whom he knew to be very rich, with the usual +salutation--"Your money or your life!" but not finding more than five +or six guineas about him, he took the liberty of entreating him, in the +most affable manner, never to come out so ill provided; adding that, if +he fell in with him, and he had no more than such a paltry sum, he +would give him a good licking. Another story, told by one of Turpin's +admirers, was of a robbery he had committed upon a Mr. C. near +Cambridge. He took from this gentleman his watch, his snuff-box, and all +his money but two shillings, and, before he left him, required his word +of honour that he would not cause him to be pursued or brought before +a justice. The promise being given, they both parted very courteously. +They afterwards met at Newmarket, and renewed their acquaintance. Mr. C. +kept his word religiously; he not only refrained from giving Turpin into +custody, but made a boast that he had fairly won some of his money back +again in an honest way. Turpin offered to bet with him on some favourite +horse, and Mr. C. accepted the wager with as good a grace as he could +have done from the best gentleman in England. Turpin lost his bet and +paid it immediately, and was so smitten with the generous behaviour of +Mr. C. that he told him how deeply he regretted that the trifling affair +which had happened between them did not permit them to drink together. +The narrator of this anecdote was quite proud that England was the +birthplace of such a highwayman. + +[The Abbe, in the second volume, in the letter No. 79, dressed to +Monsieur de Buffon, gives the following curious particulars of the +robbers of 1757, which are not without interest at this day, if it +were only to show the vast improvement which has taken place since that +period:--"It is usual, in travelling, to put ten or a dozen guineas in +a separate pocket, as a tribute to the first that comes to demand them: +the right of passport, which custom has established here in favour of +the robbers, who are almost the only highway surveyors in England, has +made this necessary; and accordingly the English call these fellows +the 'Gentlemen of the Road,' the government letting them exercise their +jurisdiction upon travellers without giving them any great molestation. +To say the truth, they content themselves with only taking the money +of those who obey without disputing; but notwithstanding their boasted +humanity, the lives of those who endeavour to get away are not always +safe. They are very strict and severe in levying their impost; and if +a man has not wherewithal to pay them, he may run the chance of getting +himself knocked on the head for his poverty. + +"About fifteen years ago, these robbers, with the view of maintaining +their rights, fixed up papers at the doors of rich people about London, +expressly forbidding all persons, of whatsoever quality or condition, +from going out of town without ten guineas and a watch about them, on +pain of death. In bad times, when there is little or nothing to be got +on the roads, these fellows assemble in gangs, to raise contributions +even in London itself; and the watchmen seldom trouble themselves to +interfere with them in their vocation."] + +Not less familiar to the people of England is the career of Jack +Sheppard, as brutal a ruffian as ever disgraced his country, but who +has claims upon the popular admiration which are very generally +acknowledged. He did not, like Robin Hood, plunder the rich to relieve +the poor, nor rob with an uncouth sort of courtesy, like Turpin; but he +escaped from Newgate with the fetters on his limbs. This achievement, +more than once repeated, has encircled his felon brow with the wreath of +immortality, and made him quite a pattern thief among the populace. He +was no more than twenty-three years of age at the time of his execution, +and he died much pitied by the crowd. His adventures were the sole +topics of conversation for months; the print-shops were filled with his +effigies, and a fine painting of him was made by Sir Richard Thornhill. +The following complimentary verses to the artist appeared in the +"British Journal" of November 28th, 1724. + + "Thornhill! 'tis thine to gild with fame + Th' obscure, and raise the humble name; + To make the form elude the grave, + And Sheppard from oblivion save! + + Apelles Alexander drew-- + Cesar is to Aurelius due; + Cromwell in Lilly's works doth shine, + And Sheppard, Thornhill, lives in thine!" + +So high was Jack's fame that a pantomime entertainment, called +"Harlequin Jack Sheppard," was devised by one Thurmond, and brought out +with great success at Drury Lane Theatre. All the scenes were painted +from nature, including the public-house that the robber frequented in +Claremarket, and the condemned cell from which he had made his escape in +Newgate. + +The Rev. Mr. Villette, the editor of the "Annals of Newgate," published +in 1754, relates a curious sermon which, he says, a friend of his heard +delivered by a street-preacher about the time of Jack's execution. The +orator, after animadverting on the great care men took of their bodies, +and the little care they bestowed upon their souls, continued as +follows, by way of exemplifying the position:--"We have a remarkable +instance of this in a notorious malefactor, well known by the name +of Jack Sheppard. What amazing difficulties has he overcome! what +astonishing things has he performed! and all for the sake of a stinking, +miserable carcass; hardly worth the hanging! How dexterously did he pick +the chain of his padlock with a crooked nail! how manfully he burst his +fetters asunder!--climb up the chimney!--wrench out an iron bar!--break +his way through a stone wall!--make the strong door of a dark entry fly +before him, till he got upon the leads of the prison! then, fixing +a blanket to the wall with a spike, he stole out of the chapel. How +intrepidly did he descend to the top of the turner's house!--how +cautiously pass down the stair, and make his escape to the street door! + +"Oh! that ye were all like Jack Sheppard! Mistake me not, my brethren; +I don't mean in a carnal, but in a spiritual sense, for I propose to +spiritualise these things. What a shame it would be if we should not +think it worth our while to take as much pains, and employ as many deep +thoughts, to save our souls as he has done to preserve his body! + +"Let me exhort ye, then, to open the locks of your hearts with the nail +of repentance! Burst asunder the fetters of your beloved +lusts!--mount the chimney of hope!--take from thence the bar of good +resolution!--break through the stone wall of despair, and all the +strongholds in the dark entry of the valley of the shadow of death! +Raise yourselves to the leads of divine meditation!--fix the blanket of +faith with the spike of the church! let yourselves down to the turner's +house of resignation, and descend the stairs of humility! So shall you +come to the door of deliverance from the prison of iniquity, and escape +the clutches of that old executioner the Devil!" + +But popular as the name of Jack Sheppard was immediately after he had +suffered the last penalty of his crimes, it was as nothing compared to +the vast renown which he has acquired in these latter days, after +the lapse of a century and a quarter. Poets too often, are not fully +appreciated till they have been dead a hundred years, and thieves, it +would appear, share the disadvantage. But posterity is grateful if our +contemporaries are not; and Jack Sheppard, faintly praised in his own +day, shines out in ours the hero of heroes, preeminent above all his +fellows. Thornhill made but one picture of the illustrious robber, but +Cruikshank has made dozens, and the art of the engraver has multiplied +them into thousands and tens of thousands, until the populace of England +have become as familiar with Jack's features as they are with their own. +Jack, the romantic, is the hero of three goodly volumes, and the delight +of the circulating libraries; and the theatres have been smitten with +the universal enthusiasm. Managers have set their playmongers at work, +and Jack's story has been reproduced in the shape of drama, melodrama, +and farce, at half a dozen places of entertainment at once. Never was +such a display of popular regard for a hero as was exhibited in London +in 1840 for the renowned Jack Sheppard: robbery acquired additional +lustre in the popular eye, and not only Englishmen, but foreigners, +caught the contagion; and one of the latter, fired by the example, +robbed and murdered a venerable, unoffending, and too confiding +nobleman, whom it was his especial duty to have obeyed and protected. +But he was a coward and a wretch;--it was a solitary crime--he had not +made a daring escape from dungeon walls, or ridden from London to York, +and he died amid the execrations of the people, affording a melancholy +exemplification of the trite remark, that every man is not great who is +desirous of being so. + +Jonathan Wild, whose name has been immortalised by Fielding, was no +favourite with the people. He had none of the virtues which, combined +with crimes, make up the character of the great thief. He was a pitiful +fellow, who informed against his comrades, and was afraid of death. This +meanness was not to be forgiven by the crowd, and they pelted him with +dirt and stones on his way to Tyburn, and expressed their contempt by +every possible means. How different was their conduct to Turpin and +Jack Sheppard, who died in their neatest attire, with nosegays in +their button-holes, and with the courage that a crowd expects! It was +anticipated that the body of Turpin would have been delivered up to +the surgeons for dissection, and the people seeing some men very busily +employed in removing it, suddenly set upon them, rescued the body, bore +it about the town in triumph, and then buried it in a very deep grave, +filled with quick-lime, to hasten the progress of decomposition. They +would not suffer the corpse of their hero, of the man who had ridden +from London to York in four-and-twenty hours to be mangled by the rude +hands of unmannerly surgeons. + +The death of Claude Duval would appear to have been no less triumphant. +Claude was a gentlemanly thief. According to Butler, in the famous ode +to his memory, he + + "Taught the wild Arabs of the road + To rob in a more gentle mode; + Take prizes more obligingly than those + Who never had breen bred filous; + And how to hang in a more graceful fashion + Than e'er was known before to the dull English nation." + +In fact, he was the pink of politeness, and his gallantry to the fair +sex was proverbial. When he was caught at last, pent in "stone walls +and chains and iron grates,"--their grief was in proportion to his rare +merits and his great fame. Butler says, that to his dungeon + + "--came ladies from all parts, + To offer up close prisoners their hearts, + Which he received as tribute due-- + + * * * * + + Never did bold knight, to relieve + Distressed dames, such dreadful feats achieve, + As feeble damsels, for his sake, + Would have been proud to undertake, + And, bravely ambitious to redeem + The world's loss and their own, + Strove who should have the honour to lay down, + And change a life with him." + +Among the noted thieves of France, there is none to compare with the +famous Aimerigot Tetenoire, who flourished in the reign of Charles VI. +This fellow was at the head of four or five hundred men, and possessed +two very strong castles in Limousin and Auvergne. There was a good deal +of the feudal baron about him, although he possessed no revenues but +such as the road afforded him. At his death he left a singular will. "I +give and bequeath," said the robber, "one thousand five hundred francs +to St. George's Chapel, for such repairs as it may need. To my sweet +girl who so tenderly loved me, I give two thousand five hundred; and the +surplus I give to my companions. I hope they will all live as brothers, +and divide it amicably among them. If they cannot agree, and the devil +of contention gets among them, it is no fault of mine; and I advise them +to get a good strong, sharp axe, and break open my strong box. Let them +scramble for what it contains, and the Devil seize the hindmost." The +people of Auvergne still recount with admiration the daring feats of +this brigand. + +Of later years, the French thieves have been such unmitigated scoundrels +as to have left but little room for popular admiration. The famous +Cartouche, whose name has become synonymous with ruffian in their +language, had none of the generosity, courtesy, and devoted bravery +which are so requisite to make a robber-hero. He was born at Paris, +towards the end of the seventeenth century, and broken alive on the +wheel in November 1727. He was, however, sufficiently popular to have +been pitied at his death, and afterwards to have formed the subject of +a much admired drama, which bore his name, and was played with great +success in all the theatres of France during the years 1734, 5, and 6. +In our own day the French have been more fortunate in a robber; Vidocq +bids fair to rival the fame of Turpin and Jack Sheppard. Already he +has become the hero of many an apocryphal tale--already his compatriots +boast of his manifold achievements, and express their doubts whether +any other country in Europe could produce a thief so clever, so +accomplished, so gentlemanly, as Vidocq. + +Germany has its Schinderhannes, Hungary its Schubry, and Italy and +Spain a whole host of brigands, whose names and exploits are familiar +as household words in the mouths of the children and populace of those +countries. The Italian banditti are renowned over the world; and many of +them are not only very religious (after a fashion), but very charitable. +Charity from such a source is so unexpected, that the people dote upon +them for it. One of them, when he fell into the hands of the police, +exclaimed, as they led him away, "Ho fatto pitt carita!"--"I have given +away more in charity than any three convents in these provinces." And +the fellow spoke truth. + +In Lombardy, the people cherish the memory of two notorious robbers, who +flourished about two centuries ago under the Spanish government. Their +story, according to Macfarlane, is contained in a little book well known +to all the children of the province, and read by them with much more +gusto than their Bibles. + +Schinderhannes, the robber of the Rhine, is a great favourite on the +banks of the river which he so long kept in awe. Many amusing stories +are related by the peasantry of the scurvy tricks he played off upon +rich Jews, or too-presuming officers of justice--of his princely +generosity, and undaunted courage. In short, they are proud of him, and +would no more consent to have the memory of his achievements dissociated +from their river than they would to have the rock of Ehrenbreitstein +blown to atoms by gunpowder. + +There is another robber-hero, of whose character and exploits the people +of Germany speak admiringly. Mausch Nadel was captain of a considerable +band that infested the Rhine, Switzerland, Alsatia, and Lorraine during +the years 1824, 5, and 6. Like Jack Sheppard, he endeared himself to the +populace by his most hazardous escape from prison. Being confined, at +Bremen, in a dungeon, on the third story of the prison of that town, +he contrived to let himself down without exciting the vigilance of +the sentinels, and to swim across the Weser, though heavily laden with +irons. When about half way over, he was espied by a sentinel, who fired +at him, and shot him in the calf of the leg: but the undaunted robber +struck out manfully, reached the shore, and was out of sight before the +officers of justice could get ready their boats to follow him. He was +captured again in 1826, tried at Mayence, and sentenced to death. He was +a tall, strong, handsome man, and his fate, villain as he was, excited +much sympathy all over Germany. The ladies especially were loud in their +regret that nothing could be done to save a hero so good-looking, and of +adventures so romantic, from the knife of the headsman. + +Mr. Macfarlane, in speaking of Italian banditti, remarks, that the +abuses of the Catholic religion, with its confessions and absolutions, +have tended to promote crime of this description. But, he adds, more +truly, that priests and monks have not done half the mischief which has +been perpetrated by ballad-mongers and story-tellers. If he had said +play-wrights also, the list would have been complete. In fact, the +theatre, which can only expect to prosper, in a pecuniary sense, by +pandering to the tastes of the people, continually recurs to the annals +of thieves and banditti for its most favourite heroes. These theatrical +robbers; with their picturesque attire, wild haunts, jolly, reckless, +devil-may-care manners, take a wonderful hold upon the imagination, +and, whatever their advocates may say to the contrary, exercise a very +pernicious influence upon public morals. In the Memoirs of the Duke of +Guise upon the Revolution of Naples in 1647 and 1648, it is stated, that +the manners, dress, and mode of life of the Neapolitan banditti were +rendered so captivating upon the stage, that the authorities found it +absolutely necessary to forbid the representation of dramas in which +they figured, and even to prohibit their costume at the masquerades. +So numerous were the banditti at this time, that the Duke found no +difficulty in raising an army of them, to aid him in his endeavours +to seize on the throne of Naples. He thus describes them; [See also +"Foreign Quarterly Review," vol. iv. p. 398.] + +"They were three thousand five hundred men, of whom the oldest came +short of five and forty years, and the youngest was above twenty. They +were all tall and well made, with long black hair, for the most part +curled, coats of black Spanish leather, with sleeves of velvet, or cloth +of gold, cloth breeches with gold lace, most of them scarlet; girdles +of velvet, laced with gold, with two pistols on each side; a cutlass +hanging at a belt, suitably trimmed, three fingers broad and two feet +long; a hawking-bag at their girdle, and a powder-flask hung about +their neck with a great silk riband. Some of them carried firelocks, and +others blunder-busses; they had all good shoes, with silk stockings, +and every one a cap of cloth of gold, or cloth of silver, of different +colours, on his head, which was very delightful to the eye." + +"The Beggars' Opera," in our own country, is another instance of the +admiration that thieves excite upon the stage. Of the extraordinary +success of this piece, when first produced, the following account is +given in the notes to "The Dunciad," and quoted by Johnson in his "Lives +of the Poets." "This piece was received with greater applause than +was ever known. Besides being acted in London sixty-three days without +interruption, and renewed the next season with equal applause, it spread +into all the great towns of England; was played in many places to the +thirtieth and fortieth time; at Bath and Bristol, &c. fifty. It made +its progress into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where it was performed +twenty-four days successively. The ladies carried about with them the +favourite songs of it in fans, and houses were furnished with it in +screens. The fame of it was not confined to the author only. The person +who acted Polly, till then obscure, became all at once the favourite of +the town; [Lavinia Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton.] her pictures +were engraved and sold in great numbers; her life written, books of +letters and verses to her published, and pamphlets made even of her +sayings and jests. Furthermore, it drove out of England, for that +season, the Italian Opera, which had carried all before it for ten +years." Dr. Johnson, in his Life of the Author, says, that Herring, +afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, censured the opera, as giving +encouragement, not only to vice, but to crimes, by making the highwayman +the hero, and dismissing him at last unpunished; and adds, that it was +even said, that after the exhibition the gangs of robbers were evidently +multiplied. The Doctor doubts the assertion, giving as his reason that +highwaymen and housebreakers seldom frequent the playhouse, and that it +was not possible for any one to imagine that he might rob with safety, +because he saw Macheath reprieved upon the stage. But if Johnson had +wished to be convinced, he might very easily have discovered that +highwaymen and housebreakers did frequent the theatre, and that nothing +was more probable than that a laughable representation of successful +villany should induce the young and the already vicious to imitate it. +Besides, there is the weighty authority of Sir John Fielding, the +chief magistrate of Bow Street, who asserted positively, and proved his +assertion by the records of his office, that the number of thieves was +greatly increased at the time when that opera was so popular. + +We have another instance of the same result much nearer our own times. +Schiller's "Rauber," that wonderful play, written by a green youth, +perverted the taste and imagination of all the young men in Germany. An +accomplished critic of our own country (Hazlitt), speaking of this play, +says it was the first he ever read, and such was the effect it +produced on him, that "it stunned him, like a blow." After the lapse of +five-and-twenty years he could not forget it; it was still, to use his +own words, "an old dweller in the chambers of his brain," and he had +not even then recovered enough from it, to describe how it was. The +high-minded, metaphysical thief, its hero, was so warmly admired, that +several raw students, longing to imitate a character they thought so +noble, actually abandoned their homes and their colleges, and betook +themselves to the forests and wilds to levy contributions upon +travellers. They thought they would, like Moor, plunder the rich, and +deliver eloquent soliloquies to the setting sun or the rising moon; +relieve the poor when they met them, and drink flasks of Rhenish with +their free companions in rugged mountain passes, or in tents in the +thicknesses of the forests. But a little experience wonderfully cooled +their courage; they found that real, every-day robbers were very unlike +the conventional banditti of the stage, and that three months in prison, +with bread and water for their fare, and damp straw to lie upon, was +very well to read about by their own fire sides, but not very agreeable +to undergo in their own proper persons. + +Lord Byron, with his soliloquising, high-souled thieves, has, in a +slight degree, perverted the taste of the greenhorns and incipient +rhymesters of his country. As yet, however, they have shown more good +sense than their fellows of Germany, and have not taken to the woods or +the highways. Much as they admire Conrad the Corsair, they will not go +to sea, and hoist the black flag in emulation of him. By words only, and +not by deeds, they testify their admiration, and deluge the periodicals +and music shops of the hand with verses describing pirates' and bandits' +brides, and robber adventures of every kind. + +But it is the play-wright who does most harm; and Byron has fewer +sins of this nature to answer for than Gay or Schiller, and the modern +dramatizers of Jack Sheppard. With the aid of scenery, fine dresses, and +music, and the very false notions they convey, they vitiate the public +taste, not knowing, + + "-----------vulgaires rimeurs + Quelle force ont les arts pour demolir les moeurs." + +In the penny theatres that abound in the poor and populous districts +of London, and which are chiefly frequented by striplings of idle and +dissolute habits, tales of thieves and murderers are more admired, and +draw more crowded audiences, than any other species of representation. +There the footpad, the burglar, and the highwayman are portrayed in +unnatural colours, and give pleasant lessons in crime to their delighted +listeners. There the deepest tragedy and the broadest farce are +represented in the career of the murderer and the thief, and are +applauded in proportion to their depth and their breadth. There, +whenever a crime of unusual atrocity is committed, it is brought out +afresh, with all its disgusting incidents copied from the life, for the +amusement of those who will one day become its imitators. + +With the mere reader the case is widely different; and most people have +a partiality for knowing the adventures of noted rogues. Even in +fiction they are delightful: witness the eventful story of Gil Blas de +Santillane, and of that great rascal Don Guzman d'Alfarache. Here there +is no fear of imitation. Poets, too, without doing mischief, may sing of +such heroes when they please, wakening our sympathies for the sad fate +of Gilderoy, or Macpherson the Dauntless; or celebrating in undying +verse the wrongs and the revenge of the great thief of Scotland, Rob +Roy. If, by the music of their sweet rhymes, they can convince the world +that such heroes are but mistaken philosophers, born a few ages too +late, and having both a theoretical and practical love for + + "The good old rule, the simple plan, + That they should take who have the power, + That they should keep who can," + +the world may, perhaps, become wiser, and consent to some better +distribution of its good things, by means of which thieves may become +reconciled to the age, and the age to them. The probability, however, +seems to be, that the charmers will charm in vain, charm they ever so +wisely. + + + + +INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD. + + + Speak with respect and honour + Both of the beard and the beard's owner. + + HUDIBRAS, + +The famous declaration of St. Paul, "that long hair was a shame unto +a man" has been made the pretext for many singular enactments, both of +civil and ecclesiastical governments. The fashion of the hair and the +cut of the beard were state questions in France and England from the +establishment of Christianity until the fifteenth century. + +We find, too, that in much earlier times men were not permitted to do +as they liked with their own hair. Alexander the Great thought that the +beards of his soldiery afforded convenient handles for the enemy to lay +hold of, preparatory to cutting off their heads; and, with the view of +depriving them of this advantage, he ordered the whole of his army to +be closely shaven. His notions of courtesy towards an enemy were quite +different from those entertained by the North American Indians, amongst +whom it is held a point of honour to allow one "chivalrous lock" to +grow, that the foe, in taking the scalp, may have something to catch +hold of. + +At one time, long hair was the symbol of sovereignty in Europe. We learn +from Gregory of Tours that, among the successors of Clovis, it was the +exclusive privilege of the royal family to have their hair long, +and curled. The nobles, equal to kings in power, would not show any +inferiority in this respect, and wore not only their hair, but their +beards, of an enormous length. This fashion lasted, with but slight +changes, till the time of Louis the Debonnaire, but his successors, up +to Hugh Capet, wore their hair short, by way of distinction. Even the +serfs had set all regulation at defiance, and allowed their locks and +beards to grow. + +At the time of the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, the +Normans wore their hair very short. Harold, in his progress towards +Hastings, sent forward spies to view the strength and number of the +enemy. They reported, amongst other things, on their return, that "the +host did almost seem to be priests, because they had all their face and +both their lips shaven." The fashion among the English at the time was +to wear the hair long upon the head and the upper lip, but to shave the +chin. When the haughty victors had divided the broad lands of the Saxon +thanes and franklins among them, when tyranny of every kind was employed +to make the English feel that they were indeed a subdued and broken +nation, the latter encouraged the growth of their hair, that they might +resemble as little as possible their cropped and shaven masters. + +This fashion was exceedingly displeasing to the clergy, and prevailed +to a considerable extent in France and Germany. Towards the end of the +eleventh century, it was decreed by the Pope, and zealously supported +by the ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, that such persons as +wore long hair should be excommunicated while living, and not be prayed +for when dead. William of Malmesbury relates, that the famous St. +Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, was peculiarly indignant whenever he saw +a man with long hair. He declaimed against the practice as one highly +immoral, criminal, and beastly. He continually carried a small knife +in his pocket, and whenever anybody, offending in this respect, knelt +before him to receive his blessing, he would whip it out slily, and cut +off a handful, and then, throwing it in his face, tell him to cut off +all the rest, or he would go to hell. + +But fashion, which at times it is possible to move with a wisp, stands +firm against a lever; and men preferred to run the risk of damnation +to parting with the superfluity of their hair. In the time of Henry I, +Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, found it necessary to republish the +famous decree of excommunication and outlawry against the offenders; +but, as the court itself had begun to patronize curls, the fulminations +of the church were unavailing. Henry I and his nobles wore their hair +in long ringlets down their backs and shoulders, and became a scandalum +magnatum in the eyes of the godly. One Serlo, the King's chaplain, was +so grieved in spirit at the impiety of his master, that he preached a +sermon from the well-known text of St. Paul, before the assembled court, +in which he drew so dreadful a picture of the torments that awaited them +in the other world, that several of them burst into tears, and wrung +their hair, as if they would have pulled it out by the roots. Henry +himself was observed to weep. The priest, seeing the impression he had +made, determined to strike while the iron was hot, and, pulling a pair +of scissors from his pocket, cut the king's hair in presence of them +all. Several of the principal courtiers consented to do the like, and, +for a short time, long hair appeared to be going out of fashion. But +the courtiers thought, after the first glow of their penitence had been +cooled by reflection, that the clerical Dalilah had shorn them of their +strength, and, in less than six months, they were as great sinners as +ever. + +Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been a monk of Bec, +in Normandy, and who had signalized himself at Rouen by his fierce +opposition to long hair, was still anxious to work a reformation in this +matter. But his pertinacity was far from pleasing to the King, who had +finally made up his mind to wear ringlets. There were other disputes, of +a more serious nature, between them; so that when the Archbishop died, +the King was so glad to be rid of him, that he allowed the see to remain +vacant for five years. Still the cause had other advocates, and every +pulpit in the land resounded with anathemas against that disobedient and +long-haired generation. But all was of no avail. Stowe, in writing of +this period, asserts, on the authority of some more ancient chronicler, +"that men, forgetting their birth, transformed themselves, by the length +of their haires, into the semblance of woman kind;" and that when their +hair decayed from age, or other causes, "they knit about their heads +certain rolls and braidings of false hair." At last accident turned the +tide of fashion. A knight of the court, who was exceedingly proud of +his beauteous locks, dreamed one night that, as he lay in bed, the devil +sprang upon him, and endeavoured to choke him with his own hair. He +started in affright, and actually found that he had a great quantity of +hair in his mouth. Sorely stricken in conscience, and looking upon the +dream as a warning from Heaven, he set about the work of reformation, +and cut off his luxuriant tresses the same night. The story was soon +bruited abroad; of course it was made the most of by the clergy, and the +knight, being a man of influence and consideration, and the acknowledged +leader of the fashion, his example, aided by priestly exhortations, was +very generally imitated. Men appeared almost as decent as St. Wulstan +himself could have wished, the dream of a dandy having proved more +efficacious than the entreaties of a saint. But, as Stowe informs us, +"scarcely was one year past, when all that thought themselves courtiers +fell into the former vice, and contended with women in their long +haires." Henry, the King, appears to have been quite uninfluenced by the +dreams of others, for even his own would not induce him a second time +to undergo a cropping from priestly shears. It is said, that he was +much troubled at this time by disagreeable visions. Having offended +the church in this and other respects, he could get no sound refreshing +sleep, and used to imagine that he saw all the bishops, abbots, and +monks of every degree, standing around his bed-side, and threatening to +belabour him with their pastoral staves; which sight, we are told, so +frightened him, that he often started naked out of his bed, and attacked +the phantoms sword in hand. Grimbalde, his physician, who, like most of +his fraternity at that day, was an ecclesiastic, never hinted that his +dreams were the result of a bad digestion, but told him to shave his +head, be reconciled to the Church, and reform himself with alms and +prayer. But he would not take this good advice, and it was not until he +had been nearly drowned a year afterwards, in a violent storm at sea, +that he repented of his evil ways, cut his hair short, and paid proper +deference to the wishes of the clergy. + +In France, the thunders of the Vatican with regard to long curly hair +were hardly more respected than in England. Louis VII. however, was +more obedient than his brother-king, and cropped himself as closely as +a monk, to the great sorrow of all the gallants of his court. His Queen, +the gay, haughty, and pleasure-seeking Eleanor of Guienne, never admired +him in this trim, and continually reproached him with imitating, not +only the headdress, but the asceticism of the monks. From this cause, a +coldness arose between them. The lady proving at last unfaithful to her +shaven and indifferent lord, they were divorced, and the Kings of France +lost the rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou, which were her dowry. +She soon after bestowed her hand and her possessions upon Henry Duke +of Normandy, afterwards Henry II of England, and thus gave the English +sovereigns that strong footing in France which was for so many centuries +the cause of such long and bloody wars between the nations. + +When the Crusades had drawn all the smart young fellows into Palestine, +the clergy did not find it so difficult to convince the staid burghers +who remained in Europe, of the enormity of long hair. During the absence +of Richard Coeur de Lion, his English subjects not only cut their hair +close, but shaved their faces. William Fitzosbert, or Long-beard, the +great demagogue of that day, reintroduced among the people who claimed +to be of Saxon origin the fashion of long hair. He did this with the +view of making them as unlike as possible to the citizens and the +Normans. He wore his own beard hanging down to his waist, from whence +the name by which he is best known to posterity. + +The Church never showed itself so great an enemy to the beard as to long +hair on the head. It generally allowed fashion to take its own course, +both with regard to the chin and the upper lip. This fashion varied +continually; for we find that, in little more than a century after the +time of Richard I, when beards were short, that they had again become +so long as to be mentioned in the famous epigram made by the Scots who +visited London in 1327, when David, son of Robert Bruce, was married to +Joan, the sister of King Edward. This epigram, which was stuck on the +church-door of St. Peter Stangate, ran as follows-- + + "Long beards heartlesse, + Painted hoods witlesse, + Gray coats gracelesse, + Make England thriftlesse." + +When the Emperor Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, he had no +beard. It was not to be expected that the obsequious parasites who +always surround a monarch, could presume to look more virile than their +master. Immediately all the courtiers appeared beardless, with the +exception of such few grave old men as had outgrown the influence of +fashion, and who had determined to die bearded as they had lived. Sober +people in general saw this revolution with sorrow and alarm, and thought +that every manly virtue would be banished with the beard. It became at +the time a common saying,-- + + "Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma." + We have no longer souls since we have lost our beards. + +In France, also, the beard fell into disrepute after the death of Henry +IV, from the mere reason that his successor was too young to have +one. Some of the more immediate friends of the great Bearnais, and +his minister Sully among the rest, refused to part with their beards, +notwithstanding the jeers of the new generation. + +Who does not remember the division of England into the two great parties +of Roundheads and Cavaliers? In those days, every species of vice and +iniquity was thought by the Puritans to lurk in the long curly tresses +of the Monarchists, while the latter imagined that their opponents were +as destitute of wit, of wisdom, and of virtue, as they were of hair. A +man's locks were the symbol of his creed, both in politics and religion. +The more abundant the hair, the more scant the faith; and the balder the +head, the more sincere the piety. + +But among all the instances of the interference of governments with +men's hair, the most extraordinary, not only for its daring, but for its +success is that of Peter the Great, in 1705. By this time, fashion had +condemned the beard in every other country in Europe, and with a voice +more potent than Popes or Emperors, had banished it from civilized +society. But this only made the Russians cling more fondly to their +ancient ornament, as a mark to distinguish them from foreigners, whom +they hated. Peter, however resolved that they should be shaven. If he +had been a man deeply read in history, he might have hesitated before +he attempted so despotic an attack upon the time-hallowed customs +and prejudices of his countrymen; but he was not. He did not know +or consider the danger of the innovation; he only listened to the +promptings of his own indomitable will, and his fiat went forth, that +not only the army, but all ranks of citizens, from the nobles to the +serfs, should shave their beards. A certain time was given, that people +might get over the first throes of their repugnance, after which every +man who chose to retain his beard was to pay a tax of one hundred +roubles. The priests and the serfs were put on a lower footing, and +allowed to retain theirs upon payment of a copeck every time they passed +the gate of a city. Great discontent existed in consequence, but the +dreadful fate of the Strelitzes was too recent to be forgotten, and +thousands who had the will had not the courage to revolt. As is well +remarked by a writer in the "Encyclopedia Britannica," they thought it +wiser to cut off their beards than to run the risk of incensing a man +who would make no scruple in cutting off their heads. Wiser, too, than +the popes and bishops of a former age, he did not threaten them with +eternal damnation, but made them pay in hard cash the penalty of their +disobedience. For many years, a very considerable revenue was collected +from this source. The collectors gave in receipt for its payment a +small copper coin, struck expressly for the purpose, and called the +"borodovaia," or "the bearded." On one side it bore the figure of a +nose, mouth, and moustachios, with a long bushy beard, surmounted by +the words, "Deuyee Vyeatee," "money received;" the whole encircled by a +wreath, and stamped with the black eagle of Russia. On the reverse, +it bore the date of the year. Every man who chose to wear a beard was +obliged to produce this receipt on his entry into a town. Those who were +refractory, and refused to pay the tax, were thrown into prison. + +Since that day, the rulers of modern Europe have endeavoured to +persuade, rather than to force, in all matters pertaining to fashion. +The Vatican troubles itself no more about beards or ringlets, and men +may become hairy as bears, if such is their fancy, without fear of +excommunication or deprivation of their political rights. Folly has +taken a new start, and cultivates the moustachio. + +Even upon this point governments will not let men alone. Religion as +yet has not meddled with it; but perhaps it will; and politics already +influence it considerably. Before the revolution of 1830, neither the +French nor Belgian citizens were remarkable for their moustachios; +but, after that event, there was hardly a shopkeeper either in Paris or +Brussels whose upper lip did not suddenly become hairy with real or mock +moustachios. During a temporary triumph gained by the Dutch soldiers +over the citizens of Louvain, in October 1830, it became a standing joke +against the patriots, that they shaved their faces clean immediately; +and the wits of the Dutch army asserted, that they had gathered +moustachios enough from the denuded lips of the Belgians to stuff +mattresses for all the sick and wounded in their hospital. + +The last folly of this kind is still more recent. In the German +newspapers, of August 1838, appeared an ordonnance, signed by the King +of Bavaria, forbidding civilians, on any pretence whatever, to wear +moustachios, and commanding the police and other authorities to arrest, +and cause to be shaved, the offending parties. "Strange to say," adds +"Le Droit," the journal from which this account is taken, "moustachios +disappeared immediately, like leaves from the trees in autumn; everybody +made haste to obey the royal order, and not one person was arrested." + +The King of Bavaria, a rhymester of some celebrity, has taken a good +many poetical licences in his time. His licence in this matter appears +neither poetical nor reasonable. It is to be hoped that he will not take +it into his royal head to make his subjects shave theirs; nothing but +that is wanting to complete their degradation. + + + + +DUELS AND ORDEALS + + There was an ancient sage philosopher, + Who swore the world, as he could prove, + Was mad of fighting. * * * + + Hudibras, + +Most writers, in accounting for the origin of duelling, derive it from +the warlike habits of those barbarous nations who overran Europe in the +early centuries of the Christian era, and who knew no mode so effectual +for settling their differences as the point of the sword. In fact, +duelling, taken in its primitive and broadest sense, means nothing +more than combatting, and is the universal resort of all wild animals, +including man, to gain or defend their possessions, or avenge their +insults. Two dogs who tear each other for a bone, or two bantams +fighting on a dunghill for the love of some beautiful hen, or two fools +on Wimbledon Common, shooting at each other to satisfy the laws of +offended honour, stand on the same footing in this respect, and are, +each and all, mere duellists. As civilization advanced, the best +informed men naturally grew ashamed of such a mode of adjusting +disputes, and the promulgation of some sort of laws for obtaining +redress for injuries was the consequence. Still there were many cases +in which the allegations of an accuser could not be rebutted by any +positive proof on the part of the accused; and in all these, which must +have been exceedingly numerous in the early stages of European society, +the combat was resorted to. From its decision there was no appeal. God +was supposed to nerve the arm of the combatant whose cause was just, and +to grant him the victory over his opponent. As Montesquieu well remarks, +["Esprit des Loix," liv. xxviii. chap. xvii.] this belief was not +unnatural among a people just emerging from barbarism. Their manners +being wholly warlike, the man deficient in courage, the prime virtue +of his fellows, was not unreasonably suspected of other vices besides +cowardice, which is generally found to be co-existent with treachery. +He, therefore, who showed himself most valiant in the encounter, +was absolved by public opinion from any crime with which he might be +charged. As a necessary consequence, society would have been reduced to +its original elements, if the men of thought, as distinguished from the +men of action, had not devised some means for taming the unruly passions +of their fellows. With this view, governments commenced by restricting +within the narrowest possible limits the cases in which it was lawful +to prove or deny guilt by the single combat. By the law of Gondebaldus, +King of the Burgundians, passed in the year 501, the proof by combat was +allowed in all legal proceedings, in lieu of swearing. In the time of +Charlemagne, the Burgundian practice had spread over the empire of the +Francs, and not only the suitors for justice, but the witnesses, and +even the judges, were obliged to defend their cause, their evidence, +or their decision, at the point of the sword. Louis the Debonnaire, his +successor, endeavoured to remedy the growing evil, by permitting the +duel only in appeals of felony, in civil cases, or issue joined in a +writ of right, and in cases of the court of chivalry, or attacks upon +a man's knighthood. None were exempt from these trials, but women, the +sick and the maimed, and persons under fifteen or above sixty years of +age. Ecclesiastics were allowed to produce champions in their stead. +This practice, in the course of time, extended to all trials of civil +and criminal cases, which had to be decided by battle. + +The clergy, whose dominion was an intellectual one, never approved of a +system of jurisprudence which tended so much to bring all things under +the rule of the strongest arm. From the first they set their faces +against duelling, and endeavoured, as far as the prejudices of their +age would allow them, to curb the warlike spirit, so alien from the +principles of religion. In the Council of Valentia, and afterwards +in the Council of Trent, they excommunicated all persons engaged in +duelling, and not only them, but even the assistants and spectators, +declaring the custom to be hellish and detestable, and introduced by the +Devil for the destruction both of body and soul. They added, also, that +princes who connived at duels, should be deprived of all temporal power, +jurisdiction, and dominion over the places where they had permitted them +to be fought. It will be seen hereafter that this clause only encouraged +the practice which it was intended to prevent. + +But it was the blasphemous error of these early ages to expect that the +Almighty, whenever he was called upon, would work a miracle in favour of +a person unjustly accused. The priesthood, in condemning the duel, did +not condemn the principle on which it was founded. They still encouraged +the popular belief of Divine interference in all the disputes or +differences that might arise among nations or individuals. It was the +very same principle that regulated the ordeals, which, with all their +influence, they supported against the duel. By the former, the power of +deciding the guilt or innocence was vested wholly in their hands, while, +by the latter, they enjoyed no power or privilege at all. It is not to +be wondered at, that for this reason, if for no other, they should have +endeavoured to settle all differences by the peaceful mode. While that +prevailed, they were as they wished to be, the first party in the state; +but while the strong arm of individual prowess was allowed to be the +judge in all doubtful cases, their power and influence became secondary +to those of nobility. + +Thus, it was not the mere hatred of bloodshed which induced them to +launch the thunderbolts excommunication against the combatants; it a +desire to retain the power, which, to do them justice, they were, in +those times, the persons best qualified to wield. The germs of knowledge +and civilization lay within the bounds of their order; for they were +the representatives of the intellectual, as the nobility were of the +physical power of man. To centralize this power in the Church, and +make it the judge of the last resort in all appeals, both in civil and +criminal cases, they instituted five modes of trial, the management +of which lay wholly in their hands. These were the oath upon the +Evangelists; the ordeal of the cross, and the fire ordeal, for persons +in the higher ranks; the water ordeal, for the humbler classes; and, +lastly, the Corsned, or bread and cheese ordeal, for members of their +own body. + +The oath upon the Evangelists was taken in the following manner: +the accused who was received to this proof, says Paul Hay, Count du +Chastelet, in his Memoirs of Bertrand du Guesclin, swore upon a copy of +the New Testament, and on the relics of the holy martyrs, or on their +tombs, that he was innocent of the crime imputed to him. He was also +obliged to find twelve persons, of acknowledged probity, who should take +oath at the same time, that they believed him innocent. This mode +of trial led to very great abuses, especially in cases of disputed +inheritance, where the hardest swearer was certain of the victory. This +abuse was one of the principal causes which led to the preference given +to the trial by battle. It is not all surprising that a feudal baron, or +captain of the early ages, should have preferred the chances of a fair +fight with his opponent, to a mode by which firm perjury would always be +successful. + +The trial by, or judgment of, the cross, which Charlemagne begged his +sons to have recourse to, in case of disputes arising between them, was +performed thus:--When a person accused of any crime had declared his +innocence upon oath, and appealed to the cross for its judgment in his +favour, he was brought into the church, before the altar. The priests +previously prepared two sticks exactly like one another, upon one of +which was carved a figure of the cross. They were both wrapped up with +great care and many ceremonies, in a quantity of fine wool, and laid +upon the altar, or on the relics of the saints. A solemn prayer was then +offered up to God, that he would be pleased to discover, by the judgment +of his holy cross, whether the accused person were innocent or guilty. A +priest then approached the altar, and took up one of the sticks, and the +assistants unswathed it reverently. If it was marked with the cross, +the accused person was innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would be +unjust to assert, that the judgments thus delivered were, in all +cases, erroneous; and it would be absurd to believe that they were left +altogether to chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given, and, in +all probability, most conscientiously; for we cannot but believe that +the priests endeavoured beforehand to convince themselves by secret +inquiry and a strict examination of the circumstances, whether the +appellant were innocent or guilty, and that they took up the crossed +or uncrossed stick accordingly. Although, to all other observers, the +sticks, as enfolded in the wool, might appear exactly similar, those who +enwrapped them could, without any difficulty, distinguish the one from +the other. + +By the fire-ordeal the power of deciding was just as unequivocally left +in their hands. It was generally believed that fire would not burn the +innocent, and the clergy, of course, took care that the innocent, or +such as it was their pleasure or interest to declare so, should be so +warned before undergoing the ordeal, as to preserve themselves without +any difficulty from the fire. One mode of ordeal was to place red-hot +ploughshares on the ground at certain distances, and then, blindfolding +the accused person, make him walk barefooted over them. If he stepped +regularly in the vacant spaces, avoiding the fire, he was adjudged +innocent; if he burned himself, he was declared guilty. As none but the +clergy interfered with the arrangement of the ploughshares, they could +always calculate beforehand the result of the ordeal. To find a person +guilty, they had only to place them at irregular distances, and the +accused was sure to tread upon one of them. When Emma, the wife of King +Ethelred, and mother of Edward the Confessor, was accused of a guilty +familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of Winchester, she cleared her character +in this manner. The reputation, not only of their order, but of a queen, +being at stake, a verdict of guilty was not to be apprehended from any +ploughshares which priests had the heating of. This ordeal was called +the Judicium Dei, and sometimes the Vulgaris Purgatio, and might also be +tried by several other methods. One was to hold in the hand, unhurt, a +piece of red-hot iron, of the weight of one, two, or three pounds. When +we read not only that men with hard hands, but women of softer and more +delicate skin, could do this with impunity, we must be convinced that +the hands were previously rubbed with some preservative, or that the +apparently hot iron was merely cold iron painted red. Another mode was +to plunge the naked arm into a caldron of boiling water. The priests +then enveloped it in several folds of linen and flannel, and kept the +patient confined within the church, and under their exclusive care, +for three days. If, at the end of that time, the arm appeared without a +scar, the innocence of the accused person was firmly established. [Very +similar to this is the fire-ordeal of the modern Hindoos, which is thus +described in Forbes's "Oriental Memoirs," vol. i. c. xi.--"When a man, +accused of a capital crime, chooses to undergo the ordeal trial, he is +closely confined for several days; his right hand and arm are covered +with thick wax-cloth, tied up and sealed, in the presence of proper +officers, to prevent deceit. In the English districts the covering was +always sealed with the Company's arms, and the prisoner placed under an +European guard. At the time fixed for the ordeal, a caldron of oil is +placed over a fire; when it boils, a piece of money is dropped into the +vessel; the prisoner's arm is unsealed, and washed in the presence of +his judges and accusers. During this part of the ceremony, the attendant +Brahmins supplicate the Deity. On receiving their benediction, the +accused plunges his hand into the boiling fluid, and takes out the coin. +The arm is afterwards again Sealed up until the time appointed for a +re-examination. The seal is then broken: if no blemish appears, +the prisoner is declared innocent; if the contrary, he suffers the +punishment due to his crime." * * * On this trial the accused thus +addresses the element before plunging his hand into the boiling +oil:--"Thou, O fire! pervadest all things. O cause of purity! who givest +evidence of virtue and of sin, declare the truth in this my hand!" If no +juggling were practised, the decisions by this ordeal would be all the +same way; but, as some are by this means declared guilty, and others +innocent, it is clear that the Brahmins, like the Christian priests of +the middle ages, practise some deception in saving those whom they wish +to be thought guiltless.] + +As regards the water-ordeal, the same trouble was not taken. It was a +trial only for the poor and humble, and, whether they sank or swam, +was thought of very little consequence. Like the witches of more modern +times, the accused were thrown into a pond or river; if they sank, and +were drowned, their surviving friends had the consolation of knowing +that they were innocent; if they swam, they were guilty. In either case +society was rid of them. + +But of all the ordeals, that which the clergy reserved for themselves +was the one least likely to cause any member of their corps to be +declared guilty. The most culpable monster in existence came off clear +when tried by this method. It was called the Corsned, and was thus +performed. A piece of barley bread and a piece of cheese were laid +upon the altar, and the accused priest, in his full canonicals, and +surrounded by all the pompous adjuncts of Roman ceremony, pronounced +certain conjurations, and prayed with great fervency for several +minutes. The burden of his prayer was, that if he were guilty of the +crime laid to his charge, God would send his angel Gabriel to stop his +throat, that he might not be able to swallow the bread and cheese. +There is no instance upon record of a priest having been choked in +this manner. [An ordeal very like this is still practised in India. +Consecrated rice is the article chosen, instead of bread and cheese. +Instances are not rare in which, through the force of imagination, +guilty persons are not able to swallow a single grain. Conscious of +their crime, and fearful of the punishment of Heaven, they feel a +suffocating sensation in their throat when they attempt it, and they +fall on their knees, and confess all that is laid to their charge. The +same thing, no doubt, would have happened with the bread and cheese +of the Roman church, if it had been applied to any others but +ecclesiastics. The latter had too much wisdom to be caught in a trap of +their own setting.] + +When, under Pope Gregory VII, it was debated whether the Gregorian chant +should be introduced into Castile, instead of the Musarabic, given by +St. Isidore, of Seville, to the churches of that kingdom, very much ill +feeling was excited. The churches refused to receive the novelty, and it +was proposed that the affair should be decided by a battle between two +champions, one chosen from each side. The clergy would not consent to a +mode of settlement which they considered impious, but had no objection +to try the merits of each chant by the fire ordeal. A great fire was +accordingly made, and a book of the Gregorian and one of the Musarabic +chant were thrown into it, that the flames might decide which was most +agreeable to God by refusing to burn it. Cardinal Baronius, who says +he was an eye-witness of the miracle, relates, that the book of the +Gregorian chant was no sooner laid upon the fire, than it leaped out +uninjured, visibly, and with a great noise. Every one present thought +that the saints had decided in favour of Pope Gregory. After a slight +interval, the fire was extinguished; but, wonderful to relate! the other +book of St. Isidore was found covered with ashes, but not injured in the +slightest degree. The flames had not even warmed it. Upon this it was +resolved, that both were alike agreeable to God, and that they should +be used by turns in all the churches of Seville? [Histoire de Messire +Bertrand du Guesclin, par Paul Hay du Chastelet. Livre i. chap. xix.] + +If the ordeals had been confined to questions like this, the laity would +have had little or no objection to them; but when they were introduced +as decisive in all the disputes that might arise between man and man, +the opposition of all those whose prime virtue was personal bravery, was +necessarily excited. In fact, the nobility, from a very early period, +began to look with jealous eyes upon them. They were not slow to +perceive their true purport, which was no other than to make the Church +the last court of appeal in all cases, both civil and criminal: and not +only did the nobility prefer the ancient mode of single combat from +this cause, in itself a sufficient one, but they clung to it because +an acquittal gained by those displays of courage and address which the +battle afforded, was more creditable in the eyes of their compeers, than +one which it required but little or none of either to accomplish. To +these causes may be added another, which was, perhaps, more potent than +either, in raising the credit of the judicial combat at the expense +of the ordeal. The noble institution of chivalry was beginning to take +root, and, notwithstanding the clamours of the clergy, war was made the +sole business of life, and the only elegant pursuit of the aristocracy. +The fine spirit of honour was introduced, any attack upon which was only +to be avenged in the lists, within sight of applauding crowds, whose +verdict of approbation was far more gratifying than the cold and formal +acquittal of the ordeal. Lothaire, the son of Louis I, abolished that +by fire and the trial of the cross within his dominions; but in England +they were allowed so late as the time of Henry III, in the early part +of whose reign they were prohibited by an order of council. In the mean +time, the Crusades had brought the institution of chivalry to the full +height of perfection. The chivalric spirit soon achieved the downfall +of the ordeal system, and established the judicial combat on a basis +too firm to be shaken. It is true that with the fall of chivalry, as an +institution, fell the tournament, and the encounter in the lists; but +the duel, their offspring, has survived to this day, defying the +efforts of sages and philosophers to eradicate it. Among all the +errors bequeathed to us by a barbarous age, it has proved the most +pertinacious. It has put variance between men's reason and their honour; +put the man of sense on a level with the fool, and made thousands who +condemn it submit to it, or practise it. Those who are curious to +see the manner in which these combats were regulated, may consult the +learned Montesquieu, where they will find a copious summary of the code +of ancient duelling. ["Esprit des Loix," livre xxviii. chap. xxv.] +Truly does he remark, in speaking of the clearness and excellence of the +arrangements, that, as there were many wise matters which were conducted +in a very foolish manner, so there were many foolish matters conducted +very wisely. No greater exemplification of it could be given, than the +wise and religious rules of the absurd and blasphemous trial by battle. + +In the ages that intervened between the Crusades and the new era that +was opened out by the invention of gunpowder and printing, a more +rational system of legislation took root. The inhabitants of cities, +engaged in the pursuits of trade and industry, were content to +acquiesce in the decisions of their judges and magistrates whenever any +differences arose among them. Unlike the class above them, their habits +and manners did not lead them to seek the battle-field on every slight +occasion. A dispute as to the price of a sack of corn, a bale of +broad-cloth, or a cow, could be more satisfactorily adjusted before the +mayor or bailiff of their district. Even the martial knights and nobles, +quarrelsome as they were, began to see that the trial by battle +would lose its dignity and splendour if too frequently resorted +to. Governments also shared this opinion, and on several occasions +restricted the cases in which it was legal to proceed to this extremity. +In France, before the time of Louis IX, duels were permitted only in +cases of Lese Majesty, Rape, Incendiarism, Assassination, and Burglary. +Louis IX, by taking off all restriction, made them legal in civil eases. +This was not found to work well, and, in 1303, Philip the Fair judged it +necessary to confine them, in criminal matters, to state offences, +rape, and incendiarism; and in civil cases, to questions of disputed +inheritance. Knighthood was allowed to be the best judge of its own +honour, and might defend or avenge it as often as occasion arose. + +Among the earliest duels upon record, is a very singular one that +took place in the reign of Louis II (A.D. 878). Ingelgerius, Count of +Gastinois, was one morning discovered by his Countess dead in bed at her +side. Gontran, a relation of the Count, accused the Countess of +having murdered her husband, to whom, he asserted, she had long been +unfaithful, and challenged her to produce a champion to do battle in her +behalf, that he might establish her guilt by killing him.[Memoires +de Brantome touchant les Duels.] All the friends and relatives of the +Countess believed in her innocence; but Gontran was so stout and bold +and renowned a warrior, that no one dared to meet him, for which, as +Brantome quaintly says, "Mauvais et poltrons parens estaient." The +unhappy Countess began to despair, when a champion suddenly appeared +in the person of Ingelgerius, Count of Anjou, a boy of sixteen years +of age, who had been held by the Countess on the baptismal font, and +received her husband's name. He tenderly loved his godmother, and +offered to do battle in her cause against any and every opponent. The +King endeavoured to persuade the generous boy from his enterprise, +urging the great strength, tried skill, and invincible courage of the +challenger; but he persisted in his resolution, to the great sorrow +of all the court, who said it was a cruel thing to permit so brave and +beautiful a child to rush to such butchery and death. + +When the lists were prepared, the Countess duly acknowledged her +champion, and the combatants commenced the onset. Gontran rode so +fiercely at his antagonist, and hit him on the shield with such +impetuosity, that he lost his own balance and rolled to the ground. The +young Count, as Gontran fell, passed his lance through his body, and +then dismounting, cut off his head, which, Brantome says, "he presented +to the King, who received it most graciously, and was very joyful, as +much so as if any one had made him a present of a city." The innocence +of the Countess was then proclaimed with great rejoicings; and she +kissed her godson, and wept over his neck with joy, in the presence of +all the assembly. + +When the Earl of Essex was accused, by Robert de Montfort, before King +Henry II, in 1162, of having traitorously suffered the royal standard +of England to fall from his hands in a skirmish with the Welsh, at +Coleshill, five years previously, the latter offered to prove the +truth of the charge by single combat. The Earl of Essex accepted +the challenge, and the lists were prepared near Reading. An immense +concourse of persons assembled to witness the battle. Essex at first +fought stoutly, but, losing his temper and self-command, he gave an +advantage to his opponent, which soon decided the struggle. He was +unhorsed, and so severely wounded, that all present thought he was dead. +At the solicitation of his relatives, the monks of the Abbey of Reading +were allowed to remove the body for interment, and Montfort was declared +the victor. Essex, however, was not dead, but stunned only, and, +under the care of the monks, recovered in a few weeks from his bodily +injuries. The wounds of his mind were not so easily healed. Though a +loyal and brave subject, the whole realm believed him a traitor and a +coward because he had been vanquished. He could not brook to return to +the world deprived of the good opinion of his fellows; he, therefore, +made himself a monk, and passed the remainder of his days within the +walls of the Abbey. + +Du Chastelet relates a singular duel that was proposed in +Spain.[Histoire de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, livre i. chap. xix.] A +Christian gentleman of Seville sent a challenge to a Moorish cavalier, +offering to prove against him, with whatever weapons he might choose, +that the religion of Jesus Christ was holy and divine, and that of +Mahomet impious and damnable. The Spanish prelates did not choose that +Christianity should be com promised within their jurisdiction by the +result of any such combat, and they commanded the knight, under pain of +excommunication, to withdraw the challenge. + +The same author relates, that under Otho I a question arose among +jurisconsults, viz. whether grandchildren, who had lost their father, +should share equally with their uncles in the property of their +grandfather, at the death of the latter. The difficulty of this question +was found so insurmountable, that none of the lawyers of that day could +resolve it. It was at last decreed, that it should be decided by single +combat. Two champions were accordingly chosen; one for, and the other +against, the claims of the little ones. After a long struggle, the +champion of the uncles was unhorsed and slain; and it was, therefore, +decided, that the right of the grandchildren was established, and that +they should enjoy the same portion of their grandfather's possessions +that their father would have done had he been alive. + +Upon pretexts, just as frivolous as these, duels continued to be fought +in most of the countries of Europe during the whole of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries. A memorable instance of the slightness of the +pretext on which a man could be forced to fight a duel to the death, +occurs in the Memoirs of the brave Constable, Du Guesclin. The advantage +he had obtained, in a skirmish before Rennes, against William Brembre, +an English captain, so preyed on the spirits of William Troussel, the +chosen friend and companion of the latter, that nothing would satisfy +him but a mortal combat with the Constable. The Duke of Lancaster, +to whom Troussel applied for permission to fight the great Frenchman, +forbade the battle, as not warranted by the circumstances. Troussel +nevertheless burned with a fierce desire to cross his weapon with Du +Guesclin, and sought every occasion to pick a quarrel with him. Having +so good a will for it, of course he found a way. A relative of his had +been taken prisoner by the Constable, in whose hands he remained till he +was able to pay his ransom. Troussel resolved to make a quarrel out of +this, and despatched a messenger to Du Guesclin, demanding the release +of his prisoner, and offering a bond, at a distant date, for the payment +of the ransom. Du Guesclin, who had received intimation of the hostile +purposes of the Englishman, sent back word, that he would not accept his +bond, neither would he release his prisoner, until the full amount of +his ransom was paid. As soon as this answer was received, Troussel sent +a challenge to the Constable, demanding reparation for the injury he had +done his honour, by refusing his bond, and offering a mortal combat, to +be fought three strokes with the lance, three with the sword, and +three with the dagger. Du Guesclin, although ill in bed with the ague, +accepted the challenge, and gave notice to the Marshal d'Andreghem, the +King's Lieutenant-General in Lower Normandy, that he might fix the day +and the place of combat. The Marshal made all necessary arrangements, +upon condition that he who was beaten should pay a hundred florins +of gold to feast the nobles and gentlemen who were witnesses of the +encounter. + +The Duke of Lancaster was very angry with his captain, and told him, +that it would be a shame to his knighthood and his nation, if he forced +on a combat with the brave Du Guesclin, at a time when he was enfeebled +by disease and stretched on the couch of suffering. Upon these +representations, Troussel, ashamed of himself, sent notice to Du +Guesclin that he was willing to postpone the duel until such time as he +should be perfectly recovered. Du Guesclin replied, that he could not +think of postponing the combat, after all the nobility had received +notice of it; that he had sufficient strength left, not only to meet, +but to conquer such an opponent as he was; and that, if he did not make +his appearance in the lists at the time appointed, he would publish +him everywhere as a man unworthy to be called a knight, or to wear an +honourable sword by his side. Troussel carried this haughty message to +the Duke of Lancaster, who immediately gave permission for the battle. + +On the day appointed, the two combatants appeared in the lists, in the +presence of several thousand spectators. Du Guesclin was attended by +the flower of the French nobility, including the Marshal de Beaumanoir, +Olivier de Mauny, Bertrand de Saint Pern, and the Viscount de la +Belliere, while the Englishman appeared with no more than the customary +retinue of two seconds, two squires, two coutilliers, or daggermen, and +two trumpeters. The first onset was unfavourable to the Constable: he +received so heavy a blow on his shield-arm, that he fell forward to +the left, upon his horse's neck, and, being weakened by his fever, was +nearly thrown to the ground. All his friends thought he could never +recover himself, and began to deplore his ill fortune; but Du Guesclin +collected his energies for a decisive effort, and, at the second charge, +aimed a blow at the shoulder of his enemy, which felled him to the +earth, mortally wounded. He then sprang from his horse, sword in hand, +with the intention of cutting off the head of his fallen foe, when the +Marshal D'Andreghem threw a golden wand into the arena, as a signal that +hostilities should cease. Du Guesclin was proclaimed the victor, amid +the joyous acclamations of the crowd, and retiring, left the field to +the meaner combatants, who were afterwards to make sport for the people. +Four English and as many French squires fought for some time with +pointless lances, when the French, gaining the advantage, the sports +were declared at an end. + +In the time of Charles VI, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, +a famous duel was ordered by the Parliament of Paris. The Sieur de +Carrouges being absent in the Holy Land, his lady was violated by the +Sieur Legris. Carrouges, on his return, challenged Legris to mortal +combat, for the twofold crime of violation and slander, inasmuch as he +had denied his guilt, by asserting that the lady was a willing party. +The lady's asseverations of innocence were held to be no evidence by the +Parliament, and the duel was commanded with all the ceremonies. "On +the day appointed," says Brantome, [Memoires de Brantome touchant les +Duels.] "the lady came to witness the spectacle in her chariot; but the +King made her descend, judging her unworthy, because she was criminal in +his eyes till her innocence was proved, and caused her to stand upon +a scaffold to await the mercy of God and this judgment by the battle. +After a short struggle, the Sieur de Carrouges overthrew his enemy, and +made him confess both the rape and the slander. He was then taken to the +gallows and hanged in the presence of the multitude; while the innocence +of the lady was proclaimed by the heralds, and recognized by her +husband, the King, and all the spectators." + +Numerous battles, of a similar description, constantly took place, until +the unfortunate issue of one encounter of the kind led the French King, +Henry II, to declare solemnly, that he would never again permit any such +encounter, whether it related to a civil or criminal case, or the honour +of a gentleman. + +This memorable combat was fought in the year 1547. Francois de Vivonne, +Lord of La Chataigneraie, and Guy de Chabot, Lord of Jarnac, had been +friends from their early youth, and were noted at the court of Francis +I for the gallantry of their bearing and the magnificence of their +retinue. Chataigneraie, who knew that his friend's means were not very +ample, asked him one day, in confidence, how it was that he contrived to +be so well provided? Jarnac replied, that his father had married a +young and beautiful woman, who, loving the son far better than the sire, +supplied him with as much money as he desired. La Chataigneraie betrayed +the base secret to the Dauphin, the Dauphin to the King, the King to his +courtiers, and the courtiers to all their acquaintance. In a short time +it reached the ears of the old Lord de Jarnac, who immediately sent for +his son, and demanded to know in what manner the report had originated, +and whether he had been vile enough not only to carry on such a +connexion, but to boast of it? De Jarnac indignantly denied that he had +ever said so, or given reason to the world to say so, and requested his +father to accompany him to court, and confront him with his accuser, +that he might see the manner in which he would confound him. They +went accordingly, and the younger De Jarnac, entering a room where the +Dauphin, La Chataigneraie, and several courtiers were present, exclaimed +aloud, "That whoever had asserted, that he maintained a criminal +connexion with his mother-in-law, was a liar and a coward!" Every eye +was turned to the Dauphin and La Chataigneraie, when the latter stood +forward, and asserted, that De Jarnac had himself avowed that such was +the fact, and he would extort from his lips another confession of it. A +case like this could not be met or rebutted by any legal proof, and the +royal council ordered that it should be decided by single combat. The +King, however, set his face against the duel [Although Francis showed +himself in this case an enemy to duelling, yet, in his own case, he had +not the same objection. Every reader of history must remember his answer +to the challenge of the Emperor Charles V. The Emperor wrote that he +had failed in his word, and that he would sustain their quarrel +single-handed against him. Francis replied, that he lied--qu'il en avait +menti par la gorge, and that he was ready to meet him in single combat +whenever and wherever he pleased.] and forbade them both, under pain of +his high displeasure, to proceed any further in the matter. But Francis +died in the following year, and the Dauphin, now Henry II, who was +himself compromised, resolved that the combat should take place. +The lists were prepared in the court-yard of the chateau of St. +Germain-en-Laye, and the 10th of July 1547 was appointed for the +encounter. The cartels of the combatants, which are preserved in the +"Memoires de Castelnau," were as follow:-- + +"Cartel of Francois de Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie. + +"Sire, + +"Having learned that Guy Chabot de Jarnac, being lately at Compeigne, +asserted, that whoever had said that he boasted of having criminal +intercourse with his mother-in-law, was wicked and a wretch,--I, Sire, +with your good-will and pleasure, do answer, that he has wickedly lied, +and will lie as many times as he denies having said that which I affirm +he did say; for I repeat, that he told me several times, and boasted of +it, that he had slept with his mother-in-law. + +"Francois de Vivonne." + +To this cartel De Jarnac replied:-- + +"Sire, + +"With your good will and permission, I say, that Francois de Vivonne has +lied in the imputation which he has cast upon me, and of which I spoke +to you at Compeigne. I, therefore, entreat you, Sire, most humbly, that +you be pleased to grant us a fair field, that we may fight this battle +to the death. + +"Guy Chabot." + +The preparations were conducted on a scale of the greatest magnificence, +the King having intimated his intention of being present. La +Chataigneraie made sure of the victory, and invited the King and a +hundred and fifty of the principal personages of the court to sup with +him in the evening, after the battle, in a splendid tent, which he had +prepared at the extremity of the lists. De Jarnac was not so confident, +though perhaps more desperate. At noon, on the day appointed, the +combatants met, and each took the customary oath, that he bore no charms +or amulets about him, or made use of any magic, to aid him against +his antagonist. They then attacked each other, sword in hand. La +Chataigneraie was a strong, robust man, and over confident; De Jarnac +was nimble, supple, and prepared for the worst. The combat lasted for +some time doubtful, until De Jarnac, overpowered by the heavy blows +of his opponent, covered his head with his shield, and, stooping +down, endeavoured to make amends by his agility for his deficiency of +strength. In this crouching posture he aimed two blows at the left thigh +of La Chataigneraie, who had left it uncovered, that the motion of +his leg might not be impeded. Each blow was successful, and, amid the +astonishment of all the spectators, and to the great regret of the King, +La Chataigneraie rolled over upon the sand. He seized his dagger, and +made a last effort to strike De Jarnac; but he was unable to support +himself, and fell powerless into the arms of the assistants. The +officers now interfered, and De Jarnac being declared the victor, +fell down upon his knees, uncovered his head, and, clasping his hands +together, exclaimed:--"O Domine, non sum dignus!" La Chataigneraie was +so mortified by the result of the encounter, that he resolutely refused +to have his wounds dressed. He tore off the bandages which the surgeons +applied, and expired two days afterwards. Ever since that time, any sly +and unforeseen attack has been called by the French a coup de Jarnac. +Henry was so grieved at the loss of his favourite, that he made the +solemn oath already alluded to, that he would never again, so long as +he lived, permit a due]. Some writers have asserted, and among others, +Mezeraie, that he issued a royal edict forbidding them. This has been +doubted by others, and, as there appears no registry of the edict in +any of the courts, it seems most probable that it was never issued. +This opinion is strengthened by the fact, that two years afterwards, the +council ordered another duel to be fought, with similar forms, but with +less magnificence, on account of the inferior rank of the combatants. +It is not anywhere stated, that Henry interfered to prevent it, +notwithstanding his solemn oath; but that, on the contrary, he +encouraged it, and appointed the Marshal de la Marque to see that it +was conducted according to the rules of chivalry. The disputants were +Fendille and D'Aguerre, two gentlemen of the household, who, quarrelling +in the King's chamber, had proceeded from words to blows. The council, +being informed of the matter, decreed that it could only be decided in +the lists. Marshal de la Marque, with the King's permission, appointed +the city of Sedan as the place of combat. Fendille, who was a bad +swordsman, was anxious to avoid an encounter with D'Aguerre, who was +one of the most expert men of the age; but the council authoritatively +commanded that he should fight, or be degraded from all his honours. +D'Aguerre appeared in the field attended by Francois de Vendome, Count +de Chartres, while Fendille was accompanied by the Duke de Nevers. +Fendille appears to have been not only an inexpert swordsman, but a +thorough coward; one who, like Cowley, might have heaped curses on the +man, + + "-------(Death's factor sure), who brought + Dire swords into this peaceful world." + +On the very first encounter he was thrown from his horse, and, +confessing on the ground all that his victor required of him, slunk away +ignominiously from the arena. + +One is tempted to look upon the death of Henry II as a judgment upon +him for his perjury in the matter of duelling. In a grand tournament +instituted on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, he broke +several lances in encounters with some of the bravest knights of the +time. Ambitious of still further renown, he would not rest satisfied +until he had also engaged the young Count de Montgomeri. He received a +wound in the eye from the lance of this antagonist, and died from its +effects shortly afterwards, in the forty-first year of his age. + +In the succeeding reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, the +practice of duelling increased to an alarming extent. Duels were not +rare in the other countries of Europe at the same period; but in +France they were so frequent, that historians, in speaking of that age, +designate it as "l'epoque de la fureur des duels." The Parliament +of Paris endeavoured, as far as in its power lay, to discourage the +practice. By a decree dated the 26th of June 1559, it declared all +persons who should be present at duels, or aiding and abetting in them, +to be rebels to the King, transgressors of the law, and disturbers of +the public peace. + +When Henry III was assassinated at St. Cloud, in 1589, a young +gentleman, named L'isle Marivaut, who had been much beloved by him, took +his death so much to heart, that he resolved not to survive him. Not +thinking suicide an honourable death, and wishing, as he said, to die +gloriously in revenging his King and master, he publicly expressed his +readiness to fight anybody to the death who should assert that Henry's +assassination was not a great misfortune to the community. Another +youth, of a fiery temper and tried courage, named Marolles, took him at +his word, and the day and place of the combat were forthwith appointed. +When the hour had come, and all were ready, Marolles turned to his +second, and asked whether his opponent had a casque or helmet only, or +whether he wore a sallade, or headpiece. Being answered a helmet only, +he said gaily, "So much the better; for, sir, my second, you shall +repute me the wickedest man in all the world, if I do not thrust my +lance right through the the middle of his head and kill him." Truth to +say, he did so at the very first onset, and the unhappy L'isle Marivaut +expired without a groan. Brantome, who relates this story, adds, that +the victor might have done as he pleased with the body, cut off the +head, dragged it out of the camp, or exposed it upon an ass, but that, +being a wise and very courteous gentleman, he left it to the relatives +of the deceased to be honourably buried, contenting himself with the +glory of his triumph, by which he gained no little renown and honour +among the ladies of Paris. + +On the accession of Henry IV that monarch pretended to set his face +against duelling; but such was the influence of early education and the +prejudices of society upon him, that he never could find it in his +heart to punish a man for this offence. He thought it tended to foster a +warlike spirit among his people. When the chivalrous Crequi demanded +his permission to fight Don Philippe de Savoire, he is reported to have +said, "Go, and if I were not a King, I would be your second." It is +no wonder that when such were known to be the King's disposition, his +edicts attracted but small attention. A calculation was made by M. de +Lomenie, in the year 1607, that since the accession of Henry, in 1589, +no less than four thousand French gentlemen had lost their lives in +these conflicts, which, for the eighteen years, would have been at +the rate of four or five in a week, or eighteen per month! Sully, who +reports this fact in his Memoirs, does not throw the slightest doubt +upon its exactness, and adds, that it was chiefly owing to the facility +and ill-advised good-nature of his royal master that the bad example +had so empoisoned the court, the city, and the whole country. This wise +minister devoted much of his time and attention to the subject; for the +rage, he says, was such as to cause him a thousand pangs, and the King +also. There was hardly a man moving in what was called good society, +who had not been engaged in a duel either as principal or second; and +if there were such a man, his chief desire was to free himself from the +imputation of non-duelling, by picking a quarrel with somebody. Sully +constantly wrote letters to the King, in which he prayed him to renew +the edicts against this barbarous custom, to aggravate the punishment +against offenders, and never, in any instance, to grant a pardon, even +to a person who had wounded another in a duel, much less to any one who +had taken away life. He also advised, that some sort of tribunal, or +court of honour, should be established, to take cognizance of injurious +and slanderous language, and of all such matters as usually led to +duels; and that the justice to be administered by this court should be +sufficiently prompt and severe to appease the complainant, and make the +offender repent of his aggression. + +Henry, being so warmly pressed by his friend and minister, called +together an extraordinary council in the gallery of the palace of +Fontainebleau, to take the matter into consideration. When all +the members were assembled, his Majesty requested that some person +conversant with the subject would make a report to him on the origin, +progress, and different forms of the duel. Sully complacently remarks, +that none of the counsllors gave the King any great reason to felicitate +them on their erudition. In fact, they all remained silent. Sully held +his peace with the rest; but he looked so knowing, that the King turned +towards him, and said:--"Great master! by your face I conjecture that +you know more of this matter than you would have us believe. I pray +you, and indeed I command, that you tell us what you think and what you +know." The coy minister refused, as he says, out of mere politeness to +his more ignorant colleagues; but, being again pressed by the King, he +entered into a history of duelling both in ancient and modern times. +He has not preserved this history in his Memoirs; and, as none of the +ministers or counsellors present thought proper to do so, the world is +deprived of a discourse which was, no doubt, a learned and remarkable +one. The result was, that a royal edict was issued, which Sully lost +no time in transmitting to the most distant provinces, with a distinct +notification to all parties concerned that the King was in earnest, and +would exert the full rigour of the law in punishment of the offenders. +Sully himself does not inform us what were the provisions of the new +law; but Father Matthias has been more explicit, and from him we learn, +that the Marshals of France were created judges of a court of chivalry, +for the hearing of all causes wherein the honour of a noble or gentleman +was concerned, and that such as resorted to duelling should be punished +by death and confiscation of property, and that the seconds and +assistants should lose their rank, dignity, or offices, and be banished +from the court of their sovereign. [Le Pere Matthias, tome ii. livre +iv.] + +But so strong a hold had the education and prejudice of his age upon +the mind of the King, that though his reason condemned, his sympathies +approved the duel. Notwithstanding this threatened severity, the number +of duels did not diminish, and the wise Sully had still to lament the +prevalence of an evil which menaced society with utter disorganization. +In the succeeding reign the practice prevailed, if possible, to a still +greater extent, until the Cardinal de Richelieu, better able to grapple +with it than Sully had been, made some severe examples in the very +highest classes. Lord Herbert, the English ambassador at the court +of Louis XIII repeats, in his letters, an observation that had been +previously made in the reign of Henry IV, that it was rare to find a +Frenchman moving in good society who had not killed his man in a duel. +The Abbe Millot says of this period, that the duel madness made the most +terrible ravages. Men had actually a frenzy for combatting. Caprice and +vanity, as well as the excitement of passion, imposed the necessity +of fighting. Friends were obliged to enter into the quarrels of their +friends, or be themselves called out for their refusal, and revenge +became hereditary in many families. It was reckoned that in twenty years +eight thousand letters of pardon had been issued to persons who had +killed others in single combat. ["Elemens de l'Histoire de France, vol. +iii. p. 219.] + +Other writers confirm this statement. Amelot de Houssaye, in his +Memoirs, says, upon this subject, that duels were so common in the first +years of the reign of Louis XIII, that the ordinary conversation of +persons when they met in the morning was, "Do you know who fought +yesterday?" and after dinner, "Do you know who fought this morning?" The +most infamous duellist at that period was De Bouteville. It was not at +all necessary to quarrel with this assassin to be forced to fight a duel +with him. When he heard that any one was very brave, he would go to +him, and say, "People tell me that you are brave; you and I must fight +together!" Every morning the most notorious bravos and duellists used +to assemble at his house, to take a breakfast of bread and wine, and +practise fencing. M. de Valencay, who was afterwards elevated to the +rank of a cardinal, ranked very high in the estimation of De Bouteville +and his gang. Hardly a day passed but what he was engaged in some duel +or other, either as principal or second; and he once challenged De +Bouteville himself, his best friend, because De Bouteville had fought +a duel without inviting him to become his second. This quarrel was only +appeased on the promise of De Bouteville that, in his next encounter, +he would not fail to avail himself of his services. For that purpose he +went out the same day, and picked a quarrel with the Marquis des Portes. +M. de Valencay, according to agreement, had the pleasure of serving as +his second, and of running through the body M. de Cavois, the second +of the Marquis des Portes, a man who had never done him any injury, and +whom he afterwards acknowledged he had never seen before. + +Cardinal Richelieu devoted much attention to this lamentable state of +public morals, and seems to have concurred with his great predecessor, +Sully, that nothing but the most rigorous severity could put a stop +to the evil. The subject indeed was painfully forced upon him by his +enemies. The Marquis de Themines, to whom Richelieu, then Bishop of +Lucon, had given offence by some representations he had made to Mary of +Medicis, determined, since he could not challenge an ecclesiastic, +to challenge his brother. An opportunity was soon found. Themines, +accosting the Marquis de Richelieu, complained, in an insulting tone, +that the Bishop of Lucon had broken his faith. The Marquis resented both +the manner and matter of his speech, and readily accepted a challenge. +They met in the Rue d'Angouleme, and the unfortunate Richelieu was +stabbed to the heart, and instantly expired. From that moment the +Bishop became the steady foe of the practice of duelling. Reason and the +impulse of brotherly love alike combined to make him detest it, and +when his power in France was firmly established, he set vigorously +about repressing it. In his "Testament Politique," he has collected his +thoughts upon the subject, in the chapter entitled "Des moyens d'arreter +les Duels." In spite of the edicts that he published, the members of +the nobility persisted in fighting upon the most trivial and absurd +pretences. At last Richelieu made a terrible example. The infamous De +Bouteville challenged and fought the Marquis de Beuoron; and, although +the duel itself was not fatal to either, its consequences were fatal to +both. High as they were, Richelieu resolved that the law should reach +them, and they were both tried, found guilty, and beheaded. Thus did +society get rid of one of the most bloodthirsty scoundrels that ever +polluted it. + +In 1632 two noblemen fought a duel, in which they were both killed. The +officers of justice had notice of the breach of the law, and arrived at +the scene of combat before the friends of the parties had time to remove +the bodies. In conformity with the Cardinal's severe code upon the +subject, the bodies were ignominiously stripped, and hanged upon a +gallows, with their heads downwards, for several hours, within sight of +all the people. [Mercure de France, vol. xiii.] This severity sobered +the frenzy of the nation for a time; but it was soon forgotten. Men's +minds were too deeply imbued with a false notion of honour to be +brought to a right way of thinking: by such examples, however striking, +Richelieu was unable to persuade them to walk in the right path, though +he could punish them for choosing the wrong one. He had, with all his +acuteness, miscalculated the spirit of duelling. It was not death that +a duellist feared: it was shame, and the contempt of his fellows. As +Addison remarked more than eighty years afterwards, "Death was not +sufficient to deter men who made it their glory to despise it; but +if every one who fought a duel were to stand in the pillory, it would +quickly diminish the number of those imaginary men of honour, and put an +end to so absurd a practice." Richelieu never thought of this. + +Sully says, that in his time the Germans were also much addicted to +duelling. There were three places where it was legal to fight; Witzburg, +in Franconia, and Uspach and Halle, in Swabia. Thither, of course, vast +numbers repaired, and murdered each other under sanction of the law. At +an earlier period, in Germany, it was held highly disgraceful to refuse +to fight. Any one who surrendered to his adversary for a simple wound +that did not disable him, was reputed infamous, and could neither cut +his beard, bear arms, mount on horseback, or hold any Office in the +state. He who fell in a duel was buried with great pomp and splendour. + +In the year 1652, just after Louis XIV had attained his majority, a +desperate duel was fought between the Dukes de Beaufort and De Nemours, +each attended by four gentlemen. Although brothers-in-law, they had +long been enemies, and their constant dissensions had introduced much +disorganization among the troops which they severally commanded. Each +had long sought an opportunity for combat, which at last arose on a +misunderstanding relative to the places they were to occupy at the +council board. They fought with pistols, and, at the first discharge, +the Duke de Nemours was shot through the body, and almost instantly +expired. Upon this the Marquis de Villars, who seconded Nemours, +challenged Hericourt, the second of the Duke de Beaufort, a man whom +he had never before seen; and the challenge being accepted, they fought +even more desperately than their principals. This combat, being with +swords, lasted longer than the first, and was more exciting to the six +remaining gentlemen who stayed to witness it. The result was fatal to +Hericourt, who fell pierced to the heart by the sword of De Villars. +Anything more savage than this can hardly be imagined. Voltaire +says such duels were frequent, and the compiler of the "Dictionnaire +d'Anecdotes" informs us, that the number of seconds was not fixed. As +many as ten, or twelve, or twenty, were not unfrequent, and they often +fought together after their principals were disabled. The highest mark +of friendship one man could manifest towards another, was to choose him +for his second; and many gentlemen were so desirous of serving in this +capacity, that they endeavoured to raise every slight misunderstanding +into a quarrel, that they might have the pleasure of being engaged +in it. The Count de Bussy Rabutin relates an instance of this in his +Memoirs. He says, that as he was one evening coming out of the theatre, +a gentleman, named Bruc, whom he had not before known, stopped him very +politely, and, drawing him aside, asked him if it was true that the +Count de Thianges had called him (Bruc) a drunkard? Bussy replied, that +he really did not know, for he saw the Count very seldom. "Oh! he is +your uncle!" replied Bruc; "and, as I cannot have satisfaction from him, +because he lives so far off in the country, I apply to you." "I see what +you are at," replied Bussy, "and, since you wish to put me in my uncle's +place, I answer, that whoever asserted that he called you a drunkard, +told a lie!" "My brother said so," replied Bruc, "and he is a child." +"Horsewhip him, then, for his falsehood," returned De Bussy. "I will +not have my brother called a liar," returned Bruc, determined to quarrel +with him; "so draw, and defend yourself!" They both drew their swords +in the public street, but were separated by the spectators. They agreed, +however, to fight on a future occasion, and with all regular forms of +the duello. A few days afterwards, a gentleman, whom De Bussy had never +before seen, and whom he did not know, even by name, called upon him, +and asked if he might have the privilege of serving as his second. He +added, that he neither knew him nor Bruc, except by reputation, but, +having made up his mind to be second to one of them, he had decided upon +accompanying De Bussy as the braver man of the two. De Bussy thanked him +very sincerely for his politeness, but begged to be excused, as he had +already engaged four seconds to accompany him, and he was afraid that if +he took any more, the affair would become a battle instead of a duel. + +When such quarrels as these were looked upon as mere matters of course, +the state of society must have been indeed awful. Louis XIV very early +saw the evil, and as early determined to remedy it. It was not, however, +till the year 1679, when he instituted the "Chambre Ardente," for the +trial of the slow poisoners and pretenders to sorcery, that he +published any edict against duelling. In that year his famous edict was +promulgated, in which he reiterated and confirmed the severe enactments +of his predecessors, Henry IV and Louis XIII, and expressed his +determination never to pardon any offender. By this celebrated ordinance +a supreme court of honour was established, composed of the Marshals of +France. They were bound, on taking the office, to give to every one who +brought a well-founded complaint before them, such reparation as would +satisfy the justice of the case. Should any gentleman against whom +complaint was made refuse to obey the mandate of the court of honour, +he might be punished by fine and imprisonment; and when that was not +possible, by reason of his absenting himself from the kingdom, his +estates might be confiscated till his return. + +Every man who sent a challenge, be the cause of offence what it might, +was deprived of all redress from the court of honour--suspended +three years from the exercise of any office in the state--was further +imprisoned for two years, and sentenced to pay a fine of half his yearly +income. He who accepted a challenge, was subject to the same punishment. +Any servant, or other person, who knowingly became the bearer of a +challenge, was, if found guilty, sentenced to stand in the pillory and +be publicly whipped for the first offence, and for the second, sent for +three years to the galleys. + +Any person who actually fought, was to be held guilty of murder, even +though death did not ensue, and was to be punished accordingly. Persons +in the higher ranks of life were to be beheaded, and those of the middle +class hanged upon a gallows, and their bodies refused Christian burial. + +At the same time that Louis published this severe edict, he exacted a +promise from his principal nobility that they would never engage in a +duel on any pretence whatever. He never swerved from his resolution to +pursue all duellists with the utmost rigour, and many were executed in +various parts of the country. A slight abatement of the evil was the +consequence, and in the course of a few years one duel was not +fought where twelve had been fought previously. A medal was struck to +commemorate the circumstance, by the express command of the King. So +much had he this object at heart, that, in his will, he particularly +recommended to his successor the care of his edict against duelling, and +warned him against any ill-judged lenity to those who disobeyed it. A +singular law formerly existed in Malta with regard to duelling. By this +law it was permitted, but only upon condition that the parties should +fight in one particular street. If they presumed to settle their quarrel +elsewhere, they were held guilty of murder, and punished accordingly. +What was also very singular, they were bound, under heavy penalties, to +put up their swords when requested to do so by a priest, a knight, or +a woman. It does not appear, however, that the ladies or the knights +exercised this mild and beneficent privilege to any great extent; the +former were too often themselves the cause of duels, and the latter +sympathised too much in the wounded honour of the combatants to attempt +to separate them. The priests alone were the great peacemakers. Brydone +says, that a cross was always painted on the wall opposite to the spot +where a knight had been killed, and that in the "street of duels" he +counted about twenty of them. [Brydone's "Tour in Malta." 