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@@ -0,0 +1,9599 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions, by +Charles Mackay + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions + +Author: Charles Mackay + +Release Date: August, 1996 [EBook #636] +Last Updated: July 29, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + + + +MEMOIRS OF EXTRAORDINARY POPULAR DELUSIONS + +By Charles Mackay + + + +Author Of + +"The Thames And Its Tributaries," "The Hope Of The World," Etc. + +"Il est bon de connaitre les delires de l'esprit humain. Chaque people a +ses folies plus ou moins grossieres." MILLOT + + +VOL I. + +LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. PUBLISHER IN ORDINARY TO +HER MAJESTY. 1841. + + +CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME + + THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + THE TULIPOMANIA + RELICS + MODERN PROPHECIES + POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES + INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD + DUELS AND ORDEALS + THE LOVE OF THE MARVELOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE + POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + THE O. P. MANIA + THE THUGS, OR PHANSIGARS + + + + + +NATIONAL DELUSIONS. + + N'en deplaise a ces fous nommes sages de Grece; + En ce monde il n'est point de parfaite sagesse; + Tous les hommes sont fous, et malgre tous leurs soins, + Ne different entre eux que du plus ou du moins. + + BOILEAU. + + +In reading the history of nations, we find that, like individuals, they +have their whims and their peculiarities; their seasons of excitement +and recklessness, when they care not what they do. We find that whole +communities suddenly fix their minds upon one object, and go mad in its +pursuit; that millions of people become simultaneously impressed with +one delusion, and run after it, till their attention is caught by some +new folly more captivating than the first. We see one nation suddenly +seized, from its highest to its lowest members, with a fierce desire +of military glory; another as suddenly becoming crazed upon a religious +scruple, and neither of them recovering its senses until it has shed +rivers of blood and sowed a harvest of groans and tears, to be reaped +by its posterity. At an early age in the annals of Europe its population +lost their wits about the Sepulchre of Jesus, and crowded in frenzied +multitudes to the Holy Land: another age went mad for fear of the Devil, +and offered up hundreds of thousands of victims to the delusion of +witchcraft. At another time, the many became crazed on the subject of +the Philosopher's Stone, and committed follies till then unheard of in +the pursuit. It was once thought a venial offence in very many countries +of Europe to destroy an enemy by slow poison. Persons who would have +revolted at the idea of stabbing a man to the heart, drugged his pottage +without scruple. Ladies of gentle birth and manners caught the +contagion of murder, until poisoning, under their auspices, became quite +fashionable. Some delusions, though notorious to all the world, have +subsisted for ages, flourishing as widely among civilized and polished +nations as among the early barbarians with whom they originated,--that +of duelling, for instance, and the belief in omens and divination of +the future, which seem to defy the progress of knowledge to eradicate +entirely from the popular mind. Money, again, has often been a cause +of the delusion of multitudes. Sober nations have all at once become +desperate gamblers, and risked almost their existence upon the turn of +a piece of paper. To trace the history of the most prominent of these +delusions is the object of the present pages. Men, it has been well +said, think in herds; it will be seen that they go mad in herds, while +they only recover their senses slowly, and one by one. + +In the present state of civilization, society has often shown itself +very prone to run a career of folly from the last-mentioned cases. +This infatuation has seized upon whole nations in a most extraordinary +manner. France, with her Mississippi madness, set the first great +example, and was very soon imitated by England with her South Sea +Bubble. At an earlier period, Holland made herself still more ridiculous +in the eyes of the world, by the frenzy which came over her people for +the love of Tulips. Melancholy as all these delusions were in their +ultimate results, their history is most amusing. A more ludicrous and +yet painful spectacle, than that which Holland presented in the years +1635 and 1636, or France in 1719 and 1720, can hardly be imagined. +Taking them in the order of their importance, we shall commence our +history with John Law and the famous Mississippi scheme of the years +above mentioned. + + + + +THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + + Some in clandestine companies combine; + Erect new stocks to trade beyond the line; + With air and empty names beguile the town, + And raise new credits first, then cry 'em down; + Divide the empty nothing into shares, + And set the crowd together by the ears. + + Defoe. + + +The personal character and career of one man are so intimately connected +with the great scheme of the years 1719 and 1720, that a history of the +Mississippi madness can have no fitter introduction than a sketch of the +life of its great author, John Law. Historians are divided in opinion as +to whether they should designate him a knave or a madman. Both epithets +were unsparingly applied to him in his lifetime, and while the unhappy +consequences of his projects were still deeply felt. Posterity, however, +has found reason to doubt the justice of the accusation, and to confess +that John Law was neither knave nor madman, but one more deceived +than deceiving; more sinned against than sinning. He was thoroughly +acquainted with the philosophy and true principles of credit. He +understood the monetary question better than any man of his day; and if +his system fell with a crash so tremendous, it was not so much his +fault as that of the people amongst whom he had erected it. He did not +calculate upon the avaricious frenzy of a whole nation; he did not see +that confidence, like mistrust, could be increased, almost ad infinitum, +and that hope was as extravagant as fear. How was he to foretell that +the French people, like the man in the fable, would kill, in their +frantic eagerness, the fine goose he had brought to lay them so many +golden eggs? His fate was like that which may be supposed to have +overtaken the first adventurous boatman who rowed from Erie to Ontario. +Broad and smooth was the river on which he embarked; rapid and pleasant +was his progress; and who was to stay him in his career? Alas for him! +the cataract was nigh. He saw, when it was too late, that the tide which +wafted him so joyously along was a tide of destruction; and when he +endeavoured to retrace his way, he found that the current was too strong +for his weak efforts to stem, and that he drew nearer every instant to +the tremendous falls. Down he went over the sharp rocks, and the +waters with him. He was dashed to pieces with his bark, but the waters, +maddened and turned to foam by the rough descent, only boiled and +bubbled for a time, and then flowed on again as smoothly as ever. Just +so it was with Law and the French people. He was the boatman and they +were the waters. + +John Law was born at Edinburgh in the year 1671. His father was the +younger son of an ancient family in Fife, and carried on the business +of a goldsmith and banker. He amassed considerable wealth in his trade, +sufficient to enable him to gratify the wish, so common among his +countrymen, of adding a territorial designation to his name. He +purchased with this view the estates of Lauriston and Randleston, on +the Frith of Forth on the borders of West and Mid Lothian, and was +thenceforth known as Law of Lauriston. The subject of our memoir, being +the eldest son, was received into his father's counting-house at the +age of fourteen, and for three years laboured hard to acquire an insight +into the principles of banking, as then carried on in Scotland. He +had always manifested great love for the study of numbers, and his +proficiency in the mathematics was considered extraordinary in one of +his tender years. At the age of seventeen he was tall, strong, and well +made; and his face, although deeply scarred with the small-pox, was +agreeable in its expression, and full of intelligence. At this time he +began to neglect his business, and becoming vain of his person, indulged +in considerable extravagance of attire. He was a great favourite +with the ladies, by whom he was called Beau Law, while the other sex, +despising his foppery, nicknamed him Jessamy John. At the death of his +father, which happened in 1688, he withdrew entirely from the desk, +which had become so irksome, and being possessed of the revenues of the +paternal estate of Lauriston, he proceeded to London, to see the world. + +He was now very young, very vain, good-looking, tolerably rich, and +quite uncontrolled. It is no wonder that, on his arrival in the capital, +he should launch out into extravagance. He soon became a regular +frequenter of the gaming-houses, and by pursuing a certain plan, +based upon some abstruse calculation of chances, he contrived to gain +considerable sums. All the gamblers envied him his luck, and many made +it a point to watch his play, and stake their money on the same chances. +In affairs of gallantry he was equally fortunate; ladies of the first +rank smiled graciously upon the handsome Scotchman--the young, the rich, +the witty, and the obliging. But all these successes only paved the way +for reverses. After he had been for nine years exposed to the dangerous +attractions of the gay life he was leading, he became an irrecoverable +gambler. As his love of play increased in violence, it diminished +in prudence. Great losses were only to be repaired by still greater +ventures, and one unhappy day he lost more than he could repay without +mortgaging his family estate. To that step he was driven at last. At +the same time his gallantry brought him into trouble. A love affair, or +slight flirtation, with a lady of the name of Villiers [Miss Elizabeth +Villiers, afterwards Countess of Orkney] exposed him to the resentment +of a Mr. Wilson, by whom he was challenged to fight a duel. Law +accepted, and had the ill fortune to shoot his antagonist dead upon the +spot. He was arrested the same day, and brought to trial for murder +by the relatives of Mr. Wilson. He was afterwards found guilty, and +sentenced to death. The sentence was commuted to a fine, upon the ground +that the offence only amounted to manslaughter. An appeal being lodged +by a brother of the deceased, Law was detained in the King's Bench, +whence, by some means or other, which he never explained, he contrived +to escape; and an action being instituted against the sheriffs, he was +advertised in the Gazette, and a reward offered for his apprehension. He +was described as "Captain John Law, a Scotchman, aged twenty-six; a +very tall, black, lean man; well shaped, above six feet high, with large +pockholes in his face; big nosed, and speaking broad and loud." As this +was rather a caricature than a description of him, it has been supposed +that it was drawn up with a view to favour his escape. He succeeded in +reaching the Continent, where he travelled for three years, and devoted +much of his attention to the monetary and banking affairs of the +countries through which he passed. He stayed a few months in Amsterdam, +and speculated to some extent in the funds. His mornings were devoted +to the study of finance and the principles of trade, and his evenings to +the gaming-house. It is generally believed that he returned to Edinburgh +in the year 1700. It is certain that he published in that city his +"Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council of Trade." This +pamphlet did not excite much attention. + +In a short time afterwards he published a project for establishing what +he called a Land-bank [The wits of the day called it a sand-bank, which +would wreck the vessel of the state.], the notes issued by which +were never to exceed the value of the entire lands of the state, upon +ordinary interest, or were to be equal in value to the land, with the +right to enter into possession at a certain time. The project excited a +good deal of discussion in the Scottish parliament, and a motion for +the establishment of such a bank was brought forward by a neutral +party, called the Squadrone, whom Law had interested in his favour. +The Parliament ultimately passed a resolution to the effect, that, to +establish any kind of paper credit, so as to force it to pass, was an +improper expedient for the nation. + +Upon the failure of this project, and of his efforts to procure a pardon +for the murder of Mr. Wilson, Law withdrew to the Continent, and resumed +his old habits of gaming. For fourteen years he continued to roam about, +in Flanders, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and France. He soon +became intimately acquainted with the extent of the trade and resources +of each, and daily more confirmed in his opinion that no country could +prosper without a paper currency. During the whole of this time he +appears to have chiefly supported himself by successful play. At every +gambling-house of note in the capitals of Europe, he was known and +appreciated as one better skilled in the intricacies of chance than any +other man of the day. It is stated in the "Biographie Universelle" that +he was expelled, first from Venice, and afterwards from Genoa, by the +magistrates, who thought him a visitor too dangerous for the youth +of those cities. During his residence in Paris he rendered himself +obnoxious to D'Argenson, the lieutenant-general of the police, by whom +he was ordered to quit the capital. This did not take place, however, +before he had made the acquaintance in the saloons, of the Duke de +Vendome, the Prince de Conti, and of the gay Duke of Orleans, the latter +of whom was destined afterwards to exercise so much influence over his +fate. The Duke of Orleans was pleased with the vivacity and good sense +of the Scottish adventurer, while the latter was no less pleased with +the wit and amiability of a prince who promised to become his patron. +They were often thrown into each other's society, and Law seized every +opportunity to instil his financial doctrines into the mind of one whose +proximity to the throne pointed him out as destined, at no very distant +date, to play an important part in the government. + +Shortly before the death of Louis XIV, or, as some say, in 1708, Law +proposed a scheme of finance to Desmarets, the Comptroller. Louis is +reported to have inquired whether the projector were a Catholic, and, on +being answered in the negative, to have declined having anything to +do with him. [This anecdote, which is related in the correspondence +of Madame de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, and mother of the Regent, +is discredited by Lord John Russell, in his "History of the principal +States of Europe, from the Peace of Utrecht;" for what reason he +does not inform us. There is no doubt that Law proposed his scheme to +Desmarets, and that Louis refused to hear of it. The reason given for +the refusal is quite consistent with the character of that bigoted and +tyrannical monarch.] + +It was after this repulse that he visited Italy. His mind being still +occupied with schemes of finance, he proposed to Victor Amadeus, Duke of +Savoy, to establish his land-bank in that country. The Duke replied that +his dominions were too circumscribed for the execution of so great a +project, and that he was by far too poor a potentate to be ruined. He +advised him, however, to try the King of France once more; for he was +sure, if he knew anything of the French character, that the people would +be delighted with a plan, not only so new, but so plausible. + +Louis XIV died in 1715, and the heir to the throne being an infant only +seven years of age, the Duke of Orleans assumed the reins of government, +as Regent, during his minority. Law now found himself in a more +favourable position. The tide in his affairs had come, which, taken at +the flood, was to waft him on to fortune. The Regent was his friend, +already acquainted with his theory and pretensions, and inclined, +moreover, to aid him in any efforts to restore the wounded credit of +France, bowed down to the earth by the extravagance of the long reign of +Louis XIV. + +Hardly was that monarch laid in his grave ere the popular hatred, +suppressed so long, burst forth against his memory. He who, during his +life, had been flattered with an excess of adulation, to which history +scarcely offers a parallel, was now cursed as a tyrant, a bigot, and +a plunderer. His statues were pelted and disfigured; his effigies +torn down, amid the execrations of the populace, and his name rendered +synonymous with selfishness and oppression. The glory of his arms +was forgotten, and nothing was remembered but his reverses, his +extravagance, and his cruelty. + +The finances of the country were in a state of the utmost disorder. +A profuse and corrupt monarch, whose profuseness and corruption were +imitated by almost every functionary, from the highest to the lowest +grade, had brought France to the verge of ruin. The national debt +amounted to 3000 millions of livres, the revenue to 145 millions, and +the expenditure to 142 millions per annum; leaving only three millions +to pay the interest upon 3000 millions. The first care of the Regent was +to discover a remedy for an evil of such magnitude, and a council was +early summoned to take the matter into consideration. The Duke de St. +Simon was of opinion that nothing could save the country from revolution +but a remedy at once bold and dangerous. He advised the Regent to +convoke the States-General, and declare a national bankruptcy. The +Duke de Noailles, a man of accommodating principles, an accomplished +courtier, and totally averse from giving himself any trouble or +annoyance that ingenuity could escape from, opposed the project of St. +Simon with all his influence. He represented the expedient as alike +dishonest and ruinous. The Regent was of the same opinion, and this +desperate remedy fell to the ground. + +The measures ultimately adopted, though they promised fair, only +aggravated the evil. The first, and most dishonest measure, was of no +advantage to the state. A recoinage was ordered, by which the currency +was depreciated one-fifth; those who took a thousand pieces of gold or +silver to the mint received back an amount of coin of the same nominal +value, but only four-fifths of the weight of metal. By this contrivance +the treasury gained seventy-two millions of livres, and all the +commercial operations of the country were disordered. A trifling +diminution of the taxes silenced the clamours of the people, and for the +slight present advantage the great prospective evil was forgotten. + +A chamber of justice was next instituted, to inquire into the +malversations of the loan-contractors and the farmers of the revenues. +Tax collectors are never very popular in any country, but those of +France at this period deserved all the odium with which they were +loaded. As soon as these farmers-general, with all their hosts of +subordinate agents, called maltotiers [From maltote, an oppressive +tax.], were called to account for their misdeeds, the most extravagant +joy took possession of the nation. The Chamber of Justice, instituted +chiefly for this purpose, was endowed with very extensive powers. It was +composed of the presidents and councils of the parliament, the judges +of the Courts of Aid and of Requests, and the officers of the Chamber +of Account, under the general presidence of the minister of finance. +Informers were encouraged to give evidence against the offenders by the +promise of one-fifth part of the fines and confiscations. A tenth of all +concealed effects belonging to the guilty was promised to such as should +furnish the means of discovering them. + +The promulgation of the edict constituting this court caused a degree +of consternation among those principally concerned which can only +be accounted for on the supposition that their peculation had been +enormous. But they met with no sympathy. The proceedings against them +justified their terror. The Bastile was soon unable to contain the +prisoners that were sent to it, and the gaols all over the country +teemed with guilty or suspected persons. An order was issued to all +innkeepers and postmasters to refuse horses to such as endeavoured +to seek safety in flight; and all persons were forbidden, under heavy +fines, to harbour them or favour their evasion. Some were condemned to +the pillory, others to the gallies, and the least guilty to fine +and imprisonment. One only, Samuel Bernard, a rich banker, and +farmer-general of a province remote from the capital, was sentenced to +death. So great had been the illegal profits of this man,--looked +upon as the tyrant and oppressor of his district,--that he offered six +millions of livres, or 250,000 pounds sterling, to be allowed to escape. + +His bribe was refused, and he suffered the penalty of death. Others, +perhaps more guilty, were more fortunate. Confiscation, owing to the +concealment of their treasures by the delinquents, often produced less +money than a fine. The severity of the government relaxed, and fines, +under the denomination of taxes, were indiscriminately levied upon all +offenders. But so corrupt was every department of the administration, +that the country benefited but little by the sums which thus flowed into +the treasury. Courtiers, and courtiers' wives and mistresses, came in +for the chief share of the spoils. One contractor had been taxed in +proportion to his wealth and guilt, at the sum of twelve millions of +livres. The Count * * *, a man of some weight in the government, called +upon him, and offered to procure a remission of the fine, if he would +give him a hundred thousand crowns. "Vous etes trop tard, mon ami," +replied the financier; "I have already made a bargain with your wife for +fifty thousand." [This anecdote is related by M. de la Hode, in his Life +of Philippe of Orleans. It would have looked more authentic if he had +given the names of the dishonest contractor and the still more dishonest +minister. But M. de la Hode's book is liable to the same objection as +most of the French memoirs of that and of subsequent periods. It is +sufficient with most of them that an anecdote be ben trovato; the veto +is but matter of secondary consideration.] + +About a hundred and eighty millions of livres were levied in this +manner, of which eighty were applied in payment of the debts contracted +by the government. The remainder found its way into the pockets of the +courtiers. Madame de Maintenon, writing on this subject, says, "We hear +every day of some new grant of the Regent; the people murmur very much +at this mode of employing the money taken from the peculators." +The people, who, after the first burst of their resentment is over, +generally express a sympathy for the weak, were indignant that so much +severity should be used to so little purpose. They did not see the +justice of robbing one set of rogues to fatten another. In a few months +all the more guilty had been brought to punishment, and the chamber of +justice looked for victims in humbler walks of life. Charges of fraud +and extortion were brought against tradesmen of good character, in +consequence of the great inducements held out to common informers. They +were compelled to lay open their affairs before this tribunal in order +to establish their innocence. The voice of complaint resounded from +every side, and at the expiration of a year the government found it +advisable to discontinue further proceedings. The chamber of justice was +suppressed, and a general amnesty granted to all against whom no charges +had yet been preferred. + +In the midst of this financial confusion Law appeared upon the scene. +No man felt more deeply than the Regent the deplorable state of the +country, but no man could be more averse from putting his shoulders +manfully to the wheel. He disliked business; he signed official +documents without proper examination, and trusted to others what he +should have undertaken himself. The cares inseparable from his high +office were burdensome to him; he saw that something was necessary to +be done, but he lacked the energy to do it, and had not virtue enough +to sacrifice his case and his pleasures in the attempt. No wonder that, +with this character, he listened favourably to the mighty projects, so +easy of execution, of the clever adventurer whom he had formerly known, +and whose talents he appreciated. + +When Law presented himself at court, he was most cordially received. +He offered two memorials to the Regent, in which he set forth the +evils that had befallen France, owing to an insufficient currency, +at different times depreciated. He asserted that a metallic currency, +unaided by a paper money, was wholly inadequate to the wants of a +commercial country, and particularly cited the examples of Great +Britain and Holland to show the advantages of paper. He used many +sound arguments on the