1772.] + +In England the private duel was also practised to a scandalous extent, +towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth +centuries. The judicial combat now began to be more rare, but several +instances of it are mentioned in history. One was instituted in the +reign of Elizabeth, and another so late as the time of Charles I. Sir +Henry Spelman gives an account of that which took place in Elizabeth's +reign, which is curious, perhaps the more so when we consider that it +was perfectly legal, and that similar combats remained so till the year +1819. A proceeding having been instituted in the Court of Common Pleas +for the recovery of certain manorial rights in the county of Kent, +the defendant offered to prove by single combat his right to retain +possession. The plaintiff accepted the challenge, and the Court having +no power to stay the proceedings, agreed to the champions who were to +fight in lieu of the principals. The Queen commanded the parties to +compromise; but it being represented to Her Majesty that they were +justified by law in the course they were pursuing, she allowed them to +proceed. On the day appointed, the Justices of the Common Pleas, and all +the council engaged in the cause, appeared as umpires of the combat, +at a place in Tothill-fields, where the lists had been prepared. The +champions were ready for the encounter, and the plaintiff and defendant +were publicly called to come forward and acknowledge them. The +defendant answered to his name, and recognised his champion with the due +formalities, but the plaintiff did not appear. Without his presence +and authority the combat could not take place; and his absence being +considered an abandonment of his claim, he was declared to be nonsuited, +and barred for ever from renewing his suit before any other tribunal +whatever. + +The Queen appears to have disapproved personally of this mode of +settling a disputed claim, but her judges and legal advisers made no +attempt to alter the barbarous law. The practice of private duelling +excited more indignation, from its being of every-day occurrence. In the +time of James I the English were so infected with the French madness, +that Bacon, when he was Attorney-general, lent the aid of his powerful +eloquence to effect a reformation of the evil. Informations were +exhibited in the Star Chamber against two persons, named Priest and +Wright, for being engaged, as principal and second, in a duel, on which +occasion he delivered a charge that was so highly approved of by the +Lords of the Council, that they ordered it to be printed and circulated +over the country, as a thing "very meet and worthy to be remembered +and made known unto the world." He began by considering the nature +and greatness of the mischief of duelling. "It troubleth peace--it +disfurnisheth war--it bringeth calamity upon private men, peril upon +the state, and contempt upon the law. Touching the causes of it," +he observed, "that the first motive of it, no doubt, is a false and +erroneous imagination of honour and credit; but then, the seed of this +mischief being such, it is nourished by vain discourses and green and +unripe conceits. Hereunto may be added, that men have almost lost the +true notion and understanding of fortitude and valour. For fortitude +distinguisheth of the grounds of quarrel whether they be just; and not +only so, but whether they be worthy, and setteth a better price upon +men's lives than to bestow them idly. Nay, it is weakness and disesteem +of a man's self to put a man's life upon such liedger performances. +A man's life is not to be trifled with: it is to be offered up and +sacrificed to honourable services, public merits, good causes, and noble +adventures. It is in expense of blood as it is in expense of money. It +is no liberality to make a profusion of money upon every vain occasion, +neither is it fortitude to make effusion of blood, except the cause of +it be worth." [See "Life and Character of Lord Bacon," by Thomas Martin, +Barrister-at-law.] + +The most remarkable event connected with duelling in this reign was +that between Lord Sanquir, a Scotch nobleman, and one Turner, a +fencing-master. In a trial of skill between them, his lordship's eye was +accidentally thrust out by the point of Turner's sword. Turner expressed +great regret at the circumstance, and Lord Sanquir bore his loss with as +much philosophy as he was master of, and forgave his antagonist. Three +years afterwards, Lord Sanquir was at Paris, where he was a +constant visitor at the court of Henry IV. One day, in the course of +conversation, the affable monarch inquired how he had lost his eye. +Sanquir, who prided himself on being the most expert swordsman of the +age, blushed as he replied that it was inflicted by the sword of +a fencing-master. Henry, forgetting his assumed character of an +antiduellist, carelessly, and as a mere matter of course, inquired +whether the man lived? Nothing more was said, but the query sank +deep into the proud heart of the Scotch baron, who returned shortly +afterwards to England, burning for revenge. His first intent was +to challenge the fencing-master to single combat, but, on further +consideration, he deemed it inconsistent with his dignity to meet him as +an equal in fair and open fight. He therefore hired two bravos, who +set upon the fencing-master, and murdered him in his own house at +Whitefriars. The assassins were taken and executed, and a reward of one +thousand pounds offered for the apprehension of their employer. Lord +Sanquir concealed himself for several days, and then surrendered to +take his trial, in the hope (happily false) that Justice would belie her +name, and be lenient to a murderer because he was a nobleman, who, on +a false point of honour, had thought fit to take revenge into his own +hands. The most powerful intercessions were employed in his favour, but +James, to his credit, was deaf to them all. Bacon, in his character of +Attorney-general, prosecuted the prisoner to conviction; and he died the +felon's death, on the 29th of June, 1612, on a gibbet erected in front +of the gate of Westminster Hall. + +With regard to the public duel, or trial by battle, demanded under the +sanction of the law, to terminate a quarrel which the ordinary course of +justice could with difficulty decide, Bacon was equally opposed to it, +and thought that in no case should it be granted. He suggested that +there should be declared a constant and settled resolution in the state +to abolish it altogether; that care should be taken that the evil be +no more cockered, nor the humour of it fed, but that all persons found +guilty should be rigorously punished by the Star Chamber, and these of +eminent quality banished from the court. + +In the succeeding reign, when Donald Mackay, the first Lord Reay, +accused David Ramsay of treason, in being concerned with the Marquis of +Hamilton in a design upon the crown of Scotland, he was challenged by +the latter to make good his assertion by single combat. [See "History +of the House and Clan of Mackay."] It had been at first the intention of +the government to try the case by the common law, but Ramsay thought he +would stand a better chance of escape by recurring to the old and almost +exploded custom, but which was still the right of every man in appeals +of treason. Lord Reay readily accepted the challenge, and both were +confined in the Tower until they found security that they would appear +on a certain day, appointed by the court, to determine the question. +The management of the affair was delegated to the Marischal Court of +Westminster, and the Earl of Lindsay was created Lord Constable of +England for the purpose. Shortly before the day appointed, Ramsay +confessed in substance all that Lord Reay had laid to his charge, upon +which Charles I put a stop to the proceedings. + +But in England, about this period, sterner disputes arose among men +than those mere individual matters which generate duels. The men of +the Commonwealth encouraged no practice of the kind, and the subdued +aristocracy carried their habits and prejudices elsewhere, and fought +their duels at foreign courts. Cromwell's Parliament, however,--although +the evil at that time was not so crying,--published an order, in 1654, +for the prevention of duels, and the punishment of all con cerned in +them. Charles II, on his restoration, also issued a proclamation upon +the subject. In his reign an infamous duel was fought--infamous, not +only from its own circumstances, but from the lenity that was shown to +the principal offenders. + +The worthless Duke of Buckingham, having debauched the Countess of +Shrewsbury, was challenged by her husband to mortal combat, in January +1668. Charles II endeavoured to prevent the duel, not from any regard +to public morality, but from fear for the life of his favourite. He gave +commands to the Duke of Albemarle to confine Buckingham to his house, +or take some other measures to prevent him flora fighting. Albemarle +neglected the order, thinking that the King himself might prevent the +combat by some surer means. The meeting took place at Barn Elms, the +injured Shrewsbury being attended by Sir John Talbot, his relative, +and Lord Bernard Howard, son of the Earl of Arundel. Buckingham was +accompanied by two of his dependants, Captain Holmes and Sir John +Jenkins. According to the barbarous custom of the age, not only the +principals, but the seconds, engaged each other. Jenkins was pierced to +the heart, and left dead upon the field, and Sir John Talbot severely +wounded in both arms. Buckingham himself escaping with slight wounds, +ran his unfortunate antagonist through the body, and then left the field +with the wretched woman, the cause of all the mischief, who, in the +dress of a page, awaited the issue of the conflict in a neighbouring +wood, holding her paramour's horse to avoid suspicion. Great influence +was exerted to save the guilty parties from punishment, and the master, +as base as the favourite, made little difficulty in granting a free +pardon to all concerned. In a royal proclamation issued shortly +afterwards, Charles II formally pardoned the murderers, but declared his +intention never to extend, in future, any mercy to such offenders. It +would be hard after this to say who was the most infamous, the King, the +favourite, or the courtezan. + +In the reign of Queen Anne, repeated complaints were made of the +prevalence of duelling. Addison, Swift, Steele, and other writers, +employed their powerful pens in reprobation of it. Steele especially, +in the "Tatler" and "Guardian," exposed its impiety and absurdity, and +endeavoured, both by argument and by ridicule, to bring his countrymen +to a right way of thinking. [See "Spectator," Nos. 84. 97, and 99; and +"Tatler," Nos. 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, and 39; and "Guardian," No. 20.] His +comedy of "The Conscious Lovers" contains an admirable exposure of the +abuse of the word honour, which led men into an error so lamentable. +Swift, writing upon the subject, remarked that he could see no harm in +rogues and fools shooting each other. Addison and Steele took higher +ground, and the latter, in the "Guardian," summed up nearly all that +could be said upon the subject in the following impressive words:--"A +Christian and a gentleman are made inconsistent appellations of the +same person. You are not to expect eternal life if you do not forgive +injuries, and your mortal life is rendered uncomfortable if you are not +ready to commit a murder in resentment of an affront; for good sense, +as well as religion, is so utterly banished the world that men glory in +their very passions, and pursue trifles with the utmost vengeance, so +little do they know that to forgive is the most arduous pitch human +nature can arrive at. A coward has often fought--a coward has often +conquered, but a coward never forgave." Steele also published a +pamphlet, in which he gave a detailed account of the edict of Louis XIV, +and the measures taken by that monarch to cure his subjects of their +murderous folly. + +On the 8th of May, 1711, Sir Cholmely Deering, M.P. for the county of +Kent, was slain in a duel by Mr. Richard Thornhill, also a member of +the House of Commons. Three days afterwards, Sir Peter King brought +the subject under the notice of the Legislature, and after dwelling at +considerable length on the alarming increase of the practice, obtained +leave to bring in a bill for the prevention and punishment of duelling. +It was read a first time that day, and ordered for a second reading in +the ensuing week. + +About the same time the attention of the Upper House of Parliament was +also drawn to the subject in the most painful manner. Two of its +most noted members would have fought, had it not been that Queen Anne +received notice of their intention, and exacted a pledge that they would +desist; while a few months afterwards, two other of its members lost +their lives in one of the most remarkable duels upon record. The first +affair, which happily terminated without a meeting, was between the Duke +of Marlborough and the Earl Pawlet. The latter, and fatal encounter, was +between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun. + +The first arose out of a debate in the Lords upon the conduct of the +Duke of Ormond, in refusing to hazard a general engagement with the +enemy, in which Earl Pawlet remarked that nobody could doubt the courage +of the Duke of Ormond. "He was not like a certain general, who led +troops to the slaughter, to cause great numbers of officers to be +knocked on the head in a battle, or against stone walls, in order to +fill his pockets by disposing of their commissions." Every one felt that +the remark was aimed at the Duke of Marlborough, but he remained silent, +though evidently suffering in mind. Soon after the House broke up, the +Earl Pawlet received a visit from Lord Mohun, who told him that the Duke +of Marlborough was anxious to come to an explanation with him relative +to some expressions he had made use of in that day's debate, and +therefore prayed him to "go and take a little air in the country." Earl +Pawlet did not affect to misunderstand the hint, but asked him in plain +terms whether he brought a challenge from the Duke. Lord Mohun said his +message needed no explanation, and that he (Lord Mohun) would accompany +the Duke of Marlborough. He then took his leave, and Earl Pawlet +returned home and told his lady that he was going out to fight a duel +with the Duke of Marlborough. His lady, alarmed for her lord's safety, +gave notice of his intention to the Earl of Dartmouth, who immediately, +in the Queen's name, sent to the Duke of Marlborough, and commanded him +not to stir abroad. He also caused Earl Pawlet's house to be guarded by +two sentinels; and having taken these precautions, informed the Queen of +the whole affair. Her Majesty sent at once for the Duke, expressed her +abhorrence of the custom of duelling, and required his word of honour +that he would proceed no further. The Duke pledged his word accordingly, +and the affair terminated. + +The lamentable duel between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun took +place in November 1712, and sprang from the following circumstances. A +lawsuit had been pending for eleven years between these two noblemen, +and they looked upon each other in consequence with a certain degree of +coldness. They met together on the 13th of November in the chambers of +Mr. Orlebar, a Master in Chancery, when, in the course of conversation, +the Duke of Hamilton reflected upon the conduct of one of the witnesses +in the cause, saying that he was a person who had neither truth nor +justice in him. Lord Mohun, somewhat nettled at this remark, applied +to a witness favourable to his side, made answer hastily, that Mr. +Whiteworth, the person alluded to, had quite as much truth and justice +in him as the Duke of Hamilton. The Duke made no reply, and no one +present imagined that he took offence at what was said; and when he went +out, of the room, he made a low and courteous salute to the Lord Mohun. +In the evening, General Macartney called twice upon the Duke with a +challenge from Lord Mohun, and failing in seeing him, sought him a third +time at a tavern, where he found him, and delivered his message. The +Duke accepted the challenge, and the day after the morrow, which was +Sunday, the 15th of November, at seven in the morning, was appointed for +the meeting. + +At that hour they assembled in Hyde Park, the Duke being attended by +his relative, Colonel Hamilton, and the Lord Mohun by General Macartney. +They jumped over a ditch into a place called the Nursery, and prepared +for the combat. The Duke of Hamilton, turning to General Macartney, +said, "Sir, you are the cause of this, let the event be what it will." +Lord Mohun did not wish that the seconds should engage, but the Duke +insisted that "Macartney should have a share in the dance." All being +ready, the two principals took up their positions, and fought with +swords so desperately that, after a short time, they both fell down, +mortally wounded. The Lord Mohun expired upon the spot, and the Duke of +Hamilton in the arms of his servants as they were carrying him to his +coach. + +This unhappy termination caused the greatest excitement, not only in the +metropolis, but all over the country. The Tories, grieved at the loss of +the Duke of Hamilton, charged the fatal combat on the Whig party, whose +leader, the Duke of Marlborough, had so recently set the example of +political duels. They called Lord Mohun the bully of the Whig faction, +(he had already killed three men in duels, and been twice tried for +murder), and asserted openly, that the quarrel was concocted between him +and General Macartney to rob the country of the services of the Duke of +Hamilton by murdering him. It was also asserted, that the wound of which +the Duke died was not inflicted by Lord Mohun, but by Macartney; and +every means was used to propagate this belief. Colonel Hamilton, against +whom and Macartney the coroner's jury had returned a verdict of wilful +murder, surrendered a few days afterwards, and was examined before a +privy council sitting at the house of Lord Dartmouth. He then deposed, +that seeing Lord Mohun fall, and the Duke upon him, he ran to the Duke's +assistance, and that he might with the more ease help him, he flung down +both their swords, and, as he was raising the Duke up, he saw Macartney, +make a push at him. Upon this deposition a royal proclamation was +immediately issued, offering a reward of 500 pounds for the apprehension +of Macartney, to which the Duchess of Hamilton afterwards added a reward +of 300 pounds. + +Upon the further examination of Colonel Hamilton, it was found that +reliance could not be placed on all his statements, and that he +contradicted himself in several important particulars. He was arraigned +at the Old Bailey for the murder of Lord Mohun, the whole political +circles of London being in a fever of excitement for the result. All the +Tory party prayed for his acquittal, and a Tory mob surrounded the +doors and all the avenues leading to the court of justice for many hours +before the trial began. The examination of witnesses lasted seven hours. +The criminal still persisted in accusing General Macartney of the murder +of the Duke of Hamilton, but, in other respects, say the newspapers of +the day, prevaricated foully. He was found guilty of manslaughter. This +favourable verdict was received with universal applause, "not only from +the court and all the gentlemen present, but the common people showed a +mighty satisfaction, which they testified by loud and repeated huzzas." +["Post Boy," December l3th, 1712.] + +As the popular delirium subsided, and men began to reason coolly upon +the subject, they disbelieved the assertions of Colonel Hamilton, that +Macartney had stabbed the Duke, although it was universally admitted +that he had been much too busy and presuming. Hamilton was shunned by +all his former companions, and his life rendered so irksome to him, that +he sold out of the Guards, and retired to private life, in which he died +heart-broken four years afterwards. + +General Macartney surrendered about the same time, and was tried for +murder in the Court of King's Bench. He was, however, found guilty of +manslaughter only. + +At the opening of the session of Parliament of 1713, the Queen made +pointed allusion in her speech to the frequency of duelling, and +recommended to the Legislature to devise some speedy and effectual +remedy for it. A bill to that effect was brought forward, but thrown +out on the second reading, to the very great regret of all the sensible +portion of the community. + +A famous duel was fought in 1765 between Lord Byron and Mr. Chaworth. +The dispute arose at a club-dinner, and was relative to which of the two +had the largest quantity of game on his estates. Infuriated by wine and +passion, they retired instantly into an adjoining room, and fought with +swords across a table, by the feeble glimmer of a tallow-candle. Mr. +Chaworth, who was the more expert swordsman of the two, received a +mortal wound, and shortly afterwards expired. Lord Byron was brought +to trial for the murder before the House of Lords; and it appearing +clearly, that the duel was not premeditated, but fought at once, and +in the heat of passion, he was found guilty of manslaughter only, and +ordered to be discharged upon payment of his fees. This was a very bad +example for the country, and duelling of course fell into no disrepute +after such a verdict. + +In France, more severity was exercised. In the year 1769, the Parliament +of Grenoble took cognizance of the delinquency of the Sieur Duchelas, +one of its members, who challenged and killed in a duel a captain of the +Flemish legion. The servant of Duchelas officiated as second, and was +arraigned with his master for the murder of the captain. They were both +found guilty. Duchelas was broken alive on the wheel, and the servant +condemned to the galleys for life. + +A barbarous and fiercely-contested duel was fought in November 1778, +between two foreign adventurers, at Bath, named Count Rice and the +Vicomte du Barri. Some dispute arose relative to a gambling transaction, +in the course of which Du Barri contradicted an assertion of the other, +by saying, "That is not true!" Count Rice immediately asked him if he +knew the very disagreeable meaning of the words he had employed. Du +Barri said he was perfectly well aware of their meaning, and that Rice +might interpret them just as he pleased. A challenge was immediately +given and accepted. Seconds were sent for, who, arriving with but little +delay, the whole party, though it was not long after midnight, proceeded +to a place called Claverton Down, where they remained with a surgeon +until daylight. They then prepared for the encounter, each being armed +with two pistols and a sword. The ground having been marked out by the +seconds, Du Barri fired first, and wounded his opponent in the thigh. +Count Rice then levelled his pistol, and shot Du Barri mortally in the +breast. So angry were the combatants, that they refused to desist; both +stepped back a few paces, and then rushing forward, discharged their +second pistols at each other. Neither shot took effect, and both +throwing away their pistols, prepared to finish the sanguinary struggle +by the sword. They took their places, and were advancing towards each +other, when the Vicomte du Barri suddenly staggered, grew pale, and, +falling to the ground, exclaimed, "Je vous demande ma vie." His opponent +had but just time to answer, that he granted it, when the unfortunate +Du Barri turned upon the grass, and expired with a heavy groan. The +survivor of this savage conflict was then removed to his lodgings, where +he lay for some weeks in a dangerous state. The coroner's jury, in the +mean while, sat upon the body of Du Barri, and disgraced themselves by +returning a verdict of manslaughter only. Count Rice, upon his recovery, +was indicted for the murder notwithstanding this verdict. On his trial +he entered into a long defence of his conduct, pleading the fairness +of the duel, and its unpremeditated nature; and, at the same time, +expressing his deep regret for the unfortunate death of Du Barri, +with whom for many years he had been bound in ties of the strictest +friendship. These considerations appear to have weighed with the jury, +and this fierce duellist was again found guilty of manslaughter only, +and escaped with a merely nominal punishment. + +A duel, less remarkable from its circumstances, but more so from the +rank of the parties, took place in 1789. The combatants on this occasion +were the Duke of York and Colonel Lenox, the nephew and heir of the Duke +of Richmond. The cause of offence was given by the Duke of York, who had +said, in presence of several officers of the Guards, that words had been +used to Colonel Lenox at Daubigny's to which no gentleman ought to have +submitted. Colonel Lenox went up to the Duke on parade, and asked +him publicly whether he had made such an assertion. The Duke of York, +without answering his question, coldly ordered him to his post. When +parade was over, he took an opportunity of saying publicly in the +orderly room before Colonel Lenox, that he desired no protection from +his rank as a prince and his station as commanding officer; adding +that, when he was off duty, he wore a plain brown coat like a private +gentleman, and was ready as such to give satisfaction. Colonel Lenox +desired nothing better than satisfaction; that is to say, to run the +chance of shooting the Duke through the body, or being himself shot. +He accordingly challenged his Royal Highness, and they met on Wimbledon +Common. Colonel Lenox fired first, and the ball whizzed past the head +of his opponent, so near to it as to graze his projecting curl. The +Duke refused to return the fire, and the seconds interfering, the affair +terminated. + +Colonel Lenox was very shortly afterwards engaged in another duel +arising out of this. A Mr. Swift wrote a pamphlet in reference to the +dispute between him and the Duke of York, at some expressions in which +he took so much offence, as to imagine that nothing but a shot at the +writer could atone for them. They met on the Uxbridge Road, but no +damage was done to either party. + +The Irish were for a long time renowned for their love of duelling. The +slightest offence which it is possible to imagine that one man could +offer to another, was sufficient to provoke a challenge. Sir Jonah +Barrington relates, in his Memoirs, that, previous to the Union, during +the time of a disputed election in Dublin, it was no unusual thing for +three-and-twenty duels to be fought in a day. Even in times of less +excitement, they were so common as to be deemed unworthy of note by the +regular chroniclers of events, except in cases where one or both of the +combatants were killed. + +In those days, in Ireland, it was not only the man of the military, but +of every profession, who had to work his way to eminence with the sword +or the pistol. Each political party had its regular corps of bullies, or +fire-eaters, as they were called, who qualified themselves for being the +pests of society by spending all their spare time in firing at targets. +They boasted that they could hit an opponent in any part of his body +they pleased, and made up their minds before the encounter began whether +they should kill him, disable, or disfigure him for life--lay him on a +bed of suffering for a twelve-month, or merely graze a limb. + +The evil had reached an alarming height, when, in the year 1808, an +opportunity was afforded to King George III of showing in a striking +manner his detestation of the practice, and of setting an example to +the Irish that such murders were not to be committed with impunity. A +dispute arose, in the month of June 1807, between Major Campbell and +Captain Boyd, officers of the 21st regiment, stationed in Ireland, about +the proper manner of giving the word of command on parade. Hot words +ensued on this slight occasion, and the result was a challenge from +Campbell to Boyd. They retired into the mess-room shortly afterwards, +and each stationed himself at a corner, the distance obliquely being but +seven paces. Here, without friends or seconds being present, they fired +at each other, and Captain Boyd fell mortally wounded between the fourth +and fifth ribs. A surgeon who came in shortly, found him sitting in a +chair, vomiting and suffering great agony. He was led into another room, +Major Campbell following, in great distress and perturbation of mind. +Boyd survived but eighteen hours; and just before his death, said, in +reply to a question from his opponent, that the duel was not fair, and +added, "You hurried me, Campbell--you're a bad man."----"Good God!" +replied Campbell, "will you mention before these gentlemen, was not +everything fair? Did you not say that you were ready?" Boyd answered +faintly, "Oh, no! you know I wanted you to wait and have friends." On +being again asked whether all was fair, the dying man faintly murmured +"Yes:" but in a minute after, he said, "You're a bad man!" Campbell +was now in great agitation, and wringing his hands convulsively, he +exclaimed, "Oh, Boyd! you are the happiest man of the two! Do you +forgive me?" Boyd replied, "I forgive you--I feel for you, as I know you +do for me." He shortly afterwards expired, and Major Campbell made his +escape from Ireland, and lived for some months with his family under +an assumed name, in the neighbourhood of Chelsea. He was, however, +apprehended, and brought to trial at Armagh, in August 1808. He said +while in prison, that, if found guilty of murder, he should suffer as an +example to duellists in Ireland; but he endeavoured to buoy himself up, +with the hope that the jury would only convict him of manslaughter. +It was proved in evidence upon the trial, that the duel was not fought +immediately after the offence was given, but that Major Campbell went +home and drank tea with his family, before he sought Boyd for the fatal +encounter. The jury returned a verdict of wilful murder against him, +but recommended him to mercy on the ground that the duel had been a fair +one. He was condemned to die on the Monday following, but was afterwards +respited for a few days longer. In the mean time the greatest exertions +were made in his behalf. His unfortunate wife went upon her knees before +the Prince of Wales, to move him to use his influence with the King, in +favour of her unhappy husband. Everything a fond wife and a courageous +woman could do, she tried, to gain the royal clemency; but George III +was inflexible, in consequence of the representations of the Irish +Viceroy that an example was necessary. The law was therefore allowed +to take its course, and the victim of a false spirit of honour died the +death of a felon. + +The most inveterate duellists of the present day are the students in the +Universities of Germany. They fight on the most frivolous pretences, +and settle with swords and pistols the schoolboy disputes which in other +countries are arranged by the more harmless medium of the fisticuffs. It +was at one time the custom among these savage youths to prefer the sword +combat, for the facility it gave them of cutting off the noses of their +opponents. To disfigure them in this manner was an object of ambition, +and the German duellists reckoned the number of these disgusting +trophies which they had borne away, with as much satisfaction as a +successful general the provinces he had reduced or the cities he had +taken. + +But it would be wearisome to enter into the minute detail of all the +duels of modern times. If an examination were made into the general +causes which produced them, it would be found that in every case +they had been either of the most trivial or the most unworthy nature. +Parliamentary duels were at one time very common, and amongst the +names of those who have soiled a great reputation by conforming to the +practice, may be mentioned those of Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, +Wilkes, Pitt, Fox, Grattan, Curran, Tierney, and Canning. So difficult +is it even for the superior mind to free itself from the trammels with +which foolish opinion has enswathed it--not one of these celebrated +persons who did not in his secret soul condemn the folly to which he +lent himself. The bonds of reason, though iron-strong, are easily burst +through; but those of folly, though lithe and frail as the rushes by a +stream, defy the stoutest heart to snap them asunder. Colonel Thomas, +an officer of the Guards, who was killed in a duel, added the following +clause to his will the night before he died:--"In the first place, I +commit my soul to Almighty God, in hope of his mercy and pardon for the +irreligious step I now (in compliance with the unwarrantable customs of +this wicked world) put myself under the necessity of taking." How many +have been in the same state of mind as this wise, foolish man! He knew +his error, and abhorred it, but could not resist it, for fear of the +opinion of the prejudiced and unthinking. No other could have blamed him +for refusing to fight a duel. + +The list of duels that have sprung from the most degrading causes might +be stretched out to an almost indefinite extent. Sterne's father +fought a duel about a goose; and the great Raleigh about a tavern +bill. [Raleigh, at one period of his life, appeared to be an inveterate +duellist, and it was said of him that he had been engaged in more +encounters of the kind than any man of note among his contemporaries. +More than one fellow-creature he had deprived of life; but he lived +long enough to be convinced of the sinfulness of his conduct, and made +a solemn vow never to fight another duel. The following anecdote of his +forbearance is well known, but it will bear repetition:-- + +A dispute arose in a coffee-house between him and a young man on some +trivial point, and the latter, losing his temper, impertinently spat in +the face of the veteran. Sir Walter, instead of running him through +the body, as many would have done, or challenging him to mortal combat, +coolly took out his handkerchief, wiped his face, and said, "Young man, +if I could as easily wipe from my conscience the stain of killing you, +as I can this spittle from my face, you should not live another minute." +The young man immediately begged his pardon.] Scores of duels (many of +them fatal) have been fought from disputes at cards, or a place at a +theatre, while hundreds of challenges, given and accepted over-night, in +a fit of drunkenness, have been fought out the next morning to the death +of one or both of the antagonists. + +Two of the most notorious duels of modern times had their origin in +causes no more worthy than the quarrel of a dog and the favour of a +prostitute: that between Macnamara and Montgomery arising from the +former; and that between Best and Lord Camelford, from the latter. The +dog of Montgomery attacked a dog belonging to Macnamara, and each master +interfering in behalf of his own animal, high words ensued. The result +was the giving and accepting a challenge to mortal combat. The parties +met on the following day, when Montgomery was shot dead, and his +antagonist severely wounded. This affair created a great sensation at +the time, and Heaviside, the surgeon who attended at the fatal field to +render his assistance, if necessary, was arrested as an accessory to the +murder, and committed to Newgate. + +In the duel between Best and Lord Camelford, two pistols were used +which were considered to be the best in England. One of them was thought +slightly superior to the other, and it was agreed that the belligerents +should toss up a piece of money to decide the choice of weapons. Best +gained it, and, at the first discharge, Lord Camelford fell, mortally +wounded. But little sympathy was expressed for his fate; he was a +confirmed duellist, had been engaged in many meetings of the kind, and +the blood of more than one fellow-creature lay at his door. As he had +sowed, so did he reap; and the violent man met an appropriate death. + +It now only remains to notice the means that have been taken to stay the +prevalence of this madness of false honour in the various countries +of the civilized world. The efforts of the governments of France and +England have already been mentioned, and their want of success is +but too well known. The same efforts have been attended with the same +results elsewhere. In despotic countries, where the will of the monarch +has been strongly expressed and vigorously supported, a diminution of +the evil has for a while resulted, but only to be increased again, when +death relaxed the iron grasp, and a successor appeared of less decided +opinions upon the subject. This was the case in Prussia under the great +Frederick, of whose aversion to duelling a popular anecdote is recorded. +It is stated of him that he permitted duelling in his army, but only +upon the condition that the combatants should fight in presence of a +whole battalion of infantry, drawn up on purpose, to see fair play. The +latter received strict orders, when one of the belligerents fell, to +shoot the other immediately. It is added, that the known determination +of the King effectually put a stop to the practice. + +The Emperor Joseph II of Austria was as firm as Frederick, although the +measures he adopted were not so singular. The following letter explains +his views on the subject:-- + +"To GENERAL * * * * * + +"MY GENERAL, + +"You will immediately arrest the Count of K. and Captain W. The Count is +young, passionate, and influenced by wrong notions of birth and a false +spirit of honour. Captain W. is an old soldier, who will adjust every +dispute with the sword and pistol, and who has received the challenge of +the young Count with unbecoming warmth. + +"I will suffer no duelling in my army. I despise the principles of +those who attempt to justify the practice, and who would run each other +through the body in cold blood. + +"When I have officers who bravely expose themselves to every danger +in facing the enemy--who at all times exhibit courage, valour, and +resolution in attack and defence, I esteem them highly. The coolness +with which they meet death on such occasions is serviceable to their +country, and at the same time redounds to their own honour; but should +there be men amongst them who are ready to sacrifice everything to their +vengeance and hatred, I despise them. I consider such a man as no better +than a Roman gladiator. + +"Order a court-martial to try the two officers. Investigate the subject +of their dispute with that impartiality which I demand from every judge; +and he that is guilty, let him be a sacrifice to his fate and the laws. + +"Such a barbarous custom, which suits the age of the Tamerlanes and +Bajazets, and which has often had such melancholy effects on single +families, I will have suppressed and punished, even if it should deprive +me of one half of my officers. There are still men who know how to unite +the character of a hero with that of a good subject; and he only can be +so who respects the laws. + +"JOSEPH." + +"August 1771." + +[Vide the Letters of Joseph II to distinguished Princes and Statesmen, +published for the first time in England in "The Pamphleteer" for 1821. +They were originally published in Germany a few years previously, and +throw a great light upon the character of that monarch and the events of +his reign.] + +In the United States of America the code varies considerably. In one or +two of the still wild and simple States of the Far West, where no duel +has yet been fought, there is no specific law upon the subject beyond +that in the Decalogue, which says, "Thou shalt do no murder." But +duelling everywhere follows the steps of modern civilization, and by the +time the backwoodsman is transformed into the citizen, he has imbibed +the false notions of honour which are prevalent in Europe, and around +him, and is ready, like his progenitors, to settle his differences +with the pistol. In the majority of the States the punishment for +challenging, fighting, or acting as second, is solitary imprisonment and +hard labour for any period less than a year, and disqualification for +serving any public office for twenty years. In Vermont the punishment +is total disqualification for office, deprivation of the rights of +citizenship, and a fine; in fatal cases, the same punishment as that of +murderers. In Rhode Island, the combatant, though death does not ensue, +is liable to be carted to the gallows, with a rope about his neck, and +to sit in this trim for an hour, exposed to the peltings of the mob. He +may be further imprisoned for a year, at the option of the magistrate. +In Connecticut the punishment is total disqualification for office or +employ, and a fine, varying from one hundred to a thousand dollars. The +laws of Illinois require certain officers of the state to make oath, +previous to their instalment, that they have never been, nor ever will +be, concerned in a duel. ["Encyclopedia Americana," art. Duelling.] + +Amongst the edicts against duelling promulgated at various times in +Europe, may be mentioned that of Augustus King of Poland, in 1712, which +decreed the punishment of death against principals and seconds, and +minor punishments against the bearers of a challenge. An edict was also +published at Munich, in 1773, according to which both principals and +seconds, even in duels where no one was either killed or wounded, should +be hanged, and their bodies buried at the foot of the gallows. The King +of Naples issued an ordinance against duelling in 1838, in which the +punishment of death is decreed against all concerned in a fatal +duel. The bodies of those killed, and of those who may be executed in +consequence, are to be buried in unconsecrated ground, and without any +religious ceremony; nor is any monument to be erected on the spot. The +punishment for duels in which either, or both, are wounded, and for +those in which no damage whatever is done, varies according to the +case, and consists of fine, imprisonment, loss of rank and honours, and +incapacity for filling any public situation. Bearers of challenges may +also be punished with fine and imprisonment. + +It might be imagined that enactments so severe all over the civilized +world would finally eradicate a custom, the prevalence of which every +wise and good man must deplore. But the frowns of the law never yet have +taught, and never will teach, men to desist from this practice, as long +as it is felt that the lawgiver sympathises with it in his heart. The +stern judge upon the bench may say to the unfortunate wight who has been +called a liar by some unmannerly opponent, "If you challenge him, you +meditate murder, and are guilty of murder!" but the same judge, divested +of his robes of state, and mixing in the world with other men, would +say, "If you do not challenge him, if you do not run the risk of making +yourself a murderer, you will be looked upon as a mean-spirited wretch, +unfit to associate with your fellows, and deserving nothing but their +scorn and their contempt!" It is society, and not the duellist, who is +to blame. Female influence, too, which is so powerful in leading men +either to good or to evil, takes, in this case, the evil part. Mere +animal bravery has, unfortunately, such charms in the female eye, that a +successful duellist is but too often regarded as a sort of hero; and +the man who refuses to fight, though of truer courage, is thought a +poltroon, who may be trampled on. Mr. Graves, a member of the American +Legislature, who, early in 1838, killed a Mr. Cilley in a duel, truly +and eloquently said, on the floor of the House of Representatives, when +lamenting the unfortunate issue of that encounter, that society was more +to blame than he was. "Public opinion," said the repentant orator, "is +practically the paramount law of the land. Every other law, both human +and divine, ceases to be observed; yea, withers and perishes in contact +with it. It was this paramount law of this nation, and of this House, +that forced me, under the penalty of dishonour, to subject myself to the +code, which impelled me unwillingly into this tragical affair. Upon the +heads of this nation, and at the doors of this House, rests the blood +with which my unfortunate hands have been stained!" + +As long as society is in this mood; as long as it thinks that the man +who refuses to resent an insult, deserved that insult, and should be +scouted accordingly, so long, it is to be feared, will duelling exist, +however severe the laws may be. Men must have redress for injuries +inflicted, and when those injuries are of such a nature that no tribunal +will take cognizance of them, the injured will take the law into their +own hands, and right themselves in the opinion of their fellows, at +the hazard of their lives. Much as the sage may affect to despise the +opinion of the world, there are few who would not rather expose their +lives a hundred times than be condemned to live on, in society, but not +of it--a by-word of reproach to all who know their history, and a mark +for scorn to point his finger at. + +The only practicable means for diminishing the force of a custom which +is the disgrace of civilization, seems to be the establishment of a +court of honour, which should take cognizance of all those delicate +and almost intangible offences which yet wound so deeply. The court +established by Louis XIV might be taken as a model. No man now fights a +duel when a fit apology has been offered, and it should be the duty of +this court to weigh dispassionately the complaint of every man injured +in his honour, either by word or deed, and to force the offender to make +a public apology. If he refused the apology, he would be the breaker of +a second law; an offender against a high court, as well as against the +man he had injured, and might be punished with fine and imprisonment, +the latter to last until he saw the error of his conduct, and made the +concession which the court demanded. + +If, after the establishment of this tribunal, men should be found of +a nature so bloodthirsty as not to be satisfied with its peaceful +decisions, and should resort to the old and barbarous mode of an appeal +to the pistol, some means might be found of dealing with them. To hang +them as murderers would be of no avail; for to such men death would have +few terrors. Shame alone would bring them to reason. The following +code, it is humbly suggested to all future legislators upon the subject, +would, in conjunction with the establishment of a court of honour, do +much towards eradicating this blot from society. Every man who fought a +duel, even though he did not wound his opponent, should be tried, and, +upon proof of the fact, be sentenced to have his right hand cut off. +The world would then know his true character as long as he lived. If +his habits of duelling were so inveterate, and he should learn to fire +a pistol with his left hand, he should, upon conviction of a second +offence, lose that hand also. This law, which should allow no +commutation of the punishment, under any circumstances, would lend +strength and authority to the court of honour. In the course of a few +years duelling would be ranked amongst exploded follies, and men would +begin to wonder that a custom so barbarous and so impious had ever +existed amongst them. + + + + +THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE. + + +"Well, son John," said the old woman, "and what wonderful things did you +meet with all the time you were at sea?"--"Oh! mother," replied John, "I +saw many strange things."--"Tell us all about them," replied his mother, +"for I long to hear your adventures."--"Well, then," said John, "as +we were sailing over the Line, what do you think we saw?"--"I can't +imagine," replied his mother.--"Well, we saw a fish rise out of the sea, +and fly over our ship!" "Oh! John! John! what a liar you are!" said his +mother, shaking her head, and smiling incredulously. "True as death? +said John; "and we saw still more wonderful things than that."--"Let +us hear them," said his mother, shaking her head again; "and tell +the truth, John, if you can."--"Believe it, or believe it not, as you +please," replied her son; "but as we were sailing up the Red Sea, our +captain thought he should like some fish for dinner; so he told us to +throw our nets, and catch some."--"Well," inquired his mother, seeing +that he paused in his story. "Well," rejoined her son, "we did throw +them, and, at the very first haul, we brought up a chariot-wheel, +made all of gold, and inlaid with diamonds!" "Lord bless us!" said his +mother, "and what did the captain say?"--"Why, he said it was one of +the wheels of Pharaoh's chariot, that had lain in the Red Sea ever since +that wicked King was drowned, with all his host, while pursuing the +Israelites."--"Well, well," said his mother, lifting up her hands in +admiration; "now, that's very possible, and I think the captain was a +very sensible man. Tell me such stories as that, and I'll believe you; +but never talk to me of such things as flying fish! No, no, John, such +stories won't go down with me, I can assure you!" + +Such old women as the sailor's mother, in the above well-known anecdote, +are by no means rare in the world. Every age and country has produced +them. They have been found in high places, and have sat down among the +learned of the earth. Instances must be familiar to every reader in +which the same person was willing, with greedy credulity, to swallow +the most extravagant fiction, and yet refuse credence to a philosophical +fact. The same Greeks who believed readily that Jupiter wooed Leda in +the form of a swan, denied stoutly that there were any physical causes +for storms and thunder, and treated as impious those who attempted to +account for them on true philosophical principles. + +The reasons that thus lead mankind to believe the marvellously false, +and to disbelieve the marvellously true, may be easily gathered. Of +all the offspring of Time, Error is the most ancient, and is so old and +familiar an acquaintance, that Truth, when discovered, comes upon most +of us like an intruder, and meets the intruder's welcome. We all pay an +involuntary homage to antiquity--a "blind homage," as Bacon calls it in +his "Novum Organum," which tends greatly to the obstruction of truth. +To the great majority of mortal eyes, Time sanctifies everything that +he does not destroy. The mere fact of anything being spared by the great +foe makes it a favourite with us, who are sure to fall his victims. To +call a prejudice "time-hallowed," is to open a way for it into hearts +where it never before penetrated. Some peculiar custom may disgrace the +people amongst whom it flourishes; yet men of a little wisdom refuse to +aid in its extirpation, merely because it is old. Thus it is with human +belief, and thus it is we bring shame upon our own intellect. + +To this cause may be added another, also mentioned by Lord Bacon--a +misdirected zeal in matters of religion, which induces so many to decry +a newly-discovered truth, because the Divine records contain no allusion +to it, or because, at first sight, it appears to militate, not against +religion, but against some obscure passage which has never been fairly +interpreted. The old woman in the story could not believe that there was +such a creature as a flying-fish, because her Bible did not tell her +so, but she believed that her son had drawn up the golden and bejewelled +wheel from the Red Sea, because her Bible informed her that Pharaoh was +drowned there. + +Upon a similar principle the monks of the inquisition believed that the +devil appeared visibly among men, that St. Anthony pulled his nose with +a pair of red-hot pincers, and that the relics of the saints worked +miracles; yet they would not believe Galileo, when he proved that the +earth turned round the sun. + +Keppler, when he asserted the same fact, could gain no bread, and little +credence; but when he pretended to tell fortunes and cast nativities, +the whole town flocked to him, and paid him enormous fees for his +falsehood. + +When Roger Bacon invented the telescope and the magic-lantern, no one +believed that the unaided ingenuity of man could have done it; but when +some wiseacres asserted that the devil had appeared to him, and given +him the knowledge which he turned to such account, no one was bold +enough to assert that it was improbable. His hint that saltpetre, +sulphur, and charcoal, mixed in certain proportions, would produce +effects similar to thunder and lightning, was disregarded or +disbelieved; but the legend of the brazen head which delivered oracles, +was credited for many ages. + +[Godwin, in his "Lives of the Necromancers," gives the following version +of this legend. Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay entertained the project of +enclosing England with a wall, so as to render it inaccessible to any +invader. They accordingly raised the devil, as the person best able to +inform them how this was to be done. The devil advised them to make a +brazen head, with all the internal structure and organs of a human head. +The construction would cost them much time, and they must wait with +patience till the faculty of speech descended upon it. Finally, however, +it would become an oracle, and, if the question were propounded to it, +would teach them the solution of their problem. The friars spent seven +years in bringing the subject to perfection, and waited day after day +in expectation that it would utter articulate sounds. At length nature +became exhausted in them, and they lay down to sleep, having first given +it strictly in charge to a servant of theirs, clownish in nature, but of +strict fidelity, that he should awaken them the moment the image began +to speak. That period arrived. The head uttered sounds, but such as +the clown judged unworthy of notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was +taken, and a long pause ensued. "Time was!"--a similar pause, and +no notice. "Time is passed!" The moment these words were uttered, a +tremendous storm ensued, with thunder and lightning, and the head was +shivered into a thousand pieces. Thus the experiment of Friar Bacon and +Friar Bungay came to nothing.] + +Solomon De Cans, who, in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, conceived the +idea of a steam-engine, was shut up in the Bastille as a madman, because +the idea of such an extraordinary instrument was too preposterous for +the wise age that believed in all the absurdities of witchcraft. + +When Harvey first proved the circulation of the blood, every tongue was +let loose against him. The thing was too obviously an imposition, and +an attempt to deceive that public who believed that a king's touch had +power to cure the scrofula. That a dead criminal's hand, rubbed against +a wen, would cure it, was reasonable enough; but that the blood flowed +through the veins was beyond all probability. + +In our own day, a similar fate awaited the beneficent discovery of Dr. +Jenner. That vaccination could abate the virulence of, or preserve from, +the smallpox, was quite incredible; none but a cheat and a quack could +assert it: but that the introduction of the vaccine matter into the +human frame could endow men with the qualities of a cow, was quite +probable. Many of the poorer people actually dreaded that their children +would grow hairy and horned as cattle, if they suffered them to be +vaccinated. + +The Jesuit, Father Labat, the shrewd and learned traveller in South +America, relates an experiment which he made upon the credulity of some +native Peruvians. Holding a powerful lens in his hand, and concentrating +the rays of the sun upon the naked arm of an admiring savage, he soon +made him roar with pain. All the tribe looked on, first with wonder, and +then with indignation and wonder both combined. In vain the philosopher +attempted to explain the cause of the phenomenon--in vain he offered to +convince them that there was nothing devilish in the experiment--he was +thought to be in league with the infernal gods to draw down the fire +from Heaven, and was looked upon, himself, as an awful and supernatural +being. Many attempts were made to gain possession of the lens, with the +view of destroying it, and thereby robbing the Western stranger of the +means of bringing upon them the vengeance of his deities. + +Very similar was the conduct of that inquiring Brahmin, which is +related by Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs. The Brahmin had a mind +better cultivated than his fellows; he was smitten with a love for the +knowledge of Europe--read English books--pored over the pages of the +Encyclopedia, and profited by various philosophical instruments; but on +religious questions the Brahmin was firm to the faith of his caste and +the doctrine of the Metempsychosis. Lest he might sacrilegiously devour +his progenitors, he abstained from all animal food; and thinking that he +ate nothing which enjoyed life, he supported himself, like his brethren, +upon fruits and vegetables. All the knowledge that did not run counter +to this belief, he sought after with avidity, and bade fair to become +the wisest of his race. In an evil hour, his English friend and +instructor exhibited a very powerful solar microscope, by means of +which he showed him that every drop of water that he drank teemed +with life--that every fruit was like a world, covered with innumerable +animalculae, each of which was fitted by its organization for the sphere +in which it moved, and had its wants, and the capability of supplying +them as completely as visible animals millions of times its bulk. The +English philosopher expected that his Hindoo friend would be enraptured +at the vast field of knowledge thus suddenly opened out to him, but +he was deceived. The Brahmin from that time became an altered +man--thoughtful, gloomy, reserved, and discontented. He applied +repeatedly to his friend that he would make him a present of the +microscope; but as it was the only one of its kind in India, and the +owner set a value upon it for other reasons, he constantly refused the +request, but offered him the loan of it for any period he might require. +But nothing short of an unconditional gift of the instrument would +satisfy the Brahmin, who became at last so importunate that the patience +of the Englishman was exhausted, and he gave it him. A gleam of joy +shot across the care-worn features of the Hindoo as he clutched it, and +bounding with an exulting leap into the garden, he seized a large stone, +and dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces. When called upon to +explain his extraordinary conduct, he said to his friend, "Oh that I had +remained in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first found me! +Yet will I confess that, as my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, +until I beheld the last wonders of the microscope; from that moment +I have been tormented by doubt and perplexed by mystery: my mind, +overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest, nor how to +extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue +to be so, until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a solitary +individual among fifty millions of people, all educated in the same +belief with myself--all happy in their ignorance! So may they ever +remain! I shall keep the secret within my own bosom, where it will +corrode my peace and break my rest. But I shall have some satisfaction +in knowing that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed +the instrument, might have been extensively communicated, and rendered +thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable friend! and oh, convey no +more implements of knowledge and destruction!" + +Many a learned man may smile at the ignorance of the Peruvian and +the Hindoo, unconscious that he himself is just as ignorant and as +prejudiced. Who does not remember the outcry against the science of +geology, which has hardly yet subsided? Its professors were impiously +and absurdly accused of designing to "hurl the Creator from his throne." +They were charged with sapping the foundations of religion, and of +propping atheism by the aid of a pretended science. + +The very same principle which leads to the rejection of the true, leads +to the encouragement of the false. Thus we may account for the success +which has attended great impostors, at times when the truth, though +not half so wondrous as their impositions, has been disregarded as +extravagant and preposterous. The man who wishes to cheat the people, +must needs found his operations upon some prejudice or belief that +already exists. Thus the philosophic pretenders who told fortunes by +the stars cured all diseases by one nostrum, and preserved from evil by +charms and amulets, ran with the current of popular belief. Errors +that were consecrated by time and long familiarity, they heightened and +embellished, and succeeded to their hearts' content; but the preacher of +truth had a foundation to make as well as a superstructure, a difficulty +which did not exist for the preacher of error. Columbus preached a new +world, but was met with distrust and incredulity; had he preached with +as much zeal and earnestness the discovery of some valley in the old +one, where diamonds hung upon the trees, or a herb grew that cured all +the ills incidental to humanity, he would have found a warm and hearty +welcome--might have sold dried cabbage leaves for his wonderful herb, +and made his fortune. + +In fact, it will be found in the history of every generation and race of +men, that whenever a choice of belief between the "Wondrously False" +and the "Wondrously True" is given to ignorance or prejudice, that their +choice will be fixed upon the first, for the reason that it is most +akin to their own nature. The great majority of mankind, and even of +the wisest among us, are still in the condition of the sailor's +mother--believing and disbelieving on the same grounds that she +did--protesting against the flying fish, but cherishing the golden +wheels. Thousands there are amongst us, who, rather than pin their faith +in the one fish, would believe not only in the wheel of gold, but the +chariot--not only in the chariot, but in the horses and the driver. + + + + +POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + + + La faridondaine--la faridondon, + Vive la faridondaine! + + BERANGER. + +The popular humours of a great city are a never-failing source of +amusement to the man whose sympathies are hospitable enough to embrace +all his kind, and who, refined though he may be himself, will not sneer +at the humble wit or grotesque peculiarities of the boozing mechanic, +the squalid beggar, the vicious urchin, and all the motley group of +the idle, the reckless, and the imitative that swarm in the alleys and +broadways of a metropolis. He who walks through a great city to find +subjects for weeping, may, God knows, find plenty at every corner to +wring his heart; but let such a man walk on his course, and enjoy his +grief alone--we are not of those who would accompany him. The miseries +of us poor earth-dwellers gain no alleviation from the sympathy of +those who merely hunt them out to be pathetic over them. The weeping +philosopher too often impairs his eyesight by his woe, and becomes +unable from his tears to see the remedies for the evils which he +deplores. Thus it will often be found that the man of no tears is the +truest philanthropist, as he is the best physician who wears a cheerful +face, even in the worst of cases. + +So many pens have been employed to point out the miseries, and so +many to condemn the crimes and vices, and more serious follies of the +multitude, that our's shall not increase the number, at least in this +chapter. Our present task shall be less ungracious, and wandering +through the busy haunts of great cities, we shall seek only for +amusement, and note as we pass a few of the harmless follies and +whimsies of the poor. + +And, first of all, walk where we will, we cannot help hearing from every +side a phrase repeated with delight, and received with laughter, by +men with hard hands and dirty faces--by saucy butcher lads and +errand-boys--by loose women--by hackney coachmen, cabriolet drivers, and +idle fellows who loiter at the corners of streets. Not one utters this +phrase without producing a laugh from all within hearing. It seems +applicable to every circumstance, and is the universal answer to every +question; in short, it is the favourite slang phrase of the day, a +phrase that, while its brief season of popularity lasts, throws a dash +of fun and frolicsomeness over the existence of squalid poverty and +ill-requited labour, and gives them reason to laugh as well as their +more fortunate fellows in a higher stage of society. + +London is peculiarly fertile in this sort of phrases, which spring +up suddenly, no one knows exactly in what spot, and pervade the +whole population in a few hours, no one knows how. Many years ago the +favourite phrase (for, though but a monosyllable, it was a phrase in +itself) was Quoz. This odd word took the fancy of the multitude in +an extraordinary degree, and very soon acquired an almost boundless +meaning. When vulgar wit wished to mark its incredulity and raise a +laugh at the same time, there was no resource so sure as this popular +piece of slang. When a man was asked a favour which he did not choose to +grant, he marked his sense of the suitor's unparalleled presumption by +exclaiming Quoz! When a mischievous urchin wished to annoy a passenger, +and create mirth for his chums, he looked him in the face, and cried out +Quoz! and the exclamation never failed in its object. When a disputant +was desirous of throwing a doubt upon the veracity of his opponent, and +getting summarily rid of an argument which he could not overturn, +he uttered the word Quoz, with a contemptuous curl of his lip and an +impatient shrug of his shoulders. The universal monosyllable conveyed +all his meaning, and not only told his opponent that he lied, but that +he erred egregiously if he thought that any one was such a nincompoop as +to believe him. Every alehouse resounded with Quoz; every street corner +was noisy with it, and every wall for miles around was chalked with it. + +But, like all other earthly things, Quoz had its season, and passed away +as suddenly as it arose, never again to be the pet and the idol of the +populace. A new claimant drove it from its place, and held undisputed +sway till, in its turn, it was hurled from its pre-eminence, and a +successor appointed in its stead. + +"What a shocking bad hat!" was the phrase that was next in vogue. No +sooner had it become universal, than thousands of idle but sharp eyes +were on the watch for the passenger whose hat showed any signs, however +slight, of ancient service. Immediately the cry arose, and, like the +what-whoop of the Indians, was repeated by a hundred discordant throats. +He was a wise man who, finding himself under these circumstances "the +observed of all observers," bore his honours meekly. He who showed +symptoms of ill-feeling at the imputations cast upon his hat, only +brought upon himself redoubled notice. The mob soon perceive whether a +man is irritable, and, if of their own class, they love to make sport of +him. When such a man, and with such a hat, passed in those days through +a crowded neighbourhood, he might think himself fortunate if his +annoyances were confined to the shouts and cries of the populace. The +obnoxious hat was often snatched from his head, and thrown into the +gutter by some practical joker, and then raised, covered with mud, upon +the end of a stick, for the admiration of the spectators, who held their +sides with laughter, and exclaimed in the pauses of their mirth, "Oh! +what a shocking bad hat!... What a shocking bad hat!" Many a nervous, +poor man, whose purse could but ill spare the outlay, doubtless +purchased a new hat before the time, in order to avoid exposure in this +manner. + +The origin of this singular saying, which made fun for the metropolis +for months, is not involved in the same obscurity as that which shrouds +the origin of Quoz and some others. There had been a hotly-contested +election for the borough of Southwark, and one of the candidates was an +eminent hatter. This gentleman, in canvassing the electors, adopted +a somewhat professional mode of conciliating their good-will, and +of bribing them without letting them perceive that they were bribed. +Whenever he called upon or met a voter whose hat was not of the best +material, or, being so, had seen its best days, he invariably said, +"What a shocking bad hat you have got; call at my warehouse, and you +shall have a new one!" Upon the day of election this circumstance was +remembered, and his opponents made the most of it, by inciting the crowd +to keep up an incessant cry of "What a shocking bad hat!" all the time +the honourable candidate was addressing them. From Southwark the phrase +spread over all London, and reigned, for a time, the supreme slang of +the season. + +Hookey Walker, derived from the chorus of a popular ballad, was also +high in favour at one time, and served, like its predecessor, Quoz, to +answer all questions. In the course of time the latter word alone became +the favourite, and was uttered with a peculiar drawl upon the first +syllable, and a sharp turn upon the last. If a lively servant girl was +importuned for a kiss by a fellow she did not care about, she cocked her +little nose, and cried "Walker!" If a dustman asked his friend for the +loan of a shilling, and his friend was either unable or unwilling to +accommodate him, the probable answer he would receive was "Walker!" If +a drunken man was reeling along the streets, and a boy pulled his +coat-tails, or a man knocked his hat over his eyes to make fun of him, +the joke was always accompanied by the same exclamation. This lasted for +two or three months, and "Walker!" walked off the stage, never more to +be revived for the entertainment of that or any future generation. + +The next phrase was a most preposterous one. Who invented it, how it +arose, or where it was first heard, are alike unknown. Nothing about it +is certain, but that for months it was the slang par excellence of the +Londoners, and afforded them a vast gratification. "There he goes with +his eye out!" or "There she goes with her eye out!" as the sex of the +party alluded to might be, was in the mouth of everybody who knew the +town. The sober part of the community were as much puzzled by this +unaccountable saying as the vulgar were delighted with it. The wise +thought it very foolish, but the many thought it very funny, and the +idle amused themselves by chalking it upon walls, or scribbling it upon +monuments. But, "all that's bright must fade," even in slang. The people +grew tired of their hobby, and "There he goes with his eye out!" was +heard no more in its accustomed haunts. + +Another very odd phrase came into repute in a brief space afterwards, +in the form of the impertinent and not universally apposite query, +"Has your mother sold her mangle?" But its popularity was not of that +boisterous and cordial kind which ensures a long continuance of favour. +What tended to impede its progress was, that it could not be well +applied to the older portions of society. It consequently ran but a +brief career, and then sank into oblivion. Its successor enjoyed a more +extended fame, and laid its foundations so deep, that years and changing +fashions have not sufficed to eradicate it. This phrase was "Flare up!" +and it is, even now, a colloquialism in common use. It took its rise in +the time of the Reform riots, when Bristol was nearly half burned by +the infuriated populace. The flames were said to have flared up in the +devoted city. Whether there was anything peculiarly captivating in the +sound, or in the idea of these words, is hard to say; but whatever was +the reason, it tickled the mob-fancy mightily, and drove all other slang +out of the field before it. Nothing was to be heard all over London but +"flare up!" It answered all questions, settled all disputes, was applied +to all persons, all things, and all circumstances, and became suddenly +the most comprehensive phrase in the English language. The man who had +overstepped the bounds of decorum in his speech was said to have flared +up; he who had paid visits too repeated to the gin-shop, and got damaged +in consequence, had flared up. To put one's-self into a passion; to +stroll out on a nocturnal frolic, and alarm a neighbourhood, or to +create a disturbance in any shape, was to flare up. A lovers' quarrel +was a fare up; so was a boxing-match between two blackguards in the +streets, and the preachers of sedition and revolution recommended the +English nation to flare up, like the French. So great a favourite +was the word, that people loved to repeat it for its very sound. They +delighted apparently in hearing their own organs articulate it; and +labouring men, when none who could respond to the call were within +hearing, would often startle the aristocratic echoes of the West by +the well-known slang phrase of the East. Even in the dead hours of the +night, the ears of those who watched late, or who could not sleep, were +saluted with the same sound. The drunkard reeling home showed that he +was still a man and a citizen, by calling "flare up" in the pauses of +his hiccough. Drink had deprived him of the power of arranging all other +ideas; his intellect was sunk to the level of the brute's; but he clung +to humanity by the one last link of the popular cry. While he could +vociferate that sound, he had rights as an Englishman, and would not +sleep in a gutter, like a dog! Onwards he went, disturbing quiet streets +and comfortable people by his whoop, till exhausted nature could support +him no more, and he rolled powerless into the road. When, in due time +afterwards, the policeman stumbled upon him as he lay, that guardian +of the peace turned the full light of his lantern on his face, and +exclaimed, "Here's a poor devil who's been flaring up!" Then came the +stretcher, on which the victim of deep potations was carried to the +watchhouse, and pitched into a dirty cell, among a score of wretches +about as far gone as himself, who saluted their new comrade by a loud, +long shout of flare up! + +So universal was this phrase, and so enduring seemed its popularity, +that a speculator, who knew not the evanescence of slang, established a +weekly newspaper under its name. But he was like the man who built his +house upon the sand; his foundation gave way under him, and the phrase +and the newspaper were washed into the mighty sea of the things that +were. The people grew at last weary of the monotony, and "flare up" +became vulgar even among them. Gradually it was left to little boys +who did not know the world, and in process of time sank altogether into +neglect. It is now heard no more as a piece of popular slang; but the +words are still used to signify any sudden outburst either of fire, +disturbance, or ill-nature. + +The next phrase that enjoyed the favour of the million was less concise, +and seems to have been originally aimed against precocious youths who +gave themselves the airs of manhood before their time. "Does your mother +know you're out?" was the provoking query addressed to young men of +more than reasonable swagger, who smoked cigars in the streets, and +wore false whiskers to look irresistible. We have seen many a conceited +fellow who could not suffer a woman to pass him without staring her out +of countenance, reduced at once into his natural insignificance by the +mere utterance of this phrase. Apprentice lads and shopmen in their +Sunday clothes held the words in abhorrence, and looked fierce when they +were applied to them. Altogether the phrase had a very salutary effect, +and in a thousand instances showed young Vanity, that it was not half so +pretty and engaging as it thought itself. What rendered it so provoking +was the doubt it implied as to the capability of self-guidance possessed +by the individual to whom it was addressed. "Does your mother know +you're out?" was a query of mock concern and solicitude, implying regret +and concern that one so young and inexperienced in the ways of a great +city should be allowed to wander abroad without the guidance of a +parent. Hence the great wrath of those who verged on manhood, but had +not reached it, whenever they were made the subject of it. Even older +heads did not like it; and the heir of a ducal house, and inheritor of a +warrior's name, to whom they were applied by a cabriolet driver, who was +ignorant of his rank, was so indignant at the affront, that he summoned +the offender before the magisterial bench. The fellow had wished to +impose upon his Lordship by asking double the fare he was entitled to, +and when his Lordship resisted the demand, he was insultingly asked "if +his mother knew he was out?" All the drivers on the stand joined in the +query, and his Lordship was fain to escape their laughter by walking +away with as much haste as his dignity would allow. The man pleaded +ignorance that his customer was a Lord, but offended justice fined him +for his mistake. + +When this phrase had numbered its appointed days, it died away, like +its predecessors, and "Who are you?" reigned in its stead. This new +favourite, like a mushroom, seems to have sprung up in a night, or, like +a frog in Cheapside, to have come down in a sudden shower. One day it +was unheard, unknown, uninvented; the next it pervaded London; every +alley resounded with it; every highway was musical with it, + + "And street to street, and lane to lane flung back + The one unvarying cry." + +The phrase was uttered quickly, and with a sharp sound upon the first +and last words, leaving the middle one little more than an aspiration. +Like all its compeers which had been extensively popular, it was +applicable to almost every variety of circumstance. The lovers of a +plain answer to a plain question did not like it at all. Insolence made +use of it to give offence; ignorance, to avoid exposing itself; and +waggery, to create laughter. Every new comer into an alehouse tap-room +was asked unceremoniously, "Who are you?" and if he looked foolish, +scratched his head, and did not know what to reply, shouts of boisterous +merriment resounded on every side. An authoritative disputant was not +unfrequently put down, and presumption of every kind checked by the same +query. When its popularity was at its height, a gentleman, feeling the +hand of a thief in his pocket, turned suddenly round, and caught him +in the act, exclaiming, "Who are you?" The mob which gathered round +applauded to the very echo, and thought it the most capital joke they +had ever heard--the very acme of wit--the very essence of humour. +Another circumstance, of a similar kind, gave an additional fillip to +the phrase, and infused new life and vigour into it, just as it was +dying away. The scene occurred in the chief criminal court of the +kingdom. A prisoner stood at the bar; the offence with which he had been +charged was clearly proved against him; his counsel had been heard, not +in his defence, but in extenuation, insisting upon his previous good +life and character, as reasons for the lenity of the court. "And where +are your witnesses?" inquired the learned judge who presided. "Please +you, my Lord, I knows the prisoner at the bar, and a more honester +feller never breathed," said a rough voice in the gallery. The +officers of the court looked aghast, and the strangers tittered with +ill-suppressed laughter. "Who are you?" said the Judge, looking suddenly +up, but with imperturbable gravity. The court was convulsed; the titter +broke out into a laugh, and it was several minutes before silence +and decorum could be restored. When the Ushers recovered their +self-possession, they made diligent search for the profane transgressor; +but he was not to be found. Nobody knew him; nobody had seen him. After +a while the business of the court again proceeded. The next prisoner +brought up for trial augured favourably of his prospects when he learned +that the solemn lips of the representative of justice had uttered the +popular phrase as if he felt and appreciated it. There was no fear that +such a judge would use undue severity; his heart was with the people; he +understood their language and their manners, and would make allowances +for the temptations which drove them into crime. So thought many of +the prisoners, if we may infer it from the fact, that the learned judge +suddenly acquired an immense increase of popularity. The praise of +his wit was in every mouth, and "Who are you?" renewed its lease, and +remained in possession of public favour for another term in consequence. + +But it must not be supposed that there were no interregni between the +dominion of one slang phrase and another. They did not arise in one +long line of unbroken succession, but shared with song the possession of +popular favour. Thus, when the people were in the mood for music, slang +advanced its claims to no purpose, and, when they were inclined for +slang, the sweet voice of music wooed them in vain. About twenty years +ago London resounded with one chorus, with the love of which everybody +seemed to be smitten. Girls and boys, young men and old, maidens and +wives, and widows, were all alike musical. There was an absolute mania +for singing, and the worst of it was, that, like good Father Philip, +in the romance of "The Monastery," they seemed utterly unable to change +their tune. "Cherry ripe!" "Cherry ripe!" was the universal cry of all +the idle in the town. Every unmelodious voice gave utterance to it; +every crazy fiddle, every cracked flute, every wheezy pipe, every street +organ was heard in the same strain, until studious and quiet men +stopped their ears in desperation, or fled miles away into the fields or +woodlands, to be at peace. This plague lasted for a twelvemonth, until +the very name of cherries became an abomination in the land. At last +the excitement wore itself away, and the tide of favour set in a new +direction. Whether it was another song or a slang phrase, is difficult +to determine at this distance of time; but certain it is, that very +shortly afterwards, people went mad upon a dramatic subject, and nothing +was to be heard of but "Tom and Jerry." Verbal wit had amused the +multitude long enough, and they became more practical in their +recreation. Every youth on the town was seized with the fierce desire of +distinguishing himself, by knocking down the "charlies," being locked +up all night in a watchhouse, or kicking up a row among loose women and +blackguard men in the low dens of St. Giles's. Imitative boys vied with +their elders in similar exploits, until this unworthy passion, for such +it was, had lasted, like other follies, its appointed time, and the town +became merry after another fashion. It was next thought the height of +vulgar wit to answer all questions by placing the point of the thumb +upon the tip of the nose, and twirling the fingers in the air. If one +man wished to insult or annoy another, he had only to make use of this +cabalistic sign in his face, and his object was accomplished. At every +street corner where a group was assembled, the spectator who was curious +enough to observe their movements, would be sure to see the fingers of +some of them at their noses, either as a mark of incredulity, surprise, +refusal, or mockery, before he had watched two minutes. There is some +remnant of this absurd custom to be seen to this day; but it is thought +low, even among the vulgar. + +About six years ago, London became again most preposterously musical. +The vox populi wore itself hoarse by singing the praises of "The Sea, +the Sea!" If a stranger (and a philosopher) had walked through London, +and listened to the universal chorus, he might have constructed a very +pretty theory upon the love of the English for the sea-service, and our +acknowledged superiority over all other nations upon that element. "No +wonder," he might have said, "that this people is invincible upon the +ocean. The love of it mixes with their daily thoughts: they celebrate it +even in the market-place: their street-minstrels excite charity by it; +and high and low, young and old, male and female, chant Io paeans in +its praise. Love is not honoured in the national songs of this warlike +race--Bacchus is no god to them; they are men of sterner mould, and +think only of 'the Sea, the Sea!' and the means of conquering upon it." + +Such would, doubtless, have been his impression if he had taken the +evidence only of his ears. Alas! in those days for the refined ears that +were musical! great was their torture when discord, with its thousand +diversities of tone, struck up this appalling anthem--there was no +escape from it. The migratory minstrels of Savoy caught the strain, and +pealed it down the long vistas of quiet streets, till their innermost +and snuggest apartments re-echoed with the sound. Men were obliged to +endure this crying evil for full six months, wearied to desperation, and +made sea-sick on the dry land. + +Several other songs sprang up in due succession afterwards, but none of +them, with the exception of one, entitled "All round my Hat," enjoyed +any extraordinary share of favour, until an American actor introduced a +vile song called "Jim Crow." The singer sang his verses in appropriate +costume, with grotesque gesticulations, and a sudden whirl of his body +at the close of each verse. It took the taste of the town immediately, +and for months the ears of orderly people were stunned by the senseless +chorus-- + + "Turn about and wheel about, + And do just so-- + Turn about and wheel about, + And jump, Jim Crow!" + +Street-minstrels blackened their faces in order to give proper effect to +the verses; and fatherless urchins, who had to choose between thieving +and singing for their livelihood, took the latter course, as likely to +be the more profitable, as long as the public taste remained in that +direction. The uncouth dance, its accompaniment, might be seen in its +full perfection on market nights in any great thoroughfare; and the +words of the song might be heard, piercing above all the din and buzz of +the ever-moving multitude. He, the calm observer, who during the hey-day +popularity of this doggrel, + + "Sate beside the public way, + Thick strewn with summer dust, and saw the stream + Of people there was hurrying to and fro, + Numerous as gnats upon the evening gleam," + +might have exclaimed with Shelley, whose fine lines we quote, that + + "The million, with fierce song and maniac dance, + Did rage around." + +The philosophic theorist we have already supposed soliloquising upon the +English character, and forming his opinion of it from their exceeding +love for a sea-song, might, if he had again dropped suddenly into +London, have formed another very plausible theory to account for our +unremitting efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. "Benevolent +people!" he might have said, "how unbounded are your sympathies! Your +unhappy brethren of Africa, differing from you only in the colour of +their skins, are so dear to you, and you begrudge so little the twenty +millions you have paid on their behalf, that you love to have a memento +of them continually in your sight. Jim Crow is the representative of +that injured race, and as such is the idol of your populace! See how +they all sing his praises!--how they imitate his peculiarities!--how +they repeat his name in their moments of leisure and relaxation! They +even carve images of him to adorn their hearths, that his cause and +his sufferings may never be forgotten! Oh, philanthropic England!--oh, +vanguard of civilization!" + +Such are a few of the peculiarities of the London multitude, when no +riot, no execution, no murder, no balloon, disturbs the even current of +their thoughts. These are the whimseys of the mass--the harmless follies +by which they unconsciously endeavour to lighten the load of care which +presses upon their existence. The wise man, even though he smile at +them, will not altogether withhold his sympathy, and will say, "Let them +enjoy their slang phrases and their choruses if they will; and if they +cannot be happy, at least let them be merry." To the Englishman, as well +as to the Frenchman of whom Beranger sings, there may be some comfort in +so small a thing as a song, and we may, own with him that + + "Au peuple attriste + Ce qui rendra la gaite, + C'est la GAUDRIOLE! + O gue! + C'est la GAUDRIOLE!" + + + + +THE O.P. MANIA. + + And these things bred a great combustion in the town. + Wagstaffe's "Apparition of Mother Haggis." + +The acrimonious warfare carried on for a length of time by the playgoers +of London against the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, is one of +the most singular instances upon record of the small folly which will +sometimes pervade a multitude of intelligent men. Carried on at first +from mere obstinacy by a few, and afterwards for mingled obstinacy and +frolic by a greater number, it increased at last to such a height, that +the sober dwellers in the provinces held up their hands in astonishment, +and wondered that the people of London should be such fools. As much +firmness and perseverance displayed in a better cause, might have +achieved important triumphs; and we cannot but feel regret, in recording +this matter, that so much good and wholesome energy should have been +thrown away on so unworthy an object. But we will begin with the +beginning, and trace the O. P. mania from its source. + +On the night of the 20th of September, 1808, the old theatre of +Covent-Garden was totally destroyed by fire. Preparations were +immediately made for the erection of a more splendid edifice, and the +managers, Harris and the celebrated John Philip Kemble, announced that +the new theatre should be without a rival in Europe. In less than +three months, the rubbish of the old building was cleared away, and the +foundation-stone of the new one laid with all due ceremony by the Duke +of Sussex. With so much celerity were the works carried on that, in nine +months more, the edifice was completed, both without and within. The +opening night was announced for the 18th of September 1809, within two +days of a twelvemonth since the destruction of the original building. + +But the undertaking had proved more expensive than the Committee +anticipated. To render the pit entrance more commodious, it had been +deemed advisable to remove a low public-house that stood in the way. +This turned out a matter of no little difficulty, for the proprietor +was a man well skilled in driving a hard bargain. The more eager the +Committee showed themselves to come to terms with him for his miserable +pot-house, the more grasping he became in his demands for compensation. +They were ultimately obliged to pay him an exorbitant sum. Added to +this, the interior decorations were on the most costly scale; and Mrs. +Siddons, and other members of the Kemble family, together with the +celebrated Italian singer, Madame Catalani, had been engaged at very +high salaries. As the night of opening drew near, the Committee found +that they had gone a little beyond their means; and they issued a +notice, stating that, in consequence of the great expense they had been +at in building the theatre, and the large salaries they had agreed to +pay, to secure the services of the most eminent actors, they were under +the necessity of fixing the prices of admission at seven shillings to +the boxes and four shillings to the pit, instead of six shillings and +three and sixpence, as heretofore. + +This announcement created the greatest dissatisfaction. The boxes might +have borne the oppression, but the dignity of the pit was wounded. A +war-cry was raised immediately. For some weeks previous to the opening, +a continual clatter was kept up in clubs and coffee-rooms, against +what was considered a most unconstitutional aggression on the rights of +play-going man. The newspapers assiduously kept up the excitement, and +represented, day after day, to the managers the impolicy of the proposed +advance. The bitter politics of the time were disregarded, and Kemble +and Covent-Garden became as great sources of interest as Napoleon and +France. Public attention was the more fixed upon the proceedings at +Covent-Garden, since it was the only patent theatre then in existence, +Drury-Lane theatre having also been destroyed by fire in the month of +February previous. But great as was the indignation of the lovers of +the drama at that time, no one could have anticipated the extraordinary +lengths to which opposition would be carried. + +First Night, September 20th.--The performances announced were the +tragedy of "Macbeth" and the afterpiece of "The Quaker." The house was +excessively crowded (the pit especially) with persons who had gone +for no other purpose than to make a disturbance. They soon discovered +another grievance to add to the list. The whole of the lower, and +three-fourths of the upper tier of boxes, were let out for the season; +so that those who had paid at the door for a seat in the boxes, were +obliged to mount to a level with the gallery. Here they were stowed into +boxes which, from their size and shape, received the contemptuous, and +not inappropriate designation of pigeon-holes. This was considered in +the light of a new aggression upon established rights; and long before +the curtain drew up, the managers might have heard in their green-room +the indignant shouts of "Down with the pigeon-holes!"--"Old prices for +ever!" Amid this din the curtain rose, and Mr. Kemble stood forward to +deliver a poetical address in honour of the occasion. The riot now began +in earnest; not a word of the address was audible, from the stamping +and groaning of the people in the pit. This continued, almost without +intermission, through the five acts of the tragedy. Now and then, the +sublime acting of Mrs. Siddons, as "the awful woman," hushed the noisy +multitude into silence, in spite of themselves: but it was only for a +moment; the recollection of their fancied wrongs made them ashamed of +their admiration, and they shouted and hooted again more vigorously +than before. The comedy of Munden in the afterpiece met with no better +reception; not a word was listened to, and the curtain fell amid still +increasing uproar and shouts of "Old prices!" Some magistrates, who +happened to be present, zealously came to the rescue, and appeared on +the stage with copies of the Riot Act. This ill-judged proceeding made +the matter worse. The men of the pit were exasperated by the indignity, +and strained their lungs to express how deeply they felt it. Thus +remained the war till long after midnight, when the belligerents +withdrew from sheer exhaustion. + +Second Night.--The crowd was not so great; all those who had gone on the +previous evening to listen to the performances, now stayed away, and the +rioters had it nearly all to themselves. With the latter, "the play was +not the thing," and Macheath and Polly sang in "The Beggar's Opera" +in vain. The actors and the public appeared to have changed sides--the +audience acted, and the actors listened. A new feature of this night's +proceedings was the introduction of placards. Several were displayed +from the pit and boxes, inscribed in large letters with the words, "Old +prices." With a view of striking terror, the constables who had been +plentifully introduced into the house, attacked the placard-bearers, and +succeeded, after several severe battles, in dragging off a few of them +to the neighbouring watch-house, in Bow Street. Confusion now became +worse and worse confounded. The pitites screamed themselves hoarse; +while, to increase the uproar, some mischievous frequenters of the upper +regions squeaked through dozens of cat-calls, till the combined noise +was enough to blister every tympanum in the house. + +Third Night.--The appearance of several gentlemen in the morning at +the bar of the Bow Street police office, to answer for their riotous +conduct, had been indignantly commented upon during the day. All augured +ill for the quiet of the night. The performances announced were "Richard +the Third" and "The Poor Soldier," but the popularity of the tragedy +could not obtain it a hearing. The pitites seemed to be drawn into +closer union by the attacks made upon them, and to act more in concert +than on the previous nights. The placards were, also, more numerous; not +only the pit, but the boxes and galleries exhibited them. Among the most +conspicuous, was one inscribed, "John Bull against John Kemble.--Who'll +win?" Another bore "King George for ever! but no King Kemble." A third +was levelled against Madame Catalani, whose large salary was supposed +to be one of the causes of the increased prices, and was inscribed +"No foreigners to tax us--we're taxed enough already." This last was a +double-barrelled one, expressing both dramatic and political discontent, +and was received with loud cheers by the pitites. + +The tragedy and afterpiece were concluded full two hours before their +regular time; and the cries for Mr. Kemble became so loud, that the +manager thought proper to obey the summons. Amid all these scenes of +uproar he preserved his equanimity, and was never once betrayed into +any expression of petulance or anger. With some difficulty he obtained +a hearing. He entered into a detail of the affairs of the theatre, +assuring the audience at the same time of the solicitude of the +proprietors to accommodate themselves to the public wish. This was +received with some applause, as it was thought at first to manifest a +willingness to come back to the old prices, and the pit eagerly waited +for the next sentence, that was to confirm their hopes. That sentence +was never uttered, for Mr. Kemble, folding his arms majestically, added, +in his deep tragic voice, "Ladies and Gentlemen, I wait here to know +what you want!" Immediately the uproar was renewed, and became so +tremendous and so deafening, that the manager, seeing the uselessness of +further parley, made his bow and retired. + +A gentleman then rose in the boxes and requested a hearing. He obtained +it without difficulty. He began by inveighing in severe terms against +the pretended ignorance of Mr. Kemble, in asking them so offensively +what they wanted, and concluded by exhorting the people never to cease +their opposition until they brought down the prices to their old level. +The speaker, whose name was understood to be Leigh, then requested a +cheer for the actors, to show that no disrespect was intended them. The +cheer was given immediately. + +A barrister of the name of Smythe then rose to crave another hearing for +Mr. Kemble. The manager stood forth again, calm, unmoved, and severe. +"Ladies and gentlemen," said he, "I wait here to know your wishes." Mr. +Leigh, who took upon himself, "for that night only," the character of +popular leader, said, the only reply he could give was one in three +words, "the old prices." Hereat the shouts of applause again rose, till +the building rang. Still serene amid the storm, the manager endeavoured +to enter into explanations. The men of the pit would hear nothing of +the sort. They wanted entire and absolute acquiescence. Less would not +satisfy them; and, as Mr. Kemble only wished to explain, they would not +hear a word. He finally withdrew amid a noise to which Babel must have +been comparatively silent. + +Fourth night.--The rioters were more obstinate than ever. The noises +were increased by the addition of whistles, bugle-horns, and watchmen's +rattles, sniffling, snorting, and clattering from all parts of the +house. Human lungs were taxed to the uttermost, and the stamping on the +floor raised such a dust as to render all objects but dimly visible. In +placards, too, there was greater variety. The loose wits of the town had +all day been straining their ingenuity to invent new ones. Among them +were, "Come forth, O Kemble! come forth and tremble!" "Foolish John +Kemble, we'll make you tremble!" and "No cats! no Catalani! English +actors for ever!" + +Those who wish to oppose a mob successfully, should never lose their +temper. It is a proof of weakness which masses of people at once +perceive, and never fail to take advantage of. Thus, when the managers +unwisely resolved to fight the mob with their own weapons, it only +increased the opposition it was intended to allay. A dozen pugilists, +commanded by a notorious boxer of the day, were introduced into the +pit, to use the argumentum ad hominem to the rioters. Continual scuffles +ensued: but the invincible resolution of the playgoers would not allow +them to quail; it rather aroused them to renewed opposition, and a +determination never to submit or yield. It also strengthened their +cause, by affording them further ground of complaint against the +managers. + +The performances announced on the bills were the opera of "Love in a +Village," and "Who wins?" but the bills had it all to themselves, for +neither actors nor public were much burthened with them. The latter, +indeed, afforded some sport. The title was too apt to the occasion to +escape notice, and shouts of "Who wins? who wins?" displaced for a time +the accustomed cry of old prices. + +After the fall of the curtain, Mr. Leigh, with another gentleman, again +spoke, complaining bitterly of the introduction of the prize-fighters, +and exhorting the public never to give in. Mr. Kemble was again called +forward; but when he came, the full tide of discord ran so strongly +against him that, being totally unable to stem it, he withdrew. Each +man seemed to shout as if he had been a Stentor; and when his lungs were +wearied, took to his feet and stamped, till all the black coats in his +vicinity became grey with dust. At last the audience were tired out, and +the theatre was closed before eleven o'clock. + +Fifth night.--The play was Coleman's amusing comedy of "John Bull." +There was no diminution of the uproar. Every note on the diapason of +discord was run through. The prize-fighters, or hitites as they were +called, mustered in considerable numbers, and the battles between them +and the pitites were fierce and many. It was now, for the first time, +that the letters O.P. came into general use as an abbreviation of +the accustomed watchword of old prices. Several placards were thus +inscribed; and, as brevity is so desirable in shouting, the mob adopted +the emendation. As usual, the manager was called for. After some delay +he came forward, and was listened to with considerable patience. He +repeated, in respectful terms, the great loss that would be occasioned +to the proprietors by a return to the old prices, and offered to submit +a statement of their accounts to the eminent lawyers, Sir Vicary Gibbs +and Sir Thomas Plumer; the eminent merchants, Sir Francis Baring and Mr. +Angerstein; and Mr. Whitmore, the Governor of the Bank of England. By +their decision as to the possibility of carrying on the theatre at the +old prices, he would consent to be governed, and he hoped the public +would do the same. This reasonable proposition was scouted immediately. +Not even the high and reputable names he had mentioned were thought to +afford any guarantee for impartiality. The pitites were too wrong-headed +to abate one iota of their pretensions; and they had been too much +insulted by the prize-fighters in the manager's pay, to show any +consideration for him, or agree to any terms he might propose. They +wanted full acquiescence, and nothing less. Thus the conference broke +off, and the manager retired amid a storm of hisses. + +An Irish gentleman, named O'Reilly, then stood up in one of the boxes. +With true Irish gallantry, he came to the rescue of an ill-used lady. +He said he was disgusted at the attacks made upon Madame Catalani, the +finest singer in the world, and a lady inestimable in private life. It +was unjust, unmanly, and un-English to make the innocent suffer for the +guilty; and he hoped this blot would be no longer allowed to stain a +fair cause. As to the quarrel with the manager, he recommended them +to persevere. They were not only wronged by his increased prices, but +insulted by his boxers, and he hoped, that before they had done with +him, they would teach him a lesson he would not soon forget. The gallant +Hibernian soon became a favourite, and sat down amid loud cheers. + +Sixth night.--No signs of a cessation of hostilities on the one side, or +of a return to the old prices on the other. The playgoers seemed to grow +more united as the managers grew more obstinate. The actors had by far +the best time of it; for they were spared nearly all the labour of their +parts, and merely strutted on the stage to see how matters went on, +and then strutted off again. Notwithstanding the remonstrance of Mr. +O'Reilly on the previous night, numerous placards reflecting upon Madame +Catalani were exhibited. One was inscribed with the following doggrel:-- + + "Seventeen thousand a-year goes pat, + To Kemble, his sister, and Madame Cat." + +On another was displayed, in large letters, "No compromise, old prices, +and native talent!" Some of these were stuck against the front of the +boxes, and others were hoisted from the pit on long poles. The following +specimens will suffice to show the spirit of them; wit they had none, +or humour either, although when they were successively exhibited, they +elicited roars of laughter:-- + + "John Kemble alone is the cause of this riot; + When he lowers his prices, John Bull will be quiet." + + "John Kemble be damn'd, + We will not be cramm'd." + + "Squire Kemble + Begins to tremble." + +The curtain fell as early as nine o'clock, when there being loud calls +for Mr. Kemble, he stood forward. He announced that Madame Catalani, +against whom so unjustifiable a prejudice had been excited, had thrown +up her engagement rather than stand in the way of any accommodation +of existing differences. This announcement was received with +great applause. Mr. Kemble then went on to vindicate himself and +co-proprietors from the charge of despising public opinion. No +assertion, he assured them, could be more unjust. They were sincerely +anxious to bring these unhappy differences to a close, and he thought he +had acted in the most fair and reasonable manner in offering to submit +the accounts to an impartial committee, whose decision, and the grounds +for it, should be fully promulgated. This speech was received with +cheering, but interrupted at the close by some individuals, who objected +to any committee of the manager's nomination. This led to a renewal of +the uproar, and it was some time before silence could be obtained. When, +at last, he was able to make himself heard, he gave notice, that until +the decision of the committee had been drawn up, the theatre should +remain closed. Immediately every person in the pit stood up, and a long +shout of triumph resounded through the house, which was heard at the +extremity of Bow Street. As if this result had been anticipated, a +placard was at the same moment hoisted, inscribed, "Here lies the body +of NEW PRICE, an ugly brat and base born, who expired on the 23rd of +September 1809, aged six days.--Requiescat in pace!" + +Mr. Kemble then retired, and the pitites flung up their hats in the air, +or sprang over the benches, shouting and hallooing in the exuberance of +their joy; and thus ended the first act of this popular farce. + +The committee ultimately chosen differed from that first named, Alderman +Sir Charles Price, Bart. and Mr. Silvester, the Recorder of London, +being substituted for Sir Francis Baring and Sir Vicary Gibbs. In a few +days they had examined the multitudinous documents of the theatre, +and agreed to a report which was published in all the newspapers, +and otherwise distributed. They stated the average profits of the six +preceding years at 6 and 3/8 per cent, being only 1 and 3/8 per cent. +beyond the legal interest of money, to recompense the proprietors for +all their care and enterprise. Under the new prices they would receive +3 and 1/2 per cent. profit; but if they returned to the old prices, they +would suffer a loss of fifteen shillings per cent. upon their capital. +Under these circumstances, they could do no other than recommend the +proprietors to continue the new prices. + +This report gave no satisfaction. It certainly convinced the reasonable, +but they, unfortunately, were in a minority of one to ten. The managers, +disregarding the outcry that it excited, advertised the recommencement +of the performances for Wednesday the 4th of October following. They +endeavoured to pack the house with their friends, but the sturdy O.P. +men were on the alert, and congregated in the pit in great numbers. +The play was "The Beggar's Opera," but, as on former occasions, it +was wholly inaudible. The noises were systematically arranged, and +the actors, seeing how useless it was to struggle against the popular +feeling, hurried over their parts as quickly as they could, and the +curtain fell shortly after nine o'clock. Once more the manager essayed +the difficult task of convincing madness by appealing to reason. As soon +as the din of the rattles and post-horns would permit him to speak, he +said, he would throw himself on the fairness of the most enlightened +metropolis in the world. He was sure, however strongly they might +feel upon the subject, they would not be accessory to the ruin of +the theatre, by insisting upon a return to the former prices. +Notwithstanding the little sop he had thrown out to feed the vanity of +this roaring Cerberus, the only answer he received was a renewal of +the noise, intermingled with shouts of "Hoax! hoax! imposition!" Mr. +O'Reilly, the gallant friend of Madame Catalani, afterwards addressed +the pit, and said no reliance could be placed on the report of the +committee. The profits of the theatre were evidently great: they had +saved the heavy salary of Madame Catalani; and by shutting out the +public from all the boxes but the pigeon-holes, they made large +sums. The first and second tiers were let at high rents to notorious +courtesans, several of whom he then saw in the house; and it was clear +that the managers preferred a large revenue from this impure source to +the reasonable profits they would receive from respectable people. Loud +cheers greeted this speech; every eye was turned towards the boxes, and +the few ladies in them immediately withdrew. At the same moment, some +inveterate petite hoisted a large placard, on which was inscribed, + + "We lads of the pit + Will never submit." + +Several others were introduced. One of them was a caricature likeness of +Mr. Kemble, asking, "What do you want?" with a pitite replying, "The old +prices, and no pigeon-holes!" Others merely bore the drawing of a large +key, in allusion to a notorious house in the neighbourhood, the denizens +of which were said to be great frequenters of the private boxes. These +appeared to give the managers more annoyance than all the rest, and the +prize-fighters made vigorous attacks upon the holders of them. Several +persons were, on this night, and indeed nearly every night, taken +into custody, and locked up in the watchhouse. On their appearance the +following morning, they were generally held to bail in considerable sums +to keep the peace. This proceeding greatly augmented the animosity of +the pit. + +It would be useless to detail the scenes of confusion which followed +night after night. For about three weeks the war continued with unabated +fury. Its characteristics were nearly always the same. Invention was +racked to discover new noises, and it was thought a happy idea when +one fellow got into the gallery with a dustman's bell, and rang it +furiously. Dogs were also brought into the boxes, to add their sweet +voices to the general uproar. The animals seemed to join in it con +amore, and one night a large mastiff growled and barked so loudly, as to +draw down upon his exertions three cheers from the gratified pitites. + +So strong did the popular enthusiasm run in favour of the row, that +well-dressed ladies appeared in the boxes with the letters O. P. on +their bonnets. O. P. hats for the gentlemen were still more common, +and some were so zealous in the cause, as to sport waistcoats with an +O embroidered upon one flap and a P on the other. O.P. toothpicks were +also in fashion; and gentlemen and ladies carried O.P. handkerchiefs, +which they waved triumphantly whenever the row was unusually deafening. +The latter suggested the idea of O. P. flags, which were occasionally +unfurled from the gallery to the length of a dozen feet. Sometimes the +first part of the night's performances were listened to with comparative +patience, a majority of the manager's friends being in possession of the +house. But as soon as the half-price commenced, the row began again +in all its pristine glory. At the fall of the curtain it soon became +customary to sing "God save the King," the whole of the O.P.'s joining +in loyal chorus. Sometimes this was followed by "Rule Britannia;" and, +on two or three occasions, by a parody of the national anthem, which +excited great laughter. A verse may not be uninteresting as a specimen. + + "O Johnny Bull, be true, + Confound the prices new, + And make them fall! + Curse Kemble's politics, + Frustrate his knavish tricks, + On thee our hopes we fix, + T' upset them all!" + +This done, they scrambled over the benches, got up sham fights in +the pit, or danced the famous O.P. dance. The latter may as well be +described here: half a dozen, or a dozen fellows formed in a ring, and +stamped alternately with the right and left foot, calling out at regular +intervals, O. P.--O. P. with a drawling and monotonous sound. This +uniformly lasted till the lights were put out, when the rioters +withdrew, generally in gangs of ten or twenty, to defend themselves from +sudden attacks on the part of the constables. + +An idea seemed about this time to break in upon them, that +notwithstanding the annoyance they caused the manager, they were aiding +to fill his coffers. This was hinted at in some of the newspapers, and +the consequence was, that many stayed away to punish him, if possible, +under the silent system. But this did not last long. The love of +mischief was as great an incentive to many of them as enmity to the +new prices. Accidental circumstances also contributed to disturb the +temporary calm. At the Westminster quarter-sessions, on the 27th of +October, bills of indictment were preferred against forty-one persons +for creating a disturbance and interrupting the performances of the +theatre. The grand jury ignored twenty-seven of the bills, left two +undecided, and found true bills against twelve. The latter exercised +their right of traverse till the ensuing sessions. The preferment of +these bills had the effect of re-awakening the subsiding excitement. +Another circumstance about the same time gave a still greater impetus to +it, and furnished the rioters with a chief, round whom they were eager +to rally. Mr. Clifford, a barrister, appeared in the pit on the night of +the 31st of October, with the letters O. P. on his hat. Being a man of +some note, he was pounced upon by the constables, and led off to Bow +Street police office, where Brandon, the box-keeper, charged him with +riotous and disorderly conduct. This was exactly what Clifford wanted. +He told the presiding magistrate, a Mr. Read, that he had purposely +displayed the letters on his hat, in order that the question of right +might be determined before a competent tribunal. He denied that he +had committed any offence, and seemed to manifest so intimate an +acquaintance with the law upon the subject, that the magistrate, +convinced by his reasoning, ordered his immediate dismissal, and stated +that he had been taken into custody without the slightest grounds. The +result was made known in the theatre a few minutes afterwards, where +Mr. Clifford, on his appearance victorious, was received with reiterated +huzzas. On his leaving the house, he was greeted by a mob of five or +six hundred persons, who had congregated outside to do him honour as he +passed. From that night the riots may be said to have recommenced, and +"Clifford and O. P." became the rallying cry of the party. The officious +box-keeper became at the same time the object of the popular dislike, +and the contempt with which the genius and fine qualities of Mr. Kemble +would not permit them to regard him, was fastened upon his underling. +So much ill-feeling was directed towards the latter, that at this time a +return to the old prices, unaccompanied by his dismissal, would not have +made the manager's peace with the pitites. + +In the course of the few succeeding weeks, during which the riots +continued with undiminished fury, O. P. medals were struck, and worn in +great numbers in the theatre. A few of the ultra-zealous even wore +them in the streets. A new fashion also came into favour for hats, +waistcoats, and handkerchiefs, on which the mark, instead of the +separate letters O and P, was a large O, with a small P in the middle of +it: thus, + + xxxxxxxxx + x x + x xxx x + x x x x + x xxx x + x x x + x x x + x x + xxxxxxxxx + +The managers, seeing that Mr. Clifford was so identified with the +rioters, determined to make him responsible. An action was accordingly +brought against him and other defendants in the Court of King's Bench. +On the 20th of November, the Attorney-general moved, before Lord +Ellenborough, for a rule to show cause why a criminal information should +not be filed against Clifford for unlawfully conspiring with certain +others to intimidate the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, and force +them, to their loss and detriment, to lower their prices of admission. +The rule was granted, and an early day fixed for the trial. In the mean +time, these proceedings kept up the acerbity of the O. P.s, and every +night at the fall of the curtain, three groans were given for John +Kemble and three cheers for John Bull. + +It was during this year that the national Jubilee was celebrated, in +honour of the fiftieth year of the reign of George III. When the riots +had reached their fiftieth night, the O. P.s also determined to have a +jubilee. All their previous efforts in the way of roaring, great as they +were, were this night outdone, and would have continued long after "the +wee short hour," had not the managers wisely put the extinguisher upon +them and the lights about eleven o'clock. + +Pending the criminal prosecution against himself, Mr. Clifford brought +an action for false imprisonment against Brandon. The cause was fixed +for trial in the Court of Common Pleas, on the 5th of December, before +Lord Chief-Justice Mansfield. From an early hour in the morning all the +avenues leading to the court were thronged with an eager multitude; +all London was in anxiety for the resuit. So dense was the crowd, that +counsel found the greatest difficulty in making their way into court. +Mr. Sergeant Best was retained on the part of the plaintiff, and Mr. +Sergeant Shepherd for the defence. The defendant put two pleas upon +the record; first, that he was not guilty, and secondly, that he was +justified. Sergeant Best, in stating the plaintiff's case, blamed the +managers for all the disturbances that had taken place, and contended +that his client, in affixing the letters O. P. to his hat, was not +guilty of any offence. Even if he had joined in the noises, which he had +not, his so doing would not subject him to the penalties for rioting. +Several witnesses were then called to prove the capture of Mr. Clifford, +the hearing of the case before the magistrate at Bow Street, and his +ultimate dismissal. Sergeant Shepherd was heard at great length on the +other side, and contended that his client was perfectly justified in +taking into custody a man who was inciting others to commit a breach of +the peace. + +The Lord Chief-Justice summed up, with an evident bias in favour of the +defendant. He said an undue apprehension of the rights of an audience +had got abroad. Even supposing the object of the rioters to be fair and +legal, they were not authorized to carry it by unfair means. In order to +constitute a riot, it was not necessary that personal violence should be +committed, and it seemed to him that the defendant had not acted in an +improper manner in giving into custody a person who, by the display of a +symbol, was encouraging others to commit a riot. + +The jury retired to consider their verdict. The crowd without and within +the court awaited the result in feverish suspense. Half an hour elapsed, +when the jury returned with a verdict for the plaintiff--Damages, +five pounds. The satisfaction of the spectators was evident upon their +countenances, that of the judge expressed the contrary feeling. Turning +to the foreman of the jury, his Lordship asked upon which of the two +points referred to them, namely, the broad question, whether a riot +had been committed, and, if committed, whether the plaintiff had +participated in it, they had found their verdict? + +The foreman stated, that they were all of opinion generally that the +plaintiff had been illegally arrested. This vague answer did not satisfy +his Lordship, and he repeated his question. He could not, however, +obtain a more satisfactory reply. Evidently vexed at what he deemed the +obtuseness or partiality of the jury, he turned to the bar, and said, +that a spirit of a mischievous and destructive nature was abroad, which, +if not repressed, threatened awful consequences. The country would be +lost, he said, and the government overturned, if such a spirit were +encouraged; it was impossible it could end in good. Time, the destroyer +and fulfiller of predictions, has proved that his Lordship was a false +prophet. The harmless O. P. war has been productive of no such dire +results. + +It was to be expected that after this triumph, the war in the pit would +rage with redoubled acrimony. A riot beginning at half-price would +not satisfy the excited feelings of the O. P.s on the night of such +a victory. Long before the curtain drew up, the house was filled with +them, and several placards were exhibited, which the constables and +friends of the managers strove, as usual, to tear into shreds. One of +them, which met this fate, was inscribed, "Success to O.P.! A British +jury for ever!" It was soon replaced by another of a similar purport. It +is needless to detail the uproar that ensued; the jumping, the fighting, +the roaring, and the howling. For nine nights more the same system was +continued; but the end was at hand. + +On the 14th a grand dinner was given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, to +celebrate the victory of Mr. Clifford. "The reprobators of managerial +insolence," as they called themselves, attended in considerable numbers; +and Mr. Clifford was voted to the chair. The cloth had been removed, and +a few speeches made, when the company were surprised by a message that +their arch-enemy himself solicited the honour of an audience. It was +some time ere they could believe that Mr. Kemble had ventured to such a +place. After some parley the manager was admitted, and a conference was +held. A treaty was ultimately signed and sealed, which put an end to the +long-contested wars of O.P., and restored peace to the drama. + +All this time the disturbance proceeded at the theatre with its usual +spirit. It was now the sixty-sixth night of its continuance, and the +rioters were still untired--still determined to resist to the last. +In the midst of it a gentleman arrived from the Crown and Anchor, and +announced to the pit that Mr. Kemble had attended the dinner, and had +yielded at last to the demand of the public. He stated, that it had +been agreed upon between him and the Committee for defending the persons +under prosecution, that the boxes should remain at the advanced price; +that the pit should be reduced to three shillings and sixpence; that the +private boxes should be done away with; and that all prosecutions, on +both sides, should be immediately stayed. This announcement was received +with deafening cheers. As soon as the first burst of enthusiasm was +over, the O. P.s became anxious for a confirmation of the intelligence, +and commenced a loud call for Mr. Kemble. He had not then returned from +the Crown and Anchor; but of this the pitites were not aware, and for +nearly half an hour they kept up a most excruciating din. At length the +great actor made his appearance, in his walking dress, with his cane +in hand, as he had left the tavern. It was a long time before he +could obtain silence. He apologized in the most respectful terms for +appearing before them in such unbecoming costume, which was caused +solely by his ignorance that he should have to appear before them that +night. After announcing, as well as occasional interruptions would +allow, the terms that had been agreed upon, he added, "In order that +no trace or recollection of the past differences, which had unhappily +prevailed so long, should remain, he was instructed by the proprietors +to say, that they most sincerely lamented the course that had been +pursued, and engaged that, on their parts, all legal proceedings should +forthwith be put a stop to." The cheering which greeted this speech +was interrupted at the close by loud cries from the pit of +"Dismiss Brandon," while one or two exclaimed, "We want old prices +generally,--six shillings for the boxes." After an ineffectual attempt +to address them again upon this point, Mr. Kemble made respectful and +repeated obeisances, and withdrew. The noises still continued, until +Munden stood forward, leading by the hand the humbled box-keeper, +contrition in his looks, and in his hands a written apology, which he +endeavoured to read. The uproar was increased threefold by his presence, +and, amid cries of "We won't hear him!" "Where's his master?" he +was obliged to retire. Mr. Harris, the son of Kemble's co-manager, +afterwards endeavoured to propitiate the audience in his favour; but +it was of no avail; nothing less than his dismissal would satisfy the +offended majesty of the pit. Amid this uproar the curtain finally fell, +and the O. P. dance was danced for the last time within the walls of +Covent Garden. + +On the following night it was announced that Brandon had resigned his +situation. This turned the tide of popular ill-will. The performances +were "The Wheel of Fortune," and an afterpiece. The house was crowded +to excess; a desire to be pleased was manifest on every countenance, +and when Mr. Kemble, who took his favourite character of Penruddock, +appeared upon the stage, he was greeted with the most vehement applause. +The noises ceased entirely, and the symbols of opposition disappeared. +The audience, hushed into attention, gave vent to no sounds but those of +admiration for the genius of the actor. When, in the course of his part, +he repeated the words, "So! I am in London again!" the aptness of the +expression to the circumstances of the night, was felt by all present, +and acknowledged by a round of boisterous and thrice repeated cheering. +It was a triumphant scene for Mr. Kemble after his long annoyances. He +had achieved a double victory. He had, not only as a manager, soothed +the obstinate opposition of the play-goers, but as an actor he had +forced from one of the largest audiences he had ever beheld, approbation +more cordial and unanimous than he had ever enjoyed before. The popular +favour not only turned towards him; it embraced everybody connected +with the theatre, except the poor victim, Brandon. Most of the favourite +actors were called before the curtain to make their bow, and receive +the acclamations of the pit. At the close of the performances, a few +individuals, implacable and stubborn, got up a feeble cry of "Old prices +for the boxes;" but they were quickly silenced by the reiterated cheers +of the majority, or by cries of "Turn them out!" A placard, the last +of its race, was at the same time exhibited in the front of the pit, +bearing, in large letters, the words "We are satisfied." + +Thus ended the famous wars of O. P., which, for a period of nearly three +months, had kept the metropolis in an uproar. And after all, what was +the grand result? As if the whole proceeding had been a parody upon the +more destructive, but scarcely more sensible wars recorded in history, +it was commenced in injustice, carried on in bitterness of spirit, and +ended, like the labour of the mountain, in a mouse. The abatement of +sixpence in the price of admission to the pit, and the dismissal of an +unfortunate servant, whose only fault was too much zeal in the service +of his employers,--such were the grand victories of the O. P.'s. + + + + +THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. + + Orribili favelle--parole di dolor.--DANTE. + +Among the black deeds which Superstition has imposed as duties upon +her wretched votaries, none are more horrible than the practices of the +murderers, who, under the name of Thugs, or Phansigars, have so long +been the scourge of India. For ages they have pursued their dark and +dreadful calling, moulding assassination into a science, or extolling it +as a virtue, worthy only to be practised by a race favoured of Heaven. +Of late years this atrocious delusion has excited much attention, both +in this country and in India; an attention which, it is to be hoped, +will speedily lead to the uprooting of a doctrine so revolting and +anti-human. Although the British Government has extended over Hindostan +for so long a period, it does not appear that Europeans even suspected +the existence of this mysterious sect until the commencement of the +present century. In the year 1807, a gang of Thugs, laden with the +plunder of murdered travellers, was accidentally discovered. The +inquiries then set on foot revealed to the astonished Government a +system of iniquity unparalleled in the history of man. Subsequent +investigation extended the knowledge; and by throwing light upon the +peculiar habits of the murderers, explained the reason why their crimes +had remained so long undiscovered. In the following pages will be found +an epitome of all the information which has reached Europe concerning +them, derived principally from Dr. Sherwood's treatise upon the subject, +published in 1816, and the still more valuable and more recent work of +Mr. Sleeman, entitled the "Ramaseeana; or, Vocabulary of the peculiar +Language of the Thugs." + +The followers of this sect are called Thugs, or T'hugs, and their +profession Thuggee. In the south of India they are called Phansigars: +the former word signifying "a deceiver;" and the latter, "a strangler." +They are both singularly appropriate. The profession of Thuggee is +hereditary, and embraces, it is supposed, in every part of India, a +body of at least ten thousand individuals, trained to murder from their +childhood; carrying it on in secret and in silence, yet glorying in it, +and holding the practice of it higher than any earthly honour. During +the winter months, they usually follow some reputable calling, to elude +suspicion; and in the summer, they set out in gangs over all the roads +of India, to plunder and destroy. These gangs generally contain from ten +to forty Thugs, and sometimes as many as two hundred. Each strangler is +provided with a noose, to despatch the unfortunate victim, as the Thugs +make it a point never to cause death by any other means. When the gangs +are very large, they divide into smaller bodies; and each taking a +different route, they arrive at the same general place of rendezvous to +divide the spoil. They sometimes travel in the disguise of respectable +traders; sometimes as sepoys or native soldiers; and at others, as +government officers. If they chance to fall in with an unprotected +wayfarer, his fate is certain. One Thug approaches him from behind, and +throws the end of a sash round his neck; the other end is seized by a +second at the same instant, crossed behind the neck, and drawn tightly, +while with their other hand the two Thugs thrust his head forward to +expedite the strangulation: a third Thug seizes the traveller by the +legs at the same moment, and he is thrown to the ground, a corpse before +he reaches it. + +But solitary travellers are not the prey they are anxious to seek. A +wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals has not unfrequently been +destroyed by them; not one soul being permitted to escape. Indeed, there +is hardly an instance upon record of any one's escape from their hands, +so surely are their measures taken, and so well do they calculate +beforehand all the risks and difficulties of the undertaking. +Each individual of the gang has his peculiar duty allotted to him. +Upon-approaching a town, or serai, two or three, known as the Soothaes, +or "inveiglers," are sent in advance to ascertain if any travellers are +there; to learn, if possible, the amount of money or merchandize they +carry with them, their hours of starting in the morning, or any +other particulars that may be of use. If they can, they enter into +conversation with them, pretend to be travelling to the same place, and +propose, for mutual security, to travel with them. This intelligence +is duly communicated to the remainder of the gang. The place usually +chosen for the murder is some lonely part of the road in the vicinity of +a jungle, and the time, just before dusk. At given signals, understood +only by themselves, the scouts of the party station themselves in the +front, in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surprise. A +strangler and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place +themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the +victim, without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose +is twisted, drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the +traveller, in a few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, twenty, +and in some instances, sixty persons have been thus despatched at the +same moment. Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their hands, he +falls into those of the scouts who are stationed within hearing, who run +upon him and soon overpower him. + +Their next care is to dispose of the bodies. So cautious are they to +prevent detection, that they usually break all the joints to hasten +decomposition. They then cut open the body to prevent it swelling in the +grave and causing fissures in the soil above, by which means the jackals +might be attracted to the spot, and thereby lead to discovery. When +obliged to bury the body in a frequented district, they kindle a fire +over the grave to obliterate the traces of the newly turned earth. +Sometimes the grave-diggers of the party, whose office, like that of +all the rest, is hereditary, are despatched to make the graves in the +morning at some distant spot, by which it is known the travellers will +pass. The stranglers, in the mean time, journey quietly with their +victims, conversing with them in the most friendly manner. Towards +nightfall they approach the spot selected for their murder; the signal +is given, and they fall into the graves that have been ready for them +since day-break. On one occasion, related by Captain Sleeman, a party +of fifty-nine people, consisting of fifty-two men and seven women, were +thus simultaneously strangled, and thrown into the graves prepared for +them in the morning. Some of these travellers were on horseback and well +armed, but the Thugs, who appear to have been upwards of two hundred +in a gang, had provided against all risk of failure. The only one left +alive of all that numerous party, was an infant four years old, who was +afterwards initiated into all the mysteries of Thuggee. + +If they cannot find a convenient opportunity for disposing of the +bodies, they carry them for many miles, until they come to a spot +secure from intrusion, and to a soil adapted to receive them. If fear of +putrefaction admonishes them to use despatch, they set up a large screen +or tent, as other travellers do, and bury the body within the enclosure, +pretending, if inquiries are made, that their women are within. But this +only happens when they fall in with a victim unexpectedly. In murders +which they have planned previously, the finding of a place of sepulture +is never left to hazard. + +Travellers who have the misfortune to lodge in the same choultry or +hostelry, as the Thugs, are often murdered during the night. It +is either against their creed to destroy a sleeper, or they find +a difficulty in placing the noose round the neck of a person in a +recumbent position. When this is the case, the slumberer is suddenly +aroused by the alarm of a snake or a scorpion. He starts to his feet, +and finds the fatal sash around his neck.--He never escapes. + +In addition to these Thugs who frequent the highways, there are others, +who infest the rivers, and are called Pungoos. They do not differ in +creed, but only in a few of their customs, from their brethren on shore. +They go up and down the rivers in their own boats, pretending to be +travellers of consequence, or pilgrims, proceeding to, or returning from +Benares, Allahabad, or other sacred places. The boatmen, who are also +Thugs, are not different in appearance from the ordinary boatmen on +the river. The artifices used to entice victims on board are precisely +similar to those employed by the highway Thugs. They send out their +"inveiglers" to scrape acquaintance with travellers, and find out the +direction in which they are journeying. They always pretend to be bound +for the same place, and vaunt the superior accommodation of the boat by +which they are going. The travellers fall into the snare, are led to the +Thug captain, who very often, to allay suspicion, demurs to take them, +but eventually agrees for a moderate sum. The boat strikes off into the +middle of the stream; the victims are amused and kept in conversation +for hours by their insidious foes, until three taps are given on the +deck above. This is a signal from the Thugs on the look-out that +the coast is clear. In an instant the fatal noose is ready, and +the travellers are no more. The bodies are then thrown, warm and +palpitating, into the river, from a hole in the side of the boat, +contrived expressly for the purpose. + +A river Thug, who was apprehended, turned approver, to save his own +life, and gave the following evidence relative to the practices of his +fraternity:--"We embarked at Rajmahul. The travellers sat on one side +of the boat, and the Thugs on the other; while we three (himself and two +"stranglers,") were placed in the stern, the Thugs on our left, and the +travellers on our right. Some of the Thugs, dressed as boatmen, were +above deck, and others walking along the bank of the river, and pulling +the boat by the joon, or rope, and all, at the same time, on the +look-out. We came up with a gentleman's pinnace and two baggage-boats, +and were obliged to stop, and let them go on. The travellers seemed +anxious; but were quieted by being told that the men at the rope were +tired, and must take some refreshment. They pulled out something, and +began to eat; and when the pinnace had got on a good way, they resumed +their work, and our boat proceeded. It was now afternoon; and, when +a signal was given above, that all was clear, the five Thugs who sat +opposite the travellers sprang in upon them, and, with the aid of +others, strangled them. Having done this, they broke their spinal bones, +and then threw them out of a hole made at the side, into the river, and +kept on their course; the boat being all this time pulled along by the +men on the bank." + +That such atrocities as these should have been carried on for nearly +two centuries without exciting the attention of the British Government, +seems incredible. But our wonder will be diminished when we reflect upon +the extreme caution of the Thugs, and the ordinary dangers of travelling +in India. The Thugs never murder a man near his own home, and they never +dispose of their booty near the scene of the murder. They also pay, in +common with other and less atrocious robbers, a portion of their gains +to the Polygars, or native authorities of the districts in which they +reside, to secure protection. The friends and relatives of the victims, +perhaps a thousand miles off, never surmise their fate till a period +has elapsed when all inquiry would be fruitless, or, at least, extremely +difficult. They have no clue to the assassins, and very often impute to +the wild beasts of the jungles the slaughter committed by that wilder +beast, man. + +There are several gradations through which every member of the +fraternity must regularly pass before he arrives at the high office of +a Bhurtote, or strangler. He is first employed as a scout--then as +a sexton--then as a Shumseea, or holder of hands, and lastly as a +Bhurtote. When a man who is not of Thug lineage, or who has not been +brought up from his infancy among them, wishes to become a strangler, +he solicits the oldest, and most pious and experienced Thug, to take him +under his protection and make him his disciple; and under his guidance +he is regularly initiated. When he has acquired sufficient experience +in the lower ranks of the profession, he applies to his Gooroo, or +preceptor, to give the finishing grace to his education, and make a +strangler of him. An opportunity is found when a solitary traveller is +to be murdered; and the tyro, with his preceptor, having seen that +the proposed victim is asleep, and in safe keeping till their +return, proceed to a neighbouring field and perform several religious +ceremonies, accompanied by three or four of the oldest and steadiest +members of the gang. The Gooroo first offers up a prayer to the goddess, +saying, "Oh, Kalee! Kun-kalee! Bhud-kalee! Oh, Kalee! Maha-kalee! +Calkutta Walee! if it seems fit to thee that the traveller now at our +lodging should die by the hands of this thy slave, vouchsafe us thy +good omen." They then sit down and watch for the good omen; and if +they receive it within half an hour, conclude that their goddess is +favourable to the claims of the new candidate for admission. If they +have a bad omen, or no omen at all, some other Thug must put the +traveller to death, and the aspirant must wait a more favourable +opportunity, purifying himself in the mean time by prayer and +humiliation for the favour of the goddess. If the good omen has +been obtained, they return to their quarters; and the Gooroo takes a +handkerchief and, turning his face to the west, ties a knot at one end +of it, inserting a rupee, or other piece of silver. This knot is called +the goor khat, or holy knot, and no man who has not been properly +ordained is allowed to tie it. The aspirant receives it reverently in +his right hand from his Gooroo, and stands over the sleeping victim, +with a Shumseea, or holder of hands, at his side. The traveller is +aroused, the handkerchief is passed around his neck, and, at a signal +from the Gooroo, is drawn tight till the victim is strangled; the +Shumseea holding his hands to prevent his making any resistance. The +work being now completed, the Bhurtote (no longer an aspirant, but an +admitted member) bows down reverently in the dust before his Gooroo, and +touches his feet with both his hands, and afterwards performs the same +respect to his relatives and friends who have assembled to witness the +solemn ceremony. He then waits for another favourable omen, when he +unties the knot and takes out the rupee, which he gives to his Gooroo, +with any other silver which he may have about him. The Gooroo adds +some of his own money, with which he purchases what they call goor, or +consecrated sugar, when a solemn sacrifice is performed, to which +all the gang are invited. The relationship between the Gooroo and his +disciple is accounted the most holy that can be formed, and subsists to +the latest period of life. A Thug may betray his father, but never his +Gooroo. + +Dark and forbidding as is the picture already drawn, it will become +still darker and more repulsive, when we consider the motives which +prompt these men to systematic murder. Horrible as their practices +would be, if love of plunder alone incited them, it is infinitely more +horrible to reflect that the idea of duty and religion is joined to the +hope of gain, in making them the scourges of their fellows. If plunder +were their sole object, there would be reason to hope, that when a +member of the brotherhood grew rich, he would rest from his infernal +toils; but the dismal superstition which he cherishes tells him never +to desist. He was sent into the world to be a slayer of men, and he +religiously works out his destiny. As religiously he educates his +children to pursue the same career, instilling into their minds, at the +earliest age, that Thuggee is the noblest profession a man can follow, +and that the dark goddess they worship will always provide rich +travellers for her zealous devotees. + +The following is the wild and startling legend upon which the Thugs +found the divine origin of their sect. They believe that, in the +earliest ages of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and +devoured mankind as soon as they were created. He was of so tall a +stature, that when he strode through the most unfathomable depths of the +great sea, the waves, even in tempest, could not reach above his middle. +His insatiable appetite for human flesh almost unpeopled the world, +until Bhawanee, Kalee, or Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, determined to +save mankind by the destruction of the monster. Nerving herself for the +encounter, she armed herself with an immense sword; and, meeting with +the demon, she ran him through the body. His blood flowed in torrents +as he fell dead at her feet; but from every drop there sprang up another +monster, as rapacious and as terrible as the first. Again the goddess +upraised her massive sword, and hewed down the hellish brood by +hundreds; but the more she slew, the more numerous they became. Every +drop of their blood generated a demon; and, although the goddess +endeavoured to lap up the blood ere it sprang into life, they increased +upon her so rapidly, that the labour of killing became too great for +endurance. The perspiration rolled down her arms in large drops, and she +was compelled to think of some other mode of exterminating them. In this +emergency, she created two men out of the perspiration of her body, +to whom she confided the holy task of delivering the earth from the +monsters. To each of the men she gave a handkerchief, and showed them +how to kill without shedding blood. From her they learned to tie the +fatal noose; and they became, under her tuition, such expert stranglers, +that, in a very short space of time, the race of demons became extinct. + +When there were no more to slay, the two men sought the great goddess, +in order to return the handkerchiefs. The grateful Bhawanee desired that +they would retain them, as memorials of their heroic deeds; and in order +that they might never lose the dexterity that they had acquired in using +them, she commanded that, from thenceforward, they should strangle +men. These were the two first Thugs, and from them the whole race +have descended. To the early Thugs the goddess was more direct in her +favours, than she has been to their successors. At first, she undertook +to bury the bodies of all the men they slew and plundered, upon the +condition that they should never look back to see what she was doing. +The command was religiously observed for many ages, and the Thugs relied +with implicit faith upon the promise of Bhawanee; but as men became +more corrupt, the ungovernable curiosity of a young Thug offended the +goddess, and led to the withdrawal of a portion of her favour. This +youth, burning with a desire to see how she made her graves, looked +back, and beheld her in the act, not of burying, but of devouring, the +body of a man just strangled. Half of the still palpitating remains was +dangling over her lips. She was so highly displeased that she condemned +the Thugs, from that time forward, to bury their victims themselves. +Another account states that the goddess was merely tossing the body in +the air; and that, being naked, her anger was aggravated by the gaze +of mortal eyes upon her charms. Before taking a final leave of her +devotees, she presented them with one of her teeth for a pickaxe, one +of her ribs for a knife, and the hem of her garment for a noose. She has +not since appeared to human eyes. + +The original tooth having been lost in the lapse of ages, new pickaxes +have been constructed, with great care and many ceremonies, by each +considerable gang of Thugs, to be used in making the graves of strangled +travellers. The pickaxe is looked upon with the utmost veneration by +the tribe. A short account of the process of making it, and the rites +performed, may be interesting, as showing still further their gloomy +superstition. In the first place, it is necessary to fix upon a lucky +day. The chief Thug then instructs a smith to forge the holy instrument: +no other eye is permitted to see the operation. The smith must engage +in no other occupation until it is completed, and the chief Thug never +quits his side during the process. When the instrument is formed, it +becomes necessary to consecrate it to the especial service of Bhawnee. +Another lucky day is chosen for this ceremony, care being had in the +mean time that the shadow of no earthly thing fall upon the pickaxe, as +its efficacy would be for ever destroyed. A learned Thug then sits down; +and turning his face to the west, receives the pickaxe in a brass +dish. After muttering some incantation, he throws it into a pit already +prepared for it, where it is washed in clear water. It is then taken +out, and washed again three times; the first time in sugar and water, +the second in sour milk, and the third in spirits. It is then dried, +and marked from the head to the point with seven red spots. This is the +first part of the ceremony: the second consists in its purification +by fire. The pickaxe is again placed upon the brass dish, along with a +cocoa-nut, some sugar, cloves, white sandal-wood, and other articles. A +fire of the mango tree, mixed with dried cow-dung, is then kindled; +and the officiating Thug, taking the pickaxe with both hands, passes it +seven times through the flames. + +It now remains to be ascertained whether the goddess is favourable to +her followers. For this purpose, the cocoa-nut is taken from the +dish and placed upon the ground. The officiating Thug, turning to the +spectators, and holding the axe uplifted, asks, "Shall I strike?" Assent +being given, he strikes the nut with the but-end of the axe, exclaiming, +"All hail! mighty Davee! great mother of us all!" The spectators +respond, "All hail! mighty Davee! and prosper thy children, the Thugs!" + +If the nut is severed at the first blow, the goddess is favourable; +if not, she is unpropitious: all their labour is thrown away, and the +ceremony must be repeated upon some more fitting occasion. But if the +sign be favourable, the axe is tied carefully in a white cloth and +turned towards the west, all the spectators prostrating themselves +before it. It is then buried in the earth, with its point turned in the +direction the gang wishes to take on their approaching expedition. If +the goddess desires to warn them that they will be unsuccessful, or that +they have not chosen the right track, the Thugs believe that the point +of the axe will veer round, and point to the better way. During an +expedition, it is entrusted to the most prudent and exemplary Thug of +the party: it is his care to hold it fast. If by any chance he should +let it fall, consternation spreads through the gang: the goddess is +thought to be offended; the enterprise is at once abandoned; and the +Thugs return home in humiliation and sorrow, to sacrifice to their +gloomy deity, and win back her estranged favour. So great is the +reverence in which they hold the sacred axe, that a Thug will never +break an oath that he has taken upon it. He fears that, should he +perjure himself, his neck would be so twisted by the offended Bhawanee +as to make his face turn to his back; and that, in the course of a few +days, he would expire in the most excruciating agonies. + +The Thugs are diligent observers of signs and omens. No expedition +is ever undertaken before the auspices are solemnly taken. Upon this +subject Captain Sleeman says, "Even the most sensible approvers, who +have been with me for many years, as well Hindoos as Mussulmans, believe +that their good or ill success depended upon the skill with which the +omens were discovered and interpreted, and the strictness with which +they were observed and obeyed. One of the old Sindouse stock told me, +in presence of twelve others, from Hydrabad, Behar, the Dooah, Oude, +Rajpootana, and Bundelcund, that, had they not attended to these omens, +they never could have thrived as they did. In ordinary cases of murder, +other men seldom escaped punishment, while they and their families had, +for ten generations, thrived, although they had murdered hundreds of +people. 'This,' said the Thug,' could never have been the case had we +not attended to omens, and had not omens been intended for us. There +were always signs around us to guide us to rich booty, and warn us of +danger, had we been always wise enough to discern them and religious +enough to attend to them.' Every Thug present concurred with him from +his soul." + +A Thug, of polished manners and great eloquence, being asked by a native +gentleman, in the presence of Captain Sleeman, whether he never felt +compunction in murdering innocent people, replied with a smile that he +did not. "Does any man," said he, "feel compunction in following his +trade? and are not all our trades assigned us by Providence?" He was +then asked how many people he had killed with his own hands in the +course of his life? "I have killed none," was the reply. "What! and +have you not been describing a number of murders in which you were +concerned?" "True; but do you suppose that I committed them? Is any man +killed by man's killing? Is it not the hand of God that kills, and are +we not the mere instruments in the hands of God?" + +Upon another occasion, Sahib, an approver, being asked if he had never +felt any pity or compunction at murdering old men or young children, +or persons with whom he had sat and conversed, and who had told him, +perchance, of their private affairs--their hopes and their fears, their +wives and their little ones? replied unhesitatingly that he never did. +From the time that the omens were favourable, the Thugs considered all +the travellers they met as victims thrown into their hands by their +divinity to be killed. The Thugs were the mere instruments in the hands +of Bhawanee to destroy them. "If we did not kill them," said Sahib, "the +goddess would never again be propitious to us, and we and our families +would be involved in misery and want. If we see or hear a bad omen, it +is the order of the goddess not to kill the travellers we are in pursuit +of, and we dare not disobey." + +As soon as an expedition has been planned, the goddess is consulted. On +the day chosen for starting, which is never during the unlucky months of +July, September, and December, nor on a Wednesday or Thursday; the chief +Thug of the party fills a brass jug with water, which he carries in +his right hand by his side. With his left, he holds upon his breast +the sacred pickaxe, wrapped carefully in a white cloth, along with five +knots of turmeric, two copper, and one silver coin. He then moves slowly +on, followed by the whole of the gang, to some field or retired place, +where halting, with his countenance turned in the direction they wish +to pursue, he lifts up his eyes to heaven, saying, "Great goddess! +universal mother! if this, our meditated expedition, be fitting in thy +sight, vouchsafe to help us, and give us the signs of thy approbation." +All the Thugs present solemnly repeat the prayer after their leader, and +wait in silence for the omen. If within half an hour they see Pilhaoo, +or good omen on the left, it signifies that the goddess has taken them +by the left hand to lead them on; if they see the Thibaoo, or omen on +the right, it signifies that she has taken them by the right hand also. +The leader then places the brazen pitcher on the ground and sits down +beside it, with his face turned in the same direction for seven hours, +during which time his followers make all the necessary preparations +for the journey. If, during this interval, no unfavourable signs are +observed, the expedition advances slowly, until it arrives at the bank +of the nearest stream, when they all sit down and eat of the goor, or +consecrated sugar. Any evil omens that are perceived after this ceremony +may be averted by sacrifices; but any evil omens before, would at once +put an end to the expedition. + +Among the evil omens are the following:--If the brazen pitcher drops +from the hand of the Jemadar or leader, it threatens great evil either +to him or to the gang--sometimes to both. If they meet a funeral +procession, a blind man, a lame man, an oil-vender, a carpenter, a +potter, or a dancing-master, the expedition will be dangerous. In like +manner it is unlucky to sneeze, to meet a woman with an empty pail, a +couple of jackals, or a hare. The crossing of their path by the latter +is considered peculiarly inauspicious. Its cry at night on the left is +sometimes a good omen, but if they hear it on the right it is very bad; +a warning sent to them from Bhawanee that there is danger if they kill. +Should they disregard this warning, and led on by the hope of gain, +strangle any traveller, they would either find no booty on him, or such +booty as would eventually lead to the ruin and dispersion of the gang. +Bhawanee would be wroth with her children; and causing them to perish in +the jungle, would send the hares to drink water out of their skulls. + +The good omens are quite as numerous as the evil. It promises a +fortunate expedition, if, on the first day, they pass through a village +where there is a fair. It is also deemed fortunate, if they hear wailing +for the dead in any village but their own. To meet a woman with a +pitcher full of water upon her head, bodes a prosperous journey and a +safe return. The omen is still more favourable if she be in a state of +pregnancy. It is said of the Thugs of the Jumaldehee and Lodaha tribes, +that they always make the youngest Thug of the party kick the body of +the first person they strangle, five times on the back, thinking that +it will bring them good luck. This practice, however, is not general. If +they hear an ass bray on the left at the commencement of an expedition, +and an another soon afterwards on the right, they believe that they +shall be supereminently successful, that they shall strangle a multitude +of travellers, and find great booty. + +After every murder a solemn sacrifice, called the Tuponee, is performed +by all the gang. The goor, or consecrated sugar, is placed upon a large +cloth or blanket, which is spread upon the grass. Beside it is deposited +the sacred pickaxe, and a piece of silver for an offering. The Jemadar, +or chief of the party, together with all the oldest and most prudent +Thugs, take their places upon the cloth, and turn their faces to the +west. Those inferior Thugs who cannot find room upon the privileged +cloth, sit round as close to it as possible. A pit is then dug, into +which the Jemadar pours a small quantity of the goor, praying at +the same time that the goddess will always reward her followers with +abundant spoils. All the Thugs repeat the prayer after him. He then +sprinkles water upon the pickaxe, and puts a little of the goor upon +the head of every one who has obtained a seat beside him on the cloth. +A short pause ensues, when the signal for strangling is given, as if a +murder were actually about to be committed, and each Thug eats his +goor in solemn silence. So powerful is the impression made upon their +imagination by this ceremony, that it almost drives them frantic with +enthusiasm. Captain Sleeman relates, that when he reproached a Thug for +his share in a murder of great atrocity, and asked him whether he never +felt pity; the man replied, "We all feel pity sometimes; but the goor of +the Tuponee changes our nature; it would change the nature of a horse. +Let any man once taste of that goor, and he will be a Thug, though he +know all the trades and have all the wealth in the world. I never was in +want of food; my mother's family was opulent, and her relations high +in office. I have been high in office myself, and became so great a +favourite wherever I went that I was sure of promotion; yet I was always +miserable when absent from my gang, and obliged to return to Thuggee. My +father made me taste of that fatal goor, when I was yet a mere boy; and +if I were to live a thousand years I should never be able to follow any +other trade." + +The possession of wealth, station in society, and the esteem of his +fellows, could not keep this man from murder. From his extraordinary +confession we may judge of the extreme difficulty of exterminating a +sect who are impelled to their horrid practises, not only by the motives +of self-interest which govern mankind in general, but by a fanaticism +which fills up the measure of their whole existence. Even severity +seems thrown away upon the followers of this brutalizing creed. To them, +punishment is no example; they have no sympathy for a brother Thug who +is hung at his own door by the British Government, nor have they any +dread of his fate. Their invariable idea is, that their goddess +only suffers those Thugs to fall into the hands of the law, who have +contravened the peculiar observances of Thuggee, and who have neglected +the omens she sent them for their guidance. + +To their neglect of the warnings of the goddess they attribute all the +reverses which have of late years befallen their sect. It is expressly +forbidden, in the creed of the old Thugs, to murder women or cripples. +The modern Thugs have become unscrupulous upon this point, murdering +women, and even children, with unrelenting barbarity. Captain Sleeman +reports several conversations upon this subject, which he held at +different times with Thugs, who had been taken prisoners, or who had +turned approvers. One of them, named Zolfukar, said, in reply to the +Captain, who accused him of murdering women, "Yes, and was not the +greater part of Feringeea's and my gang seized, after we had murdered +the two women and the little girl, at Manora, in 1830? and were we not +ourselves both seized soon after? How could we survive things like that? +Our ancestors never did such things." Lalmun, another Thug, in reply to +a similar question, said, "Most of our misfortunes have come upon us for +the murder of women. We all knew that they would come upon us some day, +for this and other great sins. We were often admonished, but we did not +take warning; and we deserve our fates." In speaking of the supposed +protection which their goddess had extended to them in former times, +Zolfukar said:--"Ah! we had some regard for religion then! We have lost +it since. All kinds of men have been made Thugs, and all classes of +people murdered, without distinction; and little attention has been paid +to omens. How, after this, could we think to escape? * * * * Davee never +forsook us till we neglected her!" + +It might be imagined that men who spoke in this manner of the anger of +the goddess, and who, even in custody, showed so much veneration for +their unhappy calling, would hesitate before they turned informers, and +laid bare the secrets and exposed the haunts of their fellows:--among +the more civilized ruffians of Europe, we often find the one chivalrous +trait of character, which makes them scorn a reward that must be earned +by the blood of their accomplices: but in India there is no honour among +thieves. When the approvers are asked, if they, who still believe in +the power of the terrible goddess Davee, are not afraid to incur her +displeasure by informing of their fellows, they reply, that Davee +has done her worst in abandoning them. She can inflict no severer +punishment, and therefore gives herself no further concern about her +degenerate children. This cowardly doctrine is, however, of advantage +to the Government that seeks to put an end to the sect, and has thrown +a light upon their practices, which could never have been obtained from +other sources. + +Another branch of the Thug abomination has more recently been discovered +by the indefatigable Captain Sleeman. The followers of this sect are +called MEGPUNNAS, and they murder travellers, not to rob them of their +wealth, but of their children, whom they afterwards sell into slavery. +They entertain the same religious opinions as the Thugs, and have +carried on their hideous practices, and entertained their dismal +superstition, for about a dozen years with impunity. The report of +Captain Sleeman states, that the crime prevails almost exclusively +in Delhi and the native principalities, or Rajpootana of Ulwar and +Bhurtpore; and that it first spread extensively after the siege of +Bhurtpore in 1826. + +The original Thugs never or rarely travel with their wives; but the +Megpunnas invariably take their families with them, the women and +children being used to inveigle the victims. Poor travellers are always +chosen by the Megpunnas as the objects of their murderous traffic. The +females and children are sent on in advance to make acquaintance with +emigrants or beggars on the road, travelling with their families, whom +they entice to pass the night in some secluded place, where they are +afterwards set upon by the men, and strangled. The women take care of +the children. Such of them as are beautiful are sold at a high price +to the brothels of Delhi, or other large cities; while the boys and +ill-favoured girls are sold for servants at a more moderate rate. These +murders are perpetrated perhaps five hundred miles from the homes of +the unfortunate victims; and the children thus obtained, deprived of all +their relatives, are never inquired after. Even should any of their kin +be alive, they are too far off and too poor to institute inquiries. One +of the members, on being questioned, said the Megpunnas made more money +than the other Thugs; it was more profitable to kill poor people for the +sake of their children, than rich people for their wealth. Megpunnaism +is supposed by its votaries to be, like Thuggee, under the immediate +protection of the great goddess Davee, or Kalee, whose favour is to be +obtained before the commencement of every expedition, and whose omens, +whether of good or evil, are to be diligently sought on all occasions. +The first apostle to whom she communicated her commands for the +formation of the new sect, and the rules and ordinances by which it was +to be guided, was called Kheama Jemadar. He was considered so holy a +man, that the Thugs and Megpunnas considered it an extreme felicity +to gaze upon and touch him. At the moment of his arrest by the British +authorities, a fire was raging in the village, and the inhabitants +gathered round him and implored him to intercede with his god, that +the flames might be extinguished. The Megpunna, says the tradition, +stretched forth his hand to heaven, prayed, and the fire ceased +immediately. + +There now only remain to be considered the exertions that have been made +to remove from the face of India this purulent and disgusting sore. +From the year 1807 until 1826, the proceedings against Thuggee were not +carried on with any extraordinary degree of vigour; but, in the +latter year, the Government seems to have begun to act upon a settled +determination to destroy it altogether. From 1826 to 1855, both +included, there were committed to prison, in the various Presidencies, +1562 persons accused of this crime. Of these, 328 were hanged; 999 +transported; 77 imprisoned for life; 71 imprisoned for shorter periods; +21 held to bail; and only 21 acquitted. Of the remainder, 31 died in +prison, before they were brought to trial, 11 escaped, and 49 turned +approvers. + +One Feringeea, a Thug leader of great notoriety, was delivered up to +justice in the year 1830, in consequence of the reward of five hundred +rupees offered for his apprehension by the Government. He was brought +before Captain Sleeman, at Sangir, in the December of that year, and +offered, if his life were spared, to give such information as would +lead to the arrest of several extensive gangs which had carried on their +murderous practices undetected for several years. He mentioned the place +of rendezvous, for the following February, of some well organized gangs, +who were to proceed into Guzerat and Candeish. Captain Sleeman appeared +to doubt his information; but accompanied the Thug to a mango grove, two +stages from Sangir, on the road to Seronage. They reached this place in +the evening, and in the morning Feringeea pointed out three places in +which he and his gang had, at different intervals, buried the bodies of +three parties of travellers whom they had murdered. The sward had grown +over all the spots, and not the slightest traces were to be seen that +it had ever been disturbed. Under the sod of Captain Sleeman's tent were +found the bodies of the first party, consisting of a pundit and his six +attendants, murdered in 1818. Another party of five, murdered in 1824, +were under the ground at the place where the Captain's horses had been +tied up for the night; and four Brahmin carriers of the Ganges water, +with a woman, were buried under his sleeping tent. Before the ground +was moved, Captain Sleeman expressed some doubts; but Feringeea, after +looking at the position of some neighbouring trees, said he would risk +his life on the accuracy of his remembrance. The workmen dug five feet +without discovering the bodies; but they were at length found a little +beyond that depth, exactly as the Thug had described them. With this +proof of his knowledge of the haunts of his brethren, Feringeea was +promised his liberty and pardon if he would aid in bringing to justice +the many large gangs to which he had belonged, and which were still +prowling over the country. They were arrested in the February following, +at the place of rendezvous pointed out by the approver, and most of them +condemned and executed. + +So far we learn from Captain Sleeman, who only brought down his tables +to the close of the year 1835. A writer in the "Foreign Quarterly +Review" furnishes an additional list of 241 persons, committed to +prison in 1836, for being concerned in the murder and robbery of 474 +individuals. Of these criminals, 91 were sentenced to death, and 22 to +imprisonment for life, leaving 306, who were sentenced to transportation +for life, or shorter periods of imprisonment, or who turned approvers, +or died in gaol. Not one of the whole number was acquitted. + +Great as is this amount of criminals who have been brought to justice, +it is to be feared that many years must elapse before an evil so deeply +rooted can be eradicated. The difficulty is increased by the utter +hopelessness of reformation as regards the survivors. Their numbers +are still calculated to amount to ten thousand persons, who, taking the +average of three murders annually for each, as calculated by Captain +Sleeman and other writers, murder every year thirty thousand of their +fellow creatures. This average is said to be under the mark; but even if +we were to take it at only a third of this calculation, what a frightful +list it would be! 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +MEMOIRS OF EXTRAORDINARY POPULAR DELUSIONS + +BY CHARLES MACKAY + +AUTHOR OF + +"THE THAMES AND ITS TRIBUTARIES," +"THE HOPE OF THE WORLD," ETC. + +"Il est bon de connaitre les delires de l'esprit humain. +Chaque people a ses folies plus ou moins grossieres." + MILLOT + +VOL I. + +LONDON: +RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. +PUBLISHER IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY. +1841. + + +CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME + +THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME +THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE +THE TULIPOMANIA +RELICS +MODERN PROPHECIES +POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES +INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD +DUELS AND 0RDEALS +THE LOVE OF THE MARVELOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE +POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES +THE O. P. MANIA +THE THUGS, OR PHANSIGARS + + + + + +NATIONAL DELUSIONS. + +N'en deplaise a ces fous nommes sages de Grece; +En ce monde il n'est point de parfaite sagesse; +Tous les hommes sont fous, et malgre tous leurs soins, +Ne different entre eux que du plus ou du moins. + +BOILEAU. + + + In reading the history of nations, we find that, like individuals, +they have their whims and their peculiarities; their seasons of +excitement and recklessness, when they care not what they do. We find +that whole communities suddenly fix their minds upon one object, and +go mad in its pursuit; that millions of people become simultaneously +impressed with one delusion, and run after it, till their attention is +caught by some new folly more captivating than the first. We see one +nation suddenly seized, from its highest to its lowest members, with a +fierce desire of military glory; another as suddenly becoming crazed +upon a religious scruple, and neither of them recovering its senses +until it has shed rivers of blood and sowed a harvest of groans and +tears, to be reaped by its posterity. At an early age in the annals of +Europe its population lost their wits about the Sepulchre of Jesus, +and crowded in frenzied multitudes to the Holy Land: another age went +mad for fear of the Devil, and offered up hundreds of thousands of +victims to the delusion of witchcraft. At another time, the many +became crazed on the subject of the Philosopher's Stone, and committed +follies till then unheard of in the pursuit. It was once thought a +venial offence in very many countries of Europe to destroy an enemy by +slow poison. Persons who would have revolted at the idea of stabbing a +man to the heart, drugged his pottage without scruple. Ladies of +gentle birth and manners caught the contagion of murder, until +poisoning, under their auspices, became quite fashionable. Some +delusions, though notorious to all the world, have subsisted for ages, +flourishing as widely among civilized and polished nations as among +the early barbarians with whom they originated, -- that of duelling, for +instance, and the belief in omens and divination of the future, which +seem to defy the progress of knowledge to eradicate entirely from the +popular mind. Money, again, has often been a cause of the delusion of +multitudes. Sober nations have all at once become desperate gamblers, +and risked almost their existence upon the turn of a piece of paper. +To trace the history of the most prominent of these delusions is the +object of the present pages. Men, it has been well said, think in +herds; it will be seen that they go mad in herds, while they only +recover their senses slowly, and one by one. + + In the present state of civilization, society has often shown +itself very prone to run a career of folly from the last-mentioned +cases. This infatuation has seized upon whole nations in a most +extraordinary manner. France, with her Mississippi madness, set the +first great example, and was very soon imitated by England with her +South Sea Bubble. At an earlier period, Holland made herself still +more ridiculous in the eyes of the world, by the frenzy which came +over her people for the love of Tulips. Melancholy as all these +delusions were in their ultimate results, their history is most +amusing. A more ludicrous and yet painful spectacle, than that which +Holland presented in the years 1635 and 1636, or France in 1719 and +1720, can hardly be imagined. Taking them in the order of their +importance, we shall commence our history with John Law and the famous +Mississippi scheme of the years above mentioned. + + +THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + +Some in clandestine companies combine; +Erect new stocks to trade beyond the line; +With air and empty names beguile the town, +And raise new credits first, then cry 'em down; +Divide the empty nothing into shares, +And set the crowd together by the ears. + +Defoe. + + + The personal character and career of one man are so intimately +connected with the great scheme of the years 1719 and 1720, that a +history of the Mississippi madness can have no fitter introduction +than a sketch of the life of its great author, John Law. Historians +are divided in opinion as to whether they should designate him a knave +or a madman. Both epithets were unsparingly applied to him in his +lifetime, and while the unhappy consequences of his projects were +still deeply felt. Posterity, however, has found reason to doubt the +justice of the accusation, and to confess that John Law was neither +knave nor madman, but one more deceived than deceiving; more sinned +against than sinning. He was thoroughly acquainted with the philosophy +and true principles of credit. He understood the monetary question +better than any man of his day; and if his system fell with a crash so +tremendous, it was not so much his fault as that of the people amongst +whom he had erected it. He did not calculate upon the avaricious +frenzy of a whole nation; he did not see that confidence, like +mistrust, could be increased, almost ad infinitum, and that hope was +as extravagant as fear. How was he to foretell that the French people, +like the man in the fable, would kill, in their frantic eagerness, the +fine goose he had brought to lay them so many golden eggs? His fate +was like that which may be supposed to have overtaken the first +adventurous boatman who rowed from Erie to Ontario. Broad and smooth +was the river on which he embarked; rapid and pleasant was his +progress; and who was to stay him in his career? Alas for him! the +cataract was nigh. He saw, when it was too late, that the tide which +wafted him so joyously along was a tide of destruction; and when he +endeavoured to retrace his way, he found that the current was too +strong for his weak efforts to stem, and that he drew nearer every +instant to the tremendous falls. Down he went over the sharp rocks, +and the waters with him. He was dashed to pieces with his bark, but +the waters, maddened and turned to foam by the rough descent, only +boiled and bubbled for a time, and then flowed on again as smoothly as +ever. Just so it was with Law and the French people. He was the +boatman and they were the waters. + + John Law was born at Edinburgh in the year 1671. His father was +the younger son of an ancient family in Fife, and carried on the +business of a goldsmith and banker. He amassed considerable wealth in +his trade, sufficient to enable him to gratify the wish, so common +among his countrymen, of adding a territorial designation to his name. +He purchased with this view the estates of Lauriston and Randleston, +on the Frith of Forth on the borders of West and Mid Lothian, and was +thenceforth known as Law of Lauriston. The subject of our memoir, +being the eldest son, was received into his father's counting-house at +the age of fourteen, and for three years laboured hard to acquire an +insight into the principles of banking, as then carried on in +Scotland. He had always manifested great love for the study of +numbers, and his proficiency in the mathematics was considered +extraordinary in one of his tender years. At the age of seventeen he +was tall, strong, and well made; and his face, although deeply scarred +with the small-pox, was agreeable in its expression, and full of +intelligence. At this time he began to neglect his business, and +becoming vain of his person, indulged in considerable extravagance of +attire. He was a great favourite with the ladies, by whom he was +called Beau Law, while the other sex, despising his foppery, nicknamed +him Jessamy John. At the death of his father, which happened in 1688, +he withdrew entirely from the desk, which had become so irksome, and +being possessed of the revenues of the paternal estate of Lauriston, +he proceeded to London, to see the world. + + He was now very young, very vain, good-looking, tolerably rich, +and quite uncontrolled. It is no wonder that, on his arrival in the +capital, he should launch out into extravagance. He soon became a +regular frequenter of the gaming-houses, and by pursuing a certain +plan, based upon some abstruse calculation of chances, he contrived to +gain considerable sums. All the gamblers envied him his luck, and many +made it a point to watch his play, and stake their money on the same +chances. In affairs of gallantry he was equally fortunate; ladies of +the first rank smiled graciously upon the handsome Scotchman -- the +young, the rich, the witty, and the obliging. But all these successes +only paved the way for reverses. After he had been for nine years +exposed to the dangerous attractions of the gay life he was leading, +he became an irrecoverable gambler. As his love of play increased in +violence, it diminished in prudence. Great losses were only to be +repaired by still greater ventures, and one unhappy day he lost more +than he could repay without mortgaging his family estate. To that step +he was driven at last. At the same time his gallantry brought him into +trouble. A love affair, or slight flirtation, with a lady of the name +of Villiers [Miss Elizabeth Villiers, afterwards Countess of Orkney] +exposed him to the resentment of a Mr. Wilson, by whom he was +challenged to fight a duel. Law accepted, and had the ill fortune to +shoot his antagonist dead upon the spot. He was arrested the same day, +and brought to trial for murder by the relatives of Mr. Wilson. He was +afterwards found guilty, and sentenced to death. The sentence was +commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only amounted to +manslaughter. An appeal being lodged by a brother of the deceased, Law +was detained in the King's Bench, whence, by some means or other, +which he never explained, he contrived to escape; and an action being +instituted against the sheriffs, he was advertised in the Gazette, and +a reward offered for his apprehension. He was described as "Captain +John Law, a Scotchman, aged twenty-six; a very tall, black, lean man; +well shaped, above six feet high, with large pockholes in his face; +big nosed, and speaking broad and loud." As this was rather a +caricature than a description of him, it has been supposed that it was +drawn up with a view to favour his escape. He succeeded in reaching +the Continent, where he travelled for three years, and devoted much of +his attention to the monetary and banking affairs of the countries +through which he passed. He stayed a few months in Amsterdam, and +speculated to some extent in the funds. His mornings were devoted to +the study of finance and the principles of trade, and his evenings to +the gaming-house. It is generally believed that he returned to +Edinburgh in the year 1700. It is certain that he published in that +city his "Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council of Trade." +This pamphlet did not excite much attention. + + In a short time afterwards he published a project for establishing +what he called a Land-bank [The wits of the day called it a sand-bank, +which would wreck the vessel of the state.], the notes issued by which +were never to exceed the value of the entire lands of the state, upon +ordinary interest, or were to be equal in value to the land, with the +right to enter into possession at a certain time. The project excited +a good deal of discussion in the Scottish parliament, and a motion for +the establishment of such a bank was brought forward by a neutral +party, called the Squadrone, whom Law had interested in his favour. +The Parliament ultimately passed a resolution to the effect, that, to +establish any kind of paper credit, so as to force it to pass, was an +improper expedient for the nation. + + Upon the failure of this project, and of his efforts to procure a +pardon for the murder of Mr. Wilson, Law withdrew to the Continent, +and resumed his old habits of gaming. For fourteen years he continued +to roam about, in Flanders, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and +France. He soon became intimately acquainted with the extent of the +trade and resources of each, and daily more confirmed in his opinion +that no country could prosper without a paper currency. During the +whole of this time he appears to have chiefly supported himself by +successful play. At every gambling-house of note in the capitals of +Europe, he was known and appreciated as one better skilled in the +intricacies of chance than any other man of the day. It is stated in +the "Biographie Universelle" that he was expelled, first from Venice, +and afterwards from Genoa, by the magistrates, who thought him a +visitor too dangerous for the youth of those cities. During his +residence in Paris he rendered himself obnoxious to D'Argenson, the +lieutenant-general of the police, by whom he was ordered to quit the +capital. This did not take place, however, before he had made the +acquaintance in the saloons, of the Duke de Vendome, the Prince de +Conti, and of the gay Duke of Orleans, the latter of whom was destined +afterwards to exercise so much influence over his fate. The Duke of +Orleans was pleased with the vivacity and good sense of the Scottish +adventurer, while the latter was no less pleased with the wit and +amiability of a prince who promised to become his patron. They were +often thrown into each other's society, and Law seized every +opportunity to instil his financial doctrines into the mind of one +whose proximity to the throne pointed him out as destined, at no very +distant date, to play an important part in the government. + + Shortly before the death of Louis XIV, or, as some say, in 1708, +Law proposed a scheme of finance to Desmarets, the Comptroller. Louis +is reported to have inquired whether the projector were a Catholic, +and, on being answered in the negative, to have declined having +anything to do with him. [This anecdote, which is related in the +correspondence of Madame de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, and mother of +the Regent, is discredited by Lord John Russell, in his "History of +the principal States of Europe, from the Peace of Utrecht;" for what +reason he does not inform us. There is no doubt that Law proposed his +scheme to Desmarets, and that Louis refused to hear of it. The reason +given for the refusal is quite consistent with the character of that +bigoted and tyrannical monarch.] + + It was after this repulse that he visited Italy. His mind being +still occupied with schemes of finance, he proposed to Victor Amadeus, +Duke of Savoy, to establish his land-bank in that country. The Duke +replied that his dominions were too circumscribed for the execution of +so great a project, and that he was by far too poor a potentate to be +ruined. He advised him, however, to try the King of France once more; +for he was sure, if he knew anything of the French character, that the +people would be delighted with a plan, not only so new, but so +plausible. + + Louis XIV died in 1715, and the heir to the throne being an +infant only seven years of age, the Duke of Orleans assumed the reins +of government, as Regent, during his minority. Law now found himself +in a more favourable position. The tide in his affairs had come, +which, taken at the flood, was to waft him on to fortune. The Regent +was his friend, already acquainted with his theory and pretensions, +and inclined, moreover, to aid him in any efforts to restore the +wounded credit of France, bowed down to the earth by the extravagance +of the long reign of Louis XIV. + + Hardly was that monarch laid in his grave ere the popular hatred, +suppressed so long, burst forth against his memory. He who, during his +life, had been flattered with an excess of adulation, to which history +scarcely offers a parallel, was now cursed as a tyrant, a bigot, and a +plunderer. His statues were pelted and disfigured; his effigies torn +down, amid the execrations of the populace, and his name rendered +synonymous with selfishness and oppression. The glory of his arms was +forgotten, and nothing was remembered but his reverses, his +extravagance, and his cruelty. + + The finances of the country were in a state of the utmost +disorder. A profuse and corrupt monarch, whose profuseness and +corruption were imitated by almost every functionary, from the highest +to the lowest grade, had brought France to the verge of ruin. The +national debt amounted to 3000 millions of livres, the revenue to 145 +millions, and the expenditure to 142 millions per annum; leaving only +three millions to pay the interest upon 3000 millions. The first care +of the Regent was to discover a remedy for an evil of such magnitude, +and a council was early summoned to take the matter into +consideration. The Duke de St. Simon was of opinion that nothing could +save the country from revolution but a remedy at once bold and +dangerous. He advised the Regent to convoke the States-General, and +declare a national bankruptcy. The Duke de Noailles, a man of +accommodating principles, an accomplished courtier, and totally averse +from giving himself any trouble or annoyance that ingenuity could +escape from, opposed the project of St. Simon with all his influence. +He represented the expedient as alike dishonest and ruinous. The +Regent was of the same opinion, and this desperate remedy fell to the +ground. + + The measures ultimately adopted, though they promised fair, only +aggravated the evil. The first, and most dishonest measure, was of no +advantage to the state. A recoinage was ordered, by which the currency +was depreciated one-fifth; those who took a thousand pieces of gold or +silver to the mint received back an amount of coin of the same nominal +value, but only four-fifths of the weight of metal. By this +contrivance the treasury gained seventy-two millions of livres, and +all the commercial operations of the country were disordered. A +trifling diminution of the taxes silenced the clamours of the people, +and for the slight present advantage the great prospective evil was +forgotten. + + A chamber of justice was next instituted, to inquire into the +malversations of the loan-contractors and the farmers of the revenues. +Tax collectors are never very popular in any country, but those of +France at this period deserved all the odium with which they were +loaded. As soon as these farmers-general, with all their hosts of +subordinate agents, called maltotiers [From maltote, an oppressive +tax.], were called to account for their misdeeds, the most extravagant +joy took possession of the nation. The Chamber of Justice, instituted +chiefly for this purpose, was endowed with very extensive powers. It +was composed of the presidents and councils of the parliament, the +judges of the Courts of Aid and of Requests, and the officers of the +Chamber of Account, under the general presidence of the minister of +finance. Informers were encouraged to give evidence against the +offenders by the promise of one-fifth part of the fines and +confiscations. A tenth of all concealed effects belonging to the +guilty was promised to such as should furnish the means of discovering +them. + + The promulgation of the edict constituting this court caused a +degree of consternation among those principally concerned which can +only be accounted for on the supposition that their peculation had +been enormous. But they met with no sympathy. The proceedings against +them justified their terror. The Bastile was soon unable to contain +the prisoners that were sent to it, and the gaols all over the country +teemed with guilty or suspected persons. An order was issued to all +innkeepers and postmasters to refuse horses to such as endeavoured to +seek safety in flight; and all persons were forbidden, under heavy +fines, to harbour them or favour their evasion. Some were condemned to +the pillory, others to the gallies, and the least guilty to fine and +imprisonment. One only, Samuel Bernard, a rich banker, and +farmer-general of a province remote from the capital, was sentenced to +death. So great had been the illegal profits of this man, -- looked +upon as the tyrant and oppressor of his district, -- that he offered +six millions of livres, or 250,000 pounds sterling, to be allowed to +escape. + + His bribe was refused, and he suffered the penalty of death. +Others, perhaps more guilty, were more fortunate. Confiscation, owing +to the concealment of their treasures by the delinquents, often +produced less money than a fine. The severity of the government +relaxed, and fines, under the denomination of taxes, were +indiscriminately levied upon all offenders. But so corrupt was every +department of the administration, that the country benefited but +little by the sums which thus flowed into the treasury. Courtiers, and +courtiers' wives and mistresses, came in for the chief share of the +spoils. One contractor had been taxed in proportion to his wealth and +guilt, at the sum of twelve millions of livres. The Count * * *, a man +of some weight in the government, called upon him, and offered to +procure a remission of the fine, if he would give him a hundred +thousand crowns. "Vous etes trop tard, mon ami," replied the +financier; "I have already made a bargain with your wife for fifty +thousand." [This anecdote is related by M. de la Hode, in his Life of +Philippe of Orleans. It would have looked more authentic if he had +given the names of the dishonest contractor and the still more +dishonest minister. But M. de la Hode's book is liable to the same +objection as most of the French memoirs of that and of subsequent +periods. It is sufficient with most of them that an anecdote be ben +trovato; the veto is but matter of secondary consideration.] + + About a hundred and eighty millions of livres were levied in this +manner, of which eighty were applied in payment of the debts +contracted by the government. The remainder found its way into the +pockets of the courtiers. Madame de Maintenon, writing on this +subject, says, "We hear every day of some new grant of the Regent; the +people murmur very much at this mode of employing the money taken from +the peculators." The people, who, after the first burst of their +resentment is over, generally express a sympathy for the weak, were +indignant that so much severity should be used to so little purpose. +They did not see the justice of robbing one set of rogues to fatten +another. In a few months all the more guilty had been brought to +punishment, and the chamber of justice looked for victims in humbler +walks of life. Charges of fraud and extortion were brought against +tradesmen of good character, in consequence of the great inducements +held out to common informers. They were compelled to lay open their +affairs before this tribunal in order to establish their innocence. +The voice of complaint resounded from every side, and at the +expiration of a year the government found it advisable to discontinue +further proceedings. The chamber of justice was suppressed, and a +general amnesty granted to all against whom no charges had yet been +preferred. + + In the midst of this financial confusion Law appeared upon the +scene. No man felt more deeply than the Regent the deplorable state of +the country, but no man could be more averse from putting his +shoulders manfully to the wheel. He disliked business; he signed +official documents without proper examination, and trusted to others +what he should have undertaken himself. The cares inseparable from his +high office were burdensome to him; he saw that something was +necessary to be done, but he lacked the energy to do it, and had not +virtue enough to sacrifice his case and his pleasures in the attempt. +No wonder that, with this character, he listened favourably to the +mighty projects, so easy of execution, of the clever adventurer whom +he had formerly known, and whose talents he appreciated. + + When Law presented himself at court, he was most cordially +received. He offered two memorials to the Regent, in which he set +forth the evils that had befallen France, owing to an insufficient +currency, at different times depreciated. He asserted that a metallic +currency, unaided by a paper money, was wholly inadequate to the wants +of a commercial country, and particularly cited the examples of Great +Britain and Holland to show the advantages of paper. He used many +sound arguments on the subject of credit, and proposed, as a means of +restoring that of France, then at so low an ebb among the nations, +that he should be allowed to set up a bank, which should have the +management of the royal revenues, and issue notes, both on that and on +landed security. He further proposed that this bank should be +administered in the King's name, but subject to the control of +commissioners, to be named by the States-General. + + While these memorials were under consideration, Law translated +into French his essay on money and trade, and used every means to +extend through the nation his renown as a financier. He soon became +talked of. The confidants of the Regent spread abroad his praise, and +every one expected great things of Monsieur Lass. [The French +pronounced his name in this manner to avoid the ungallic sound, aw. +After the failure of his scheme, the wags said the nation was lasse de +lui, and proposed that he should in future be known by the name of +Monsieur Helas!] + + On the 5th of May, 1716, a royal edict was published, by which Law +was authorised, in conjunction with his brother, to establish a bank, +under the name of Law and Company, the notes of which should be +received in payment of the taxes. The capital was fixed at six +millions of livres, in twelve thousand shares of five hundred livres +each, purchasable one-fourth in specie and the remainder in billets +d'etat. It was not thought expedient to grant him the whole of the +privileges prayed for in his memorials until experience should have +shown their safety and advantage. + + Law was now on the high road to fortune. The study of thirty years +was brought to guide him in the management of his bank. He made all +his notes payable at sight, and in the coin current at the time they +were issued. This last was a master-stroke of policy, and immediately +rendered his notes more valuable than the precious metals. The latter +were constantly liable to depreciation by the unwise tampering of the +government. A thousand livres of silver might be worth their nominal +value one day and be reduced one-sixth the next, but a note of Law's +bank retained its original value. He publicly declared at the same +time that a banker deserved death if he made issues without having +sufficient security to answer all demands. The consequence was, that +his notes advanced rapidly in public estimation, and were received at +one per cent. more than specie. It was not long before the trade of +the country felt the benefit. Languishing commerce began to lift up +her head; the taxes were paid with greater regularity and less +murmuring, and a degree of confidence was established that could not +fail, if it continued, to become still more advantageous. In the +course of a year Law's notes rose to fifteen per cent. premium, while +the billets d'etat, or notes issued by the government, as security for +the debts contracted by the extravagant Louis XIV, were at a discount +of no less than seventy-eight and a half per cent. The comparison was +too great in favour of Law not to attract the attention of the whole +kingdom, and his credit extended itself day by day. Branches of his +bank were almost simultaneously established at Lyons, Rochelle, Tours, +Amiens, and Orleans. + + The Regent appears to have been utterly astonished at his success, +and gradually to have conceived the idea, that paper, which could so +aid a metallic currency, could entirely supersede it. Upon this +fundamental error he afterwards acted. In the mean time, Law commenced +the famous project which has handed his name down to posterity. He +proposed to the Regent, who could refuse him nothing, to establish a +company, that should have the exclusive privilege of trading to the +great river Mississippi and the province of Louisiana, on its western +bank. The country was supposed to abound in the precious metals, and +the company, supported by the profits of their exclusive commerce, +were to be the sole farmers of the taxes, and sole coiners of money. +Letters patent were issued, incorporating the company, in August 1717. +The capital was divided into two hundred thousand shares of five +hundred livres each, the whole of which might be paid in billets +d'etat, at their nominal value, although worth no more than 160 livres +in the market. + + It was now that the frenzy of speculating began to seize upon the +nation. Law's bank had effected so much good, that any promises for +the future which he thought proper to make were readily believed. The +Regent every day conferred new privileges upon the fortunate +projector. The bank obtained the monopoly of the sale of tobacco; the +sole right of refinage of gold and silver, and was finally erected +into the Royal Bank of France. Amid the intoxication of success, both +Law and the Regent forgot the maxim so loudly proclaimed by the +former, that a banker deserved death who made issues of paper without +the necessary funds to provide for them. As soon as the bank, from +a private, became a public institution, the Regent caused a +fabrication of notes to the amount of one thousand millions of livres. +This was the first departure from sound principles, and one for which +Law is not justly blameable. While the affairs of the bank were under +his control, the issues had never exceeded sixty millions. Whether Law +opposed the inordinate increase is not known, but as it took place as +soon as the bank was made a royal establishment, it is but fair to lay +the blame of the change of system upon the Regent. + + Law found that he lived under a despotic government, but he was +not yet aware of the pernicious influence which such a government +could exercise upon so delicate a framework as that of credit. He +discovered it afterwards to his cost, but in the mean time suffered +himself to be impelled by the Regent into courses which his own reason +must have disapproved. With a weakness most culpable, he lent his aid +in inundating the country with paper money, which, based upon no solid +foundation, was sure to fall, sooner or later. The extraordinary +present fortune dazzled his eyes, and prevented him from seeing the +evil day that would burst over his head, when once, from any cause or +other, the alarm was sounded. The Parliament were from the first +jealous of his influence as a foreigner, and had, besides, their +misgivings as to the safety of his projects. As his influence +extended, their animosity increased. D'Aguesseau, the Chancellor, was +unceremoniously dismissed by the Regent for his opposition to the vast +increase of paper money, and the constant depreciation of the gold and +silver coin of the realm. This only served to augment the enmity of +the Parliament, and when D'Argenson, a man devoted to the interests of +the Regent, was appointed to the vacant chancellorship, and made at +the same time minister of finance, they became more violent than ever. +The first measure of the new minister caused a further depreciation of +the coin. In order to extinguish the billets d'etat, it was ordered +that persons bringing to the mint four thousand livres in specie and +one thousand livres in billets d'etat, should receive back coin to the +amount of five thousand livres. D'Argenson plumed himself mightily +upon thus creating five thousand new and smaller livres out of the +four thousand old and larger ones, being too ignorant of the true +principles of trade and credit to be aware of the immense injury he +was inflicting upon both. + + The Parliament saw at once the impolicy and danger of such a +system, and made repeated remonstrances to the Regent. The latter +refused to entertain their petitions, when the Parliament, by a bold, +and very unusual stretch of authority, commanded that no money should +be received in payment but that of the old standard. The Regent +summoned a lit de justice, and annulled the decree. The Parliament +resisted, and issued another. Again the Regent exercised his +privilege, and annulled it, till the Parliament, stung to fiercer +opposition, passed another decree, dated August 12th, 1718, by which +they forbade the bank of Law to have any concern, either direct or +indirect, in the administration of the revenue; and prohibited all +foreigners, under heavy penalties, from interfering, either in their +own names, or in that of others, in the management of the finances of +the state. The Parliament considered Law to be the author of all the +evil, and some of the counsellors, in the virulence of their enmity, +proposed that he should be brought to trial, and, if found guilty, be +hung at the gates of the Palais de Justice. + + Law, in great alarm, fled to the Palais Royal, and threw himself +on the protection of the Regent, praying that measures might be taken +to reduce the Parliament to obedience. The Regent had nothing so much +at heart, both on that account and because of the disputes that had +arisen relative to the legitimation of the Duke of Maine and the Count +of Thoulouse, the sons of the late King. The Parliament was ultimately +overawed by the arrest of their president and two of the counsellors, +who were sent to distant prisons. + + Thus the first cloud upon Law's prospects blew over: freed from +apprehension of personal danger, he devoted his attention to his +famous Mississippi project, the shares of which were rapidly rising, +in spite of the Parliament. At the commencement of the year 1719 an +edict was published, granting to the Mississippi Company the exclusive +privilege of trading to the East Indies, China, and the South Seas, +and to all the possessions of the French East India Company, +established by Colbert. The Company, in consequence of this great +increase of their business, assumed, as more appropriate, the title of +Company of the Indies, and created fifty thousand new shares. The +prospects now held out by Law were most magnificent. He promised a +yearly dividend of two hundred livres upon each share of five hundred, +which, as the shares were paid for in billets d'etat, at their nominal +value, but worth only 100 livres, was at the rate of about 120 per +cent. profit. + + The public enthusiasm, which had been so long rising, could not +resist a vision so splendid. At least three hundred thousand +applications were made for the fifty thousand new shares, and Law's +house in the Rue de Quincampoix was beset from morning to night by the +eager applicants. As it was impossible to satisfy them all, it was +several weeks before a list of the fortunate new stockholders could be +made out, during which time the public impatience rose to a pitch of +frenzy. Dukes, marquises, counts, with their duchesses, marchionesses, +and countesses, waited in the streets for hours every day before Mr. +Law's door to know the result. At last, to avoid the jostling of the +plebeian crowd, which, to the number of thousands, filled the whole +thoroughfare, they took apartments in the adjoining houses, that they +might be continually near the temple whence the new Plutus was +diffusing wealth. Every day the value of the old shares increased, and +the fresh applications, induced by the golden dreams of the whole +nation, became so numerous that it was deemed advisable to create no +less than three hundred thousand new shares, at five thousand livres +each, in order that the Regent might take advantage of the popular +enthusiasm to pay off the national debt. For this purpose, the sum of +fifteen hundred millions of livres was necessary. Such was the +eagerness of the nation, that thrice the sum would have been +subscribed if the government had authorised it. + + Law was now at the zenith of his prosperity, and the people were +rapidly approaching the zenith of their infatuation. The highest and +the lowest classes were alike filled with a vision of boundless +wealth. There was not a person of note among the aristocracy, with the +exception of the Duke of St. Simon and Marshal Villars, who was not +engaged in buying or selling stock. People of every age and sex, and +condition in life, speculated in the rise and fall of the Mississippi +bonds. The Rue de Quincampoix was the grand resort of the jobbers, and +it being a narrow, inconvenient street, accidents continually occurred +in it, from the tremendous pressure of the crowd. Houses in it, worth, +in ordinary times, a thousand livres of yearly rent, yielded as much +as twelve or sixteen thousand. A cobbler, who had a stall in it, +gained about two hundred livres a day by letting it out, and +furnishing writing materials to brokers and their clients. The story +goes, that a hump-backed man who stood in the street gained +considerable sums by lending his hump as a writing-desk to the eager +speculators! The great concourse of persons who assembled to do +business brought a still greater concourse of spectators. These again +drew all the thieves and immoral characters of Paris to the spot, and +constant riots and disturbances took place. At nightfall, it was often +found necessary to send a troop of soldiers to clear the street. + + Law, finding the inconvenience of his residence, removed to the +Place Vendome, whither the crowd of agioteurs followed him. That +spacious square soon became as thronged as the Rue de Quincampoix : +from morning to night it presented the appearance of a fair. Booths +and tents were erected for the transaction of business and the sale of +refreshments, and gamblers with their roulette tables stationed +themselves in the very middle of the place, and reaped a golden, or +rather a paper, harvest from the throng. The Boulevards and public +gardens were forsaken; parties of pleasure took their walks in +preference in the Place Vendome, which became the fashionable lounge +of the idle, as well as the general rendezvous of the busy. The noise +was so great all day, that the Chancellor, whose court was situated in +the square, complained to the Regent and the municipality, that he +could not hear the advocates. Law, when applied to, expressed his +willingness