subject of credit, and proposed, as a means of +restoring that of France, then at so low an ebb among the nations, that +he should be allowed to set up a bank, which should have the management +of the royal revenues, and issue notes, both on that and on landed +security. He further proposed that this bank should be administered +in the King's name, but subject to the control of commissioners, to be +named by the States-General. + +While these memorials were under consideration, Law translated into +French his essay on money and trade, and used every means to extend +through the nation his renown as a financier. He soon became talked of. +The confidants of the Regent spread abroad his praise, and every one +expected great things of Monsieur Lass. [The French pronounced his name +in this manner to avoid the ungallic sound, aw. After the failure of his +scheme, the wags said the nation was lasse de lui, and proposed that he +should in future be known by the name of Monsieur Helas!] + +On the 5th of May, 1716, a royal edict was published, by which Law was +authorised, in conjunction with his brother, to establish a bank, under +the name of Law and Company, the notes of which should be received in +payment of the taxes. The capital was fixed at six millions of livres, +in twelve thousand shares of five hundred livres each, purchasable +one-fourth in specie and the remainder in billets d'etat. It was not +thought expedient to grant him the whole of the privileges prayed for +in his memorials until experience should have shown their safety and +advantage. + +Law was now on the high road to fortune. The study of thirty years was +brought to guide him in the management of his bank. He made all his +notes payable at sight, and in the coin current at the time they +were issued. This last was a master-stroke of policy, and immediately +rendered his notes more valuable than the precious metals. The latter +were constantly liable to depreciation by the unwise tampering of the +government. A thousand livres of silver might be worth their nominal +value one day and be reduced one-sixth the next, but a note of Law's +bank retained its original value. He publicly declared at the same time +that a banker deserved death if he made issues without having sufficient +security to answer all demands. The consequence was, that his notes +advanced rapidly in public estimation, and were received at one per +cent. more than specie. It was not long before the trade of the country +felt the benefit. Languishing commerce began to lift up her head; the +taxes were paid with greater regularity and less murmuring, and a degree +of confidence was established that could not fail, if it continued, to +become still more advantageous. In the course of a year Law's notes rose +to fifteen per cent. premium, while the billets d'etat, or notes +issued by the government, as security for the debts contracted by the +extravagant Louis XIV, were at a discount of no less than seventy-eight +and a half per cent. The comparison was too great in favour of Law not +to attract the attention of the whole kingdom, and his credit extended +itself day by day. Branches of his bank were almost simultaneously +established at Lyons, Rochelle, Tours, Amiens, and Orleans. + +The Regent appears to have been utterly astonished at his success, and +gradually to have conceived the idea, that paper, which could so aid a +metallic currency, could entirely supersede it. Upon this fundamental +error he afterwards acted. In the mean time, Law commenced the famous +project which has handed his name down to posterity. He proposed to +the Regent, who could refuse him nothing, to establish a company, +that should have the exclusive privilege of trading to the great river +Mississippi and the province of Louisiana, on its western bank. The +country was supposed to abound in the precious metals, and the company, +supported by the profits of their exclusive commerce, were to be the +sole farmers of the taxes, and sole coiners of money. Letters patent +were issued, incorporating the company, in August 1717. The capital was +divided into two hundred thousand shares of five hundred livres each, +the whole of which might be paid in billets d'etat, at their nominal +value, although worth no more than 160 livres in the market. + +It was now that the frenzy of speculating began to seize upon the +nation. Law's bank had effected so much good, that any promises for the +future which he thought proper to make were readily believed. The Regent +every day conferred new privileges upon the fortunate projector. The +bank obtained the monopoly of the sale of tobacco; the sole right of +refinage of gold and silver, and was finally erected into the Royal Bank +of France. Amid the intoxication of success, both Law and the Regent +forgot the maxim so loudly proclaimed by the former, that a banker +deserved death who made issues of paper without the necessary funds to +provide for them. As soon as the bank, from a private, became a public +institution, the Regent caused a fabrication of notes to the amount of +one thousand millions of livres. This was the first departure from sound +principles, and one for which Law is not justly blameable. While +the affairs of the bank were under his control, the issues had never +exceeded sixty millions. Whether Law opposed the inordinate increase +is not known, but as it took place as soon as the bank was made a royal +establishment, it is but fair to lay the blame of the change of system +upon the Regent. + +Law found that he lived under a despotic government, but he was not yet +aware of the pernicious influence which such a government could exercise +upon so delicate a framework as that of credit. He discovered it +afterwards to his cost, but in the mean time suffered himself to be +impelled by the Regent into courses which his own reason must have +disapproved. With a weakness most culpable, he lent his aid in +inundating the country with paper money, which, based upon no solid +foundation, was sure to fall, sooner or later. The extraordinary present +fortune dazzled his eyes, and prevented him from seeing the evil day +that would burst over his head, when once, from any cause or other, the +alarm was sounded. The Parliament were from the first jealous of his +influence as a foreigner, and had, besides, their misgivings as to +the safety of his projects. As his influence extended, their animosity +increased. D'Aguesseau, the Chancellor, was unceremoniously dismissed by +the Regent for his opposition to the vast increase of paper money, and +the constant depreciation of the gold and silver coin of the realm. +This only served to augment the enmity of the Parliament, and when +D'Argenson, a man devoted to the interests of the Regent, was appointed +to the vacant chancellorship, and made at the same time minister of +finance, they became more violent than ever. The first measure of the +new minister caused a further depreciation of the coin. In order to +extinguish the billets d'etat, it was ordered that persons bringing +to the mint four thousand livres in specie and one thousand livres in +billets d'etat, should receive back coin to the amount of five thousand +livres. D'Argenson plumed himself mightily upon thus creating five +thousand new and smaller livres out of the four thousand old and larger +ones, being too ignorant of the true principles of trade and credit to +be aware of the immense injury he was inflicting upon both. + +The Parliament saw at once the impolicy and danger of such a system, +and made repeated remonstrances to the Regent. The latter refused to +entertain their petitions, when the Parliament, by a bold, and very +unusual stretch of authority, commanded that no money should be received +in payment but that of the old standard. The Regent summoned a lit de +justice, and annulled the decree. The Parliament resisted, and issued +another. Again the Regent exercised his privilege, and annulled it, +till the Parliament, stung to fiercer opposition, passed another decree, +dated August 12th, 1718, by which they forbade the bank of Law to have +any concern, either direct or indirect, in the administration of the +revenue; and prohibited all foreigners, under heavy penalties, from +interfering, either in their own names, or in that of others, in the +management of the finances of the state. The Parliament considered Law +to be the author of all the evil, and some of the counsellors, in the +virulence of their enmity, proposed that he should be brought to trial, +and, if found guilty, be hung at the gates of the Palais de Justice. + +Law, in great alarm, fled to the Palais Royal, and threw himself on the +protection of the Regent, praying that measures might be taken to reduce +the Parliament to obedience. The Regent had nothing so much at heart, +both on that account and because of the disputes that had arisen +relative to the legitimation of the Duke of Maine and the Count of +Thoulouse, the sons of the late King. The Parliament was ultimately +overawed by the arrest of their president and two of the counsellors, +who were sent to distant prisons. + +Thus the first cloud upon Law's prospects blew over: freed from +apprehension of personal danger, he devoted his attention to his famous +Mississippi project, the shares of which were rapidly rising, in spite +of the Parliament. At the commencement of the year 1719 an edict was +published, granting to the Mississippi Company the exclusive privilege +of trading to the East Indies, China, and the South Seas, and to all the +possessions of the French East India Company, established by Colbert. +The Company, in consequence of this great increase of their business, +assumed, as more appropriate, the title of Company of the Indies, and +created fifty thousand new shares. The prospects now held out by Law +were most magnificent. He promised a yearly dividend of two hundred +livres upon each share of five hundred, which, as the shares were +paid for in billets d'etat, at their nominal value, but worth only 100 +livres, was at the rate of about 120 per cent. profit. + +The public enthusiasm, which had been so long rising, could not resist +a vision so splendid. At least three hundred thousand applications were +made for the fifty thousand new shares, and Law's house in the Rue de +Quincampoix was beset from morning to night by the eager applicants. +As it was impossible to satisfy them all, it was several weeks before a +list of the fortunate new stockholders could be made out, during which +time the public impatience rose to a pitch of frenzy. Dukes, marquises, +counts, with their duchesses, marchionesses, and countesses, waited +in the streets for hours every day before Mr. Law's door to know the +result. At last, to avoid the jostling of the plebeian crowd, which, +to the number of thousands, filled the whole thoroughfare, they took +apartments in the adjoining houses, that they might be continually near +the temple whence the new Plutus was diffusing wealth. Every day the +value of the old shares increased, and the fresh applications, induced +by the golden dreams of the whole nation, became so numerous that it +was deemed advisable to create no less than three hundred thousand new +shares, at five thousand livres each, in order that the Regent might +take advantage of the popular enthusiasm to pay off the national debt. +For this purpose, the sum of fifteen hundred millions of livres was +necessary. Such was the eagerness of the nation, that thrice the sum +would have been subscribed if the government had authorised it. + +Law was now at the zenith of his prosperity, and the people were rapidly +approaching the zenith of their infatuation. The highest and the lowest +classes were alike filled with a vision of boundless wealth. There was +not a person of note among the aristocracy, with the exception of the +Duke of St. Simon and Marshal Villars, who was not engaged in buying +or selling stock. People of every age and sex, and condition in life, +speculated in the rise and fall of the Mississippi bonds. The Rue de +Quincampoix was the grand resort of the jobbers, and it being a narrow, +inconvenient street, accidents continually occurred in it, from the +tremendous pressure of the crowd. Houses in it, worth, in ordinary +times, a thousand livres of yearly rent, yielded as much as twelve or +sixteen thousand. A cobbler, who had a stall in it, gained about two +hundred livres a day by letting it out, and furnishing writing materials +to brokers and their clients. The story goes, that a hump-backed man who +stood in the street gained considerable sums by lending his hump as a +writing-desk to the eager speculators! The great concourse of persons +who assembled to do business brought a still greater concourse of +spectators. These again drew all the thieves and immoral characters of +Paris to the spot, and constant riots and disturbances took place. At +nightfall, it was often found necessary to send a troop of soldiers to +clear the street. + +Law, finding the inconvenience of his residence, removed to the Place +Vendome, whither the crowd of agioteurs followed him. That spacious +square soon became as thronged as the Rue de Quincampoix: from morning +to night it presented the appearance of a fair. Booths and tents were +erected for the transaction of business and the sale of refreshments, +and gamblers with their roulette tables stationed themselves in the very +middle of the place, and reaped a golden, or rather a paper, harvest +from the throng. The Boulevards and public gardens were forsaken; +parties of pleasure took their walks in preference in the Place Vendome, +which became the fashionable lounge of the idle, as well as the general +rendezvous of the busy. The noise was so great all day, that the +Chancellor, whose court was situated in the square, complained to the +Regent and the municipality, that he could not hear the advocates. Law, +when applied to, expressed his willingness to aid in the removal of the +nuisance, and for this purpose entered into a treaty with the Prince de +Carignan for the Hotel de Soissons, which had a garden of several acres +in the rear. A bargain was concluded, by which Law became the purchaser +of the hotel, at an enormous price, the Prince reserving to himself the +magnificent gardens as a new source of profit. They contained some fine +statues and several fountains, and were altogether laid out with much +taste. As soon as Law was installed in his new abode, an edict was +published, forbidding all persons to buy or sell stock anywhere but +in the gardens of the Hotel de Soissons. In the midst among the trees, +about five hundred small tents and pavilions were erected, for the +convenience of the stock-jobbers. Their various colours, the gay ribands +and banners which floated from them, the busy crowds which passed +continually in and out--the incessant hum of voices, the noise, +the music, and the strange mixture of business and pleasure on the +countenances of the throng, all combined to give the place an air of +enchantment that quite enraptured the Parisians. The Prince de Carignan +made enormous profits while the delusion lasted. Each tent was let at +the rate of five hundred livres a month; and, as there were at least +five hundred of them, his monthly revenue from this source alone must +have amounted to 250,000 livres, or upwards of 10,000 pounds sterling. + +The honest old soldier, Marshal Villars, was so vexed to see the folly +which had smitten his countrymen, that he never could speak with +temper on the subject. Passing one day through the Place Vendome in his +carriage, the choleric gentleman was so annoyed at the infatuation of +the people, that he abruptly ordered his coachman to stop, and, putting +his head out of the carriage window, harangued them for full half an +hour on their "disgusting avarice." This was not a very wise proceeding +on his part. Hisses and shouts of laughter resounded from every side, +and jokes without number were aimed at him. There being at last strong +symptoms that something more tangible was flying through the air in +the direction of his head, Marshal was glad to drive on. He never again +repeated the experiment. + +Two sober, quiet, and philosophic men of letters, M. de la Motte and the +Abbe Terrason, congratulated each other, that they, at least, were free +from this strange infatuation. A few days afterwards, as the worthy +Abbe was coming out of the Hotel de Soissons, whither he had gone to buy +shares in the Mississippi, whom should he see but his friend La Motte +entering for the same purpose. "Ha!" said the Abbe, smiling, "is that +you?" "Yes," said La Motte, pushing past him as fast as he was able; +"and can that be you?" The next time the two scholars met, they talked +of philosophy, of science, and of religion, but neither had courage for +a long time to breathe one syllable about the Mississippi. At last, when +it was mentioned, they agreed that a man ought never to swear against +his doing any one thing, and that there was no sort of extravagance of +which even a wise man was not capable. + +During this time, Law, the new Plutus, had become all at once the most +important personage of the state. The ante-chambers of the Regent were +forsaken by the courtiers. Peers, judges, and bishops thronged to the +Hotel de Soissons; officers of the army and navy, ladies of title and +fashion, and every one to whom hereditary rank or public employ gave a +claim to precedence, were to be found waiting in his ante-chambers to +beg for a portion of his India stock. Law was so pestered that he was +unable to see one-tenth part of the applicants, and every manoeuvre that +ingenuity could suggest was employed to gain access to him. Peers, whose +dignity would have been outraged if the Regent had made them wait half +an hour for an interview, were content to wait six hours for the chance +of seeing Monsieur Law. Enormous fees were paid to his servants, if +they would merely announce their names. Ladies of rank employed the +blandishments of their smiles for the same object; but many of them came +day after day for a fortnight before they could obtain an audience. When +Law accepted an invitation, he was sometimes so surrounded by ladies, +all asking to have their names put down in his lists as shareholders in +the new stock, that, in spite of his well-known and habitual gallantry, +he was obliged to tear himself away par force. The most ludicrous +stratagems were employed to have an opportunity of speaking to him. One +lady, who had striven in vain during several days, gave up in despair +all attempts to see him at his own house, but ordered her coachman to +keep a strict watch whenever she was out in her carriage, and if he saw +Mr. Law coming, to drive against a post, and upset her. The coachman +promised obedience, and for three days the lady was driven incessantly +through the town, praying inwardly for the opportunity to be overturned. +At last she espied Mr. Law, and, pulling the string, called out to the +coachman, "Upset us now! for God's sake, upset us now!" The coachman +drove against a post, the lady screamed, the coach was overturned, +and Law, who had seen the accident, hastened to the spot to render +assistance. The cunning dame was led into the Hotel de Soissons, where +she soon thought it advisable to recover from her fright, and, after +apologizing to Mr. Law, confessed her stratagem. Law smiled, and entered +the lady in his books as the purchaser of a quantity of India stock. +Another story is told of a Madame de Boucha, who, knowing that Mr. Law +was at dinner at a certain house, proceeded thither in her carriage, and +gave the alarm of fire. The company started from table, and Law among +the rest; but, seeing one lady making all haste into the house towards +him, while everybody else was scampering away, he suspected the trick, +and ran off in another direction. + +Many other anecdotes are related, which even, though they may be a +little exaggerated, are nevertheless worth preserving, as showing the +spirit of that singular period. [The curious reader may find an anecdote +of the eagerness of the French ladies to retain Law in their company, +which will make him blush or smile according as he happens to be very +modest or the reverse. It is related in the Letters of Madame Charlotte +Elizabeth de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, vol. ii. p. 274.] The Regent +was one day mentioning, in the presence of D'Argenson, the Abbe Dubois, +and some other persons, that he was desirous of deputing some lady, of +the rank at least of a Duchess, to attend upon his daughter at Modena; +"but," added he, "I do not exactly know where to find one." "No!" +replied one, in affected surprise; "I can tell you where to find every +Duchess in France:--you have only to go to Mr. Law's; you will see them +every one in his ante-chamber." + +M. de Chirac, a celebrated physician, had bought stock at an unlucky +period, and was very anxious to sell out. Stock, however continued to +fall for two or three days, much to his alarm. His mind was filled with +the subject, when he was suddenly called upon to attend a lady, who +imagined herself unwell. He arrived, was shown up stairs, and felt the +lady's pulse. "It falls! it falls! good God! it falls continually!" said +he, musingly, while the lady looked up in his face, all anxiety for his +opinion. "Oh! M. de Chirac," said she, starting to her feet, and ringing +the bell for assistance; "I am dying! I am dying! it falls! it falls! it +falls!" "What falls?" inquired the doctor, in amazement. "My pulse! my +pulse!" said the lady; "I must be dying." "Calm your apprehensions, my +dear Madam," said M. de Chirac; "I was speaking of the stocks. The truth +is, I have been a great loser, and my mind is so disturbed, I hardly +know what I have been saying." + +The price of shares sometimes rose ten or twenty per cent. in the course +of a few hours, and many persons in the humbler walks of life, who had +risen poor in the morning, went to bed in affluence. An extensive holder +of stock, being taken ill, sent his servant to sell two hundred and +fifty shares, at eight thousand livres each, the price at which they +were then quoted. The servant went, and, on his arrival in the Jardin de +Soissons, found that in the interval the price had risen to ten thousand +livres. The difference of two thousand livres on the two hundred and +fifty shares, amounting to 500,000 livres, or 20,000 pounds sterling, he +very coolly transferred to his own use, and, giving the remainder to his +master, set out the same evening for another country. Law's coachman in +a very short time made money enough to set up a carriage of his own, and +requested permission to leave his service. Law, who esteemed the man, +begged of him as a favour, that he would endeavour, before he went, to +find a substitute as good as himself. The coachman consented, and in the +evening brought two of his former comrades, telling Mr. Law to choose +between them, and he would take the other. Cookmaids and footmen +were now and then as lucky, and, in the full-blown pride of their +easily-acquired wealth, made the most ridiculous mistakes. Preserving +the language and manners of their old, with the finery of their new +station, they afforded continual subjects for the pity of the sensible, +the contempt of the sober, and the laughter of everybody. But the folly +and meanness of the higher ranks of society were still more disgusting. +One instance alone, related by the Duke de St. Simon, will show the +unworthy avarice which infected the whole of society. A man of the name +of Andre, without character or education, had, by a series of well-timed +speculations in Mississippi bonds, gained enormous wealth, in an +incredibly short space of time. As St. Simon expresses it, "he had +amassed mountains of gold." As he became rich, he grew ashamed of the +lowness of his birth, and anxious above all things to be allied to +nobility. He had a daughter, an infant only three years of age, and he +opened a negotiation with the aristocratic and needy family of D'Oyse, +that this child should, upon certain conditions, marry a member of that +house. The Marquis d'Oyse, to his shame, consented, and promised to +marry her himself on her attaining the age of twelve, if the father +would pay him down the sum of a hundred thousand crowns, and twenty +thousand livres every year, until the celebration of the marriage. The +Marquis was himself in his thirty-third year. This scandalous bargain +was duly signed and sealed, the stockjobber furthermore agreeing to +settle upon his daughter, on the marriage-day, a fortune of several +millions. The Duke of Brancas, the head of the family, was present +throughout the negotiation, and shared in all the profits. St. Simon, +who treats the matter with the levity becoming what he thought so good +a joke, adds, "that people did not spare their animadversions on this +beautiful marriage," and further informs us, "that the project fell to +the ground some months afterwards by the overthrow of Law, and the ruin +of the ambitious Monsieur Andre." It would appear, however, that the +noble family never had the honesty to return the hundred thousand +crowns. + +Amid events like these, which, humiliating though they be, partake +largely of the ludicrous, others occurred of a more serious nature. +Robberies in the streets were of daily occurrence, in consequence of +the immense