to aid in the removal of the nuisance, and for this +purpose entered into a treaty with the Prince de Carignan for the +Hotel de Soissons, which had a garden of several acres in the rear. A +bargain was concluded, by which Law became the purchaser of the hotel, +at an enormous price, the Prince reserving to himself the magnificent +gardens as a new source of profit. They contained some fine statues +and several fountains, and were altogether laid out with much taste. +As soon as Law was installed in his new abode, an edict was published, +forbidding all persons to buy or sell stock anywhere but in the +gardens of the Hotel de Soissons. In the midst among the trees, about +five hundred small tents and pavilions were erected, for the +convenience of the stock-jobbers. Their various colours, the gay +ribands and banners which floated from them, the busy crowds which +passed continually in and out--the incessant hum of voices, the noise, +the music, and the strange mixture of business and pleasure on the +countenances of the throng, all combined to give the place an air of +enchantment that quite enraptured the Parisians. The Prince de +Carignan made enormous profits while the delusion lasted. Each tent +was let at the rate of five hundred livres a month; and, as there were +at least five hundred of them, his monthly revenue from this source +alone must have amounted to 250,000 livres, or upwards of 10,000 +pounds sterling. + + The honest old soldier, Marshal Villars, was so vexed to see the +folly which had smitten his countrymen, that he never could speak with +temper on the subject. Passing one day through the Place Vendome in +his carriage, the choleric gentleman was so annoyed at the infatuation +of the people, that he abruptly ordered his coachman to stop, and, +putting his head out of the carriage window, harangued them for full +half an hour on their "disgusting avarice." This was not a very wise +proceeding on his part. Hisses and shouts of laughter resounded from +every side, and jokes without number were aimed at him. There being at +last strong symptoms that something more tangible was flying through +the air in the direction of his head, Marshal was glad to drive on. He +never again repeated the experiment. + + Two sober, quiet, and philosophic men of letters, M. de la Motte +and the Abbe Terrason, congratulated each other, that they, at least, +were free from this strange infatuation. A few days afterwards, as the +worthy Abbe was coming out of the Hotel de Soissons, whither he had +gone to buy shares in the Mississippi, whom should he see but his +friend La Motte entering for the same purpose. "Ha!" said the Abbe, +smiling, "is that you?" "Yes," said La Motte, pushing past him as fast +as he was able; "and can that be you?" The next time the two scholars +met, they talked of philosophy, of science, and of religion, but +neither had courage for a long time to breathe one syllable about the +Mississippi. At last, when it was mentioned, they agreed that a man +ought never to swear against his doing any one thing, and that there +was no sort of extravagance of which even a wise man was not capable. + + During this time, Law, the new Plutus, had become all at once the +most important personage of the state. The ante-chambers of the Regent +were forsaken by the courtiers. Peers, judges, and bishops thronged to +the Hotel de Soissons; officers of the army and navy, ladies of title +and fashion, and every one to whom hereditary rank or public employ +gave a claim to precedence, were to be found waiting in his +ante-chambers to beg for a portion of his India stock. Law was so +pestered that he was unable to see one-tenth part of the applicants, +and every manoeuvre that ingenuity could suggest was employed to gain +access to him. Peers, whose dignity would have been outraged if the +Regent had made them wait half an hour for an interview, were content +to wait six hours for the chance of seeing Monsieur Law. Enormous fees +were paid to his servants, if they would merely announce their names. +Ladies of rank employed the blandishments of their smiles for the same +object; but many of them came day after day for a fortnight before +they could obtain an audience. When Law accepted an invitation, he was +sometimes so surrounded by ladies, all asking to have their names put +down in his lists as shareholders in the new stock, that, in spite of +his well-known and habitual gallantry, he was obliged to tear himself +away par force. The most ludicrous stratagems were employed to have an +opportunity of speaking to him. One lady, who had striven in vain +during several days, gave up in despair all attempts to see him at his +own house, but ordered her coachman to keep a strict watch whenever +she was out in her carriage, and if he saw Mr. Law coming, to drive +against a post, and upset her. The coachman promised obedience, and +for three days the lady was driven incessantly through the town, +praying inwardly for the opportunity to be overturned. At last she +espied Mr. Law, and, pulling the string, called out to the coachman, +"Upset us now! for God's sake, upset us now!" The coachman drove +against a post, the lady screamed, the coach was overturned, and Law, +who had seen the accident, hastened to the spot to render assistance. +The cunning dame was led into the Hotel de Soissons, where she soon +thought it advisable to recover from her fright, and, after +apologizing to Mr. Law, confessed her stratagem. Law smiled, and +entered the lady in his books as the purchaser of a quantity of India +stock. Another story is told of a Madame de Boucha, who, knowing that +Mr. Law was at dinner at a certain house, proceeded thither in her +carriage, and gave the alarm of fire. The company started from table, +and Law among the rest; but, seeing one lady making all haste into the +house towards him, while everybody else was scampering away, he +suspected the trick, and ran off in another direction. + + Many other anecdotes are related, which even, though they may be a +little exaggerated, are nevertheless worth preserving, as showing the +spirit of that singular period. [The curious reader may find an +anecdote of the eagerness of the French ladies to retain Law in their +company, which will make him blush or smile according as he happens to +be very modest or the reverse. It is related in the Letters of Madame +Charlotte Elizabeth de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, vol. ii. p. 274.] +The Regent was one day mentioning, in the presence of D'Argenson, the +Abbe Dubois, and some other persons, that he was desirous of deputing +some lady, of the rank at least of a Duchess, to attend upon his +daughter at Modena; "but," added he, "I do not exactly know where to +find one." "No!" replied one, in affected surprise; "I can tell you +where to find every Duchess in France :--you have only to go to Mr. +Law's; you will see them every one in his ante-chamber." + + M. de Chirac, a celebrated physician, had bought stock at an +unlucky period, and was very anxious to sell out. Stock, however +continued to fall for two or three days, much to his alarm. His mind +was filled with the subject, when he was suddenly called upon to +attend a lady, who imagined herself unwell. He arrived, was shown up +stairs, and felt the lady's pulse. "It falls! it falls! good God! it +falls continually!" said he, musingly, while the lady looked up in his +face, all anxiety for his opinion. "Oh! M. de Chirac," said she, +starting to her feet, and ringing the bell for assistance; "I am +dying! I am dying! it falls! it falls! it falls!" "What falls?" +inquired the doctor, in amazement. "My pulse! my pulse!" said the +lady; "I must be dying." "Calm your apprehensions, my dear Madam," +said M. de Chirac; "I was speaking of the stocks. The truth is, I have +been a great loser, and my mind is so disturbed, I hardly know what I +have been saying." + + The price of shares sometimes rose ten or twenty per cent. in the +course of a few hours, and many persons in the humbler walks of life, +who had risen poor in the morning, went to bed in affluence. An +extensive holder of stock, being taken ill, sent his servant to sell +two hundred and fifty shares, at eight thousand livres each, the price +at which they were then quoted. The servant went, and, on his arrival +in the Jardin de Soissons, found that in the interval the price had +risen to ten thousand livres. The difference of two thousand livres on +the two hundred and fifty shares, amounting to 500,000 livres, or +20,000 pounds sterling, he very coolly transferred to his own use, +and, giving the remainder to his master, set out the same evening for +another country. Law's coachman in a very short time made money enough +to set up a carriage of his own, and requested permission to leave his +service. Law, who esteemed the man, begged of him as a favour, that he +would endeavour, before he went, to find a substitute as good as +himself. The coachman consented, and in the evening brought two of his +former comrades, telling Mr. Law to choose between them, and he would +take the other. Cookmaids and footmen were now and then as lucky, and, +in the full-blown pride of their easily-acquired wealth, made the most +ridiculous mistakes. Preserving the language and manners of their old, +with the finery of their new station, they afforded continual subjects +for the pity of the sensible, the contempt of the sober, and the +laughter of everybody. But the folly and meanness of the higher ranks +of society were still more disgusting. One instance alone, related by +the Duke de St. Simon, will show the unworthy avarice which infected +the whole of society. A man of the name of Andre, without character or +education, had, by a series of well-timed speculations in Mississippi +bonds, gained enormous wealth, in an incredibly short space of time. +As St. Simon expresses it, "he had amassed mountains of gold." As he +became rich, he grew ashamed of the lowness of his birth, and anxious +above all things to be allied to nobility. He had a daughter, an +infant only three years of age, and he opened a negotiation with the +aristocratic and needy family of D'Oyse, that this child should, upon +certain conditions, marry a member of that house. The Marquis d'Oyse, +to his shame, consented, and promised to marry her himself on her +attaining the age of twelve, if the father would pay him down the sum +of a hundred thousand crowns, and twenty thousand livres every year, +until the celebration of the marriage. The Marquis was himself in his +thirty-third year. This scandalous bargain was duly signed and sealed, +the stockjobber furthermore agreeing to settle upon his daughter, on +the marriage-day, a fortune of several millions. The Duke of Brancas, +the head of the family, was present throughout the negotiation, and +shared in all the profits. St. Simon, who treats the matter with the +levity becoming what he thought so good a joke, adds, "that people did +not spare their animadversions on this beautiful marriage," and +further informs us, "that the project fell to the ground some months +afterwards by the overthrow of Law, and the ruin of the ambitious +Monsieur Andre." It would appear, however, that the noble family never +had the honesty to return the hundred thousand crowns. + + Amid events like these, which, humiliating though they be, partake +largely of the ludicrous, others occurred of a more serious nature. +Robberies in the streets were of daily occurrence, in consequence of +the immense sums, in paper, which people carried about with them. +Assassinations were also frequent. One case in particular fixed the +attention of the whole of France, not only on account of the enormity +of the offence, but of the rank and high connexions of the criminal. + + The Count d'Horn, a younger brother of the Prince d'Horn, and +related to the noble families of D'Aremberg, De Ligne, and De +Montmorency, was a young man of dissipated character, extravagant to a +degree, and unprincipled as he was extravagant. In connexion with two +other young men as reckless as himself, named Mille, a Piedmontese +captain, and one Destampes, or Lestang, a Fleming, he formed a design +to rob a very rich broker, who was known, unfortunately for himself, +to carry great sums about his person. The Count pretended a desire to +purchase of him a number of shares in the Company of the Indies, and +for that purpose appointed to meet him in a cabaret, or low +public-house, in the neighbourhood of the Place Vendome. The +unsuspecting broker was punctual to his appointment; so were the Count +d'Horn and his two associates, whom he introduced as his particular +friends. After a few moments' conversation, the Count d'Horn suddenly +sprang upon his victim, and stabbed him three times in the breast with +a poniard. The man fell heavily to the ground, and, while the Count +was employed in rifling his portfolio of bonds in the Mississippi and +Indian schemes to the amount of one hundred thousand crowns, Mille, +the Piedmontese, stabbed the unfortunate broker again and again, to +make sure of his death. But the broker did not fall without a +struggle, and his cries brought the people of the cabaret to his +assistance. Lestang, the other assassin, who had been set to keep +watch at a staircase, sprang from a window and escaped; but Mille and +the Count d'Horn were seized in the very act. + + This crime, committed in open day, and in so public a place as a +cabaret, filled Paris with consternation. The trial of the assassins +commenced on the following day, and the evidence being so clear, they +were both found guilty and condemned to be broken alive on the wheel. +The noble relatives of the Count d'Horn absolutely blocked up the +ante-chambers of the Regent, praying for mercy on the misguided youth, +and alleging that he was insane. The Regent avoided them as long as +possible, being determined that, in a case so atrocious, justice +should take its course; but the importunity of these influential +suitors was not to be overcome so silently, and they at last forced +themselves into the presence of the Regent, and prayed him to save +their house the shame of a public execution. They hinted that the +Princes d'Horn were allied to the illustrious family of Orleans, and +added that the Regent himself would be disgraced if a kinsman of his +should die by the hands of a common executioner. The Regent, to his +credit, was proof against all their solicitations, and replied to +their last argument in the words of Corneille,- + "Le crime fait la honte, et non pas l'echafaud:" +adding, that whatever shame there might be in the punishment he would +very willingly share with the other relatives. Day after day they +renewed their entreaties, but always with the same result. At last +they thought that if they could interest the Duke de St. Simon in +their layout, a man for whom the Regent felt sincere esteem, they +might succeed in their object. The Duke, a thorough aristocrat, was as +shocked as they were, that a noble assassin should die by the same +death as a plebeian felon, and represented to the Regent the impolicy +of making enemies of so numerous, wealthy, and powerful a family. He +urged, too, that in Germany, where the family of D'Aremberg had large +possessions, it was the law, that no relative of a person broken on +the wheel could succeed to any public office or employ until a whole +generation had passed away. For this reason he thought the punishment +of the guilty Count might be transmuted into beheading, which was +considered all over Europe as much less infamous. The Regent was moved +by this argument, and was about to consent, when Law, who felt +peculiarly interested in the fate of the murdered man, confirmed him +in his former resolution, to let the law take its course. + + The relatives of D'Horn were now reduced to the last extremity. +The Prince de Robec Montmorency, despairing of other methods, found +means to penetrate into the dungeon of the criminal, and offering him +a cup of poison, implored him to save them from disgrace. The Count +d'Horn turned away his head, and refused to take it. Montmorency +pressed him once more, and losing all patience at his continued +refusal, turned on his heel, and exclaiming, "Die, then, as thou wilt, +mean-spirited wretch! thou art fit only to perish by the hands of the +hangman!" left him to his fate. + + D'Horn himself petitioned the Regent that he might be beheaded, +but Law, who exercised more influence over his mind than any other +person, with the exception of the notorious Abbe Dubois, his tutor, +insisted that he could not in justice succumb to the self-interested +views of the D'Horns. The Regent had from the first been of the same +opinion, and within six days after the commission of their crime, +D'Horn and Mille were broken on the wheel in the Place de Greve. The +other assassin, Lestang, was never apprehended. + + This prompt and severe justice was highly pleasing to the populace +of Paris; even M. de Quincampoix, as they called Law, came in for a +share of their approbation for having induced the Regent to show no +favour to a patrician. But the number of robberies and assassinations +did not diminish. No sympathy was shown for rich jobbers when they +were plundered: the general laxity of public morals, conspicuous +enough before, was rendered still more so by its rapid pervasion of +the middle classes, who had hitherto remained comparatively pure, +between the open vices of the class above and the hidden crimes of the +class below them. The pernicious love of gambling diffused itself +through society, and bore all public, and nearly all private, virtue +before it. + + For a time, while confidence lasted, an impetus was given to +trade, which could not fail to be beneficial. In Paris, especially, +the good results were felt. Strangers flocked into the capital from +every part, bent, not only upon making money, but on spending it. The +Duchess of Orleans, mother of the Regent, computes the increase of the +population during this time, from the great influx of strangers from +all parts of the world, at 305,000 souls. The housekeepers were +obliged to make up beds in garrets, kitchens, and even stables, for +the accommodation of lodgers; and the town was so full of carriages +and vehicles of every description, that they were obliged in the +principal streets to drive at a foot-pace for fear of accidents. The +looms of the country worked with unusual activity, to supply rich +laces, silks, broad-cloth, and velvets, which being paid for in +abundant paper, increased in price four-fold. Provisions shared the +general advance; bread, meat, and vegetables were sold at prices +greater than had ever before been known; while the wages of labour +rose in exactly the same proportion. The artisan, who formerly gained +fifteen sous per diem, now gained sixty. New houses were built in +every direction; an illusory prosperity shone over the land, and so +dazzled the eyes of the whole nation that none could see the dark +cloud on the horizon, announcing the storm that was too rapidly +approaching. + + Law himself, the magician whose wand had wrought so surprising a +change, shared, of course, in the general prosperity. His wife and +daughter were courted by the highest nobility, and their alliance +sought by the heirs of ducal and princely houses. He bought two +splendid estates in different parts of France, and entered into a +negotiation with the family of the Duke de Sully for the purchase of +the Marquisate of Rosny. His religion being an obstacle to his +advancement, the Regent promised, if he would publicly conform to the +Catholic faith, to make him comptroller-general of the finances. Law, +who had no more real religion than any other professed gambler, +readily agreed, and was confirmed by the Abbe de Tencin in the +cathedral of Melun, in presence of a great crowd of spectators. +[The following squib was circulated on the occasion :-- + "Foin de ton zele seraphique, + Malheureux Abbe de Tencin, + Depuis que Law est Catholique, + Tout le royaume est Capucin + +Thus, somewhat weakly and paraphrastically rendered by Justansond, in +his translation of the "Memoirs of Louis XV:"-- + "Tencin, a curse on thy seraphic zeal, + Which by persuasion hath contrived the means + To make the Scotchman at our altars kneel, + Since which we all are poor as Capucines?] +On the following day he was elected honorary churchwarden of the +parish of St. Roch, upon which occasion he made it a present of the +sum of five hundred thousand livres. His charities, always +magnificent, were not always so ostentatious. He gave away great sums +privately, and no tale of real distress ever reached his ears in vain. + + At this time, he was by far the most influential person of the +state. The Duke of Orleans had so much confidence in his sagacity, and +the success of his plans, that he always consulted him upon every +matter of moment. He was by no means unduly elevated by his +prosperity, but remained the same simple, affable, sensible man that +he had shown himself in adversity. His gallantry, which was always +delightful to the fair objects of it, was of a nature, so kind, so +gentlemanly, and so respectful, that not even a lover could have taken +offence at it. If upon any occasion he showed any symptoms of +haughtiness, it was to the cringing nobles, who lavished their +adulation upon him till it became fulsome. He often took pleasure in +seeing how long he could make them dance attendance upon him for a +single favour. To such of his own countrymen as by chance visited +Paris, and sought an interview with him, he was, on the contrary, all +politeness and attention. When Archibald Campbell, Earl of Islay, and +afterwards Duke of Argyle, called upon him in the Place Vendome, he +had to pass through an ante-chamber crowded with persons of the first +distinction, all anxious to see the great financier, and have their +names put down as first on the list of some new subscription. Law +himself was quietly sitting in his library, writing a letter to the +gardener at his paternal estate of Lauriston about the planting of +some cabbages! The Earl stayed for a considerable time, played a game +of piquet with his countryman, and left him, charmed with his ease, +good sense, and good breeding. + + Among the nobles who, by means of the public credulity at this +time, gained sums sufficient to repair their ruined fortunes, may be +mentioned the names of the Dukes de Bourbon, de Guiche, de la +Force [The Duke de la Force gained considerable sums, not only by +jobbing in the stocks, but in dealing in porcelain, spices, &c. It was +debated for a length of time in the Parliament of Paris whether he had +not, in his quality of spice-merchant, forfeited his rank in the +peerage. It was decided in the negative. A caricature of him was made, +dressed as a street porter, carrying a large bale of spices on his +back, with the inscription, "Admirez La Force."], de Chaulnes, and +d'Antin; the Marechal d'Estrees, the Princes de Rohan, de Poix, and de +Leon. The Duke de Bourbon, son of Louis XIV by Madame de Montespan, +was peculiarly fortunate in his speculations in Mississippi paper. +He rebuilt the royal residence of Chantilly in a style of unwonted +magnificence, and, being passionately fond of horses, he erected a +range of stables, which were long renowned throughout Europe, and +imported a hundred and fifty of the finest racers from England, to +improve the breed in France. He bought a large extent of country in +Picardy, and became possessed of nearly all the valuable lands lying +between the Oise and the Somme. + + When fortunes such as these were gained, it is no wonder that Law +should have been almost worshipped by the mercurial population. Never +was monarch more flattered than he was. All the small poets and +litterateurs of the day poured floods of adulation upon him. According +to them he was the saviour of the country, the tutelary divinity of +France; wit was in all his words, goodness in all his looks, and +wisdom in all his actions. So great a crowd followed his carriage +whenever he went abroad, that the Regent sent him a troop of horse as +his permanent escort, to clear the streets before him. + + It was remarked at this time, that Paris had never before been so +full of objects of elegance and luxury. Statues, pictures, and +tapestries were imported in great quantities from foreign countries, +and found a ready market. All those pretty trifles in the way of +furniture and ornament which the French excel in manufacturing, were +no longer the exclusive play-things of the aristocracy, but were to be +found in abundance in the houses of traders and the middle classes in +general. Jewellery of the most costly description was brought to Paris +as the most favourable mart. Among the rest, the famous diamond, +bought by the Regent, and called by his name, and which long adorned +the crown of France. It was purchased for the sum of two millions of +livres, under circumstances which show that the Regent was not so +great a gainer as some of his subjects, by the impetus which trade had +received. When the diamond was first offered to him, he refused to buy +it, although he desired, above all things, to possess it, alleging as +his reason, that his duty to the country he governed would not allow +him to spend so large a sum of the public money for a mere jewel. This +valid and honourable excuse threw all the ladies of the court into +alarm, and nothing was heard for some days but expressions of regret, +that so rare a gem should be allowed to go out of France; no private +individual being rich enough to buy it. The Regent was continually +importuned about it; but all in vain, until the Duke de St. Simon, +who, with all his ability, was something of a twaddler, undertook the +weighty business. His entreaties, being seconded by Law, the +good-natured Regent gave his consent, leaving to Law's ingenuity to +find the means to pay for it. The owner took security for the payment +of the sum of two millions of livres within a stated period, +receiving, in the mean time, the interest of five per cent. upon that +amount, and being allowed, besides, all the valuable clippings of the +gem. St. Simon, in his Memoirs, relates, with no little complacency, +his share in this transaction. After describing the diamond to be as +large as a greengage, of a form nearly round, perfectly white, and +without flaw, and weighing more than five hundred grains, he concludes +with a chuckle, by telling the world, "that he takes great credit to +himself for having induced the Regent to make so illustrious a +purchase." In other words, he was proud that he had induced him to +sacrifice his duty, and buy a bauble for himself, at an extravagant +price, out of the public money. + + Thus the system continued to flourish till the commencement of the +year 1720. The warnings of the Parliament, that too great a creation +of paper money would, sooner or later, bring the country to +bankruptcy, were disregarded. The Regent, who knew nothing whatever of +the philosophy of finance, thought that a system which had produced +such good effects could never be carried to excess. If five hundred +millions of paper had been of such advantage, five hundred millions +additional would be of still greater advantage. This was the grand +error of the Regent, and which Law did not attempt to dispel. The +extraordinary avidity of the people kept up the delusion; and the +higher the price of Indian and Mississippi stock, the more billets de +banque were issued to keep pace with it. The edifice thus reared might +not unaptly be compared to the gorgeous palace erected by Potemkin, +that princely barbarian of Russia, to surprise and please his imperial +mistress: huge blocks of ice were piled one upon another; ionic +pillars, of chastest workmanship, in ice, formed a noble portico; and +a dome, of the same material, shone in the sun, which had just +strength enough to gild, but not to melt it. It glittered afar, like a +palace of crystals and diamonds; but there came one warm breeze from +the south, and the stately building dissolved away, till none were +able even to gather up the fragments. So with Law and his paper +system. No sooner did the breath of popular mistrust blow steadily +upon it, than it fell to ruins, and none could raise it up again. + + The first slight alarm that was occasioned was early in 1720. The +Prince de Conti, offended that Law should have denied him fresh shares +in India stock, at his own price, sent to his bank to demand payment +in specie of so enormous a quantity of notes, that three waggons were +required for its transport. Law complained to the Regent, and urged on +his attention the mischief that would be done, if such an example +found many imitators. The Regent was but too well aware of it, and, +sending for the Prince de Conti, ordered him, under penalty of his +high displeasure, to refund to the Bank two-thirds of the specie which +he had withdrawn from it. The Prince was forced to obey the despotic +mandate. Happily for Law's credit, De Conti was an unpopular man: +everybody condemned his meanness and cupidity, and agreed that Law had +been hardly treated. It is strange, however, that so narrow an escape +should not have made both Law and the Regent more anxious to restrict +their issues. Others were soon found who imitated, from motives of +distrust, the example which had been set by De Conti in revenge. The +more acute stockjobbers imagined justly that prices could not continue +to rise for ever. Bourdon and La Richardiere, renowned for their +extensive operations in the funds, quietly and in small quantities at +a time, converted their notes into specie, and sent it away to foreign +countries. They also bought as much as they could conveniently carry +of plate and expensive jewellery, and sent it secretly away to England +or to Holland. Vermalet, a jobber, who sniffed the coming storm, +procured gold and silver coin to the amount of nearly a million of +livres, which he packed in a farmer's cart, and covered over with hay +and cow-dung. He then disguised himself in the dirty smock-frock, or +blouse, of a peasant, and drove his precious load in safety into +Belgium. From thence he soon found means to transport it to Amsterdam. + + Hitherto no difficulty had been experienced by any class in +procuring specie for their wants. But this system could not long be +carried on without causing a scarcity. The voice of complaint was +heard on every side, and inquiries being instituted, the cause was +soon discovered. The council debated long on the remedies to be taken, +and Law, being called on for his advice, was of opinion, that an edict +should be published, depreciating the value of coin five per cent. +below that of paper. The edict was published accordingly; but, failing +of its intended effect, was followed by another, in which the +depreciation was increased to ten per cent. The payments of the bank +were at the same time restricted to one hundred livres in gold, and +ten in silver. All these measures were nugatory to restore confidence +in the paper, though the restriction of cash payments within limits so +extremely narrow kept up the credit of the Bank. + + Notwithstanding every effort to the contrary, the precious metals +continued to be conveyed to England and Holland. The little coin that +was left in the country was carefully treasured, or hidden until the +scarcity became so great, that the operations of trade could no longer +be carried on. In this emergency, Law hazarded the bold experiment of +forbidding the use of specie altogether. In February 1720 an edict was +published, which, instead of restoring the credit of the paper, as was +intended, destroyed it irrecoverably, and drove the country to the +very brink of revolution. By this famous edict it was forbidden to any +person whatever to have more than five hundred livres (20 pounds +sterling) of coin in his possession, under pain of a heavy fine, and +confiscation of the sums found. It was also forbidden to buy up +jewellery, plate, and precious stones, and informers were encouraged +to make search for offenders, by the promise of one-half the amount +they might discover. The whole country sent up a cry of distress at +this unheard-of tyranny. The most odious persecution daily took place. +The privacy of families was violated by the intrusion of informers and +their agents. The most virtuous and honest were denounced for the +crime of having been seen with a louis d'or in their possession. +Servants betrayed their masters, one citizen became a spy upon his +neighbour, and arrests and confiscations so multiplied, that the +courts found a difficulty in getting through the immense increase of +business thus occasioned. It was sufficient for an informer to say +that he suspected any person of concealing money in his house, and +immediately a search-warrant was granted. Lord Stair, the English +ambassador, said, that it was now impossible to doubt of the sincerity +of Law's conversion to the Catholic religion; he had established the +inquisition, after having given abundant evidence of his faith in +transubstantiation, by turning so much gold into paper. + + Every epithet that popular hatred could suggest was showered upon +the Regent and the unhappy Law. Coin, to any amount above five hundred +livres, was an illegal tender, and nobody would take paper if he could +help it. No one knew to-day what his notes would be worth to-morrow. +"Never," says Duclos, in his Secret Memoirs of the Regency, "was seen +a more capricious government-never was a more frantic tyranny +exercised by hands less firm. It is inconceivable to those who were +witnesses of the horrors of those times, and who look back upon them +now as on a dream, that a sudden revolution did not break out--that +Law and the Regent did not perish by a tragical death. They were both +held in horror, but the people confined themselves to complaints; a +sombre and timid despair, a stupid consternation, had seized upon all, +and men's minds were too vile even to be capable of a courageous +crime." It would appear that, at one time, a movement of the people +was organised. Seditious writings were posted up against the walls, +and were sent, in hand-bills, to the houses of the most conspicuous +people. One of them, given in the "Memoires de la Regence," was to +the following effect :--" Sir and Madam,--This is to give you notice +that a St. Bartholomew's Day will be enacted again on Saturday and +Sunday, if affairs do not alter. You are desired not to stir out, nor +you, nor your servants. God preserve you from the flames! Give notice +to your neighbours. Dated Saturday, May 25th, 1720." The immense +number of spies with which the city was infested rendered the people +mistrustful of one another, and beyond some trifling disturbances made +in the evening by an insignificant group, which was soon dispersed, +the peace of the capital was not compromised. + + The value of shares in the Louisiana, or Mississippi stock, had +fallen very rapidly, and few indeed were found to believe the tales +that had once been told of the immense wealth of that region. A last +effort was therefore tried to restore the public confidence in the +Mississippi project. For this purpose, a general conscription of all +the poor wretches in Paris was made by order of government. Upwards of +six thousand of the very refuse of the population were impressed, as +if in time of war, and were provided with clothes and tools to be +embarked for New Orleans, to work in the gold mines alleged to abound +there. They were paraded day after day through the streets with their +pikes and shovels, and then sent off in small detachments to the +out-ports to be shipped for America. Two-thirds of them never reached +their destination, but dispersed themselves over the country, sold +their tools for what they could get, and returned to their old course +of life. In less than three weeks afterwards, one-half of them were to +be found again in Paris. The manoeuvre, however, caused a trifling +advance in Mississippi stock. Many persons of superabundant +gullibility believed that operations had begun in earnest in the new +Golconda, and that gold and silver ingots would again be found in +France. + + In a constitutional monarchy some surer means would have been +found for the restoration of public credit. In England, at a +subsequent period, when a similar delusion had brought on similar +distress, how different were the measures taken to repair the evil; +but in France, unfortunately, the remedy was left to the authors of +the mischief. The arbitrary will of the Regent, which endeavoured to +extricate the country, only plunged it deeper into the mire. All +payments were ordered to be made in paper, and between the 1st of +February and the end of May, notes were fabricated to the amount of +upwards of 1500 millions of livres, or 60,000,000 pounds sterling. But +the alarm once sounded, no art could make the people feel the +slightest confidence in paper which was not exchangeable into metal. +M. Lambert, the President of the Parliament of Paris, told the Regent +to his face that he would rather have a hundred thousand livres in +gold or silver than five millions in the notes of his bank. When such +was the general feeling, the superabundant issues of paper but +increased the evil, by rendering still more enormous the disparity +between the amount of specie and notes in circulation. Coin, which it +was the object of the Regent to depreciate, rose in value on every +fresh attempt to diminish it. In February, it was judged advisable +that the Royal Bank should be incorporated with the Company of the +Indies. An edict to that effect was published and registered by the +Parliament. The state remained the guarantee for the notes of the +bank, and no more were to be issued without an order in council. All +the profits of the bank, since the time it had been taken out of Law's +hands and made a national institution, were given over by the Regent +to the Company of the Indies. This measure had the effect of raising +for a short time the value of the Louisiana and other shares of the +company, but it failed in placing public credit on any permanent +basis. + + A council of state was held in the beginning of May, at which Law, +D'Argenson (his colleague in the administration of the finances), and +all the ministers were present. It was then computed that the total +amount of notes in circulation was 2600 millions of livres, while the +coin in the country was not quite equal to half that amount. It was +evident to the majority of the council that some plan must be adopted +to equalise the currency. Some proposed that the notes should be +reduced to the value of the specie, while others proposed that the +nominal value of the specie should be raised till it was on an +equality with the paper. Law is said to have opposed both these +projects, but failing in suggesting any other, it was agreed that the +notes should be depreciated one-half. On the 21st of May, an edict was +accordingly issued, by which it was decreed that the shares of the +Company of the Indies, and the notes of the bank, should gradually +diminish in value, till at the end of a year they should only pass +current for one half of their nominal worth. The Parliament refused to +register the edict--the greatest outcry was excited, and the state of +the country became so alarming, that, as the only means of preserving +tranquillity, the council of the regency was obliged to stultify its +own proceedings, by publishing within seven days another edict, +restoring the notes to their original value. + + On the same day (the 27th of May) the bank stopped payment in +specie. Law and D'Argenson were both dismissed from the ministry. The +weak, vacillating, and cowardly Regent threw the blame of all the +mischief upon Law, who, upon presenting himself at the Palais Royal, +was refused admitance. At nightfall, however, he was sent for, and +admitted into the palace by a secret door,[Duclos, Memoires Secrets de +la Regence.] when the Regent endeavoured to console him, and made all +manner of excuses for the severity with which in public he had been +compelled to treat him. So capricious was his conduct, that, two days +afterwards, he took him publicly to the opera, where he sat in the +royal box, alongside of the Regent, who treated him with marked +consideration in face of all the people. But such was the hatred +against Law that the experiment had well nigh proved fatal to him. The +mob assailed his carriage with stones just as he was entering his own +door; and if the coachman had not made a sudden jerk into the +court-yard, and the domestics closed the gate immediately, he would, +in all probability, have been dragged out and torn to pieces. On the +following day, his wife and daughter were also assailed by the mob as +they were returning in their carriage from the races. When the Regent +was informed of these occurrences he sent Law a strong detachment of +Swiss guards, who were stationed night and day in the court of his +residence. The public indignation at last increased so much, that Law, +finding his own house, even with this guard, insecure, took refuge in +the Palais Royal, in the apartments of the Regent. + + The Chancellor, D'Aguesseau, who had been dismissed in 1718 for +his opposition to the projects of Law, was now recalled to aid in the +restoration of credit. The Regent acknowledged too late, that he had +treated with unjustifiable harshness and mistrust one of the ablest, +and perhaps the sole honest public man of that corrupt period. He had +retired ever since his disgrace to his country-house at Fresnes, +where, in the midst of severe but delightful philosophic studies, he +had forgotten the intrigues of an unworthy court. Law himself, and the +Chevalier de Conflans, a gentleman of the Regent's household, were +despatched in a post-chaise, with orders to bring the ex-chancellor to +Paris along with them. D'Aguesseau consented to render what assistance +he could, contrary to the advice of his friends, who did not approve +that he should accept any recall to office of which Law was the +bearer. On his arrival in Paris, five counsellors of the Parliament +were admitted to confer with the Commissary of Finance, and on the 1st +of June an order was published, abolishing the law which made it +criminal to amass coin to the amount of more than five hundred livres. +Every one was permitted to have as much specie as he pleased. In order +that the bank-notes might be withdrawn, twenty-five millions of new +notes were created, on the security of the revenues of the city of +Paris, at two-and-a-half per cent. The bank-notes withdrawn were +publicly burned in front of the Hotel de Ville. The new notes were +principally of the value of ten livres each; and on the 10th of June +the bank was re-opened, with a sufficiency of silver coin to give in +change for them. + + These measures were productive of considerable advantage. All the +population of Paris hastened to the bank, to get coin for their small +notes; and silver becoming scarce, they were paid in copper. Very few +complained that this was too heavy, although poor fellows might be +continually seen toiling and sweating along the streets, laden with +more than they could comfortably carry, in the shape of change for +fifty livres. The crowds around the bank were so great, that hardly a +day passed that some one was not pressed to death. On the 9th of +July, the multitude was so dense and clamorous that the guards +stationed at the entrance of the Mazarin Gardens closed the gate, and +refused to admit any more. The crowd became incensed, and flung stones +through the railings upon the soldiers. The latter, incensed in their +turn, threatened to fire upon the people. At that instant one of them +was hit by a stone, and, taking up his piece, he fired into the crowd. +One man fell dead immediately, and another was severely wounded. It +was every instant expected that a general attack would have been +commenced upon the bank; but the gates of the Mazarin Gardens being +opened to the crowd, who saw a whole troop of soldiers, with their +bayonets fixed, ready to receive them, they contented themselves by +giving vent to their indignation in groans and hisses. + + Eight days afterwards the concourse of people was so tremendous, +that fifteen persons were squeezed to death at the doors of the bank. +The people were so indignant that they took three of the bodies on +stretchers before them, and proceeded, to the number of seven or eight +thousand, to the gardens of the Palais Royal, that they might show the +Regent the misfortunes that he and Law had brought upon the country. +Law's coachman, who was sitting on the box of his master's carriage, +in the court-yard of the palace, happened to have more zeal than +discretion, and, not liking that the mob should abuse his master, he +said, loud enough to be overheard by several persons, that they were +all blackguards, and deserved to be hanged. The mob immediately set +upon him, and, thinking that Law was in the carriage, broke it to +pieces. The imprudent coachman narrowly escaped with his life. No +further mischief was done; a body of troops making their appearance, +the crowd quietly dispersed, after an assurance had been given by the +Regent that the three bodies they had brought to show him should be +decently buried at his own expense. The Parliament was sitting at the +time of this uproar, and the President took upon himself to go out and +see what was the matter. On his return he informed the councillors, +that Law's carriage had been broken by the mob. All the members rose +simultaneously, and expressed their joy by a loud shout, while one +man, more zealous in his hatred than the rest, exclaimed, "And Law +himself, is he torn to pieces?" +[The Duchess of Orleans gives a different version of this story; but +whichever be the true one, the manifestation of such feeling in a +legislative assembly was not very creditable. She says, that the +President was so transported with joy, that he was seized with a +rhyming fit, and, returning into the hall, exclaimed to the members:-- + +"Messieurs ! Messieurs ! bonne nouvelle ! +Le carfosse de Lass est reduit en canelle !"] + + Much undoubtedly depended on the credit of the Company of the +Indies, which was answerable for so great a sum to the nation. It was, +therefore, suggested in the council of the ministry, that any +privileges which could be granted to enable it to fulfil its +engagements, would be productive of the best results. With this end in +view, it was proposed that the exclusive privilege of all maritime +commerce should be secured to it, and an edict to that effect was +published. But it was unfortunately forgotten that by such a measure +all the merchants of the country would be ruined. The idea of such an +immense privilege was generally scouted by the nation, and petition on +petition was presented to the Parliament, that they would refuse to +register the decree. They refused accordingly, and the Regent, +remarking that they did nothing but fan the flame of sedition, exiled +them to Blois. At the intercession of D'Aguesseau, the place of +banishment was changed to Pontoise, and thither accordingly the +councillors repaired, determined to set the Regent at defiance. They +made every arrangement for rendering their temporary exile as +agreeable as possible. The President gave the most elegant suppers, to +which he invited all the gayest and wittiest company of Paris. Every +night there was a concert and ball for the ladies. The usually grave +and solemn judges and councillors joined in cards and other +diversions, leading for several weeks a life of the most extravagant +pleasure, for no other purpose than to show the Regent of how little +consequence they deemed their banishment, and that when they willed +it, they could make Pontoise a pleasanter residence than Paris. + + Of all the nations in the world the French are the most renowned +for singing over their grievances. Of that country it has been +remarked with some truth, that its whole history may be traced in its +songs. When Law, by the utter failure of his best-laid plans, rendered +himself obnoxious, satire of course seized hold upon him, and, while +caricatures of his person appeared in all the shops, the streets +resounded with songs, in which neither he nor the Regent was spared. +Many of these songs were far from decent; and one of them in +particular counselled the application of all his notes to the most +ignoble use to which paper can be applied. But the following, +preserved in the letters of the Duchess of Orleans, was the best and +the most popular, and was to be heard for months in all the carrefours +of Paris. The application of the chorus is happy enough :-- + +Aussitot que Lass arriva +Dans notre bonne ville, +Monsieur le Regent publia +Que Lass serait utile +Pour retablir la nation. +La faridondaine! la faridondon. +Mais il nous a tous enrich!, +Biribi! +A la facon de Barbari, +Mort ami! + +Ce parpaillot, pour attirer +Tout l'argent de la France, +Songea d'abord a s'assurer +De notre confiance. +Il fit son abjuration. +La faridondaine! la faridondon! +Mais le fourbe s'est converti, +Biribi! +A la facon de Barbari, +Mon ami! + +Lass, le fils aine de Satan +Nous met tous a l'aumone, +Il nous a pris tout notre argent +Et n'en rend a personne. +Mais le Regent, humain et bon, +La faridondaine! la faridondon! +Nous rendra ce qu'on nous a pris, +Biribi! +A la facon de Barbari, +Mon ami! + +The following smart epigram is of the same date:-- + +Lundi, j'achetai des actions; +Mardi, je gagnai des millions; +Mercredi, j'arrangeai mon menage, +Jeudi, je pris un equipage, +Vendredi, je m'en fus au bal, +Et Samedi, a l'Hopital. + + Among the caricatures that were abundantly published, and that +showed as plainly as graver matters, that the nation had awakened to a +sense of its folly, was one, a fac-simile of which is preserved in the +"Memoires de la Regence." It was thus described by its author: "The +'Goddess of Shares,' in her triumphal car, driven by the Goddess of +Folly. Those who are drawing the car are impersonations of the +Mississippi, with his wooden leg, the South Sea, the Bank of England, +the Company of the West of Senegal, and of various assurances. Lest +the car should not roll fast enough, the agents of these companies, +known by their long fox-tails and their cunning looks, turn round the +spokes of the wheels, upon which are marked the names of the several +stocks, and their value, sometimes high and sometimes low, according +to the turns of the wheel. Upon the ground are the merchandise, +day-books and ledgers of legitimate commerce, crushed under the +chariot of Folly. Behind is an immense crowd of persons, of all ages, +sexes, and conditions, clamoring after Fortune, and fighting with each +other to get a portion of the shares which she distributes so +bountifully among them. In the clouds sits a demon, blowing bubbles of +soap, which are also the objects of the admiration and cupidity of the +crowd, who jump upon one another's backs to reach them ere they burst. +Right in the pathway of the car, and blocking up the passage, stands a +large building, with three doors, through one of which it must pass, +if it proceeds further, and all the crowd along with it. Over the +first door are the words, "Hopital des Foux," over the second, +"Hopital des Malades," and over the third, "Hopital des Gueux." +Another caricature represented Law sitting in a large cauldron, +boiling over the flames of popular madness, surrounded by an impetuous +multitude, who were pouring all their gold and silver into it, and +receiving gladly in exchange the bits of paper which he distributed +among them by handsfull. + + While this excitement lasted, Law took good care not to expose +himself unguarded in the streets. Shut up in the apartments of the +Regent, he was secure from all attack, and, whenever he ventured +abroad, it was either incognito, or in one of the Royal carriages, +with a powerful escort. An amusing anecdote is recorded of the +detestation in which he was held by the people, and the ill treatment +he would have met, had he fallen into their hands. A gentleman, of the +name of Boursel, was passing in his carriage down the Rue St. Antoine, +when his further progress was stayed by a hackneycoach that had +blocked up the road. M. Boursel's servant called impatiently to the +hackneycoachman to get out of the way, and, on his refusal, struck him +a blow on the face. A crowd was soon drawn together by the +disturbance, and M. Boursel got out of the carriage to restore order. +The hackney-coachman, imagining that he had now another assailant, +bethought him of an expedient to rid himself of both, and called out +as loudly as he was able, "Help! help! murder! murder! Here are Law +and his servant going to kill me! Help! help!" At this cry, the people +came out of their shops, armed with sticks and other weapons, while +the mob gathered stones to inflict summary vengeance upon the supposed +financier. Happily for M. Boursel and his servant, the door of the +church of the Jesuits stood wide open, and, seeing the fearful odds +against them, they rushed towards it with all speed. They reached the +altar, pursued by the people, and would have been ill treated even +there, if, finding the door open leading to the sacristy, they had not +sprang through, and closed it after them. The mob were then persuaded +to leave the church by the alarmed and indignant priests; and, finding +M. Boursel's carriage still in the streets, they vented their ill-will +against it, and did it considerable damage. + + The twenty-five millions secured on the municipal revenues of the +city of Paris, bearing so low an interest as two and a half per cent., +were not very popular among the large holders of Mississippi stock. +The conversion of the securities was, therefore, a work of +considerable difficulty; for many preferred to retain the falling +paper of Law's Company, in the hope that a favourable turn might take +place. On the 15th of August, with a view to hasten the conversion, an +edict was passed, declaring that all notes for sums between one +thousand and ten thousand livres; should not pass current, except for +the purchase of annuities and bank accounts, or for the payment of +instalments still due on the shares of the company. + + In October following another edict was passed, depriving these +notes of all value whatever after the month of November next ensuing. +The management of the mint, the farming of the revenue, and all the +other advantages and privileges of the India, or Mississippi Company, +were taken from them, and they were reduced to a mere private company. +This was the deathblow to the whole system, which had now got into the +hands of its enemies. Law had lost all influence in the Council of +Finance, and the company, being despoiled of its immunities, could no +longer hold out the shadow of a prospect of being able to fulfil its +engagements. All those suspected of illegal profits at the time the +public delusion was at its height, were sought out and amerced in +heavy fines. It was previously ordered that a list of the original +proprietors should be made out, and that such persons as still +retained their shares should place them in deposit with the company, +and that those who had neglected to complete the shares for which they +had put down their names, should now purchase them of the company, at +the rate of 13,500 livres for each share of 500 livres. Rather than +submit to pay this enormous sum for stock which was actually at a +discount, the shareholders packed up all their portable effects, and +endeavoured to find a refuge in foreign countries. Orders were +immediately issued to the authorities at the ports and frontiers, to +apprehend all travellers who sought to leave the kingdom, and keep +them in custody, until it was ascertained whether they had any plate +or jewellery with them, or were concerned in the late stock-jobbing. +Against such few as escaped, the punishment of death was recorded, +while the most arbitrary proceedings were instituted against those who +remained. + + Law himself, in a moment of despair, determined to leave a country +where his life was no longer secure. He at first only demanded +permission to retire from Paris to one of his country-seats; a +permission which the Regent cheerfully granted. The latter was much +affected at the unhappy turn affairs had taken, but his faith +continued unmoved in the truth and efficacy of Law's financial system. +His eyes were opened to his own errors, and during the few remaining +years of his life, he constantly longed for an opportunity of again +establishing the system upon a securer basis. At Law's last interview +with the Prince, he is reported to have said--"I confess that I have +committed many faults; I committed them because I am a man, and all +men are liable to error; but I declare to you most solemnly that none +of them proceeded from wicked or dishonest motives, and that nothing +of the kind will be found in the whole course of my conduct." + + Two or three days after his departure the Regent sent him a very +kind letter, permitting him to leave the kingdom whenever he pleased, +and stating that he had ordered his passports to be made ready. He at +the same time offered him any sum of money he might require. Law +respectfully declined the money, and set out for Brussels in a +postchaise belonging to Madame de Prie, the mistress of the Duke of +Bourbon, escorted by six horse-guards. From thence he proceeded to +Venice, where he remained for some months, the object of the greatest +curiosity to the people, who believed him to be the possessor of +enormous wealth. No opinion, however, could be more erroneous. With +more generosity than could have been expected from a man who during +the greatest part of his life had been a professed gambler, he had +refused to enrich himself at the expense of a ruined nation. During +the height of the popular frenzy for Mississippi stock, he had never +doubted of the final success of his projects, in making France the +richest and most powerful nation of Europe. He invested all his gains +in the purchase of landed property in France - a sure proof of his own +belief in the stability of his schemes. He had hoarded no plate or +jewellery, and sent no money, like the dishonest jobbers, to foreign +countries. His all, with the exception of one diamond, worth about +five or six thousand pounds sterling, was invested in the French soil; +and when he left that country, he left it almost a beggar. This fact +alone ought to rescue his memory from the charge of knavery, so often +and so unjustly brought against him. + + As soon as his departure was known, all his estates and his +valuable library were confiscated. Among the rest, an annuity of +200,000 livres, (8000 pounds sterling,) on the lives of his wife and +children, which had been purchased for five millions of livres, was +forfeited, notwithstanding that a special edict, drawn up for the +purpose in the days of his prosperity, had expressly declared that it +should never be confiscated for any cause whatever. Great discontent +existed among the people that Law had been suffered to escape. The mob +and the Parliament would have been pleased to have seen him hanged. +The few who had not suffered by the commercial revolution, rejoiced +that the quack had left the country; but all those (and they were by +far the most numerous class) whose fortunes were implicated, regretted +that his intimate knowledge of the distress of the country, and of the +causes that had led to it, had not been rendered more available in +discovering a remedy. + + At a meeting of the Council of Finance, and the general council of +the Regency, documents were laid upon the table, from which it +appeared that the amount of notes in circulation was 2700 millions. +The Regent was called upon to explain how it happened that there was a +discrepancy between the dates at which these issues were made, and +those of the edicts by which they were authorised. He might have +safely taken the whole blame upon himself, but he preferred that an +absent man should bear a share of it, and he therefore stated that +Law, upon his own authority, had issued 1200 millions of notes at +different times, and that he (the Regent) seeing that the thing had +been irrevocably done, had screened Law, by antedating the decrees of +the council, which authorised the augmentation. It would have been +more to his credit if he had told the whole truth while he was about +it, and acknowledged that it was mainly through his extravagance and +impatience that Law had been induced to overstep the bounds of safe +speculation. It was also ascertained that the national debt, on the +1st of January, 1721, amounted to upwards of $100 millions of livres, +or more than 124,000,000 pounds sterling, the interest upon which was +3,196,000 pounds. A commission, or visa, was forthwith appointed to +examine into all the securities of the state creditors, who were to be +divided into five classes, the first four comprising those who had +purchased their securities with real effects, and the latter +comprising those who could give no proofs that the transactions they +had entered into were real and bona fide. The securities of the latter +were ordered to be destroyed, while those of the first four classes +were subjected to a most rigid and jealous scrutiny. The result of the +labours of the visa was a report, in which they counselled the +reduction of the interest upon these securities to fifty-six millions +of livres. They justified this advice by a statement of the various +acts of peculation and extortion which they had discovered, and an +edict to that effect was accordingly published and duly registered by +the parliaments of the kingdom. + + Another tribunal was afterwards established, under the title of +the Chambre de l'Arsenal, which took cognizance of all the +malversations committed in the financial departments of the government +during the late unhappy period. A Master of Requests, named Falhonet, +together with the Abbe Clement, and two clerks in their employ, had +been concerned in divers acts of peculation, to the amount of upwards +of a million of livres. The first two were sentenced to be beheaded, +and the latter to be hanged; but their punishment was afterwards +commuted into imprisonment for life in the Bastile. Numerous other +acts of dishonesty were discovered, and punished by fine and +imprisonment. + + D'Argenson shared with Law and the Regent the unpopularity which +had alighted upon all those concerned in the Mississippi madness. He +was dismissed from his post of Chancellor, to make room for +D'Aguesseau; but he retained the title of Keeper of the Seals, and was +allowed to attend the councils whenever he pleased. He thought it +better, however, to withdraw from Paris, and live for a time a life of +seclusion at his country-seat. But he was not formed for retirement, +and becoming moody and discontented, he aggravated a disease under +which he had long laboured, and died in less than a twelvemonth. The +populace of of Paris so detested him, that they carried their hatred +even to his grave. As his funeral procession passed to the church of +St. Nicholas du Chardonneret, the burying-place of his family, it was +beset by a riotous mob, and his two sons, who were following as +chief-mourners, were obliged to drive as fast as they were able down a +by-street to escape personal violence. + + As regards Law, he for some time entertained a hope that he should +be recalled to France, to aid in establishing its credit upon a firmer +basis. The death of the Regent, in 1723, who expired suddenly, as he +was sitting by the fireside conversing with his mistress, the Duchess +de Phalaris, deprived him of that hope, and he was reduced to lead his +former life of gambling. He was more than once obliged to pawn his +diamond, the sole remnant of his vast wealth, but successful play +generally enabled him to redeem it. Being persecuted by his creditors +at Rome, he proceeded to Copenhagen, where he received permission from +the English ministry to reside in his native country, his pardon for +the murder of Mr. Wilson having been sent over to him in 1719. He was +brought over in the admiral's ship, a circumstance which gave occasion +for a short debate in the House of Lords. Earl Coningsby complained +that a man, who had renounced both his country and his religion, +should have been treated with such honour, and expressed his belief +that his presence in England, at a time when the people were so +bewildered by the nefarious practices of the South Sea directors, +would be attended with no little danger. He gave notice of a motion on +the subject; but it was allowed to drop, no other member of the House +having the slightest participation in his lordship's fears. Law +remained for about four years in England, and then proceeded to +Venice, where he died in 1729, in very embarrassed circumstances. The +following epitaph was written at the time :-- + +"Ci git cet Ecossais celebre, +Ce calculateur sans egal, +Qui, par les regles de l'algebre, +A mis la France a l'Hopital." + + His brother, William Law, who had been concerned with him in the +administration both of the Bank and the Louisiana Company, was +imprisoned in the Bastile for alleged malversation, but no guilt was +ever proved against him. He was liberated after fifteen months, and +became the founder of a family, which is still known in France under +the title of Marquises of Lauriston. + + In the next chapter will be found an account of the madness which +infected the people of England at the same time, and under very +similar circumstances, but which, thanks to the energies and good +sense of a constitutional government, was attended with results far +less disastrous than those which were seen in France. + + +THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + +At length corruption, like a general flood, +Did deluge all, and avarice creeping on, +Spread, like a low-born mist, and hid the sun. +Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks, +Peeress and butler shared alike the box; +And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town, +And mighty dukes packed cards for half-a-crown: +Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms. + --Pope. + + The South Sea Company was originated by the celebrated Harley, +Earl of Oxford, in the year 1711, with the view of restoring public +credit, which had suffered by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and +of providing for the discharge of the army and navy debentures, and +other parts of the floating debt, amounting to nearly ten millions +sterling. A company of merchants, at that time without a name, took +this debt upon themselves, and the government agreed to secure them, +for a certain period, the interest of six per cent. To provide for +this interest, amounting to 600,000 pounds per annum, the duties upon +wines, vinegar, India goods, wrought silks, tobacco, whale-fins, and +some other articles, were rendered permanent. The monopoly of the +trade to the South Seas was granted, and the company, being +incorporated by Act of Parliament, assumed the title by which it has +ever since been known. The minister took great credit to himself for +his share in this transaction, and the scheme was always called by his +flatterers "the Earl of Oxford's masterpiece." + + Even at this early period of its history, the most visionary ideas +were formed by the company and the public of the immense riches of the +eastern coast of South America. Everybody had heard of the gold and +silver mines of Peru and Mexico; every one believed them to be +inexhaustible, and that it was only necessary to send the manufactures +of England to the coast, to be repaid a hundredfold in gold and silver +ingots by the natives. A report, industriously spread, that Spain was +willing to concede four ports, on the coasts of Chili and Peru, for +the purposes of traffic, increased the general confidence; and for +many years the South Sea Company's stock was in high favour. + + Philip V of Spain, however, never had any intention of admitting +the English to a free trade in the ports of Spanish America. +Negotiations were set on foot, but their only result was the assiento +contract, or the privilege of supplying the colonies with negroes for +thirty years, and of sending once a year a vessel, limited both as to +tonnage and value of cargo, to trade with Mexico, Peru, or Chili. The +latter permission was only granted upon the hard condition, that the +King of Spain should enjoy one-fourth of the profits, and a tax of +five per cent. on the remainder. This was a great disappointment to +the Earl of Oxford and his party, who were reminded much oftener than +they found agreeable of the + +"Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus," + +But the public confidence in the South Sea Company was not shaken. The +Earl of Oxford declared, that Spain would permit two ships, in +addition to the annual ship, to carry out merchandise during the first +year; and a list was published, in which all the ports and harbours of +these coasts were pompously set forth as open to the trade of Great +Britain. The first voyage of the annual ship was not made till the +year 1717, and in the following year the trade was suppressed by the +rupture with Spain. + + The King's speech, at the opening of the session of 1717, made pointed +allusion to the state of public credit, and recommended that proper +measures should be taken to reduce the national debt. The two great +monetary corporations, the South Sea Company and the Bank of England, +made proposals to Parliament on the 20th of May ensuing. The South Sea +Company prayed that their capital stock of ten millions might be +increased to twelve, by subscription or otherwise, and offered to +accept five per cent. instead of six upon the whole amount. The Bank +made proposals equally advantageous. The House debated for some time, +and finally three acts were passed, called the South Sea Act, the Bank +Act, and the General Fund Act. By the first, the proposals of the +South Sea Company were accepted, and that body held itself ready to +advance the sum of two millions towards discharging the principal and +interest of the debt due by the state for the four lottery funds of +the ninth and tenth years of Queen Anne. By the second act, the Bank +received a lower rate of interest for the sum of 1,775,027 pounds 15 +shillings due to it by the state, and agreed to deliver up to be +cancelled as many Exchequer bills as amounted to two millions +sterling, and to accept of an annuity of one hundred thousand pounds, +being after the rate of five per cent, the whole redeemable at one +year's notice. They were further required to be ready to advance, in +case of need, a sum not exceeding 2,500,000 pounds upon the same terms +of five per cent interest, redeemable by Parliament. The General Fund +Act recited the various deficiencies, which were to be made good by +the aids derived from the foregoing sources. + + The name of the South Sea Company was thus continually before the +public. Though their trade with the South American States produced +little or no augmentation of their revenues, they continued to +flourish as a monetary corporation. Their stock was in high request, +and the directors, buoyed up with success, began to think of new means +for extending their influence. The Mississippi scheme of John Law, +which so dazzled and captivated the French people, inspired them with +an idea that they could carry on the same game in England. The +anticipated failure of his plans did not divert them from their +intention. Wise in their own conceit, they imagined they could avoid +his faults, carry on their schemes for ever, and stretch the cord of +credit to its extremest tension, without causing it to snap asunder. + + It was while Law's plan was at its greatest height of popularity, +while people were crowding in thousands to the Rue Quincampoix, and +ruining themselves with frantic eagerness, that the South Sea +directors laid before Parliament their famous plan for paying off the +national debt. Visions of boundless wealth floated before the +fascinated eyes of the people in the two most celebrated countries of +Europe. The English commenced their career of extravagance somewhat +later than the French; but as soon as the delirium seized them, they +were determined not to be outdone. Upon the 22nd of January 1720, the +House of Commons resolved itself into a Committee of the whole House, +to take into consideration that part of the King's speech at the +opening of the session which related to the public debts, and the +proposal of the South Sea Company towards the redemption and sinking +of the same. The proposal set forth at great length, and under several +heads, the debts of the state, amounting to 30,981,712 pounds, which +the Company were anxious to take upon themselves, upon consideration +of five per cent. per annum, secured to them until Midsummer 1727; +after which time, the whole was to become redeemable at the pleasure +of the legislature, and the interest to be reduced to four per cent. +The proposal was received with great favour; but the Bank of England +had many friends in the House of Commons, who were desirous that that +body should share in the advantages that were likely to accrue. On +behalf of this corporation it was represented, that they had performed +great and eminent services to the state, in the most difficult times, +and deserved, at least, that if any advantage was to be made by public +bargains of this nature, they should be preferred before a company +that had never done any thing for the nation. The further +consideration of the matter was accordingly postponed for five days. +In the mean time, a plan was drawn up by the Governors of the Bank. +The South Sea Company, afraid that the Bank might offer still more +advantageous terms to the government than themselves, reconsidered +their former proposal, and made some alterations in it, which they +hoped would render it more acceptable. The principal change was a +stipulation that the government might redeem these debts at the +expiration of four years, instead of seven, as at first suggested. The +Bank resolved not to be outbidden in this singular auction, and the +Governors also reconsidered their first proposal, and sent in a new +one. + + Thus, each corporation having made two proposals, the House began +to deliberate. Mr. Robert Walpole was the chief speaker in favour of +the Bank, and Mr. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the +principal advocate on behalf of the South Sea Company. It was +resolved, on the 2nd of February, that the proposals of the latter +were most advantageous to the country. They were accordingly received, +and leave was given to bring in a bill to that effect. + + Exchange Alley was in a fever of excitement. The Company's stock, +which had been at a hundred and thirty the previous day, gradually +rose to three hundred, and continued to rise with the most astonishing +rapidity during the whole time that the bill in its several stages was +under discussion. Mr. Walpole was almost the only statesman in the +House who spoke out boldly against it. He warned them, in eloquent and +solemn language, of the evils that would ensue. It countenanced, he +said, "the dangerous practice of stockjobbing, and would divert the +genius of the nation from trade and industry. It would hold out a +dangerous lure to decoy the unwary to their ruin, by making them part +with the earnings of their labour for a prospect of imaginary wealth. +The great principle of the project was an evil of first-rate +magnitude; it was to raise artificially the value of the stock, by +exciting and keeping up a general infatuation, and by promising +dividends out of funds which could never be adequate to the purpose. +In a prophetic spirit he added, that if the plan succeeded, the +directors would become masters of the government, form a new and +absolute aristocracy in the kingdom, and control the resolutions of +the legislature. If it failed, which he was convinced it would, the +result would bring general discontent and ruin upon the country. Such +would be the delusion, that when the evil day came, as come it would, +the people would start up, as from a dream, and ask themselves if +these things could have been true. All his eloquence was in vain. He +was looked upon as a false prophet, or compared to the hoarse raven, +croaking omens of evil. His friends, however, compared him to +Cassandra, predicting evils which would only be believed when they +came home to men's hearths, and stared them in the face at their own +boards. Although, in former times, the House had listened with the +utmost attention to every word that fell from his lips, the benches +became deserted when it was known that he would speak on the South Sea +question. + + The bill was two months in its progress through the House of +Commons. During this time every exertion was made by the directors and +their friends, and more especially by the Chairman, the noted Sir John +Blunt, to raise the price of the stock. The most extravagant rumours +were in circulation. Treaties between England and Spain were spoken +of, whereby the latter was to grant a free trade to all her colonies; +and the rich produce of the mines of Potosi-la-Paz was to be brought +to England until silver should become almost as plentiful as iron. For +cotton and woollen goods, with which we could supply them in +abundance, the dwellers in Mexico were to empty their golden mines. +The company of merchants trading to the South Seas would be the +richest the world ever saw, and every hundred pounds invested in it +would produce hundreds per annum to the stockholder. At last the stock +was raised by these means to near four hundred; but, after fluctuating +a good deal, settled at three hundred and thirty, at which price it +remained when the bill passed the Commons by a majority of 172 against +55. + + In the House of Lords the bill was hurried through all its stages with +unexampled rapidity. On the 4th of April it was read a first time; on +the 5th, it was read a second time; on the 6th, it was committed; and +on the 7th, was read a third time, and passed. + + Several peers spoke warmly against the scheme; but their warnings +fell upon dull, cold ears. A speculating frenzy had seized them as +well as the plebeians. Lord North and Grey said the bill was unjust in +its nature, and might prove fatal in its consequences, being +calculated to enrich the few and impoverish the many. The Duke of +Wharton followed; but, as he only retailed at second-hand the +arguments so eloquently stated by Walpole in the Lower House, he was +not listened to with even the same attention that had been bestowed +upon Lord North and Grey. Earl Cowper followed on the same side, and +compared the bill to the famous horse of the siege of Troy. Like that, +it was ushered in and received with great pomp and acclamations of +joy, but bore within it treachery and destruction. The Earl of +Sunderland endeavoured to answer all objections; and, on the question +being put, there appeared only seventeen peers against, and +eighty-three in favour of the project. The very same day on which it +passed the Lords, it received the Royal assent, and became the law of +the land. + + It seemed at that time as if the whole nation had turned +stockjobbers. Exchange Alley was every day blocked up by crowds, and +Cornhill was impassable for the number of carriages. Everybody came to +purchase stock. "Every fool aspired to be a knave." In the words of a +ballad, published at the time, and sung about the streets, ["A South +Sea Ballad; or, Merry Remarks upon Exchange Alley Bubbles. To a new +tune, called 'The Grand Elixir; or, the Philosopher's Stone +Discovered.'"] + +Then stars and garters did appear +Among the meaner rabble; +To buy and sell, to see and hear, +The Jews and Gentiles squabble. + +The greatest ladies thither came, +And plied in chariots daily, +Or pawned their jewels for a sum +To venture in the Alley. + + The inordinate thirst of gain that had afflicted all ranks of +society, was not to be slaked even in the South Sea. Other schemes, of +the most extravagant kind, were started. The share-lists were speedily +filled up, and an enormous traffic carried on in shares, while, of +course, every means were resorted to, to raise them to an artificial +value in the market. + + Contrary to all expectation, South Sea stock fell when the bill +received the Royal assent. On the 7th of April the shares were quoted +at three hundred and ten, and. on the following day, at two hundred +and ninety. Already the directors had tasted the profits of their +scheme, and it was not likely that they should quietly allow the stock +to find its natural level, without an effort to raise it. Immediately +their busy emissaries were set to work. Every person interested in the +success of the project endeavoured to draw a knot of listeners around +him, to whom he expatiated on the treasures of the South American +seas. Exchange Alley was crowded with attentive groups. One rumour +alone, asserted with the utmost confidence, had an immediate effect +upon the stock. It was said, that Earl Stanhope had received overtures +in France from the Spanish Government to exchange Gibraltar and Port +Mahon for some places on the coast of Peru, for the security and +enlargement of the trade in the South Seas. Instead of one annual ship +trading to those ports, and allowing the King of Spain twenty-five per +cent. out of the profits, the Company might build and charter as many +ships as they pleased, and pay no per centage whatever to any foreign +potentate. + +Visions of ingots danced before their eyes, + +and stock rose rapidly. On the 12th of April, five days after the bill +had become law, the directors opened their books for a subscription of +a million, at the rate of 300 pounds for every 100 pounds capital. +Such was the concourse of persons, of all ranks, that this first +subscription was found to amount to above two millions of original +stock. It was to be paid at five payments, of 60 pounds each for every +100 pounds. In a few days the stock advanced to three hundred and +forty, and the subscriptions were sold for double the price of the +first payment. To raise the stock still higher, it was declared, in a +general court of directors, on the 21st of April, that the midsummer +dividend should be ten per cent., and that all subscriptions should be +entitled to the same. These resolutions answering the end designed, +the directors, to improve the infatuation of the monied men, opened +their books for a second subscription of a million, at four hundred +per cent. Such was the frantic eagerness of people of every class to +speculate in these funds, that in the course of a few hours no less +than a million and a half was subscribed at that rate. + + In the mean time, innumerable joint-stock companies started up +everywhere. They soon received the name of Bubbles, the most +appropriate that imagination could devise. The populace are often most +happy in the nicknames they employ. None could be more apt than that +of Bubbles. Some of them lasted for a week, or a fortnight, and were +no more heard of, while others could not even live out that short span +of existence. Every evening produced new schemes, and every morning +new projects. The highest of the aristocracy were as eager in this hot +pursuit of gain as the most plodding jobber in Cornhill. The Prince of +Wales became governor of one company, and is said to have cleared +40,000 pounds by his speculations. [Coxe's Walpole, Correspondence +between Mr. Secretary Craggs and Earl Stanhope.] The Duke of +Bridgewater started a scheme for the improvement of London and +Westminster, and the Duke of Chandos another. There were nearly a +hundred different projects, each more extravagant and deceptive than +the other. To use the words of the "Political State," they were "set +on foot and promoted by crafty knaves, then pursued by multitudes of +covetous fools, and at last appeared to be, in effect, what their +vulgar appellation denoted them to be -- bubbles and mere +cheats." It was computed that near one million and a half sterling was +won and lost by these unwarrantable practices, to the impoverishment +of many a fool, and the enriching of many a rogue. + + Some of these schemes were plausible enough, and, had they been +undertaken at a time when the public mind was unexcited, might have +been pursued with advantage to all concerned. But they were +established merely with the view of raising the shares in the market. +The projectors took the first opportunity of a rise to sell out, and +next morning the scheme was at an end. Maitland, in his History of +London, gravely informs us, that one of the projects which received +great encouragement, was for the establishment of a company "to make +deal-boards out of saw-dust." This is, no doubt, intended as a joke; +but there is abundance of evidence to show that dozens of schemes +hardly a whir more reasonable, lived their little day, ruining +hundreds ere they fell. One of them was for a wheel for perpetual +motion -- capital, one million; another was "for encouraging the breed +of horses in England, and improving of glebe and church lands, and +repairing and rebuilding parsonage and vicarage houses." Why the +clergy, who were so mainly interested in the latter clause, should +have taken so much interest in the first, is only to be explained on +the supposition that the scheme was projected by a knot of the +foxhunting parsons, once so common in England. The shares of this +company were rapidly subscribed for. But the most absurd and +preposterous of all, and which showed, more completely than any other, +the utter madness of the people, was one, started by an unknown +adventurer, entitled "company for carrying on an undertaking of great +advantage, but nobody to know what it is." Were not the fact stated by +scores of credible witnesses, it would be impossible to believe that +any person could have been duped by such a project. The man of genius +who essayed this bold and successful inroad upon public credulity, +merely stated in his prospectus that the required capital was half a +million, in five thousand shares of 100 pounds each, deposit 2 pounds +per share. Each subscriber, paying his deposit, would be entitled to +100 pounds per annum per share. How this immense profit was to be +obtained, he did not condescend to inform them at that time, but +promised, that in a month full particulars should be duly announced, +and a call made for the remaining 98 pounds of the subscription. Next +morning, at nine o'clock, this great man opened an office in Cornhill. +Crowds of people beset his door, and when he shut up at three o'clock, +he found that no less than one thousand shares had been subscribed +for, and the deposits paid. He was thus, in five hours, the winner of +2,000 pounds. He was philosopher enough to be contented with his +venture, and set off the same evening for the Continent. He was never +heard of again. + + Well might Swift exclaim, comparing Change Alley to a gulf in the +South Sea,-- + +Subscribers here by thousands float, +And jostle one another down, +Each paddling in his leaky boat, +And here they fish for gold, and drown. + +Now buried in the depths below, +Now mounted up to heaven again, +They reel and stagger to and fro, +At their wit's end, like drunken men + +Meantime, secure on Garraway cliffs, +A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, +Lie waiting for the foundered skiffs, +And strip the bodies of the dead. + + Another fraud that was very successful, was that of the "Globe +Permits," as they were called. They were nothing more than square +pieces of playing cards, on which was the impression of a seal, in +wax, bearing the sign of the Globe Tavern, in the neighbourhood of +Exchange Alley, with the inscription of "Sail Cloth Permits." The +possessors enjoyed no other advantage from them than permission to +subscribe, at some future time, to a new sail-cloth manufactory, +projected by one who was then known to be a man of fortune, but who +was afterwards involved in the peculation and punishment of the South +Sea directors. These permits sold for as much as sixty guineas in the +Alley. + + Persons of distinction, of both sexes, were deeply engaged in all +these bubbles, those of the male sex going to taverns and +coffee-houses to meet their brokers, and the ladies resorting for the +same purpose to the shops of milliners and haberdashers. But it did +not follow that all these people believed in the feasibility of the +schemes to which they subscribed; it was enough for their purpose that +their shares would, by stock-jobbing arts, be soon raised to a +premium, when they got rid of them with all expedition to the really +credulous. So great was the confusion of the crowd in the alley, that +shares in the same bubble were known to have been sold at the same +instant ten per cent. higher at one end of the alley than at the +other. Sensible men beheld the extraordinary infatuation of the people +with sorrow and alarm. There were some, both in and out of Parliament, +who foresaw clearly the ruin that was impending. Mr. Walpole did not +cease his gloomy forebodings. His fears were shared by all the +thinking few, and impressed most forcibly upon the government. On the +11th of June, the day the Parliament rose, the King published a +proclamation, declaring that all these unlawful projects should be +deemed public nuisances, and prosecuted accordingly, and forbidding +any broker, under a penalty of five hundred pounds, from buying or +selling any shares in them. Notwithstanding this proclamation, roguish +speculators still carried them on, and the deluded people still +encouraged them. On the 12th of July, an order of the Lords Justices +assembled in privy council was published, dismissing all the petitions +that had been presented for patents and charters, and dissolving all +the bubble companies. The following copy of their lordships' order, +containing a list of all these nefarious projects, will not be deemed +uninteresting at the present day, when there is but too much tendency +in the public mind to indulge in similar practices :- + +"At the Council Chamber, Whitehall, the 12th day of July, 1720. +Present, their Excellencies the Lords Justices in Council. + + "Their Excellencies, the Lords Justices in council, taking into +consideration the many inconveniences arising to the public from +several projects set on foot for raising of joint stock for various +purposes, and that a great many of his Majesty's subjects have been +drawn in to part with their money on pretence of assurances that their +petitions for patents and charters, to enable them to carry on the +same, would be granted: to prevent such impositions, their +Excellencies, this day, ordered the said several petitions, together +with such reports from the Board of Trade, and from his Majesty's +Attorney and Solicitor General, as had been obtained thereon, to be +laid before them, and after mature consideration thereof, were +pleased, by advice of his Majesty's Privy Council, to order that the +said petitions be dismissed, which are as follow :-- + + "1. Petition of several persons, praying letters patent for +carrying on a fishing trade, by the name of the Grand Fishery of Great +Britain. + + "2. Petition of the Company of the Royal Fishery of England, +praying letters patent for such further powers as will effectually +contribute to carry on the said fishery. + + "3. Petition of George James, on behalf of himself and divers +persons of distinction concerned in a national fishery; praying +letters patent of incorporation to enable them to carry on the same. + + "4. Petition of several merchants, traders, and others, whose +names are thereunto subscribed, praying to be incorporated for +reviving and carrying on a whale fishery to Greenland and elsewhere. + + "5. Petition of Sir John Lambert, and others thereto subscribing, +on behalf of themselves and a great number of merchants, praying to be +incorporated for carrying on a Greenland trade, and particularly a +whale fishery in Davis's Straits. + + "6. Another petition for a Greenland trade. + + "7. Petition of several merchants, gentlemen, and citizens, +praying to be incorporated, for buying and building of ships to let or +freight. + + "8. Petition of Samuel Antrim and others, praying for letters +patent for sowing hemp and flax. + + "9. Petition of several merchants, masters of ships, sail-makers, +and manufacturers of sail-cloth, praying a charter of incorporation, +to enable them to carry on and promote the said manufactory by a joint +stock. + + "10. Petition of Thomas Boyd, and several hundred merchants, +owners and masters of ships, sailmakers, weavers, and other traders, +praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them to borrow money +for purchasing lands, in order to the manufacturing sail-cloth and +fine Holland. + + "11. Petition on behalf of several persons interested in a patent +granted by the late King William and Queen Mary, for the making of +linen and sail-cloth, praying that no charter may be granted to any +persons whatsoever for making sail-cloth, but that the privilege now +enjoyed by them may be confirmed, and likewise an additional power to +carry on the cotton and cotton-silk manufactures. + + "12. Petition of several citizens, merchants, and traders in +London, and others, subscribers to a British stock, for a general +insurance from fire in any part of England, praying to be incorporated +for carrying on the said undertaking. + + "13. Petition of several of his Majesty's loyal snbjects of the +city of London, and other parts of Great Britain, praying to be +incorporated, for carrying on a general insurance from losses by fire +within the kingdom of England. + + "14. Petition of Thomas Burges, and others his Majesty's subjects +thereto subscribing, in behalf of themselves and others, subscribers +to a fund of 1,200,000 pounds, for carrying on a trade to his +Majesty's German dominions, praying to be incorporated, by the name of +the Harburg Company. + + "15. Petition of Edward Jones, a dealer in timber, on behalf of +himself and others, praying to be incorporated for the importation of +timber from Germany. + + "16. Petition of several merchants of London, praying a charter of +incorporation for carrying on a salt-work. + + "17. Petition of Captain Macphedris, of London, merchant, on +behalf of himself and several merchants, clothiers, hatters, dyers, +and other traders, praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them +to raise a sufficient sum of money to purchase lands for planting and +rearing a wood called madder, for the use of dyers. + + "18. Petition of Joseph Galendo, of London, snuff-maker, praying a +patent for his invention to prepare and cure Virginia tobacco for +snuff in Virginia, and making it into the same in all his Majesty's +dominions." + +LIST OF BUBBLES. + + The following Bubble Companies were by the same order declared to +be illegal, and abolished accordingly :-- + +1. For the importation of Swedish iron. + +2. For supplying London with sea-coal. Capital, three millions. + +3. For building and rebuilding houses throughout all England. Capital, +three millions. + +4. For making of muslin. + +5. For carrying on and improving the British alum works. + +6. For effectually settling the island of Blanco and Sal Tartagus. + +7. For supplying the town of Deal with fresh water. + +8. For the importation of Flanders lace. + +9. For improvement of lands in Great Britain. Capital, four millions. + +10. For encouraging the breed of horses in England, and improving of +glebe and church lands, and for repairing and rebuilding parsonage and +vicarage houses. + +11. For making of iron and steel in Great Britain. + +12. For improving the land in the county of Flint. Capital, one +million. + +13. For purchasing lands to build on. Capital, two millions. + +14. For trading in hair. + +15. For erecting salt-works in Holy Island. Capital, two millions. + +16. For buying and selling estates, and lending money on mortgage. + +17. For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to +know what it is. + +18. For paving the streets of London. Capital, two millions. + +19. For furnishing funerals to any part of Great Britain. + +20. For buying and selling lands and lending money at interest. +Capital, five millions. + +21. For carrying on the Royal Fishery of Great Britain. Capital, ten +millions. + +22. For assuring of seamen's wages. + +23. For erecting loan-offices for the assistance and encouragement of +the industrious. Capital, two millions. + +24. For purchasing and improving leasable lands. Capital, four +millions. + +25. For importing pitch and tar, and other naval stores, from North +Britain and America. + +26. For the clothing, felt, and pantile trade. + +27. For purchasing and improving a manor and royalty in Essex. + +28. For insuring of horses. Capital, two millions. + +29. For exporting the woollen manufacture, and importing copper, +brass, and iron. Capital, four millions. + +30. For a grand dispensary. Capital, three millions. + +31. For erecting mills and purchasing lead mines. Capital, two +millions. + +32. For improving the art of making soap. + +33. For a settlement on the island of Santa Cruz. + +34. For sinking pits and smelting lead ore in Derbyshire. + +35. For making glass bottles and other glass. + +36. For a wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million. + +37. For improving of gardens. + +38. For insuring and increasing children's fortunes. + +39. For entering and loading goods at the custom-house, and for +negotiating business for merchants. + +40. For carrying on a woollen manufacture in the north of England. + +41. For importing walnut-trees from Virginia. Capital, two millions. + +42. For making Manchester stuffs of thread and cotton. + +43. For making Joppa and Castile soap. + +44. For improving the wrought-iron and steel manufactures of this +kingdom. Capital, four millions. + +45. For dealing in lace, Hollands, cambrics, lawns, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +46. For trading in and improving certain commodities of the produce of +this kingdom, &c. Capital, three millions. + +47. For supplying the London markets with cattle. + +48. For making looking-glasses, coach glasses, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +49. For working the tin and lead mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire. + +50. For making rape-oil. + +51. For importing beaver fur. Capital, two millions. + +52. For making pasteboard and packing-paper. + +53. For importing of oils and other materials used in the woollen +manufacture. + +54. For improving and increasing the silk manufactures. + +55. For lending money on stock, annuities, tallies, &c. + +56. For paying pensions to widows and others, at a small discount. +Capital, two millions. + +57. For improving malt liquors. Capital, four millions. + +58. For a grand American fishery. + +59. For purchasing and improving the fenny lands in Lincolnshire. +Capital, two millions. + +60. For improving the paper manufacture of Great Britain. + +61. The Bottomry Company. + +62. For drying malt by hot air. + +63. For carrying on a trade in the river Oronooko. + +64. For the more effectual making of baize, in Colchester and other +parts of Great Britain. + +65. For buying of naval stores, supplying the victualling, and paying +the wages of the workmen. + +66. For employing poor artificers, and furnishing merchants and others +with watches. + +67. For improvement of tillage and the breed of cattle. + +68. Another for the improvement of our breed of horses. + +69. Another for a horse-insurance. + +70. For carrying on the corn trade of Great Britain. + +71. For insuring to all masters and mistresses the losses they may +sustain by servants. Capital, three millions. + +72. For erecting houses or hospitals, for taking in and maintaining +illegitimate children. Capital, two millions. + +73. For bleaching coarse sugars, without the use of fire or loss of +substance. + +74. For building turnpikes and wharfs in Great Britain. + +75. For insuring from thefts and robberies. + +76. For extracting silver from lead. + +77. For making China and Delft ware. Capital, one million. + +78. For importing tobacco, and exporting it again to Sweden and the +north of Europe. Capital, four millions. + +79. For making iron with pit coal. + +80. For furnishing the cities of London and Westminster with hay and +straw. Capital, three millions. + +81. For a sail and packing cloth manufactory in Ireland. + +82. For taking up ballast. + +83. For buying and fitting out ships to suppress pirates. + +84. For the importation of timber from Wales. Capital, two millions. + +85. For rock-salt. + +86. For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal. + + Besides these bubbles, many others sprang up daily, in spite of +the condemnation of the Government and the ridicule of the still sane +portion of the public. The print-shops teemed with caricatures, and +the newspapers with epigrams and satires, upon the prevalent folly. An +ingenious card-maker published a pack of South Sea playing-cards, +which are now extremely rare, each card containing, besides the usual +figures, of a very small size, in one corner, a caricature of a bubble +company, with appropriate verses underneath. One of the most famous +bubbles was "Puckle's Machine Company," for discharging round and +square cannon-balls and bullets, and making a total revolution in the +art of war. Its pretensions to public favour were thus summed up, on +the eight of spades :-- + +A rare invention to destroy the crowd +Of fools at home, instead of fools abroad. +Fear not, my friends, this terrible machine, +They're only wounded who have shares therein. + +The nine of hearts was a caricature of the English Copper and Brass +Company, with the following epigram :-- + +The headlong fool that wants to be a swopper +Of gold and silver coin for English copper, +May, in Change Alley, prove himself an ass, +And give rich metal for adulterate brass. + +The eight of diamonds celebrated the Company for the Colonization of +Acadia, with this doggrel :-- + +He that is rich and wants to fool away +A good round sum in North America, +Let him subscribe himself a headlong sharer, +And asses' ears shall honour him or bearer. + + And in a similar style every card of the pack exposed some knavish +scheme, and ridiculed the persons who were its dupes. It was computed +that the total amount of the sums proposed for carrying on these +projects was upwards of three hundred millions sterling, a sum so +immense that it exceeded the value of all the lands in England at +twenty years' purchase. + + It is time, however, to return to the great South Sea gulf, that +swallowed the fortunes of so many thousands of the avaricious and the +credulous. On the 29th of May, the stock had risen as high as five +hundred, and about two-thirds of the government annuitants had +exchanged the securities of the state for those of the South Sea +Company. During the whole of the month of May the stock continued to +rise, and on the 28th it was quoted at five hundred and fifty. In four +days after this it took a prodigious leap, rising suddenly from five +hundred and fifty to eight hundred and ninety. It was now the general +opinion that the stock could rise no higher, and many persons took +that opportunity of selling out, with a view of realising their +profits. Many noblemen and persons in the train of the King, and about +to accompany him to Hanover, were also anxious to sell out. So many +sellers, and so few buyers, appeared in the Alley on the 3rd of June, +that the stock fell at once from eight hundred and ninety to six +hundred and forty. The directors were alarmed, and gave their agents +orders to buy. Their efforts succeeded. Towards evening confidence was +restored, and the stock advanced to seven hundred and fifty. It +continued at this price, with some slight fluctuation, until the +company closed their books on the 22nd of June. + + It would be needless and uninteresting to detail the various arts +employed by the directors to keep up the price of stock. It will be +sufficient to state that it finally rose to one thousand per cent. It +was quoted at this price in the commencement of August. The bubble was +then full-blown, and began to quiver and shake, preparatory to its +bursting. + + Many of the government annuitants expressed dissatisfaction +against the directors. They accused them of partiality in making out +the lists for shares in each subscription. Further uneasiness was +occasioned by its being generally known that Sir John Blunt, the +chairman, and some others, had sold out. During the whole of the month +of August the stock fell, and on the 2nd of September it was quoted at +seven hundred only. + + The state of things now became alarming. To prevent, if possible, +the utter extinction of public confidence in their proceedings, the +directors summoned a general court of the whole corporation, to +meet in Merchant Tailors' Hall, on the 8th of September. By nine +o'clock in the morning, the room was filled to suffocation; Cheapside +was blocked up by a crowd unable to gain admittance, and the greatest +excitement prevailed. The directors and their friends mustered in +great numbers. Sir John Fellowes, the sub-governor, was called to the +chair. He acquainted the assembly with the cause of their meeting, +read to them the several resolutions of the court of directors, and +gave them an account of their proceedings; of the taking in the +redeemable and unredeemable funds, and of the subscriptions in money. +Mr. Secretary Craggs then made a short speech, wherein he commended +the conduct of the directors, and urged that nothing could more +effectually contribute to the bringing this scheme to perfection than +union among themselves. He concluded with a motion for thanking the +court of directors for their prudent and skilful management, and for +desiring them to proceed in such manner as they should think most +proper for the interest and advantage of the corporation. Mr. +Hungerford, who had rendered himself very conspicuous in the House of +Commons for his zeal in behalf of the South Sea Company, and who was +shrewdly suspected to have been a considerable gainer by knowing the +right time to sell out, was very magniloquent on this occasion. He +said that he had seen the rise and fall, the decay and resurrection of +many communities of this nature, but that, in his opinion, none had +ever performed such wonderful things in so short a time as the South +Sea Company. They had done more than the crown, the pulpit, or the +bench could do. They had reconciled all parties in one common +interest; they had laid asleep, if not wholly extinguished, all the +domestic jars and animosities of the nation. By the rise of their +stock, monied men had vastly increased their fortunes; +country-gentlemen had seen the value of their lands doubled and +trebled in their hands. They had at the same time done good to the +Church, not a few of the reverend clergy having got great sums by the +project. In short, they had enriched the whole nation, and he hoped +they had not forgotten themselves. There was some hissing at the +latter part of this speech, which for the extravagance of its eulogy +was not far removed from satire; but the directors and their friends, +and all the winners in the room, applauded vehemently. The Duke of +Portland spoke in a similar strain, and expressed his great wonder why +anybody should be dissatisfied: of course, he was a winner by his +speculations, and in a condition similar to that of the fat alderman +in Joe Miller's Jests, who, whenever he had eaten a good dinner, +folded his hands upon his paunch, and expressed his doubts whether +there could be a hungry man in the world. + + Several resolutions were passed at this meeting, but they had no +effect upon the public. Upon the very same evening the stock fell to +six hundred and forty, and on the morrow to five hundred and forty. +Day after day it continued to fall, until it was as low as four +hundred. In a letter dated September 13th, from Mr. Broderick, M.P. to +Lord Chancellor Middleton, and published in Coxo's Walpole, the former +says,--"Various are the conjectures why the South Sea directors have +suffered the cloud to break so early. I made no doubt but they would +do so when they found it to their advantage. They have stretched +credit so far beyond what it would bear, that specie proves +insufficient to support it. Their most considerable men have drawn +out, securing themselves by the losses of the deluded, thoughtless +numbers, whose understandings have been overruled by avarice and the +hope of making mountains out of mole-hills. Thousands of families will +be reduced to beggary. The consternation is inexpressible-- the rage +beyond description, and the case altogether so desperate that I do not +see any plan or scheme so much as thought of for averting the blow, so +that I cannot pretend to guess what is next to be done." Ten days +afterwards, the stock still falling, he writes,--"The Company have +yet come to no determination, for they are in such a wood that they +know not which way to turn. By several gentlemen lately come to town, +I perceive the very name of a South-Sea-man grows abominable in every +country. A great many goldsmiths are already run off, and more will +daily. I question whether one-third, nay, one-fourth, of them can +stand it. From the very beginning, I founded my judgment of the whole +affair upon the unquestionable maxim, that ten millions (which is more +than our running cash) could not circulate two hundred millions, +beyond which our paper credit extended. That, therefore, whenever that +should become doubtful, be the cause what it would, our noble state +machine must inevitably fall to the ground." + + On the 12th of September, at the earnest solicitation of Mr. +Secretary Craggs, several conferences were held between the directors +of the South Sea and the directors of the Bank. A report which was +circulated, that the latter had agreed to circulate six millions of +the South Sea Company's bonds, caused the stock to rise to six hundred +and seventy; but in the afternoon, as soon as the report was known to +be groundless, the stock fell again to five hundred and eighty; the +next day to five hundred and seventy, and so gradually to four +hundred. [Gay (the poet), in that disastrous year, had a present from +young Craggs of some South Sea stock, and once supposed himself to be +master of twenty thousand pounds. His friends persuaded him to sell +his share, but he dreamed of dignity and splendour, and could not bear +to obstruct his own fortune. He was then importuned to sell as much as +would purchase a hundred a year for life, "which," says Fenton, "will +make you sure of a clean shirt and a shoulder of mutton every day." +This counsel was rejected; the profit and principal were lost, and Gay +sunk under the calamity so low that his life became in +danger.--Johnson's Lives of the Poets.] + + The ministry were seriously alarmed at the aspect of affairs. The +directors could not appear in the streets without being insulted; +dangerous riots were every moment apprehended. Despatches were sent +off to the King at Hanover, praying his immediate return. Mr. Walpole, +who was staying at his country-seat, was sent for, that he might +employ his known influence with the directors of the Bank of England +to induce them to accept the proposal made by the South Sea Company +for circulating a number of their bonds. + + The Bank was very unwilling to mix itself up with the affairs of +the Company; it dreaded being involved in calamities which it could +not relieve, and received all overtures with visible reluctance. But +the universal voice of the nation called upon it to come to the +rescue. Every person of note in commercial politics was called in to +advise in the emergency. A rough draft of a contract drawn up by Mr. +Walpole was ultimately adopted as the basis of further negotiations, +and the public alarm abated a little. + + On the following day, the 20th of September, a general court of +the South Sea Company was held at Merchant Tailors' Hall, in which +resolutions were carried, empowering the directors to agree with the +Bank of England, or any other persons, to circulate the Company's +bonds, or make any other agreement with the Bank which they should +think proper. One of the speakers, a Mr. Pulteney, said it was most +surprising to see the extraordinary panic which had seized upon the +people. Men were running to and fro in alarm and terror, their +imaginations filled with some great calamity, the form and dimensions +of which nobody knew. + +"Black it stood as night-- +Fierce as ten furies--terrible as hell." + + At a general court of the Bank of England held two days +afterwards, the governor informed them of the several meetings that +had been held on the affairs of the South Sea Company, adding that the +directors had not yet thought fit to come to any decision upon the +matter. A resolution was then proposed, and carried without a +dissentient voice, empowering the directors to agree with those of the +South Sea to circulate their bonds, to what sum, and upon what terms, +and for what time, they might think proper. + + Thus both parties were at liberty to act as they might judge best +for the public interest. Books were opened at the Bank for a +subscription of three millions for the support of public credit, on +the usual terms of 15 pounds per cent. deposit, per cent. premium, and +5 pounds per cent. interest. So great was the concourse of people in +the early part of the morning, all eagerly bringing their money, that +it was thought the subscription would be filled that day; but before +noon, the tide turned. In spite of all that could be done to prevent +it, the South Sea Company's stock fell rapidly. Their bonds were in +such discredit, that a run commenced upon the most eminent goldsmiths +and bankers, some of whom having lent out great sums upon South Sea +stock were obliged to shut up their shops and abscond. The Sword-blade +Company, who had hitherto been the chief cashiers of the South Sea +Company, stopped payment. This being looked upon as but the beginning +of evil, occasioned a great run upon the Bank, who were now obliged to +pay out money much faster than they had received it upon the +subscription in the morning. The day succeeding was a holiday (the +29th of September), and the Bank had a little breathing time. They +bore up against the storm; but their former rivals, the South Sea +Company, were wrecked upon it. Their stock fell to one hundred and +fifty, and gradually, after various fluctuations, to one hundred and +thirty-five. + + The Bank, finding they were not able to restore public confidence, +and stem the tide of ruin, without running the risk of being swept +away with those they intended to save, declined to carry out the +agreement into which they had partially entered. They were under no +obligation whatever to continue; for the so called Bank contract was +nothing more than the rough draught of an agreement, in which blanks +had been left for several important particulars, and which contained +no penalty for their secession. "And thus," to use the words of the +Parliamentary History, "were seen, in the space of eight months, the +rise, progress, and fall of that mighty fabric, which, being wound up +by mysterious springs to a wonderful height, had fixed the eyes and +expectations of all Europe, but whose foundation, being fraud, +illusion, credulity, and infatuation, fell to the ground as soon as +the artful management of its directors was discovered." + + In the hey-day of its blood, during the progress of this dangerous +delusion, the manners of the nation became sensibly corrupted. The +Parliamentary inquiry, set on foot to discover the delinquents, +disclosed scenes of infamy, disgraceful alike to the morals of the +offenders and the intellects of the people among whom they had arisen. +It is a deeply interesting study to investigate all the evils +that were the result. Nations, like individuals, cannot become +desperate gamblers with impunity. Punishment is sure to overtake them +sooner or later. A celebrated writer [Smollett.] is quite wrong, when +he says, "that such an era as this is the most unfavourable for a +historian; that no reader of sentiment and imagination can be +entertained or interested by a detail of transactions such as these, +which admit of no warmth, no colouring, no embellishment; a detail of +which only serves to exhibit an inanimate picture of tasteless vice +and mean degeneracy." On the contrary, and Smollett might have +discovered it, if he had been in the humour--the subject is capable of +inspiring as much interest as even a novelist can desire. Is there no +warmth in the despair of a plundered people?--no life and animation +in the picture which might be drawn of the woes of hundreds of +impoverished and ruined families? of the wealthy of yesterday become +the beggars of to-day? of the powerful and influential changed into +exiles and outcasts, and the voice of self-reproach and imprecation +resounding from every corner of the land? Is it a dull or +uninstructive picture to see a whole people shaking suddenly off the +trammels of reason, and running wild after a golden vision, refusing +obstinately to believe that it is not real, till, like a deluded hind +running after an ignis fatuus, they are plunged into a quagmire? But +in this false spirit has history too often been written. The intrigues +of unworthy courtiers to gain the favour of still more unworthy kings; +or the records of murderous battles and sieges have been dilated on, +and told over and over again, with all the eloquence of style and all +the charms of fancy; while the circumstances which have most deeply +affected the morals and welfare of the people, have been passed over +with but slight notice as dry and dull, and capable of neither warmth +nor colouring. + + During the progress of this famous bubble, England presented a +singular spectacle. The public mind was in a state of unwholesome +fermentation. Men were no longer satisfied with the slow but sure +profits of cautious industry. The hope of boundless wealth for the +morrow made them heedless and extravagant for to-day. A luxury, till +then unheard-of, was introduced, bringing in its train a corresponding +laxity of morals. The overbearing insolence of ignorant men, who had +arisen to sudden wealth by successful gambling, made men of true +gentility of mind and manners, blush that gold should have power to +raise the unworthy in the scale of society. The haughtiness of some of +these "cyphering cits," as they were termed by Sir Richard Steele, was +remembered against them in the day of their adversity. In the +Parliamentary inquiry, many of the directors suffered more for their +insolence than for their peculation. One of them, who, in the +full-blown pride of an ignorant rich man, had said that he would feed +his horse upon gold, was reduced almost to bread and water for +himself; every haughty look, every overbearing speech, was set down, +and repaid them a hundredfold in poverty and humiliation. + + The state of matters all over the country was so alarming, that +George I shortened his intended stay in Hanover, and returned in all +haste to England. He arrived on the 11th of November, and Parliament +was summoned to meet on the 8th of December. In the mean time, public +meetings were held in every considerable town of the empire, at which +petitions were adopted, praying the vengeance of the Legislature upon +the South Sea directors, who, by their fraudulent practices, had +brought the nation to the brink of ruin. Nobody seemed to imagine that +the nation itself was as culpable as the South Sea Company. Nobody +blamed the credulity and avarice of the people,--the degrading lust of +gain, which had swallowed up every nobler quality in the national +character, or the infatuation which had made the multitude run their +heads with such frantic eagerness into the net held out for them by +scheming projectors. These things were never mentioned. The people +were a simple, honest, hard-working people, ruined by a gang of +robbers, who were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered without mercy. + + This was the almost unanimous feeling of the country. The two +Houses of Parliament were not more reasonable. Before the guilt of the +South Sea directors was known, punishment was the only cry. The King, +in his speech from the throne, expressed his hope that they would +remember that all their prudence, temper, and resolution were +necessary to find out and apply the proper remedy for their +misfortunes. In the debate on the answer to the address, several +speakers indulged in the most violent invectives against the directors +of the South Sea project. The Lord Molesworth was particularly +vehement. "It had been said by some, that there was no law to punish +the directors of the South Sea Company, who were justly looked upon as +the authors of the present misfortunes of the state. In his opinion +they ought, upon this occasion, to follow the example of the ancient +Romans, who, having no law against parricide, because their +legislators supposed no son could be so unnaturally wicked as to +embrue his hands in his father's blood, made a law to punish this +heinous crime as soon as it was committed. They adjudged the guilty +wretch to be sown in a sack, and thrown alive into the Tyber. He +looked upon the contrivers and executors of the villanous South Sea +scheme as the parricides of their country, and should be satisfied to +see them tied in like manner in sacks, and thrown into the Thames." +Other members spoke with as much want of temper and discretion. Mr. +Walpole was more moderate. He recommended that their first care should +be to restore public credit. "If the city of London were on fire, all +wise men would aid in extinguishing the flames, and preventing the +spread of the conflagration before they inquired after the +incendiaries. Public credit had received a dangerous wound, and lay +bleeding, and they ought to apply a speedy remedy to it. It was time +enough to punish the assassin afterwards." On the 9th of December an +address, in answer to his Majesty's speech, was agreed upon, after an +amendment, which was carried without a division, that words should be +added expressive of the determination of the House not only to seek a +remedy for the national distresses, but to punish the authors of them. + + The inquiry proceeded rapidly. The directors were ordered to lay +before the House a full account of all their proceedings. Resolutions +were passed to the effect that the calamity was mainly owing to the +vile arts of stockjobbers, and that nothing could tend more to the +re-establishment of public credit than a law to prevent this infamous +practice. Mr. Walpole then rose, and said, that "as he had previously +hinted, he had spent some time upon a scheme for restoring public +credit, but that, the execution of it depending upon a position which +had been laid down as fundamental, he thought it proper, before he +opened out his scheme, to be informed whether he might rely upon that +foundation. It was, whether the subscription of public debts and +encumbrances, money subscriptions, and other contracts, made with the +South Sea Company should remain in the present state?" This question +occasioned an animated debate. It was finally agreed, by a majority of +259 against 117, that all these contracts should remain in their +present state, unless altered for the relief of the proprietors by a +general court of the South Sea Company, or set aside by due course of +law. On the following day Mr. Walpole laid before a committee of the +whole House his scheme for the restoration of public credit, which +was, in substance, to ingraft nine millions of South Sea stock into +the Bank of England, and the same sum into the East India Company, +upon certain conditions. The plan was favourably received by the +House. After some few objections, it was ordered that proposals should +be received from the two great corporations. They were both unwilling +to lend their aid, and the plan met with a warm but fruitless +opposition at the general courts summoned for the purpose of +deliberating upon it. They, however, ultimately agreed upon the terms +on which they would consent to circulate the South Sea bonds, and +their report, being presented to the committee, a bill was brought in, +under the superintendence of Mr. Walpole, and safely carried through +both Houses of Parliament. + + A bill was at the same time brought in, for restraining the South +Sea directors, governor, sub-governor, treasurer, cashier, and clerks +from leaving the kingdom for a twelvemonth, and for discovering their +estates and effects, and preventing them from transporting or +alienating the same. All the most influential members of the House +supported the bill. Mr. Shippen, seeing Mr. Secretary Craggs in his +place, and believing the injurious rumours that were afloat of that +minister's conduct in the South Sea business, determined to touch him +to the quick. He said, he was glad to see a British House of Commons +resuming its pristine vigour and spirit, and acting with so much +unanimity for the public good. It was necessary to secure the persons +and estates of the South Sea directors and their officers; "but," he +added, looking fixedly at Mr. Craggs as he spoke, "there were other +men in high station, whom, in time, he would not be afraid to name, +who were no less guilty than the directors." Mr. Craggs arose in great +wrath, and said, that if the innuendo were directed against him, he +was ready to give satisfaction to any man who questioned him, either +in the House or out of it. Loud cries of order immediately arose on +every side. In the midst of the uproar Lord Molesworth got up, and +expressed his wonder at the boldness of Mr. Craggs in challenging the +whole House of Commons. He, Lord Molesworth, though somewhat old, past +sixty, would answer Mr. Craggs whatever he had to say in the House, +and he trusted there were plenty of young men beside him, who would +not be afraid to look Mr. Craggs in the face, out of the House. The +cries of order again resounded from every side; the members arose +simultaneously; everybody seemed to be vociferating at once. The +Speaker in vain called order. The confusion lasted several minutes, +during which Lord Molesworth and Mr. Craggs were almost the only +members who kept their seats. At last the call for Mr. Craggs became +so violent that he thought proper to submit to the universal feeling +of the House, and explain his unparliamentary expression. He said, +that by giving satisfaction to the impugners of his conduct in that +House, he did not mean that he would fight, but that he would explain +his conduct. Here the matter ended, and the House proceeded to debate +in what manner they should conduct their inquiry into the affairs of +the South Sea Company, whether in a grand or a select committee. +Ultimately, a Secret Committee of thirteen was appointed, with power +to send for persons, papers, and records. + + The Lords were as zealous and as hasty as the Commons. The Bishop +of Rochester said the scheme had been like a pestilence. The Duke of +Wharton said the House ought to show no respect of persons; that, for +his part, he would give up the dearest friend he had, if he had been +engaged in the project. The nation had been plundered in a most +shameful and flagrant manner, and he would go as far as anybody in the +punishment of the offenders. Lord Stanhope said, that every farthing +possessed by the criminals, whether directors or not directors, ought +to be confiscated, to make good the public losses. + + During all this time the public excitement was extreme. We learn, +front Coxe's Walpole, that the very name of a South Sea director was +thought to be synonymous with every species of fraud and villany. +Petitions from counties, cities, and boroughs, in all parts of the +kingdom, were presented, crying for the justice due to an injured +nation and the punishment of the villanous peculators. Those moderate +men, who would not go to extreme lengths, even in the punishment of +the guilty, were accused of being accomplices, were exposed to +repeated insults and virulent invectives, and devoted, both in +anonymous letters and public writings, to the speedy vengeance of an +injured people. The accusations against Mr. Aislabie, Chancellor of +the Exchequer, and Mr. Craggs, another member of the ministry, were so +loud, that the House of Lords resolved to proceed at once into the +investigation concerning them. It was ordered, on the 21st of January, +that all brokers concerned in the South Sea scheme should lay before +the House an account of the stock or subscriptions bought or sold by +them for any of the officers of the Treasury or Exchequer, or in trust +for any of them, since Michaelmas 1719. When this account was +delivered, it appeared that large quantities of stock had been +transferred to the use of Mr. Aislabie. Five of the South Sea +directors, ineluding Mr. Edward Gibbon, the grandfather of the +celebrated historian, were ordered into the custody of the black rod. +Upon a motion made by Earl Stanhope, it was unanimously resolved, that +the taking in or giving credit for stock without a valuable +consideration actually paid or sufficiently secured; or the purchasing +stock by any director or agent of the South Sea Company, for the use +or benefit of any member of the administration, or any member of +either House of Parliament, during such time as the South Sea Bill was +yet pending in Parliament, was a notorious and dangerous corruption. +Another resolution was passed a few days afterwards, to the effect +that several of the directors and officers of the Company having, in a +clandestine manner, sold their own stock to the Company, had been +guilty of a notorious fraud and breach of trust, and had thereby +mainly caused the unhappy turn of affairs that had so much affected +public credit. Mr. Aislabie resigned his office as Chancellor of the +Exchequer, and absented himself from Parliament until the formal +inquiry into his individual guilt was brought under the consideration +of the Legislature. + + In the mean time, Knight, the treasurer of the Company, and who +was intrusted with all the dangerous secrets of the dishonest +directors, packed up his books and documents, and made his escape from +the country. He embarked in disguise, in a small boat on the river, +and proceeding to a vessel hired for the purpose, was safely conveyed +to Calais. The Committee of Secrecy informed the House of the +circumstance, when it was resolved unanimously that two addresses +should be presented to the King; the first praying that he would issue +a proclamation, offering a reward for the apprehension of Knight; and +the second, that he would give immediate orders to stop the ports, and +to take effectual care of the coasts, to prevent the said Knight, or +any other officers of the South Sea Company, from escaping out of the +kingdom. The ink was hardly dry upon these addresses before they were +carried to the King by Mr. Methuen, deputed by the House for that +purpose. The same evening a royal proclamation was issued, offering a +reward of two thousand pounds for the apprehension of Knight. The +Commons ordered the doors of the House to be locked, and the keys to +be placed upon the table. General Ross, one of the members of the +Committee of Secrecy, acquainted them that they had already discovered +a train of the deepest villany and fraud that Hell had ever contrived +to ruin a nation, which in due time they would lay before the House. +In the mean time, in order to a further discovery, the Committee +thought it highly necessary to secure the persons of some of the +directors and principal South Sea officers, and to seize their papers. +A motion to this effect having been made, was carried unanimously. Sir +Robert Chaplin, Sir Theodore Janssen, Mr. Sawbridge, and Mr. F. Eyles, +members of the House, and directors of the South Sea Company, were +summoned to appear in their places, and answer for their corrupt +practices. Sir Theodore Janssen and Mr. Sawbridge answered to their +names, and endeavoured to exculpate themselves. The House heard them +patiently, and then ordered them to withdraw. A motion was then made, +and carried nemine contradicente, that they had been guilty of a +notorious breach of trust--had occasioned much loss to great numbers +of his Majesty's subjects, and had highly prejudiced the public +credit. It was then ordered that, for their offence, they should be +expelled the House, and taken into the custody of the +sergeant-at-arms. Sir Robert Chaplin and Mr. Eyles, attending in their +places four days afterwards, were also expelled the House. It was +resolved at the same time to address the King, to give directions to +his ministers at foreign courts to make application for Knight, that +he might be delivered up to the English authorities, in ease he took +refuge in any of their dominions. The King at once agreed, and +messengers were despatched to all parts of the Continent the same +night. + + Among the directors taken into custody, was Sir John Blunt, the man +whom popular opinion has generally accused of having been the original +author and father of the scheme. This man, we are informed by Pope, in +his epistle to Allen, Lord Bathurst, was a dissenter, of a most +religious deportment, and professed to be a great believer. He +constantly declaimed against the luxury and corruption of the age, the +partiality of parliaments, and the misery of party spirit. He was +particularly eloquent against avarice in great and noble persons. He +was originally a scrivener, and afterwards became, not only a +director, but the most active manager of the South Sea Company. +Whether it was during his career in this capacity that he first began +to declaim against the avarice of the great, we are not informed. He +certainly must have seen enough of it to justify his severest +anathema; but if the preacher had himself been free from the vice he +condemned, his declamations would have had a better effect. He was +brought up in custody to the bar of the House of Lords, and underwent +a long examination. He refused to answer several important questions. +He said he had been examined already by a committee of the House of +Commons, and as he did not remember his answers, and might contradict +himself, he refused to answer before another tribunal. This +declaration, in itself an indirect proof of guilt, occasioned some +commotion in the House. He was again asked peremptorily whether he had +ever sold any portion of the stock to any member of the +administration, or any member of either House of Parliament, to +facilitate the passing of the hill. He again declined to answer. He +was anxious, he said, to treat the House with all possible respect, +but he thought it hard to be compelled to accuse himself. After +several ineffectual attempts to refresh his memory, he was directed to +withdraw. A violent discussion ensued between the friends and +opponents of the ministry. It was asserted that the administration +were no strangers to the convenient taciturnity of Sir John Blunt. The +Duke of Wharton made a reflection upon the Earl Stanhope, which the +latter warmly resented. He spoke under great excitement, and with such +vehemence as to cause a sudden determination of blood to the head. He +felt himself so ill that he was obliged to leave the House and retire +to his chamber. He was cupped immediately, and also let blood on the +following morning, but with slight relief. The fatal result was not +anticipated. Towards evening he became drowsy, and turning himself on +his face, expired. The sudden death of this statesman caused great +grief to the nation. George I was exceedingly affected, and shut +himself up for some hours in his closet, inconsolable for his loss. + + Knight, the treasurer of the company, was apprehended at +Tirlemont, near Liege, by one of the secretaries of Mr. Leathes, the +British resident at Brussels, and lodged in the citadel of Antwerp. +Repeated applications were made to the court of Austria to deliver him +up, but in vain. Knight threw himself upon the protection of the +states of Brabant, and demanded to be tried in that country. It was a +privilege granted to the states of Brabant by one of the articles of +the Joyeuse Entree, that every criminal apprehended in that country +should be tried in that country. The states insisted on their +privilege, and refused to deliver Knight to the British authorities. +The latter did not cease their solicitations; but in the mean time, +Knight escaped from the citadel. + + On the 16th of February the Committee of Secrecy made their first +report to the House. They stated that their inquiry had been attended +with numerous difficulties and embarrassments; every one they had +examined had endeavoured, as far as in him lay, to defeat the ends of +justice. In some of the books produced before them, false and +fictitious entries had been made; in others, there were entries of +money, with blanks for the name of the stockholders. There were +frequent erasures and alterations, and in some of the books leaves +were torn out. They also found that some books of great importance had +been destroyed altogether, and that some had been taken away or +secreted. At the very entrance into their inquiry, they had observed +that the matters referred to them were of great variety and extent. +Many persons had been intrusted with various parts in the execution of +the law, and under colour thereof had acted in an unwarrantable +manner, in disposing of the properties of many thousands of persons, +amounting to many millions of money. They discovered that, before the +South Sea Act was passed, there was an entry in the Company's books of +the sum of 1,259,325 pounds, upon account of stock stated to have been +sold to the amount of 574,500 pounds. This stock was all fictitious, +and had been disposed of with a view to promote the passing of the +bill. It was noted as sold at various days, and at various prices, +from 150 to 325 per cent. Being surprised to see so large an account +disposed of, at a time when the Company were not empowered to increase +their capital, the committee determined to investigate most carefully +the whole transaction. The governor, sub-governor, and several +directors were brought before them, and examined rigidly. They found +that, at the time these entries were made, the Company was not in +possession of such a quantity of stock, having in their own right only +a small quantity, not exceeding thirty thousand pounds at the utmost. +Pursuing the inquiry, they found that this amount of stock, was to be +esteemed as taken in or holden by the Company, for the benefit of the +pretended purchasers, although no mutual agreement was made for its +delivery or acceptance at any certain time. No money was paid down, +nor any deposit or security whatever given to the Company by the +supposed purchasers; so that if the stock had fallen, as might have +been expected, had the act not passed, they would have sustained no +loss. If, on the contrary, the price of stock advanced (as it actually +did by the success of the scheme), the difference by the advanced +price was to be made good to them. Accordingly, after the passing of +the act, the account of stock was made up and adjusted with Mr. +Knight, and the pretended purchasers were paid the difference out of +the Company's cash. This fictitious stock, which had been chiefly at +the disposal of Sir John Blunt, Mr. Gibbon, and Mr. Knight, was +distributed among several members of the government and their +connexions, by way of bribe, to facilitate the passing of the bill. To +the Earl of Sunderland was assigned 50,000 pounds of this stock; to +the Duchess of Kendal 10,000 pounds; to the Countess of Platen 10,000 +pounds; to her two nieces 10,000 pounds; to Mr. Secretary Craggs +30,000 pounds; to Mr. Charles Stanhope (one of the Secretaries of the +Treasury) 10,000 pounds; to the Swordblade Company 50,000 pounds. It +also appeared that Mr. Stanhope had received the enormous sum of +250,000 pounds as the difference in the price of some stock, through +the hands of Turner, Caswall, and Co., but that his name had been +partly erased from their books, and altered to Stangape. Aislabie, the +Chancellor of the Exchequer, had made profits still more abominable. +He had an account with the same firm, who were also South Sea +directors, to the amount of 794,451 pounds. He had, besides, advised +the Company to make their second subscription one million and a half, +instead of a million, by their own authority, and without any warrant. +The third subscription had been conducted in a manner as disgraceful. +Mr. Aislabie's name was down for 70,000 pounds; Mr. Craggs, senior, +for 659,000 pounds; the Earl of Sunderland's for 160,000 pounds; and +Mr. Stanhope for 47,000 pounds. This report was succeeded by six +others, less important. At the end of the last, the committee declared +that the absence of Knight, who had been principally intrusted, +prevented them from carrying on their inquiries. + + The first report was ordered to be printed, and taken into +consideration on the next day but one succeeding. After a very angry +and animated debate, a series of resolutions were agreed to, +condemnatory of the conduct of the directors, of the members of the +Parliament and of the administration concerned with them; and +declaring that they ought, each and all, to make satisfaction out of +their own estates for the injury they had done the public. Their +practices were declared to be corrupt, infamous, and dangerous; and a +bill was ordered to be brought in for the relief of the unhappy +sufferers. + + Mr. Charles Stanhope was the first person brought to account for his +share in these transactions. He urged in his defence that, for some +years past, he had lodged all the money he was possessed of in Mr. +Knight's hands, and whatever stock Mr. Knight had taken in for him, he +had paid a valuable consideration for it. As to the stock that had +been bought for him by Turner, Caswall, and Co. he knew nothing about +it. Whatever had been done in that matter was done without his +authority, and he could not be responsible for it. Turner and Co. took +the latter charge upon themselves, but it was notorious to every +unbiassed and unprejudiced person that Mr. Stanhope was a gainer of +the 250,000 pounds which lay in the hands of that firm to his credit. +He was, however, acquitted by a majority of three only. The greatest +exertions were made to screen him. Lord Stanhope, the son of the Earl +of Chesterfield, went round to the wavering members, using all the +eloquence he was possessed of to induce them either to vote for the +acquittal or to absent themselves from the house. Many weak-headed +country-gentlemen were led astray by his persuasions, and the result +was as already stated. The acquittal caused the greatest discontent +throughout the country. Mobs of a menacing character assembled in +different parts of London; fears of riots were generally entertained, +especially as the examination of a still greater delinquent was +expected by many to have a similar termination. Mr. Aislabie, whose +high office and deep responsibilities should have kept him honest, +even had native principle been insufficient, was very justly regarded +as perhaps the greatest criminal of all. His case was entered into +on the day succeeding the acquittal of Mr. Starthope. Great excitement +prevailed, and the lobbies and avenues of the house were beset by +crowds, impatient to know the result. The debate lasted the whole day. +Mr. Aislabie found few friends: his guilt was so apparent and so +heinous that nobody had courage to stand up in his favour. It was +finally resolved, without a dissentient voice, that Mr. Aislabie had +encouraged and promoted the destructive execution of the South Sea +scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, and had combined with +the directors in their pernicious practices to the ruin of the public +trade and credit of the kingdom: that he should for his offences be +ignominiously expelled from the House of Commons, and committed a +close prisoner to the Tower of London; that he should be restrained +from going out of the kingdom for a whole year, or till the end of the +next session of Parliament; and that he should make out a correct +account of all his estate, in order that it might be applied to the +relief of those who had suffered by his malpractices. + + This verdict caused the greatest joy. Though it was delivered at +half-past twelve at night, it soon spread over the city. Several +persons illuminated their houses in token of their joy. On the +following day, when Mr. Aislabie was conveyed to the Tower, the mob +assembled on Tower-hill with the intention of hooting and pelting him. +Not succeeding in this, they kindled a large bonfire, and danced +around it in the exuberance of their delight. Several bonfires were +made in other places; London presented the appearance of a holiday, +and people congratulated one another as if they had just escaped from +some great calamity. The rage upon the acquittal of Mr. Stanhope had +grown to such a height that none could tell where it would have ended, +had Mr. Aislabie met with the like indulgence. + + To increase the public satisfaction, Sir George Caswall, of the +firm of Turner, Caswall, & Co. was expelled the House on the following +day, and ordered to refund the sum of 250,000 pounds. + + That part of the report of the Committee of Secrecy which related +to the Earl of Sunderland was next taken into consideration. Every +effort was made to clear his Lordship from the imputation. As the case +against him rested chiefly on the evidence extorted from Sir John +Blunt, great pains were taken to make it appear that Sir John's word +was not to be believed, especially in a matter affecting the honour of +a peer and privy councillor. All the friends of the ministry rallied +around the Earl, it being generally reported that a verdict of guilty +against him would bring a Tory ministry into power. He was eventually +acquitted, by a majority of 233 against 172; but the country was +convinced of his guilt. The greatest indignation was everywhere +expressed, and menacing mobs again assembled in London. Happily no +disturbances took place. + + This was the day on which Mr. Craggs, the elder, expired. The +morrow had been appointed for the consideration of his case. It was +very generally believed that he had poisoned himself. It appeared, +however, that grief for the loss of his son, one of the Secretaries of +the Treasury, who had died five weeks previously of the small-pox, +preyed much on his mind. For this son, dearly beloved, he had been +amassing vast heaps of riches: he had been getting money, but not +honestly; and he for whose sake he had bartered his honour and sullied +his fame, was now no more. The dread of further exposure increased his +trouble of mind, and ultimately brought on an apoplectic fit, in which +he expired. He left a fortune of a million and a half, which was +afterwards confiscated for the benefit of the sufferers by the unhappy +delusion he had been so mainly instrumental in raising. + + One by one the case of every director of the Company was taken +into consideration. A sum amounting to two millions and fourteen +thousand pounds was confiscated from their estates towards repairing +the mischief they had done, each man being allowed a certain residue, +in proportion to his conduct and circumstances, with which he might +begin the world anew. Sir John Blunt was only allowed 5,000 pounds out +of his fortune of upwards of 183,000 pounds; Sir John Fellows was +allowed 10,000 pounds out of 243,000 pounds; Sir Theodore Janssen, +50,000 pounds out of 243,000 pounds; Mr. Edward Gibbon, 10,000 +pounds out of 106,000 pounds.; Sir John Lambert, 5000 pounds out of +72,000 pounds. Others, less deeply involved, were treated with greater +liberality. Gibbon, the historian, whose grandfather was the Mr. +Edward Gibbon so severely mulcted, has given, in the Memoirs of his +Life and Writings, an interesting account of the proceedings in +Parliament at this time. He owns that he is not an unprejudiced +witness; but, as all the writers from which it is possible to extract +any notice of the proceedings of these disastrous years, were +prejudiced on the other side, the statements of the great historian +become of additional value. If only on the principle of audi alteram +partem, his opinion is entitled to consideration. "In the year 1716," +he says, "my grandfather was elected one of the directors of the South +Sea Company, and his books exhibited the proof that before his +acceptance of that fatal office, he had acquired an independent +fortune of 60,000 pounds. But his fortune was overwhelmed in the +shipwreck of the year twenty, and the labours of thirty years were +blasted in a single day. Of the use or abuse of the South Sea scheme, +of the guilt or innocence of my grandfather and his brother directors, +I am neither a competent nor a disinterested judge. Yet the equity of +modern times must condemn the violent and arbitrary proceedings, which +would have disgraced the cause of justice, and rendered injustice +still more odious. No sooner had the nation awakened from its golden +dream, than a popular, and even a Parliamentary clamour, demanded its +victims; but it was acknowledged on all sides, that the directors, +however guilty, could not be touched by any known laws of the land. +The intemperate notions of Lord Molesworth were not literally acted +on; but a bill of pains and penalties was introduced -- a retro-active +statute, to punish the offences which did not exist at the time they +were committed. The Legislature restrained the persons of the +directors, imposed an exorbitant security for their appearance, and +marked their character with a previous note of ignominy. They were +compelled to deliver, upon oath, the strict value of their estates, +and were disabled from making any transfer or alienation of any part +of their property. Against a bill of pains and penalties, it is the +common right of every subject to be heard by his counsel at the bar. +They prayed to be heard. Their prayer was refused, and their +oppressors, who required no evidence, would listen to no defence. It +had been at first proposed, that one eighth of their respective +estates should be allowed for the future support of the directors; but +it was speciously urged, that in the various shades of opulence and +guilt, such a proportion would be too light for many, and for some +might possibly be too heavy. The character and conduct of each man +were separately weighed; but, instead of the calm solemnity of a +judicial inquiry, the fortune and honour of thirty-three Englishmen +were made the topics of hasty conversation, the sport of a lawless +majority; and the basest member of the committee, by a malicious word, +or a silent vote, might indulge his general spleen or personal +animosity. Injury was aggravated by insult, and insult was embittered +by pleasantry. Allowances of 20 pounds or 1 shilling were facetiously +moved. A vague report that a director had formerly been concerned in +another project, by which some unknown persons had lost their money, +was admitted as a proof of his actual guilt. One man was ruined +because he had dropped a foolish speech, that his horses should feed +upon gold; another, because he was grown so proud, that one day, at +the Treasury, he had refused a civil answer to persons much above him. +All were condemned, absent and unheard, in arbitrary fines and +forfeitures, which swept away the greatest part of their substance. +Such bold oppression can scarcely be shielded by the omnipotence of +Parliament. My grandfather could not expect to be treated with more +lenity than his companions. His Tory principles and connexions +rendered him obnoxious to the ruling powers. His name was reported in +a suspicious secret. His well-known abilities could not plead the +excuse of ignorance or error. In the first proceedings against the +South Sea directors, Mr. Gibbon was one of the first taken into +custody, and in the final sentence the measure of his fine proclaimed +him eminently guilty. The total estimate, which he delivered on oath +to the House of Commons, amounted to 106,543 pounds 5 shillings 6 +pence, exclusive of antecedent settlements. Two different allowances +of 15,000 pounds and of 10,000 pounds were moved for Mr. Gibbon; but, +on the question being put, it was carried without a division for the +smaller sum. On these ruins, with the skill and credit of which +Parliament had not been able to despoil him, my grandfather, at a +mature age, erected the edifice of a new fortune. The labours of +sixteen years were amply rewarded; and I have reason to believe that +the second structure was not much inferior to the first." + + The next consideration of the Legislature, after the punishment of +the directors, was to restore public credit. The scheme of Walpole had +been found insufficient, and had fallen into disrepute. A computation +was made of the whole capital stock of the South Sea Company at the +end of the year 1720. It was found to amount to thirty-seven millions +eight hundred thousand pounds, of which the stock allotted to all the +proprietors only amounted to twenty-four millions five hundred +thousand pounds. The remainder of thirteen millions three hundred +thousand pounds belonged to the Company in their corporate capacity, +and was the profit they had made by the national delusion. Upwards of +eight millions of this were taken from the Company, and divided among +the proprietors and subscribers generally, making a dividend of about +33 pounds 6 shillings 8 pence per cent. This was a great relief. It +was further ordered, that such persons as had borrowed money from the +South Sea Company upon stock actually transferred and pledged at the +time of borrowing to or for the use of the Company, should be free +from all demands, upon payment of ten per cent. of the sums so +borrowed. They had lent about eleven millions in this manner, at a +time when prices were unnaturally raised; and they now received back +one million one hundred thousand, when prices had sunk to their +ordinary level. + + But it was a long time before public credit was thoroughly +restored. Enterprise, like Icarus, had soared too high, and melted the +wax of her wings; like Icarus, she had fallen into a sea, and learned, +while floundering in its waves, that her proper element was the solid +ground. She has never since attempted so high a flight. + + In times of great commercial prosperity there has been a tendency +to over-speculation on several occasions since then. The success of +one project generally produces others of a similar kind. Popular +imitativeness will always, in a trading nation, seize hold of such +successes, and drag a community too anxious for profits into an abyss +from which extrication is difficult. Bubble companies, of a kind +similar to those engendered by the South Sea project, lived their +little day in the famous year of the panic, 1825. On that occasion, as +in 1720, knavery gathered a rich harvest from cupidity, but both +suffered when the day of reckoning came. The schemes of the year 1836 +threatened, at one time, results as disastrous; but they were happily +averted before it was too late. The South Sea project thus remains, +and, it is to be hoped, always will remain, the greatest example in +British history, of the infatuation of the people for commercial +gambling. From the bitter experience of that period, posterity may +learn how dangerous it is to let speculation riot unrestrained, and to +hope for enormous profits from inadequate causes. Degrading as were +the circumstances, there is wisdom to be gained from the lesson which +they teach. + + +THE TULIPOMANIA. + +Quis furor o cives! -- Lucan. + + The tulip,--so named, it is said, from a Turkish word, signifying +a turban,-- was introduced into western Europe about the middle of the +sixteenth century. Conrad Gesner, who claims the merit of having +brought it into repute,--little dreaming of the extraordinary +commotion it was to make in the world,--says that he first saw it in +the year 1559, in a garden at Augsburg, belonging to the learned +Counsellor Herwart, a man very famous in his day for his collection of +rare exotics. The bulbs were sent to this gentleman by a friend at +Constantinople, where the flower had long been a favourite. In the +course of ten or eleven years after this period, tulips were much +sought after by the wealthy, especially in Holland and Germany. Rich +people at Amsterdam sent for the bulbs direct to Constantinople, and +paid the most extravagant prices for them. The first roots planted in +England were brought from Vienna in 1600. Until the year 1634 the +tulip annually increased in reputation, until it was deemed a proof of +bad taste in any man of fortune to be without a collection of them. +Many learned men, including Pompeius de Angelis and the celebrated +Lipsius of Leyden, the author of the treatise "De Constantia," were +passionately fond of tulips. The rage for possessing them soon caught +the middle classes of society, and merchants and shopkeepers, even of +moderate means, began to vie with each other in the rarity of these +flowers and the preposterous prices .they paid for them. A trader at +Harlaem was known to pay one-half of his fortune for a single +root--not with the design of selling it again at a profit, but to keep +in his own conservatory for the admiration of his acquaintance. + + One would suppose that there must have been some great virtue in +this flower to have made it so valuable in the eyes of so prudent a +people as the Dutch; but it has neither the beauty nor the perfume of +the rose--hardly the beauty of the "sweet, sweet-pea;" neither is it +as enduring as either. Cowley, it is true, is loud in its praise. He +says-- + +"The tulip next appeared, all over gay, +But wanton, full of pride, and full of play; +The world can't show a dye but here has place; +Nay, by new mixtures, she can change her face; +Purple and gold are both beneath her care- +The richest needlework she loves to wear; +Her only study is to please the eye, +And to outshine the rest in finery." + +This, though not very poetical, is the description of a poet. +Beckmann, in his History of Inventions, paints it with more fidelity, +and in prose more pleasing than Cowley's poetry. He says, "There are +few plants which acquire, through accident, weakness, or disease, so +many variegations as the tulip. When uncultivated, and in its natural +state, it is almost of one colour, has large leaves, and an +extraordinarily long stem. When it has been weakened by cultivation, +it becomes more agreeable in the eyes of the florist. The petals are +then paler, smaller, and more diversified in hue; and the leaves +acquire a softer green colour. Thus this masterpiece of culture, the +more beautiful it turns, grows so much the weaker, so that, with the +greatest skill and most careful attention, it can scarcely be +transplanted, or even kept alive." + + Many persons grow insensibly attached to that which gives them a +great deal of trouble, as a mother often loves her sick and +ever-ailing child better than her more healthy offspring. Upon the +same principle we must account for the unmerited encomia lavished upon +these fragile blossoms. In 1634, the rage among the Dutch to possess +them was so great that the ordinary industry of the country was +neglected, and the population, even to its lowest dregs, embarked in +the tulip trade. As the mania increased, prices augmented, until, in +the year 1635, many persons were known to invest a fortune of 100,000 +florins in the purchase of forty roots. It then became necessary to +sell them by their weight in perits, a small weight less than a grain. +A tulip of the species called Admiral Liefken, weighing 400 perits, +was worth 4400 florins; an Admiral Von der Eyk, weighing 446 perits, +was worth 1260 florins; a shilder of 106 perits was worth 1615 +florins; a viceroy of 400 perits, 3000 florins, and, most precious of +all, a Semper Augustus, weighing 200 perits, was thought to be very +cheap at 5500 florins. The latter was much sought after, and even an +inferior bulb might command a price of 2000 florins. It is related +that, at one time, early in 1636, there were only two roots of this +description to be had in all Holland, and those not of the best. One +was in the possession of a dealer in Amsterdam, and the other in +Harlaem. So anxious were the speculators to obtain them that one +person offered the fee-simple of twelve acres of building ground for +the Harlaem tulip. That of Amsterdam was bought for 4600 florins, a +new carriage, two grey horses, and a complete suit of harness. +Munting, an industrious author of that day, who wrote a folio volume +of one thousand pages upon the tulipomania, has preserved the +following list of the various articles, and their value, which were +delivered for one single root of the rare species called the viceroy:-- + + florins. +Two lasts of wheat.............. 448 +Four lasts of rye............... 558 +Four fat oxen................... 480 +Eight fat swine................. 240 +Twelve fat sheep................ 120 +Two hogsheads of wine........... 70 +Four tuns of beer............... 32 +Two tons of butter.............. 192 +One thousand lbs. of cheese..... 120 +A complete bed.................. 100 +A suit of clothes............... 80 +A silver drinking cup........... 60 + ----- + 2500 + ----- + + People who had been absent from Holland, and whose chance it was +to return when this folly was at its maximum, were sometimes led into +awkward dilemmas by their ignorance. There is an amusing instance of +the kind related in Blainville's Travels. A wealthy merchant, who +prided himself not a little on his rare tulips, received upon one +occasion a very valuable consignment of merchandise from the Levant. +Intelligence of its arrival was brought him by a sailor, who presented +himself for that purpose at the counting-house, among bales of goods +of every description. The merchant, to reward him for his news, +munificently made him a present of a fine red herring for his +breakfast. The sailor had, it appears, a great partiality for onions, +and seeing a bulb very like an onion lying upon the counter of this +liberal trader, and thinking it, no doubt, very much out of its place +among silks and velvets, he slily seized an opportunity and slipped it +into his pocket, as a relish for his herring. He got clear off with +his prize, and proceeded to the quay to eat his breakfast. Hardly was +his back turned when the merchant missed his valuable Semper Augustus, +worth three thousand florins, or about 280 pounds sterling. The whole +establishment was instantly in an uproar; search was everywhere made +for the precious root, but it was not to be found. Great was the +merchant's distress of mind. The search was renewed, but again without +success. At last some one thought of the sailor. + + The unhappy merchant sprang into the street at the bare suggestion. +His alarmed household followed him. The sailor, simple soul! had not +thought of concealment. He was found quietly sitting on a coil of +ropes, masticating the last morsel of his "onion." Little did he dream +that he had been eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a +whole ship's crew for a twelvemonth; or, as the plundered merchant +himself expressed it, "might have sumptuously feasted the Prince of +Orange and the whole court of the Stadtholder." Anthony caused pearls +to be dissolved in wine to drink the health of Cleopatra; Sir Richard +Whittington was as foolishly magnificent in an entertainment to King +Henry V; and Sir Thomas Gresham drank a diamond, dissolved in wine, to +the health of Queen Elizabeth, when she opened the Royal Exchange: but +the breakfast of this roguish Dutchman was as splendid as either. He +had an advantage, too, over his wasteful predecessors: their gems did +not improve the taste or the wholesomeness of their wine, while his +tulip was quite delicious with his red herring. The most unfortunate +part of the business for him was, that he remained in prison for some +months, on a charge of felony, preferred against him by the merchant. + + Another story is told of an English traveller, which is scarcely +less ludicrous. This gentleman, an amateur botanist, happened to see a +tulip-root lying in the conservatory of a wealthy Dutchman. Being +ignorant of its quality, he took out his penknife, and peeled off its +coats, with the view of making experiments upon it. When it was by +this means reduced to half its original size, he cut it into two equal +sections, making all the time many learned remarks on the singular +appearances of the unknown bulb. Suddenly the owner pounced upon him, +and, with fury in his eyes, asked him if he knew what he had been +doing? "Peeling a most extraordinary onion," replied the philosopher. +"Hundert tausend duyvel," said the Dutchman; "it's an Admiral Van der +E. yck." "Thank you," replied the traveller, taking out his note-book +to make a memorandum of the same; "are these admirals common in your +country?" "Death and the devil," said the Dutchman, seizing the +astonished man of science by the collar; "come before the +syndic, and you shall see." In spite of his remonstrances, the +traveller was led through the streets, followed by a mob of persons. +When brought into the presence of the magistrate, he learned, to his +consternation, that the root upon which he had been experimentalizing +was worth four thousand florins; and, notwithstanding all he could +urge in extenuation, he was lodged in prison until he found securities +for the payment of this sum. + + The demand for tulips of a rare species increased so much in the +year 1636, that regular marts for their sale were established on the +Stock Exchange of Amsterdam, in Rotterdam, Harlaem, Leyden, Alkmar, +Hoorn, and other towns. Symptoms of gambling now became, for the first +time, apparent. The stockjobbers, ever on the alert for a new +speculation, dealt largely in tulips, making use of all the means they +so well knew how to employ, to cause fluctuations in prices. At first, +as in all these gambling mania, confidence was at its height, and +everybody gained. The tulip-jobbers speculated in the rise and fall of +the tulip stocks, and made large profits by buying when prices fell, +and selling out when they rose. Many individuals grew suddenly rich. A +golden bait hung temptingly out before the people, and, one after the +other, they rushed to the tulip marts, like flies around a honeypot. +Every one imagined that the passion for tulips would last for ever, +and that the wealthy from every part of the world would send to +Holland, and pay whatever prices were asked for them. The riches of +Europe would be concentrated on the shores of the Zuyder Zee, and +poverty banished from the favoured clime of Holland. Nobles, citizens, +farmers, mechanics, seamen, footmen, maidservants, even chimney-sweeps +and old clotheswomen, dabbled in tulips. People of all grades +converted their property into cash, and invested it in flowers. Houses +and lands were offered for sale at ruinously low prices, or assigned +in payment of bargains made at the tulip-mart. Foreigners became +smitten with the same frenzy, and money poured into Holland from all +directions. The prices of the necessaries of life rose again by +degrees; houses and lands, horses and carriages, and luxuries of every +sort, rose in value with them, and for some months Holland seemed the +very antechamber of Plutus. The operations of the trade became so +extensive and so intricate, that it was found necessary to draw up a +code of laws for the guidance of the dealers. Notaries and clerks were +also appointed, who devoted themselves exclusively to the interests of +the trade. The designation of public notary was hardly known in some +towns, that of tulip notary usurping its place. In the smaller towns, +where there was no exchange, the principal tavern was usually selected +as the "showplace," where high and low traded in tulips, and confirmed +their bargains over sumptuous entertainments. These dinners were +sometimes attended by two or three hundred persons, and large vases of +tulips, in full bloom, were placed at regular intervals upon the +tables and sideboards, for their gratification during the repast. + + At last, however, the more prudent began to see that this folly +could not last for ever. Rich people no longer bought the flowers to +keep them in their gardens, but to sell them again at cent. per cent. +profit. It was seen that somebody must lose fearfully in the end. As +this conviction spread, prices fell, and never rose again. Confidence +was destroyed, and a universal panic seized upon the dealers. A had +agreed to purchase ten Sempers Augustines from B, at four thousand +florins each, at six weeks after the signing of the contract. B was +ready with the flowers at the appointed time; but the price had fallen +to three or four hundred florins, and A refused either to pay the +difference or receive the tulips. Defaulters were announced day after +day in all the towns of Holland. Hundreds who, a few months +previously, had begun to doubt that there was such a thing as poverty +in the land, suddenly found themselves the possessors of a few bulbs, +which nobody would buy, even though they offered them at one quarter +of the sums they had paid for them. The cry of distress resounded +everywhere, and each man accused his neighbour. The few who had +contrived to enrich themselves hid their wealth from the knowledge of +their fellow-citizens, and invested it in the English or other funds. +Many who, for a brief season, had emerged from the humbler walks of +life, were cast back into their original obscurity. Substantial +merchants were reduced almost to beggary, and many a representative of +a noble line saw the fortunes of his house ruined beyond redemption. + + When the first alarm subsided, the tulip-holders in the several +towns held public meetings to devise what measures were best to be +taken to restore public credit. It was generally agreed, that deputies +should be sent from all parts to Amsterdam, to consult with the +government upon some remedy for the evil. The Government at first +refused to interfere, but advised the tulip-holders to agree to some +plan among themselves. Several meetings were held for this purpose; +but no measure could be devised likely to give satisfaction to the +deluded people, or repair even a slight portion of the mischief that +had been done. The language of complaint and reproach was in +everybody's mouth, and all the meetings were of the most stormy +character. At last, however, after much bickering and ill-will, it was +agreed, at Amsterdam, by the assembled deputies, that all contracts +made in the height of the mania, or prior to the month of November +1636, should be declared null and void, and that, in those made after +that date, purchasers should be freed from their engagements, on +paying ten per cent. to the vendor. This decision gave no +satisfaction. The vendors who had their tulips on hand were, of +course, discontented, and those who had pledged themselves to +purchase, thought themselves hardly treated. Tulips which had, at one +time, been worth six thousand florins, were now to be procured for +five hundred; so that the composition of ten per cent. was one hundred +florins more than the actual value. Actions for breach of contract +were threatened in all the courts of the country; but the latter +refused to take cognizance of gambling transactions. + + The matter was finally referred to the Provincial Council at the +Hague, and it was confidently expected that the wisdom of this body +would invent some measure by which credit should be restored. +Expectation was on the stretch for its decision, but it never came. +The members continued to deliberate week after week, and at last, +after thinking about it for three months, declared that they could +offer no final decision until they had more information. They advised, +however, that, in the mean time, every vendor should, in the presence +of witnesses, offer the tulips in natura to the purchaser for the sums +agreed upon. If the latter refused to take them, they might be put up +for sale by public auction, and the original contractor held +responsible for the difference between the actual and the stipulated +price. This was exactly the plan recommended by the deputies, and +which was already shown to be of no avail. There was no court in +Holland which would enforce payment. The question was raised in +Amsterdam, but the judges unanimously refused to interfere, on the +ground that debts contracted in gambling were no debts in law. + + Thus the matter rested. To find a remedy was beyond the power of +the government. Those who were unlucky enough to have had stores of +tulips on hand at the time of the sudden reaction were left to bear +their ruin as philosophically as they could; those who had made +profits were allowed to keep them; but the commerce of the country +suffered a severe shock, from which it was many years ere it +recovered. + + The example of the Dutch was imitated to some extent in England. +In the year 1636 tulips were publicly sold in the Exchange of London, +and the jobbers exerted themselves to the utmost to raise them to the +fictitious value they had acquired in Amsterdam. In Paris also the +jobbers strove to create a tulipomania. In both cities they only +partially succeeded. However, the force of example brought the flowers +into great favour, and amongst a certain class of people tulips have +ever since been prized more highly than any other flowers of the +field. The Dutch are still notorious for their partiality to them, and +continue to pay higher prices for them than any other people. As the +rich Englishman boasts of his fine race-horses or his old pictures, so +does the wealthy Dutchman vaunt him of his tulips. + + + In England, in our day, strange as it may appear, a tulip will +produce more money than an oak. If one could be found, rara in tetris, +and black as the black swan alluded to by Juvenal, its price would +equal that of a dozen acres of standing corn. In Scotland, towards the +close of the seventeenth century, the highest price for tulips, +according to the authority of a writer in the supplement to the third +edition of the "Encyclopedia Britannica," was ten guineas. Their value +appears to have diminished from that time till the year 1769, when the +two most valuable species in England were the Don Quevedo and the +Valentinier, the former of which was worth two guineas and the latter +two guineas and a half. These prices appear to have been the minimum. +In the year 1800, a common price was fifteen guineas for a single +bulb. In 1835, so foolish were the fanciers, that a bulb of the +species called the Miss Fanny Kemble was sold by public auction in +London for seventy-five pounds. Still more astonishing was the price +of a tulip in the possession of a gardener in the King's Road, +Chelsea. In his catalogues, it was labelled at two hundred guineas! +Thus a flower, which for beauty and perfume was surpassed by the +abundant roses of the garden,--a nosegay of which might be purchased +for a penny,--was priced at a sum which would have provided an +industrious labourer and his family with food, and clothes, and +lodging for six years! Should chickweed and groundsel ever come into +fashion, the wealthy would, no doubt, vie with each other in adorning +their gardens with them, and paying the most extravagant prices for +them. In so doing, they would hardly be more foolish than the admirers +of tulips. The common prices for these flowers at the present time +vary from five to fifteen guineas, according to the rarity of the +species. + + +RELICS. + +A fouth o' auld knick-knackets, +Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets, +Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets, + A towmond guid; +An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets, + Afore the flood. + Burns. + + The love for relics is one which will never be eradicated as long +as feeling and affection are denizens of the heart. It is a love which +is most easily excited in the best and kindliest natures, and which +few are callous enough to scoff at. Who would not treasure the lock of +hair that once adorned the brow of the faithful wife, now cold in +death, or that hung down the neck of a beloved infant, now sleeping +under the sward? Not one. They are home-relics, whose sacred worth is +intelligible to all; spoils rescued from the devouring grave, which, +to the affectionate, are beyond all price. How dear to a forlorn +survivor the book over whose pages he has pored with one departed! +How much greater its value, if that hand, now cold, had written a +thought, an opinion, or a name, upon the leaf! Besides these sweet, +domestic relics, there are others, which no one can condemn; relics +sanctified by that admiration of greatness and goodness which is akin +to love; such as the copy of Montaigne's Florio, with the name of +Shakspeare upon the leaf, written by the poet of all time himself; the +chair preserved at Antwerp, in which Rubens sat when he painted the +immortal "Descent from the Cross;" or the telescope, preserved in the +Museum of Florence, which aided Galileo in his sublime discoveries. +Who would not look with veneration upon the undoubted arrow of William +Tell--the swords of Wallace or of Hampden--or the Bible whose leaves +were turned by some stern old father of the faith? + + Thus the principle of reliquism is hallowed and enshrined by love. +But from this germ of purity how numerous the progeny of errors and +superstitions! Men, in their admiration of the great, and of all that +appertained to them, have forgotten that goodness is a component part +of true greatness, and have made fools of themselves for the jaw-bone +of a saint, the toe-nail of an apostle, the handkerchief a king blew +his nose in, or the rope that hanged a criminal. Desiring to rescue +some slight token from the graves of their predecessors, they have +confounded the famous and the infamous, the renowned and the +notorious. Great saints, great sinners; great philosophers, great +quacks; great conquerors, great murderers; great ministers, great +thieves; each and all have had their admirers, ready to ransack earth, +from the equator to either pole, to find a relic of them. + + The reliquism of modern times dates its origin from the centuries +immediately preceding the Crusades. The first pilgrims to the Holy +Land brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the +purchase of which they had expended all their store. The greatest +favourite was the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the +widow, never diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions +of the Romish Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of +Constantine the Great, first discovered the veritable "true cross" in +her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present of +the greater part of it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it was +studded with precious stones, and deposited in the principal church of +that city. It was carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt, +after they had extracted the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments, +purporting to have been cut from it were, in the eleventh and twelfth +centuries, to be found in almost every church in Europe, and would, if +collected together in one place, have been almost sufficient to have +built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a sight of one +of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the greatest +dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve from all +evils, and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages +were made to the shrines that contained them, and considerable +revenues collected from the devotees. + + Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the +Saviour. By whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrims +did not often inquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians +of the Holy Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, +and tears of St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in +little caskets, which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the +tears the next most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus +and the martyrs. Hair and toe-nails were also in great repute, and +were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims annually +visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to purchase +pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them had no +other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many a +nail, cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was +sold at a diamond's price, within six months after its severance from +its parent toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to a +saint. Peter's toes were uncommonly prolific, for there were nails +enough in Europe, at the time of the Council of Clermont, to have +filled a sack, all of which were devoutly believed to have grown on +the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of them are still shown in +the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come from a distance of a +hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon them. + + At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which +the priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns +that bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by +whom it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous +thorn, celebrated in the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the +Molenists, and which worked the miraculous cure upon Mademoiselle +Perrier: by merely kissing it, she was cured of a disease of the eyes +of long standing. [Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV.] + + What traveller is unacquainted with the Santa Scala, or Holy +Stairs, at Rome? They were brought from Jerusalem along with the true +cross, by the Empress Helen, and were taken from the house which, +according to popular tradition, was inhabited by Pontius Pilate. They +are said to be the steps which Jesus ascended and descended when +brought into the presence of the Roman governor. They are held in the +greatest veneration at Rome: it is sacrilegious to walk upon them. The +knees of the faithful must alone touch them in ascending or +descending, and that only after they have reverentially kissed them. + + Europe still swarms with these religious relics. There is hardly a +Roman Catholic church in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, or Belgium, +without one or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches of the +villages boast the possession of miraculous thigh-bones of the +innumerable saints of the Romish calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of +the veritable chasse, or thigh-bone of Charlemagne, which cures +lameness. Halle has a thighbone of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or +eight, all said to be undoubted relics. Brussels at one time +preserved, and perhaps does now, the teeth of St. Gudule. The +faithful, who suffered from the tooth-ache, had only to pray, look at +them, and be cured. Some of these holy bones have been buried in +different parts of the Continent. After a certain lapse of time, water +is said to ooze from them, which soon forms a spring, and cures all +the diseases of the faithful. At a church in Halle, there is a famous +thigh-bone, which cures barrenness in women. Of this bone, which is +under the special superintendence of the Virgin, a pleasant story is +related by the incredulous. There resided at Ghent a couple who were +blessed with all the riches of this world, but whose happiness was +sore troubled by the want of children. Great was the grief of the +lady, who was both beautiful and loving, and many her lamentations to +her husband. The latter, annoyed by her unceasing sorrow, advised her +to make a pilgrimage to the celebrated chasse of the Virgin. She went, +was absent a week, and returned with a face all radiant with joy and +pleasure. Her lamentations ceased, and, in nine months afterwards, she +brought forth a son. But, oh! the instability of human joys! The babe, +so long desired and so greatly beloved, survived but a few months. Two +years passed over the heads of the disconsolate couple, and no second +child appeared to cheer their fire-side. A third year passed away with +the same result, and the lady once more began to weep. "Cheer up, my +love," said her husband, "and go to the holy chasse, at Halle; perhaps +the Virgin will again listen to your prayers." The lady took courage +at the thought, wiped away her tears, and proceeded on the morrow +towards Halle. She was absent only three days, and returned home sad, +weeping, and sorrow-stricken. "What is the matter?" said her husband; +"is the Virgin unwilling to listen to your prayers?" "The Virgin is +willing enough," said the disconsolate wife, "and will do what she can +for me; but I shall never have any more children! The priest! the +priest!--He is gone from Halle, and nobody knows where to find him!" + + It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in +all countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any persons who +have been much spoken of, even for their crimes. When William +Longbeard, leader of the populace of London, in the reign of Richard +I, was hanged at Smithfield, the utmost eagerness was shown to obtain +a hair from his head, or a shred from his garments. Women came from +Essex, Kent, Suffolk, Sussex, and all the surrounding counties, to +collect the mould at the foot of his gallows. A hair of his beard was +believed to preserve from evil spirits, and a piece of his clothes +from aches and pains. + + In more modern days, a similar avidity was shown to obtain a relic +of the luckless Masaniello, the fisherman of Naples. After he had been +raised by mob favour to a height of power more despotic than monarch +ever wielded, he was shot by the same populace in the streets, as if +he had been a mad dog. His headless trunk was dragged through the mire +for several hours, and cast at night-fall into the city ditch. On the +morrow the tide of popular feeling turned once more in his favour. His +corpse was sought, arrayed in royal robes, and buried magnificently by +torch-light in the cathedral, ten thousand armed men, and as many +mourners, attending at the ceremony. The fisherman's dress which he +had worn was rent into shreds by the crowd, to be preserved as relics; +the door of his hut was pulled off its hinges by a mob of women, and +eagerly cut up into small pieces, to be made into images, caskets, and +other mementos. The scanty furniture of his poor abode became of more +value than the adornments of a palace; the ground he had walked upon +was considered sacred, and, being collected in small phials, was sold +at its weight in gold, and worn in the bosom as an amulet. + + Almost as extraordinary was the frenzy manifested by the populace +of Paris on the execution of the atrocious Marchioness de +Brinvilliers. There were grounds for the popular wonder in the case of +Masaniello, who was unstained with personal crimes. But the career of +Madame de Brinvilliers was of a nature to excite no other feelings +than disgust and abhorrence. She was convicted of poisoning several +persons, and sentenced to be burned in the Place de Greve, and to have +her ashes scattered to the winds. On the day of her execution, the +populace, struck by her gracefulness and beauty, inveighed against the +severity of her sentence. Their pity soon increased to admiration, +and, ere evening, she was considered a saint. Her ashes were +industriously collected, even the charred wood, which had aided to +consume her, was eagerly purchased by the populace. Her ashes were +thought to preserve from witchcraft. + + In England many persons have a singular love for the relics of +thieves and murderers, or other great criminals. The ropes with which +they have been hanged are very often bought by collectors at a guinea +per foot. Great sums were paid for the rope which hanged Dr. Dodd, and +for those more recently which did justice upon Mr. Fauntleroy for +forgery, and on Thurtell for the murder of Mr. Weare. The murder of +Maria Marten, by Corder, in the year 1828, excited the greatest +interest all over the country. People came from Wales and Scotland, +and even from Ireland, to visit the barn where the body of the +murdered woman was buried. Every one of them was anxious to carry away +some memorial of his visit. Pieces of the barn-door, tiles from the +roof, and, above all, the clothes of the poor victim, were eagerly +sought after. A lock of her hair was sold for two guineas, and the +purchaser thought himself fortunate in getting it so cheaply. + + So great was the concourse of people to visit the house in +Camberwell Lane, where Greenacre murdered Hannah Brown, in 1837, that +it was found necessary to station a strong detachment of police on the +spot. The crowd was so eager to obtain a relic of the house of this +atrocious criminal, that the police were obliged to employ force to +prevent the tables and chairs, and even the doors, from being carried +away. + + In earlier times, a singular superstition was attached to the hand of +a criminal who had suffered execution. It was thought that by merely +rubbing the dead hand on the body, the patient afflicted with the +king's evil would be instantly cured. The executioner at Newgate, +sixty or seventy years ago, derived no inconsiderable revenue from +this foolish practice. The possession of the hand was thought to be of +still greater efficacy in the cure of diseases and the prevention of +misfortunes. In the time of Charles II as much as ten guineas was +thought a small price for one of these disgusting relics. + + When the maniac, Thom, or Courtenay, was shot, in the spring of +1838, the relic-hunters were immediately in motion to obtain a memento +of so extraordinary an individual. His long, black beard and hair, +which were cut off by the surgeons, fell into the hands of his +disciples, by whom they are treasured with the utmost reverence. A +lock of his hair commands a great price, not only amongst his +followers, but among the more wealthy inhabitants of Canterbury and +its neighbourhood. The tree against which he fell when he was shot, +has already been stripped of all its bark by the curious, and bids +fair to be entirely demolished within a twelvemonth. A letter, with +his signature to it, is paid for in gold coins; and his favourite +horse promises to become as celebrated as his master. Parties of +ladies and gentlemen have come to Boughton from a distance of a +hundred and fifty miles, to visit the scene of that fatal affray, and +stroke on the back the horse of the "mad Knight of Malta." If a strict +watch had not been kept over his grave for months, the body would have +been disinterred, and the bones carried away as memorials. + + Among the Chinese no relics are more valued than the boots which +have been worn by an upright magistrate. In Davis's interesting +Description of the Empire of China, we are informed, that whenever a +judge of unusual integrity resigns his situation, the people all +congregate to do him honour. If he leaves the city where he has +presided, the crowd accompany him from his residence to the gates, +where his boots are drawn off with great ceremony, to be preserved in +the hall of justice. Their place is immediately supplied by a new +pair, which, in their turn, are drawn off to make room for others +before he has worn them five minutes, it being considered sufficient +to consecrate them that he should have merely drawn them on. + + Among the most favourite relics of modern times, in Europe, are +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, Napoleon's willow, and the table at +Waterloo, on which the Emperor wrote his despatches. Snuffboxes of +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, are comparatively rare, though there are +doubtless more of them in the market than were ever made of the wood +planted by the great bard. Many a piece of alien wood passes under +this name. The same may be said of Napoleon's table at Waterloo. The +original has long since been destroyed, and a round dozen of +counterfeits along with it. Many preserve the simple stick of wood; +others have them cut into brooches and every variety of ornament; but +by far the greater number prefer them as snuff-boxes. In France they +are made into bonbonnieres, and are much esteemed by the many +thousands whose cheeks still glow, and whose eyes still sparkle at the +name of Napoleon. + + Bullets from the field of Waterloo, and buttons from the coats of +the soldiers who fell in the fight, are still favourite relics in +Europe. But the same ingenuity which found new tables after the old +one was destroyed, has cast new bullets for the curious. Many a one +who thinks himself the possessor of a bullet which aided in giving +peace to the world on that memorable day, is the owner of a dump, +first extracted from the ore a dozen years afterwards. Let all lovers +of genuine relics look well to their money before they part with it to +the ciceroni that swarm in the village of Waterloo. + + Few travellers stop at the lonely isle of St. Helena, without +cutting a twig from the willow that droops over the grave of Napoleon. +Many of them have since been planted in different parts of Europe, and +have grown into trees as large as their parent. Relic-hunters, who are +unable to procure a twig of the original, are content with one from +these. Several of them are growing in the neighbourhood of London, +more prized by their cultivators than any other tree in their gardens. +But in relics, as in everything else, there is the use and the abuse. +The undoubted relics of great men, or great events, will always +possess attractions for the thinking and refined. There are few who +would not join with Cowley in the extravagant wish introduced in his +lines "written while sitting in a chair made of the remains of the +ship in which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world:"-- + +And I myself, who now love quiet too, +Almost as much as any chair can do, +Would yet a journey take +An old wheel of that chariot to see, +Which Phaeton so rashly brake. + + +MODERN PROPHECIES. + + As epidemic terror of the end of the world has several times +spread over the nations. The most remarkable was that which seized +Christendom about the middle of the tenth century. Numbers of fanatics +appeared in France, Germany, and Italy at that time, preaching that +the thousand years prophesied in the Apocalypse as the term of the +world's duration, were about to expire, and that the Son of Man would +appear in the clouds to judge the godly and the ungodly. The delusion +appears to have been discouraged by the church, but it nevertheless +spread rapidly among the people. [See Gibbon and Voltaire for further +notice of this subject.] + + The scene of the last judgment was expected to be at Jerusalem. In +the year 999, the number of pilgrims proceeding eastward, to await the +coming of the Lord in that city, was so great that they were compared +to a desolating army. Most of them sold their goods and possessions +before they quitted Europe, and lived upon the proceeds in the Holy +Land. Buildings of every sort were suffered to fall into ruins. It was +thought useless to repair them, when the end of the world was so near. +Many noble edifices were deliberately pulled down. Even churches, +usually so well maintained, shared the general neglect. Knights, +citizens, and serfs, travelled eastwards in company, taking with them +their wives and children, singing psalms as they went, and looking +with fearful eyes upon the sky, which they expected each minute to +open, to let the Son of God descend in his glory. + + During the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased. Most +of them were smitten with terror as with a plague. Every phenomenon of +nature filled them with alarm. A thunder-storm sent them all upon +their knees in mid-march. It was the opinion that thunder was the +voice of God, announcing the day of judgment. Numbers expected the +earth to open, and give up its dead at the sound. Every meteor in the +sky seen at Jerusalem brought the whole Christian population into the +streets to weep and pray. The pilgrims on the road were in the same +alarm :-- + +Lorsque, pendant la nuit, un globe de lumiere + S'echappa quelquefois de la voute des cieux, + Et traca dans sa chute un long sillon de feux, +La troupe suspendit sa marche solitaire. +[Charlemagne. Pomme Epique, par Lucien Buonaparte.] + + Fanatic preachers kept up the flame of terror. Every shooting star +furnished occasion for a sermon, in which the sublimity of the +approaching judgment was the principal topic. + + + The appearance of comets has been often thought to foretell the +speedy dissolution of this world. Part of this belief still exists; +but the comet is no longer looked upon as the sign, but the agent of +destruction. So lately as in the year 1832 the greatest alarm spread +over the Continent of Europe, especially in Germany, lest the comet, +whose appearance was then foretold by astronomers, should destroy the +earth. The danger of our globe was gravely discussed. Many persons +refrained from undertaking or concluding any business during that +year, in consequence solely of their apprehension that this terrible +comet would dash us and our world to atoms. + + During seasons of great pestilence men have often believed the +prophecies of crazed fanatics, that the end of the world was come. +Credulity is always greatest in times of calamity. Prophecies of all +sorts are rife on such occasions, and are readily believed, whether +for good or evil. During the great plague, which ravaged all Europe, +between the years 1345 and 1350, it was generally considered that the +end of the world was at hand. Pretended prophets were to be found in +all the principal cities of Germany, France, and Italy, predicting +that within ten years the trump of the Archangel would sound, and the +Saviour appear in the clouds to call the earth to judgment. + + No little consternation was created in London in 1736 by the +prophecy of the famous Whiston, that the world would be destroyed in +that year, on the 13th of October. Crowds of people went out on the +appointed day to Islington, Hampstead, and the fields intervening, to +see the destruction of London, which was to be the "beginning of the +end." A satirical account of this folly is given in Swift's +Miscellanies, vol. iii. entitled, "A True and Faithful Narrative of +what passed in London on a Rumour of the Day of Judgment." An +authentic narrative of this delusion would be interesting; but this +solemn witticism of Pope and Gay is not to be depended upon. + + In the year 1761 the citizens of London were again frightened out +of their wits by two shocks of an earthquake, and the prophecy of a +third, which was to destroy them altogether. The first shock was felt +on the 8th of February, and threw down several chimneys in the +neighbourhood of Limehouse and Poplar; the second happened on the 8th +of March, and was chiefly felt in the north of London, and towards +Hampstead and Highgate. It soon became the subject of general remark, +that there was exactly an interval of a month between the shocks; and +a crack-brained fellow, named Bell, a soldier in the Life Guards, was +so impressed with the idea that there would be a third in another +month, that he lost his senses altogether, and ran about the streets +predicting the destruction of London on the 5th of April. Most people +thought that the first would have been a more appropriate day; but +there were not wanting thousands who confidently believed the +prediction, and took measures to transport themselves and families +from the scene of the impending calamity. As the awful day approached, +the excitement became intense, and great numbers of credulous people +resorted to all the villages within a circuit of twenty miles, +awaiting the doom of London. Islington, Highgate, Hampstead, Harrow, +and Blackheath, were crowded with panic-stricken fugitives, who paid +exorbitant prices for accommodation to the housekeepers of these +secure retreats. Such as could not afford to pay for lodgings at any +of those places, remained in London until two or three days before the +time, and then encamped in the surrounding fields, awaiting the +tremendous shock which was to lay their high city all level with the +dust. As happened during a similar panic in the time of Henry VIII, +the fear became contagious, and hundreds who had laughed at the +prediction a week before, packed up their goods, when they saw others +doing so, and hastened away. The river was thought to be a place of +great security, and all the merchant vessels in the port were filled +with people, who passed the night between the 4th and 5th on board, +expecting every instant to see St. Paul's totter, and the towers of +Westminster Abbey rock in the wind and fall amid a cloud of dust. The +greater part of the fugitives returned on the following day, convinced +that the prophet was a false one; but many judged it more prudent to +allow a week to elapse before they trusted their dear limbs in London. +Bell lost all credit in a short time, and was looked upon even by the +most credulous as a mere madman. He tried some other prophecies, but +nobody was deceived by them; and, in a few months afterwards, he was +confined in a lunatic asylum. + + A panic terror of the end of the world seized the good people of +Leeds and its neighbourhood in the year 1806. It arose from the +following circumstances. A hen, in a village close by, laid eggs, on +which were inscribed, in legible characters, the words "Christ is +coming." Great numbers visited the spot, and examined these wondrous +eggs, convinced that the day of judgment was near at hand. Like +sailors in a storm, expecting every instant to go to the bottom, the +believers suddenly became religious, prayed violently, and flattered +themselves that they repented them of their evil courses. But a plain +tale soon put them down, and quenched their religion entirely. Some +gentlemen, hearing of the matter, went one fine morning, and caught +the poor hen in the act of laying one of her miraculous eggs. They +soon ascertained beyond doubt that the egg had been inscribed with +some corrosive ink, and cruelly forced up again into the bird's body. +At this explanation, those who had prayed, now laughed, and the world +wagged as merrily as of yore. + + At the time of the plague in Milan, in 1630, of which so affecting +a description has been left us by Ripamonte, in his interesting work +"De Peste Mediolani", the people, in their distress, listened with +avidity to the predictions of astrologers and other impostors. It is +singular enough that the plague was foretold a year before it broke +out. A large comet appearing in 1628, the opinions of astrologers were +divided with regard to it. Some insisted that it was a forerunner of a +bloody war; others maintained that it predicted a great famine; but +the greater number, founding their judgment upon its pale colour, +thought it portended a pestilence. The fulfilment of their prediction +brought them into great repute while the plague was raging. + + Other prophecies were current, which were asserted to have been +delivered hundreds of years previously. They had a most pernicious +effect upon the mind of the vulgar, as they induced a belief in +fatalism. By taking away the hope of recovery - that greatest balm in +every malady - they increased threefold the ravages of the disease. +One singular prediction almost drove the unhappy people mad. An +ancient couplet, preserved for ages by tradition, foretold, that in +the year 1630 the devil would poison all Milan. Early one morning in +April, and before the pestilence had reached its height, the +passengers were surprised to see that all the doors in the principal +streets of the city were marked with a curious daub, or spot, as if a +sponge, filled with the purulent matter of the plague-sores, +had been pressed against them. The whole population were speedily in +movement to remark the strange appearance, and the greatest alarm +spread rapidly. Every means was taken to discover the perpetrators, +but in vain. At last the ancient prophecy was remembered, and prayers +were offered up in all the churches that the machinations of the Evil +One might be defeated. Many persons were of opinion that the +emissaries of foreign powers were employed to spread infectious poison +over the city; but by far the greater number were convinced that the +powers of hell had conspired against them, and that the infection was +spread by supernatural agencies. In the mean time the plague increased +fearfully. Distrust and alarm took possession of every mind. +Everything was believed to have been poisoned by the devil; the waters +of the wells, the standing corn in the fields, and the fruit upon the +trees. It was believed that all objects of touch were poisoned; the +walls of the houses, the pavement of the streets, and the very handles +of the doors. The populace were raised to a pitch of ungovernable +fury. A strict watch was kept for the devil's emissaries, and any man +who wanted to be rid of an enemy, had only to say that he had seen +him besmearing a door with ointment; his fate was certain death at the +hands of the mob. An old man, upwards of eighty years of age, a daily +frequenter of the church of St. Antonio, was seen, on rising from his +knees, to wipe with the skirt of his cloak the stool on which he was +about to sit down. A cry was raised immediately that he was besmearing +the seat with poison. A mob of women, by whom the church was crowded, +seized hold of the feeble old man, and dragged him out by the hair of +his head, with horrid oaths and imprecations. He was trailed in this +manner through the mire to the house of the municipal judge, that he +might be put to the rack, and forced to discover his accomplices; but +he expired on the way. Many other victims were sacrificed to the +popular fury. One Mora, who appears to have been half a chemist and +half a barber, was accused of being in league with the devil to poison +Milan. His house was surrounded, and a number of chemical preparations +were found. The poor man asserted, that they were intended as +preservatives against infection; but some physicians, to whom they +were submitted, declared they were poison. Mora was put to the rack, +where he for a long time asserted his innocence. He confessed at last, +when his courage was worn down by torture, that he was in league with +the devil and foreign powers to poison the whole city; that he had +anointed the doors, and infected the fountains of water. He named +several persons as his accomplices, who were apprehended and put to a +similar torture. They were all found guilty, and executed. Mora's +house was rased to the ground, and a column erected on the spot, with +an inscription to commemorate his guilt. + + While the public mind was filled with these marvellous +occurrences, the plague continued to increase. The crowds that were +brought together to witness the executions, spread the infection among +one another. But the fury of their passions, and the extent of their +credulity, kept pace with the violence of the plague; every wonderful +and preposterous story was believed. One, in particular, occupied them +to the exclusion, for a long time, of every other. The Devil himself +had been seen. He had taken a house in Milan, in which he prepared his +poisonous unguents, and furnished them to his emissaries for +distribution. One man had brooded over such tales till he became +firmly convinced that the wild flights of his own fancy were +realities. He stationed himself in the market-place of Milan, and +related the following story to the crowds that gathered round him. He +was standing, he said, at the door of the cathedral, late in the +evening, and when there was nobody nigh, he saw a dark-coloured +chariot, drawn by six milk-white horses, stop close beside him. The +chariot was followed by a numerous train of domestics in dark +liveries, mounted on dark-coloured steeds. In the chariot there sat a +tall stranger of a majestic aspect; his long black hair floated in the +wind--fire flashed from his large black eyes, and a curl of ineffable +scorn dwelt upon his lips. The look of the stranger was so sublime +that he was awed, and trembled with fear when he gazed upon him. His +complexion was much darker than that of any man he had ever seen, and +the atmosphere around him was hot and suffocating. He perceived +immediately that he was a being of another world. The stranger, seeing +his trepidation, asked him blandly, yet majestically, to mount beside +him. He had no power to refuse, and before he was well aware that he +had moved, he found himself in the chariot. Onwards they went, with +the rapidity of the wind, the stranger speaking no word, until they +stopped before a door in the high-street of Milan. There was a crowd +of people in the street, but, to his great surprise, no one seemed to +notice the extraordinary equipage and its numerous train. From this he +concluded that they were invisible. The house at which they stopped +appeared to be a shop, but the interior was like a vast half-ruined +palace. He went with his mysterious guide through several large and +dimly-lighted rooms. In one of them, surrounded by huge pillars of +marble, a senate of ghosts was assembled, debating on the progress of +the plague. Other parts of the building were enveloped in the thickest +darkness, illumined at intervals by flashes of lightning, which +allowed him to distinguish a