sums, in paper, which people carried about with them. +Assassinations were also frequent. One case in particular fixed the +attention of the whole of France, not only on account of the enormity of +the offence, but of the rank and high connexions of the criminal. + +The Count d'Horn, a younger brother of the Prince d'Horn, and related +to the noble families of D'Aremberg, De Ligne, and De Montmorency, was +a young man of dissipated character, extravagant to a degree, and +unprincipled as he was extravagant. In connexion with two other young +men as reckless as himself, named Mille, a Piedmontese captain, and one +Destampes, or Lestang, a Fleming, he formed a design to rob a very rich +broker, who was known, unfortunately for himself, to carry great sums +about his person. The Count pretended a desire to purchase of him a +number of shares in the Company of the Indies, and for that purpose +appointed to meet him in a cabaret, or low public-house, in the +neighbourhood of the Place Vendome. The unsuspecting broker was punctual +to his appointment; so were the Count d'Horn and his two associates, +whom he introduced as his particular friends. After a few moments' +conversation, the Count d'Horn suddenly sprang upon his victim, and +stabbed him three times in the breast with a poniard. The man fell +heavily to the ground, and, while the Count was employed in rifling his +portfolio of bonds in the Mississippi and Indian schemes to the amount +of one hundred thousand crowns, Mille, the Piedmontese, stabbed the +unfortunate broker again and again, to make sure of his death. But the +broker did not fall without a struggle, and his cries brought the people +of the cabaret to his assistance. Lestang, the other assassin, who had +been set to keep watch at a staircase, sprang from a window and escaped; +but Mille and the Count d'Horn were seized in the very act. + +This crime, committed in open day, and in so public a place as a +cabaret, filled Paris with consternation. The trial of the assassins +commenced on the following day, and the evidence being so clear, they +were both found guilty and condemned to be broken alive on the wheel. +The noble relatives of the Count d'Horn absolutely blocked up the +ante-chambers of the Regent, praying for mercy on the misguided youth, +and alleging that he was insane. The Regent avoided them as long as +possible, being determined that, in a case so atrocious, justice should +take its course; but the importunity of these influential suitors was +not to be overcome so silently, and they at last forced themselves into +the presence of the Regent, and prayed him to save their house the shame +of a public execution. They hinted that the Princes d'Horn were allied +to the illustrious family of Orleans, and added that the Regent himself +would be disgraced if a kinsman of his should die by the hands of a +common executioner. The Regent, to his credit, was proof against all +their solicitations, and replied to their last argument in the words of +Corneille,-- + + "Le crime fait la honte, et non pas l'echafaud:" + +adding, that whatever shame there might be in the punishment he would +very willingly share with the other relatives. Day after day they +renewed their entreaties, but always with the same result. At last +they thought that if they could interest the Duke de St. Simon in +their layout, a man for whom the Regent felt sincere esteem, they might +succeed in their object. The Duke, a thorough aristocrat, was as shocked +as they were, that a noble assassin should die by the same death as a +plebeian felon, and represented to the Regent the impolicy of making +enemies of so numerous, wealthy, and powerful a family. He urged, too, +that in Germany, where the family of D'Aremberg had large possessions, +it was the law, that no relative of a person broken on the wheel could +succeed to any public office or employ until a whole generation had +passed away. For this reason he thought the punishment of the guilty +Count might be transmuted into beheading, which was considered all over +Europe as much less infamous. The Regent was moved by this argument, and +was about to consent, when Law, who felt peculiarly interested in the +fate of the murdered man, confirmed him in his former resolution, to let +the law take its course. + +The relatives of D'Horn were now reduced to the last extremity. The +Prince de Robec Montmorency, despairing of other methods, found means +to penetrate into the dungeon of the criminal, and offering him a cup of +poison, implored him to save them from disgrace. The Count d'Horn turned +away his head, and refused to take it. Montmorency pressed him once +more, and losing all patience at his continued refusal, turned on his +heel, and exclaiming, "Die, then, as thou wilt, mean-spirited wretch! +thou art fit only to perish by the hands of the hangman!" left him to +his fate. + +D'Horn himself petitioned the Regent that he might be beheaded, but Law, +who exercised more influence over his mind than any other person, with +the exception of the notorious Abbe Dubois, his tutor, insisted that +he could not in justice succumb to the self-interested views of the +D'Horns. The Regent had from the first been of the same opinion, and +within six days after the commission of their crime, D'Horn and Mille +were broken on the wheel in the Place de Greve. The other assassin, +Lestang, was never apprehended. + +This prompt and severe justice was highly pleasing to the populace of +Paris; even M. de Quincampoix, as they called Law, came in for a share +of their approbation for having induced the Regent to show no favour +to a patrician. But the number of robberies and assassinations did +not diminish. No sympathy was shown for rich jobbers when they were +plundered: the general laxity of public morals, conspicuous enough +before, was rendered still more so by its rapid pervasion of the middle +classes, who had hitherto remained comparatively pure, between the open +vices of the class above and the hidden crimes of the class below them. +The pernicious love of gambling diffused itself through society, and +bore all public, and nearly all private, virtue before it. + +For a time, while confidence lasted, an impetus was given to trade, +which could not fail to be beneficial. In Paris, especially, the good +results were felt. Strangers flocked into the capital from every part, +bent, not only upon making money, but on spending it. The Duchess of +Orleans, mother of the Regent, computes the increase of the population +during this time, from the great influx of strangers from all parts of +the world, at 305,000 souls. The housekeepers were obliged to make up +beds in garrets, kitchens, and even stables, for the accommodation of +lodgers; and the town was so full of carriages and vehicles of every +description, that they were obliged in the principal streets to drive at +a foot-pace for fear of accidents. The looms of the country worked with +unusual activity, to supply rich laces, silks, broad-cloth, and velvets, +which being paid for in abundant paper, increased in price four-fold. +Provisions shared the general advance; bread, meat, and vegetables were +sold at prices greater than had ever before been known; while the wages +of labour rose in exactly the same proportion. The artisan, who formerly +gained fifteen sous per diem, now gained sixty. New houses were built +in every direction; an illusory prosperity shone over the land, and so +dazzled the eyes of the whole nation that none could see the dark cloud +on the horizon, announcing the storm that was too rapidly approaching. + +Law himself, the magician whose wand had wrought so surprising a change, +shared, of course, in the general prosperity. His wife and daughter were +courted by the highest nobility, and their alliance sought by the +heirs of ducal and princely houses. He bought two splendid estates +in different parts of France, and entered into a negotiation with the +family of the Duke de Sully for the purchase of the Marquisate of Rosny. +His religion being an obstacle to his advancement, the Regent promised, +if he would publicly conform to the Catholic faith, to make him +comptroller-general of the finances. Law, who had no more real religion +than any other professed gambler, readily agreed, and was confirmed by +the Abbe de Tencin in the cathedral of Melun, in presence of a great +crowd of spectators. + +[The following squib was circulated on the occasion:-- + + "Foin de ton zele seraphique, + Malheureux Abbe de Tencin, + Depuis que Law est Catholique, + Tout le royaume est Capucin + +Thus, somewhat weakly and paraphrastically rendered by Justansond, in +his translation of the "Memoirs of Louis XV:"-- + + "Tencin, a curse on thy seraphic zeal, + Which by persuasion hath contrived the means + To make the Scotchman at our altars kneel, + Since which we all are poor as Capucines?] + +On the following day he was elected honorary churchwarden of the parish +of St. Roch, upon which occasion he made it a present of the sum of five +hundred thousand livres. His charities, always magnificent, were not +always so ostentatious. He gave away great sums privately, and no tale +of real distress ever reached his ears in vain. + +At this time, he was by far the most influential person of the state. +The Duke of Orleans had so much confidence in his sagacity, and the +success of his plans, that he always consulted him upon every matter +of moment. He was by no means unduly elevated by his prosperity, but +remained the same simple, affable, sensible man that he had shown +himself in adversity. His gallantry, which was always delightful to the +fair objects of it, was of a nature, so kind, so gentlemanly, and so +respectful, that not even a lover could have taken offence at it. If +upon any occasion he showed any symptoms of haughtiness, it was to the +cringing nobles, who lavished their adulation upon him till it became +fulsome. He often took pleasure in seeing how long he could make them +dance attendance upon him for a single favour. To such of his own +countrymen as by chance visited Paris, and sought an interview with him, +he was, on the contrary, all politeness and attention. When Archibald +Campbell, Earl of Islay, and afterwards Duke of Argyle, called upon him +in the Place Vendome, he had to pass through an ante-chamber crowded +with persons of the first distinction, all anxious to see the great +financier, and have their names put down as first on the list of some +new subscription. Law himself was quietly sitting in his library, +writing a letter to the gardener at his paternal estate of Lauriston +about the planting of some cabbages! The Earl stayed for a considerable +time, played a game of piquet with his countryman, and left him, charmed +with his ease, good sense, and good breeding. + +Among the nobles who, by means of the public credulity at this time, +gained sums sufficient to repair their ruined fortunes, may be mentioned +the names of the Dukes de Bourbon, de Guiche, de la Force [The Duke de +la Force gained considerable sums, not only by jobbing in the stocks, +but in dealing in porcelain, spices, &c. It was debated for a length of +time in the Parliament of Paris whether he had not, in his quality of +spice-merchant, forfeited his rank in the peerage. It was decided in +the negative. A caricature of him was made, dressed as a street porter, +carrying a large bale of spices on his back, with the inscription, +"Admirez La Force."], de Chaulnes, and d'Antin; the Marechal d'Estrees, +the Princes de Rohan, de Poix, and de Leon. The Duke de Bourbon, son +of Louis XIV by Madame de Montespan, was peculiarly fortunate in his +speculations in Mississippi paper. He rebuilt the royal residence of +Chantilly in a style of unwonted magnificence, and, being passionately +fond of horses, he erected a range of stables, which were long renowned +throughout Europe, and imported a hundred and fifty of the finest racers +from England, to improve the breed in France. He bought a large extent +of country in Picardy, and became possessed of nearly all the valuable +lands lying between the Oise and the Somme. + +When fortunes such as these were gained, it is no wonder that Law should +have been almost worshipped by the mercurial population. Never was +monarch more flattered than he was. All the small poets and litterateurs +of the day poured floods of adulation upon him. According to them he was +the saviour of the country, the tutelary divinity of France; wit was in +all his words, goodness in all his looks, and wisdom in all his actions. +So great a crowd followed his carriage whenever he went abroad, that the +Regent sent him a troop of horse as his permanent escort, to clear the +streets before him. + +It was remarked at this time, that Paris had never before been so full +of objects of elegance and luxury. Statues, pictures, and tapestries +were imported in great quantities from foreign countries, and found +a ready market. All those pretty trifles in the way of furniture and +ornament which the French excel in manufacturing, were no longer the +exclusive play-things of the aristocracy, but were to be found in +abundance in the houses of traders and the middle classes in general. +Jewellery of the most costly description was brought to Paris as the +most favourable mart. Among the rest, the famous diamond, bought by +the Regent, and called by his name, and which long adorned the crown of +France. It was purchased for the sum of two millions of livres, under +circumstances which show that the Regent was not so great a gainer as +some of his subjects, by the impetus which trade had received. When +the diamond was first offered to him, he refused to buy it, although he +desired, above all things, to possess it, alleging as his reason, that +his duty to the country he governed would not allow him to spend +so large a sum of the public money for a mere jewel. This valid and +honourable excuse threw all the ladies of the court into alarm, and +nothing was heard for some days but expressions of regret, that so rare +a gem should be allowed to go out of France; no private individual being +rich enough to buy it. The Regent was continually importuned about it; +but all in vain, until the Duke de St. Simon, who, with all his ability, +was something of a twaddler, undertook the weighty business. His +entreaties, being seconded by Law, the good-natured Regent gave his +consent, leaving to Law's ingenuity to find the means to pay for it. The +owner took security for the payment of the sum of two millions of livres +within a stated period, receiving, in the mean time, the interest of +five per cent. upon that amount, and being allowed, besides, all the +valuable clippings of the gem. St. Simon, in his Memoirs, relates, with +no little complacency, his share in this transaction. After describing +the diamond to be as large as a greengage, of a form nearly round, +perfectly white, and without flaw, and weighing more than five hundred +grains, he concludes with a chuckle, by telling the world, "that he +takes great credit to himself for having induced the Regent to make +so illustrious a purchase." In other words, he was proud that he had +induced him to sacrifice his duty, and buy a bauble for himself, at an +extravagant price, out of the public money. + +Thus the system continued to flourish till the commencement of the year +1720. The warnings of the Parliament, that too great a creation of paper +money would, sooner or later, bring the country to bankruptcy, were +disregarded. The Regent, who knew nothing whatever of the philosophy +of finance, thought that a system which had produced such good effects +could never be carried to excess. If five hundred millions of paper had +been of such advantage, five hundred millions additional would be of +still greater advantage. This was the grand error of the Regent, and +which Law did not attempt to dispel. The extraordinary avidity of the +people kept up the delusion; and the higher the price of Indian and +Mississippi stock, the more billets de banque were issued to keep pace +with it. The edifice thus reared might not unaptly be compared to the +gorgeous palace erected by Potemkin, that princely barbarian of Russia, +to surprise and please his imperial mistress: huge blocks of ice were +piled one upon another; ionic pillars, of chastest workmanship, in ice, +formed a noble portico; and a dome, of the same material, shone in the +sun, which had just strength enough to gild, but not to melt it. It +glittered afar, like a palace of crystals and diamonds; but there came +one warm breeze from the south, and the stately building dissolved away, +till none were able even to gather up the fragments. So with Law and his +paper system. No sooner did the breath of popular mistrust blow steadily +upon it, than it fell to ruins, and none could raise it up again. + +The first slight alarm that was occasioned was early in 1720. The Prince +de Conti, offended that Law should have denied him fresh shares in India +stock, at his own price, sent to his bank to demand payment in specie +of so enormous a quantity of notes, that three waggons were required for +its transport. Law complained to the Regent, and urged on his attention +the mischief that would be done, if such an example found many +imitators. The Regent was but too well aware of it, and, sending for the +Prince de Conti, ordered him, under penalty of his high displeasure, to +refund to the Bank two-thirds of the specie which he had withdrawn from +it. The Prince was forced to obey the despotic mandate. Happily for +Law's credit, De Conti was an unpopular man: everybody condemned his +meanness and cupidity, and agreed that Law had been hardly treated. It +is strange, however, that so narrow an escape should not have made both +Law and the Regent more anxious to restrict their issues. Others were +soon found who imitated, from motives of distrust, the example which had +been set by De Conti in revenge. The more acute stockjobbers imagined +justly that prices could not continue to rise for ever. Bourdon and +La Richardiere, renowned for their extensive operations in the funds, +quietly and in small quantities at a time, converted their notes into +specie, and sent it away to foreign countries. They also bought as much +as they could conveniently carry of plate and expensive jewellery, and +sent it secretly away to England or to Holland. Vermalet, a jobber, who +sniffed the coming storm, procured gold and silver coin to the amount +of nearly a million of livres, which he packed in a farmer's cart, and +covered over with hay and cow-dung. He then disguised himself in the +dirty smock-frock, or blouse, of a peasant, and drove his precious load +in safety into Belgium. From thence he soon found means to transport it +to Amsterdam. + +Hitherto no difficulty had been experienced by any class in procuring +specie for their wants. But this system could not long be carried on +without causing a scarcity. The voice of complaint was heard on every +side, and inquiries being instituted, the cause was soon discovered. The +council debated long on the remedies to be taken, and Law, being called +on for his advice, was of opinion, that an edict should be published, +depreciating the value of coin five per cent. below that of paper. The +edict was published accordingly; but, failing of its intended effect, +was followed by another, in which the depreciation was increased to ten +per cent. The payments of the bank were at the same time restricted to +one hundred livres in gold, and ten in silver. All these measures were +nugatory to restore confidence in the paper, though the restriction of +cash payments within limits so extremely narrow kept up the credit of +the Bank. + +Notwithstanding every effort to the contrary, the precious metals +continued to be conveyed to England and Holland. The little coin that +was left in the country was carefully treasured, or hidden until the +scarcity became so great, that the operations of trade could no longer +be carried on. In this emergency, Law hazarded the bold experiment of +forbidding the use of specie altogether. In February 1720 an edict was +published, which, instead of restoring the credit of the paper, as was +intended, destroyed it irrecoverably, and drove the country to the very +brink of revolution. By this famous edict it was forbidden to any person +whatever to have more than five hundred livres (20 pounds sterling) of +coin in his possession, under pain of a heavy fine, and confiscation of +the sums found. It was also forbidden to buy up jewellery, plate, +and precious stones, and informers were encouraged to make search for +offenders, by the promise of one-half the amount they might discover. +The whole country sent up a cry of distress at this unheard-of tyranny. +The most odious persecution daily took place. The privacy of families +was violated by the intrusion of informers and their agents. The most +virtuous and honest were denounced for the crime of having been seen +with a louis d'or in their possession. Servants betrayed their +masters, one citizen became a spy upon his neighbour, and arrests and +confiscations so multiplied, that the courts found a difficulty in +getting through the immense increase of business thus occasioned. It +was sufficient for an informer to say that he suspected any person of +concealing money in his house, and immediately a search-warrant was +granted. Lord Stair, the English ambassador, said, that it was now +impossible to doubt of the sincerity of Law's conversion to the Catholic +religion; he had established the inquisition, after having given +abundant evidence of his faith in transubstantiation, by turning so much +gold into paper. + +Every epithet that popular hatred could suggest was showered upon the +Regent and the unhappy Law. Coin, to any amount above five hundred +livres, was an illegal tender, and nobody would take paper if he could +help it. No one knew to-day what his notes would be worth to-morrow. +"Never," says Duclos, in his Secret Memoirs of the Regency, "was seen a +more capricious government-never was a more frantic tyranny exercised by +hands less firm. It is inconceivable to those who were witnesses of the +horrors of those times, and who look back upon them now as on a dream, +that a sudden revolution did not break out--that Law and the Regent did +not perish by a tragical death. They were both held in horror, but the +people confined themselves to complaints; a sombre and timid despair, a +stupid consternation, had seized upon all, and men's minds were too vile +even to be capable of a courageous crime." It would appear that, at one +time, a movement of the people was organised. Seditious writings were +posted up against the walls, and were sent, in hand-bills, to the houses +of the most conspicuous people. One of them, given in the "Memoires de +la Regence," was to the following effect:--"Sir and Madam,--This is to +give you notice that a St. Bartholomew's Day will be enacted again on +Saturday and Sunday, if affairs do not alter. You are desired not to +stir out, nor you, nor your servants. God preserve you from the flames! +Give notice to your neighbours. Dated Saturday, May 25th, 1720." The +immense number of spies with which the city was infested rendered the +people mistrustful of one another, and beyond some trifling disturbances +made in the evening by an insignificant group, which was soon dispersed, +the peace of the capital was not compromised. + +The value of shares in the Louisiana, or Mississippi stock, had fallen +very rapidly, and few indeed were found to believe the tales that had +once been told of the immense wealth of that region. A last effort was +therefore tried to restore the public confidence in the Mississippi +project. For this purpose, a general conscription of all the poor +wretches in Paris was made by order of government. Upwards of six +thousand of the very refuse of the population were impressed, as if in +time of war, and were provided with clothes and tools to be embarked +for New Orleans, to work in the gold mines alleged to abound there. +They were paraded day after day through the streets with their pikes and +shovels, and then sent off in small detachments to the out-ports to be +shipped for America. Two-thirds of them never reached their destination, +but dispersed themselves over the country, sold their tools for what +they could get, and returned to their old course of life. In less than +three weeks afterwards, one-half of them were to be found again in +Paris. The manoeuvre, however, caused a trifling advance in Mississippi +stock. Many persons of superabundant gullibility believed that +operations had begun in earnest in the new Golconda, and that gold and +silver ingots would again be found in France. + +In a constitutional monarchy some surer means would have been found for +the restoration of public credit. In England, at a subsequent period, +when a similar delusion had brought on similar distress, how +different were the measures taken to repair the evil; but in France, +unfortunately, the remedy was left to the authors of the mischief. +The arbitrary will of the Regent, which endeavoured to extricate the +country, only plunged it deeper into the mire. All payments were ordered +to be made in paper, and between the 1st of February and the end of +May, notes were fabricated to the amount of upwards of 1500 millions of +livres, or 60,000,000 pounds sterling. But