number of gibing and chattering +skeletons, running about and pursuing each other, or playing at +leap-frog over one another's backs. At the rear of the mansion was a +wild, uncultivated plot of ground, in the midst of which arose a black +rock. Down its sides rushed with fearful noise a torrent of poisonous +water, which, insinuating itself through the soil, penetrated to all +the springs of the city, and rendered them unfit for use. After he had +been shown all this, the stranger led him into another large chamber, +filled with gold and precious stones, all of which he offered him if +he would kneel down and worship him, and consent to smear the doors +and houses of Milan with a pestiferous salve which he held out to him. +tie now knew him to be the Devil, and in that moment of temptation, +prayed to God to give him strength to resist. His prayer was heard - +he refused the bribe. The stranger scowled horribly upon him - a loud +clap of thunder burst over his head - the vivid lightning flashed in +his eyes, and the next moment he found himself standing alone at the +porch of the cathedral. He repeated this strange tale day after day, +without any variation, and all the populace were firm believers in its +truth. Repeated search was made to discover the mysterious house, but +all in vain. The man pointed out several as resembling it, which were +searched by the police; but the Demon of the Pestilence was not to be +found, nor the hall of ghosts, nor the poisonous fountain. But the +minds of the people were so impressed with the idea that scores of +witnesses, half crazed by disease, came forward to swear that they +also had seen the diabolical stranger, and had heard his chariot, +drawn by the milk-white steeds, rumbling over the streets at midnight +with a sound louder than thunder. + + The number of persons who confessed that they were employed by the +Devil to distribute poison is almost incredible. An epidemic frenzy +was abroad, which seemed to be as contagious as the plague. +Imagination was as disordered as the body, and day after day persons +came voluntarily forward to accuse themselves. They generally had the +marks of disease upon them, and some died in the act of confession. + + During the great plague of London, in 1665, the people listened +with similar avidity to the predictions of quacks and fanatics. Defoe +says, that at that time the people were more addicted to prophecies +and astronomical conjurations, dreams, and old wives' tales than ever +they were before or since. Almanacs, and their predictions, frightened +them terribly. Even the year before the plague broke out, they were +greatly alarmed by the comet which then appeared, and anticipated that +famine, pestilence, or fire would follow. Enthusiasts, while yet the +disease had made but little progress, ran about the streets, +predicting that in a few days London would be destroyed. + + A still more singular instance of the faith in predictions +occurred in London in the year 1524. The city swarmed at that time +with fortune-tellers and astrologers, who were consulted daily by +people of every class in society on the secrets of futurity. As early +as the month of June 1523, several of them concurred in predicting +that, on the 1st day of February, 1524, the waters of the Thames would +swell to such a height as to overflow the whole city of London, and +wash away ten thousand houses. The prophecy met implicit belief. It +was reiterated with the utmost confidence month after month, until so +much alarm was excited that many families packed up their goods, and +removed into Kent and Essex. As the time drew nigh, the number of +these emigrants increased. In January, droves of workmen might be +seen, followed by their wives and children, trudging on foot to the +villages within fifteen or twenty miles, to await the catastrophe. +People of a higher class were also to be seen, in waggons and other +vehicles, bound on a similar errand. By the middle of January, at +least twenty thousand persons had quitted the doomed city, leaving +nothing but the bare walls of their homes to be swept away by the +impending floods. Many of the richer sort took up their abode on the +heights of Highgate, Hampstead, and Blackheath; and some erected tents +as far away as Waltham Abbey, on the north, and Croydon, on the south +of the Thames. Bolton, the prior of St. Bartholomew's, was so alarmed +that he erected, at very great expense, a sort of fortress at +Harrow-on-the-Hill, which he stocked with provisions for two months. +On the 24th of January, a week before the awful day which was to see +the destruction of London, he removed thither, with the brethren and +officers of the priory and all his household. A number of boats were +conveyed in waggons to his fortress, furnished abundantly with expert +rowers, in case the flood, reaching so high as Harrow, should force +them to go further for a resting-place. Many wealthy citizens prayed +to share his retreat, but the Prior, with a prudent forethought, +admitted only his personal friends, and those who brought stores of +eatables for the blockade. + + At last the morn, big with the fate of London, appeared in the +east. The wondering crowds were astir at an early hour to watch the +rising of the waters. The inundation, it was predicted, would be +gradual, not sudden; so that they expected to have plenty of time to +escape, as soon as they saw the bosom of old Thames heave beyond the +usual mark. But the majority were too much alarmed to trust to this, +and thought themselves safer ten or twenty miles off. The Thames, +unmindful of the foolish crowds upon its banks, flowed on quietly as +of yore. The tide ebbed at its usual hour, flowed to its usual height, +and then ebbed again, just as if twenty astrologers had not pledged +their words to the contrary. Blank were their faces as evening +approached, and as blank grew the faces of the citizens to think that +they had made such fools of themselves. At last night set in, and the +obstinate river would not lift its waters to sweep away even one house +out of the ten thousand. Still, however, the people were afraid to go +to sleep. Many hundreds remained up till dawn of the next day, lest +the deluge should come upon them like a thief in the night. + + On the morrow, it was seriously discussed whether it would not be +advisable to duck the false prophets in the river. Luckily for them, +they thought of an expedient which allayed the popular fury. They +asserted that, by an error (a very slight one) of a little figure, +they had fixed the date of this awful inundation a whole century too +early. The stars were right after all, and they, erring mortals, were +wrong. The present generation of cockneys was safe, and London 'would +be washed away, not in 1524, but in 1624. At this announcement, +Bolton, the prior, dismantled his fortress, and the weary emigrants +came back. + + An eye-witness of the great fire of London, in an account +preserved among the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, and recently +published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, +relates another instance of the credulity of the Londoners. The +writer, who accompanied the Duke of York day by day through the +district included between the Fleet-bridge and the Thames, states +that, in their efforts to check the progress of the flames, they were +much impeded by the superstition of the people. Mother Shipton, in one +of her prophecies, had said that London would be reduced to ashes, and +they refused to make any efforts to prevent it. [This prophecy seems +to have been that set forth at length in the popular Life of Mother +Shipton :-- + +"When fate to England shall restore +A king to reign as heretofore, +Great death in London shall be though, +And many houses be laid low."] + +A son of the noted Sir Kenelm Digby, who was also a pretender to the +gifts of prophecy, persuaded them that no power on earth could prevent +the fulfilment of the prediction; for it was written in the great book +of fate that London was to be destroyed. Hundreds of persons, who +might have rendered valuable assistance, and saved whole parishes from +devastation, folded their arms and looked on. As many more gave +themselves up, with the less compunction, to plunder a city which they +could not save. + + The prophecies of Mother Shipton are still believed in many of the +rural districts of England. In cottages and servants' halls her +reputation is great; and she rules, the most popular of British +prophets, among all the uneducated, or half-educated, portions of the +community. She is generally supposed to have been born at +Knaresborough, in the reign of Henry VII, and to have sold her soul to +the Devil for the power of foretelling future events. Though during +her lifetime she was looked upon as a witch, she yet escaped the +witch's fate, and died peaceably in her bed at an extreme old age, +near Clifton in Yorkshire. A stone is said to have been erected to her +memory in the church-yard of that place, with the following epitaph:-- + +"Here lies she who never lied; +Whose skill often has been tried: +Her prophecies shall still survive, +And ever keep her name alive." + + "Never a day passed," says her traditionary biography, "wherein +she did not relate something remarkable, and that required the most +serious consideration. People flocked to her from far and near, her +fame was so great. They went to her of all sorts, both old and young, +rich and poor, especially young maidens, to be resolved of their +doubts relating to things to come; and all returned wonderfully +satisfied in the explanations she gave to their questions." Among the +rest, went the Abbot of Beverley, to whom she foretold the suppression +of the monasteries by Henry VIII; his marriage with Anne Boleyn; the +fires for heretics in Smithfield, and the execution of Mary Queen of +Scots. She also foretold the accession of James I, adding that, with +him, + +"From the cold North, +Every evil should come forth." + +On a subsequent visit she uttered another prophecy, which, in the +opinion of her believers, still remains unfulfilled, but may be +expected to be realised during the present century:-- +"The time shall come when seas of blood +Shall mingle with a greater flood. +Great noise there shall be heard--great shouts and cries, +And seas shall thunder louder than the skies; +Then shall three lions fight with three, and bring +Joy to a people, honour to a king. +That fiery year as soon as o'er, +Peace shall then be as before; +Plenty shall everywhere be found, +And men with swords shall plough the ground." + +But the most famous of all her prophecies is one relating to London. +Thousands of persons still shudder to think of the woes that are to +burst over this unhappy realm, when London and Highgate are joined by +one continuous line of houses. This junction, which, if the rage for +building lasts much longer, in the same proportion as heretofore, bids +fair to be soon accomplished, was predicted by her shortly before her +death. Revolutions -- the fall of mighty monarchs, and the shedding of +much blood are to signalise that event. The very angels, afflicted by +our woes, are to turn aside their heads, and weep for hapless Britain. + + But great as is the fame of Mother Shipton, she ranks but second +in the list of British prophets. Merlin, the mighty Merlin, stands +alone in his high pre-eminence -- the first and greatest. As old +Drayton sings, in his Poly-olbion :-- + +"Of Merlin and his skill what region doth not hear? +The world shall still be full of Merlin every year. +A thousand lingering years his prophecies have run, +And scarcely shall have end till time itself be done." + +Spenser, in his divine poem, has given us a powerfid description of +this renowned seer-- + +".......who had in magic more insight +Than ever him before, or after, living wight. + +"For he by words could call out of the sky +Both sun and moon, and make them him obey; +The land to sea, and sea to mainland dry, +And darksome night he eke could turn to day-- +Huge hosts of men he could, alone, dismay. +And hosts of men and meanest things could frame, +Whenso him list his enemies to fray, +That to this day, for terror of his name, +The fiends do quake, when any him to them does name. + +"And soothe men say that he was not the sonne, +Of mortal sire or other living wighte, +But wondrously begotten and begoune +By false illusion of a guileful sprite, +On a faire ladye nun." + + In these verses the poet has preserved the popular belief with +regard to Merlin, who is generally supposed to have been a +contemporary of Vortigern. Opinion is divided as to whether he were a +real personage, or a mere impersonation, formed by the poetic fancy of +a credulous people. It seems most probable that such a man did exist, +and that, possessing knowledge as much above the comprehension of his +age, as that possessed by Friar Bacon was beyond the reach of his, he +was endowed by the wondering crowd with the supernatural attributes +that Spenser has enumerated. + + Geoffrey of Monmouth translated Merlin's poetical odes, or +prophecies, into Latin prose, and he was much reverenced, not only by +Geoffrey, but by most of,the old annalists. In a "Life of Merlin, with +his Prophecies and Predictions. interpreted and made good by our +English Annals," by Thomas Heywood, published in the reign of Charles +I, we find several of these pretended prophecies. They seem, however, +to have been all written by Heywood himself. They are in terms too +plain and positive to allow any one to doubt for a moment of their +having been composed ex post facto. Speaking of Richard I, he says :-- + +"The Lion's heart will 'gainst the Saracen rise, +And purchase from him many a glorious prize; +The rose and lily shall at first unite, +But, parting of the prey prove opposite. + * * * * +But while abroad these great acts shall be done; +All things at home shall to disorder run. +Cooped up and caged then shall the Lion be, +But, after sufferance, ransomed and set free." + + The sapient Thomas Heywood gravely goes on to inform us, that all +these things actually came to pass. Upon Richard III he is equally +luminous. He says :-- + +"A hunch-backed monster, who with teeth is born, +The mockery of art and nature's scorn; +Who from the womb preposterously is hurled, +And, with feet forward, thrust into the world, +Shall, from the lower earth on which he stood, +Wade, every step he mounts, knee-deep in blood. +He shall to th' height of all his hopes aspire, +And, clothed in state, his ugly shape admire; +But, when he thinks himself most safe to stand, +From foreign parts a native whelp shall land." + + Another of these prophecies after the event tells us that Henry +VIII should take the power from Rome, "and bring it home unto his +British bower;" that he should "root out from the land all the +razored skulls;" and that he should neither spare "man in his rage +nor woman in his lust;" and that, in the time of his next successor +but one, "there should come in the fagot and the stake." Master +Heywood closes Merlin's prophecies at his own day, and does not give +even a glimpse of what was to befall England after his decease. Many +other prophecies, besides those quoted by him, were, he says, +dispersed abroad, in his day, under the name of Merlin; but he gives +his readers a taste of one only, and that is the following :-- + +"When hempe is ripe and ready to pull, +Then Englishman beware thy skull." + + This prophecy, which, one would think, ought to have put him in +mind of the gallows, the not unusual fate of false prophets, and +perchance his own, he explains thus:-- "In this word HEMPE be five +letters. Now, by reckoning the five successive princes from Henry +VIII, this prophecy is easily explained: H signifieth King Henry +before named; E, Edward, his son, the sixth of that name; M, Mary, who +succeeded him; P, Philip of Spain, who, by marrying Queen Mary, +participated with her in the English diadem; and, lastly, E signifieth +Queen Elizabeth, after whose death there was a great feare that some +troubles might have arisen about the crown." As this did not happen, +Heywood, who was a sly rogue in a small way, gets out of the scrape +by saying, "Yet proved this augury true, though not according to the +former expectation; for, after the peaceful inauguration of King +James, there was great mortality, not in London only, but through the +whole kingdom, and from which the nation was not quite clean in seven +years after." + + This is not unlike the subterfuge of Peter of Pontefract, who had +prophesied the death and deposition of King John, and who was hanged +by that monarch for his pains. A very graphic and amusing account of +this pretended prophet is given by Grafton, in his Chronicles of +England. There is so much homely vigour about the style of the old +annalist, that it would be a pity to give the story in other words +than his own. [Chronicles of England, by Richard Grafton; London, +1568, p. 106.] "In the meanwhile," says he, "the priestes within +England had provided them a false and counterfeated prophet, called +Peter Wakefielde, a Yorkshire man, who was an hermite, an idle gadder +about, and a pratlyng marchant. Now to bring this Peter in credite, +and the kyng out of all credite with his people, diverse vaine persons +bruted dayly among the commons of the realme, that Christe had twice +appered unto him in the shape of a childe, betwene the prieste's +handes, once at Yorke, another tyme at Pomfret; and that he had +breathed upon him thrice, saying, 'Peace, peace, peace,' and teachyng +many things, which he anon declared to the bishops, and bid the people +amend their naughtie living. Being rapt also in spirite, they sayde he +behelde the joyes of heaven and sorowes of hell, for scant were there +three in the realme, sayde he, that lived Christainly. + + "This counterfeated soothsayer prophecied of King John, that he +should reigne no longer than the Ascension-day next followyng, which +was in the yere of our Lord 1211, and was the thirteenth yere from his +coronation; and this, he said, he had by revelation. Then it was of +him demanded, whether he should be slaine or be deposed, or should +voluntarily give over the crowne? He aunswered, that he could not +tell; but of this he was sure (he sayd), that neither he nor any of +his stock or lineage should reigne after that day. + + "The king hering of this, laughed much at it, and made but a scoff +thereat. 'Tush!' saith he, 'it is but an ideot knave, and such an one +as lacketh his right wittes.' But when this foolish prophet had so +escaped the daunger of the Kinge's displeasure, and that he made no +more of it, he gate him abroad, and prated thereof at large, as he was +a very idle vagabond, and used to trattle and talke more than ynough, +so that they which loved the King caused him anon after to be +apprehended as a malefactor, and to be throwen in prison, the King not +yet knowing thereof. + + "Anone after the fame of this phantasticall prophet went all the +realme over, and his name was knowen everywhere, as foolishnesse is +much regarded of the people, where wisdome is not in place; +specially because he was then imprisoned for the matter, the rumour +was the larger, their wonderynges were the wantoner, their practises +the foolisher, their busye talkes and other idle doinges the greater. +Continually from thence, as the rude manner of people is, olde gossyps +tales went abroade, new tales were invented, fables were added to +fables, and lyes grew upon lyes. So that every daye newe slanders were +laide upon the King, and not one of them true. Rumors arose, +blasphemyes were sprede, the enemyes rejoyced, and treasons by the +priestes were mainteyned; and what lykewise was surmised, or other +subtiltye practised, all was then lathered upon this foolish prophet, +as 'thus saith Peter Wakefield;' 'thus hath he prophecied;' ' and +thus it shall come to pass;' yea, many times, when he thought nothing +lesse. And when the Ascension-day was come, which was prophecyed of +before, King John commanded his royal tent to be spread in the open +fielde, passing that day with his noble counseyle and men of honour, +in the greatest solemnitie that ever he did before; solacing himself +with musickale instrumentes and songs, most in sight among his trustie +friendes. When that day was paste in all prosperitie and myrth, his +enemyes being confused, turned all into an allegorical understanding +to make the prophecie good, and sayde, "he is no longer King, for the +Pope reigneth, and not he." [King John was labouring under a sentence +of excommunication at the time.] + + "Then was the King by his council perswaded that this false +prophet had troubled the realme, perverted the heartes of the people, +and raysed the commons against him; for his wordes went over the sea, +by the help of his prelates, and came to the French King's care, and +gave to him a great encouragement to invade the lande. He had not else +done it so sodeinely. But he was most lowly deceived, as all they are +and shall be that put their trust in such dark drowsye dreames of +hipocrites. The King therefore commanded that he should be hanged up, +and his sonne also with him, lest any more false prophets should arise +of that race." + + Heywood, who was a great stickler for the truth of all sorts of +prophecies, gives a much more favourable account of this Peter of +Pomfret, or Pontefract, whose fate he would, in all probability, have +shared, if he had had the misfortune to have flourished in the same +age. He says, that Peter, who was not only a prophet, but a bard, +predicted divers of King John's disasters, which fell out accordingly. +On being taxed for a lying prophet in having predicted that the King +would be deposed before .he entered into the fifteenth year of his +reign, he answered him boldly, that all he had said was justifiable +and true; for that, having given up his crown to the Pope, and paying +him an annual tribute, the Pope reigned, and not he. Heywood thought +this explanation to be perfectly satisfactory, and the prophet's faith +for ever established. + + But to return to Merlin. Of him even to this day it may be said, +in the words which Burns has applied to another notorious personage, + +"Great was his power and great his fame; +Far kenned and noted is his name? + + His reputation is by no means confined to the land of his birth, +but extends through most of the nations of Europe. A very curious +volume of his Life, Prophecies, and Miracles, written, it is supposed, +by Robert de Bosron, was printed at Paris in 1498, which states, that +the Devil himself was his father, and that he spoke the instant he was +born, and assured his mother, a very virtuous young woman, that she +should not die in child-bed with him, as her ill-natured neighbours +had predicted. The judge of the district, hearing of so marvellous an +occurrence, summoned both mother and child to appear before him; and +they went accordingly the same day. To put the wisdom of the young +prophet most effectually to the test, the judge asked him if he knew +his own father? To which the infant Merlin replied, in a clear, +sonorous voice, "Yes, my father is the Devil; and I have his power, +and know all things, past, present, and to come." His worship clapped +his hands in astonishment, and took the prudent resolution of not +molesting so awful a child, or its mother either. + + Early tradition attributes the building of Stonehenge to the power +of Merlin. It was believed that those mighty stones were whirled +through the air, at his command, from Ireland to Salisbury Plain, and +that he arranged them in the form in which they now stand, to +commemorate for ever the unhappy fate of three hundred British chiefs, +who were massacred on that spot by the Saxons. + + At Abergwylly, near Caermarthen, is still shown the cave of the +prophet and the scene of his incantations. How beautiful is the +description of it given by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene." The lines +need no apology for their repetition here, and any sketch of the great +prophet of Britain would be incomplete without them :-- + +"There the wise Merlin, whilom wont (they say), +To make his wonne low underneath the ground, +In a deep delve far from the view of day, +That of no living wight he mote be found, +Whenso he counselled with his sprites encompassed round. + +"And if thou ever happen that same way +To travel, go to see that dreadful place; +It is a hideous, hollow cave, they say, +Under a rock that lies a little space +From the swift Barry, tumbling down apace +Amongst the woody hills of Dynevoure; +But dare thou not, I charge, in any case, +To enter into that same baleful bower, +For fear the cruel fiendes should thee unwares devour! + +"But, standing high aloft, low lay thine care, +And there such ghastly noise of iron chaines, +And brazen caudrons thou shalt rombling heare, +Which thousand sprites, with long-enduring paines, +Doe tosse, that it will stun thy feeble braines; +And often times great groans and grievous stownds, +When too huge toile and labour them constraines; +And often times loud strokes and ringing sounds +From under that deep rock most horribly rebounds. + +"The cause, they say, is this. A little while +Before that Merlin died, he did intend +A brazen wall in compass, to compile +About Cayr Merdin, and did it commend +Unto these sprites to bring to perfect end; +During which work the Lady of the Lake, +Whom long he loved, for him in haste did send, +Who thereby forced his workmen to forsake, +Them bound till his return their labour not to slake. + +"In the mean time, through that false ladie's traine, +He was surprised, and buried under biere, +Ne ever to his work returned again; +Natheless these fiendes may not their work forbeare, +So greatly his commandement they fear, +But there doe toile and travaile day and night, +Until that brazen wall they up doe reare." +[Faerie Queene, b. 3. c. 3. s. 6--13.] + + Amongst other English prophets, a belief in whose power has not +been entirely effaced by the light of advancing knowledge, is Robert +Nixon, the Cheshire idiot, a contemporary of Mother Shipton. The +popular accounts of this man say, that he was born of poor parents, +not far from Vale Royal, on the edge of the forest of Delamere. He was +brought up to the plough, but was so ignorant and stupid, that nothing +could be made of him. Everybody thought him irretrievably insane, and +paid no attention to the strange, unconnected discourses which he +held. Many of his prophecies are believed to have been lost in this +manner. But they were not always destined to be wasted upon dull and +inattentive ears. An incident occurred which brought him into notice, +and established his fame as a prophet of the first calibre. He was +ploughing in a field when he suddenly stopped from his labour, and, +with a wild look and strange gestures, exclaimed, "Now, Dick! now, +Harry! O, ill done, Dick! O, well done, Harry! Harry has gained the +day!" His fellow labourers in the field did not know what to make of +this rhapsody; but the next day cleared up the mystery. News was +brought by a messenger, in hot haste, that at the very instant when +Nixon had thus ejaculated, Richard III had been slain at the battle +of Bosworth, and Henry VII proclaimed King of England. + + It was not long before the fame of the new prophet reached the +ears of the King, who expressed a wish to see and converse with him. A +messenger was accordingly despatched to bring him to court; but long +before he reached Cheshire, Nixon knew and dreaded the honours that +awaited him. Indeed it was said, that at the very instant the King +expressed the wish, Nixon was, by supernatural means, made acquainted +with it, and that he ran about the town of Over in great distress of +mind, calling out, like a madman, that Henry had sent for him, and +that he must go to court, and be clammed; that is, starved to death. +These expressions excited no little wonder; but, on the third day, the +messenger arrived, and carried him to court, leaving on the minds of +the good people of Cheshire an impression that their prophet was one +of the greatest ever born. On his arrival King Henry appeared to be +troubled exceedingly at the loss of a valuable diamond, and asked +Nixon if he could inform him where it was to be found. Henry had +hidden the diamond himself, with a view to test the prophet's skill. +Great, therefore, was his surprise when Nixon answered him in the +words of the old proverb, "Those who hide can find." From that time +forth the King implicitly believed that he had the gift of prophecy, +and ordered all his words to be taken down. + + During all the time of his residence at court he was in constant +fear of being starved to death, and repeatedly told the King that such +would be his fate, if he were not allowed to depart, and return into +his own country. Henry would not suffer it, but gave strict orders to +all his officers and cooks to give him as much to eat as he wanted. He +lived so well, that for some time he seemed to be thriving like a +nobleman's steward, and growing as fat as an alderman. One day the +king went out hunting, when Nixon ran to the palace gate, and +entreated on his knees that he might not be left behind to be starved. +The King laughed, and, calling an officer, told him to take especial +care of the prophet during his absence, and rode away to the forest. +After his departure, the servants of the palace began to jeer at and +insult Nixon, whom they imagined to be much better treated than he +deserved. Nixon complained to the officer, who, to prevent him from +being further molested, locked him up in the King's own closet, and +brought him regularly his four meals a day. But it so happened that a +messenger arrived from the King to this officer, requiring his +immediate presence at Winchester, on a matter of life and death. So +great was his haste to obey the King's command, that he mounted on the +horse behind the messenger, and rode off, without bestowing a thought +upon poor Nixon. He did not return till three days afterwards, when, +remembering the prophet for the first time, he went to the King's +closet, and found him lying upon the floor, starved to death, as he +had predicted. + + Among the prophecies of his which are believed to have been +fulfilled, are the following, which relate to the times of the +Pretender :-- + +"A great man shall come into England, +But the son of a King +Shall take from him the victory." + +" Crows shall drink the blood of many nobles, +And the North shall rise against the South." +"The cock of the North shall be made to flee, +And his feather be plucked for his pride, +That he shall almost curse the day that he was born," + + All these, say his admirers, are as clear as the sun at noon-day. +The first denotes the defeat of Prince Charles Edward, at the battle +of Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland; the second, the execution of +Lords Derwentwater, Balmerino, and Lovat; and the third, the retreat +of the Pretender from the shores of Britain. Among the prophecies that +still remain to be accomplished, are the following :-- + +"Between seven, eight, and nine, +In England wonders shall be seen; +Between nine and thirteen +All sorrow shall be done!" + +"Through our own money and our men +Shall a dreadful war begin. +Between the sickle and the suck +All England shall have a pluck," + +"Foreign nations shall invade England with snow on their helmets, and +shall bring plague, famine, and murder in the skirts of their +garments." + +"The town of Nantwich shall be swept away by a flood" + + Of the two first of these no explanation has yet been attempted; +but some event or other will doubtless be twisted into such a shape as +will fit them. The third, relative to the invasion of England by a +nation with snow on their helmets, is supposed by the old women to +foretell most clearly the coming war with Russia. As to the last, +there are not a few in the town mentioned who devoutly believe that +such will be its fate. Happily for their peace of mind, the prophet +said nothing of the year that was to witness the awful calamity; so +that they think it as likely to be two centuries hence as now. + + The popular biographers of Nixon conclude their account of him by +saying, that "his prophecies are by some persons thought fables; yet +by what has come to pass, it is now thought, and very plainly appears, +that most of them have proved, or will prove, true; for which we, on +all occasions, ought not only to exert our utmost might to repel by +force our enemies, but to refrain from our abandoned and wicked course +of life, and to make our continual prayer to God for protection and +safety." To this, though a non sequitur, every one will cry Amen! + + Besides the prophets, there have been the almanack makers, Lilly, +Poor Robin, Partridge, and Francis Moore, physician, in England, and +Matthew Laensbergh, in France and Belgium. But great as were their +pretensions, they were modesty itself in comparison with Merlin, +Shipton, and Nixon, who fixed their minds upon higher things than the +weather, and who were not so restrained in their flights of fancy as +to prophesy for only one year at a time. After such prophets as they, +the almanack makers hardly deserve to be mentioned; no, not even the +renowned Partridge, whose wonderful prognostications set all England +agog in 1708, and whose death, at a time when he was still alive and +kicking, was so pleasantly and satisfactorily proved by Isaac +Bickerstaff. The anti-climax would be too palpable, and they and their +doings must be left uncommemorated. + + +POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. + +Jack. Where shall we find such another set of practical philosophers +who, to a man, are above the fear of death? + +Wat. Sound men and true! + +Robin. Of tried courage and indefatigable industry! + +Ned. Who is there here that would not die for his friend? + +Harry. Who is there here that would betray him for his interest? + +Mat. Show me a gang of courtiers that could say as much! + +Dialogue of thieves in the Beggars' Opera. + + Whether it be that the multitude, feeling the pangs of poverty, +sympathise with the daring and ingenious depredators who take away the +rich man's superfluity, or whether it be the interest that mankind in +general feel for the records of perilous adventures, it is certain +that the populace of all countries look with admiration upon great and +successful thieves. Perhaps both these causes combine to invest their +career with charms in the popular eye. Almost every country in Europe +has its traditional thief, whose exploits are recorded with all the +graces of poetry, and whose trespasses -- + +"-- are cited up in rhymes, +And sung by children in succeeding times." +[Shakspeare's Rape of Lucretia.] + + Those travellers who have made national manners and +characteristics their peculiar study, have often observed and remarked +upon this feeling. The learned Abbe le Blanc, who resided for some +time in England at the commencement of the eighteenth century, says, +in his amusing letters on the English and French nations, that he +continually met with Englishmen who were not less vain in boasting of +the success of their highwaymen than of the bravery of their troops. +Tales of their address, their cunning, or their generosity, were in +the mouths of everybody, and a noted thief was a kind of hero in high +repute. He adds that the mob, in all countries, being easily moved, +look in general with concern upon criminals going to the gallows; but +an English mob looked upon such scenes with 'extraordinary interest: +they delighted to see them go through their last trials with +resolution, and applauded those who were insensible enough to die as +they had lived, braving the justice both of God and men: such, he +might have added, as the noted robber Macpherson, of whom the old +ballad says-- + +"Sae rantingly, sae wantonly, +Sae dauntingly gaed he: +He played a spring, and danced it round +Beneath the gallows tree." + + Among these traditional thieves the most noted in England, or +perhaps in any country, is Robin Hood, a name which popular affection +has encircled with a peculiar halo. "He robbed the rich to give to the +poor;" and his reward has been an immortality of fame, a tithe of +which would be thought more than sufficient to recompense a benefactor +of his species. Romance and poetry have been emulous to make him all +their own; and the forest of Sherwood, in which he roamed with his +merry men, armed with their long bows, and clad in Lincoln green, has +become the resort of pilgrims, and a classic spot sacred to his +memory. The few virtues he had, which would have ensured him no praise +if he had been an honest man, have been blazoned forth by popular +renown during seven successive centuries, and will never be forgotten +while the English tongue endures. His charity to the poor, and his +gallantry and respect for women, have made him the pre-eminent thief +of all the world. + + Among English thieves of a later date, who has not heard of Claude +Duval, Dick Turpin, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard, those knights of +the road and of the town, whose peculiar chivalry formed at once the +dread and the delight of England during the eighteenth century? +Turpin's fame is unknown to no portion of the male population of +England after they have attained the age of ten. His wondrous ride +from London to York has endeared him to the imagination of millions; +his cruelty in placing an old woman upon a fire, to force her to tell +him where she had hidden her money, is regarded as a good joke; and +his proud bearing upon the scaffold is looked upon as a virtuous +action. The Abbe le Blanc, writing in 1737, says he was continually +entertained with stories of Turpin -- how, when he robbed gentlemen, +he would generously leave them enough to continue their journey, and +exact a pledge from them never to inform against him, and how +scrupulous such gentlemen were in keeping their word. He was one day +told a story with which the relator was he the highest degree +delighted. Turpin, or some other noted robber, stopped a man whom he +knew to be very rich, with the usual salutation --"Your money or your +life!" but not finding more than five or six guineas about him, he +took the liberty of entreating him, in the most affable manner, never +to come out so ill provided; adding that, if he fell in with him, and +he had no more than such a paltry sum, he would give him a good +licking. Another story, told by one of Turpin's admirers, was of a +robbery he had committed upon a Mr. C. near Cambridge. He took from +this gentleman his watch, his snuff-box, and all his money but two +shillings, and, before he left him, required his word of honour that +he would not cause him to be pursued or brought before a justice. The +promise being given, they both parted very courteously. They +afterwards met at Newmarket, and renewed their acquaintance. Mr. C. +kept his word religiously; he not only refrained from giving Turpin +into custody, but made a boast that he had fairly won some of his +money back again in an honest way. Turpin offered to bet with him on +some favourite horse, and Mr. C. accepted the wager with as good a +grace as he could have done from the best gentleman in England. Turpin +lost his bet and paid it immediately, and was so smitten with the +generous behaviour of Mr. C. that he told him how deeply he regretted +that the trifling affair which had happened between them did not +permit them to drink together. The narrator of this anecdote was quite +proud that England was the birthplace of such a highwayman. + +[The Abbe, in the second volume, in the letter No. 79, dressed to +Monsieur de Buffon, gives the following curious particulars of the +robbers of 1757, which are not without interest at this day, if it +were only to show the vast improvement which has taken place since +that period :-- "It is usual, in travelling, to put ten or a dozen +guineas in a separate pocket, as a tribute to the first that comes to +demand them: the right of passport, which custom has established here +in favour of the robbers, who are almost the only highway surveyors in +England, has made this necessary; and accordingly the English call +these fellows the 'Gentlemen of the Road,' the government letting them +exercise their jurisdiction upon travellers without giving them any +great molestation. To say the truth, they content themselves with only +taking the money of those who obey without disputing; but +notwithstanding their boasted humanity, the lives of those who +endeavour to get away are not always safe. They are very strict and +severe in levying their impost; and if a man has not wherewithal to +pay them, he may run the chance of getting himself knocked on the head +for his poverty. + +"About fifteen years ago, these robbers, with the view of maintaining +their rights, fixed up papers at the doors of rich people about +London, expressly forbidding all persons, of whatsoever quality or +condition, from going out of town without ten guineas and a watch +about them, on pain of death. In bad times, when there is little or +nothing to be got on the roads, these fellows assemble in gangs, to +raise contributions even in London itself; and the watchmen seldom +trouble themselves to interfere with them in their vocation."] + + Not less familiar to the people of England is the career of Jack +Sheppard, as brutal a ruffian as ever disgraced his country, but who +has claims upon the popular admiration which are very generally +acknowledged. He did not, like Robin Hood, plunder the rich to relieve +the poor, nor rob with an uncouth sort of courtesy, like Turpin; but +he escaped from Newgate with the fetters on his limbs. This +achievement, more than once repeated, has encircled his felon brow +with the wreath of immortality, and made him quite a pattern thief +among the populace. He was no more than twenty-three years of age at +the time of his execution, and he died much pitied by the crowd. His +adventures were the sole topics of conversation for months; the +print-shops were filled with his effigies, and a fine painting of him +was made by Sir Richard Thornhill. The following complimentary verses +to the artist appeared in the "British Journal" of November 28th, +1724. + +"Thornhill! 'tis thine to gild with fame +Th' obscure, and raise the humble name; +To make the form elude the grave, +And Sheppard from oblivion save! + +Apelles Alexander drew-- +Cesar is to Aurelius due; +Cromwell in Lilly's works doth shine, +And Sheppard, Thornhill, lives in thine!" + + So high was Jack's fame that a pantomime entertainment, called +"Harlequin Jack Sheppard," was devised by one Thurmond, and brought +out with great success at Drury Lane Theatre. All the scenes were +painted from nature, including the public-house that the robber +frequented in Claremarket, and the condemned cell from which he had +made his escape in Newgate. + + The Rev. Mr. Villette, the editor of the "Annals of Newgate," +published in 1754, relates a curious sermon which, he says, a friend +of his heard delivered by a street-preacher about the time of Jack's +execution. The orator, after animadverting on the great care men took +of their bodies, and the little care they bestowed upon their souls, +continued as follows, by way of exemplifying the position:-- "We have +a remarkable instance of this in a notorious malefactor, well known by +the name of Jack Sheppard. What amazing difficulties has he overcome! +what astonishing things has he performed! and all for the sake of a +stinking, miserable carcass; hardly worth the hanging! How dexterously +did he pick the chain of his padlock with a crooked nail! how manfully +he burst his fetters asunder! -- climb up the chimney! -- wrench out +an iron bar! -- break his way through a stone wall! -- make the strong +door of a dark entry fly before him, till he got upon the leads of the +prison! then, fixing a blanket to the wall with a spike, he stole out +of the chapel. How intrepidly did he descend to the top of the +turner's house! -- how cautiously pass down the stair, and make his +escape to the street door! + + "Oh! that ye were all like Jack Sheppard! Mistake me not, my +brethren; I don't mean in a carnal, but in a spiritual sense, for I +propose to spiritualise these things. What a shame it would be if we +should not think it worth our while to take as much pains, and employ +as many deep thoughts, to save our souls as he has done to preserve +his body! + + "Let me exhort ye, then, to open the locks of your hearts with the +nail of repentance! Burst asunder the fetters of your beloved lusts! +-- mount the chimney of hope! -- take from thence the bar of good +resolution! -- break through the stone wall of despair, and all the +strongholds in the dark entry of the valley of the shadow of death! +Raise yourselves to the leads of divine meditation! -- fix the +blanket of faith with the spike of the church! let yourselves down to +the turner's house of re signation, and descend the stairs of +humility! So shall you come to the door of deliverance from the prison +of iniquity, and escape the clutches of that old executioner the +Devil!" + + But popular as the name of Jack Sheppard was immediately after he +had suffered the last penalty of his crimes, it was as nothing +compared to the vast renown which he has acquired in these latter +days, after the lapse of a century and a quarter. Poets too often, are +not fully appreciated till they have been dead a hundred years, and +thieves, it would appear, share the disadvantage. But posterity is +grateful if our contemporaries are not; and Jack Sheppard, faintly +praised in his own day, shines out in ours the hero of heroes, +preeminent above all his fellows. Thornhill made but one picture of +the illustrious robber, but Cruikshank has made dozens, and the art of +the engraver has multiplied them into thousands and tens of thousands, +until the populace of England have become as familiar with Jack's +features as they are with their own. Jack, the romantic, is the hero +of three goodly volumes, and the delight of the circulating libraries; +and the theatres have been smitten with the universal enthusiasm. +Managers have set their playmongers at work, and Jack's story has been +reproduced in the shape of drama, melodrama, and farce, at half a +dozen places of entertainment at once. Never was such a display of +popular regard for a hero as was exhibited in London in 1840 for the +renowned Jack Sheppard: robbery acquired additional lustre in the +popular eye, and not only Englishmen, but foreigners, caught the +contagion; and one of the latter, fired by the example, robbed and +murdered a venerable, unoffending, and too confiding nobleman, whom it +was his especial duty to have obeyed and protected. But he was a +coward and a wretch; -- it was a solitary crime -- he had not made a +daring escape from dungeon walls, or ridden from London to York, and +he died amid the execrations of the people, affording a melancholy +exemplification of the trite remark, that every man is not great who +is desirous of being so. + + Jonathan Wild, whose name has been immortalised by Fielding, was +no favourite with the people. He had none of the virtues which, +combined with crimes, make up the character of the great thief. He was +a pitiful fellow, who informed against his comrades, and was afraid of +death. This meanness was not to be forgiven by the crowd, and they +pelted him with dirt and stones on his way to Tyburn, and expressed +their contempt by every possible means. How different was their +conduct to Turpin and Jack Sheppard, who died in their neatest attire, +with nosegays in their button-holes, and with the courage that a crowd +expects! It was anticipated that the body of Turpin would have been +delivered up to the surgeons for dissection, and the people seeing +some men very busily employed in removing it, suddenly set upon them, +rescued the body, bore it about the town in triumph, and then buried +it in a very deep grave, filled with quick-lime, to hasten the +progress of decomposition. They would not suffer the corpse of their +hero, of the man who had ridden from London to York in four-and-twenty +hours to be mangled by the rude hands of unmannerly surgeons. + + The death of Claude Duval would appear to have been no less +triumphant. Claude was a gentlemanly thief. According to Butler, in +the famous ode to his memory, he + +"Taught the wild Arabs of the road +To rob in a more gentle mode; +Take prizes more obligingly than those +Who never had breen bred filous; +And how to hang in a more graceful fashion +Than e'er was known before to the dull English nation." + +In fact, he was the pink of politeness, and his gallantry to the fair +sex was proverbial. When he was caught at last, pent in "stone walls +and chains and iron grates," -- their grief was in proportion to his +rare merits and his great fame. Butler says, that to his dungeon + +"-- came ladies from all parts, +To offer up close prisoners their hearts, +Which he received as tribute due-- + * * * * +Never did bold knight, to relieve +Distressed dames, such dreadful feats achieve, +As feeble damsels, for his sake, +Would have been proud to undertake, +And, bravely ambitious to redeem +The world's loss and their own, +Strove who should have the honour to lay down, +And change a life with him." + + Among the noted thieves of France, there is none to compare with +the famous Aimerigot Tetenoire, who flourished in the reign of Charles +VI. This fellow was at the head of four or five hundred men, and +possessed two very strong castles in Limousin and Auvergne. There was +a good deal of the feudal baron about him, although he possessed no +revenues but such as the road afforded him. At his death he left a +singular will. "I give and bequeath," said the robber, "one thousand +five hundred francs to St. George's Chapel, for such repairs as it may +need. To my sweet girl who so tenderly loved me, I give two thousand +five hundred; and the surplus I give to my companions. I hope they +will all live as brothers, and divide it amicably among them. If they +cannot agree, and the devil of contention gets among them, it is no +fault of mine; and I advise them to get a good strong, sharp axe, and +break open my strong box. Let them scramble for what it contains, and +the Devil seize the hindmost." The people of Auvergne still recount +with admiration the daring feats of this brigand. + + Of later years, the French thieves have been such unmitigated +scoundrels as to have left but little room for popular admiration. The +famous Cartouche, whose name has become synonymous with ruffian in +their language, had none of the generosity, courtesy, and devoted +bravery which are so requisite to make a robber-hero. He was born at +Paris, towards the end of the seventeenth century, and broken alive on +the wheel in November 1727. He was, however, sufficiently popular to +have been pitied at his death, and afterwards to have formed the +subject of a much admired drama, which bore his name, and was played +with great success in all the theatres of France during the years +1734, 5, and 6. In our own day the French have been more fortunate in +a robber; Vidocq bids fair to rival the fame of Turpin and Jack +Sheppard. Already he has become the hero of many an apocryphal tale -- +already his compatriots boast of his manifold achievements, and +express their doubts whether any other country in Europe could produce +a thief so clever, so accomplished, so gentlemanly, as Vidocq. + + Germany has its Schinderhannes, Hungary its Schubry, and Italy and +Spain a whole host of brigands, whose names and exploits are familiar +as household words in the mouths of the children and populace of those +countries. The Italian banditti are renowned over the world; and many +of them are not only very religious (after a fashion), but very +charitable. Charity from such a source is so unexpected, that the +people dote upon them for it. One of them, when he fell into the hands +of the police, exclaimed, as they led him away, "Ho fatto pitt +carita!" -- "I have given away more in charity than any three +convents in these provinces." And the fellow spoke truth. + + In Lombardy, the people cherish the memory of two notorious +robbers, who flourished about two centuries ago under the Spanish +government. Their story, according to Macfarlane, is contained in a +little book well known to all the children of the province, and read +by them with much more gusto than their Bibles. + + Schinderhannes, the robber of the Rhine, is a great favourite on +the banks of the river which he so long kept in awe. Many amusing +stories are related by the peasantry of the scurvy tricks he played +off upon rich Jews, or too-presuming officers of justice -- of his +princely generosity, and undaunted courage. In short, they are proud +of him, and would no more consent to have the memory of his +achievements dissociated from their river than they would to have the +rock of Ehrenbreitstein blown to atoms by gunpowder. + + There is another robber-hero, of whose character and exploits the +people of Germany speak admiringly. Mausch Nadel was captain of a +considerable band that infested the Rhine, Switzerland, Alsatia, and +Lorraine during the years 1824, 5, and 6. Like Jack Sheppard, he +endeared himself to the populace by his most hazardous escape from +prison. Being confined, at Bremen, in a dungeon, on the third story of +the prison of that town, he contrived to let himself down without +exciting the vigilance of the sentinels, and to swim across the Weser, +though heavily laden with irons. When about half way over, he was +espied by a sentinel, who fired at him, and shot him in the calf of +the leg: but the undaunted robber struck out manfully, reached the +shore, and was out of sight before the officers of justice could get +ready their boats to follow him. He was captured again in 1826, tried +at Mayence, and sentenced to death. He was a tall, strong, handsome +man, and his fate, villain as he was, excited much sympathy all over +Germany. The ladies especially were loud in their regret that nothing +could be done to save a hero so good-looking, and of adventures so +romantic, from the knife of the headsman. + + Mr. Macfarlane, in speaking of Italian banditti, remarks, that the +abuses of the Catholic religion, with its confessions and absolutions, +have tended to promote crime of this description. But, he adds, more +truly, that priests and monks have not done half the mischief which +has been perpetrated by ballad-mongers and story-tellers. If he had +said play-wrights also, the list would have been complete. In fact, +the theatre, which can only expect to prosper, in a pecuniary sense, +by pandering to the tastes of the people, continually recurs to the +annals of thieves and banditti for its most favourite heroes. These +theatrical robbers; with their picturesque attire, wild haunts, jolly, +reckless, devil-may-care manners, take a wonderful hold upon the +imagination, and, whatever their advocates may say to the contrary, +exercise a very pernicious influence upon public morals. In the +Memoirs of the Duke of Guise upon the Revolution of Naples in 1647 and +1648, it is stated, that the manners, dress, and mode of life of the +Neapolitan banditti were rendered so captivating upon the stage, that +the authorities found it absolutely necessary to forbid the +representation of dramas in which they figured, and even to prohibit +their costume at the masquerades. So numerous were the banditti at +this time, that the Duke found no difficulty in raising an army of. +them, to aid him in his endeavours to seize on the throne of Naples. +He thus describes them; [See also "Foreign Quarterly Review," vol. iv. +p. 398.] + + "They were three thousand five hundred men, of whom the oldest +came short of five and forty years, and the youngest was above twenty. +They were all tall and well made, with long black hair, for the most +part curled, coats of black Spanish leather, with sleeves of velvet, +or cloth of gold, cloth breeches with gold lace, most of them scarlet; +girdles of velvet, laced with gold, with two pistols on each side; a +cutlass hanging at a belt, suitably trimmed, three fingers broad and +two feet long; a hawking-bag at their girdle, and a powder-flask hung +about their neck with a great silk riband. Some of them carried +firelocks, and others blunder-busses; they had all good shoes, with +silk stockings, and every one a cap of cloth of gold, or cloth of +silver, of different colours, on his head, which was very delightful +to the eye." + + "The Beggars' Opera," in our own country, is another instance of +the admiration that thieves excite upon the stage. Of the +extraordinary success of this piece, when first produced, the +following account is given in the notes to "The Dunciad," and quoted +by Johnson in his "Lives of the Poets." "This piece was received with +greater applause than was ever known. Besides being acted in London +sixty-three days without interruption, and renewed the next season +with equal applause, it spread into all the great towns of England; +was played in many places to the thirtieth and fortieth time; at Bath +and Bristol, &c. fifty. It made its progress into Wales, Scotland, and +Ireland, where it was performed twenty-four days successively. The +ladies carried about with them the favourite songs of it in fans, and +houses were furnished with it in screens. The fame of it was not +confined to the author only. The person who acted Polly, till then +obscure, became all at once the favourite of the town; [Lavinia +Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton.] her pictures were engraved and +sold in great numbers; her life written, books of letters and verses +to her published, and pamphlets made even of her sayings and jests. +Furthermore, it drove out of England, for that season, the Italian +Opera, which had carried all before it for ten years." Dr. Johnson, in +his Life of the Author, says, that Herring, afterwards Archbishop of +Canterbury, censured the opera, as giving encouragement, not only to +vice, but to crimes, by making the highwayman the hero, and dismissing +him at last unpunished; and adds, that it was even said, that after +the exhibition the gangs of robbers were evidently multiplied. The +Doctor doubts the assertion, giving as his reason that highwaymen and +housebreakers seldom frequent the playhouse, and that it was not +possible for any one to imagine that he might rob with safety, because +he saw Macheath reprieved upon the stage. But if Johnson had wished to +be convinced, he might very easily have discovered that highwaymen and +housebreakers did frequent the theatre, and that nothing was more +probable than that a laughable representation of successful villany +should induce the young and the already vicious to imitate it. +Besides, there is the weighty authority of Sir John Fielding, the +chief magistrate of Bow Street, who asserted positively, and proved +his assertion by the records of his office, that the number of thieves +was greatly increased at the time when that opera was so popular. + + We have another instance of the same result much nearer our own +times. Schiller's "Rauber," that wonderful play, written by a green +youth, perverted the taste and imagination of all the young men in +Germany. An accomplished critic of our own country (Hazlitt), speaking +of this play, says it was the first he ever read, and such was the +effect it produced on him, that "it stunned him, like a blow." After +the lapse of five-and-twenty years he could not forget it; it was +still, to use his own words, "an old dweller in the chambers of his +brain," and he had not even then recovered enough from it, to describe +how it was. The high-minded, metaphysical thief, its hero, was so +warmly admired, that several raw students, longing to imitate a +character they thought so noble, actually abandoned their homes and +their colleges, and betook themselves to the forests and wilds to levy +contributions upon travellers. They thought they would, like Moor, +plunder the rich, and deliver eloquent soliloquies to the setting sun +or the rising moon; relieve the poor when they met them, and drink +flasks of Rhenish with their free companions in rugged mountain +passes, or in tents in the thicknesses of the forests. But a little +experience wonderfully cooled their courage; they found that real, +every-day robbers were very unlike the conventional banditti of the +stage, and that three months in prison, with bread and water for their +fare, and damp straw to lie upon, was very well to read about by their +own fire sides, but not very agreeable to undergo in their own proper +persons. + + Lord Byron, with his soliloquising, high-souled thieves, has, in a +slight degree, perverted the taste of the greenhorns and incipient +rhymesters of his country. As yet, however, they have shown more good +sense than their fellows of Germany, and have not taken to the woods +or the highways. Much as they admire Conrad the Corsair, they will not +go to sea, and hoist the black flag in emulation of him. By words +only, and not by deeds, they testify their admiration, and deluge the +periodicals and music shops of the hand with verses describing +pirates' and bandits' brides, and robber adventures of every kind. + + But it is the play-wright who does most harm; and Byron has fewer +sins of this nature to answer for than Gay or Schiller, and the modern +dramatizers of Jack Sheppard. With the aid of scenery, fine dresses, +and music, and the very false notions they convey, they vitiate the +public taste, not knowing, + +"----------- vulgaires rimeurs +Quelle force ont les arts pour demolir les moeurs." + + In the penny theatres that abound in the poor and populous +districts of London, and which are chiefly frequented by striplings of +idle and dissolute habits, tales of thieves and murderers are more +admired, and draw more crowded audiences, than any other species of +representation. There the footpad, the burglar, and the highwayman are +portrayed in unnatural colours, and give pleasant lessons in crime to +their delighted listeners. There the deepest tragedy and the broadest +farce are represented in the career of the murderer and the thief, and +are applauded in proportion to their depth and their breadth. There, +whenever a crime of unusual atrocity is committed, it is brought out +afresh, with all its disgusting incidents copied from the life, for +the amusement of those who will one day become its imitators. + + With the mere reader the case is widely different; and most people +have a partiality for knowing the adventures of noted rogues. Even in +fiction they are delightful: witness the eventful story of Gil Blas de +Santillane, and of that great rascal Don Guzman d'Alfarache. Here +there is no fear of imitation. Poets, too, without doing mischief, may +sing of such heroes when they please, wakening our sympathies for the +sad fate of Gilderoy, or Macpherson the Dauntless; or celebrating in +undying verse the wrongs and the revenge of the great thief of +Scotland, Rob Roy. If, by the music of their sweet rhymes, they can +convince the world that such heroes are but mistaken philosophers, +born a few ages too late, and having both a theoretical and practical +love for + +"The good old rule, the simple plan, +That they should take who have the power, +That they should keep who can," + +the world may, perhaps, become wiser, and consent to some better +distribution of its good things, by means of which thieves may become +reconciled to the age, and the age to them. The probability, however, +seems to be, that the charmers will charm in vain, charm they ever so +wisely. + + +INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD. + +Speak with respect and honour +Both of the beard and the beard's owner. + HUDIBRAS, + + The famous declaration of St. Paul, "that long hair was a shame +unto a man" has been made the pretext for many singular enactments, +both of civil and ecclesiastical governments. The fashion of the hair +and the cut of the beard were state questions in France and England +from the establishment of Christianity until the fifteenth century. + + We find, too, that in much earlier times men were not permitted to +do as they liked with their own hair. Alexander the Great thought that +the beards of his soldiery afforded convenient handles for the enemy +to lay hold of, preparatory to cutting off their heads; and, with the +view of depriving them of this advantage, he ordered the whole of his +army to be closely shaven. His notions of courtesy towards an enemy +were quite different from those entertained by the North American +Indians, amongst whom it is held a point of honour to allow one +"chivalrous lock" to grow, that the foe, in taking the scalp, may have +something to catch hold of. + + At one time, long hair was the symbol of sovereignty in Europe. We +learn from Gregory of Tours that, among the successors of Clovis, it +was the exclusive privilege of the royal family to have their hair +long, and curled. The nobles, equal to kings in power, would not show +any inferiority in this respect, and wore not only their hair, but +their beards, of an enormous length. This fashion lasted, with but +slight changes, till the time of Louis the Debonnaire, but his +successors, up to Hugh Capet, wore their hair short, by way of +distinction. Even the serfs had set all regulation at defiance, and +allowed their locks and beards to grow. + + At the time of the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, +the Normans wore their hair very short. Harold, in his progress +towards Hastings, sent forward spies to view the strength and number +of the enemy. They reported, amongst other things, on their return, +that "the host did almost seem to be priests, because they had all +their face and both their lips shaven." The fashion among the English +at the time was to wear the hair long upon the head and the upper lip, +but to shave the chin. When the haughty victors had divided the broad +lands of the Saxon thanes and franklins among them, when tyranny of +every kind was employed to make the English feel that they were indeed +a subdued and broken nation, the latter encouraged the growth of their +hair, that they might resemble as little as possible their cropped and +shaven masters. + + This fashion was exceedingly displeasing to the clergy, and +prevailed to a considerable extent in France and Germany. Towards the +end of the eleventh century, it was decreed by the Pope, and zealously +supported by the ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, that such +persons as wore long hair should be excommunicated while living, and +not be prayed for when dead. William of Malmesbury relates, that the +famous St. Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, was peculiarly indignant +whenever he saw a man with long hair. He declaimed against the +practice as one highly immoral, criminal, and beastly. He continually +carried a small knife in his pocket, and whenever anybody, offending +in this respect, knelt before him to receive his blessing, he would +whip it out slily, and cut off a handful, and then, throwing it in his +face, tell him to cut off all the rest, or he would go to hell. + + But fashion, which at times it is possible to move with a wisp, +stands firm against a lever; and men preferred to run the risk of +damnation to parting with the superfluity of their hair. In the time +of Henry I, Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, found it necessary to +republish the famous decree of excommunication and outlawry against +the offenders; but, as the court itself had begun to patronize curls, +the fulminations of the church were unavailing. Henry I and his nobles +wore their hair in long ringlets down their backs and shoulders, and +became a scandalum magnatum in the eyes of the godly. One Serlo, the +King's chaplain, was so grieved in spirit at the impiety of his +master, that he preached a sermon from the well-known text of St. +Paul, before the assembled court, in which he drew so dreadful a +picture of the torments that awaited them in the other world, that +several of them burst into tears, and wrung their hair, as if they +would have pulled it out by the roots. Henry himself was observed to +weep. The priest, seeing the impression he had made, determined to +strike while the iron was hot, and, pulling a pair of scissors from +his pocket, cut the king's hair in presence of them all. Several of +the principal courtiers consented to do the like, and, for a short +time, long hair appeared to be going out of fashion. But the courtiers +thought, after the first glow of their penitence had been cooled by +reflection, that the clerical Dalilah had shorn them of their +strength, and, in less than six months, they were as great sinners as +ever. + + Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been a monk of Bec, +in Normandy, and who had signalized himself at Rouen by his fierce +opposition to long hair, was still anxious to work a reformation in +this matter. But his pertinacity was far from pleasing to the King, +who had finally made up his mind to wear ringlets. There were other +disputes, of a more serious nature, between them; so that when the +Archbishop died, the King was so glad to be rid of him, that he +allowed the see to remain vacant for five years. Still the cause had +other advocates, and every pulpit in the land resounded with anathemas +against that disobedient and long-haired generation. But all was of no +avail. Stowe, in writing of this period, asserts, on the authority of +some more ancient chronicler, "that men, forgetting their birth, +transformed themselves, by the length of their haires, into the +semblance of woman kind;" and that when their hair decayed from age, +or other causes, "they knit about their heads certain rolls and +braidings of false hair." At last accident turned the tide of fashion. +A knight of the court, who was exceedingly proud of his beauteous +locks, dreamed one night that, as he lay in bed, the devil sprang upon +him, and endeavoured to choke him with his own hair. He started in +affright, and actually found that he had a great quantity of hair in +his mouth. Sorely stricken in conscience, and looking upon the dream +as a warning from Heaven, he set about the work of reformation, and +cut off his luxuriant tresses the same night. The story was soon +bruited abroad; of course it was made the most of by the clergy, and +the knight, being a man of influence and consideration, and the +acknowledged leader of the fashion, his example, aided by priestly +exhortations, was very generally imitated. Men appeared almost as +decent as St. Wulstan himself could have wished, the dream of a dandy +having proved more efficacious than the entreaties of a saint. But, as +Stowe informs us, "scarcely was one year past, when all that thought +themselves courtiers fell into the former vice, and contended with +women in their long haires." Henry, the King, appears to have been +quite uninfluenced by the dreams of others, for even his own would not +induce him a second time to undergo a cropping from priestly shears. +It is said, that he was much troubled at this time by disagreeable +visions. Having offended the church in this and other respects, he +could get no sound refreshing sleep, and used to imagine that he saw +all the bishops, abbots, and monks of every degree, standing around +his bed-side, and threatening to belabour him with their pastoral +staves; which sight, we are told, so frightened him, that he often +started naked out of his bed, and attacked the phantoms sword in hand. +Grimbalde, his physician, who, like most of his fraternity at that +day, was an ecclesiastic, never hinted that his dreams were the result +of a bad digestion, but told him to shave his head, be reconciled to +the Church, and reform himself with alms and prayer. But he would not +take this good advice, and it was not until he had been nearly drowned +a year afterwards, in a violent storm at sea, that he repented of his +evil ways, cut his hair short, and paid proper deference to the wishes +of the clergy. + + In France, the thunders of the Vatican with regard to long curly +hair were hardly more respected than in England. Louis VII. however, +was more obedient than his brother-king, and cropped himself as +closely as a monk, to the great sorrow of all the gallants of his +court. His Queen, the gay, haughty, and pleasure-seeking Eleanor of +Guienne, never admired him in this trim, and continually reproached +him with imitating, not only the headdress, but the asceticism of the +monks. From this cause, a coldness arose between them. The lady +proving at last unfaithful to her shaven and indifferent lord, they +were divorced, and the Kings of France lost the rich provinces of +Guienne and Poitou, which were her dowry. She soon after bestowed her +hand and her possessions upon Henry Duke of Normandy, afterwards Henry +II of England, and thus gave the English sovereigns that strong +footing in France which was for so many centuries the cause of such +long and bloody wars between the nations. + + When the Crusades had drawn all the smart young fellows into +Palestine, the clergy did not find it so difficult to convince the +staid burghers who remained in Europe, of the enormity of long hair. +During the absence of Richard Coeur de Lion, his English subjects not +only cut their hair close, but shaved their faces. William Fitzosbert, +or Long-beard, the great demagogue of that day, reintroduced among the +people who claimed to be of Saxon origin the fashion of long hair. He +did this with the view of making them as unlike as possible to the +citizens and the Normans. He wore his own beard hanging down to his +waist, from whence the name by which he is best known to posterity. + + The Church never showed itself so great an enemy to the beard as +to long hair on the head. It generally allowed fashion to take its own +course, both with regard to the chin and the upper lip. This fashion +varied continually; for we find that, in little more than a century +after the time of Richard I, when beards were short, that they had +again become so long as to be mentioned in the famous epigram made by +the Scots who visited London in 1327, when David, son of Robert Bruce, +was married to Joan, the sister of King Edward. This epigram, which +was stuck on the church-door of St. Peter Stangate, ran as follows-- + +"Long beards heartlesse, +Painted hoods witlesse, +Gray coats gracelesse, +Make England thriftlesse." + + When the Emperor Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, he had +no beard. It was not to be expected that the obsequious parasites who +always surround a monarch, could presume to look more virile than +their master. Immediately all the courtiers appeared beardless, with +the exception of such few grave old men as had outgrown the influence +of fashion, and who had determined to die bearded as they had lived. +Sober people in general saw this revolution with sorrow and alarm, and +thought that every manly virtue would be banished with the beard. It +became at the time a common saying,-- + +"Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma." +We have no longer souls since we have lost our beards. + + In France, also, the beard fell into disrepute after the death of +Henry IV, from the mere reason that his successor was too young to +have one. Some of the more immediate friends of the great Bearnais, +and his minister Sully among the rest, refused to part with their +beards, notwithstanding the jeers of the new generation. + + Who does not remember the division of England into the two great +parties of Roundheads and Cavaliers? In those days, every species of +vice and iniquity was thought by the Puritans to lurk in the long +curly tresses of the Monarchists, while the latter imagined that their +opponents were as destitute of wit, of wisdom, and of virtue, as they +were of hair. A man's locks were the symbol of his creed, both in +politics and religion. The more abundant the hair, the more scant the +faith; and the balder the head, the more sincere the piety. + + But among all the instances of the interference of governments +with men's hair, the most extraordinary, not only for its daring, but +for its success is that of Peter the Great, in 1705. By this time, +fashion had condemned the beard in every other country in Europe, and +with a voice more potent than Popes or Emperors, had banished it from +civilized society. But this only made the Russians cling more fondly +to their ancient ornament, as a mark to distinguish them from +foreigners, whom they hated. Peter, however resolved that they should +be shaven. If he had been a man deeply read in history, he might have +hesitated before he attempted so despotic an attack upon the +time-hallowed customs and prejudices of his countrymen; but he was +not. He did not know or consider the danger of the innovation; he only +listened to the promptings of his own indomitable will, and his fiat +went forth, that not only the army, but all ranks of citizens, from +the nobles to the serfs, should shave their beards. A certain time was +given, that people might get over the first throes of their +repugnance, after which every man who chose to retain his beard was to +pay a tax of one hundred roubles. The priests and the serfs were put +on a lower footing, and allowed to retain theirs upon payment of a +copeck every time they passed the gate of a city. Great discontent +existed in consequence, but the dreadful fate of the Strelitzes was +too recent to be forgotten, and thousands who had the will had not the +courage to revolt. As is well remarked by a writer in the +"Encyclopedia Britannica," they thought it wiser to cut off their +beards than to run the risk of incensing a man who would make no +scruple in cutting off their heads. Wiser, too, than the popes and +bishops of a former age, he did not threaten them with eternal +damnation, but made them pay in hard cash the penalty of their +disobedience. For many years, a very considerable revenue was +collected from this source. The collectors gave in receipt for its +payment a small copper coin, struck expressly for the purpose, and +called the "borodovaia," or "the bearded." On one side it bore the +figure of a nose, mouth, and moustachios, with a long bushy beard, +surmounted by the words, "Deuyee Vyeatee," "money received;" the whole +encircled by a wreath, and stamped with the black eagle of Russia. On +the reverse, it bore the date of the year. Every man who chose to wear +a beard was obliged to produce this receipt on his entry into a town. +Those who were refractory, and refused to pay the tax, were thrown +into prison. + + Since that day, the rulers of modern Europe have endeavoured to +persuade, rather than to force, in all matters pertaining to fashion. +The Vatican troubles itself no more about beards or ringlets, and men +may become hairy as bears, if such is their fancy, without fear of +excommunication or deprivation of their political rights. Folly has +taken a new start, and cultivates the moustachio. + + Even upon this point governments will not let men alone. Religion +as yet has not meddled with it; but perhaps it will; and politics +already influence it considerably. Before the revolution of 1830, +neither the French nor Belgian citizens were remarkable for their +moustachios; but, after that event, there was hardly a shopkeeper +either in Paris or Brussels whose upper lip did not suddenly become +hairy with real or mock moustachios. During a temporary triumph gained +by the Dutch soldiers over the citizens of Louvain, in October 1830, +it became a standing joke against the patriots, that they shaved their +faces clean immediately; and the wits of the Dutch army asserted, that +they had gathered moustachios enough from the denuded lips of the +Belgians to stuff mattresses for all the sick and wounded in their +hospital. + + The last folly of this kind is still more recent. In the German +newspapers, of August 1838, appeared an ordonnance, signed by the King +of Bavaria, forbidding civilians, on any pretence whatever, to wear +moustachios, and commanding the police and other authorities to +arrest, and cause to be shaved, the offending parties. "Strange to +say," adds "Le Droit," the journal from which this account is taken, +"moustachios disappeared immediately, like leaves from the trees in +autumn; everybody made haste to obey the royal order, and not one +person was arrested. + + The King of Bavaria, a rhymester of some celebrity, has taken a +good many poetical licences in his time. His licence in this matter +appears neither poetical nor reasonable. It is to be hoped that he +will not take it into his royal head to make his subjects shave +theirs; nothing but that is wanting to complete their degradation. + + +DUELS AND ORDEALS + +There was an ancient sage philosopher, +Who swore the world, as he could prove, +Was mad of fighting. * * * + + Hudibras, + + Most writers, in accounting for the origin of duelling, derive it +from the warlike habits of those barbarous nations who overran Europe +in the early centuries of the Christian era, and who knew no mode so +effectual for settling their differences as the point of the sword. In +fact, duelling, taken in its primitive and broadest sense, means +nothing more than combatting, and is the universal resort of all wild +animals, including man, to gain or defend their possessions, or avenge +their insults. Two dogs who tear each other for a bone, or two bantams +fighting on a dunghill for the love of some beautiful hen, or two +fools on Wimbledon Common, shooting at each other to satisfy the laws +of offended honour, stand on the same footing in this respect, and +are, each and all, mere duellists. As civilization advanced, the best +informed men naturally grew ashamed of such a mode of adjusting +disputes, and the promulgation of some sort of laws for obtaining +redress for injuries was the consequence. Still there were many cases +in which the allegations of an accuser could not be rebutted by any +positive proof on the part of the accused; and in all these, which +must have been exceedingly numerous in the early stages of European +society, the combat was resorted to. From its decision there was no +appeal. God was supposed to nerve the arm of the combatant whose cause +was just, and to grant him the victory over his opponent. As +Montesquieu well remarks, ["Esprit des Loix," liv. xxviii. chap. +xvii.] this belief was not unnatural among a people just emerging from +barbarism. Their manners being wholly warlike, the man deficient in +courage, the prime virtue of his fellows, was not unreasonably +suspected of other vices besides cowardice, which is generally found +to be co-existent with treachery. He, therefore, who showed himself +most valiant in the encounter, was absolved by public opinion from any +crime with which he might be charged. As a necessary consequence, +society would have been reduced to its original elements, if the men +of thought, as distinguished from the men of action, had not devised +some means for taming the unruly passions of their fellows. With this +view, governments commenced by restricting within the narrowest +possible limits the cases in which it was lawful to prove or deny +guilt by the single combat. By the law of Gondebaldus, King of the +Burgundians, passed in the year 501, the proof by combat was allowed +in all legal proceedings, in lieu of swearing. In the time of +Charlemagne, the Burgundian practice had spread over the empire of the +Francs, and not only the suitors for justice, but the witnesses, and +even the judges, were obliged to defend their cause, their evidence, +or their decision, at the point of the sword. Louis the Debonnaire, +his successor, endeavoured to remedy the growing evil, by permitting +the duel only in appeals of felony, in civil cases, or issue joined in +a writ of right, and in cases of the court of chivalry, or attacks +upon a man's knighthood. None were exempt from these trials, but +women, the sick and the maimed, and persons under fifteen or above +sixty years of age. Ecclesiastics were allowed to produce champions in +their stead. This practice, in the course of time, extended to all +trials of civil and criminal cases, which had to be decided by battle. + + The clergy, whose dominion was an intellectual one, never approved +of a system of jurisprudence which tended so much to bring all things +under the rule of the strongest arm. From the first they set their +faces against duelling, and endeavoured, as far as the prejudices of +their age would allow them, to curb the warlike spirit, so alien from +the principles of religion. In the Council of Valentia, and afterwards +in the Council of Trent, they excommunicated all persons engaged in +duelling, and not only them, but even the assistants and spectators, +declaring the custom to be hellish and detestable, and introduced by +the Devil for the destruction both of body and soul. They added, also, +that princes who connived at duels, should be deprived of all temporal +power, jurisdiction, and dominion over the places where they had +permitted them to be fought. It will be seen hereafter that this +clause only encouraged the practice which it was intended to prevent. + + But it was the blasphemous error of these early ages to expect +that the Almighty, whenever he was called upon, would work a miracle +in favour of a person unjustly accused. The priesthood, in condemning +the duel, did not condemn the principle on which it was founded. They +still encouraged the popular belief of Divine interference in all the +disputes or differences that might arise among nations or individuals. +It was the very same principle that regulated the ordeals, which, with +all their influence, they supported against the duel. By the former, +the power of deciding the guilt or innocence was vested wholly in +their hands, while, by the latter, they enjoyed no power or privilege +at all. It is not to be wondered at, that for this reason, if for no +other, they should have endeavoured to settle all differences by the +peaceful mode. While that prevailed, they were as they wished to be, +the first party in the state; but while the strong arm of individual +prowess was allowed to be the judge in all doubtful cases, their power +and influence became secondary to those of nobility. + + Thus, it was not the mere hatred of bloodshed which induced them +to launch the thunderbolts excommunication against the combatants; it +a desire to retain the power, which, to do them justice, they were, in +those times, the persons best qualified to wield. The germs of +knowledge and civilization lay within the bounds of their order; for +they were the representatives of the intellectual, as the nobility +were of the physical power of man. To centralize this power in the +Church, and make it the judge of the last resort in all appeals, both +in civil and criminal cases, they instituted five modes of trial, the +management of which lay wholly in their hands. These were the oath +upon the Evangelists; the ordeal of the cross, and the fire ordeal, +for persons in the higher ranks; the water ordeal, for the humbler +classes; and, lastly, the Corsned, or bread and cheese ordeal, for +members of their own body. + + The oath upon the Evangelists was taken in the following manner: +the accused who was received to this proof, says Paul Hay, Count du +Chastelet, in his Memoirs of Bertrand du Guesclin, swore upon a copy +of the New Testament, and on the relics of the holy martyrs, or on +their tombs, that he was innocent of the crime imputed to him. He was +also obliged to find twelve persons, of acknowledged probity, who +should take oath at the same time, that they believed him innocent. +This mode of trial led to very great abuses, especially in cases of +disputed inheritance, where the hardest swearer was certain of the +victory. This abuse was one of the principal causes which led to the +preference given to the trial by battle. It is not all surprising that +a feudal baron, or captain of the early ages, should have preferred +the chances of a fair fight with his opponent, to a mode by which firm +perjury would always be successful. + + The trial by, or judgment of, the cross, which Charlemagne begged +his sons to have recourse to, in case of disputes arising between +them, was performed thus:-- When a person accused of any crime had +declared his innocence upon oath, and appealed to the cross for its +judgment in his favour, he was brought into the church, before the +altar. The priests previously prepared two sticks exactly like one +another, upon one of which was carved a figure of the cross. They were +both wrapped up with great care and many ceremonies, in a quantity of +fine wool, and laid upon the altar, or on the relics of the saints. A +solemn prayer was then offered up to God, that he would be pleased to +discover, by the judgment of his holy cross, whether the accused +person were innocent or guilty. A priest then approached the altar, +and took up one of the sticks, and the assistants unswathed it +reverently. If it was marked with the cross, the accused person was +innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would be unjust to assert, +that the judgments thus delivered were, in all cases, erroneous; and +it would be absurd to believe that they were left altogether to +chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given, and, in all +probability, most conscientiously; for we cannot but believe that the +priests endeavoured beforehand to convince themselves by secret +inquiry and a strict examination of the circumstances, whether the +appellant were innocent or guilty, and that they took up the crossed +or uncrossed stick accordingly. Although, to all other observers, the +sticks, as enfolded in the wool, might appear exactly similar, those +who enwrapped them could, without any difficulty, distinguish the one +from the other. + + By the fire-ordeal the power of deciding was just as unequivocally +left in their hands. It was generally believed that fire would not +burn the innocent, and the clergy, of course, took care that the +innocent, or such as it was their pleasure or interest to declare so, +should be so warned before undergoing the ordeal, as to preserve +themselves without any difficulty from the fire. One mode of ordeal +was to place red-hot ploughshares on the ground at certain distances, +and then, blindfolding the accused person, make him walk barefooted +over them. If he stepped regularly in the vacant spaces, avoiding the +fire, he was adjudged innocent; if he burned himself, he was declared +guilty. As none but the clergy interfered with the arrangement of the +ploughshares, they could always calculate beforehand the result of the +ordeal. To find a person guilty, they had only to place them at +irregular distances, and the accused was sure to tread upon one of +them. When Emma, the wife of King Ethelred, and mother of Edward the +Confessor, was accused of a guilty familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of +Winchester, she cleared her character in this manner. The reputation, +not only of their order, but of a queen, being at stake, a verdict of +guilty was not to be apprehended from any ploughshares which priests +had the heating of. This ordeal was called the Judicium Dei, and +sometimes the Vulgaris Purgatio, and might also be tried by several +other methods. One was to hold in the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot +iron, of the weight of one, two, or three pounds. When we read not +only that men with hard hands, but women of softer and more delicate +skin, could do this with impunity, we must be convinced that the hands +were previously rubbed with some preservative, or that the apparently +hot iron was merely cold iron painted red. Another mode was to plunge +the naked arm into a caldron of boiling water. The priests then +enveloped it in several folds of linen and flannel, and kept the +patient confined within the church, and under their exclusive care, +for three days. If, at the end of that time, the arm appeared without +a scar, the innocence of the accused person was firmly established. +[Very similar to this is the fire-ordeal of the modern Hindoos,. which +is thus described in Forbes's "Oriental Memoirs," vol. i. c. xi.--" +When a man, accused of a capital crime, chooses to undergo the ordeal +trial, he is closely confined for several days; his right hand and arm +are covered with thick wax-cloth, tied up and sealed, in the presence +of proper officers, to prevent deceit. In the English districts the +covering was always sealed with the Company's arms, and the prisoner +placed under an European guard. At the time fixed for the ordeal, a +caldron of oil is placed over a fire; when it boils, a piece of money +is dropped into the vessel; the prisoner's arm is unsealed, and washed +in the presence of his judges and accusers. During this part of the +ceremony, the attendant Brahmins supplicate the Deity. On receiving +their benediction, the accused plunges his hand into the boiling +fluid, and takes out the coin. The arm is afterwards again Sealed up +until the time appointed for a re-examination. The seal is then +broken: if no blemish appears, the prisoner is declared innocent; if +the contrary, he suffers the punishment due to his crime." * * * On +this trial the accused thus addresses the element before plunging his +hand into the boiling oil:-- "Thou, O fire! pervadest all things. O +cause of purity! who givest evidence of virtue and of sin, declare the +truth in this my hand!" If no juggling were practised, the decisions +by this ordeal would be all the same way; but, as some are by this +means declared guilty, and others innocent, it is clear that the +Brahmins, like the Christian priests of the middle ages, practise some +deception in saving those whom they wish to be thought guiltless.] + + As regards the water-ordeal, the same trouble was not taken. It +was a trial only for the poor and humble, and, whether they sank or +swam, was thought of very little consequence. Like the witches of more +modern times, the accused were thrown into a pond or river; if they +sank, and were drowned, their surviving friends had the consolation of +knowing that they were innocent; if they swam, they were guilty. In +either case society was rid of them. + + But of all the ordeals, that which the clergy reserved for +themselves was the one least likely to cause any member of their corps +to be declared guilty. The most culpable monster in existence came off +clear when tried by this method. It was called the Corsned, and was +thus performed. A piece of barley bread and a piece of cheese were +laid upon the altar, and the accused priest, in his full canonicals, +and surrounded by all the pompous adjuncts of Roman ceremony, +pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed with great fervency for +several minutes. The burden of his prayer was, that if he were guilty +of the crime laid to his charge, God would send his angel Gabriel to +stop his throat, that he might not be able to swallow the bread and +cheese. There is no instance upon record of a priest having been +choked in this manner. [An ordeal very like this is still practised in +India. Consecrated rice is the article chosen, instead of bread and +cheese. Instances are not rare in which, through the force of +imagination, guilty persons are not able to swallow a single grain. +Conscious of their crime, and fearful of the punishment of Heaven, +they feel a suffocating sensation in their throat when they attempt +it, and they fall on their knees, and confess all that is laid to +their charge. The same thing, no doubt, would have happened with the +bread and cheese of the Roman church, if it had been applied to any +others but ecclesiastics. The latter had too much wisdom to be caught +in a trap of their own setting.] + + When, under Pope Gregory VII, it was debated whether the Gregorian +chant should be introduced into Castile, instead of the Musarabic, +given by St. Isidore, of Seville, to the churches of that kingdom, +very much ill feeling was excited. The churches refused to receive the +novelty, and it was proposed that the affair should be decided by a +battle between two champions, one chosen from each side. The clergy +would not consent to a mode of settlement which they considered +impious, but had no objection to try the merits of each chant by the +fire ordeal. A great fire was accordingly made, and a book of the +Gregorian and one of the Musarabic chant were thrown into it, that the +flames might decide which was most agreeable to God by refusing to +burn it. Cardinal Baronius, who says he was an eye-witness of the +miracle, relates, that the book of the Gregorian chant was no sooner +laid upon the fire, than it leaped out uninjured, visibly, and with a +great noise. Every one present thought that the saints had decided in +favour of Pope Gregory. After a slight interval, the fire was +extinguished; but, wonderful to relate! the other book of St. Isidore +was found covered with ashes, but not injured in the slightest degree. +The flames had not even warmed it. Upon this it was resolved, that +both were alike agreeable to God, and that they should be used by +turns in all the churches of Seville? [Histoire de Messire Bertrand du +Guesclin, par Paul Hay du Chastelet. Livre i. chap. xix.] + + If the ordeals had been confined to questions like this, the laity +would have had little or no objection to them; but when they were +introduced as decisive in all the disputes that might arise between +man and man, the opposition of all those whose prime virtue was +personal bravery, was necessarily excited. In fact, the nobility, from +a very early period, began to look with jealous eyes upon them. They +were not slow to perceive their true purport, which was no other than +to make the Church the last court of appeal in all cases, both civil +and criminal: and not only did the nobility prefer the ancient mode of +single combat from this cause, in itself a sufficient one, but they +clung to it because an acquittal gained by those displays of courage +and address which the battle afforded, was more creditable in the eyes +of their compeers, than one which it required but little or none of +either to accomplish. To these causes may be added another, which was, +perhaps, more potent than either, in raising the credit of the +judicial combat at the expense of the ordeal. The noble institution of +chivalry was beginning to take root, and, notwithstanding the clamours +of the clergy, war was made the sole business of life, and the only +elegant pursuit of the aristocracy. The fine spirit of honour was +introduced, any attack upon which was only to be avenged in the lists, +within sight of applauding crowds, whose verdict of approbation was +far more gratifying than the cold and formal acquittal of the ordeal. +Lothaire, the son of Louis I, abolished that by fire and the trial of +the cross within his dominions; but in England they were allowed so +late as the time of Henry III, in the early part of whose reign they +were prohibited by an order of council. In the mean time, the Crusades +had brought the institution of chivalry to the full height of +perfection. The chivalric spirit soon achieved the downfall of the +ordeal system, and established the judicial combat on a basis too firm +to be shaken. It is true that with the fall of chivalry, as an +institution, fell the tournament, and the encounter in the lists; but +the duel, their offspring, has survived to this day, defying the +efforts of sages and philosophers to eradicate it. Among all the +errors bequeathed to us by a barbarous age, it has proved the most +pertinacious. It has put variance between men's reason and their +honour; put the man of sense on a level with the fool, and made +thousands who condemn it submit to it, or practise it. Those who are +curious to see the manner in which these combats were regulated, may +consult the learned Montesquieu, where they will find a copious +summary of the code of ancient duelling. ["Esprit des Loix," livre +xxviii. chap. xxv.] Truly does he remark, in speaking of the clearness +and excellence of the arrangements, that, as there were many wise +matters which were conducted in a very foolish manner, so there were +many foolish matters conducted very wisely. No greater exemplification +of it could be given, than the wise and religious rules of the absurd +and blasphemous trial by battle. + + In the ages that intervened between the Crusades and the new era +that was opened out by the invention of gunpowder and printing, a more +rational system of legislation took root. The inhabitants of cities, +engaged in the pursuits of trade and industry, were content to +acquiesce in the decisions of their judges and magistrates whenever +any differences arose among them. Unlike the class above them, their +habits and manners did not lead them to seek the battle-field on every +slight occasion. A dispute as to the price of a sack of corn, a bale +of broad-cloth, or a cow, could be more satisfactorily adjusted before +the mayor or bailiff of their district. Even the martial knights and +nobles, quarrelsome as they were, began to see that the trial by +battle would lose its dignity and splendour if too frequently resorted +to. Governments also shared this opinion, and on several occasions +restricted the cases in which it was legal to proceed to this +extremity. In France, before the time of Louis IX, duels were +permitted only in cases of Lese Majesty, Rape, Incendiarism, +Assassination, and Burglary. Louis IX, by taking off all restriction, +made them legal in civil eases. This was not found to work well, and, +in 1303, Philip the Fair judged it necessary to confine them, in +criminal matters, to state offences, rape, and incendiarism; and in +civil cases, to questions of disputed inheritance. Knighthood was +allowed to be the best judge of its own honour, and might defend or +avenge it as often as occasion arose. + + Among the earliest duels upon record, is a very singular one that +took place in the reign of Louis II (A.D. 878). Ingelgerius, Count of +Gastinois, was one morning discovered by his Countess dead in bed at +her side. Gontran, a relation of the Count, accused the Countess of +having murdered her husband, to whom, he asserted, she had long been +unfaithful, and challenged her to produce a champion to do battle in +her behalf, that he might establish her guilt by killing him.[Memoires +de Brantome touchant les Duels.] All the friends and relatives of the +Countess believed in her innocence; but Gontran was so stout and bold +and renowned a warrior, that no one dared to meet him, for which, as +Brantome quaintly says, "Mauvais et poltrons parens estaient." The +unhappy Countess began to despair, when a champion suddenly appeared +in the person of Ingelgerius, Count of Anjou, a boy of sixteen years +of age, who had been held by the Countess on the baptismal font, and +received her husband's name. He tenderly loved his godmother, and +offered to do battle in her cause against any and every opponent. The +King endeavoured to persuade the generous boy from his enterprise, +urging the great strength, tried skill, and invincible courage of the +challenger; but he persisted in his resolution, to the great sorrow of +all the court, who said it was a cruel thing to permit so brave and +beautiful a child to rush to such butchery and death. + + When the lists were prepared, the Countess duly acknowledged her +champion, and the combatants commenced the onset. Gontran rode so +fiercely at his antagonist, and hit him on the shield with such +impetuosity, that he lost his own balance and rolled to the ground. +The young Count, as Gontran fell, passed his lance through his body, +and then dismounting, cut off his head, which, Brantome says, "he +presented to the King, who received it most graciously, and was very +joyful, as much so as if any one had made him a present of a city." +The innocence of the Countess was then proclaimed with great +rejoicings; and she kissed her godson, and wept over his neck with +joy, in the presence of all the assembly. + + When the Earl of Essex was accused, by Robert de Montfort, before +King Henry II, in 1162, of having traitorously suffered the royal +standard of England to fall from his hands in a skirmish with the +Welsh, at Coleshill, five years previously, the latter offered to +prove the truth of the charge by single combat. The Earl of Essex +accepted the challenge, and the lists were prepared near Reading. An +immense concourse of persons assembled to witness the battle. Essex at +first fought stoutly, but, losing his temper and self-command, he gave +an advantage to his opponent, which soon decided the struggle. He was +unhorsed, and so severely wounded, that all present thought he was +dead. At the solicitation of his relatives, the monks of the Abbey of +Reading were allowed to remove the body for interment, and Montfort +was declared the victor. Essex, however, was not dead, but stunned +only, and, under the care of the monks, recovered in a few weeks from +his bodily injuries. The wounds of his mind were not so easily healed. +Though a loyal and brave subject, the whole realm believed him a +traitor and a coward because he had been vanquished. He could not +brook to return to the world deprived of the good opinion of his +fellows; he, therefore, made himself a monk, and passed the remainder +of his days within the walls of the Abbey. + + Du Chastelet relates a singular duel that was proposed in +Spain.