the alarm once sounded, no +art could make the people feel the slightest confidence in paper which +was not exchangeable into metal. M. Lambert, the President of the +Parliament of Paris, told the Regent to his face that he would rather +have a hundred thousand livres in gold or silver than five millions +in the notes of his bank. When such was the general feeling, the +superabundant issues of paper but increased the evil, by rendering still +more enormous the disparity between the amount of specie and notes in +circulation. Coin, which it was the object of the Regent to depreciate, +rose in value on every fresh attempt to diminish it. In February, it +was judged advisable that the Royal Bank should be incorporated with +the Company of the Indies. An edict to that effect was published and +registered by the Parliament. The state remained the guarantee for the +notes of the bank, and no more were to be issued without an order in +council. All the profits of the bank, since the time it had been taken +out of Law's hands and made a national institution, were given over by +the Regent to the Company of the Indies. This measure had the effect of +raising for a short time the value of the Louisiana and other shares +of the company, but it failed in placing public credit on any permanent +basis. + +A council of state was held in the beginning of May, at which Law, +D'Argenson (his colleague in the administration of the finances), and +all the ministers were present. It was then computed that the total +amount of notes in circulation was 2600 millions of livres, while the +coin in the country was not quite equal to half that amount. It was +evident to the majority of the council that some plan must be adopted to +equalise the currency. Some proposed that the notes should be reduced to +the value of the specie, while others proposed that the nominal value of +the specie should be raised till it was on an equality with the +paper. Law is said to have opposed both these projects, but failing in +suggesting any other, it was agreed that the notes should be depreciated +one-half. On the 21st of May, an edict was accordingly issued, by which +it was decreed that the shares of the Company of the Indies, and the +notes of the bank, should gradually diminish in value, till at the end +of a year they should only pass current for one half of their nominal +worth. The Parliament refused to register the edict--the greatest outcry +was excited, and the state of the country became so alarming, that, as +the only means of preserving tranquillity, the council of the regency +was obliged to stultify its own proceedings, by publishing within seven +days another edict, restoring the notes to their original value. + +On the same day (the 27th of May) the bank stopped payment in specie. +Law and D'Argenson were both dismissed from the ministry. The weak, +vacillating, and cowardly Regent threw the blame of all the mischief +upon Law, who, upon presenting himself at the Palais Royal, was refused +admitance. At nightfall, however, he was sent for, and admitted into the +palace by a secret door,[Duclos, Memoires Secrets de la Regence.] when +the Regent endeavoured to console him, and made all manner of excuses +for the severity with which in public he had been compelled to treat +him. So capricious was his conduct, that, two days afterwards, he took +him publicly to the opera, where he sat in the royal box, alongside of +the Regent, who treated him with marked consideration in face of all the +people. But such was the hatred against Law that the experiment had well +nigh proved fatal to him. The mob assailed his carriage with stones +just as he was entering his own door; and if the coachman had not made +a sudden jerk into the court-yard, and the domestics closed the gate +immediately, he would, in all probability, have been dragged out and +torn to pieces. On the following day, his wife and daughter were also +assailed by the mob as they were returning in their carriage from the +races. When the Regent was informed of these occurrences he sent Law a +strong detachment of Swiss guards, who were stationed night and day in +the court of his residence. The public indignation at last increased so +much, that Law, finding his own house, even with this guard, insecure, +took refuge in the Palais Royal, in the apartments of the Regent. + +The Chancellor, D'Aguesseau, who had been dismissed in 1718 for his +opposition to the projects of Law, was now recalled to aid in the +restoration of credit. The Regent acknowledged too late, that he had +treated with unjustifiable harshness and mistrust one of the ablest, +and perhaps the sole honest public man of that corrupt period. He had +retired ever since his disgrace to his country-house at Fresnes, where, +in the midst of severe but delightful philosophic studies, he had +forgotten the intrigues of an unworthy court. Law himself, and the +Chevalier de Conflans, a gentleman of the Regent's household, were +despatched in a post-chaise, with orders to bring the ex-chancellor to +Paris along with them. D'Aguesseau consented to render what assistance +he could, contrary to the advice of his friends, who did not approve +that he should accept any recall to office of which Law was the bearer. +On his arrival in Paris, five counsellors of the Parliament were +admitted to confer with the Commissary of Finance, and on the 1st of +June an order was published, abolishing the law which made it criminal +to amass coin to the amount of more than five hundred livres. Every one +was permitted to have as much specie as he pleased. In order that the +bank-notes might be withdrawn, twenty-five millions of new notes were +created, on the security of the revenues of the city of Paris, at +two-and-a-half per cent. The bank-notes withdrawn were publicly burned +in front of the Hotel de Ville. The new notes were principally of +the value of ten livres each; and on the 10th of June the bank was +re-opened, with a sufficiency of silver coin to give in change for them. + +These measures were productive of considerable advantage. All the +population of Paris hastened to the bank, to get coin for their small +notes; and silver becoming scarce, they were paid in copper. Very few +complained that this was too heavy, although poor fellows might be +continually seen toiling and sweating along the streets, laden with +more than they could comfortably carry, in the shape of change for fifty +livres. The crowds around the bank were so great, that hardly a day +passed that some one was not pressed to death. On the 9th of July, the +multitude was so dense and clamorous that the guards stationed at the +entrance of the Mazarin Gardens closed the gate, and refused to admit +any more. The crowd became incensed, and flung stones through the +railings upon the soldiers. The latter, incensed in their turn, +threatened to fire upon the people. At that instant one of them was hit +by a stone, and, taking up his piece, he fired into the crowd. One man +fell dead immediately, and another was severely wounded. It was every +instant expected that a general attack would have been commenced upon +the bank; but the gates of the Mazarin Gardens being opened to the +crowd, who saw a whole troop of soldiers, with their bayonets fixed, +ready to receive them, they contented themselves by giving vent to their +indignation in groans and hisses. + +Eight days afterwards the concourse of people was so tremendous, that +fifteen persons were squeezed to death at the doors of the bank. +The people were so indignant that they took three of the bodies on +stretchers before them, and proceeded, to the number of seven or eight +thousand, to the gardens of the Palais Royal, that they might show the +Regent the misfortunes that he and Law had brought upon the country. +Law's coachman, who was sitting on the box of his master's carriage, +in the court-yard of the palace, happened to have more zeal than +discretion, and, not liking that the mob should abuse his master, he +said, loud enough to be overheard by several persons, that they were +all blackguards, and deserved to be hanged. The mob immediately set upon +him, and, thinking that Law was in the carriage, broke it to pieces. The +imprudent coachman narrowly escaped with his life. No further mischief +was done; a body of troops making their appearance, the crowd quietly +dispersed, after an assurance had been given by the Regent that the +three bodies they had brought to show him should be decently buried at +his own expense. The Parliament was sitting at the time of this uproar, +and the President took upon himself to go out and see what was the +matter. On his return he informed the councillors, that Law's carriage +had been broken by the mob. All the members rose simultaneously, and +expressed their joy by a loud shout, while one man, more zealous in +his hatred than the rest, exclaimed, "And Law himself, is he torn to +pieces?" [The Duchess of Orleans gives a different version of this +story; but whichever be the true one, the manifestation of such feeling +in a legislative assembly was not very creditable. She says, that the +President was so transported with joy, that he was seized with a rhyming +fit, and, returning into the hall, exclaimed to the members:-- + + "Messieurs! Messieurs! bonne nouvelle! + Le carfosse de Lass est reduit en canelle!"] + +Much undoubtedly depended on the credit of the Company of the Indies, +which was answerable for so great a sum to the nation. It was, +therefore, suggested in the council of the ministry, that any privileges +which could be granted to enable it to fulfil its engagements, would be +productive of the best results. With this end in view, it was proposed +that the exclusive privilege of all maritime commerce should be +secured to it, and an edict to that effect was published. But it was +unfortunately forgotten that by such a measure all the merchants of +the country would be ruined. The idea of such an immense privilege was +generally scouted by the nation, and petition on petition was presented +to the Parliament, that they would refuse to register the decree. They +refused accordingly, and the Regent, remarking that they did nothing but +fan the flame of sedition, exiled them to Blois. At the intercession +of D'Aguesseau, the place of banishment was changed to Pontoise, and +thither accordingly the councillors repaired, determined to set the +Regent at defiance. They made every arrangement for rendering their +temporary exile as agreeable as possible. The President gave the most +elegant suppers, to which he invited all the gayest and wittiest company +of Paris. Every night there was a concert and ball for the ladies. The +usually grave and solemn judges and councillors joined in cards +and other diversions, leading for several weeks a life of the most +extravagant pleasure, for no other purpose than to show the Regent of +how little consequence they deemed their banishment, and that when they +willed it, they could make Pontoise a pleasanter residence than Paris. + +Of all the nations in the world the French are the most renowned for +singing over their grievances. Of that country it has been remarked with +some truth, that its whole history may be traced in its songs. When Law, +by the utter failure of his best-laid plans, rendered himself obnoxious, +satire of course seized hold upon him, and, while caricatures of his +person appeared in all the shops, the streets resounded with songs, in +which neither he nor the Regent was spared. Many of these songs were far +from decent; and one of them in particular counselled the application of +all his notes to the most ignoble use to which paper can be applied. But +the following, preserved in the letters of the Duchess of Orleans, was +the best and the most popular, and was to be heard for months in all the +carrefours of Paris. The application of the chorus is happy enough:-- + + Aussitot que Lass arriva + Dans notre bonne ville, + Monsieur le Regent publia + Que Lass serait utile + Pour retablir la nation. + La faridondaine! la faridondon. + Mais il nous a tous enrich!, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mort ami! + + Ce parpaillot, pour attirer + Tout l'argent de la France, + Songea d'abord a s'assurer + De notre confiance. + Il fit son abjuration. + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Mais le fourbe s'est converti, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + + Lass, le fils aine de Satan + Nous met tous a l'aumone, + Il nous a pris tout notre argent + Et n'en rend a personne. + Mais le Regent, humain et bon, + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Nous rendra ce qu'on nous a pris, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + +The following smart epigram is of the same date:-- + + Lundi, j'achetai des actions; + Mardi, je gagnai des millions; + Mercredi, j'arrangeai mon menage, + Jeudi, je pris un equipage, + Vendredi, je m'en fus au bal, + Et Samedi, a l'Hopital. + +Among the caricatures that were abundantly published, and that showed +as plainly as graver matters, that the nation had awakened to a sense of +its folly, was one, a fac-simile of which is preserved in the "Memoires +de la Regence." It was thus described by its author: "The 'Goddess of +Shares," in her triumphal car, driven by the Goddess of Folly. Those +who are drawing the car are impersonations of the Mississippi, with his +wooden leg, the South Sea, the Bank of England, the Company of the West +of Senegal, and of various assurances. Lest the car should not roll fast +enough, the agents of these companies, known by their long fox-tails and +their cunning looks, turn round the spokes of the wheels, upon which are +marked the names of the several stocks, and their value, sometimes high +and sometimes low, according to the turns of the wheel. Upon the ground +are the merchandise, day-books and ledgers of legitimate commerce, +crushed under the chariot of Folly. Behind is an immense crowd of +persons, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, clamoring after Fortune, +and fighting with each other to get a portion of the shares which she +distributes so bountifully among them. In the clouds sits a demon, +blowing bubbles of soap, which are also the objects of the admiration +and cupidity of the crowd, who jump upon one another's backs to reach +them ere they burst. Right in the pathway of the car, and blocking up +the passage, stands a large building, with three doors, through one of +which it must pass, if it proceeds further, and all the crowd along +with it. Over the first door are the words, "Hopital des Foux," over the +second, "Hopital des Malades," and over the third, "Hopital des Gueux." +Another caricature represented Law sitting in a large cauldron, +boiling over the flames of popular madness, surrounded by an impetuous +multitude, who were pouring all their gold and silver into it, and +receiving gladly in exchange the bits of paper which he distributed +among them by handsfull. + +While this excitement lasted, Law took good care not to expose himself +unguarded in the streets. Shut up in the apartments of the Regent, he +was secure from all attack, and, whenever he ventured abroad, it was +either incognito, or in one of the Royal carriages, with a powerful +escort. An amusing anecdote is recorded of the detestation in which he +was held by the people, and the ill treatment he would have met, had +he fallen into their hands. A gentleman, of the name of Boursel, was +passing in his carriage down the Rue St. Antoine, when his further +progress was stayed by a hackneycoach that had blocked up the road. M. +Boursel's servant called impatiently to the hackneycoachman to get out +of the way, and, on his refusal, struck him a blow on the face. A crowd +was soon drawn together by the disturbance, and M. Boursel got out of +the carriage to restore order. The hackney-coachman, imagining that he +had now another assailant, bethought him of an expedient to rid himself +of both, and called out as loudly as he was able, "Help! help! murder! +murder! Here are Law and his servant going to kill me! Help! help!" +At this cry, the people came out of their shops, armed with sticks +and other weapons, while the mob gathered stones to inflict summary +vengeance upon the supposed financier. Happily for M. Boursel and his +servant, the door of the church of the Jesuits stood wide open, and, +seeing the fearful odds against them, they rushed towards it with all +speed. They reached the altar, pursued by the people, and would have +been ill treated even there, if, finding the door open leading to the +sacristy, they had not sprang through, and closed it after them. The +mob were then persuaded to leave the church by the alarmed and indignant +priests; and, finding M. Boursel's carriage still in the streets, they +vented their ill-will against it, and did it considerable damage. + +The twenty-five millions secured on the municipal revenues of the city +of Paris, bearing so low an interest as two and a half per cent., were +not very popular among the large holders of Mississippi stock. The +conversion of the securities was, therefore, a work of considerable +difficulty; for many preferred to retain the falling paper of Law's +Company, in the hope that a favourable turn might take place. On the +15th of August, with a view to hasten the conversion, an edict was +passed, declaring that all notes for sums between one thousand and ten +thousand livres; should not pass current, except for the purchase of +annuities and bank accounts, or for the payment of instalments still due +on the shares of the company. + +In October following another edict was passed, depriving these notes +of all value whatever after the month of November next ensuing. The +management of the mint, the farming of the revenue, and all the other +advantages and privileges of the India, or Mississippi Company, were +taken from them, and they were reduced to a mere private company. This +was the deathblow to the whole system, which had now got into the hands +of its enemies. Law had lost all influence in the Council of Finance, +and the company, being despoiled of its immunities, could no longer hold +out the shadow of a prospect of being able to fulfil its engagements. +All those suspected of illegal profits at the time the public delusion +was at its height, were sought out and amerced in heavy fines. It was +previously ordered that a list of the original proprietors should be +made out, and that such persons as still retained their shares should +place them in deposit with the company, and that those who had neglected +to complete the shares for which they had put down their names, should +now purchase them of the company, at the rate of 13,500 livres for each +share of 500 livres. Rather than submit to pay this enormous sum for +stock which was actually at a discount, the shareholders packed up all +their portable effects, and endeavoured to find a refuge in foreign +countries. Orders were immediately issued to the authorities at the +ports and frontiers, to apprehend all travellers who sought to leave the +kingdom, and keep them in custody, until it was ascertained whether +they had any plate or jewellery with them, or were concerned in the late +stock-jobbing. Against such few as escaped, the punishment of death was +recorded, while the most arbitrary proceedings were instituted against +those who remained. + +Law himself, in a moment of despair, determined to leave a country where +his life was no longer secure. He at first only demanded permission to +retire from Paris to one of his country-seats; a permission which the +Regent cheerfully granted. The latter was much affected at the unhappy +turn affairs had taken, but his faith continued unmoved in the truth +and efficacy of Law's financial system. His eyes were opened to his own +errors, and during the few remaining years of his life, he constantly +longed for an opportunity of again establishing the system upon a +securer basis. At Law's last interview with the Prince, he is reported +to have said--"I confess that I have committed many faults; I committed +them because I am a man, and all men are liable to error; but I +declare to you most solemnly that none of them proceeded from wicked +or dishonest motives, and that nothing of the kind will be found in the +whole course of my conduct." + +Two or three days after his departure the Regent sent him a very kind +letter, permitting him to leave the kingdom whenever he pleased, and +stating that he had ordered his passports to be made ready. He at +the same time offered him any sum of money he might require. Law +respectfully declined the money, and set out for Brussels in a +postchaise belonging to Madame de Prie, the mistress of the Duke of +Bourbon, escorted by six horse-guards. From thence he proceeded to +Venice, where he remained for some months, the object of the greatest +curiosity to the people, who believed him to be the possessor of +enormous wealth. No opinion, however, could be more erroneous. With +more generosity than could have been expected from a man who during the +greatest part of his life had been a professed gambler, he had refused +to enrich himself at the expense of a ruined nation. During the height +of the popular frenzy for Mississippi stock, he had never doubted of +the final success of his projects, in making France the richest and most +powerful nation of Europe. He invested all his gains in the purchase +of landed property in France--a sure proof of his own belief in the +stability of his schemes. He had hoarded no plate or jewellery, and sent +no money, like the dishonest jobbers, to foreign countries. His all, +with the exception of one diamond, worth about five or six thousand +pounds sterling, was invested in the French soil; and when he left that +country, he left it almost a beggar. This fact alone ought to rescue +his memory from the charge of knavery, so often and so unjustly brought +against him. + +As soon as his departure was known, all his estates and his valuable +library were confiscated. Among the rest, an annuity of 200,000 livres, +(8000 pounds sterling,) on the lives of his wife and children, which +had been purchased for five millions of livres, was forfeited, +notwithstanding that a special edict, drawn up for the purpose in the +days of his prosperity, had expressly declared that it should never be +confiscated for any cause whatever. Great discontent existed among the +people that Law had been suffered to escape. The mob and the Parliament +would have been pleased to have seen him hanged. The few who had not +suffered by the commercial revolution, rejoiced that the quack had +left the country; but all those (and they were by far the most numerous +class) whose fortunes were implicated, regretted that his intimate +knowledge of the distress of the country, and of the causes that had led +to it, had not been rendered more available in discovering a remedy. + +At a meeting of the Council of Finance, and the general council of the +Regency, documents were laid upon the table, from which it appeared that +the amount of notes in circulation was 2700 millions. The Regent was +called upon to explain how it happened that there was a discrepancy +between the dates at which these issues were made, and those of the +edicts by which they were authorised. He might have safely taken the +whole blame upon himself, but he preferred that an absent man should +bear a share of it, and he therefore stated that Law, upon his own +authority, had issued 1200 millions of notes at different times, and +that he (the Regent) seeing that the thing had been irrevocably done, +had screened Law, by antedating the decrees of the council, which +authorised the augmentation. It would have been more to his credit if he +had told the whole truth while he was about it, and acknowledged that +it was mainly through his extravagance and impatience that Law had +been induced to overstep the bounds of safe speculation. It was also +ascertained that the national debt, on the 1st of January, 1721, +amounted to upwards of $100 millions of livres, or more than 124,000,000 +pounds sterling, the interest upon which was 3,196,000 pounds. A +commission, or visa, was forthwith appointed to examine into all the +securities of the state creditors, who were to be divided into five +classes, the first four comprising those who had purchased their +securities with real effects, and the latter comprising those who could +give no proofs that the transactions they had entered into were real and +bona fide. The securities of the latter were ordered to be destroyed, +while those of the first four classes were subjected to a most rigid and +jealous scrutiny. The result of the labours of the visa was a report, +in which they counselled the reduction of the interest upon these +securities to fifty-six millions of livres. They justified this advice +by a statement of the various acts of peculation and extortion which +they had discovered, and an edict to that effect was accordingly +published and duly registered by the parliaments of the kingdom. + +Another tribunal was afterwards established, under the title of the +Chambre de l'Arsenal, which took cognizance of all the malversations +committed in the financial departments of the government during the late +unhappy period. A Master of Requests, named Falhonet, together with +the Abbe Clement, and two clerks in their employ, had been