[Histoire de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, livre i. chap. xix.] +A Christian gentleman of Seville sent a challenge to a Moorish +cavalier, offering to prove against him, with whatever weapons he +might choose, that the religion of Jesus Christ was holy and divine, +and that of Mahomet impious and damnable. The Spanish prelates did not +choose that Christianity should be com promised within their +jurisdiction by the result of any such combat, and they commanded the +knight, under pain of excommunication, to withdraw the challenge. + + The same author relates, that under Otho I a question arose among +jurisconsults, viz. whether grandchildren, who had lost their father, +should share equally with their uncles in the property of their +grandfather, at the death of the latter. The difficulty of this +question was found so insurmountable, that none of the lawyers of that +day could resolve it. It was at last decreed, that it should be +decided by single combat. Two champions were accordingly chosen; one +for, and the other against, the claims of the little ones. After a +long struggle, the champion of the uncles was unhorsed and slain; and +it was, therefore, decided, that the right of the grandchildren was +established, and that they should enjoy the same portion of their +grandfather's possessions that their father would have done had he +been alive. + + Upon pretexts, just as frivolous as these, duels continued to be +fought in most of the countries of Europe during the whole of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. A memorable instance of the +slightness of the pretext on which a man could be forced to fight a +duel to the death, occurs in the Memoirs of the brave Constable, Du +Guesclin. The advantage he had obtained, in a skirmish before Rennes, +against William Brembre, an English captain, so preyed on the spirits +of William Troussel, the chosen friend and companion of the latter, +that nothing would satisfy him but a mortal combat with the Constable. +The Duke of Lancaster, to whom Troussel applied for permission to +fight the great Frenchman, forbade the battle, as not warranted by the +circumstances. Troussel nevertheless burned with a fierce desire to +cross his weapon with Du Guesclin, and sought every occasion to pick a +quarrel with him. Having so good a will for it, of course he found a +way. A relative of his had been taken prisoner by the Constable, in +whose hands he remained till he was able to pay his ransom. Troussel +resolved to make a quarrel out of this, and despatched a messenger to +Du Guesclin, demanding the release of his prisoner, and offering a +bond, at a distant date, for the payment of the ransom. Du Guesclin, +who had received intimation of the hostile purposes of the Englishman, +sent back word, that he would not accept his bond, neither would he +release his prisoner, until the full amount of his ransom was paid. As +soon as this answer was received, Troussel sent a challenge to the +Constable, demanding reparation for the injury he had done his honour, +by refusing his bond, and offering a mortal combat, to be fought three +strokes with the lance, three with the sword, and three with the +dagger. Du Guesclin, although ill in bed with the ague, accepted the +challenge, and gave notice to the Marshal d'Andreghem, the King's +Lieutenant-General in Lower Normandy, that he might fix the day and +the place of combat. The Marshal made all necessary arrangements, upon +condition that he who was beaten should pay a hundred florins of gold +to feast the nobles and gentlemen who were witnesses of the encounter. + + The Duke of Lancaster was very angry with his captain, and told +him, that it would be a shame to his knighthood and his nation, if he +forced on a combat with the brave Du Guesclin, at a time when he was +enfeebled by disease and stretched on the couch of suffering. Upon +these representations, Troussel, ashamed of himself, sent notice to Du +Guesclin that he was willing to postpone the duel until such time as +he should be perfectly recovered. Du Guesclin replied, that he could +not think of postponing the combat, after all the nobility had +received notice of it; that he had sufficient strength left, not only +to meet, but to conquer such an opponent as he was; and that, if he +did not make his appearance in the lists at the time appointed, he +would publish him everywhere as a man unworthy to be called a knight, +or to wear an honourable sword by his side. Troussel carried this +haughty message to the Duke of Lancaster, who immediately gave +permission for the battle. + + On the day appointed, the two combatants appeared in the lists, in +the presence of several thousand spectators. Du Guesclin was attended +by the flower of the French nobility, including the Marshal de +Beaumanoir, Olivier de Mauny, Bertrand de Saint Pern, and the Viscount +de la Belliere, while the Englishman appeared with no more than the +customary retinue of two seconds, two squires, two coutilliers, or +daggermen, and two trumpeters. The first onset was unfavourable to the +Constable: he received so heavy a blow on his shield-arm, that he fell +forward to the left, upon his horse's neck, and, being weakened by his +fever, was nearly thrown to the ground. All his friends thought he +could never recover himself, and began to deplore his ill fortune; but +Du Guesclin collected his energies for a decisive effort, and, at the +second charge, aimed a blow at the shoulder of his enemy, which felled +him to the earth, mortally wounded. He then sprang from his horse, +sword in hand, with the intention of cutting off the head of his +fallen foe, when the Marshal D'Andreghem threw a golden wand into the +arena, as a signal that hostilities should cease. Du Guesclin was +proclaimed the victor, amid the joyous acclamations of the crowd, and +retiring, left the field to the meaner combatants, who were afterwards +to make sport for the people. Four English and as many French squires +fought for some time with pointless lances, when the French, gaining +the advantage, the sports were declared at an end. + + In the time of Charles VI, about the beginning of the fifteenth +century, a famous duel was ordered by the Parliament of Paris. The +Sieur de Carrouges being absent in the Holy Land, his lady was +violated by the Sieur Legris. Carrouges, on his return, challenged +Legris to mortal combat, for the twofold crime of violation and +slander, inasmuch as he had denied his guilt, by asserting that the +lady was a willing party. The lady's asseverations of innocence were +held to be no evidence by the Parliament, and the duel was commanded +with all the ceremonies. "On the day appointed," says Brantome, +[Memoires de Brantome touchant les Duels.] "the lady came to witness +the spectacle in her chariot; but the King made her descend, judging +her unworthy, because she was criminal in his eyes till her innocence +was proved, and caused her to stand upon a scaffold to await the mercy +of God and this judgment by the battle. After a short struggle, the +Sieur de Carrouges overthrew his enemy, and made him confess both the +rape and the slander. He was then taken to the gallows and hanged in +the presence of the multitude; while the innocence of the lady was +proclaimed by the heralds, and recognized by her husband, the King, +and all the spectators." + + Numerous battles, of a similar description, constantly took place, +until the unfortunate issue of one encounter of the kind led the +French King, Henry II, to declare solemnly, that he would never again +permit any such encounter, whether it related to a civil or criminal +case, or the honour of a gentleman. + + This memorable combat was fought in the year 1547. Francois de +Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie, and Guy de Chabot, Lord of Jarnac, +had been friends from their early youth, and were noted at the court +of Francis I for the gallantry of their bearing and the magnificence +of their retinue. Chataigneraie, who knew that his friend's means were +not very ample, asked him one day, in confidence, how it was that he +contrived to be so well provided? Jarnac replied, that his father had +married a young and beautiful woman, who, loving the son far better +than the sire, supplied him with as much money as he desired. La +Chataigneraie betrayed the base secret to the Dauphin, the Dauphin to +the King, the King to his courtiers, and the courtiers to all their +acquaintance. In a short time it reached the ears of the old Lord de +Jarnac, who immediately sent for his son, and demanded to know in what +manner the report had originated, and whether he had been vile enough +not only to carry on such a connexion, but to boast of it? De Jarnac +indignantly denied that he had ever said so, or given reason to the +world to say so, and requested his father to accompany him to court, +and confront him with his accuser, that he might see the manner in +which he would confound him. They went accordingly, and the younger De +Jarnac, entering a room where the Dauphin, La Chataigneraie, and +several courtiers were present, exclaimed aloud, "That whoever had +asserted, that he maintained a criminal connexion with his +mother-in-law, was a liar and a coward!" Every eye was turned to the +Dauphin and La Chataigneraie, when the latter stood forward, and +asserted, that De Jarnac had himself avowed that such was the fact, +and he would extort from his lips another confession of it. A case +like this could not be met or rebutted by any legal proof, and the +royal council ordered that it should be decided by single combat. The +King, however, set his face against the duel [Although Francis showed +himself in this case an enemy to duelling, yet, in his own case, he +had not the same objection. Every reader of history must remember his +answer to the challenge of the Emperor Charles V. The Emperor wrote +that he had failed in his word, and that he would sustain their +quarrel single-handed against him. Francis replied, that he lied -- +qu'il en avait menti par la gorge, and that he was ready to meet him +in single combat whenever and wherever he pleased.] and forbade them +both, under pain of his high displeasure, to proceed any further in +the matter. But Francis died in the following year, and the Dauphin, +now Henry II, who was himself compromised, resolved that the combat +should take place. The lists were prepared in the court-yard of the +chateau of St. Germain-en-Laye, and the 10th of July 1547 was +appointed for the encounter. The cartels of the combatants, which are +preserved in the "Memoires de Castelnau," were as follow:-- + +"Cartel of Francois de Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie. + +"Sire, + + "Having learned that Guy Chabot de Jarnac, being lately at +Compeigne, asserted, that whoever had said that he boasted of having +criminal intercourse with his mother-in-law, was wicked and a +wretch,-- I, Sire, with your good-will and pleasure, do answer, that +he has wickedly lied, and will lie as many times as he denies having +said that which I affirm he did say; for I repeat, that he told me +several times, and boasted of it, that he had slept with his +mother-in-law. + +"Francois de Vivonne." + +To this cartel De Jarnac replied :-- + +"Sire, + + "With your good will and permission, I say, that Francois de +Vivonne has lied in the imputation which he has cast upon me, and of +which I spoke to you at Compeigne. I, therefore, entreat you, Sire, +most humbly, that you be pleased to grant us a fair field, that we may +fight this battle to the death. + +"Guy Chabot." + + The preparations were conducted on a scale of the greatest +magnificence, the King having intimated his intention of being +present. La Chataigneraie made sure of the victory, and invited the +King and a hundred and fifty of the principal personages of the court +to sup with him in the evening, after the battle, in a splendid tent, +which he had prepared at the extremity of the lists. De Jarnac was not +so confident, though perhaps more desperate. At noon, on the day +appointed, the combatants met, and each took the customary oath, that +he bore no charms or amulets about him, or made use of any magic, to +aid him against his antagonist. They then attacked each other, sword +in hand. La Chataigneraie was a strong, robust man, and over +confident; De Jarnac was nimble, supple, and prepared for the worst. +The combat lasted for some time doubtful, until De Jarnac, overpowered +by the heavy blows of his opponent, covered his head with his shield, +and, stooping down, endeavoured to make amends by his agility for his +deficiency of strength. In this crouching posture he aimed two blows +at the left thigh of La Chataigneraie, who had left it uncovered, that +the motion of his leg might not be impeded. Each blow was successful, +and, amid the astonishment of all the spectators, and to the great +regret of the King, La Chataigneraie rolled over upon the sand. He +seized his dagger, and made a last effort to strike De Jarnac; but he +was unable to support himself, and fell powerless into the arms of the +assistants. The officers now interfered, and De Jarnac being declared +the victor, fell down upon his knees, uncovered his head, and, +clasping his hands together, exclaimed:-- "O Domine, non sum dignus!" +La Chataigneraie was so mortified by the result of the encounter, that +he resolutely refused to have his wounds dressed. He tore off the +bandages which the surgeons applied, and expired two days afterwards. +Ever since that time, any sly and unforeseen attack has been called by +the French a coup de Jarnac. Henry was so grieved at the loss of his +favourite, that he made the solemn oath already alluded to, that he +would never again, so long as he lived, permit a due]. Some writers +have asserted, and among others, Mezeraie, that he issued a royal +edict forbidding them. This has been doubted by others, and, as there +appears no registry of the edict in any of the courts, it seems most +probable that it was never issued. This opinion is strengthened by the +fact, that two years afterwards, the council ordered another duel to +be fought, with similar forms, but with less magnificence, on account +of the inferior rank of the combatants. It is not anywhere stated, +that Henry interfered to prevent it, notwithstanding his solemn oath; +but that, on the contrary, he encouraged it, and appointed the Marshal +de la Marque to see that it was conducted according to the rules of +chivalry. The disputants were Fendille and D'Aguerre, two gentlemen of +the household, who, quarrelling in the King's chamber, had proceeded +from words to blows. The council, being informed of the matter, +decreed that it could only be decided in the lists. Marshal de la +Marque, with the King's permission, appointed the city of Sedan as the +place of combat. Fendille, who was a bad swordsman, was anxious to +avoid an encounter with D'Aguerre, who was one of the most expert men +of the age; but the council authoritatively commanded that he should +fight, or be degraded from all his honours. D'Aguerre appeared in the +field attended by Francois de Vendome, Count de Chartres, while +Fendille was accompanied by the Duke de Nevers. Fendille appears to +have been not only an inexpert swordsman, but a thorough coward; one +who, like Cowley, might have heaped curses on the man, + +"-------(Death's factor sure), who brought +Dire swords into this peaceful world." + +On the very first encounter he was thrown from his horse, and, +confessing on the ground all that his victor required of him, slunk +away ignominiously from the arena. + + One is tempted to look upon the death of Henry II as a judgment +upon him for his perjury in the matter of duelling. In a grand +tournament instituted on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, +he broke several lances in encounters with some of the bravest knights +of the time. Ambitious of still further renown, he would not rest +satisfied until he had also engaged the young Count de Montgomeri. He +received a wound in the eye from the lance of this antagonist, and +died from its effects shortly afterwards, in the forty-first year of +his age. + + In the succeeding reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, +the practice of duelling increased to an alarming extent. Duels were +not rare in the other countries of Europe at the same period; but in +France they were so frequent, that historians, in speaking of that +age, designate it as "l'epoque de la fureur des duels." The Parliament +of Paris endeavoured, as far as in its power lay, to discourage the +practice. By a decree dated the 26th of June 1559, it declared all +persons who should be present at duels, or aiding and abetting in +them, to be rebels to the King, transgressors of the law, and +disturbers of the public peace. + + When Henry III was assassinated at St. Cloud, in 1589, a young +gentleman, named L'isle Marivaut, who had been much beloved by him, +took his death so much to heart, that he resolved not to survive him. +Not thinking suicide an honourable death, and wishing, as he said, to +die gloriously in revenging his King and master, he publicly expressed +his readiness to fight anybody to the death who should assert that +Henry's assassination was not a great misfortune to the community. +Another youth, of a fiery temper and tried courage, named Marolles, +took him at his word, and the day and place of the combat were +forthwith appointed. When the hour had come, and all were ready, +Marolles turned to his second, and asked whether his opponent had a +casque or helmet only, or whether he wore a sallade, or headpiece. +Being answered a helmet only, he said gaily, "So much the better; for, +sir, my second, you shall repute me the wickedest man in all the +world, if I do not thrust my lance right through the the middle of his +head and kill him." Truth to say, he did so at the very first onset, +and the unhappy L'isle Marivaut expired without a groan. Brantome, who +relates this story, adds, that the victor might have done as he +pleased with the body, cut off the head, dragged it out of the camp, +or exposed it upon an ass, but that, being a wise and very courteous +gentleman, he left it to the relatives of the deceased to be +honourably buried, contenting himself with the glory of his triumph, +by which he gained no little renown and honour among the ladies of +Paris. + + On the accession of Henry IV that monarch pretended to set his +face against duelling; but such was the influence of early education +and the prejudices of society upon him, that he never could find it in +his heart to punish a man for this offence. He thought it tended to +foster a warlike spirit among his people. When the chivalrous Crequi +demanded his permission to fight Don Philippe de Savoire, he is +reported to have said, "Go, and if I were not a King, I would be your +second." It is no wonder that when such were known to be the King's +disposition, his edicts attracted but small attention. A calculation +was made by M. de Lomenie, in the year 1607, that since the accession +of Henry, in 1589, no less than four thousand French gentlemen had +lost their lives in these conflicts, which, for the eighteen years, +would have been at the rate of four or five in a week, or eighteen per +month! Sully, who reports this fact in his Memoirs, does not throw the +slightest doubt upon its exactness, and adds, that it was chiefly +owing to the facility and ill-advised good-nature of his royal master +that the bad example had so empoisoned the court, the city, and the +whole country. This wise minister devoted much of his time and +attention to the subject; for the rage, he says, was such as to cause +him a thousand pangs, and the King also. There was hardly a man moving +in what was called good society, who had not been engaged in a duel +either as principal or second; and if there were such a man, his chief +desire was to free himself from the imputation of non-duelling, by +picking a quarrel with somebody. Sully constantly wrote letters to the +King, in which he prayed him to renew the edicts against this +barbarous custom, to aggravate the punishment against offenders, and +never, in any instance, to grant a pardon, even to a person who had +wounded another in a duel, much less to any one who had taken away +life. He also advised, that some sort of tribunal, or court of honour, +should be established, to take cognizance of injurious and slanderous +language, and of all such matters as usually led to duels; and that +the justice to be administered by this court should be sufficiently +prompt and severe to appease the complainant, and make the offender +repent of his aggression. + + Henry, being so warmly pressed by his friend and minister, called +together an extraordinary council in the gallery of the palace of +Fontainebleau, to take the matter into consideration. When all the +members were assembled, his Majesty requested that some person +conversant with the subject would make a report to him on the origin, +progress, and different forms of the duel. Sully complacently remarks, +that none of the counsllors gave the King any great reason to +felicitate them on their erudition. In fact, they all remained silent. +Sully held his peace with the rest; but he looked so knowing, that the +King turned towards him, and said:-- "Great master! by your face I +conjecture that you know more of this matter than you would have us +believe. I pray you, and indeed I command, that you tell us what you +think and what you know." The coy minister refused, as he says, out of +mere politeness to his more ignorant colleagues; but, being again +pressed by the King, he entered into a history of duelling both in +ancient and modern times. He has not preserved this history in his +Memoirs; and, as none of the ministers or counsellors present thought +proper to do so, the world is deprived of a discourse which was, no +doubt, a learned and remarkable one. The result was, that a royal +edict was issued, which Sully lost no time in transmitting to the most +distant provinces, with a distinct notification to all parties +concerned that the King was in earnest, and would exert the full +rigour of the law in punishment of the offenders. Sully himself does +not inform us what were the provisions of the new law; but Father +Matthias has been more explicit, and from him we learn, that the +Marshals of France were created judges of a court of chivalry, for the +hearing of all causes wherein the honour of a noble or gentleman was +concerned, and that such as resorted to duelling should be punished by +death and confiscation of property, and that the seconds and +assistants should lose their rank, dignity, or offices, and be +banished from the court of their sovereign. [Le Pere Matthias, tome +ii. livre iv.] + + But so strong a hold had the education and prejudice of his age +upon the mind of the King, that though his reason condemned, his +sympathies approved the duel. Notwithstanding this threatened +severity, the number of duels did not diminish, and the wise Sully had +still to lament the prevalence of an evil which menaced society with +utter disorganization. In the succeeding reign the practice prevailed, +if possible, to a still greater extent, until the Cardinal de +Richelieu, better able to grapple with it than Sully had been, made +some severe examples in the very highest classes. Lord Herbert, the +English ambassador at the court of Louis XIII repeats, in his letters, +an observation that had been previously made in the reign of Henry IV, +that it was rare to find a Frenchman moving in good society who had +not killed his man in a duel. The Abbe Millot says of this period, +that the duel madness made the most terrible ravages. Men had actually +a frenzy for combatting. Caprice and vanity, as well as the excitement +of passion, imposed the necessity of fighting. Friends were obliged to +enter into the quarrels of their friends, or be themselves called out +for their refusal, and revenge became hereditary in many families. It +was reckoned that in twenty years eight thousand letters of pardon had +been issued to persons who had killed others in single combat. +["Elemens de l'Histoire de France, vol. iii. p. 219.] + + Other writers confirm this statement. Amelot de Houssaye, in his +Memoirs, says, upon this subject, that duels were so common in the +first years of the reign of Louis XIII, that the ordinary conversation +of persons when they met in the morning was, "Do you know who fought +yesterday?" and after dinner, "Do you know who fought this morning?" +The most infamous duellist at that period was De Bouteville. It was +not at all necessary to quarrel with this assassin to be forced to +fight a duel with him. When he heard that any one was very brave, he +would go to him, and say, "People tell me that you are brave; you and +I must fight together!" Every morning the most notorious bravos and +duellists used to assemble at his house, to take a breakfast of bread +and wine, and practise fencing. M. de Valencay, who was afterwards +elevated to the rank of a cardinal, ranked very high in the estimation +of De Bouteville and his gang. Hardly a day passed but what he was +engaged in some duel or other, either as principal or second; and he +once challenged De Bouteville himself, his best friend, because De +Bouteville had fought a duel without inviting him to become his +second. This quarrel was only appeased on the promise of De Bouteville +that, in his next encounter, he would not fail to avail himself of his +services. For that purpose he went out the same day, and picked a +quarrel with the Marquis des Portes. M. de Valencay, according to +agreement, had the pleasure of serving as his second, and of running +through the body M. de Cavois, the second of the Marquis des Portes, a +man who had never done him any injury, and whom he afterwards +acknowledged he had never seen before. + + Cardinal Richelieu devoted much attention to this lamentable state +of public morals, and seems to have concurred with his great +predecessor, Sully, that nothing but the most rigorous severity could +put a stop to the evil. The subject indeed was painfully forced upon +him by his enemies. The Marquis de Themines, to whom Richelieu, then +Bishop of Lucon, had given offence by some representations he had made +to Mary of Medicis, determined, since he could not challenge an +ecclesiastic, to challenge his brother. An opportunity was soon found. +Themines, accosting the Marquis de Richelieu, complained, in an +insulting tone, that the Bishop of Lucon had broken his faith. The +Marquis resented both the manner and matter of his speech, and readily +accepted a challenge. They met in the Rue d'Angouleme, and the +unfortunate Richelieu was stabbed to the heart, and instantly expired. +From that moment the Bishop became the steady foe of the practice of +duelling. Reason and the impulse of brotherly love alike combined to +make him detest it, and when his power in France was firmly +established, he set vigorously about repressing it. In his "Testament +Politique," he has collected his thoughts upon the subject, in the +chapter entitled "Des moyens d'arreter les Duels." In spite of the +edicts that he published, the members of the nobility persisted in +fighting upon the most trivial and absurd pretences. At last Richelieu +made a terrible example. The infamous De Bouteville challenged and +fought the Marquis de Beuoron; and, although the duel itself was not +fatal to either, its consequences were fatal to both. High as they +were, Richelieu resolved that the law should reach them, and they were +both tried, found guilty, and beheaded. Thus did society get rid of +one of the most bloodthirsty scoundrels that ever polluted it. + + In 1632 two noblemen fought a duel, in which they were both +killed. The officers of justice had notice of the breach of the law, +and arrived at the scene of combat before the friends of the parties +had time to remove the bodies. In conformity with the Cardinal's +severe code upon the subject, the bodies were ignominiously stripped, +and hanged upon a gallows, with their heads downwards, for several +hours, within sight of all the people. [Mercure de France, vol. xiii.] +This severity sobered the frenzy of the nation for a time; but it was +soon forgotten. Men's minds were too deeply imbued with a false notion +of honour to be brought to a right way of thinking: by such examples, +however striking, Richelieu was unable to persuade them to walk in the +right path, though he could punish them for choosing the wrong one. He +had, with all his acuteness, miscalculated the spirit of duelling. It +was not death that a duellist feared: it was shame, and the contempt +of his fellows. As Addison remarked more than eighty years afterwards, +"Death was not sufficient to deter men who made it their glory to +despise it; but if every one who fought a duel were to stand in the +pillory, it would quickly diminish the number of those imaginary men +of honour, and put an end to so absurd a practice." Richelieu never +thought of this. + + Sully says, that in his time the Germans were also much addicted +to duelling. There were three places where it was legal to fight; +Witzburg, in Franconia, and Uspach and Halle, in Swabia. Thither, of +course, vast numbers repaired, and murdered each other under sanction +of the law. At an earlier period, in Germany, it was held highly +disgraceful to refuse to fight. Any one who surrendered to his +adversary for a simple wound that did not disable him, was reputed +infamous, and could neither cut his beard, bear arms, mount on +horseback, or hold any Office in the state. He who fell in a duel was +buried with great pomp and splendour. + + In the year 1652, just after Louis XIV had attained his majority, +a desperate duel was fought between the Dukes de Beaufort and De +Nemours, each attended by four gentlemen. Although brothers-in-law, +they had long been enemies, and their constant dissensions had +introduced much disorganization among the troops which they severally +commanded. Each had long sought an opportunity for combat, which at +last arose on a misunderstanding relative to the places they were to +occupy at the council board. They fought with pistols, and, at the +first discharge, the Duke de Nemours was shot through the body, and +almost instantly expired. Upon this the Marquis de Villars, who +seconded Nemours, challenged Hericourt, the second of the Duke de +Beaufort, a man whom he had never before seen; and the challenge being +accepted, they fought even more desperately than their principals. +This combat, being with swords, lasted longer than the first, and was +more exciting to the six remaining gentlemen who stayed to witness it. +The result was fatal to Hericourt, who fell pierced to the heart by +the sword of De Villars. Anything more savage than this can hardly be +imagined. Voltaire says such duels were frequent, and the compiler of +the "Dictionnaire d'Anecdotes" informs us, that the number of seconds +was not fixed. As many as ten, or twelve, or twenty, were not +unfrequent, and they often fought together after their principals were +disabled. The highest mark of friendship one man could manifest +towards another, was to choose him for his second; and many gentlemen +were so desirous of serving in this capacity, that they endeavoured to +raise every slight misunderstanding into a quarrel, that they might +have the pleasure of being engaged in it. The Count de Bussy Rabutin +relates an instance of this in his Memoirs. He says, that as he was +one evening coming out of the theatre, a gentleman, named Bruc, whom +he had not before known, stopped him very politely, and, drawing him +aside, asked him if it was true that the Count de Thianges had called +him (Bruc) a drunkard? Bussy replied, that he really did not know, for +he saw the Count very seldom. "Oh! he is your uncle!" replied Bruc; +"and, as I cannot have satisfaction from him, because he lives so far +off in the country, I apply to you." "I see what you are at," replied +Bussy, "and, since you wish to put me in my uncle's place, I answer, +that whoever asserted that he called you a drunkard, told a lie !" "My +brother said so," replied Bruc, "and he is a child." "Horsewhip him, +then, for his falsehood," returned De Bussy. "I will not have my +brother called a liar," returned Bruc, determined to quarrel with him; +"so draw, and defend yourself!" They both drew their swords in the +public street, but were separated by the spectators. They agreed, +however, to fight on a future occasion, and with all regular forms of +the duello. A few days afterwards, a gentleman, whom De Bussy had +never before seen, and whom he did not know, even by name, called upon +him, and asked if he might have the privilege of serving as his +second. He added, that he neither knew him nor Bruc, except by +reputation, but, having made up his mind to be second to one of them, +he had decided upon accompanying De Bussy as the braver man of the +two. De Bussy thanked him very sincerely for his politeness, but +begged to be excused, as he had already engaged four seconds to +accompany him, and he was afraid that if he took any more, the affair +would become a battle instead of a duel. + + When such quarrels as these were looked upon as mere matters of +course, the state of society must have been indeed awful. Louis XIV +very early saw the evil, and as early determined to remedy it. It was +not, however, till the year 1679, when he instituted the "Chambre +Ardente," for the trial of the slow poisoners and pretenders to +sorcery, that he published any edict against duelling. In that year +his famous edict was promulgated, in which he reiterated and confirmed +the severe enactments of his predecessors, Henry IV and Louis XIII, +and expressed his determination never to pardon any offender. By this +celebrated ordinance a supreme court of honour was established, +composed of the Marshals of France. They were bound, on taking the +office, to give to every one who brought a well-founded complaint +before them, such reparation as would satisfy the justice of the case. +Should any gentleman against whom complaint was made refuse to obey +the mandate of the court of honour, he might be punished by fine and +imprisonment; and when that was not possible, by reason of his +absenting himself from the kingdom, his estates might be confiscated +till his return. + + Every man who sent a challenge, be the cause of offence what it +might, was deprived of all redress from the court of honour--suspended +three years from the exercise of any office in the state--was further +imprisoned for two years, and sentenced to pay a fine of half his +yearly income. He who accepted a challenge, was subject to the same +punishment. Any servant, or other person, who knowingly became the +bearer of a challenge, was, if found guilty, sentenced to stand in the +pillory and be publicly whipped for the first offence, and for the +second, sent for three years to the galleys. + + Any person who actually fought, was to be held guilty of murder, +even though death did not ensue, and was to be punished accordingly. +Persons in the higher ranks of life were to be beheaded, and those of +the middle class hanged upon a gallows, and their bodies refused +Christian burial. + + At the same time that Louis published this severe edict, he +exacted a promise from his principal nobility that they would never +engage in a duel on any pretence whatever. He never swerved from his +resolution to pursue all duellists with the utmost rigour, and many +were executed in various parts of the country. A slight abatement of +the evil was the consequence, and in the course of a few years one +duel was not fought where twelve had been fought previously. A medal +was struck to commemorate the circumstance, by the express command of +the King. So much had he this object at heart, that, in his will, he +particularly recommended to his successor the care of his edict +against duelling, and warned him against any ill-judged lenity to +those who disobeyed it. A singular law formerly existed in Malta with +regard to duelling. By this law it was permitted, but only upon +condition that the parties should fight in one particular street. If +they presumed to settle their quarrel elsewhere, they were held guilty +of murder, and punished accordingly. What was also very singular, they +were bound, under heavy penalties, to put up their swords when +requested to do so by a priest, a knight, or a woman. It does not +appear, however, that the ladies or the knights exercised this mild +and beneficent privilege to any great extent; the former were too +often themselves the cause of duels, and the latter sympathised too +much in the wounded honour of the combatants to attempt to separate +them. The priests alone were the great peacemakers. Brydone says, that +a cross was always painted on the wall opposite to the spot where a +knight had been killed, and that in the "street of duels" he counted +about twenty of them. [Brydone's "Tour in Malta." 1772.] + + In England the private duel was also practised to a scandalous +extent, towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the +seventeenth centuries. The judicial combat now began to be more rare, +but several instances of it are mentioned in history. One was +instituted in the reign of Elizabeth, and another so late as the time +of Charles I. Sir Henry Spelman gives an account of that which took +place in Elizabeth's reign, which is curious, perhaps the more so when +we consider that it was perfectly legal, and that similar combats +remained so till the year 1819. A proceeding having been instituted in +the Court of Common Pleas for the recovery of certain manorial rights +in the county of Kent, the defendant offered to prove by single combat +his right to retain possession. The plaintiff accepted the challenge, +and the Court having no power to stay the proceedings, agreed to the +champions who were to fight in lieu of the principals. The Queen +commanded the parties to compromise; but it being represented to Her +Majesty that they were justified by law in the course they were +pursuing, she allowed them to proceed. On the day appointed, the +Justices of the Common Pleas, and all the council engaged in the +cause, appeared as umpires of the combat, at a place in +Tothill-fields, where the lists had been prepared. The champions were +ready for the encounter, and the plaintiff and defendant were publicly +called to come forward and acknowledge them. The defendant answered to +his name, and recognised his champion with the due formalities, but +the plaintiff did not appear. Without his presence and authority the +combat could not take place; and his absence being considered an +abandonment of his claim, he was declared to be nonsuited, and barred +for ever from renewing his suit before any other tribunal whatever. + + The Queen appears to have disapproved personally of this mode of +settling a disputed claim, but her judges and legal advisers made no +attempt to alter the barbarous law. The practice of private duelling +excited more indignation, from its being of every-day occurrence. In +the time of James I the English were so infected with the French +madness, that Bacon, when he was Attorney-general, lent the aid of his +powerful eloquence to effect a reformation of the evil. Informations +were exhibited in the Star Chamber against two persons, named Priest +and Wright, for being engaged, as principal and second, in a duel, on +which occasion he delivered a charge that was so highly approved of by +the Lords of the Council, that they ordered it to be printed and +circulated over the country, as a thing "very meet and worthy to be +remembered and made known unto the world." He began by considering the +nature and greatness of the mischief of duelling. "It troubleth peace +-- it disfurnisheth war -- it bringeth calamity upon private men, +peril upon the state, and contempt upon the law. Touching the causes +of it," he observed, "that the first motive of it, no doubt, is a +false and erroneous imagination of honour and credit; but then, the +seed of this mischief being such, it is nourished by vain discourses +and green and unripe conceits. Hereunto may be added, that men have +almost lost the true notion and understanding of fortitude and valour. +For fortitude distinguisheth of the grounds of quarrel whether they be +just; and not only so, but whether they be worthy, and setteth a +better price upon men's lives than to bestow them idly. Nay, it is +weakness and disesteem of a man's self to put a man's life upon such +liedger performances. A man's life is not to be trifled with: it is to +be offered up and sacrificed to honourable services, public merits, +good causes, and noble adventures. It is in expense of blood as it is +in expense of money. It is no liberality to make a profusion of money +upon every vain occasion, neither is it fortitude to make effusion of +blood, except the cause of it be worth." [See "Life and Character of +Lord Bacon," by Thomas Martin, Barrister-at-law.] + + The most remarkable event connected with duelling in this reign +was that between Lord Sanquir, a Scotch nobleman, and one Turner, a +fencing-master. In a trial of skill between them, his lordship's eye +was accidentally thrust out by the point of Turner's sword. Turner +expressed great regret at the circumstance, and Lord Sanquir bore his +loss with as much philosophy as he was master of, and forgave his +antagonist. Three years afterwards, Lord Sanquir was at Paris, where +he was a constant visitor at the court of Henry IV. One day, in the +course of conversation, the affable monarch inquired how he had lost +his eye. Sanquir, who prided himself on being the most expert +swordsman of the age, blushed as he replied that it was inflicted by +the sword of a fencing-master. Henry, forgetting his assumed character +of an antiduellist, carelessly, and as a mere matter of course, +inquired whether the man lived? Nothing more was said, but the query +sank deep into the proud heart of the Scotch baron, who returned +shortly afterwards to England, burning for revenge. His first intent +was to challenge the fencing-master to single combat, but, on further +consideration, he deemed it inconsistent with his dignity to meet him +as an equal in fair and open fight. He therefore hired two bravos, who +set upon the fencing-master, and murdered him in his own house at +Whitefriars. The assassins were taken and executed, and a reward of +one thousand pounds offered for the apprehension of their employer. +Lord Sanquir concealed himself for several days, and then surrendered +to take his trial, in the hope (happily false) that Justice would +belie her name, and be lenient to a murderer because he was a +nobleman, who, on a false point of honour, had thought fit to take +revenge into his own hands. The most powerful intercessions were +employed in his favour, but James, to his credit, was deaf to them +all. Bacon, in his character of Attorney-general, prosecuted the +prisoner to conviction; and he died the felon's death, on the 29th of +June, 1612, on a gibbet erected in front of the gate of Westminster +Hall. + + With regard to the public duel, or trial by battle, demanded under +the sanction of the law, to terminate a quarrel which the ordinary +course of justice could with difficulty decide, Bacon was equally +opposed to it, and thought that in no case should it be granted. He +suggested that there should be declared a constant and settled +resolution in the state to abolish it altogether; that care should be +taken that the evil be no more cockered, nor the humour of it fed, but +that all persons found guilty should be rigorously punished by the +Star Chamber, and these of eminent quality banished from the court. + + In the succeeding reign, when Donald Mackay, the first Lord Reay, +accused David Ramsay of treason, in being concerned with the Marquis +of Hamilton in a design upon the crown of Scotland, he was challenged +by the latter to make good his assertion by single combat. [See +"History of the House and Clan of Mackay."] It had been at first the +intention of the government to try the case by the common law, but +Ramsay thought he would stand a better chance of escape by recurring +to the old and almost exploded custom, but which was still the right +of every man in appeals of treason. Lord Reay readily accepted the +challenge, and both were confined in the Tower until they found +security that they would appear on a certain day, appointed by the +court, to determine the question. The management of the affair was +delegated to the Marischal Court of Westminster, and the Earl of +Lindsay was created Lord Constable of England for the purpose. Shortly +before the day appointed, Ramsay confessed in substance all that Lord +Reay had laid to his charge, upon which Charles I put a stop to the +proceedings. + + But in England, about this period, sterner disputes arose among +men than those mere individual matters which generate duels. The men +of the Commonwealth encouraged no practice of the kind, and the +subdued aristocracy carried their habits and prejudices elsewhere, and +fought their duels at foreign courts. Cromwell's Parliament, however, +-- although the evil at that time was not so crying, -- published an +order, in 1654, for the prevention of duels, and the punishment of all +con cerned in them. Charles II, on his restoration, also issued a +proclamation upon the subject. In his reign an infamous duel was +fought -- infamous, not only from its own circumstances, but from the +lenity that was shown to the principal offenders. + + The worthless Duke of Buckingham, having debauched the Countess of +Shrewsbury, was challenged by her husband to mortal combat, in January +1668. Charles II endeavoured to prevent the duel, not from any regard +to public morality, but from fear for the life of his favourite. He +gave commands to the Duke of Albemarle to confine Buckingham to his +house, or take some other measures to prevent him flora fighting. +Albemarle neglected the order, thinking that the King himself might +prevent the combat by some surer means. The meeting took place at Barn +Elms, the injured Shrewsbury being attended by Sir John Talbot, his +relative, and Lord Bernard Howard, son of the Earl of Arundel. +Buckingham was accompanied by two of his dependants, Captain Holmes +and Sir John Jenkins. According to the barbarous custom of the age, +not only the principals, but the seconds, engaged each other. Jenkins +was pierced to the heart, and left dead upon the field, and Sir John +Talbot severely wounded in both arms. Buckingham himself escaping with +slight wounds, ran his unfortunate antagonist through the body, and +then left the field with the wretched woman, the cause of all the +mischief, who, in the dress of a page, awaited the issue of the +conflict in a neighbouring wood, holding her paramour's horse to avoid +suspicion. Great influence was exerted to save the guilty parties from +punishment, and the master, as base as the favourite, made little +difficulty in granting a free pardon to all concerned. In a royal +proclamation issued shortly afterwards, Charles II formally pardoned +the murderers, but declared his intention never to extend, in future, +any mercy to such offenders. It would be hard after this to say who +was the most infamous, the King, the favourite, or the courtezan. + + In the reign of Queen Anne, repeated complaints were made of the +prevalence of duelling. Addison, Swift, Steele, and other writers, +employed their powerful pens in reprobation of it. Steele especially, +in the "Tatler" and "Guardian," exposed its impiety and absurdity, and +endeavoured, both by argument and by ridicule, to bring his countrymen +to a right way of thinking. [See "Spectator," Nos. 84. 97, and 99; and +"Tatler," Nos. 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, and 39; and "Guardian," No. 20.] +His comedy of "The Conscious Lovers" contains an admirable exposure of +the abuse of the word honour, which led men into an error so +lamentable. Swift, writing upon the subject, remarked that he could +see no harm in rogues and fools shooting each other. Addison and +Steele took higher ground, and the latter, in the "Guardian," summed +up nearly all that could be said upon the subject in the following +impressive words: -- "A Christian and a gentleman are made +inconsistent appellations of the same person. You are not to expect +eternal life if you do not forgive injuries, and your mortal life is +rendered uncomfortable if you are not ready to commit a murder in +resentment of an affront; for good sense, as well as religion, is so +utterly banished the world that men glory in their very passions, and +pursue trifles with the utmost vengeance, so little do they know that +to forgive is the most arduous pitch human nature can arrive at. A +coward has often fought -- a coward has often conquered, but a coward +never forgave." Steele also published a pamphlet, in which he gave a +detailed account of the edict of Louis XIV, and the measures taken by +that monarch to cure his subjects of their murderous folly. + + On the 8th of May, 1711, Sir Cholmely Deering, M.P. for the county +of Kent, was slain in a duel by Mr. Richard Thornhill, also a member +of the House of Commons. Three days afterwards, Sir Peter King brought +the subject under the notice of the Legislature, and after dwelling at +considerable length on the alarming increase of the practice, obtained +leave to bring in a bill for the prevention and punishment of +duelling. It was read a first time that day, and ordered for a second +reading in the ensuing week. + + About the same time the attention of the Upper House of Parliament +was also drawn to the subject in the most painful manner. Two of its +most noted members would have fought, had it not been that Queen Anne +received notice of their intention, and exacted a pledge that they +would desist; while a few months afterwards, two other of its members +lost their lives in one of the most remarkable duels upon record. The +first affair, which happily terminated without a meeting, was between +the Duke of Marlborough and the Earl Pawlet. The latter, and fatal +encounter, was between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun. + + The first arose out of a debate in the Lords upon the conduct of +the Duke of Ormond, in refusing to hazard a general engagement with +the enemy, in which Earl Pawlet remarked that nobody could doubt the +courage of the Duke of Ormond. "He was not like a certain general, who +led troops to the slaughter, to cause great numbers of officers to be +knocked on the head in a battle, or against stone walls, in order to +fill his pockets by disposing of their commissions." Every one felt +that the remark was aimed at the Duke of Marlborough, but he remained +silent, though evidently suffering in mind. Soon after the House broke +up, the Earl Pawlet received a visit from Lord Mohun, who told him +that the Duke of Marlborough was anxious to come to an explanation +with him relative to some expressions he had made use of in that day's +debate, and therefore prayed him to "go and take a little air in the +country." Earl Pawlet did not affect to misunderstand the hint, but +asked him in plain terms whether he brought a challenge from the Duke. +Lord Mohun said his message needed no explanation, and that he (Lord +Mohun) would accompany the Duke of Marlborough. He then took his +leave, and Earl Pawlet returned home and told his lady that he was +going out to fight a duel with the Duke of Marlborough. His lady, +alarmed for her lord's safety, gave notice of his intention to the +Earl of Dartmouth, who immediately, in the Queen's name, sent to the +Duke of Marlborough, and commanded him not to stir abroad. He also +caused Earl Pawlet's house to be guarded by two sentinels; and having +taken these precautions, informed the Queen of the whole affair. Her +Majesty sent at once for the Duke, expressed her abhorrence of the +custom of duelling, and required his word of honour that he would +proceed no further. The Duke pledged his word accordingly, and the +affair terminated. + + The lamentable duel between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun +took place in November 1712, and sprang from the following +circumstances. A lawsuit had been pending for eleven years between +these two noblemen, and they looked upon each other in consequence +with a certain degree of coldness. They met together on the 13th of +November in the chambers of Mr. Orlebar, a Master in Chancery, when, +in the course of conversation, the Duke of Hamilton reflected upon the +conduct of one of the witnesses in the cause, saying that he was a +person who had neither truth nor justice in him. Lord Mohun, somewhat +nettled at this remark, applied to a witness favourable to his side, +made answer hastily, that Mr. Whiteworth, the person alluded to, had +quite as much truth and justice in him as the Duke of Hamilton. The +Duke made no reply, and no one present imagined that he took offence +at what was said; and when he went out, of the room, he made a low and +courteous salute to the Lord Mohun. In the evening, General Macartney +called twice upon the Duke with a challenge from Lord Mohun, and +failing in seeing him, sought him a third time at a tavern, where he +found him, and delivered his message. The Duke accepted the challenge, +and the day after the morrow, which was Sunday, the 15th of November, +at seven in the morning, was appointed for the meeting. + + At that hour they assembled in Hyde Park, the Duke being attended +by his relative, Colonel Hamilton, and the Lord Mohun by General +Macartney. They jumped over a ditch into a place called the Nursery, +and prepared for the combat. The Duke of Hamilton, turning to General +Macartney, said, "Sir, you are the cause of this, let the event be +what it will." Lord Mohun did not wish that the seconds should engage, +but the Duke insisted that "Macartney should have a share in the +dance." All being ready, the two principals took up their positions, +and fought with swords so desperately that, after a short time, they +both fell down, mortally wounded. The Lord Mohun expired upon the +spot, and the Duke of Hamilton in the arms of his servants as they +were carrying him to his coach. + + This unhappy termination caused the greatest excitement, not only +in the metropolis, but all over the country. The Tories, grieved at +the loss of the Duke of Hamilton, charged the fatal combat on the Whig +party, whose leader, the Duke of Marlborough, had so recently set the +example of political duels. They. called Lord Mohun the bully of the +Whig faction, (he had already killed three men in duels, and been +twice tried for murder), and asserted openly, that the quarrel was +concocted between him and General Macartney to rob the country of the +services of the Duke of Hamilton by murdering him. It was also +asserted, that the wound of which the Duke died was not inflicted by +Lord Mohun, but by Macartney; and every means was used to propagate +this belief. Colonel Hamilton, against whom and Macartney the +coroner's jury had returned a verdict of wilful murder, surrendered a +few days afterwards, and was examined before a privy council sitting +at the house of Lord Dartmouth. He then deposed, that seeing Lord +Mohun fall, and the Duke upon him, he ran to the Duke's assistance, +and that he might with the more ease help him, he flung down both +their swords, and, as he was raising the Duke up, he saw Macartney, +make a push at him. Upon this deposition a royal proclamation was +immediately issued, offering a reward of 500 pounds for the +apprehension of Macartney, to which the Duchess of Hamilton afterwards +added a reward of 300 pounds. + + Upon the further examination of Colonel Hamilton, it was found +that reliance could not be placed on all his statements, and that he +contradicted himself in several important particulars. He was +arraigned at the Old Bailey for the murder of Lord Mohun, the whole +political circles of London being in a fever of excitement for the +result. All the Tory party prayed for his acquittal, and a Tory mob +surrounded the doors and all the avenues leading to the court of +justice for many hours before the trial began. The examination of +witnesses lasted seven hours. The criminal still persisted in accusing +General Macartney of the murder of the Duke of Hamilton, but, in other +respects, say the newspapers of the day, prevaricated foully. He was +found guilty of manslaughter. This favourable verdict was received +with universal applause, "not only from the court and all the +gentlemen present, but the common people showed a mighty satisfaction, +which they testified by loud and repeated huzzas." ["Post Boy," +December l3th, 1712.] + + As the popular delirium subsided, and men began to reason coolly +upon the subject, they disbelieved the assertions of Colonel Hamilton, +that Macartney had stabbed the Duke, although it was universally +admitted that he had been much too busy and presuming. Hamilton was +shunned by all his former companions, and his life rendered so irksome +to him, that he sold out of the Guards, and retired to private life, +in which he died heart-broken four years afterwards. + + General Macartney surrendered about the same time, and was tried +for murder in the Court of King's Bench. He was, however, found guilty +of manslaughter only. + + At the opening of the session of Parliament of 1713, the Queen +made pointed allusion in her speech to the frequency of duelling, and +recommended to the Legislature to devise some speedy and effectual +remedy for it. A bill to that effect was brought forward, but thrown +out on the second reading, to the very great regret of all the +sensible portion of the community. + + A famous duel was fought in 1765 between Lord Byron and Mr. +Chaworth. The dispute arose at a club-dinner, and was relative to +which of the two had the largest quantity of game on his estates. +Infuriated by wine and passion, they retired instantly into an +adjoining room, and fought with swords across a table, by the feeble +glimmer of a tallow-candle. Mr. Chaworth, who was the more expert +swordsman of the two, received a mortal wound, and shortly afterwards +expired. Lord Byron was brought to trial for the murder before the +House of Lords; and it appearing clearly, that the duel was not +premeditated, but fought at once, and in the heat of passion, he was +found guilty of manslaughter only, and ordered to be discharged upon +payment of his fees. This was a very bad example for the country, and +duelling of course fell into no disrepute after such a verdict. + + In France, more severity was exercised. In the year 1769, the +Parliament of Grenoble took cognizance of the delinquency of the Sieur +Duchelas, one of its members, who challenged and killed in a duel a +captain of the Flemish legion. The servant of Duchelas officiated as +second, and was arraigned with his master for the murder of the +captain. They were both found guilty. Duchelas was broken alive on the +wheel, and the servant condemned to the galleys for life. + + A barbarous and fiercely-contested duel was fought in November +1778, between two foreign adventurers, at Bath, named Count Rice and +the Vicomte du Barri. Some dispute arose relative to a gambling +transaction, in the course of which Du Barri contradicted an assertion +of the other, by saying, "That is not true!" Count Rice immediately +asked him if he knew the very disagreeable meaning of the words he had +employed. Du Barri said he was perfectly well aware of their meaning, +and that Rice might interpret them just as he pleased. A challenge was +immediately given and accepted. Seconds were sent for, who, arriving +with but little delay, the whole party, though it was not long after +midnight, proceeded to a place called Claverton Down, where they +remained with a surgeon until daylight. They then prepared for the +encounter, each being armed with two pistols and a sword. The ground +having been marked out by the seconds, Du Barri fired first, and +wounded his opponent in the thigh. Count Rice then levelled his +pistol, and shot Du Barri mortally in the breast. So angry were the +combatants, that they refused to desist; both stepped back a few +paces, and then rushing forward, discharged their second pistols at +each other. Neither shot took effect, and both throwing away their +pistols, prepared to finish the sanguinary struggle by the sword. They +took their places, and were advancing towards each other, when the +Vicomte du Barri suddenly staggered, grew pale, and, falling to the +ground, exclaimed, "Je vous demande ma vie." His opponent had but just +time to answer, that he granted it, when the unfortunate Du Barri +turned upon the grass, and expired with a heavy groan. The survivor of +this savage conflict was then removed to his lodgings, where he lay +for some weeks in a dangerous state. The coroner's jury, in the mean +while, sat upon the body of Du Barri, and disgraced themselves by +returning a verdict of manslaughter only. Count Rice, upon his +recovery, was indicted for the murder notwithstanding this verdict. On +his trial he entered into a long defence of his conduct, pleading the +fairness of the duel, and its unpremeditated nature; and, at the same +time, expressing his deep regret for the unfortunate death of Du +Barri, with whom for many years he had been bound in ties of the +strictest friendship. These considerations appear to have weighed with +the jury, and this fierce duellist was again found guilty of +manslaughter only, and escaped with a merely nominal punishment. + + A duel, less remarkable from its circumstances, but more so from +the rank of the parties, took place in 1789. The combatants on this +occasion were the Duke of York and Colonel Lenox, the nephew and heir +of the Duke of Richmond. The cause of offence was given by the Duke of +York, who had said, in presence of several officers of the Guards, +that words had been used to Colonel Lenox at Daubigny's to which no +gentleman ought to have submitted. Colonel Lenox went up to the Duke +on parade, and asked him publicly whether he had made such an +assertion. The Duke of York, without answering his question, coldly +ordered him to his post. When parade was over, he took an opportunity +of saying publicly in the orderly room before Colonel Lenox, that he +desired no protection from his rank as a prince and his station as +commanding officer; adding that, when he was off duty, he wore a plain +brown coat like a private gentleman, and was ready as such to give +satisfaction. Colonel Lenox desired nothing better than satisfaction; +that is to say, to run the chance of shooting the Duke through the +body, or being himself shot. He accordingly challenged his Royal +Highness, and they met on Wimbledon Common. Colonel Lenox fired first, +and the ball whizzed past the head of his opponent, so near to it as +to graze his projecting curl. The Duke refused to return the fire, and +the seconds interfering, the affair terminated. + + Colonel Lenox was very shortly afterwards engaged in another duel +arising out of this. A Mr. Swift wrote a pamphlet in reference to the +dispute between him and the Duke of York, at some expressions in which +he took so much offence, as to imagine that nothing but a shot at the +writer could atone for them. They met on the Uxbridge Road, but no +damage was done to either party. + + The Irish were for a long time renowned for their love of +duelling. The slightest offence which it is possible to imagine that +one man could offer to another, was sufficient to provoke a challenge. +Sir Jonah Barrington relates, in his Memoirs, that, previous to the +Union, during the time of a disputed election in Dublin, it was no +unusual thing for three-and-twenty duels to be fought in a day. Even +in times of less excitement, they were so common as to be deemed +unworthy of note by the regular chroniclers of events, except in cases +where one or both of the combatants were killed. + + In those days, in Ireland, it was not only the man of the +military, but of every profession, who had to work his way to eminence +with the sword or the pistol. Each political party had its regular +corps of bullies, or fire-eaters, as they were called, who qualified +themselves for being the pests of society by spending all their spare +time in firing at targets. They boasted that they could hit an +opponent in any part of his body they pleased, and made up their minds +before the encounter began whether they should kill him, disable, or +disfigure him for life -- lay him on a bed of suffering for a +twelve-month, or merely graze a limb. + + The evil had reached an alarming height, when, in the year 1808, +an opportunity was afforded to King George III of showing in a +striking manner his detestation of the practice, and of setting an +example to the Irish that such murders were not to be committed with +impunity. A dispute arose, in the month of June 1807, between Major +Campbell and Captain Boyd, officers of the 21st regiment, stationed in +Ireland, about the proper manner of giving the word of command on +parade. Hot words ensued on this slight occasion, and the result was a +challenge from Campbell to Boyd. They retired into the mess-room +shortly afterwards, and each stationed himself at a corner, the +distance obliquely being but seven paces. Here, without friends or +seconds being present, they fired at each other, and Captain Boyd fell +mortally wounded between the fourth and fifth ribs. A surgeon who came +in shortly, found him sitting in a chair, vomiting and suffering great +agony. He was led into another room, Major Campbell following, in +great distress and perturbation of mind. Boyd survived but eighteen +hours; and just before his death, said, in reply to a question from +his opponent, that the duel was not fair, and added, "You hurried me, +Campbell -- you're a bad man." --- "Good God!" replied Campbell, "will +you mention before these gentlemen, was not everything fair? Did you +not say that you were ready?" Boyd answered faintly, "Oh, no! you know +I wanted you to wait and have friends." On being again asked whether +all was fair, the dying man faintly murmured "Yes:" but in a minute +after, he said, "You're a bad man!" Campbell was now in great +agitation, and wringing his hands convulsively, he exclaimed, "Oh, +Boyd! you are the happiest man of the two! Do you forgive me?" Boyd +replied, "I forgive you -- I feel for you, as I know you do for me." +He shortly afterwards expired, and Major Campbell made his escape from +Ireland, and lived for some months with his family under an assumed +name, in the neighbourhood of Chelsea. He was, however, apprehended, +and brought to trial at Armagh, in August 1808. He said while in +prison, that, if found guilty of murder, he should suffer as an +example to duellists in Ireland; but he endeavoured to buoy himself +up, with the hope that the jury would only convict him of +manslaughter. It was proved in evidence upon the trial, that the duel +was not fought immediately after the offence was given, but that Major +Campbell went home and drank tea with his family, before he sought +Boyd for the fatal encounter. The jury returned a verdict of wilful +murder against him, but recommended him to mercy on the ground that +the duel had been a fair one. He was condemned to die on the Monday +following, but was afterwards respited for a few days longer. In the +mean time the greatest exertions were made in his behalf. His +unfortunate wife went upon her knees before the Prince of Wales, to +move him to use his influence with the King, in favour of her unhappy +husband. Everything a fond wife and a courageous woman could do, she +tried, to gain the royal clemency; but George III was inflexible, in +consequence of the representations of the Irish Viceroy that an +example was necessary. The law was therefore allowed to take its +course, and the victim of a false spirit of honour died the death of a +felon. + + The most inveterate duellists of the present day are the students +in the Universities of Germany. They fight on the most frivolous +pretences, and settle with swords and pistols the schoolboy disputes +which in other countries are arranged by the more harmless medium of +the fisticuffs. It was at one time the custom among these savage +youths to prefer the sword combat, for the facility it gave them of +cutting off the noses of their opponents. To disfigure them in this +manner was an object of ambition, and the German duellists reckoned +the number of these disgusting trophies which they had borne away, +with as much satisfaction as a successful general the provinces he had +reduced or the cities he had taken. + + But it would be wearisome to enter into the minute detail of all +the duels of modern times. If an examination were made into the +general causes which produced them, it would be found that in every +case they had been either of the most trivial or the most unworthy +nature. Parliamentary duels were at one time very common, and amongst +the names of those who have soiled a great reputation by conforming to +the practice, may be mentioned those of Warren Hastings, Sir Philip +Francis, Wilkes, Pitt, Fox, Grattan, Curran, Tierney, and Canning. So +difficult is it even for the superior mind to free itself from the +trammels with which foolish opinion has enswathed it -- not one of +these celebrated persons who did not in his secret soul condemn the +folly to which he lent himself. The bonds of reason, though +iron-strong, are easily burst through; but those of folly, though +lithe and frail as the rushes by a stream, defy the stoutest heart to +snap them asunder. Colonel Thomas, an officer of the Guards, who was +killed in a duel, added the following clause to his will the night +before he died: -- "In the first place, I commit my soul to Almighty +God, in hope of his mercy and pardon for the irreligious step I now +(in compliance with the unwarrantable customs of this wicked world) +put myself under the necessity of taking." How many have been in the +same state of mind as this wise, foolish man! He knew his error, and +abhorred it, but could not resist it, for fear of the opinion of the +prejudiced and unthinking. No other could have blamed him for refusing +to fight a duel. + + The list of duels that have sprung from the most degrading causes +might be stretched out to an almost indefinite extent. Sterne's father +fought a duel about a goose; and the great Raleigh about a tavern +bill. [Raleigh, at one period of his life, appeared to be an +inveterate duellist, and it was said of him that he had been engaged +in more encounters of the kind than any man of note among his +contemporaries. More than one fellow-creature he had deprived of life; +but he lived long enough to be convinced of the sinfulness of his +conduct, and made a solemn vow never to fight another duel. The +following anecdote of his forbearance is well known, but it will bear +repetition :-- + A dispute arose in a coffee-house between him and a young man on +some trivial point, and the latter, losing his temper, impertinently +spat in the face of the veteran. Sir Walter, instead of running him +through the body, as many would have done, or challenging him to +mortal combat, coolly took out his handkerchief, wiped his face, and +said, "Young man, if I could as easily wipe from my conscience the +stain of killing you, as I can this spittle from my face, you should +not live another minute." The young man immediately begged his +pardon.] Scores of duels (many of them fatal) have been fought from +disputes at cards, or a place at a theatre, while hundreds of +challenges, given and accepted over-night, in a fit of drunkenness, +have been fought out the next morning to the death of one or both of +the antagonists. + + Two of the most notorious duels of modern times had their origin +in causes no more worthy than the quarrel of a dog and the favour of a +prostitute: that between Macnamara and Montgomery arising from the +former; and that between Best and Lord Camelford, from the latter. The +dog of Montgomery attacked a dog belonging to Macnamara, and each +master interfering in behalf of his own animal, high words ensued. The +result was the giving and accepting a challenge to mortal combat. The +parties met on the following day, when Montgomery was shot dead, and +his antagonist severely wounded. This affair created a great sensation +at the time, and Heaviside, the surgeon who attended at the fatal +field to render his assistance, if necessary, was arrested as an +accessory to the murder, and committed to Newgate. + + In the duel between Best and Lord Camelford, two pistols were used +which were considered to be the best in England. One of them was +thought slightly superior to the other, and it was agreed that the +belligerents should toss up a piece of money to decide the choice of +weapons. Best gained it, and, at the first discharge, Lord Camelford +fell, mortally wounded. But little sympathy was expressed for his +fate; he was a confirmed duellist, had been engaged in many meetings +of the kind, and the blood of more than one fellow-creature lay at his +door. As he had sowed, so did he reap; and the violent man met an +appropriate death. + + It now only remains to notice the means that have been taken to +stay the prevalence of this madness of false honour in the various +countries of the civilized world. The efforts of the governments of +France and England have already been mentioned, and their want of +success is but too well known. The same efforts have been attended +with the same results elsewhere. In despotic countries, where the will +of the monarch has been strongly expressed and vigorously supported, a +diminution of the evil has for a while resulted, but only to be +increased again, when death relaxed the iron grasp, and a successor +appeared of less decided opinions upon the subject. This was the case +in Prussia under the great Frederick, of whose aversion to duelling a +popular anecdote is recorded. It is stated of him that he permitted +duelling in his army, but only upon the condition that the combatants +should fight in presence of a whole battalion of infantry, drawn up on +purpose, to see fair play. The latter received strict orders, when one +of the belligerents fell, to shoot the other immediately. It is added, +that the known determination of the King effectually put a stop to the +practice. + + The Emperor Joseph II of Austria was as firm as Frederick, +although the measures he adopted were not so singular. The following +letter explains his views on the subject:-- + +"To GENERAL * * * * * + +"MY GENERAL, + + "You will immediately arrest the Count of K. and Captain W. The +Count is young, passionate, and influenced by wrong notions of birth +and a false spirit of honour. Captain W. is an old soldier, who will +adjust every dispute with the sword and pistol, and who has received +the challenge of the young Count with unbecoming warmth. + + "I will suffer no duelling in my army. I despise the principles of +those who attempt to justify the practice, and who would run each +other through the body in cold blood. + + "When I have officers who bravely expose themselves to every +danger in facing the enemy -- who at all times exhibit courage, +valour, and resolution in attack and defence, I esteem them highly. +The coolness with which they meet death on such occasions is +serviceable to their country, and at the same time redounds to their +own honour; but should there be men amongst them who are ready to +sacrifice everything to their vengeance and hatred, I despise them. I +consider such a man as no better than a Roman gladiator. + + "Order a court-martial to try the two officers. Investigate the +subject of their dispute with that impartiality which I demand from +every judge; and he that is guilty, let him be a sacrifice to his fate +and the laws. + + "Such a barbarous custom, which suits the age of the Tamerlanes +and Bajazets, and which has often had such melancholy effects on +single families, I will have suppressed and punished, even if it +should deprive me of one half of my officers. There are still men who +know how to unite the character of a hero with that of a good subject; +and he only can be so who respects the laws. + "JOSEPH." +"August 1771." + +[Vide the Letters of Joseph II to distinguished Princes and Statesmen, +published for the first time in England in "The Pamphleteer" for 1821. +They were originally published in Germany a few years previously, and +throw a great light upon the character of that monarch and the events +of his reign.] + + In the United States of America the code varies considerably. In +one or two of the still wild and simple States of the Far West, where +no duel has yet been fought, there is no specific law upon the subject +beyond that in the Decalogue, which says, "Thou shalt do no murder." +But duelling everywhere follows the steps of modern civilization, and +by the time the backwoodsman is transformed into the citizen, he has +imbibed the false notions of honour which are prevalent in Europe, and +around him, and is ready, like his progenitors, to settle his +differences with the pistol. In the majority of the States the +punishment for challenging, fighting, or acting as second, is solitary +imprisonment and hard labour for any period less than a year, and +disqualification for serving any public office for twenty years. In +Vermont the punishment is total disqualification for office, +deprivation of the rights of citizenship, and a fine; in fatal cases, +the same punishment as that of murderers. In Rhode Island, the +combatant, though death does not ensue, is liable to be carted to the +gallows, with a rope about his neck, and to sit in this trim for an +hour, exposed to the peltings of the mob. He may be further imprisoned +for a year, at the option of the magistrate. In Connecticut the +punishment is total disqualification for office or employ, and a fine, +varying from one hundred to a thousand dollars. The laws of Illinois +require certain officers of the state to make oath, previous to their +instalment, that they have never been, nor ever will be, concerned in +a duel. ["Encyclopedia Americana," art. Duelling.] + + Amongst the edicts against duelling promulgated at various times +in Europe, may be mentioned that of Augustus King of Poland, in 1712, +which decreed the punishment of death against principals and seconds, +and minor punishments against the bearers of a challenge. An edict was +also published at Munich, in 1773, according to which both principals +and seconds, even in duels where no one was either killed or wounded, +should be hanged, and their bodies buried at the foot of the gallows. +The King of Naples issued an ordinance against duelling in 1838, in +which the punishment of death is decreed against all concerned in a +fatal duel. The bodies of those killed, and of those who may be +executed in consequence, are to be buried in unconsecrated ground, and +without any religious ceremony; nor is any monument to be erected on +the spot. The punishment for duels in which either, or both, are +wounded, and for those in which no damage whatever is done, varies +according to the case, and consists of fine, imprisonment, loss of +rank and honours, and incapacity for filling any public situation. +Bearers of challenges may also be punished with fine and imprisonment. + + It might be imagined that enactments so severe all over the +civilized world would finally eradicate a custom, the prevalence of +which every wise and good man must deplore. But the frowns of the law +never yet have taught, and never will teach, men to desist from this +practice, as long as it is felt that the lawgiver sympathises with it +in his heart. The stern judge upon the bench may say to the +unfortunate wight who has been called a liar by some unmannerly +opponent, "If you challenge him, you meditate murder, and are guilty +of murder !" but the same judge, divested of his robes of state, and +mixing in the world with other men, would say, "If you do not +challenge him, if you do not run the risk of making yourself a +murderer, you will be looked upon as a mean-spirited wretch, unfit to +associate with your fellows, and deserving nothing but their scorn and +their contempt!" It is society, and not the duellist, who is to blame. +Female influence, too, which is so powerful in leading men either to +good or to evil, takes, in this case, the evil part. Mere animal +bravery has, unfortunately, such charms in the female eye, that a +successful duellist is but too often regarded as a sort of hero; and +the man who refuses to fight, though of truer courage, is thought a +poltroon, who may be trampled on. Mr. Graves, a member of the American +Legislature, who, early in 1838, killed a Mr. Cilley in a duel, truly +and eloquently said, on the floor of the House of Representatives, +when lamenting the unfortunate issue of that encounter, that society +was more to blame than he was. "Public opinion," said the repentant +orator, "is practically the paramount law of the land. Every other +law, both human and divine, ceases to be observed; yea, withers and +perishes in contact with it. It was this paramount law of this nation, +and of this House, that forced me, under the penalty of dishonour, to +subject myself to the code, which impelled me unwillingly into this +tragical affair. Upon the heads of this nation, and at the doors of +this House, rests the blood with which my unfortunate hands have been +stained!" + + As long as society is in this mood; as long as it thinks that the +man who refuses to resent an insult, deserved that insult, and should +be scouted accordingly, so long, it is to be feared, will duelling +exist, however severe the laws may be. Men must have redress for +injuries inflicted, and when those injuries are of such a nature that +no tribunal will take cognizance of them, the injured will take the +law into their own hands, and right themselves in the opinion of their +fellows, at the hazard of their lives. Much as the sage may affect to +despise the opinion of the world, there are few who would not rather +expose their lives a hundred times than be condemned to live on, in +society, but not of it -- a by-word of reproach to all who know their +history, and a mark for scorn to point his finger at. + + The only practicable means for diminishing the force of a custom +which is the disgrace of civilization, seems to be the establishment +of a court of honour, which should take cognizance of all those +delicate and almost intangible offences which yet wound so deeply. The +court established by Louis XIV might be taken as a model. No man now +fights a duel when a fit apology has been offered, and it should be +the duty of this court to weigh dispassionately the complaint of every +man injured in his honour, either by word or deed, and to force the +offender to make a public apology. If he refused the apology, he would +be the breaker of a second law; an offender against a high court, as +well as against the man he had injured, and might be punished with +fine and imprisonment, the latter to last until he saw the error of +his conduct, and made the concession which the court demanded. + + If, after the establishment of this tribunal, men should be found +of a nature so bloodthirsty as not to be satisfied with its peaceful +decisions, and should resort to the old and barbarous mode of an +appeal to the pistol, some means might be found of dealing with them. +To hang them as murderers would be of no avail; for to such men death +would have few terrors. Shame alone would bring them to reason. The +following code, it is humbly suggested to all future legislators upon +the subject, would, in conjunction with the establishment of a court +of honour, do much towards eradicating this blot from society. Every +man who fought a duel, even though he did not wound his opponent, +should be tried, and, upon proof of the fact, be sentenced to have his +right hand cut off. The world would then know his true character as +long as he lived. If his habits of duelling were so inveterate, and he +should learn to fire a pistol with his left hand, he should, upon +conviction of a second offence, lose that hand also. This law, which +should allow no commutation of the punishment, under any +circumstances, would lend strength and authority to the court of +honour. In the course of a few years duelling would be ranked amongst +exploded follies, and men would begin to wonder that a custom so +barbarous and so impious had ever existed amongst them. + + +THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE. + + "Well, son John," said the old woman, "and what wonderful things +did you meet with all the time you were at sea?" - "Oh! mother," +replied John, "I saw many strange things." -- "Tell us all about +them," replied his mother, "for I long to hear your adventures." -- " +Well, then," said John, "as we were sailing over the Line, what do you +think we saw?" - "I can't imagine," replied his mother. -- "Well, we +saw a fish rise out of the sea, and fly over our ship!" "Oh! John! +John! what a liar you are!" said his mother, shaking her head, and +smiling incredulously. "True as death? said John; "and we saw still +more wonderful things than that." -- "Let us hear them," said his +mother, shaking her head again; "and tell the truth, John, if you +can." -- "Believe it, or believe it not, as you please," replied her +son; "but as we were sailing up the Red Sea, our captain thought he +should like some fish for dinner; so he told us to throw our nets, and +catch some." -- "Well," inquired his mother, seeing that he paused in +his story. "Well," rejoined her son, "we did throw them, and, at the +very first haul, we brought up a chariot-wheel, made all of gold, and +inlaid with diamonds!" "Lord bless us!" said his mother, "and what did +the captain say?" -- "Why, he said it was one of the wheels of +Pharaoh's chariot, that had lain in the Red Sea ever since that wicked +King was drowned, with all his host, while pursuing the Israelites." +-- "Well, well," said his mother, lifting up her hands in admiration; +"now, that's very possible, and I think the captain was a very +sensible man. Tell me such stories as that, and I'll believe you; but +never talk to me of such things as flying fish! No, no, John, such +stories won't go down with me, I can assure you!" + + Such old women as the sailor's mother, in the above well-known +anecdote, are by no means rare in the world. Every age and country has +produced them. They have been found in high places, and have sat down +among the learned of the earth. Instances must be familiar to every +reader in which the same person was willing, with greedy credulity, to +swallow the most extravagant fiction, and yet refuse credence to a +philosophical fact. The same Greeks who believed readily that Jupiter +wooed Leda in the form of a swan, denied stoutly that there were any +physical causes for storms and thunder, and treated as impious those +who attempted to account for them on true philosophical principles. + + The reasons that thus lead mankind to believe the marvellously +false, and to disbelieve the marvellously true, may be easily +gathered. Of all the offspring of Time, Error is the most ancient, and +is so old and familiar an acquaintance, that Truth, when discovered, +comes upon most of us like an intruder, and meets the intruder's +welcome. We all pay an involuntary homage to antiquity -- a "blind +homage," as Bacon calls it in his "Novum Organum," which tends greatly +to the obstruction of truth. To the great majority of mortal eyes, +Time sanctifies everything that he does not destroy. The mere fact of +anything being spared by the great foe makes it a favourite with us, +who are sure to fall his victims. To call a prejudice "time-hallowed," +is to open a way for it into hearts where it never before penetrated. +Some peculiar custom may disgrace the people amongst whom it +flourishes; yet men of a little wisdom refuse to aid in its +extirpation, merely because it is old. Thus it is with human belief, +and thus it is we bring shame upon our own intellect. + + To this cause may be added another, also mentioned by Lord Bacon +-- a misdirected zeal in matters of religion, which induces so many to +decry a newly-discovered truth, because the Divine records contain no +allusion to it, or because, at first sight, it appears to militate, +not against religion, but against some obscure passage which has never +been fairly interpreted. The old woman in the story could not believe +that there was such a creature as a flying-fish, because her Bible did +not tell her so, but she believed that her son had drawn up the golden +and bejewelled wheel from the Red Sea, because her Bible informed her +that Pharaoh was drowned there. + + Upon a similar principle the monks of the inquisition believed +that the devil appeared visibly among men, that St. Anthony pulled his +nose with a pair of red-hot pincers, and that the relics of the saints +worked miracles; yet they would not believe Galileo, when he proved +that the earth turned round the sun. + + Keppler, when he asserted the same fact, could gain no bread, and +little credence; but when he pretended to tell fortunes and cast +nativities, the whole town flocked to him, and paid him enormous fees +for his falsehood. + + When Roger Bacon invented the telescope and the magic-lantern, no +one believed that the unaided ingenuity of man could have done it; but +when some wiseacres asserted that the devil had appeared to him, and +given him the knowledge which he turned to such account, no one was +bold enough to assert that it was improbable. His hint that saltpetre, +sulphur, and charcoal, mixed in certain proportions, would produce +effects similar to thunder and lightning, was disregarded or +disbelieved; but the legend of the brazen head which delivered +oracles, was credited for many ages. + +[Godwin, in his "Lives of the Necromancers," gives the following +version of this legend. Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay entertained the +project of enclosing England with a wall, so as to render it +inaccessible to any invader. They accordingly raised the devil, as the +person best able to inform them how this was to be done. The devil +advised them to make a brazen head, with all the internal structure +and organs of a human head. The construction would cost them much +time, and they must wait with patience till the faculty of speech +descended upon it. Finally, however, it would become an oracle, and, +if the question were propounded to it, would teach them the solution +of their problem. The friars spent seven years in bringing the subject +to perfection, and waited day after day in expectation that it would +utter articulate sounds. At length nature became exhausted in them, +and they lay down to sleep, having first given it strictly in charge +to a servant of theirs, clownish in nature, but of strict fidelity, +that he should awaken them the moment the image began to speak. That +period arrived. The head uttered sounds, but such as the clown judged +unworthy of notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was taken, and a +long pause ensued. "Time was!" -- a similar pause, and no notice. +"Time is passed!" The moment these words were uttered, a tremendous +storm ensued, with thunder and lightning, and the head was shivered +into a thousand pieces. Thus the experiment of Friar Bacon and Friar +Bungay came to nothing.] + + Solomon De Cans, who, in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, conceived +the idea of a steam-engine, was shut up in the Bastille as a madman, +because the idea of such an extraordinary instrument was too +preposterous for the wise age that believed in all the absurdities of +witchcraft. + + When Harvey first proved the circulation of the blood, every +tongue was let loose against him. The thing was too obviously an +imposition, and an attempt to deceive that public who believed that a +king's touch had power to cure the scrofula. That a dead criminal's +hand, rubbed against a wen, would cure it, was reasonable enough; but +that the blood flowed through the veins was beyond all probability. + + In our own day, a similar fate awaited the beneficent discovery of +Dr. Jenner. That vaccination could abate the virulence of, or preserve +from, the smallpox, was quite incredible; none but a cheat and a quack +could assert it: but that the introduction of the vaccine matter into +the human frame could endow men with the qualities of a cow, was quite +probable. Many of the poorer people actually dreaded that their +children would grow hairy and horned as cattle, if they suffered them +to be vaccinated. + + The Jesuit, Father Labat, the shrewd and learned traveller in +South America, relates an experiment which he made upon the credulity +of some native Peruvians. Holding a powerful lens in his hand, and +concentrating the rays of the sun upon the naked arm of an admiring +savage, he soon made him roar with pain. All the tribe looked on, +first with wonder, and then with indignation and wonder both combined. +In vain the philosopher attempted to explain the cause of the +phenomenon - in vain he offered to convince them that there was +nothing devilish in the experiment - he was thought to be in league +with the infernal gods to draw down the fire from Heaven, and was +looked upon, himself, as an awful and supernatural being. Many +attempts were made to gain possession of the lens, with the view of +destroying it, and thereby robbing the Western stranger of the means +of bringing upon them the vengeance of his deities. + + Very similar was the conduct of that inquiring Brahmin, which is +related by Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs. The Brahmin had a mind +better cultivated than his fellows; he was smitten with a love for the +knowledge of Europe -- read English books -- pored over the pages of +the Encyclopedia, and profited by various philosophical instruments; +but on religious questions the Brahmin was firm to the faith of his +caste and the doctrine of the Metempsychosis. Lest he might +sacrilegiously devour his progenitors, he abstained from all animal +food; and thinking that he ate nothing which enjoyed life, he +supported himself, like his brethren, upon fruits and vegetables. All +the knowledge that did not run counter to this belief, he sought after +with avidity, and bade fair to become the wisest of his race. In an +evil hour, his English friend and instructor exhibited a very powerful +solar microscope, by means of which he showed him that every drop of +water that he drank teemed with life -- that every fruit was like a +world, covered with innumerable animalculae, each of which was fitted +by its organization for the sphere in which it moved, and had its +wants, and the capability of supplying them as completely as visible +animals millions of times its bulk. The English philosopher expected +that his Hindoo friend would be enraptured at the vast field of +knowledge thus suddenly opened out to him, but he was deceived. The +Brahmin from that time became an altered man -- thoughtful, gloomy, +reserved, and discontented. He applied repeatedly to his friend that +he would make him a present of the microscope; but as it was the only +one of its kind in India, and the owner set a value upon it for other +reasons, he constantly refused the request, but offered him the loan +of it for any period he might require. But nothing short of an +unconditional gift of the instrument would satisfy the Brahmin, who +became at last so importunate that the patience of the Englishman was +exhausted, and he gave it him. A gleam of joy shot across the +care-worn features of the Hindoo as he clutched it, and bounding with +an exulting leap into the garden, he seized a large stone, and dashed +the instrument into a thousand pieces. When called upon to explain his +extraordinary conduct, he said to his friend, "Oh that I had remained +in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first found me! Yet will +I confess that, as my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, until I +beheld the last wonders of the microscope; from that moment I have +been tormented by doubt and perplexed by mystery: my mind, overwhelmed +by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest, nor how to extricate +itself from such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue to be so, +until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a solitary +individual among fifty millions of people, all educated in the same +belief with myself -- all happy in their ignorance! So may they ever +remain! I shall keep the secret within my own bosom, where it will +corrode my peace and break my rest. But I shall have some satisfaction +in knowing that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed +the instrument, might have been extensively communicated, and rendered +thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable friend! and oh, convey no +more implements of knowledge and destruction!" + + Many a learned man may smile at the ignorance of the Peruvian and +the Hindoo, unconscious that he himself is just as ignorant and as +prejudiced. Who does not remember the outcry against the science of +geology, which has hardly yet subsided? Its professors were impiously +and absurdly accused of designing to "hurl the Creator from his +throne." They were charged with sapping the foundations of religion, +and of propping atheism by the aid of a pretended science. + + The very same principle which leads to the rejection of the true, +leads to the encouragement of the false. Thus we may account for the +success which has attended great impostors, at times when the truth, +though not half so wondrous as their impositions, has been +disregarded as extravagant and preposterous. The man who wishes to +cheat the people, must needs found his operations upon some prejudice +or belief that already exists. Thus the philosophic pretenders who +told fortunes by the stars cured all diseases by one nostrum, and +preserved from evil by charms and amulets, ran with the current of +popular belief. Errors that were consecrated by time and long +familiarity, they heightened and embellished, and succeeded to their +hearts' content; but the preacher of truth had a foundation to make as +well as a superstructure, a difficulty which did not exist for the +preacher of error. Columbus preached a new world, but was met with +distrust and incredulity; had he preached with as much zeal and +earnestness the discovery of some valley in the old one, where +diamonds hung upon the trees, or a herb grew that cured all the ills +incidental to humanity, he would have found a warm and hearty welcome +-- might have sold dried cabbage leaves for his wonderful herb, and +made his fortune. + + In fact, it will be found in the history of every generation and +race of men, that whenever a choice of belief between the "Wondrously +False" and the "Wondrously True" is given to ignorance or prejudice, +that their choice will be fixed upon the first, for the reason that it +is most akin to their own nature. The great majority of mankind, and +even of the wisest among us, are still in the condition of the +sailor's mother -- believing and disbelieving on the same grounds that +she did -- protesting against the flying fish, but cherishing the +golden wheels. Thousands there are amongst us, who, rather than pin +their faith in the one fish, would believe not only in the wheel of +gold, but the chariot - not only in the chariot, but in the horses and +the driver. + + +POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + +La faridondaine -- la faridondon, +Vive la faridondaine! + +BERANGER. + + The popular humours of a great city are a never-failing source of +amusement to the man whose sympathies are hospitable enough to embrace +all his kind, and who, refined though he may be himself, will not +sneer at the humble wit or grotesque peculiarities of the boozing +mechanic, the squalid beggar, the vicious urchin, and all the motley +group of the idle, the reckless, and the imitative that swarm in the +alleys and broadways of a metropolis. He who walks through a great +city to find subjects for weeping, may, God knows, find plenty at +every corner to wring his heart; but let such a man walk on his +course, and enjoy his grief alone -- we are not of those who would +accompany him. The miseries of us poor earthdwellers gain no +alleviation from the sympathy of those who merely hunt them out to be +pathetic over them. The weeping philosopher too often impairs his +eyesight by his woe, and becomes unable from his tears to see the +remedies for the evils which he deplores. Thus it will often be found +that the man of no tears is the truest philanthropist, as he is the +best physician who wears a cheerful face, even in the worst of cases. + + So many pens have been employed to point out the miseries, and so +many to condemn the crimes and vices, and more serious follies of the +multitude, that our's shall not increase the number, at least in this +chapter. Our present task shall be less ungracious, and wandering +through the busy haunts of great cities, we shall seek only for +amusement, and note as we pass a few of the harmless follies and +whimsies of the poor. + + And, first of all, walk where we will, we cannot help hearing from +every side a phrase repeated with delight, and received with laughter, +by men with hard hands and dirty faces -- by saucy butcher lads and +errand-boys -- by loose women -- by hackney coachmen, cabriolet +drivers, and idle fellows who loiter at the corners of streets. Not +one utters this phrase without producing a laugh from all within +hearing. It seems applicable to every circumstance, and is the +universal answer to every question; in short, it is the favourite +slang phrase of the day, a phrase that, while its brief season of +popularity lasts, throws a dash of fun and frolicsomeness over the +existence of squalid poverty and ill-requited labour, and gives them +reason to laugh as well as their more fortunate fellows in a higher +stage of society. + + London is peculiarly fertile in this sort of phrases, which spring +up suddenly, no one knows exactly in what spot, and pervade the whole +population in a few hours, no one knows how. Many years ago the +favourite phrase (for, though but a monosyllable, it was a phrase in +itself) was Quoz. This odd word took the fancy of the multitude in an +extraordinary degree, and very soon acquired an almost boundless +meaning. When vulgar wit wished to mark its incredulity and raise a +laugh at the same time, there was no resource so sure as this popular +piece of slang. When a man was asked a favour which he did not choose +to grant, he marked his sense of the suitor's unparalleled presumption +by exclaiming Quoz! When a mischievous urchin wished to annoy a +passenger, and create mirth for his chums, he looked him in the face, +and cried out Quoz! and the exclamation never failed in its object. +When a disputant was desirous of throwing a doubt upon the veracity of +his opponent, and getting summarily rid of an argument which he could +not overturn, he uttered the word Quoz, with a contemptuous curl of +his lip and an impatient shrug of his shoulders. The universal +monosyllable conveyed all his meaning, and not only told his opponent +that he lied, but that he erred egregiously if he thought that any one +was such a nincompoop as to believe him. Every alehouse resounded with +Quoz; every street corner was noisy with it, and every wall for miles +around was chalked with it. + + But, like all other earthly things, Quoz had its season, and +passed away as suddenly as it arose, never again to be the pet and the +idol of the populace. A new claimant drove it from its place, and held +undisputed sway till, in its turn, it was hurled from its +pre-eminence, and a successor appointed in its stead. + + "What a shocking bad hat!" was the phrase that was next in vogue. +No sooner had it become universal, than thousands of idle but sharp +eyes were on the watch for the passenger whose hat showed any signs, +however slight, of ancient service. Immediately the cry arose, and, +like the what-whoop of the Indians, was repeated by a hundred +discordant throats. He was a wise man who, finding himself under these +circumstances "the observed of all observers," bore his honours +meekly. He who showed symptoms of ill-feeling at the imputations cast +upon his hat, only brought upon himself redoubled notice. The mob soon +perceive whether a man is irritable, and, if of their own class, they +love to make sport of him. When such a man, and with such a hat, +passed in those days through a crowded neighbourhood, he might think +himself fortunate if his annoyances were confined to the shouts and +cries of the populace. The obnoxious hat was often snatched from his +head, and thrown into the gutter by some practical joker, and then +raised, covered with mud, upon the end of a stick, for the admiration +of the spectators, who held their sides with laughter, and exclaimed +in the pauses of their mirth, "Oh! what a shocking bad hat! .... What +a shocking bad hat!" Many a nervous, poor man, whose purse could but +ill spare the outlay, doubtless purchased a new hat before the time, +in order to avoid exposure in this manner. + + The origin of this singular saying, which made fun for the +metropolis for months, is not involved in the same obscurity as that +which shrouds the origin of Quoz and some others. There had been a +hotly-contested election for the borough of Southwark, and one of the +candidates was an eminent hatter. This gentleman, in canvassing the +electors, adopted a somewhat professional mode of conciliating their +good-will, and of bribing them without letting them perceive that they +were bribed. Whenever he called upon or met a voter whose hat was not +of the best material, or, being so, had seen its best days, he +invariably said, "What a shocking bad hat you have got; call at my +warehouse, and you shall have a new one!" Upon the day of election +this circumstance was remembered, and his opponents made the most of +it, by inciting the crowd to keep up an incessant cry of "What a +shocking bad hat!" all the time the honourable candidate was +addressing them. From Southwark the phrase spread over all London, and +reigned, for a time, the supreme slang of the season. + + Hookey Walker, derived from the chorus of a popular ballad, was +also high in favour at one time, and served, like its predecessor, +Quoz, to answer all questions. In the course of time the latter word +alone became the favourite, and was uttered with a peculiar drawl upon +the first syllable, and a sharp turn upon the last. If a lively +servant girl was importuned for a kiss by a fellow she did not care +about, she cocked her little nose, and cried "Walker!" If a dustman +asked his friend for the loan of a shilling, and his friend was either +unable or unwilling to accommodate him, the probable answer he would +receive was "Walker!" If a drunken man was reeling along the streets, +and a boy pulled his coat-tails, or a man knocked his hat over his +eyes to make fun of him, the joke was always accompanied by the same +exclamation. This lasted for two or three months, and "Walker!" walked +off the stage, never more to be revived for the entertainment of that +or any future generation. + + The next phrase was a most preposterous one. Who invented it, how +it arose, or where it was first heard, are alike unknown. Nothing +about it is certain, but that for months it was the slang par +excellence of the Londoners, and afforded them a vast gratification. +"There he goes with his eye out!" or "There she goes with her eye +out!" as the sex of the party alluded to might be, was in the mouth of +everybody who knew the town. The sober part of the community were as +much puzzled by this unaccountable saying as the vulgar were delighted +with it. The wise thought it very foolish, but the many thought it +very funny, and the idle amused themselves by chalking it upon walls, +or scribbling it upon monuments. But, "all that's bright must fade," +even in slang. The people grew tired of their hobby, and "There he +goes with his eye out!" was heard no more in its accustomed haunts. + + Another very odd phrase came into repute in a brief space +afterwards, in the form of the impertinent and not universally +apposite query, "Has your mother sold her mangle?" But its popularity +was not of that boisterous and cordial kind which ensures a long +continuance of favour. What tended to impede its progress was, that it +could not be well applied to the older portions of society. It +consequently ran but a brief career, and then sank into oblivion. Its +successor enjoyed a more extended fame, and laid its foundations so +deep, that years and changing fashions have not sufficed to eradicate +it. This phrase was "Flare up!" and it is, even now, a colloquialism +in common use. It took its rise in the time of the Reform riots, when +Bristol was nearly half burned by the infuriated populace. The flames +were said to have flared up in the devoted city. Whether there was +anything peculiarly captivating in the sound, or in the idea of these +words, is hard to say; but whatever was the reason, it tickled the +mob-fancy mightily, and drove all other slang out of the field before +it. Nothing was to be heard all over London but "flare up!" It +answered all questions, settled all disputes, was applied to all +persons, all things, and all circumstances, and became suddenly the +most comprehensive phrase in the English language. The man who had +overstepped the bounds of decorum in his speech was said to have +flared up; he who had paid visits too repeated to the gin-shop, and +got damaged in consequence, had flared up. To put one's-self into a +passion; to stroll out on a nocturnal frolic, and alarm a +neighbourhood, or to create a disturbance in any shape, was to flare +up. A lovers' quarrel was a fare up; so was a boxing-match between two +blackguards in the streets, and the preachers of sedition and +revolution recommended the English nation to flare up, like the +French. So great a favourite was the word, that people loved to repeat +it for its very sound. They delighted apparently in hearing their own +organs articulate it; and labouring men, when none who could respond +to the call were within hearing, would often startle the aristocratic +echoes of the West by the well-known slang phrase of the East. Even in +the dead hours of the night, the ears of those who watched late, or +who could not sleep, were saluted with the same sound. The drunkard +reeling home showed that he was still a man and a citizen, by calling +"flare up" in the pauses of his hiccough. Drink had deprived him of +the power of arranging all other ideas; his intellect was sunk to the +level of the brute's; but he clung to humanity by the one last link of +the popular cry. While he could vociferate that sound, he had rights +as an Englishman, and would not sleep in a gutter, like a dog! Onwards +he went, disturbing quiet streets and comfortable people by his whoop, +till exhausted nature could support him no more, and he rolled +powerless into the road. When, in due time afterwards, the policeman +stumbled upon him as he lay, that guardian of the peace turned the +full light of his lantern on his face, and exclaimed, "Here's a poor +devil who's been flaring up!" Then came the stretcher, on which the +victim of deep potations was carried to the watchhouse, and pitched +into a dirty cell, among a score of wretches about as far gone as +himself, who saluted their new comrade by a loud, long shout of flare +up! + + So universal was this phrase, and so enduring seemed its +popularity, that a speculator, who knew not the evanescence of slang, +established a weekly newspaper under its name. But he was like the man +who built his house upon the sand; his foundation gave way under him, +and the phrase and the newspaper were washed into the mighty sea of +the things that were. The people grew at last weary of the monotony, +and "flare up" became vulgar even among them. Gradually it was left to +little boys who did not know the world, and in process of time sank +altogether into neglect. It is now heard no more as a piece of popular +slang; but the words are still used to signify any sudden outburst +either of fire, disturbance, or ill-nature. + + The next phrase that enjoyed the favour of the million was less +concise, and seems to have been originally aimed against precocious +youths who gave themselves the airs of manhood before their time. +"Does your mother know you're out?" was the provoking query addressed +to young men of more than reasonable swagger, who smoked cigars in the +streets, and wore false whiskers to look irresistible. We have seen +many a conceited fellow who could not suffer a woman to pass him +without staring her out of countenance, reduced at once into his +natural insignificance by the mere utterance of this phrase. +Apprentice lads and shopmen in their Sunday clothes held the words in +abhorrence, and looked fierce when they were applied to them. +Altogether the phrase had a very salutary effect, and in a thousand +instances showed young Vanity, that it was not half so pretty and +engaging as it thought itself. What rendered it so provoking was the +doubt it implied as to the capability of self-guidance possessed by +the individual to whom it was addressed. "Does your mother know you're +out?" was a query of mock concern and solicitude, implying regret and +concern that one so young and inexperienced in the ways of a great +city should be allowed to wander abroad without the guidance of a +parent. Hence the great wrath of those who verged on manhood, but had +not reached it, whenever they were made the subject of it. Even older +heads did not like it; and the heir of a ducal house, and inheritor of +a warrior's name, to whom they were applied by a cabriolet driver, who +was ignorant of his rank, was so indignant at the affront, that he +summoned the offender before the magisterial bench. The fellow had +wished to impose upon his Lordship by asking double the fare he was +entitled to, and when his Lordship resisted the demand, he was +insultingly asked "if his mother knew he was out?" All the drivers on +the stand joined in the query, and his Lordship was fain to escape +their laughter by walking away with as much haste as his dignity would +allow. The man pleaded ignorance that his customer was a Lord, but +offended justice fined him for his mistake. + + When this phrase had numbered its appointed days, it died away, +like its predecessors, and "Who are you?" reigned in its stead. This +new favourite, like a mushroom, seems to have sprung up in a night, +or, like a frog in Cheapside, to have come down in a sudden shower. +One day it was unheard, unknown, uninvented; the next it pervaded +London; every alley resounded with it; every highway was musical with +it, + +"And street to street, and lane to lane flung back +The one unvarying cry." + +The phrase was uttered quickly, and with a sharp sound upon the first +and last words, leaving the middle one little more than an aspiration. +Like all its compeers which had been extensively popular, it was +applicable to almost every variety of circumstance. The lovers of a +plain answer to a plain question did not like it at all. Insolence +made use of it to give offence; ignorance, to avoid exposing itself; +and waggery, to create laughter. Every new comer into an alehouse +tap-room was asked unceremoniously, "Who are you?" and if he looked +foolish, scratched his head, and did not know what to reply, shouts of +boisterous merriment resounded on every side. An authoritative +disputant was not unfrequently put down, and presumption of every kind +checked by the same query. When its popularity was at its height, a +gentleman, feeling the hand of a thief in his pocket, turned suddenly +round, and caught him in the act, exclaiming, "Who are you?" The mob +which gathered round applauded to the very echo, and thought it the +most capital joke they had ever heard -- the very acme of wit -- the +very essence of humour. Another circumstance, of a similar kind, gave +an additional fillip to the phrase, and infused new life and vigour +into it, just as it was dying away. The scene occurred in the chief +criminal court of the kingdom. A prisoner stood at the bar; the +offence with which he had been charged was clearly proved against him; +his counsel had been heard, not in his defence, but in extenuation, +insisting upon his previous good life and character, as reasons for +the lenity of the court. "And where are your witnesses?" inquired the +learned judge who presided. "Please you, my Lord, I knows the prisoner +at the bar, and a more honester feller never breathed," said a rough +voice in the gallery. The officers of the court looked aghast, and the +strangers tittered with ill-suppressed laughter. "Who are you?" said +the Judge, looking suddenly up, but with imperturbable gravity. The +court was convulsed; the titter broke out into a laugh, and it was +several minutes before silence and decorum could be restored. When the +Ushers recovered their self-possession, they made diligent search for +the profane transgressor; but he was not to be found. Nobody knew him; +nobody had seen him. After a while the business of the court again +proceeded. The next prisoner brought up for trial augured favourably +of his prospects when he learned that the solemn lips of the +representative of justice had uttered the popular phrase as if he felt +and appreciated it. There was no fear that such a judge would use +undue severity; his heart was with the people; he understood their +language and their manners, and would make allowances for the +temptations which drove them into crime. So thought many of the +prisoners, if we may infer it from the fact, that the learned judge +suddenly acquired an immense increase of popularity. The praise of his +wit was in every mouth, and "Who are you?" renewed its lease, and +remained in possession of public favour for another term in +consequence. + + But it must not be supposed that there were no interregni between +the dominion of one slang phrase and another. They did not arise in +one long line of unbroken succession, but shared with song the +possession of popular favour. Thus, when the people were in the mood +for music, slang advanced its claims to no purpose, and, when they +were inclined for slang, the sweet voice of music wooed them in vain. +About twenty years ago London resounded with one chorus, with the love +of which everybody seemed to be smitten. Girls and boys, young men and +old, maidens and wives, and widows, were all alike musical. There was +an absolute mania for singing, and the worst of it was, that, like +good Father Philip, in the romance of "The Monastery," they seemed +utterly unable to change their tune. "Cherry ripe!" "Cherry ripe!" was +the universal cry of all the idle in the town. Every unmelodious voice +gave utterance to it; every crazy fiddle, every cracked flute, every +wheezy pipe, every street organ was heard in the same strain, until +studious and quiet men stopped their ears in desperation, or fled +miles away into the fields or woodlands, to be at peace. This plague +lasted for a twelvemonth, until the very name of cherries became an +abomination in the land. At last the excitement wore itself away, and +the tide of favour set in a new direction. Whether it was another song +or a slang phrase, is difficult to determine at this distance of time; +but certain it is, that very shortly afterwards, people went mad upon +a dramatic subject, and nothing was to be heard of but "Tom and +Jerry." Verbal wit had amused the multitude long enough, and they +became more practical in their recreation. Every youth on the town was +seized with the fierce desire of distinguishing himself, by knocking +down the "charlies," being locked up all night in a watchhouse, or +kicking up a row among loose women and blackguard men in the low dens +of St. Giles's. Imitative boys vied with their elders in similar +exploits, until this unworthy passion, for such it was, had lasted, +like other follies, its appointed time, and the town became merry +after another fashion. It was next thought the height of vulgar wit to +answer all questions by placing the point of the thumb upon the tip of +the nose, and twirling the fingers in the air. If one man wished to +insult or annoy another, he had only to make use of this cabalistic +sign in his face, and his object was accomplished. At every street +corner where a group was assem- bled, the spectator who was curious +enough to observe their movements, would be sure to see the fingers of +some of them at their noses, either as a mark of incredulity, +surprise, refusal, or mockery, before he had watched two minutes. +There is some remnant of this absurd custom to be seen to this day; +but it is thought low, even among the vulgar. + + About six years ago, London became again most preposterously +musical. The vox populi wore itself hoarse by singing the praises of +"The Sea, the Sea!" If a stranger (and a philosopher) had walked +through London, and listened to the universal chorus, he might have +constructed a very pretty theory upon the love of the English for the +sea-service, and our acknowledged superiority over all other nations +upon that element. "No wonder," he might have said, "that this people +is invincible upon the ocean. The love of it mixes with their daily +thoughts: they celebrate it even in the market-place: their +street-minstrels excite charity by it; and high and low, young and +old, male and female, chant Io paeans in its praise. Love is not +honoured in the national songs of this warlike race -- Bacchus is no +god to them; they are men of sterner mould, and think only of 'the +Sea, the Sea!' and the means of conquering upon it." + + Such would, doubtless, have been his impression if he had taken +the evidence only of his ears. Alas! in those days for the refined +ears that were musical! great was their torture when discord, with its +thousand diversities of tone, struck up this appalling anthem -- there +was no escape from it. The migratory minstrels of Savoy caught the +strain, and pealed it down the long vistas of quiet streets, till +their innermost and snuggest apartments re-echoed with the sound. Men +were obliged to endure this crying evil for full six months, wearied +to desperation, and made sea-sick on the dry land. + + Several other songs sprang up in due succession afterwards, but +none of them, with the exception of one, entitled "All round my Hat," +enjoyed any extraordinary share of favour, until an American actor +introduced a vile song called "Jim Crow." The singer sang his verses +in appropriate costume, with grotesque gesticulations, and a sudden +whirl of his body at the close of each verse. It took the taste of the +town immediately, and for months the ears of orderly people were +stunned by the senseless chorus- + +"Turn about and wheel about, +And do just so-- +Turn about and wheel about, +And jump, Jim Crow!" + +Street-minstrels blackened their faces in order to give proper effect +to the verses; and fatherless urchins, who had to choose between +thieving and singing for their livelihood, took the latter course, as +likely to be the more profitable, as long as the public taste remained +in that direction. The uncouth dance, its accompaniment, might be seen +in its full perfection on market nights in any great thoroughfare; and +the words of the song might be heard, piercing above all the din and +buzz of the ever-moving multitude. He, the calm observer, who during +the hey-day popularity of this doggrel, + +"Sate beside the public way, +Thick strewn with summer dust, and saw the stream +Of people there was hurrying to and fro, +Numerous as gnats upon the evening gleam," + +might have exclaimed with Shelley, whose fine lines we quote, that + +"The million, with fierce song and maniac dance, +Did rage around." + +The philosophic theorist we have already supposed soliloquising upon +the English character, and forming his opinion of it from their +exceeding love for a sea-song, might, if he had again dropped suddenly +into London, have formed another very plausible theory to account for +our unremitting efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. +"Benevolent people!" he might have said, "how unbounded are your +sympathies! Your unhappy brethren of Africa, differing from you only +in the colour of their skins, are so dear to you, and you begrudge so +little the twenty millions you have paid on their behalf, that you +love to have a memento of them continually in your sight. Jim Crow is +the representative of that injured race, and as such is the idol of +your populace! See how they all sing his praises! -- how they imitate +his peculiarities! -- how they repeat his name in their moments of +leisure and relaxation! They even carve images of him to adorn their +hearths, that his cause and his sufferings may never be forgotten ! +Oh, philanthropic England! -- oh, vanguard of civilization!" + + Such are a few of the peculiarities of the London multitude, when +no riot, no execution, no murder, no balloon, disturbs the even +current of their thoughts. These are the whimseys of the mass - the +harmless follies by which they unconsciously endeavour to lighten the +load of care which presses upon their existence. The wise man, even +though he smile at them, will not altogether withhold his sympathy, +and will say, "Let them enjoy their slang phrases and their choruses +if they will; and if they cannot be happy, at least let them be +merry." To the Englishman, as well as to the Frenchman of whom +Beranger sings, there may be some comfort in so small a thing as a +song, and we may, own with him that + +"Au peuple attriste +Ce qui rendra la gaite, +C'est la GAUDRIOLE! +O gue! +C'est la GAUDRIOLE!" + + +THE O.P. MANIA. + +And these things bred a great combustion in the town. + Wagstaffe's "Apparition of Mother Haggis." + + The acrimonious warfare carried on for a length of time by the +playgoers of London against the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, +is one of the most singular instances upon record of the small folly +which will sometimes pervade a multitude of intelligent men. Carried +on at first from mere obstinacy by a few, and afterwards for mingled +obstinacy and frolic by a greater number, it increased at last to such +a height, that the sober dwellers in the provinces held up their hands +in astonishment, and wondered that the people of London should be such +fools. As much firmness and perseverance displayed in a better cause, +might have achieved important triumphs; and we cannot but feel regret, +in recording this matter, that so much good and wholesome energy +should have been thrown away on so unworthy an object. But we will +begin with the beginning, and trace the O. P. mania from its source. + + On the night of the 20th of September, 1808, the old theatre of +Covent-Garden was totally destroyed by fire. Preparations were +immediately made for the erection of a more splendid edifice, and the +managers, Harris and the celebrated John Philip Kemble, announced that +the new theatre should be without a rival in Europe. In less than +three months, the rubbish of the old building was cleared away, and +the foundation-stone of the new one laid with all due ceremony by the +Duke of Sussex. With so much celerity were the works carried on that, +in nine months more, the edifice was completed, both without and +within. The opening night was announced for the 18th of September +1809, within two days of a twelvemonth since the destruction of the +original building. + + But the undertaking had proved more expensive than the Committee +anticipated. To render the pit entrance more commodious, it had been +deemed advisable to remove a low public-house that stood in the way. +This turned out a matter of no little difficulty, for the proprietor +was a man well skilled in driving a hard bargain. The more eager the +Committee showed themselves to come to terms with him for his +miserable pot-house, the more grasping he became in his demands for +compensation. They were ultimately obliged to pay him an exorbitant +sum. Added to this, the interior decorations were on the most costly +scale; and Mrs. Siddons, and other members of the Kemble family, +together with the celebrated Italian singer, Madame Catalani, had been +engaged at very high salaries. As the night of opening drew near, the +Committee found that they had gone a little beyond their means; and +they issued a notice, stating that, in consequence of the great +expense they had been at in building the theatre, and the large +salaries they had agreed to pay, to secure the services of the most +eminent actors, they were under the necessity of fixing the prices of +admission at seven shillings to the boxes and four shillings to the +pit, instead of six shillings and three and sixpence, as heretofore. + + This announcement created the greatest dissatisfaction. The boxes +might have borne the oppression, but the dignity of the pit was +wounded. A war-cry was raised immediately. For some weeks previous to +the opening, a continual clatter was kept up in clubs and +coffee-rooms, against what was considered a most unconstitutional +aggression on the rights of play-going man. The newspapers assiduously +kept up the excitement, and represented, day after day, to the +managers the impolicy of the proposed advance. The bitter politics of +the time were disregarded, and Kemble and Covent-Garden became as +great sources of interest as Napoleon and France. Public attention was +the more fixed upon the proceedings at Covent-Garden, since it was the +only patent theatre then in existence, Drury-Lane theatre having also +been destroyed by fire in the month of February previous. But great as +was the indignation of the lovers of the drama at that time, no one +could have anticipated the extraordinary lengths to which opposition +would be carried. + + First Night, September 20th. -- The performances announced were +the tragedy of "Macbeth" and the afterpiece of "The Quaker." The house +was excessively crowded (the pit especially) with persons who had gone +for no other purpose than to make a disturbance. They soon discovered +another grievance to add to the list. The whole of the lower, and +three-fourths of the upper tier of boxes, were let out for the season; +so that those who had paid at the door for a seat in the boxes, were +obliged to mount to a level with the gallery. Here they were stowed +into boxes which, from their size and shape, received the +contemptuous, and not inappropriate designation of pigeon-holes. This +was considered in the light of a new aggression upon established +rights; and long before the curtain drew up, the managers might have +heard in their green-room the indignant shouts of "Down with the +pigeon-holes!" -- "Old prices for ever!" Amid this din the curtain +rose, and Mr. Kemble stood forward to deliver a poetical address in +honour of the occasion. The riot now began in earnest; not a word of +the address was audible, from the stamping and groaning of the people +in the pit. This continued, almost without intermission, through the +five acts of the tragedy. Now and then, the sublime acting of Mrs. +Siddons, as "the awful woman," hushed the noisy multitude into +silence, in spite of themselves: but it was only for a moment; the +recollection of their fancied wrongs made them ashamed of their +admiration, and they shouted and hooted again more vigorously than +before. The comedy of Munden in the afterpiece met with no better +reception; not a word was listened to, and the curtain fell amid still +increasing uproar and shouts of "Old prices!" Some magistrates, who +happened to be present, zealously came to the rescue, and appeared on +the stage with copies of the Riot Act. This ill-judged proceeding made +the matter worse. The men of the pit were exasperated by the +indignity, and strained their lungs to express how deeply they felt +it. Thus remained the war till long after midnight, when the +belligerents withdrew from sheer exhaustion. + + Second Night. -- The crowd was not so great; all those who had +gone on the previous evening to listen to the performances, now stayed +away, and the rioters had it nearly all to themselves. With the +latter, "the play was not the thing," and Macheath and Polly sang in +"The Beggar's Opera" in vain. The actors and the public appeared to +have changed sides -- the audience acted, and the actors listened. A +new feature of this night's proceedings was the introduction of +placards. Several were displayed from the pit and boxes, inscribed in +large letters with the words, "Old prices." With a view of striking +terror, the constables who had been plentifully introduced into the +house, attacked the placard-bearers, and succeeded, after several +severe battles, in dragging off a few of them to the neighbouring +watch-house, in Bow Street. Confusion now became worse and worse +confounded. The pitites screamed themselves hoarse; while, to increase +the uproar, some mischievous frequenters of the upper regions squeaked +through dozens of cat-calls, till the combined noise was enough to +blister every tympanum in the house. + + Third Night.--The appearance of several gentlemen in the morning +at the bar of the Bow Street police office, to answer for their +riotous conduct, had been indignantly commented upon during the day. +All augured ill for the quiet of the night. The performances announced +were "Richard the Third" and "The Poor Soldier," but the popularity of +the tragedy could not obtain it a hearing. The pitites seemed to be +drawn into closer union by the attacks made upon them, and to act more +in concert than on the previous nights. The placards were, also, more +numerous; not only the pit, but the boxes and galleries exhibited +them. Among the most conspicuous, was one inscribed, "John Bull +against John Kemble. -- Who'll win?" Another bore "King George for +ever! but no King Kemble." A third was levelled against Madame +Catalani, whose large salary was supposed to be one of the causes of +the increased prices, and was inscribed "No foreigners to tax us -- +we're taxed enough already." This last was a double-barrelled one, +expressing both dramatic and political discontent, and was received +with loud cheers by the pitites. + + The tragedy and afterpiece were concluded full two hours before +their regular time; and the cries for Mr. Kemble became so loud, that +the manager thought proper to obey the summons. Amid all these scenes +of uproar he preserved his equanimity, and was never once betrayed +into any expression of petulance or anger. With some difficulty he +obtained a hearing. He entered into a detail of the affairs of the +theatre, assuring the audience at the same time of the solicitude of +the proprietors to accommodate themselves to the public wish. This was +received with some applause, as it was thought at first to manifest a +willingness to come back to the old prices, and the pit eagerly waited +for the next sentence, that was to confirm their hopes. That sentence +was never uttered, for Mr. Kemble, folding his arms majestically, +added, in his deep tragic voice, "Ladies and Gentlemen, I wait here to +know what you want!" Immediately the uproar was renewed, and became so +tremendous and so deafening, that the manager, seeing the uselessness +of further parley, made his bow and retired. + + A gentleman then rose in the boxes and requested a hearing. He +obtained it without difficulty. He began by inveighing in severe terms +against the pretended ignorance of Mr. Kemble, in asking them so +offensively what they wanted, and concluded by exhorting the people +never to cease their opposition until they brought down the prices to +their old level. The speaker, whose name was understood to be Leigh, +then requested a cheer for the actors, to show that no disrespect was +intended them. The cheer was given immediately. + + A barrister of the name of Smythe then rose to crave another +hearing for Mr. Kemble. The manager stood forth again, calm, unmoved, +and severe. "Ladies and gentlemen," said he, "I wait here to know your +wishes." Mr. Leigh, who took upon himself, "for that night only," the +character of popular leader, said, the only reply he could give was +one in three words, "the old prices." Hereat the shouts of applause +again rose, till the building rang. Still serene amid the storm, the +manager endeavoured to enter into explanations. The men of the pit +would hear nothing of the sort. They wanted entire and absolute +acquiescence. Less would not satisfy them; and, as Mr. Kemble only +wished to explain, they would not hear a word. He finally withdrew +amid a noise to which Babel must have been comparatively silent. + + Fourth night. -- The rioters were more obstinate than ever. The +noises were increased by the addition of whistles, bugle-horns, and +watchmen's rattles, sniffling, snorting, and clattering from all parts +of the house. Human lungs were taxed to the uttermost, and the +stamping on the floor raised such a dust as to render all objects but +dimly visible. In placards, too, there was greater variety. The loose +wits of the town had all day been straining their ingenuity to invent +new ones. Among them were, "Come forth, O Kemble! come forth and +tremble!" "Foolish John Kemble, we'll make you tremble!" and "No cats! +no Catalani! English actors for ever!" + + Those who wish to oppose a mob successfully, should never lose +their temper. It is a proof of weakness which masses of people at once +perceive, and never fail to take advantage of. Thus, when the managers +unwisely resolved to fight the mob with their own weapons, it only +increased the opposition it was intended to allay. A dozen pugilists, +commanded by a notorious boxer of the day, were introduced into the +pit, to use the argumentum ad hominem to the rioters. Continual +scuffles ensued: but the invincible resolution of the playgoers would +not allow them to quail; it rather aroused them to renewed opposition, +and a determination never to submit or yield. It also strengthened +their cause, by affording them further ground of complaint against the +managers. + + The performances announced on the bills were the opera of "Love in +a Village," and "Who wins?" but the bills had it all to themselves, +for neither actors nor public were much burthened with them. The +latter, indeed, afforded some sport. The title was too apt to the +occasion to escape notice, and shouts of "Who wins? who wins?" +displaced for a time the accustomed cry of old prices. + + After the fall of the curtain, Mr. Leigh, with another gentleman, +again spoke, complaining bitterly of the introduction of the +prize-fighters, and exhorting the public never to give in. Mr. Kemble +was again called forward; but when he came, the full tide of discord +ran so strongly against him that, being totally unable to stem it, he +withdrew. Each man seemed to shout as if he had been a Stentor; and +when his lungs were wearied, took to his feet and stamped, till all +the black coats in his vicinity became grey with dust. At last the +audience were tired out, and the theatre was closed before eleven +o'clock. + + Fifth night. -- The play was Coleman's amusing comedy of" John +Bull." There was no diminution of the uproar. Every note on the +diapason of discord was run through. The prize-fighters, or hitites as +they were called, mustered in considerable numbers, and the battles +between them and the pitites were fierce and many. It was now, for the +first time, that the letters O.P. came into general use as an +abbreviation of the accustomed watchword of old prices. Several +placards were thus inscribed; and, as brevity is so desirable in +shouting, the mob adopted the emendation. As usual, the manager was +called for. After some delay he came forward, and was listened to with +considerable patience. He repeated, in respectful terms, the great +loss that would be occasioned to the proprietors by a return to the +old prices, and offered to submit a statement of their accounts to the +eminent lawyers, Sir Vicary Gibbs and Sir Thomas Plumer; the eminent +merchants, Sir Francis Baring and Mr. Angerstein; and Mr. Whitmore, +the Governor of the Bank of England. By their decision as to the +possibility of carrying on the theatre at the old prices, he would +consent to be governed, and he hoped the public would do the same. +This reasonable proposition was scouted immediately. Not even the high +and reputable names he had mentioned were thought to afford any +guarantee for impartiality. The pitites were too wrong-headed to abate +one iota of their pretensions; and they had been too much insulted by +the prize-fighters in the manager's pay, to show any consideration for +him, or agree to any terms he might propose. They wanted full +acquiescence, and nothing less. Thus the conference broke off, and the +manager retired amid a storm of hisses. + + An Irish gentleman, named O'Reilly, then stood up in one of the +boxes. With true Irish gallantry, he came to the rescue of an ill-used +lady. He said he was disgusted at the attacks made upon Madame +Catalani, the finest singer in the world, and a lady inestimable in +private life. It was unjust, unmanly, and un-English to make the +innocent suffer for the guilty; and he hoped this blot would be no +longer allowed to stain a fair cause. As to the quarrel with the +manager, he recommended them to persevere. They were not only wronged +by his increased prices, but insulted by his boxers, and he hoped, +that before they had done with him, they would teach him a lesson he +would not soon forget. The gallant Hibernian soon became a favourite, +and sat down amid loud cheers. + + Sixth night. - No signs of a cessation of hostilities on the one +side, or of a return to the old prices on the other. The playgoers +seemed to grow more united as the managers grew more obstinate. The +actors had by far the best time of it; for they were spared nearly all +the labour of their parts, and merely strutted on the stage to see how +matters went on, and then strutted off again. Notwithstanding the +remonstrance of Mr. O'Reilly on the previous night, numerous placards +reflecting upon Madame Catalani were exhibited. One was inscribed with +the following doggrel :- + +"Seventeen thousand a-year goes pat, +To Kemble, his sister, and Madame Cat." + +On another was displayed, in large letters, "No compromise, old +prices, and native talent!" Some of these were stuck against the front +of the boxes, and others were hoisted from the pit on long poles. The +following specimens will suffice to show the spirit of them; wit they +had none, or humour either, although when they were successively +exhibited, they elicited roars of laughter:-- + +"John Kemble alone is the cause of this riot; +When he lowers his prices, John Bull will be quiet." + +"John Kemble be damn'd, +We will not be cramm'd." + +"Squire Kemble +Begins to tremble." + + The curtain fell as early as nine o'clock, when there being loud +calls for Mr. Kemble, he stood forward. He announced that Madame +Catalani, against whom so unjustifiable a prejudice had been excited, +had thrown up her engagement rather than stand in the way of any +accommodation of existing differences. This announcement was received +with great applause. Mr. Kemble then went on to vindicate himself and +co-proprietors from the charge of despising public opinion. No +assertion, he assured them, could be more unjust. They were sincerely +anxious to bring these unhappy differences to a close, and he thought +he had acted in the most fair and reasonable manner in offering to +submit the accounts to an impartial committee, whose decision, and the +grounds for it, should be fully promulgated. This speech was received +with cheering, but interrupted at the close by some individuals, who +objected to any committee of the manager's nomination. This led to a +renewal of the uproar, and it was some time before silence could be +obtained. When, at last, he was able to make himself heard, he gave +notice, that until the decision of the committee had been drawn up, +the theatre should remain closed. Immediately every person in the pit +stood up, and a long shout of triumph resounded through the house, +which was heard at the extremity of Bow Street. As if this result had +been anticipated, a placard was at the same moment hoisted, inscribed, +"Here lies the body of NEW PRICE, an ugly brat and base born, who +expired on the 23rd of September 1809, aged six days. -- Requiescat in +pace!" + + Mr. Kemble then retired, and the pitites flung up their hats in +the air, or sprang over the benches, shouting and hallooing in the +exuberance of their joy; and thus ended the first act of this popular +farce. + + The committee ultimately chosen differed from that first named, +Alderman Sir Charles Price, Bart. and Mr. Silvester, the Recorder of +London, being substituted for Sir Francis Baring and Sir Vicary Gibbs. +In a few days they had examined the multitudinous documents of the +theatre, and agreed to a report which was published in all the +newspapers, and otherwise distributed. They stated the average profits +of the six preceding years at 6 and 3/8 per cent, being only 1 and 3/8 +per cent. beyond the legal interest of money, to recompense the +proprietors for all their care and enterprise. Under the new prices +they would receive 3 and 1/2 per cent. profit; but if they returned to +the old prices, they would suffer a loss of fifteen shillings per +cent. upon their capital. Under these circumstances, they could do no +other than recommend the proprietors to continue the new prices. + + This report gave no satisfaction. It certainly convinced the +reasonable, but they, unfortunately, were in a minority of one to ten. +The managers, disregarding the outcry that it excited, advertised the +recommencement of the performances for Wednesday the 4th of October +following. They endeavoured to pack the house with their friends, but +the sturdy O.P. men were on the alert, and congregated in the pit in +great numbers. The play was "The Beggar's Opera," but, as on former +occasions, it was wholly inaudible. The noises were systematically +arranged, and the actors, seeing how useless it was to struggle +against the popular feeling, hurried over their parts as quickly as +they could, and the curtain fell shortly after nine o'clock. Once more +the manager essayed the difficult task of convincing madness by +appealing to reason. As soon as the din of the rattles and post-horns +would permit him to speak, he said, he would throw himself on the +fairness of the most enlightened metropolis in the world. He was sure, +however strongly they might feel upon the subject, they would not be +accessory to the ruin of the theatre, by insisting upon a return to +the former prices. Notwithstanding the little sop he had thrown out to +feed the vanity of this roaring Cerberus, the only answer he received +was a renewal of the noise, intermingled with shouts of "Hoax! hoax! +imposition!" Mr. O'Reilly, the gallant friend of Madame Catalani, +afterwards addressed the pit, and said no reliance could be placed on +the report of the committee. The profits of the theatre were evidently +great: they had saved the heavy salary of Madame Catalani; and by +shutting out the public from all the boxes but the pigeon-holes, they +made large sums. The first and second tiers were let at high rents to +notorious courtesans, several of whom he then saw in the house; and it +was clear that the managers preferred a large revenue from this impure +source to the reasonable profits they would receive from respectable +people. Loud cheers greeted this speech; every eye was turned towards +the boxes, and the few ladies in them immediately withdrew. At the +same moment, some inveterate pitite hoisted a large placard, on which +was inscribed, + +"We lads of the pit +Will never submit." + +Several others were introduced. One of them was a caricature likeness +of Mr. Kemble, asking, "What do you want?" with a pitite replying, +"The old prices, and no pigeon-holes!" Others merely bore the drawing +of a large key, in allusion to a notorious house in the neighbourhood, +the denizens of which were said to be great frequenters of the private +boxes. These appeared to give the managers more annoyance than all the +rest, and the prize-fighters made vigorous attacks upon the holders of +them. Several persons were, on this night, and indeed nearly every +night, taken into custody, and locked up in the watchhouse. On their +appearance the following morning, they were generally held to bail in +considerable sums to keep the peace. This proceeding greatly augmented +the animosity of the pit. + + It would be useless to detail the scenes of confusion which +followed night after night. For about three weeks the war continued +with unabated fury. Its characteristics were nearly always the same. +Invention was racked to discover new noises, and it was thought a +happy idea when one fellow got into the gallery with a dustman's bell, +and rang it furiously. Dogs were also brought into the boxes, to add +their sweet voices to the general uproar. The animals seemed to join +in it con amore, and one night a large mastiff growled and barked so +loudly, as to draw down upon his exertions three cheers from the +gratified pitites. + + So strong did the popular enthusiasm run in favour of the row, +that well-dressed ladies appeared in the boxes with the letters O. P. +on their bonnets. O. P. hats for the gentlemen were still more common, +and some were so zealous in the cause, as to sport waistcoats with an +O embroidered upon one flap and a P on the other. O.P. toothpicks were +also in fashion; and gentlemen and ladies carried O.P. handkerchiefs, +which they waved triumphantly whenever the row was unusually +deafening. The latter suggested the idea of O. P. flags, which were +occasionally unfurled from the gallery to the length of a dozen feet. +Sometimes the first part of the night's performances were listened to +with comparative patience, a majority of the manager's friends being +in possession of the house. But as soon as the half-price commenced, +the row began again in all its pristine glory. At the fall of the +curtain it soon became customary to sing "God save the King," the +whole of the O.P.'s joining in loyal chorus. Sometimes this was +followed by "Rule Britannia;" and, on two or three occasions, by a +parody of the national anthem, which excited great laughter. A verse +may not be uninteresting as a specimen. + +"O Johnny Bull, be true, +Confound the prices new, +And make them fall! +Curse Kemble's politics, +Frustrate his knavish tricks, +On thee our hopes we fix, +T' upset them all !" + +This done, they scrambled over the benches, got up sham fights in the +pit, or danced the famous O.P. dance. The latter may as well be +described here: half a dozen, or a dozen fellows formed in a ring, and +stamped alternately with the right and left foot, calling out at +regular intervals, O. P. - O. P. with a drawling and monotonous sound. +This uniformly lasted till the lights were put out, when the rioters +withdrew, generally in gangs of ten or twenty, to defend themselves +from sudden attacks on the part of the constables. + + An idea seemed about this time to break in upon them, that +notwithstanding the annoyance they caused the manager, they were +aiding to fill his coffers. This was hinted at in some of the +newspapers, and the consequence was, that many stayed away to punish +him, if possible, under the silent system. But this did not last long. +The love of mischief was as great an incentive to many of them as +enmity to the new prices. Accidental circumstances also contributed to +disturb the temporary calm. At the Westminster quarter-sessions, on +the 27th of October, bills of indictment were preferred against +forty-one persons for creating a disturbance and interrupting the +performances of the theatre. The grand jury ignored twenty-seven of +the bills, left two undecided, and found true bills against twelve. +The latter exercised their right of traverse till the ensuing +sessions. The preferment of these bills had the effect of re-awakening +the subsiding excitement. Another circumstance about the same time +gave a still greater impetus to it, and furnished the rioters with a +chief, round whom they were eager to rally. Mr. Clifford, a barrister, +appeared in the pit on the night of the 31st of October, with the +letters O. P. on his hat. Being a man of some note, he was pounced +upon by the constables, and led off to Bow Street police office, where +Brandon, the box-keeper, charged him with riotous and disorderly +conduct. This was exactly what Clifford wanted. He told the presiding +magistrate, a Mr. Read, that he had purposely displayed the letters on +his hat, in order that the question of right might be determined +before a competent tribunal. He denied that he had committed any +offence, and seemed to manifest so intimate an acquaintance with the +law upon the subject, that the magistrate, convinced by his reasoning, +ordered his immediate dismissal, and stated that he had been taken +into custody without the slightest grounds. The result was made known +in the theatre a few minutes afterwards, where Mr. Clifford, on his +appearance victorious, was received with reiterated huzzas. On his +leaving the house, he was greeted by a mob of five or six hundred +persons, who had congregated outside to do him honour as he passed. +From that night the riots may be said to have recommenced, and +"Clifford and O. P." became the rallying cry of the party. The +officious box-keeper became at the same time the object of the popular +dislike, and the contempt with which the genius and fine qualities of +Mr. Kemble would not permit them to regard him, was fastened upon his +underling. So much ill-feeling was directed towards the latter, that +at this time a return to the old prices, unaccompanied by his +dismissal, would not have made the manager's peace with the pitites. + + In the course of the few succeeding weeks, during which the riots +continued with undiminished fury, O. P. medals were struck, and worn +in great numbers in the theatre. A few of the ultra-zealous even wore +them in the streets. A new fashion also came into favour for hats, +waistcoats, and handkerchiefs, on which the mark, instead of the +separate letters O and P, was a large O, with a small P in the middle +of it: thus, + + xxxxxxxxx + x x + x xxx x + x x x x + x xxx x + x x x + x x x + x x + xxxxxxxxx + + The managers, seeing that Mr. Clifford was so identified with the +rioters, determined to make him responsible. An action was accordingly +brought against him and other defendants in the Court of King's Bench. +On the 20th of November, the Attorney-general moved, before Lord +Ellenborough, for a rule to show cause why a criminal information +should not be filed against Clifford for unlawfully conspiring with +certain others to intimidate the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, +and force them, to their loss and detriment, to lower their prices of +admission. The rule was granted, and an early day fixed for the trial. +In the mean time, these proceedings kept up the acerbity of the O. +P.s, and every night at the fall of the curtain, three groans were +given for John Kemble and three cheers for John Bull. + + It was during this year that the national Jubilee was celebrated, +in honour of tile fiftieth year of the reign of George III. When the +riots had reached their fiftieth night, the O. P.s also determined to +have a jubilee. All their previous efforts in the way of roaring, +great as they were, were this night outdone, and would have continued +long after "the wee short hour," had not the managers wisely put the +extinguisher upon them and the lights about eleven o'clock. + + Pending the criminal prosecution against himself, Mr. Clifford +brought an action for false imprisonment against Brandon. The cause +was fixed for trial in the Court of Common Pleas, on the 5th of +December, before Lord Chief-Justice Mansfield. From an early hour in +the morning all the avenues leading to the court were thronged with an +eager multitude; all London was in anxiety for the resuit. So dense +was the crowd, that counsel found the greatest difficulty in making +their way into court. Mr. Sergeant Best was retained on the part of +the plaintiff, and Mr. Sergeant Shepherd for the defence. The +defendant put two pleas upon the record; first, that he was not +guilty, and secondly, that he was justified. Sergeant Best, in stating +the plaintiff's case, blamed the managers for all the disturbances +that had taken place, and contended that his client, in affixing the +letters O. P. to his hat, was not guilty of any offence. Even if he +had joined in the noises, which he had not, his so doing would not +subject him to the penalties for rioting. Several witnesses were then +called to prove the capture of Mr. Clifford, the hearing of the case +before the magistrate at Bow Street, and his ultimate dismissal. +Sergeant Shepherd was heard at great length on the other side, and +contended that his client was perfectly justified in taking into +custody a man who was inciting others to commit a breach of the peace. + + The Lord Chief-Justice summed up, with an evident bias in favour +of the defendant. He said an undue apprehension of the rights of an +audience had got abroad. Even supposing the object of the rioters to +be fair and legal, they were not authorized to carry it by unfair +means. In order to constitute a riot, it was not necessary that +personal violence should be committed, and it seemed to him that the +defendant had not acted in an improper manner in giving into custody a +person who, by the display of a symbol, was encouraging others to +commit a riot. + + The jury retired to consider their verdict. The crowd without and +within the court awaited the result in feverish suspense. Half an hour +elapsed, when the jury returned with a verdict for the plaintiff -- +Damages, five pounds. The satisfaction of the spectators was evident +upon their countenances, that of the judge expressed the contrary +feeling. Turning to the foreman of the jury, his Lordship asked upon +which of the two points referred to them, namely, the broad question, +whether a riot had been committed, and, if committed, whether the +plaintiff had participated in it, they had found their verdict? + + The foreman stated, that they were all of opinion generally that +the plaintiff had been illegally arrested. This vague answer did not +satisfy his Lordship, and he repeated his question. He could not, +however, obtain a more satisfactory reply. Evidently vexed at what he +deemed the obtuseness or partiality of the jury, he turned to the bar, +and said, that a spirit of a mischievous and destructive nature was +abroad, which, if not repressed, threatened awful consequences. The +country would be lost, he said, and the government overturned, if such +a spirit were encouraged; it was impossible it could end in good. +Time, the destroyer and fulfiller of predictions, has proved that his +Lordship was a false prophet. The harmless O. P. war has been +productive of no such dire results. + + It was to be expected that after this triumph, the war in the pit +would rage with redoubled acrimony. A riot beginning at half-price +would not satisfy the excited feelings of the O. P.s on the night of +such a victory. Long before the curtain drew up, the house was filled +with them, and several placards were exhibited, which the constables +and friends of the managers strove, as usual, to tear into shreds. One +of them, which met this fate, was inscribed, "Success to O.P.! A +British jury for ever!" It was soon replaced by another of a similar +purport. It is needless to detail the uproar that ensued; the jumping, +the fighting, the roaring, and the howling. For nine nights more the +same system was continued; but the end was at hand. + + On the 14th a grand dinner was given at the Crown and Anchor +tavern, to celebrate the victory of Mr. Clifford. "The reprobators of +managerial insolence," as they called themselves, attended in +considerable numbers; and Mr. Clifford was voted to the chair. The +cloth had been removed, and a few speeches made, when the company were +surprised by a message that their arch-enemy himself solicited the +honour of an audience. It was some time ere they could believe that +Mr. Kemble had ventured to such a place. After some parley the manager +was admitted, and a conference was held. A treaty was ultimately +signed and sealed, which put an end to the long-contested wars of +O.P., and restored peace to the drama. + + All this time the disturbance proceeded at the theatre with its +usual spirit. It was now the sixty-sixth night of its continuance, and +the rioters were still untired -- still determined to resist to the +last. In the midst of it a gentleman arrived from the Crown and +Anchor, and announced to the pit that Mr. Kemble had attended the +dinner, and had yielded at last to the demand of the public. He +stated, that it had been agreed upon between him and the Committee for +defending the persons under prosecution, that the boxes should remain +at the advanced price; that the pit should be reduced to three +shillings and sixpence; that the private boxes should be done away +with; and that all prosecutions, on both sides, should be immediately +stayed. This announcement was received with deafening cheers. As soon +as the first burst of enthusiasm was over, the O. P.s became anxious +for a confirmation of the intelligence, and commenced a loud call for +Mr. Kemble. He had not then returned from the Crown and Anchor; but of +this the pitites were not aware, and for nearly half an hour they kept +up a most excruciating din. At length the great actor made his +appearance, in his walking dress, with his cane in hand, as he had +left the tavern. It was a long time before he could obtain silence. +He. apologized in the most respectful terms for appearing before them +in such unbecoming costume, which was caused solely by his ignorance +that he should have to appear before them that night. After +announcing, as well as occasional interruptions would allow, the terms +that had been agreed upon, he added, "In order that no trace or +recollection of the past differences, which had unhappily prevailed so +long, should remain, he was instructed by the proprietors to say, that +they most sincerely lamented the course that had been pursued, and +engaged that, on their parts, all legal proceedings should forthwith +be put a stop to." The cheering which greeted this speech was +interrupted at the close by loud cries from the pit of "Dismiss +Brandon," while one or two exclaimed, "We want old prices generally, +-- six shillings for the boxes." After an ineffectual attempt to +address them again upon this point, Mr. Kemble made respectful and +repeated obeisances, and withdrew. The noises still continued, until +Munden stood forward, leading by the hand the humbled box-keeper, +contrition in his looks, and in his hands a written apology, which he +endeavoured to read. The uproar was increased threefold by his +presence, and, amid cries of "We won't hear him!" "Where's his +master?" he was obliged to retire. Mr. Harris, the son of Kemble's +co-manager, afterwards endeavoured to propitiate the audience in his +favour; but it was of no avail; nothing less than his dismissal would +satisfy the offended majesty of the pit. Amid this uproar the curtain +finally fell, and the O. P. dance was danced for the last time within +the walls of Covent Garden. + + On the following night it was announced that Brandon had resigned +his situation. This turned the tide of popular ill-will. The +performances were "The Wheel of Fortune," and an afterpiece. The house +was crowded to excess; a desire to be pleased was manifest on every +countenance, and when Mr. Kemble, who took his favourite character of +Penruddock, appeared upon the stage, he was greeted with the most +vehement applause. The noises ceased entirely, and the symbols of +opposition disappeared. The audience, hushed into attention, gave vent +to no sounds but those of admiration for the genius of the actor. +When, in the course of his part, he repeated the words, "So! I am in +London again !" the aptness of the expression to the circumstances of +the night, was felt by all present, and acknowledged by a round of +boisterous and thrice repeated cheering. It was a triumphant scene for +Mr. Kemble after his long annoyances. He had achieved a double +victory. He had, not only as a manager, soothed the obstinate +opposition of the play-goers, but as an actor he had forced from one +of the largest audiences he had ever beheld, approbation more cordial +and unanimous than he had ever enjoyed before. The popular favour not +only turned towards him; it embraced everybody connected with the +theatre, except the poor victim, Brandon. Most of the favourite actors +were called before the curtain to make their bow, and receive the +acclamations of the pit. At the close of the performances, a few +individuals, implacable and stubborn, got up a feeble cry of "Old +prices for the boxes;" but they were quickly silenced by the +reiterated cheers of the majority, or by cries of "Turn them out!" A +placard, the last of its race, was at the same time exhibited in the +front of the pit, bearing, in large letters, the words "We are +satisfied." + + Thus ended the famous wars of O. P., which, for a period of nearly +three months, had kept the metropolis in an uproar. And after all, +what was the grand result? As if the whole proceeding had been a +parody upon the more destructive, but scarcely more sensible wars +recorded in history, it was commenced in injustice, carried on in +bitterness of spirit, and ended, like the labour of the mountain, in a +mouse. The abatement of sixpence in the price of admission to the pit, +and the dismissal of an unfortunate servant, whose only fault was too +much zeal in the service of his employers, -- such were the grand +victories of the O. P.'s. + + +THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. + +Orribili favelle -- parole di dolor.--DANTE. + + Among the black deeds which Superstition has imposed as duties +upon her wretched votaries, none are more horrible than the practices +of the murderers, who, under the name of Thugs, or Phansigars, have so +long been the scourge of India. For ages they have pursued their dark +and dreadful calling, moulding assassination into a science, or +extolling it as a virtue, worthy only to be practised by a race +favoured of Heaven. Of late years this atrocious delusion has excited +much attention, both in this country and in India; an attention which, +it is to be hoped, will speedily lead to the uprooting of a doctrine +so revolting and anti-human. Although the British Government has +extended over Hindostan for so long a period, it does not appear that +Europeans even suspected the existence of this mysterious sect until +the commencement of the present century. In the year 1807, a gang of +Thugs, laden with the plunder of murdered travellers, was accidentally +discovered. The inquiries then set on foot revealed to the astonished +Government a system of iniquity unparalleled in the history of man. +Subsequent investigation extended the knowledge; and by throwing light +upon the peculiar habits of the murderers, explained the reason why +their crimes had remained so long undiscovered. In the following pages +will be found an epitome of all the information which has reached +Europe concerning them, derived principally from Dr. Sherwood's +treatise upon the subject, published in 1816, and the still more +valuable and more recent work of Mr. Sleeman, entitled the +"Ramaseeana; or, Vocabulary of the peculiar Language of the Thugs." + + The followers of this sect are called Thugs, or T'hugs, and their +profession Thuggee. In the south of India they are called Phansigars: +the former word signifying "a deceiver;" and the latter, "a +strangler." They are both singularly appropriate. The profession of +Thuggee is hereditary, and embraces, it is supposed, in every part of +India, a body of at least ten thousand individuals, trained to murder +from their childhood; carrying it on in secret and in silence, yet +glorying in it, and holding the practice of it higher than any earthly +honour. During the winter months, they usually follow some reputable +calling, to elude suspicion; and in the summer, they set out in gangs +over all the roads of India, to plunder and destroy. These gangs +generally contain from ten to forty Thugs, and sometimes as many as +two hundred. Each strangler is provided with a noose, to despatch the +unfortunate victim, as the Thugs make it a point never to cause death +by any other means. When the gangs are very large, they divide into +smaller bodies; and each taking a different route, they arrive at the +same general place of rendezvous to divide the spoil. They sometimes +travel in the disguise of respectable traders; sometimes as sepoys or +native soldiers; and at others, as government officers. If they chance +to fall in with an unprotected wayfarer, his fate is certain. One Thug +approaches him from behind, and throws the end of a sash round his +neck; the other end is seized by a second at the same instant, crossed +behind the neck, and drawn tightly, while with their other hand the +two Thugs thrust his head forward to expedite the strangulation: a +third Thug seizes the traveller by the legs at the same moment, and he +is thrown to the ground, a corpse before he reaches it. + + But solitary travellers are not the prey they are anxious to seek. +A wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals has not unfrequently +been destroyed by them; not one soul being permitted to escape. +Indeed, there is hardly an instance upon record of any one's escape +from their hands, so surely are their measures taken, and so well do +they calculate beforehand all the risks and difficulties of the +undertaking. Each individual of the gang has his peculiar duty +allotted to him. Upon-approaching a town, or serai, two or three, +known as the Soothaes, or "inveiglers," are sent in advance to +ascertain if any travellers are there; to learn, if possible, the +amount of money or merchandize they carry with them, their hours of +starting in the morning, or any other particulars that may be of use. +If they can, they enter into conversation with them, pretend to be +travelling to the same place, and propose, for mutual security, to +travel with them. This intelligence is duly communicated to the +remainder of the gang. The. place usually chosen for the murder is +some lonely part of the road in the vicinity of a jungle, and the +time, just before dusk. At given signals, understood only by +themselves, the scouts of the party station themselves in the front, +in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surprise. A strangler +and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place +themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the +victim, without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose is +twisted, drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the +traveller, in a few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, +twenty, and in some instances, sixty persons have been thus despatched +at the same moment. Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their +hands, he falls into those of the scouts who are stationed within +hearing, who run upon him and soon overpower him. + + Their next care is to dispose of the bodies. So cautious are they +to prevent detection, that they usually break all the joints to hasten +decomposition. They then cut open the body to prevent it swelling in +the grave and causing fissures in the soil above, by which means the +jackals might be attracted to the spot, and thereby lead to discovery. +When obliged to bury the body in a frequented district, they kindle a +fire over the grave to obliterate the traces of the newly turned +earth. Sometimes the grave-diggers of the party, whose office, like +that of all the rest, is hereditary, are despatched to make the graves +in the morning at some distant spot, by which it is known the +travellers will pass. The stranglers, in the mean time, journey +quietly with their victims, conversing with them in the most friendly +manner. Towards nightfall they approach the spot selected for their +murder; the signal is given, and they fall into the graves that have +been ready for them since day-break. On one occasion, related by +Captain Sleeman, a party of fifty-nine people, consisting of fifty-two +men and seven women, were thus simultaneously strangled, and thrown +into the graves prepared for them in the morning. Some of these +travellers were on horseback and well armed, but the Thugs, who appear +to have been upwards of two hundred in a gang, had provided against +all risk of failure. The only one left alive of all that numerous +party, was an infant four years old, who was afterwards initiated into +all the mysteries of Thuggee. + + If they cannot find a convenient opportunity for disposing of the +bodies, they carry them for many miles, until they come to a spot +secure from intrusion, and to a soil adapted to receive them. If fear +of putrefaction admonishes them to use despatch, they set up a large +screen or tent, as other travellers do, and bury the body within the +enclosure, pretending, if inquiries are made, that their women are +within. But this only happens when they fall in with a victim +unexpectedly. In murders which they have planned previously, the +finding of a place of sepulture is never left to hazard. + + Travellers who have the misfortune to lodge in the same choultry +or hostelry, as the Thugs, are often murdered during the night. It is +either against their creed to destroy a sleeper, or they find a +difficulty in placing the noose round the neck of a person in a +recumbent position. When this is the case, the slumberer is suddenly +aroused by the alarm of a snake or a scorpion. He starts to his feet, +and finds the fatal sash around his neck. -- He never escapes. + + In addition to these Thugs who frequent the highways, there are +others, who infest the rivers, and are called Pungoos. They do not +differ in creed, but only in a few of their customs, from their +brethren on shore. They go up and down the rivers in their own boats, +pretending to be travellers of consequence, or pilgrims, proceeding +to, or returning from Benares, Allahabad, or other sacred places. The +boatmen, who are also Thugs, are not different in appearance from the +ordinary boatmen on the river. The artifices used to entice victims on +board are precisely similar to those employed by the highway Thugs. +They send out their "inveiglers" to scrape acquaintance with +travellers, and find out the direction in which they are journeying. +They always pretend to be bound for the same place, and vaunt the +superior accommodation of the boat by which they are going. The +travellers fall into the snare, are led to the Thug captain, who very +often, to allay suspicion, demurs to take them, but eventually agrees +for a moderate sum. The boat strikes off into the middle of the +stream; the victims are amused and kept in conversation for hours by +their insidious foes, until three taps are given on the deck above. +This is a signal from the Thugs on the look-out that the coast is +clear. In an instant the fatal noose is ready, and the travellers are +no more. The bodies are then thrown, warm and palpitating, into the +river, from a hole in the side of the boat, contrived expressly for +the purpose. + + A river Thug, who was apprehended, turned approver, to save his +own life, and gave the following evidence relative to the practices of +his fraternity: -- "We embarked at Rajmahul. The travellers sat on one +side of the boat, and the Thugs on the other; while we three (himself +and two "stranglers,") were placed in the stern, the Thugs on our +left, and the travellers on our right. Some of the Thugs, dressed as +boatmen, were above deck, and others walking along the bank of the +river, and pulling the boat by the joon, or rope, and all, at the same +time, on the look-out. We came up with a gentleman's pinnace and two +baggage-boats, and were obliged to stop, and let them go on. The +travellers seemed anxious; but were quieted by being told that the men +at the rope were tired, and must take some refreshment. They pulled +out something, and began to eat; and when the pinnace had got on a +good way, they resumed their work, and our boat proceeded. It was now +afternoon; and, when a signal was given above, that all was clear, the +five Thugs who sat opposite the travellers sprang in upon them, and, +with the aid of others, strangled them. Having done this, they broke +their spinal bones, and then threw them out of a hole made at the +side, into the river, and kept on their course; the boat being all +this time pulled along by the men on the bank." + + That such atrocities as these should have been carried on for +nearly two centuries without exciting the attention of the British +Government, seems incredible. But our wonder will be diminished when +we reflect upon the extreme caution of the Thugs, and the ordinary +dangers of travelling in India. The Thugs never murder a man near his +own home, and they never dispose of their booty near the scene of the +murder. They also pay, in common with other and less atrocious +robbers, a portion of their gains to the Polygars, or native +authorities of the districts in which they reside, to secure +protection. The friends and relatives of the victims, perhaps a +thousand miles off, never surmise their fate till a period has elapsed +when all inquiry would be fruitless, or, at least, extremely +difficult. They have no clue to the assassins, and very often impute +to the wild beasts of the jungles the slaughter committed by that +wilder beast, man. + + There are several gradations through which every member of the +fraternity must regularly pass before he arrives at the high office of +a Bhurtote, or strangler. He is first employed as a scout -- then as a +sexton -- then as a Shumseea, or holder of hands, and lastly as a +Bhurtote. When a man who is not of Thug lineage, or who has not been +brought up from his infancy among them, wishes to become a strangler, +he solicits the oldest, and most pious and experienced Thug, to take +him under his protection and make him his disciple; and under his +guidance he is regularly initiated. When he has acquired sufficient +experience in the lower ranks of the profession, he applies to his +Gooroo, or preceptor, to give the finishing grace to his education, +and make a strangler of him. An opportunity is found when a solitary +traveller is to be murdered; and the tyro, with his preceptor, having +seen that the proposed victim is asleep, and in safe keeping till +their return, proceed to a neighbouring field and perform several +religious ceremonies, accompanied by three or four of the oldest and +steadiest members of the gang. The Gooroo first offers up a prayer to +the goddess, saying, "Oh, Kalee! Kun-kalee! Bhud-kalee! Oh, Kalee! +Maha-kalee! Calkutta Walee! if it seems fit to thee that the traveller +now at our lodging should die by the hands of this thy slave, +vouchsafe us thy good omen." They then sit down and watch for the good +omen; and if they receive it within half an hour, conclude that their +goddess is favourable to the claims of the new candidate for +admission. If they have a bad omen, or no omen at all, some other Thug +must put the traveller to death, and the aspirant must wait a more +favourable opportunity, purifying himself in the mean time by prayer +and humiliation for the favour of the goddess. If the good omen has +been obtained, they return to their quarters; and the Gooroo takes a +handkerchief and, turning his face to the west, ties a knot at one end +of it, inserting a rupee, or other piece of silver. This knot is +called the goor khat, or holy knot, and no man who has not been +properly ordained is allowed to tie it. The aspirant receives it +reverently in his right hand from his Gooroo, and stands over the +sleeping victim, with a Shumseea, or holder of hands, at his side. The +traveller is aroused, the handkerchief is passed around his neck, and, +at a signal from the Gooroo, is drawn tight till the victim is +strangled; the Shumseea holding his hands to prevent his making any +resistance. The work being now completed, the Bhurtote (no longer an +aspirant, but an admitted member) bows down reverently in the dust +before his Gooroo, and touches his feet with both his hands, and +afterwards performs the same respect to his relatives and friends who +have assembled to witness the solemn ceremony. He then waits for +another favourable omen, when he unties the knot and takes out the +rupee, which he gives to his Gooroo, with any other silver which he +may have about him. The Gooroo adds some of his own money, with which +he purchases what they call goor, or consecrated sugar, when a solemn +sacrifice is performed, to which all the gang are invited. The +relationship between the Gooroo and his disciple is accounted the most +holy that can be formed, and subsists to the latest period of life. A +Thug may betray his father, but never his Gooroo. + + Dark and forbidding as is the picture already drawn, it will +become still darker and more repulsive, when we consider the motives +which prompt these men to systematic murder. Horrible as their +practices would be, if love of plunder alone incited them, it is +infinitely more horrible to reflect that the idea of duty and religion +is joined to the hope of gain, in making them the scourges of their +fellows. If plunder were their sole object, there would be reason to +hope, that when a member of the brotherhood grew rich, he would rest +from his infernal toils; but the dismal superstition which he +cherishes tells him never to desist. He was sent into the world to be +a slayer of men, and he religiously works out his destiny. As +religiously he educates his children to pursue the same career, +instilling into their minds, at the earliest age, that Thuggee is the +noblest profession a man can follow, and that the dark goddess they +worship will always provide rich travellers for her zealous devotees. + + The following is the wild and startling legend upon which the +Thugs found the divine origin of their sect. They believe that, in the +earliest ages of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and +devoured mankind as soon as they were created. He was of so tall a +stature, that when he strode through the most unfathomable depths of +the great sea, the waves, even in tempest, could not reach above his +middle. His insatiable appetite for human flesh almost unpeopled the +world, until Bhawanee, Kalee, or Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, +determined to save mankind by the destruction of the monster. Nerving +herself for the encounter, she armed herself with an immense sword; +and, meeting with the demon, she ran him through the body. His blood +flowed in torrents as he fell dead at her feet; but from every drop +there sprang up another monster, as rapacious and as terrible as the +first. Again the goddess upraised her massive sword, and hewed down +the hellish brood by hundreds; but the more she slew, the more +numerous they became. Every drop of their blood generated a demon; +and, although the goddess endeavoured to lap up the blood ere it +sprang into life, they increased upon her so rapidly, that the labour +of killing became too great for endurance. The perspiration rolled +down her arms in large drops, and she was compelled to think of some +other mode of exterminating them. In this emergency, she created two +men out of the perspiration of her body, to whom she confided the holy +task of delivering the earth from the monsters. To each of the men she +gave a handkerchief, and showed them how to kill without shedding +blood. From her they learned to tie the fatal noose; and they became, +under her tuition, such expert stranglers, that, in a very short space +of time, the race of demons became extinct. + + When there were no more to slay, the two men sought the great +goddess, in order to return the handkerchiefs. The grateful Bhawanee +desired that they would retain them, as memorials of their heroic +deeds; and in order that they might never lose the dexterity that they +had acquired in using them, she commanded that, from thenceforward, +they should strangle men. These were the two first Thugs, and from +them the whole race have descended. To the early Thugs the goddess was +more direct in her favours, than she has been to their successors. At +first, she undertook to bury the bodies of all the men they slew and +plundered, upon the condition that they should never look back to see +what she was doing. The command was religiously observed for many +ages, and the Thugs relied with implicit faith upon the promise of +Bhawanee; but as men became more corrupt, the ungovernable curiosity +of a young Thug offended the goddess, and led to the withdrawal of a +portion of her favour. This youth, burning with a desire to see how +she made her graves, looked back, and beheld her in the act, not of +burying, but of devouring, the body of a man just strangled. Half of +the still palpitating remains was dangling over her lips. She was so +highly displeased that she condemned the Thugs, from that time +forward, to bury their victims themselves. Another account states that +the goddess was merely tossing the body in the air; and that, being +naked, her anger was aggravated by the gaze of mortal eyes upon her +charms. Before taking a final leave of her devotees, she presented +them with one of her teeth for a pickaxe, one of her ribs for a knife, +and the hem of her garment for a noose. She has not since appeared to +human eyes. + + The original tooth having been lost in the lapse of ages, new +pickaxes have been constructed, with great care and many ceremonies, +by each considerable gang of Thugs, to be used in making the graves of +strangled travellers. The pickaxe is looked upon with the utmost +veneration by the tribe. A short account of the process of making it, +and the rites performed, may be interesting, as showing still further +their gloomy superstition. In the first place, it is necessary to fix +upon a lucky day. The chief Thug then instructs a smith to forge the +holy instrument: no other eye is permitted to see the operation. The +smith must engage in no other occupation until it is completed, and +the chief Thug never quits his side during the process. When the +instrument is formed, it becomes necessary to consecrate it to the +especial service of Bhawnee. Another lucky day is chosen for this +ceremony, care being had in the mean time that the shadow of no +earthly thing fall upon the pickaxe, as its efficacy would be for ever +destroyed. A learned Thug then sits down; and turning his face to the +west, receives the pickaxe in a brass dish. After muttering some +incantation, he throws it into a pit already prepared for it, where it +is washed in clear water. It is then taken out, and washed again three +times; the first time in sugar and water, the second in sour milk, and +the third in spirits. It is then dried, and marked from the head to +the point with seven red spots. This is the first part of the +ceremony: the second consists in its purification by fire. The pickaxe +is again placed upon the brass dish, along with a cocoa-nut, some +sugar, cloves, white sandal-wood, and other articles. A fire of the +mango tree, mixed with dried cow-dung, is then kindled; and the +officiating Thug, taking the pickaxe with both hands, passes it seven +times through the flames. + + It now remains to be ascertained whether the goddess is favourable +to her followers. For this purpose, the cocoa-nut is taken from the +dish and placed upon the ground. The officiating Thug, turning to the +spectators, and holding the axe uplifted, asks, "Shall I strike?" +Assent being given, he strikes the nut with the but-end of the axe, +exclaiming, "All hail! mighty Davee! great mother of us all!" The +spectators respond, "All hail! mighty Davee! and prosper thy children, +the Thugs!" + + If the nut is severed at the first blow, the goddess is +favourable; if not, she is unpropitious: all their labour is thrown +away, and the ceremony must be repeated upon some more fitting +occasion. But if the sign be favourable, the axe is tied carefully in +a white cloth and turned towards the west, all the spectators +prostrating themselves before it. It is then buried in the earth, with +its point turned in the direction the gang wishes to take on their +approaching expedition. If the goddess desires to warn them that they +will be unsuccessful, or that they have not chosen the right track, +the Thugs believe that the point of the axe will veer round, and point +to the better way. During an expedition, it is entrusted to the most +prudent and exemplary Thug of the party: it is his care to hold it +fast. If by any chance he should let it fall, consternation spreads +through the gang: the goddess is thought to be offended; the +enterprise is at once abandoned; and the Thugs return home in +humiliation and sorrow, to sacrifice to their gloomy deity, and win +back her estranged favour. So great is the reverence in which they +hold the sacred axe, that a Thug will never break an oath that he has +taken upon it. He fears that, should he perjure himself, his neck +would be so twisted by the offended Bhawanee as to make his face turn +to his back; and that, in the course of a few days, he would expire in +the most excruciating agonies. + + The Thugs are diligent observers of signs and omens. No expedition +is ever undertaken before the auspices are solemnly taken. Upon this +subject Captain Sleeman says, "Even the most sensible approvers, who +have been with me for many years, as well Hindoos as Mussulmans, +believe that their good or ill success depended upon the skill with +which the omens were discovered and interpreted, and the strictness +with which they were observed and obeyed. One of the old Sindouse +stock told me, in presence of twelve others, from Hydrabad, Behar, the +Dooah, Oude, Rajpootana, and Bundelcund, that, had they not attended +to these omens, they never could have thrived as they did. In ordinary +cases of murder, other men seldom escaped punishment, while they and +their families had, for ten generations, thrived, although they had +murdered hundreds of people. 'This,' said the Thug,' could never have +been the case had we not attended to omens, and had not omens been +intended for us. There were always signs around us to guide us to rich +booty, and warn us of danger, had we been always wise enough to +discern them and religious enough to attend to them.' Every Thug +present concurred with him from his soul." + + A Thug, of polished manners and great eloquence, being asked by a +native gentleman, in the presence of Captain Sleeman, whether he never +felt compunction in murdering innocent people, replied with a smile +that he did not. "Does any man," said he, "feel compunction in +following his trade? and are not all our trades assigned us by +Providence?" He was then asked how many people he had killed with his +own hands in the course of his life? "I have killed none," was the +reply. "What! and have you not been describing a number of murders in +which you were concerned?" "True; but do you suppose that I committed +them? Is any man killed by man's killing? Is it not the hand of God +that kills, and are we not the mere instruments in the hands of God?" + + Upon another occasion, Sahib, an approver, being asked if he had +never felt any pity or compunction at murdering old men or young +children, or persons with whom he had sat and conversed, and who had +told him, perchance, of their private affairs -- their hopes and their +fears, their wives and their little ones? replied unhesi- tatingly +that he never did. From the time that the omens were favourable, the +Thugs considered all the travellers they met as victims thrown into +their hands by their divinity to be killed. The Thugs were the mere +instruments in the hands of Bhawanee to destroy them. "If we did not +kill them," said Sahib, "the goddess would never again be propitious +to us, and we and our families would be involved in misery and want. +If we see or hear a bad omen, it is the order of the goddess not to +kill the travellers we are in pursuit of, and we dare not disobey." + + As soon as an expedition has been planned, the goddess is +consulted. On the day chosen for starting, which is never during the +unlucky months of July, September, and December, nor on a Wednesday or +Thursday; the chief Thug of the party fills a brass jug with water, +which he carries in his right hand by his side. With his left, he +holds upon his breast the sacred pickaxe, wrapped carefully in a white +cloth, along with five knots of turmeric, two copper, and one silver +coin. He then moves slowly on, followed by the whole of the gang, to +some field or retired place, where halting, with his countenance +turned in the direction they wish to pursue, he lifts up his eyes to +heaven, saying, "Great goddess! universal mother! if this, our +meditated expedition, be fitting in thy sight, vouchsafe to help us, +and give us the signs of thy approbation." All the Thugs present +solemnly repeat the prayer after their leader, and wait in silence for +the omen. If within half an hour they see Pilhaoo, or good omen on the +left, it signifies that the goddess has taken them by the left hand to +lead them on; if they see the Thibaoo, or omen on the right, it +signifies that she has taken them by the right hand also. The leader +then places the brazen pitcher on the ground and sits down beside it, +with his face turned in the same direction for seven hours, during +which time his followers make all the necessary preparations for the +journey. If, during this interval, no unfavourable signs are observed, +the expedition advances slowly, until it arrives at the bank of the +nearest stream, when they all sit down and eat of the goor, or +consecrated sugar. Any evil omens that are perceived after this +ceremony may be averted by sacrifices; but any evil omens before, +would at once put an end to the expedition. + + Among the evil omens are the following: -- If the brazen pitcher +drops from the hand of the Jemadar or leader, it threatens great evil +either to him or to the gang -- sometimes to both. If they meet a +funeral procession, a blind man, a lame man, an oil-vender, a +carpenter, a potter, or a dancing-master, the expedition will be +dangerous. In like manner it is unlucky to sneeze, to meet a woman +with an empty pail, a couple of jackals, or a hare. The crossing of +their path by the latter is considered peculiarly inauspicious. Its +cry at night on the left is sometimes a good omen, but if they hear it +on the right it is very bad; a warning sent to them from Bhawanee that +there is danger if they kill. Should they disregard this warning, and +led on by the hope of gain, strangle any traveller, they would either +find no booty on him, or such booty as would eventually lead to the +ruin and dispersion of the gang. Bhawanee would be wroth with her +children; and causing them to perish in the jungle, would send the +hares to drink water out of their skulls. + + The good omens are quite as numerous as the evil. It promises a +fortunate expedition, if, on the first day, they pass through a +village where there is a fair. It is also deemed fortunate, if they +hear wailing for the dead in any village but their own. To meet a +woman with a pitcher full of water upon her head, bodes a prosperous +journey and a safe return. The omen is still more favourable if she be +in a state of pregnancy. It is said of the Thugs of the Jumaldehee and +Lodaha tribes, that they always make the youngest Thug of the party +kick the body of the first person they strangle, five times on the +back, thinking that it will bring them good luck. This practice, +however, is not general. If they hear an ass bray on the left at the +commencement of an expedition, and an another soon afterwards on the +right, they believe that they shall be supereminently successful, that +they shall strangle a multitude of travellers, and find great booty. + + After every murder a solemn sacrifice, called the Tuponee, is +performed by all the gang. The goor, or consecrated sugar, is placed +upon a large cloth or blanket, which is spread upon the grass. Beside +it is deposited the sacred pickaxe, and a piece of silver for an +offering. The Jemadar, or chief of the party, together with all the +oldest and most prudent Thugs, take their places upon the cloth, and +turn their faces to the west. Those inferior Thugs who cannot find +room upon the privileged cloth, sit round as close to it as possible. +A pit is then dug, into which the Jemadar pours a small quantity of +the goor, praying at the same time that the goddess will always reward +her followers with abundant spoils. All the Thugs repeat the prayer +after him. He then sprinkles water upon the pickaxe, and puts a little +of the goor upon the head of every one who has obtained a seat beside +him on the cloth. A short pause ensues, when the signal for strangling +is given, as if a murder were actually about to be committed, and each +Thug eats his goor in solemn silence. So powerful is the impression +made upon their imagination by this ceremony, that it almost drives +them frantic with enthusiasm. Captain Sleeman relates, that when he +reproached a Thug for his share in a murder of great atrocity, and +asked him whether he never felt pity; the man replied, "We all feel +pity sometimes; but the goor of the Tuponee changes our nature; it +would change the nature of a horse. Let any man once taste of that +goor, and he will be a Thug, though he know all the trades and have +all the wealth in the world. I never was in want of food; my mother's +family was opulent, and her relations high in office. I have been high +in office myself, and became so great a favourite wherever I went that +I was sure of promotion; yet I was always miserable when absent from +my gang, and obliged to return to Thuggee. My father made me taste of +that fatal goor, when I was yet a mere boy; and if I were to live a +thousand years I should never be able to follow any other trade." + + The possession of wealth, station in society, and the esteem of +his fellows, could not keep this man from murder. From his +extraordinary confession we may judge of the extreme difficulty of +exterminating a sect who are impelled to their horrid practises, not +only by the motives of self-interest which govern mankind in general, +but by a fanaticism which fills up the measure of their whole +existence. Even severity seems thrown away upon the followers of this +brutalizing creed. To them, punishment is no example; they have no +sympathy for a brother Thug who is hung at his own door by the British +Government, nor have they any dread of his fate. Their invariable idea +is, that their goddess only suffers those Thugs to fall into the hands +of the law, who have contravened the peculiar observances of Thuggee, +and who have neglected the omens she sent them for their guidance. + + To their neglect of the warnings of the goddess they attribute all +the reverses which have of late years befallen their sect. It is +expressly forbidden, in the creed of the old Thugs, to murder women or +cripples. The modern Thugs have become unscrupulous upon this point, +murdering women, and even children, with unrelenting barbarity. +Captain Sleeman reports several conversations upon this subject, which +he held at different times with Thugs, who had been taken prisoners, +or who had turned approvers. One of them, named Zolfukar, said, in +reply to the Captain, who accused him of murdering women, "Yes, and +was not the greater part of Feringeea's and my gang seized, after we +had murdered the two women and the little girl, at Manora, in 1830? +and were we not ourselves both seized soon after? How could we survive +things like that? Our ancestors never did such things." Lalmun, +another Thug, in reply to a similar question, said, "Most of our +misfortunes have come upon us for the murder of women. We all knew +that they would come upon us some day, for this and other great sins. +We were often admonished, but we did not take warning; and we deserve +our fates." In speaking of the supposed protection which their goddess +had extended to them in former times, Zolfukar said: -- "Ah! we had +some regard for religion then! We have lost it since. All kinds of men +have been made Thugs, and all classes of people murdered, without +distinction; and little attention has been paid to omens. How, after +this, could we think to escape? * * * * Davee never forsook us till we +neglected her!" + + It might be imagined that men who spoke in this manner of the +anger of the goddess, and who, even in custody, showed so much +veneration for their unhappy calling, would hesitate before they +turned informers, and laid bare the secrets and exposed the haunts of +their fellows: -- among the more civilized ruffians of Europe, we +often find the one chivalrous trait of character, which makes them +scorn a reward that must be earned by the blood of their accomplices: +but in India there is no honour among thieves. When the approvers are +asked, if they, who still believe in the power of the terrible goddess +Davee, are not afraid to incur her displeasure by informing of their +fellows, they reply, that Davee has done her worst in abandoning them. +She can inflict no severer punishment, and therefore gives herself no +further concern about her degenerate children. This cowardly doctrine +is, however, of advantage to the Government that seeks to put an end +to the sect, and has thrown a light upon their practices, which could +never have been obtained from other sources. + + Another branch of the Thug abomination has more recently been +discovered by the indefatigable Captain Sleeman. The followers of this +sect are called MEGPUNNAS, and they murder travellers, not to rob them +of their wealth, but of their children, whom they afterwards sell into +slavery. They entertain the same religious opinions as the Thugs, and +have carried on their hideous practices, and entertained their dismal +superstition, for about a dozen years with impunity. The report of +Captain Sleeman states, that the crime prevails almost exclusively in +Delhi and the native principalities, or Rajpootana of Ulwar and +Bhurtpore; and that it first spread extensively after the siege of +Bhurtpore in 1826. + + The original Thugs never or rarely travel with their wives; but +the Megpunnas invariably take their families with them, the women and +children being used to inveigle the victims. Poor travellers are +always chosen by the Megpunnas as the objects of their murderous +traffic. The females and children are sent on in advance to make +acquaintance with emigrants or beggars on the road, travelling with +their families, whom they entice to pass the night in some secluded +place, where they are afterwards set upon by the men, and strangled. +The women take care of the children. Such of them as are beautiful are +sold at a high price to the brothels of Delhi, or other large cities; +while the boys and ill-favoured girls are sold for servants at a more +moderate rate. These murders are perpetrated perhaps five hundred +miles from the homes of the unfortunate victims; and the children thus +obtained, deprived of all their relatives, are never inquired after. +Even should any of their kin be alive, they are too far off and too +poor to institute inquiries. One of the members, on being questioned, +said the Megpunnas made more money than the other Thugs; it was more +profitable to kill poor people for the sake of their children, than +rich people for their wealth. Megpunnaism is supposed by its votaries +to be, like Thuggee, under the immediate protection of the great +goddess Davee, or Kalee, whose favour is to be obtained before the +commencement of every expedition, and whose omens, whether of good or +evil, are to be diligently sought on all occasions. The first apostle +to whom she communicated her commands for the formation of the new +sect, and the rules and ordinances by which it was to be guided, was +called Kheama Jemadar. He was considered so holy a man, that the Thugs +and Megpunnas considered it an extreme felicity to gaze upon and touch +him. At the moment of his arrest by the British authorities, a fire +was raging in the village, and the inhabitants gathered round him and +implored him to intercede with his god, that the flames might be +extinguished. The Megpunna, says the tradition, stretched forth his +hand to heaven, prayed, and the fire ceased immediately. + + There now only remain to be considered the exertions that have +been made to remove from the face of India this purulent and +disgusting sore. From the year 1807 until 1826, the proceedings +against Thuggee were not carried on with any extraordinary degree of +vigour; but, in the latter year, the Government seems to have begun to +act upon a settled determination to destroy it altogether. From 1826 +to 1855, both included, there were committed to prison, in the various +Presidencies, 1562 persons accused of this crime. Of these, 328 were +hanged; 999 transported; 77 imprisoned for life; 71 imprisoned for +shorter periods; 21 held to bail; and only 21 acquitted. Of the +remainder, 31 died in prison, before they were brought to trial, 11 +escaped, and 49 turned approvers. + + One Feringeea, a Thug leader of great notoreity, was delivered up +to justice in the year 1830, in consequence of the reward of five +hundred rupees offered for his apprehension by the Government. He was +brought before Captain Sleeman, at Sangir, in the December of that +year, and offered, if his life were spared, to give such information +as would lead to the arrest of several extensive gangs which had +carried on their murderous practices undetected for several years. He +mentioned the place of rendezvous, for the following February, of some +well organized gangs, who were to proceed into Guzerat and Candeish. +Captain Sleeman appeared to doubt his information; but accompanied the +Thug to a mango grove, two stages from Sangir, on the road to +Seronage. They reached this place in the evening, and in the morning +Feringeea pointed out three places in which he and his gang had, at +different intervals, buried the bodies of three parties of travellers +whom they had murdered. The sward had grown over all the spots, and +not the slightest traces were to be seen that it had ever been +disturbed. Under the sod of Captain Sleeman's tent were found the +bodies of the first party, consisting of a pundit and his six +attendants, murdered in 1818. Another party of five, murdered in 1824, +were under the ground at the place where the Captain's horses had been +tied up for the night; and four Brahmin carriers of the Ganges water, +with a woman, were buried under his sleeping tent. Before the ground +was moved, Captain Sleeman expressed some doubts; but Feringeea, after +looking at the position of some neighbouring trees, said be would risk +his life on the accuracy of his remembrance. The workmen dug five feet +without discovering the bodies; but they were at length found a little +beyond that depth, exactly as the Thug had described them. With this +proof of his knowledge of the haunts of his brethren, Feringeea was +promised his liberty and pardon if he would aid in bringing to justice +the many large gangs to which he had belonged, and which were still +prowling over the country. They were arrested in the February +following, at the place of rendezvous pointed out by the approver, and +most of them condemned and executed. + + So far we learn from Captain Sleeman, who only brought down his +tables to the close of the year 1835. A writer in the "Foreign +Quarterly Review" furnishes an additional list of 241 persons, +committed to prison in 1836, for being concerned in the murder and +robbery of 474 individuals. Of these criminals, 91 were sentenced to +death, and 22 to imprisonment for life, leaving 306, who were +sentenced to transportation for life, or shorter periods of +imprisonment, or who turned approvers, or died in gaol. Not one of the +whole number was acquitted. + + Great as is this amount of criminals who have been brought to +justice, it is to be feared that many years must elapse before an evil +so deeply rooted can be eradicated. The difficulty is increased by the +utter hopelessness of reformation as regards the survivors. Their +numbers are still calculated to amount to ten thousand persons, who, +taking the average of three murders annually for each, as calculated +by Captain Sleeman and other writers, murder every year thirty +thousand of their fellow creatures. This average is said to be under +the mark; but even if we were to take it at only a third of this +calculation, what a frightful list it would be! When religion teaches +men to go astray, they go far astray indeed! + +END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + +LONDON: +PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY +Bangor House, Shoe Lane. + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Etext Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions + diff --git a/old/1996-08-ppdel10.zip b/old/1996-08-ppdel10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..66d10cf --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1996-08-ppdel10.zip |