concerned +in divers acts of peculation, to the amount of upwards of a million of +livres. The first two were sentenced to be beheaded, and the latter +to be hanged; but their punishment was afterwards commuted into +imprisonment for life in the Bastile. Numerous other acts of dishonesty +were discovered, and punished by fine and imprisonment. + +D'Argenson shared with Law and the Regent the unpopularity which had +alighted upon all those concerned in the Mississippi madness. He was +dismissed from his post of Chancellor, to make room for D'Aguesseau; but +he retained the title of Keeper of the Seals, and was allowed to attend +the councils whenever he pleased. He thought it better, however, to +withdraw from Paris, and live for a time a life of seclusion at his +country-seat. But he was not formed for retirement, and becoming moody +and discontented, he aggravated a disease under which he had long +laboured, and died in less than a twelvemonth. The populace of of Paris +so detested him, that they carried their hatred even to his grave. +As his funeral procession passed to the church of St. Nicholas du +Chardonneret, the burying-place of his family, it was beset by a riotous +mob, and his two sons, who were following as chief-mourners, were +obliged to drive as fast as they were able down a by-street to escape +personal violence. + +As regards Law, he for some time entertained a hope that he should be +recalled to France, to aid in establishing its credit upon a firmer +basis. The death of the Regent, in 1723, who expired suddenly, as he +was sitting by the fireside conversing with his mistress, the Duchess +de Phalaris, deprived him of that hope, and he was reduced to lead +his former life of gambling. He was more than once obliged to pawn +his diamond, the sole remnant of his vast wealth, but successful play +generally enabled him to redeem it. Being persecuted by his creditors at +Rome, he proceeded to Copenhagen, where he received permission from the +English ministry to reside in his native country, his pardon for the +murder of Mr. Wilson having been sent over to him in 1719. He was +brought over in the admiral's ship, a circumstance which gave occasion +for a short debate in the House of Lords. Earl Coningsby complained that +a man, who had renounced both his country and his religion, should +have been treated with such honour, and expressed his belief that his +presence in England, at a time when the people were so bewildered by the +nefarious practices of the South Sea directors, would be attended with +no little danger. He gave notice of a motion on the subject; but it +was allowed to drop, no other member of the House having the slightest +participation in his lordship's fears. Law remained for about four years +in England, and then proceeded to Venice, where he died in 1729, in +very embarrassed circumstances. The following epitaph was written at the +time:-- + + "Ci git cet Ecossais celebre, + Ce calculateur sans egal, + Qui, par les regles de l'algebre, + A mis la France a l'Hopital." + +His brother, William Law, who had been concerned with him in the +administration both of the Bank and the Louisiana Company, was +imprisoned in the Bastile for alleged malversation, but no guilt was +ever proved against him. He was liberated after fifteen months, and +became the founder of a family, which is still known in France under the +title of Marquises of Lauriston. + +In the next chapter will be found an account of the madness which +infected the people of England at the same time, and under very similar +circumstances, but which, thanks to the energies and good sense of a +constitutional government, was attended with results far less disastrous +than those which were seen in France. + + + + +THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + + At length corruption, like a general flood, + Did deluge all, and avarice creeping on, + Spread, like a low-born mist, and hid the sun. + Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks, + Peeress and butler shared alike the box; + And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town, + And mighty dukes packed cards for half-a-crown: + Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms. + --Pope. + +The South Sea Company was originated by the celebrated Harley, Earl +of Oxford, in the year 1711, with the view of restoring public credit, +which had suffered by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and of +providing for the discharge of the army and navy debentures, and other +parts of the floating debt, amounting to nearly ten millions sterling. +A company of merchants, at that time without a name, took this debt +upon themselves, and the government agreed to secure them, for a certain +period, the interest of six per cent. To provide for this interest, +amounting to 600,000 pounds per annum, the duties upon wines, vinegar, +India goods, wrought silks, tobacco, whale-fins, and some other +articles, were rendered permanent. The monopoly of the trade to the +South Seas was granted, and the company, being incorporated by Act of +Parliament, assumed the title by which it has ever since been known. The +minister took great credit to himself for his share in this transaction, +and the scheme was always called by his flatterers "the Earl of Oxford's +masterpiece." + +Even at this early period of its history, the most visionary ideas +were formed by the company and the public of the immense riches of the +eastern coast of South America. Everybody had heard of the gold +and silver mines of Peru and Mexico; every one believed them to be +inexhaustible, and that it was only necessary to send the manufactures +of England to the coast, to be repaid a hundredfold in gold and silver +ingots by the natives. A report, industriously spread, that Spain was +willing to concede four ports, on the coasts of Chili and Peru, for +the purposes of traffic, increased the general confidence; and for many +years the South Sea Company's stock was in high favour. + +Philip V of Spain, however, never had any intention of admitting the +English to a free trade in the ports of Spanish America. Negotiations +were set on foot, but their only result was the assiento contract, or +the privilege of supplying the colonies with negroes for thirty years, +and of sending once a year a vessel, limited both as to tonnage and +value of cargo, to trade with Mexico, Peru, or Chili. The latter +permission was only granted upon the hard condition, that the King of +Spain should enjoy one-fourth of the profits, and a tax of five per +cent. on the remainder. This was a great disappointment to the Earl of +Oxford and his party, who were reminded much oftener than they found +agreeable of the + + "Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus." + +But the public confidence in the South Sea Company was not shaken. The +Earl of Oxford declared, that Spain would permit two ships, in addition +to the annual ship, to carry out merchandise during the first year; +and a list was published, in which all the ports and harbours of these +coasts were pompously set forth as open to the trade of Great Britain. +The first voyage of the annual ship was not made till the year 1717, +and in the following year the trade was suppressed by the rupture with +Spain. + +The King's speech, at the opening of the session of 1717, made pointed +allusion to the state of public credit, and recommended that proper +measures should be taken to reduce the national debt. The two great +monetary corporations, the South Sea Company and the Bank of England, +made proposals to Parliament on the 20th of May ensuing. The South +Sea Company prayed that their capital stock of ten millions might be +increased to twelve, by subscription or otherwise, and offered to accept +five per cent. instead of six upon the whole amount. The Bank made +proposals equally advantageous. The House debated for some time, and +finally three acts were passed, called the South Sea Act, the Bank Act, +and the General Fund Act. By the first, the proposals of the South Sea +Company were accepted, and that body held itself ready to advance the +sum of two millions towards discharging the principal and interest of +the debt due by the state for the four lottery funds of the ninth and +tenth years of Queen Anne. By the second act, the Bank received a lower +rate of interest for the sum of 1,775,027 pounds 15 shillings due to it +by the state, and agreed to deliver up to be cancelled as many Exchequer +bills as amounted to two millions sterling, and to accept of an annuity +of one hundred thousand pounds, being after the rate of five per cent, +the whole redeemable at one year's notice. They were further required +to be ready to advance, in case of need, a sum not exceeding 2,500,000 +pounds upon the same terms of five per cent interest, redeemable by +Parliament. The General Fund Act recited the various deficiencies, which +were to be made good by the aids derived from the foregoing sources. + +The name of the South Sea Company was thus continually before the +public. Though their trade with the South American States produced +little or no augmentation of their revenues, they continued to flourish +as a monetary corporation. Their stock was in high request, and the +directors, buoyed up with success, began to think of new means for +extending their influence. The Mississippi scheme of John Law, which +so dazzled and captivated the French people, inspired them with an +idea that they could carry on the same game in England. The anticipated +failure of his plans did not divert them from their intention. Wise in +their own conceit, they imagined they could avoid his faults, carry on +their schemes for ever, and stretch the cord of credit to its extremest +tension, without causing it to snap asunder. + +It was while Law's plan was at its greatest height of popularity, while +people were crowding in thousands to the Rue Quincampoix, and ruining +themselves with frantic eagerness, that the South Sea directors laid +before Parliament their famous plan for paying off the national debt. +Visions of boundless wealth floated before the fascinated eyes of the +people in the two most celebrated countries of Europe. The English +commenced their career of extravagance somewhat later than the French; +but as soon as the delirium seized them, they were determined not to be +outdone. Upon the 22nd of January 1720, the House of Commons resolved +itself into a Committee of the whole House, to take into consideration +that part of the King's speech at the opening of the session which +related to the public debts, and the proposal of the South Sea Company +towards the redemption and sinking of the same. The proposal set forth +at great length, and under several heads, the debts of the state, +amounting to 30,981,712 pounds, which the Company were anxious to take +upon themselves, upon consideration of five per cent. per annum, secured +to them until Midsummer 1727; after which time, the whole was to become +redeemable at the pleasure of the legislature, and the interest to be +reduced to four per cent. The proposal was received with great favour; +but the Bank of England had many friends in the House of Commons, who +were desirous that that body should share in the advantages that were +likely to accrue. On behalf of this corporation it was represented, that +they had performed great and eminent services to the state, in the most +difficult times, and deserved, at least, that if any advantage was to be +made by public bargains of this nature, they should be preferred before +a company that had never done any thing for the nation. The further +consideration of the matter was accordingly postponed for five days. +In the mean time, a plan was drawn up by the Governors of the Bank. +The South Sea Company, afraid that the Bank might offer still more +advantageous terms to the government than themselves, reconsidered their +former proposal, and made some alterations in it, which they hoped would +render it more acceptable. The principal change was a stipulation that +the government might redeem these debts at the expiration of four years, +instead of seven, as at first suggested. The Bank resolved not to be +outbidden in this singular auction, and the Governors also reconsidered +their first proposal, and sent in a new one. + +Thus, each corporation having made two proposals, the House began to +deliberate. Mr. Robert Walpole was the chief speaker in favour of the +Bank, and Mr. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the principal +advocate on behalf of the South Sea Company. It was resolved, on the 2nd +of February, that the proposals of the latter were most advantageous +to the country. They were accordingly received, and leave was given to +bring in a bill to that effect. + +Exchange Alley was in a fever of excitement. The Company's stock, which +had been at a hundred and thirty the previous day, gradually rose to +three hundred, and continued to rise with the most astonishing rapidity +during the whole time that the bill in its several stages was under +discussion. Mr. Walpole was almost the only statesman in the House who +spoke out boldly against it. He warned them, in eloquent and solemn +language, of the evils that would ensue. It countenanced, he said, "the +dangerous practice of stockjobbing, and would divert the genius of the +nation from trade and industry. It would hold out a dangerous lure to +decoy the unwary to their ruin, by making them part with the earnings of +their labour for a prospect of imaginary wealth." The great principle +of the project was an evil of first-rate magnitude; it was to raise +artificially the value of the stock, by exciting and keeping up a +general infatuation, and by promising dividends out of funds which could +never be adequate to the purpose. In a prophetic spirit he added, +that if the plan succeeded, the directors would become masters of the +government, form a new and absolute aristocracy in the kingdom, and +control the resolutions of the legislature. If it failed, which he was +convinced it would, the result would bring general discontent and ruin +upon the country. Such would be the delusion, that when the evil day +came, as come it would, the people would start up, as from a dream, and +ask themselves if these things could have been true. All his eloquence +was in vain. He was looked upon as a false prophet, or compared to the +hoarse raven, croaking omens of evil. His friends, however, compared him +to Cassandra, predicting evils which would only be believed when they +came home to men's hearths, and stared them in the face at their own +boards. Although, in former times, the House had listened with the +utmost attention to every word that fell from his lips, the benches +became deserted when it was known that he would speak on the South Sea +question. + +The bill was two months in its progress through the House of Commons. +During this time every exertion was made by the directors and their +friends, and more especially by the Chairman, the noted Sir John Blunt, +to raise the price of the stock. The most extravagant rumours were in +circulation. Treaties between England and Spain were spoken of, whereby +the latter was to grant a free trade to all her colonies; and the rich +produce of the mines of Potosi-la-Paz was to be brought to England until +silver should become almost as plentiful as iron. For cotton and woollen +goods, with which we could supply them in abundance, the dwellers +in Mexico were to empty their golden mines. The company of merchants +trading to the South Seas would be the richest the world ever saw, and +every hundred pounds invested in it would produce hundreds per annum +to the stockholder. At last the stock was raised by these means to +near four hundred; but, after fluctuating a good deal, settled at three +hundred and thirty, at which price it remained when the bill passed the +Commons by a majority of 172 against 55. + +In the House of Lords the bill was hurried through all its stages with +unexampled rapidity. On the 4th of April it was read a first time; on +the 5th, it was read a second time; on the 6th, it was committed; and on +the 7th, was read a third time, and passed. + +Several peers spoke warmly against the scheme; but their warnings fell +upon dull, cold ears. A speculating frenzy had seized them as well +as the plebeians. Lord North and Grey said the bill was unjust in its +nature, and might prove fatal in its consequences, being calculated to +enrich the few and impoverish the many. The Duke of Wharton followed; +but, as he only retailed at second-hand the arguments so eloquently +stated by Walpole in the Lower House, he was not listened to with even +the same attention that had been bestowed upon Lord North and Grey. Earl +Cowper followed on the same side, and compared the bill to the famous +horse of the siege of Troy. Like that, it was ushered in and received +with great pomp and acclamations of joy, but bore within it treachery +and destruction. The Earl of Sunderland endeavoured to answer all +objections; and, on the question being put, there appeared only +seventeen peers against, and eighty-three in favour of the project. +The very same day on which it passed the Lords, it received the Royal +assent, and became the law of the land. + +It seemed at that time as if the whole nation had turned stockjobbers. +Exchange Alley was every day blocked up by crowds, and Cornhill was +impassable for the number of carriages. Everybody came to purchase +stock. "Every fool aspired to be a knave." In the words of a ballad, +published at the time, and sung about the streets, ["A South Sea Ballad; +or, Merry Remarks upon Exchange Alley Bubbles. To a new tune, called +'The Grand Elixir; or, the Philosopher's Stone Discovered.'"] + + Then stars and garters did appear + Among the meaner rabble; + To buy and sell, to see and hear, + The Jews and Gentiles squabble. + + The greatest ladies thither came, + And plied in chariots daily, + Or pawned their jewels for a sum + To venture in the Alley. + +The inordinate thirst of gain that had afflicted all ranks of society, +was not to be slaked even in the South Sea. Other schemes, of the most +extravagant kind, were started. The share-lists were speedily filled up, +and an enormous traffic carried on in shares, while, of course, every +means were resorted to, to raise them to an artificial value in the +market. + +Contrary to all expectation, South Sea stock fell when the bill received +the Royal assent. On the 7th of April the shares were quoted at three +hundred and ten, and on the following day, at two hundred and ninety. +Already the directors had tasted the profits of their scheme, and it was +not likely that they should quietly allow the stock to find its natural +level, without an effort to raise it. Immediately their busy emissaries +were set to work. Every person interested in the success of the +project endeavoured to draw a knot of listeners around him, to whom he +expatiated on the treasures of the South American seas. Exchange Alley +was crowded with attentive groups. One rumour alone, asserted with the +utmost confidence, had an immediate effect upon the stock. It was said, +that Earl Stanhope had received overtures in France from the Spanish +Government to exchange Gibraltar and Port Mahon for some places on the +coast of Peru, for the security and enlargement of the trade in the +South Seas. Instead of one annual ship trading to those ports, and +allowing the King of Spain twenty-five per cent. out of the profits, the +Company might build and charter as many ships as they pleased, and pay +no per centage whatever to any foreign potentate. + +Visions of ingots danced before their eyes, and stock rose rapidly. +On the 12th of April, five days after the bill had become law, the +directors opened their books for a subscription of a million, at the +rate of 300 pounds for every 100 pounds capital. Such was the concourse +of persons, of all ranks, that this first subscription was found to +amount to above two millions of original stock. It was to be paid at +five payments, of 60 pounds each for every 100 pounds. In a few days the +stock advanced to three hundred and forty, and the subscriptions were +sold for double the price of the first payment. To raise the stock still +higher, it was declared, in a general court of directors, on the 21st of +April, that the midsummer dividend should be ten per cent., and that +all subscriptions should be entitled to the same. These resolutions +answering the end designed, the directors, to improve the infatuation +of the monied men, opened their books for a second subscription of a +million, at four hundred per cent. Such was the frantic eagerness of +people of every class to speculate in these funds, that in the course +of a few hours no less than a million and a half was subscribed at that +rate. + +In the mean time, innumerable joint-stock companies started up +everywhere. They soon received the name of Bubbles, the most appropriate +that imagination could devise. The populace are often most happy in the +nicknames they employ. None could be more apt than that of Bubbles. Some +of them lasted for a week, or a fortnight, and were no more heard of, +while others could not even live out that short span of existence. +Every evening produced new schemes, and every morning new projects. The +highest of the aristocracy were as eager in this hot pursuit of gain +as the most plodding jobber in Cornhill. The Prince of Wales became +governor of one company, and is said to have cleared 40,000 pounds by +his speculations. [Coxe's Walpole, Correspondence between Mr. Secretary +Craggs and Earl Stanhope.] The Duke of Bridgewater started a scheme +for the improvement of London and Westminster, and the Duke of Chandos +another. There were nearly a hundred different projects, each more +extravagant and deceptive than the other. To use the words of the +"Political State," they were "set on foot and promoted by crafty knaves, +then pursued by multitudes of covetous fools, and at last appeared to +be, in effect, what their vulgar appellation denoted them to be--bubbles +and mere cheats." It was computed that near one million and a half +sterling was won and lost by these unwarrantable practices, to the +impoverishment of many a fool, and the enriching of many a rogue. + +Some of these schemes were plausible enough, and, had they been +undertaken at a time when the public mind was unexcited, might have +been pursued with advantage to all concerned. But they were established +merely with the view of raising the shares in the market. The projectors +took the first opportunity of a rise to sell out, and next morning +the scheme was at an end. Maitland, in his History of London, gravely +informs us, that one of the projects which received great encouragement, +was for the establishment of a company "to make deal-boards out of +saw-dust." This is, no doubt, intended as a joke; but there is +abundance of evidence to show that dozens of schemes hardly a whir more +reasonable, lived their little day, ruining hundreds ere they fell. +One of them was for a wheel for perpetual motion--capital, one million; +another was "for encouraging the breed of horses in England, and +improving of glebe and church lands, and repairing and rebuilding +parsonage and vicarage houses." Why the clergy, who were so mainly +interested in the latter clause, should have taken so much interest in +the first, is only to be explained on the supposition that the scheme +was projected by a knot of the foxhunting parsons, once so common in +England. The shares of this company were rapidly subscribed for. But the +most absurd and preposterous of all, and which showed, more completely +than any other, the utter madness of the people, was one, started by an +unknown adventurer, entitled "company for carrying on an undertaking +of great advantage, but nobody to know what it is." Were not the fact +stated by scores of credible witnesses, it would be impossible to +believe that any person could have been duped by such a project. The +man of genius who essayed this bold and successful inroad upon public +credulity, merely stated in his prospectus that the required capital was +half a million, in five thousand shares of 100 pounds each, deposit 2 +pounds per share. Each subscriber, paying his deposit, would be entitled +to 100 pounds per annum per share. How this immense profit was to +be obtained, he did not condescend to inform them at that time, but +promised, that in a month full particulars should be duly announced, +and a call made for the remaining 98 pounds of the subscription. Next +morning, at nine o'clock, this great man opened an office in Cornhill. +Crowds of people beset his door, and when he shut up at three o'clock, +he found that no less than one thousand shares had been subscribed for, +and the deposits paid. He was thus, in five hours, the winner of 2,000 +pounds. He was philosopher enough to be contented with his venture, and +set off the same evening for the Continent. He was never heard of again. + +Well might Swift exclaim, comparing Change Alley to a gulf in the South +Sea,-- + + Subscribers here by thousands float, + And jostle one another down, + Each paddling in his leaky boat, + And here they fish for gold, and drown. + + Now buried in the depths below, + Now mounted up to heaven again, + They reel and stagger to and fro, + At their wit's end, like drunken men + + Meantime, secure on Garraway cliffs, + A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, + Lie waiting for the foundered skiffs, + And strip the bodies of the dead. + +Another fraud that was very successful, was that of the "Globe Permits," +as they were called. They were nothing more than square pieces of +playing cards, on which was the impression of a seal, in wax, bearing +the sign of the Globe Tavern, in the neighbourhood of Exchange Alley, +with the inscription of "Sail Cloth Permits." The possessors enjoyed no +other advantage from them than permission to subscribe, at some future +time, to a new sail-cloth manufactory, projected by one who was then +known to be a man of fortune, but who was afterwards involved in the +peculation and punishment of the South Sea directors. These permits sold +for as much as sixty guineas in the Alley. + +Persons of distinction, of both sexes, were deeply engaged in all these +bubbles, those of the male sex going to taverns and coffee-houses to +meet their brokers, and the ladies resorting for the same purpose to +the shops of milliners and haberdashers. But it did not follow that all +these people believed in the feasibility of the schemes to which they +subscribed; it was enough for their purpose that their shares would, by +stock-jobbing arts, be soon raised to a premium, when they got rid +of them with all expedition to the really credulous. So great was the +confusion of the crowd in the alley, that shares in the same bubble were +known to have been sold at the same instant ten per cent. higher at +one end of the alley than at the other. Sensible men beheld the +extraordinary infatuation of the people with sorrow and alarm. There +were some, both in and out of Parliament, who foresaw clearly the ruin +that was impending. Mr. Walpole did not cease his gloomy forebodings. +His fears were shared by all the thinking few, and impressed most +forcibly upon the government. On the 11th of June, the day the +Parliament rose, the King published a proclamation, declaring that +all these unlawful projects should be deemed public nuisances, and +prosecuted accordingly, and forbidding any broker, under a penalty +of five hundred pounds, from buying or selling any shares in them. +Notwithstanding this proclamation, roguish speculators still carried +them on, and the deluded people still encouraged them. On the 12th of +July, an order of the Lords Justices assembled in privy council was +published, dismissing all the petitions that had been presented for +patents and charters, and dissolving all the bubble companies. The +following copy of their lordships' order, containing a list of all these +nefarious projects, will not be deemed uninteresting at the present day, +when there is but too much tendency in the public mind to indulge in +similar practices:-- + +"At the Council Chamber, Whitehall, the 12th day of July, 1720. Present, +their Excellencies the Lords Justices in Council. + +"Their Excellencies, the Lords Justices in council, taking into +consideration the many inconveniences arising to the public from several +projects set on foot for raising of joint stock for various purposes, +and that a great many of his Majesty's subjects have been drawn in to +part with their money on pretence of assurances that their petitions +for patents and charters, to enable them to carry on the same, would +be granted: to prevent such impositions, their Excellencies, this day, +ordered the said several petitions, together with such reports from the +Board of Trade, and from his Majesty's Attorney and Solicitor General, +as had been obtained thereon, to be laid before them, and after mature +consideration thereof, were pleased, by advice of his Majesty's Privy +Council, to order that the said petitions be dismissed, which are as +follow:-- + +"1. Petition of several persons, praying letters patent for carrying on +a fishing trade, by the name of the Grand Fishery of Great Britain. + +"2. Petition of the Company of the Royal Fishery of England, praying +letters patent for such further powers as will effectually contribute to +carry on the said fishery. + +"3. Petition of George James, on behalf of himself and divers persons of +distinction concerned in a national fishery; praying letters patent of +incorporation to enable them to carry on the same. + +"4. Petition of several merchants, traders, and others, whose names +are thereunto subscribed, praying to be incorporated for reviving and +carrying on a whale fishery to Greenland and elsewhere. + +"5. Petition of Sir John Lambert, and others thereto subscribing, on +behalf of themselves and a great number of merchants, praying to be +incorporated for carrying on a Greenland trade, and particularly a whale +fishery in Davis's Straits. + +"6. Another petition for a Greenland trade. + +"7. Petition of several merchants, gentlemen, and citizens, praying to +be incorporated, for buying and building of ships to let or freight. + +"8. Petition of Samuel Antrim and others, praying for letters patent for +sowing hemp and flax. + +"9. Petition of several merchants, masters of ships, sail-makers, and +manufacturers of sail-cloth, praying a charter of incorporation, to +enable them to carry on and promote the said manufactory by a joint +stock. + +"10. Petition of Thomas Boyd, and several hundred merchants, owners +and masters of ships, sailmakers, weavers, and other traders, praying a +charter of incorporation, empowering them to borrow money for purchasing +lands, in order to the manufacturing sail-cloth and fine Holland. + +"11. Petition on behalf of several persons interested in a patent +granted by the late King William and Queen Mary, for the making of linen +and sail-cloth, praying that no charter may be granted to any persons +whatsoever for making sail-cloth, but that the privilege now enjoyed by +them may be confirmed, and likewise an additional power to carry on the +cotton and cotton-silk manufactures. + +"12. Petition of several citizens, merchants, and traders in London, +and others, subscribers to a British stock, for a general insurance from +fire in any part of England, praying to be incorporated for carrying on +the said undertaking. + +"13. Petition of several of his Majesty's loyal subjects of the city of +London, and other parts of Great Britain, praying to be incorporated, +for carrying on a general insurance from losses by fire within the +kingdom of England. + +"14. Petition of Thomas Burges, and others his Majesty's subjects +thereto subscribing, in behalf of themselves and others, subscribers +to a fund of 1,200,000 pounds, for carrying on a trade to his Majesty's +German dominions, praying to be incorporated, by the name of the Harburg +Company. + +"15. Petition of Edward Jones, a dealer in timber, on behalf of himself +and others, praying to be incorporated for the importation of timber +from Germany. + +"16. Petition of several merchants of London, praying a charter of +incorporation for carrying on a salt-work. + +"17. Petition of Captain Macphedris, of London, merchant, on behalf +of himself and several merchants, clothiers, hatters, dyers, and other +traders, praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them to raise +a sufficient sum of money to purchase lands for planting and rearing a +wood called madder, for the use of dyers. + +"18. Petition of Joseph Galendo, of London, snuff-maker, praying a +patent for his invention to prepare and cure Virginia tobacco for +snuff in Virginia, and making it into the same in all his Majesty's +dominions." + + + + +LIST OF BUBBLES. + +The following Bubble Companies were by the same order declared to be +illegal, and abolished accordingly:-- + +1. For the importation of Swedish iron. + +2. For supplying London with sea-coal. Capital, three millions. + +3. For building and rebuilding houses throughout all England. Capital, +three millions. + +4. For making of muslin. + +5. For carrying on and improving the British alum works. + +6. For effectually settling the island of Blanco and Sal Tartagus. + +7. For supplying the town of Deal with fresh water. + +8. For the importation of Flanders lace. + +9. For improvement of lands in Great Britain. Capital, four millions. + +10. For encouraging the breed of horses in England, and improving of +glebe and church lands, and for repairing and rebuilding parsonage and +vicarage houses. + +11. For making of iron and steel in Great Britain. + +12. For improving the land in the county of Flint. Capital, one million. + +13. For purchasing lands to build on. Capital, two millions. + +14. For trading in hair. + +15. For erecting salt-works in Holy Island. Capital, two millions. + +16. For buying and selling estates, and lending money on mortgage. + +17. For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to +know what it is. + +18. For paving the streets of London. Capital, two millions. + +19. For furnishing funerals to any part of Great Britain. + +20. For buying and selling lands and lending money at interest. Capital, +five millions. + +21. For carrying on the Royal Fishery of Great Britain. Capital, ten +millions. + +22. For assuring of seamen's wages. + +23. For erecting loan-offices for the assistance and encouragement of +the industrious. Capital, two millions. + +24. For purchasing and improving leasable lands. Capital, four millions. + +25. For importing pitch and tar, and other naval stores, from North +Britain and America. + +26. For the clothing, felt, and pantile trade. + +27. For purchasing and improving a manor and royalty in Essex. + +28. For insuring of horses. Capital, two millions. + +29. For exporting the woollen manufacture, and importing copper, brass, +and iron. Capital, four millions. + +30. For a grand dispensary. Capital, three millions. + +31. For erecting mills and purchasing lead mines. Capital, two millions. + +32. For improving the art of making soap. + +33. For a settlement on the island of Santa Cruz. + +34. For sinking pits and smelting lead ore in Derbyshire. + +35. For making glass bottles and other glass. + +36. For a wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million. + +37. For improving of gardens. + +38. For insuring and increasing children's fortunes. + +39. For entering and loading goods at the custom-house, and for +negotiating business for merchants. + +40. For carrying on a woollen manufacture in the north of England. + +41. For importing walnut-trees from Virginia. Capital, two millions. + +42. For making Manchester stuffs of thread and cotton. + +43. For making Joppa and Castile soap. + +44. For improving the wrought-iron and steel manufactures of this +kingdom. Capital, four millions. + +45. For dealing in lace, Hollands, cambrics, lawns, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +46. For trading in and improving certain commodities of the produce of +this kingdom, &c. Capital, three millions. + +47. For supplying the London markets with cattle. + +48. For making looking-glasses, coach glasses, &c. Capital, two +millions. + +49. For working the tin and lead mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire. + +50. For making rape-oil. + +51. For importing beaver fur. Capital, two millions. + +52. For making pasteboard and packing-paper. + +53. For importing of oils and other materials used in the woollen +manufacture. + +54. For improving and increasing the silk manufactures. + +55. For lending money on stock, annuities, tallies, &c. + +56. For paying pensions to widows and others, at a small discount. +Capital, two millions. + +57. For improving malt liquors. Capital, four millions. + +58. For a grand American fishery. + +59. For purchasing and improving the fenny lands in Lincolnshire. +Capital, two millions. + +60. For improving the paper manufacture of Great Britain. + +61. The Bottomry Company. + +62. For drying malt by hot air. + +63. For carrying on a trade in the river Oronooko. + +64. For the more effectual making of baize, in Colchester and other +parts of Great Britain. + +65. For buying of naval stores, supplying the victualling, and paying +the wages of the workmen. + +66. For employing poor artificers, and furnishing merchants and others +with watches. + +67. For improvement of tillage and the breed of cattle. + +68. Another for the improvement of our breed of horses. + +69. Another for a horse-insurance. + +70. For carrying on the corn trade of Great Britain. + +71. For insuring to all masters and mistresses the losses they may +sustain by servants. Capital, three millions. + +72. For erecting houses or hospitals, for taking in and maintaining +illegitimate children. Capital, two millions. + +73. For bleaching coarse sugars, without the use of fire or loss of +substance. + +74. For building turnpikes and wharfs in Great Britain. + +75. For insuring from thefts and robberies. + +76. For extracting silver from lead. + +77. For making China and Delft ware. Capital, one million. + +78. For importing tobacco, and exporting it again to Sweden and the +north of Europe. Capital, four millions. + +79. For making iron with pit coal. + +80. For furnishing the cities of London and Westminster with hay and +straw. Capital, three millions. + +81. For a sail and packing cloth manufactory in Ireland. + +82. For taking up ballast. + +83. For buying and fitting out ships to suppress pirates. + +84. For the importation of timber from Wales. Capital, two millions. + +85. For rock-salt. + +86. For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal. + +Besides these bubbles, many others sprang up daily, in spite of the +condemnation of the Government and the ridicule of the still sane +portion of the public. The print-shops teemed with caricatures, and +the newspapers with epigrams and satires, upon the prevalent folly. An +ingenious card-maker published a pack of South Sea playing-cards, which +are now extremely rare, each card containing, besides the usual figures, +of a very small size, in one corner, a caricature of a bubble company, +with appropriate verses underneath. One of the most famous bubbles +was "Puckle's Machine Company," for discharging round and square +cannon-balls and bullets, and making a total revolution in the art of +war. Its pretensions to public favour were thus summed up, on the eight +of spades:-- + + A rare invention to destroy the crowd + Of fools at home, instead of fools abroad. + Fear not, my friends, this terrible machine, + They're only wounded who have shares therein. + + The nine of hearts was a caricature of the English Copper and Brass + Company, with the following epigram:-- + + The headlong fool that wants to be a swopper + Of gold and silver coin for English copper, + May, in Change Alley, prove himself an ass, + And give rich metal for adulterate brass. + + The eight of diamonds celebrated the Company for the Colonization of + Acadia, with this doggrel:-- + + He that is rich and wants to fool away + A good round sum in North America, + Let him subscribe himself a headlong sharer, + And asses' ears shall honour him or bearer. + +And in a similar style every card of the pack exposed some knavish +scheme, and ridiculed the persons who were its dupes. It was computed +that the total amount of the sums proposed for carrying on these +projects was upwards of three hundred millions sterling, a sum so +immense that it exceeded the value of all the lands in England at twenty +years' purchase. + +It is time, however, to return to the great South Sea gulf, that +swallowed the fortunes of so many thousands of the avaricious and the +credulous. On the 29th of May, the stock had risen as high as five +hundred, and about two-thirds of the government annuitants had exchanged +the securities of the state for those of the South Sea Company. During +the whole of the month of May the stock continued to rise, and on the +28th it was quoted at five hundred and fifty. In four days after this it +took a prodigious leap, rising suddenly from five hundred and fifty to +eight hundred and ninety. It was now the general opinion that the stock +could rise no higher, and many persons took that opportunity of selling +out, with a view of realising their profits. Many noblemen and persons +in the train of the King, and about to accompany him to Hanover, were +also anxious to sell out. So many sellers, and so few buyers, appeared +in the Alley on the 3rd of June, that the stock fell at once from eight +hundred and ninety to six hundred and forty. The directors were alarmed, +and gave their agents orders to buy. Their efforts succeeded. Towards +evening confidence was restored, and the stock advanced to seven hundred +and fifty. It continued at this price, with some slight fluctuation, +until the company closed their books on the 22nd of June. + +It would be needless and uninteresting to detail the various arts +employed by the directors to keep up the price of stock. It will be +sufficient to state that it finally rose to one thousand per cent. It +was quoted at this price in the commencement of August. The bubble +was then full-blown, and began to quiver and shake, preparatory to its +bursting. + +Many of the government annuitants expressed dissatisfaction against the +directors. They accused them of partiality in making out the lists for +shares in each subscription. Further uneasiness was occasioned by +its being generally known that Sir John Blunt, the chairman, and some +others, had sold out. During the whole of the month of August the stock +fell, and on the 2nd of September it was quoted at seven hundred only. + +The state of things now became alarming. To prevent, if possible, +the utter extinction of public confidence in their proceedings, the +directors summoned a general court of the whole corporation, to meet in +Merchant Tailors' Hall, on the 8th of September. By nine o'clock in the +morning, the room was filled to suffocation; Cheapside was blocked up +by a crowd unable to gain admittance, and the greatest excitement +prevailed. The directors and their friends mustered in great numbers. +Sir John Fellowes, the sub-governor, was called to the chair. He +acquainted the assembly with the cause of their meeting, read to them +the several resolutions of the court of directors, and gave them an +account of their proceedings; of the taking in the redeemable and +unredeemable funds, and of the subscriptions in money. Mr. Secretary +Craggs then made a short speech, wherein he commended the conduct of the +directors, and urged that nothing could more effectually contribute to +the bringing this scheme to perfection than union among themselves. He +concluded with a motion for thanking the court of directors for their +prudent and skilful management, and for desiring them to proceed in such +manner as they should think most proper for the interest and advantage +of the corporation. Mr. Hungerford, who had rendered himself very +conspicuous in the House of Commons for his zeal in behalf of the South +Sea Company, and who was shrewdly suspected to have been a considerable +gainer by knowing the right time to sell out, was very magniloquent on +this occasion. He said that he had seen the rise and fall, the decay +and resurrection of many communities of this nature, but that, in his +opinion, none had ever performed such wonderful things in so short a +time as the South Sea Company. They had done more than the crown, the +pulpit, or the bench could do. They had reconciled all parties in one +common interest; they had laid asleep, if not wholly extinguished, all +the domestic jars and animosities of the nation. By the rise of their +stock, monied men had vastly increased their fortunes; country-gentlemen +had seen the value of their lands doubled and trebled in their hands. +They had at the same time done good to the Church, not a few of the +reverend clergy having got great sums by the project. In short, they +had enriched the whole nation, and he hoped they had not forgotten +themselves. There was some hissing at the latter part of this speech, +which for the extravagance of its eulogy was not far removed from +satire; but the directors and their friends, and all the winners in +the room, applauded vehemently. The Duke of Portland spoke in a +similar strain, and expressed his great wonder why anybody should be +dissatisfied: of course, he was a winner by his speculations, and in +a condition similar to that of the fat alderman in Joe Miller's Jests, +who, whenever he had eaten a good dinner, folded his hands upon his +paunch, and expressed his doubts whether there could be a hungry man in +the world. + +Several resolutions were passed at this meeting, but they had no effect +upon the public. Upon the very same evening the stock fell to six +hundred and forty, and on the morrow to five hundred and forty. Day +after day it continued to fall, until it was as low as four hundred. +In a letter dated September 13th, from Mr. Broderick, M.P. to Lord +Chancellor Middleton, and published in Coxo's Walpole, the former +says,--"Various are the conjectures why the South Sea directors have +suffered the cloud to break so early. I made no doubt but they would do +so when they found it to their advantage. They have stretched credit +so far beyond what it would bear, that specie proves insufficient +to support it. Their most considerable men have drawn out, securing +themselves by the losses of the deluded, thoughtless numbers, whose +understandings have been overruled by avarice and the hope of making +mountains out of mole-hills. Thousands of families will be reduced +to beggary. The consternation is inexpressible--the rage beyond +description, and the case altogether so desperate that I do not see any +plan or scheme so much as thought of for averting the blow, so that I +cannot pretend to guess what is next to be done." Ten days afterwards, +the stock still falling, he writes,--"The Company have yet come to no +determination, for they are in such a wood that they know not which way +to turn. By several gentlemen lately come to town, I perceive the very +name of a South-Sea-man grows abominable in every country. A great many +goldsmiths are already run off, and more will daily. I question +whether one-third, nay, one-fourth, of them can stand it. From the +very beginning, I founded my judgment of the whole affair upon the +unquestionable maxim, that ten millions (which is more than our running +cash) could not circulate two hundred millions, beyond which our paper +credit extended. That, therefore, whenever that should become doubtful, +be the cause what it would, our noble state machine must inevitably fall +to the ground." + +On the 12th of September, at the earnest solicitation of Mr. Secretary +Craggs, several conferences were held between the directors of the South +Sea and the directors of the Bank. A report which was circulated, +that the latter had agreed to circulate six millions of the South Sea +Company's bonds, caused the stock to rise to six hundred and seventy; +but in the afternoon, as soon as the report was known to be groundless, +the stock fell again to five hundred and eighty; the next day to five +hundred and seventy, and so gradually to four hundred. [Gay (the poet), +in that disastrous year, had a present from young Craggs of some South +Sea stock, and once supposed himself to be master of twenty thousand +pounds. His friends persuaded him to sell his share, but he dreamed of +dignity and splendour, and could not bear to obstruct his own fortune. +He was then importuned to sell as much as would purchase a hundred a +year for life, "which," says Fenton, "will make you sure of a clean +shirt and a shoulder of mutton every day." This counsel was rejected; +the profit and principal were lost, and Gay sunk under the calamity so +low that his life became in danger.--Johnson's Lives of the Poets.] + +The ministry were seriously alarmed at the aspect of affairs. The +directors could not appear in the streets without being insulted; +dangerous riots were every moment apprehended. Despatches were sent off +to the King at Hanover, praying his immediate return. Mr. Walpole, who +was staying at his country-seat, was sent for, that he might employ his +known influence with the directors of the Bank of England to induce them +to accept the proposal made by the South Sea Company for circulating a +number of their bonds. + +The Bank was very unwilling to mix itself up with the affairs of the +Company; it dreaded being involved in calamities which it could not +relieve, and received all overtures with visible reluctance. But the +universal voice of the nation called upon it to come to the rescue. +Every person of note in commercial politics was called in to advise in +the emergency. A rough draft of a contract drawn up by Mr. Walpole was +ultimately adopted as the basis of further negotiations, and the public +alarm abated a little. + +On the following day, the 20th of September, a general court of +the South Sea Company was held at Merchant Tailors' Hall, in which +resolutions were carried, empowering the directors to agree with the +Bank of England, or any other persons, to circulate the Company's +bonds, or make any other agreement with the Bank which they should think +proper. One of the speakers, a Mr. Pulteney, said it was most surprising +to see the extraordinary panic which had seized upon the people. Men +were running to and fro in alarm and terror, their imaginations filled +with some great calamity, the form and dimensions of which nobody knew. + + "Black it stood as night-- + Fierce as ten furies--terrible as hell." + +At a general court of the Bank of England held two days afterwards, the +governor informed them of the several meetings that had been held on the +affairs of the South Sea Company, adding that the directors had not yet +thought fit to come to any decision upon the matter. A resolution was +then proposed, and carried without a dissentient voice, empowering the +directors to agree with those of the South Sea to circulate their bonds, +to what sum, and upon what terms, and for what time, they might think +proper. + +Thus both parties were at liberty to act as they might judge best for +the public interest. Books were opened at the Bank for a subscription of +three millions for the support of public credit, on the usual terms of +15 pounds per cent. deposit, per cent. premium, and 5 pounds per cent. +interest. So great was the concourse of people in the early part of +the morning, all eagerly bringing their money, that it was thought the +subscription would be filled that day; but before noon, the tide +turned. In spite of all that could be done to prevent it, the South Sea +Company's stock fell rapidly. Their bonds were in such discredit, that a +run commenced upon the most eminent goldsmiths and bankers, some of whom +having lent out great sums upon South Sea stock were obliged to shut up +their shops and abscond. The Sword-blade Company, who had hitherto been +the chief cashiers of the South Sea Company, stopped payment. This being +looked upon as but the beginning of evil, occasioned a great run upon +the Bank, who were now obliged to pay out money much faster than they +had received it upon the subscription in the morning. The day succeeding +was a holiday (the 29th of September), and the Bank had a little +breathing time. They bore up against the storm; but their former rivals, +the South Sea Company, were wrecked upon it. Their stock fell to one +hundred and fifty, and gradually, after various fluctuations, to one +hundred and thirty-five. + +The Bank, finding they were not able to restore public confidence, and +stem the tide of ruin, without running the risk of being swept away with +those they intended to save, declined to carry out the agreement into +which they had partially entered. They were under no obligation whatever +to continue; for the so called Bank contract was nothing more than the +rough draught of an agreement, in which blanks had been left for +several important particulars, and which contained no penalty for their +secession. "And thus," to use the words of the Parliamentary History, +"were seen, in the space of eight months, the rise, progress, and fall +of that mighty fabric, which, being wound up by mysterious springs to a +wonderful height, had fixed the eyes and expectations of all Europe, +but whose foundation, being fraud, illusion, credulity, and infatuation, +fell to the ground as soon as the artful management of its directors was +discovered." + +In the hey-day of its blood, during the progress of this dangerous +delusion, the manners of the nation became sensibly corrupted. The +Parliamentary inquiry, set on foot to discover the delinquents, +disclosed scenes of infamy, disgraceful alike to the morals of the +offenders and the intellects of the people among whom they had arisen. +It is a deeply interesting study to investigate all the evils that were +the result. Nations, like individuals, cannot become desperate gamblers +with impunity. Punishment is sure to overtake them sooner or later. A +celebrated writer [Smollett.] is quite wrong, when he says, "that such +an era as this is the most unfavourable for a historian; that no reader +of sentiment and imagination can be entertained or interested by a +detail of transactions such as these, which admit of no warmth, no +colouring, no embellishment; a detail of which only serves to exhibit +an inanimate picture of tasteless vice and mean degeneracy." On the +contrary, and Smollett might have discovered it, if he had been in the +humour--the subject is capable of inspiring as much interest as even a +novelist can desire. Is there no warmth in the despair of a plundered +people?--no life and animation in the picture which might be drawn of +the woes of hundreds of impoverished and ruined families? of the +wealthy of yesterday become the beggars of to-day? of the powerful +and influential changed into exiles and outcasts, and the voice of +self-reproach and imprecation resounding from every corner of the land? +Is it a dull or uninstructive picture to see a whole people shaking +suddenly off the trammels of reason, and running wild after a golden +vision, refusing obstinately to believe that it is not real, till, like +a deluded hind running after an ignis fatuus, they are plunged into a +quagmire? But in this false spirit has history too often been written. +The intrigues of unworthy courtiers to gain the favour of still more +unworthy kings; or the records of murderous battles and sieges have +been dilated on, and told over and over again, with all the eloquence +of style and all the charms of fancy; while the circumstances which have +most deeply affected the morals and welfare of the people, have been +passed over with but slight notice as dry and dull, and capable of +neither warmth nor colouring. + +During the progress of this famous bubble, England presented a singular +spectacle. The public mind was in a state of unwholesome fermentation. +Men were no longer satisfied with the slow but sure profits of cautious +industry. The hope of boundless wealth for the morrow made them +heedless and extravagant for to-day. A luxury, till then unheard-of, was +introduced, bringing in its train a corresponding laxity of morals. The +overbearing insolence of ignorant men, who had arisen to sudden wealth +by successful gambling, made men of true gentility of mind and manners, +blush that gold should have power to raise the unworthy in the scale of +society. The haughtiness of some of these "cyphering cits," as they were +termed by Sir Richard Steele, was remembered against them in the day +of their adversity. In the Parliamentary inquiry, many of the directors +suffered more for their insolence than for their peculation. One of +them, who, in the full-blown pride of an ignorant rich man, had said +that he would feed his horse upon gold, was reduced almost to bread and +water for himself; every haughty look, every overbearing speech, was set +down, and repaid them a hundredfold in poverty and humiliation. + +The state of matters all over the country was so alarming, that George +I shortened his intended stay in Hanover, and returned in all haste to +England. He arrived on the 11th of November, and Parliament was summoned +to meet on the 8th of December. In the mean time, public meetings were +held in every considerable town of the empire, at which petitions were +adopted, praying the vengeance of the Legislature upon the South Sea +directors, who, by their fraudulent practices, had brought the nation to +the brink of ruin. Nobody seemed to imagine that the nation itself was +as culpable as the South Sea Company. Nobody blamed the credulity and +avarice of the people,--the degrading lust of gain, which had swallowed +up every nobler quality in the national character, or the infatuation +which had made the multitude run their heads with such frantic eagerness +into the net held out for them by scheming projectors. These things were +never mentioned. The people were a simple, honest, hard-working people, +ruined by a gang of robbers, who were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered +without mercy. + +This was the almost unanimous feeling of the country. The two Houses of +Parliament were not more reasonable. Before the guilt of the South +Sea directors was known, punishment was the only cry. The King, in his +speech from the throne, expressed his hope that they would remember that +all their prudence, temper, and resolution were necessary to find out +and apply the proper remedy for their misfortunes. In the debate on the +answer to the address, several speakers indulged in the most violent +invectives against the directors of the South Sea project. The Lord +Molesworth was particularly vehement. "It had been said by some, that +there was no law to punish the directors of the South Sea Company, who +were justly looked upon as the authors of the present misfortunes of +the state. In his opinion they ought, upon this occasion, to follow the +example of the ancient Romans, who, having no law against parricide, +because their legislators supposed no son could be so unnaturally wicked +as to embrue his hands in his father's blood, made a law to punish this +heinous crime as soon as it was committed. They adjudged the guilty +wretch to be sown in a sack, and thrown alive into the Tyber. He looked +upon the contrivers and executors of the villanous South Sea scheme as +the parricides of their country, and should be satisfied to see them +tied in like manner in sacks, and thrown into the Thames." Other members +spoke with as much want of temper and discretion. Mr. Walpole was more +moderate. He recommended that their first care should be to restore +public credit. "If the city of London were on fire, all wise men would +aid in extinguishing the flames, and preventing the spread of the +conflagration before they inquired after the incendiaries. Public credit +had received a dangerous wound, and lay bleeding, and they ought to +apply a speedy remedy to it. It was time enough to punish the assassin +afterwards." On the 9th of December an address, in answer to his +Majesty's speech, was agreed upon, after an amendment, which was +carried without a division, that words should be added expressive of the +determination of the House not only to seek a remedy for the national +distresses, but to punish the authors of them. + +The inquiry proceeded rapidly. The directors were ordered to lay before +the House a full account of all their proceedings. Resolutions were +passed to the effect that the calamity was mainly owing to the vile +arts of stockjobbers, and that nothing could tend more to the +re-establishment of public credit than a law to prevent this infamous +practice. Mr. Walpole then rose, and said, that "as he had previously +hinted, he had spent some time upon a scheme for restoring public +credit, but that, the execution of it depending upon a position which +had been laid down as fundamental, he thought it proper, before he +opened out his scheme, to be informed whether he might rely upon +that foundation. It was, whether the subscription of public debts and +encumbrances, money subscriptions, and other contracts, made with the +South Sea Company should remain in the present state?" This question +occasioned an animated debate. It was finally agreed, by a majority of +259 against 117, that all these contracts should remain in their present +state, unless altered for the relief of the proprietors by a general +court of the South Sea Company, or set aside by due course of law. On +the following day Mr. Walpole laid before a committee of the whole +House his scheme for the restoration of public credit, which was, in +substance, to ingraft nine millions of South Sea stock into the Bank +of England, and the same sum into the East India Company, upon certain +conditions. The plan was favourably received by the House. After some +few objections, it was ordered that proposals should be received from +the two great corporations. They were both unwilling to lend their aid, +and the plan met with a warm but fruitless opposition at the general +courts summoned for the purpose of deliberating upon it. They, however, +ultimately agreed upon the terms on which they would consent to +circulate the South Sea bonds, and their report, being presented to +the committee, a bill was brought in, under the superintendence of Mr. +Walpole, and safely carried through both Houses of Parliament. + +A bill was at the same time brought in, for restraining the South Sea +directors, governor, sub-governor, treasurer, cashier, and clerks from +leaving the kingdom for a twelvemonth, and for discovering their estates +and effects, and preventing them from transporting or alienating the +same. All the most influential members of the House supported the bill. +Mr. Shippen, seeing Mr. Secretary Craggs in his place, and believing +the injurious rumours that were afloat of that minister's conduct in the +South Sea business, determined to touch him to the quick. He said, he +was glad to see a British House of Commons resuming its pristine vigour +and spirit, and acting with so much unanimity for the public good. +It was necessary to secure the persons and estates of the South Sea +directors and their officers; "but," he added, looking fixedly at Mr. +Craggs as he spoke, "there were other men in high station, whom, in +time, he would not be afraid to name, who were no less guilty than +the directors." Mr. Craggs arose in great wrath, and said, that if the +innuendo were directed against him, he was ready to give satisfaction to +any man who questioned him, either in the House or out of it. Loud cries +of order immediately arose on every side. In the midst of the uproar +Lord Molesworth got up, and expressed his wonder at the boldness of Mr. +Craggs in challenging the whole House of Commons. He, Lord Molesworth, +though somewhat old, past sixty, would answer Mr. Craggs whatever he +had to say in the House, and he trusted there were plenty of young men +beside him, who would not be afraid to look Mr. Craggs in the face, out +of the House. The cries of order again resounded from every side; the +members arose simultaneously; everybody seemed to be vociferating at +once. The Speaker in vain called order. The confusion lasted several +minutes, during which Lord Molesworth and Mr. Craggs were almost the +only members who kept their seats. At last the call for Mr. Craggs +became so violent that he thought proper to submit to the universal +feeling of the House, and explain his unparliamentary expression. He +said, that by giving satisfaction to the impugners of his conduct in +that House, he did not mean that he would fight, but that he would +explain his conduct. Here the matter ended, and the House proceeded to +debate in what manner they should conduct their inquiry into the affairs +of the South Sea Company, whether in a grand or a select committee. +Ultimately, a Secret Committee of thirteen was appointed, with power to +send for persons, papers, and records. + +The Lords were as zealous and as hasty as the Commons. The Bishop +of Rochester said the scheme had been like a pestilence. The Duke of +Wharton said the House ought to show no respect of persons; that, for +his part, he would give up the dearest friend he had, if he had been +engaged in the project. The nation had been plundered in a most shameful +and flagrant manner, and he would go as far as anybody in the punishment +of the offenders. Lord Stanhope said, that every farthing possessed +by the criminals, whether directors or not directors, ought to be +confiscated, to make good the public losses. + +During all this time the public excitement was extreme. We learn, front +Coxe's Walpole, that the very name of a South Sea director was thought +to be synonymous with every species of fraud and villany. Petitions +from counties, cities, and boroughs, in all parts of the kingdom, were +presented, crying for the justice due to an injured nation and the +punishment of the villanous peculators. Those moderate men, who would +not go to extreme lengths, even in the punishment of the guilty, were +accused of being accomplices, were exposed to repeated insults and +virulent invectives, and devoted, both in anonymous letters and public +writings, to the speedy vengeance of an injured people. The accusations +against Mr. Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Craggs, +another member of the ministry, were so loud, that the House of Lords +resolved to proceed at once into the investigation concerning them. It +was ordered, on the 21st of January, that all brokers concerned in the +South Sea scheme should lay before the House an account of the stock +or subscriptions bought or sold by them for any of the officers of the +Treasury or Exchequer, or in trust for any of them, since Michaelmas +1719. When this account was delivered, it appeared that large quantities +of stock had been transferred to the use of Mr. Aislabie. Five of the +South Sea directors, including Mr. Edward Gibbon, the grandfather of the +celebrated historian, were ordered into the custody of the black rod. +Upon a motion made by Earl Stanhope, it was unanimously resolved, +that the taking in or giving credit for stock without a valuable +consideration actually paid or sufficiently secured; or the purchasing +stock by any director or agent of the South Sea Company, for the use +or benefit of any member of the administration, or any member of either +House of Parliament, during such time as the South Sea Bill was yet +pending in Parliament, was a notorious and dangerous corruption. Another +resolution was passed a few days afterwards, to the effect that several +of the directors and officers of the Company having, in a clandestine +manner, sold their own stock to the Company, had been guilty of a +notorious fraud and breach of trust, and had thereby mainly caused the +unhappy turn of affairs that had so much affected public credit. +Mr. Aislabie resigned his office as Chancellor of the Exchequer, and +absented himself from Parliament until the formal inquiry into his +individual guilt was brought under the consideration of the Legislature. + +In the mean time, Knight, the treasurer of the Company, and who was +intrusted with all the dangerous secrets of the dishonest directors, +packed up his books and documents, and made his escape from the country. +He embarked in disguise, in a small boat on the river, and proceeding +to a vessel hired for the purpose, was safely conveyed to Calais. The +Committee of Secrecy informed the House of the circumstance, when it was +resolved unanimously that two addresses should be presented to the King; +the first praying that he would issue a proclamation, offering a reward +for the apprehension of Knight; and the second, that he would give +immediate orders to stop the ports, and to take effectual care of the +coasts, to prevent the said Knight, or any other officers of the South +Sea Company, from escaping out of the kingdom. The ink was hardly +dry upon these addresses before they were carried to the King by Mr. +Methuen, deputed by the House for that purpose. The same evening a royal +proclamation was issued, offering a reward of two thousand pounds for +the apprehension of Knight. The Commons ordered the doors of the House +to be locked, and the keys to be placed upon the table. General Ross, +one of the members of the Committee of Secrecy, acquainted them that +they had already discovered a train of the deepest villany and fraud +that Hell had ever contrived to ruin a nation, which in due time they +would lay before the House. In the mean time, in order to a further +discovery, the Committee thought it highly necessary to secure the +persons of some of the directors and principal South Sea officers, and +to seize their papers. A motion to this effect having been made, was +carried unanimously. Sir Robert Chaplin, Sir Theodore Janssen, Mr. +Sawbridge, and Mr. F. Eyles, members of the House, and directors of the +South Sea Company, were summoned to appear in their places, and answer +for their corrupt practices. Sir Theodore Janssen and Mr. Sawbridge +answered to their names, and endeavoured to exculpate themselves. The +House heard them patiently, and then ordered them to withdraw. A motion +was then made, and carried nemine contradicente, that they had been +guilty of a notorious breach of trust--had occasioned much loss to great +numbers of his Majesty's subjects, and had highly prejudiced the public +credit. It was then ordered that, for their offence, they should be +expelled the House, and taken into the custody of the sergeant-at-arms. +Sir Robert Chaplin and Mr. Eyles, attending in their places four days +afterwards, were also expelled the House. It was resolved at the same +time to address the King, to give directions to his ministers at foreign +courts to make application for Knight, that he might be delivered up +to the English authorities, in ease he took refuge in any of their +dominions. The King at once agreed, and messengers were despatched to +all parts of the Continent the same night. + +Among the directors taken into custody, was Sir John Blunt, the man whom +popular opinion has generally accused of having been the original author +and father of the scheme. This man, we are informed by Pope, in his +epistle to Allen, Lord Bathurst, was a dissenter, of a most religious +deportment, and professed to be a great believer. He constantly +declaimed against the luxury and corruption of the age, the partiality +of parliaments, and the misery of party spirit. He was particularly +eloquent against avarice in great and noble persons. He was originally +a scrivener, and afterwards became, not only a director, but the most +active manager of the South Sea Company. Whether it was during his +career in this capacity that he first began to declaim against the +avarice of the great, we are not informed. He certainly must have seen +enough of it to justify his severest anathema; but if the preacher had +himself been free from the vice he condemned, his declamations would +have had a better effect. He was brought up in custody to the bar of the +House of Lords, and underwent a long examination. He refused to answer +several important questions. He said he had been examined already by +a committee of the House of Commons, and as he did not remember his +answers, and might contradict himself, he refused to answer before +another tribunal. This declaration, in itself an indirect proof of +guilt, occasioned some commotion in the House. He was again asked +peremptorily whether he had ever sold any portion of the stock to +any member of the administration, or any member of either House of +Parliament, to facilitate the passing of the hill. He again declined to +answer. He was anxious, he said, to treat the House with all possible +respect, but he thought it hard to be compelled to accuse himself. After +several ineffectual attempts to refresh his memory, he was directed to +withdraw. A violent discussion ensued between the friends and opponents +of the ministry. It was asserted that the administration were no +strangers to the convenient taciturnity of Sir John Blunt. The Duke +of Wharton made a reflection upon the Earl Stanhope, which the latter +warmly resented. He spoke under great excitement, and with such +vehemence as to cause a sudden determination of blood to the head. He +felt himself so ill that he was obliged to leave the House and retire +to his chamber. He was cupped immediately, and also let blood on the +following morning, but with slight relief. The fatal result was not +anticipated. Towards evening he became drowsy, and turning himself on +his face, expired. The sudden death of this statesman caused great grief +to the nation. George I was exceedingly affected, and shut himself up +for some hours in his closet, inconsolable for his loss. + +Knight, the treasurer of the company, was apprehended at Tirlemont, near +Liege, by one of the secretaries of Mr. Leathes, the British resident +at Brussels, and lodged in the citadel of Antwerp. Repeated applications +were made to the court of Austria to deliver him up, but in vain. Knight +threw himself upon the protection of the states of Brabant, and demanded +to be tried in that country. It was a privilege granted to the states +of Brabant by one of the articles of the Joyeuse Entree, that every +criminal apprehended in that country should be tried in that country. +The states insisted on their privilege, and refused to deliver Knight to +the British authorities. The latter did not cease their solicitations; +but in the mean time, Knight escaped from the citadel. + +On the 16th of February the Committee of Secrecy made their first report +to the House. They stated that their inquiry had been attended with +numerous difficulties and embarrassments; every one they had examined +had endeavoured, as far as in him lay, to defeat the ends of justice. In +some of the books produced before them, false and fictitious entries had +been made; in others, there were entries of money, with blanks for the +name of the stockholders. There were frequent erasures and alterations, +and in some of the books leaves were torn out. They also found that some +books of great importance had been destroyed altogether, and that +some had been taken away or secreted. At the very entrance into their +inquiry, they had observed that the matters referred to them were of +great variety and extent. Many persons had been intrusted with various +parts in the execution of the law, and under colour thereof had acted +in an unwarrantable manner, in disposing of the properties of many +thousands of persons, amounting to many millions of money. They +discovered that, before the South Sea Act was passed, there was an entry +in the Company's books of the sum of 1,259,325 pounds, upon account of +stock stated to have been sold to the amount of 574,500 pounds. This +stock was all fictitious, and had been disposed of with a view to +promote the passing of the bill. It was noted as sold at various days, +and at various prices, from 150 to 325 per cent. Being surprised to see +so large an account disposed of, at a time when the Company were +not empowered to increase their capital, the committee determined +to investigate most carefully the whole transaction. The governor, +sub-governor, and several directors were brought before them, and +examined rigidly. They found that, at the time these entries were made, +the Company was not in possession of such a quantity of stock, having +in their own right only a small quantity, not exceeding thirty thousand +pounds at the utmost. Pursuing the inquiry, they found that this amount +of stock, was to be esteemed as taken in or holden by the Company, for +the benefit of the pretended purchasers, although no mutual agreement +was made for its delivery or acceptance at any certain time. No money +was paid down, nor any deposit or security whatever given to the Company +by the supposed purchasers; so that if the stock had fallen, as might +have been expected, had the act not passed, they would have sustained no +loss. If, on the contrary, the price of stock advanced (as it actually +did by the success of the scheme), the difference by the advanced price +was to be made good to them. Accordingly, after the passing of the act, +the account of stock was made up and adjusted with Mr. Knight, and the +pretended purchasers were paid the difference out of the Company's cash. +This fictitious stock, which had been chiefly at the disposal of Sir +John Blunt, Mr. Gibbon, and Mr. Knight, was distributed among several +members of the government and their connexions, by way of bribe, to +facilitate the passing of the bill. To the Earl of Sunderland was +assigned 50,000 pounds of this stock; to the Duchess of Kendal 10,000 +pounds; to the Countess of Platen 10,000 pounds; to her two nieces +10,000 pounds; to Mr. Secretary Craggs 30,000 pounds; to Mr. Charles +Stanhope (one of the Secretaries of the Treasury) 10,000 pounds; to the +Swordblade Company 50,000 pounds. It also appeared that Mr. Stanhope +had received the enormous sum of 250,000 pounds as the difference in the +price of some stock, through the hands of Turner, Caswall, and Co., but +that his name had been partly erased from their books, and altered to +Stangape. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, had made profits +still more abominable. He had an account with the same firm, who were +also South Sea directors, to the amount of 794,451 pounds. He had, +besides, advised the Company to make their second subscription one +million and a half, instead of a million, by their own authority, and +without any warrant. The third subscription had been conducted in a +manner as disgraceful. Mr. Aislabie's name was down for 70,000 pounds; +Mr. Craggs, senior, for 659,000 pounds; the Earl of Sunderland's for +160,000 pounds; and Mr. Stanhope for 47,000 pounds. This report was +succeeded by six others, less important. At the end of the last, the +committee declared that the absence of Knight, who had been principally +intrusted, prevented them from carrying on their inquiries. + +The first report was ordered to be printed, and taken into consideration +on the next day but one succeeding. After a very angry and animated +debate, a series of resolutions were agreed to, condemnatory of the +conduct of the directors, of the members of the Parliament and of the +administration concerned with them; and declaring that they ought, each +and all, to make satisfaction out of their own estates for the injury +they had done the public. Their practices were declared to be corrupt, +infamous, and dangerous; and a bill was ordered to be brought in for the +relief of the unhappy sufferers. + +Mr. Charles Stanhope was the first person brought to account for his +share in these transactions. He urged in his defence that, for some +years past, he had lodged all the money he was possessed of in Mr. +Knight's hands, and whatever stock Mr. Knight had taken in for him, he +had paid a valuable consideration for it. As to the stock that had been +bought for him by Turner, Caswall, and Co. he knew nothing about it. +Whatever had been done in that matter was done without his authority, +and he could not be responsible for it. Turner and Co. took the latter +charge upon themselves, but it was notorious to every unbiased and +unprejudiced person that Mr. Stanhope was a gainer of the 250,000 pounds +which lay in the hands of that firm to his credit. He was, however, +acquitted by a majority of three only. The greatest exertions were made +to screen him. Lord Stanhope, the son of the Earl of Chesterfield, went +round to the wavering members, using all the eloquence he was possessed +of to induce them either to vote for the acquittal or to absent +themselves from the house. Many weak-headed country-gentlemen were led +astray by his persuasions, and the result was as already stated. The +acquittal caused the greatest discontent throughout the country. Mobs +of a menacing character assembled in different parts of London; fears +of riots were generally entertained, especially as the examination of +a still greater delinquent was expected by many to have a similar +termination. Mr. Aislabie, whose high office and deep responsibilities +should have kept him honest, even had native principle been +insufficient, was very justly regarded as perhaps the greatest criminal +of all. His case was entered into on the day succeeding the acquittal of +Mr. Starthope. Great excitement prevailed, and the lobbies and avenues +of the house were beset by crowds, impatient to know the result. The +debate lasted the whole day. Mr. Aislabie found few friends: his guilt +was so apparent and so heinous that nobody had courage to stand up in +his favour. It was finally resolved, without a dissentient voice, that +Mr. Aislabie had encouraged and promoted the destructive execution of +the South Sea scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, and had +combined with the directors in their pernicious practices to the ruin +of the public trade and credit of the kingdom: that he should for +his offences be ignominiously expelled from the House of Commons, and +committed a close prisoner to the Tower of London; that he should be +restrained from going out of the kingdom for a whole year, or till the +end of the next session of Parliament; and that he should make out a +correct account of all his estate, in order that it might be applied to +the relief of those who had suffered by his malpractices. + +This verdict caused the greatest joy. Though it was delivered at +half-past twelve at night, it soon spread over the city. Several persons +illuminated their houses in token of their joy. On the following day, +when Mr. Aislabie was conveyed to the Tower, the mob assembled on +Tower-hill with the intention of hooting and pelting him. Not succeeding +in this, they kindled a large bonfire, and danced around it in the +exuberance of their delight. Several bonfires were made in other places; +London presented the appearance of a holiday, and people congratulated +one another as if they had just escaped from some great calamity. The +rage upon the acquittal of Mr. Stanhope had grown to such a height that +none could tell where it would have ended, had Mr. Aislabie met with the +like indulgence. + +To increase the public satisfaction, Sir George Caswall, of the firm of +Turner, Caswall, & Co. was expelled the House on the following day, and +ordered to refund the sum of 250,000 pounds. + +That part of the report of the Committee of Secrecy which related to the +Earl of Sunderland was next taken into consideration. Every effort was +made to clear his Lordship from the imputation. As the case against him +rested chiefly on the evidence extorted from Sir John Blunt, great +pains were taken to make it appear that Sir John's word was not to be +believed, especially in a matter affecting the honour of a peer and +privy councillor. All the friends of the ministry rallied around the +Earl, it being generally reported that a verdict of guilty against him +would bring a Tory ministry into power. He was eventually acquitted, +by a majority of 233 against 172; but the country was convinced of his +guilt. The greatest indignation was everywhere expressed, and menacing +mobs again assembled in London. Happily no disturbances took place. + +This was the day on which Mr. Craggs, the elder, expired. The morrow had +been appointed for the consideration of his case. It was very generally +believed that he had poisoned himself. It appeared, however, that grief +for the loss of his son, one of the Secretaries of the Treasury, who had +died five weeks previously of the small-pox, preyed much on his mind. +For this son, dearly beloved, he had been amassing vast heaps of riches: +he had been getting money, but not honestly; and he for whose sake he +had bartered his honour and sullied his fame, was now no more. The +dread of further exposure increased his trouble of mind, and ultimately +brought on an apoplectic fit, in which he expired. He left a fortune of +a million and a half, which was afterwards confiscated for the +benefit of the sufferers by the unhappy delusion he had been so mainly +instrumental in raising. + +One by one the case of every director of the Company was taken into +consideration. A sum amounting to two millions and fourteen thousand +pounds was confiscated from their estates towards repairing the mischief +they had done, each man being allowed a certain residue, in proportion +to his conduct and circumstances, with which he might begin the world +anew. Sir John Blunt was only allowed 5,000 pounds out of his fortune +of upwards of 183,000 pounds; Sir John Fellows was allowed 10,000 +pounds out of 243,000 pounds; Sir Theodore Janssen, 50,000 pounds out of +243,000 pounds; Mr. Edward Gibbon, 10,000 pounds out of 106,000 pounds.; +Sir John Lambert, 5000 pounds out of 72,000 pounds. Others, less deeply +involved, were treated with greater liberality. Gibbon, the historian, +whose grandfather was the Mr. Edward Gibbon so severely mulcted, has +given, in the Memoirs of his Life and Writings, an interesting account +of the proceedings in Parliament at this time. He owns that he is not an +unprejudiced witness; but, as all the writers from which it is possible +to extract any notice of the proceedings of these disastrous years, +were prejudiced on the other side, the statements of the great historian +become of additional value. If only on the principle of audi alteram +partem, his opinion is entitled to consideration. "In the year 1716," he +says, "my grandfather was elected one of the directors of the South Sea +Company, and his books exhibited the proof that before his acceptance +of that fatal office, he had acquired an independent fortune of 60,000 +pounds. But his fortune was overwhelmed in the shipwreck of the year +twenty, and the labours of thirty years were blasted in a single day. Of +the use or abuse of the South Sea scheme, of the guilt or innocence of +my grandfather and his brother directors, I am neither a competent nor +a disinterested judge. Yet the equity of modern times must condemn the +violent and arbitrary proceedings, which would have disgraced the cause +of justice, and rendered injustice still more odious. No sooner had +the nation awakened from its golden dream, than a popular, and even a +Parliamentary clamour, demanded its victims; but it was acknowledged on +all sides, that the directors, however guilty, could not be touched by +any known laws of the land. The intemperate notions of Lord Molesworth +were not literally acted on; but a bill of pains and penalties was +introduced--a retro-active statute, to punish the offences which did not +exist at the time they were committed. The Legislature restrained the +persons of the directors, imposed an exorbitant security for their +appearance, and marked their character with a previous note of ignominy. +They were compelled to deliver, upon oath, the strict value of their +estates, and were disabled from making any transfer or alienation of any +part of their property. Against a bill of pains and penalties, it is +the common right of every subject to be heard by his counsel at the bar. +They prayed to be heard. Their prayer was refused, and their oppressors, +who required no evidence, would listen to no defence. It had been at +first proposed, that one eighth of their respective estates should be +allowed for the future support of the directors; but it was speciously +urged, that in the various shades of opulence and guilt, such a +proportion would be too light for many, and for some might possibly +be too heavy. The character and conduct of each man were separately +weighed; but, instead of the calm solemnity of a judicial inquiry, the +fortune and honour of thirty-three Englishmen were made the topics of +hasty conversation, the sport of a lawless majority; and the basest +member of the committee, by a malicious word, or a silent vote, might +indulge his general spleen or personal animosity. Injury was aggravated +by insult, and insult was embittered by pleasantry. Allowances of 20 +pounds or 1 shilling were facetiously moved. A vague report that a +director had formerly been concerned in another project, by which some +unknown persons had lost their money, was admitted as a proof of his +actual guilt. One man was ruined because he had dropped a foolish +speech, that his horses should feed upon gold; another, because he was +grown so proud, that one day, at the Treasury, he had refused a civil +answer to persons much above him. All were condemned, absent and +unheard, in arbitrary fines and forfeitures, which swept away the +greatest part of their substance. Such bold oppression can scarcely +be shielded by the omnipotence of Parliament. My grandfather could not +expect to be treated with more lenity than his companions. His Tory +principles and connexions rendered him obnoxious to the ruling powers. +His name was reported in a suspicious secret. His well-known abilities +could not plead the excuse of ignorance or error. In the first +proceedings against the South Sea directors, Mr. Gibbon was one of the +first taken into custody, and in the final sentence the measure of +his fine proclaimed him eminently guilty. The total estimate, which he +delivered on oath to the House of Commons, amounted to 106,543 pounds +5 shillings 6 pence, exclusive of antecedent settlements. Two different +allowances of 15,000 pounds and of 10,000 pounds were moved for Mr. +Gibbon; but, on the question being put, it was carried without a +division for the smaller sum. On these ruins, with the skill and credit +of which Parliament had not been able to despoil him, my grandfather, +at a mature age, erected the edifice of a new fortune. The labours of +sixteen years were amply rewarded; and I have reason to believe that the +second structure was not much inferior to the first." + +The next consideration of the Legislature, after the punishment of the +directors, was to restore public credit. The scheme of Walpole had been +found insufficient, and had fallen into disrepute. A computation was +made of the whole capital stock of the South Sea Company at the end of +the year 1720. It was found to amount to thirty-seven millions eight +hundred thousand pounds, of which the stock allotted to all the +proprietors only amounted to twenty-four millions five hundred thousand +pounds. The remainder of thirteen millions three hundred thousand pounds +belonged to the Company in their corporate capacity, and was the profit +they had made by the national delusion. Upwards of eight millions of +this were taken from the Company, and divided among the proprietors and +subscribers generally, making a dividend of about 33 pounds 6 shillings +8 pence per cent. This was a great relief. It was further ordered, that +such persons as had borrowed money from the South Sea Company upon stock +actually transferred and pledged at the time of borrowing to or for the +use of the Company, should be free from all demands, upon payment of ten +per cent. of the sums so borrowed. They had lent about eleven millions +in this manner, at a time when prices were unnaturally raised; and they +now received back one million one hundred thousand, when prices had sunk +to their ordinary level. + +But it was a long time before public credit was thoroughly restored. +Enterprise, like Icarus, had soared too high, and melted the wax of +her wings; like Icarus, she had fallen into a sea, and learned, while +floundering in its waves, that her proper element was the solid ground. +She has never since attempted so high a flight. + +In times of great commercial prosperity there has been a tendency to +over-speculation on several occasions since then. The success of +one project generally produces others of a similar kind. Popular +imitativeness will always, in a trading nation, seize hold of such +successes, and drag a community too anxious for profits into an abyss +from which extrication is difficult. Bubble companies, of a kind similar +to those engendered by the South Sea project, lived their little day +in the famous year of the panic, 1825. On that occasion, as in 1720, +knavery gathered a rich harvest from cupidity, but both suffered when +the day of reckoning came. The schemes of the year 1836 threatened, at +one time, results as disastrous; but they were happily averted before +it was too late. The South Sea project thus remains, and, it is to be +hoped, always will remain, the greatest example in British history, of +the infatuation of the people for commercial gambling. From the bitter +experience of that period, posterity may learn how dangerous it is to +let speculation riot unrestrained, and to hope for enormous profits from +inadequate causes. Degrading as were the circumstances, there is wisdom +to be gained from the lesson which they teach. + + + + +THE TULIPOMANIA. + + Quis furor o cives!--Lucan. + +The tulip,--so named, it is said, from a Turkish word, signifying a +turban,--was introduced into western Europe about the middle of the +sixteenth century. Conrad Gesner, who claims the merit of having brought +it into repute,--little dreaming of the extraordinary commotion it was +to make in the world,--says that he first saw it in the year 1559, in a +garden at Augsburg, belonging to the learned Counsellor Herwart, a man +very famous in his day for his collection of rare exotics. The bulbs +were sent to this gentleman by a friend at Constantinople, where the +flower had long been a favourite. In the course of ten or eleven +years after this period, tulips were much sought after by the wealthy, +especially in Holland and Germany. Rich people at Amsterdam sent for the +bulbs direct to Constantinople, and paid the most extravagant prices +for them. The first roots planted in England were brought from Vienna +in 1600. Until the year 1634 the tulip annually increased in reputation, +until it was deemed a proof of bad taste in any man of fortune to be +without a collection of them. Many learned men, including Pompeius de +Angelis and the celebrated Lipsius of Leyden, the author of the +treatise "De Constantia," were passionately fond of tulips. The rage for +possessing them soon caught the middle classes of society, and merchants +and shopkeepers, even of moderate means, began to vie with each other +in the rarity of these flowers and the preposterous prices they paid for +them. A trader at Harlaem was known to pay one-half of his fortune for a +single root--not with the design of selling it again at a profit, but to +keep in his own conservatory for the admiration of his acquaintance. + +One would suppose that there must have been some great virtue in this +flower to have made it so valuable in the eyes of so prudent a people +as the Dutch; but it has neither the beauty nor the perfume of the +rose--hardly the beauty of the "sweet, sweet-pea;" neither is it as +enduring as either. Cowley, it is true, is loud in its praise. He says-- + + "The tulip next appeared, all over gay, + But wanton, full of pride, and full of play; + The world can't show a dye but here has place; + Nay, by new mixtures, she can change her face; + Purple and gold are both beneath her care-- + The richest needlework she loves to wear; + Her only study is to please the eye, + And to outshine the rest in finery." + +This, though not very poetical, is the description of a poet. Beckmann, +in his History of Inventions, paints it with more fidelity, and in prose +more pleasing than Cowley's poetry. He says, "There are few plants which +acquire, through accident, weakness, or disease, so many variegations as +the tulip. When uncultivated, and in its natural state, it is almost of +one colour, has large leaves, and an extraordinarily long stem. When it +has been weakened by cultivation, it becomes more agreeable in the eyes +of the florist. The petals are then paler, smaller, and more diversified +in hue; and the leaves acquire a softer green colour. Thus this +masterpiece of culture, the more beautiful it turns, grows so much the +weaker, so that, with the greatest skill and most careful attention, it +can scarcely be transplanted, or even kept alive." + +Many persons grow insensibly attached to that which gives them a great +deal of trouble, as a mother often loves her sick and ever-ailing child +better than her more healthy offspring. Upon the same principle we must +account for the unmerited encomia lavished upon these fragile blossoms. +In 1634, the rage among the Dutch to possess them was so great that the +ordinary industry of the country was neglected, and the population, +even to its lowest dregs, embarked in the tulip trade. As the mania +increased, prices augmented, until, in the year 1635, many persons were +known to invest a fortune of 100,000 florins in the purchase of forty +roots. It then became necessary to sell them by their weight in perits, +a small weight less than a grain. A tulip of the species called Admiral +Liefken, weighing 400 perits, was worth 4400 florins; an Admiral Von +der Eyk, weighing 446 perits, was worth 1260 florins; a shilder of 106 +perits was worth 1615 florins; a viceroy of 400 perits, 3000 florins, +and, most precious of all, a Semper Augustus, weighing 200 perits, was +thought to be very cheap at 5500 florins. The latter was much sought +after, and even an inferior bulb might command a price of 2000 florins. +It is related that, at one time, early in 1636, there were only two +roots of this description to be had in all Holland, and those not of the +best. One was in the possession of a dealer in Amsterdam, and the other +in Harlaem. So anxious were the speculators to obtain them that one +person offered the fee-simple of twelve acres of building ground for +the Harlaem tulip. That of Amsterdam was bought for 4600 florins, a new +carriage, two grey horses, and a complete suit of harness. Munting, an +industrious author of that day, who wrote a folio volume of one thousand +pages upon the tulipomania, has preserved the following list of the +various articles, and their value, which were delivered for one single +root of the rare species called the viceroy:-- + + florins. + Two lasts of wheat.............. 448 + Four lasts of rye............... 558 + Four fat oxen................... 480 + Eight fat swine................. 240 + Twelve fat sheep................ 120 + Two hogsheads of wine........... 70 + Four tuns of beer............... 32 + Two tons of butter.............. 192 + One thousand lbs. of cheese..... 120 + A complete bed.................. 100 + A suit of clothes............... 80 + A silver drinking cup........... 60 + ----- + 2500 + ----- + +People who had been absent from Holland, and whose chance it was to +return when this folly was at its maximum, were sometimes led into +awkward dilemmas by their ignorance. There is an amusing instance of +the kind related in Blainville's Travels. A wealthy merchant, who prided +himself not a little on his rare tulips, received upon one occasion a +very valuable consignment of merchandise from the Levant. Intelligence +of its arrival was brought him by a sailor, who presented himself +for that purpose at the counting-house, among bales of goods of every +description. The merchant, to reward him for his news, munificently made +him a present of a fine red herring for his breakfast. The sailor had, +it appears, a great partiality for onions, and seeing a bulb very like +an onion lying upon the counter of this liberal trader, and thinking it, +no doubt, very much out of its place among silks and velvets, he slily +seized an opportunity and slipped it into his pocket, as a relish for +his herring. He got clear off with his prize, and proceeded to the +quay to eat his breakfast. Hardly was his back turned when the merchant +missed his valuable Semper Augustus, worth three thousand florins, or +about 280 pounds sterling. The whole establishment was instantly in an +uproar; search was everywhere made for the precious root, but it was not +to be found. Great was the merchant's distress of mind. The search was +renewed, but again without success. At last some one thought of the +sailor. + +The unhappy merchant sprang into the street at the bare suggestion. His +alarmed household followed him. The sailor, simple soul! had not +thought of concealment. He was found quietly sitting on a coil of ropes, +masticating the last morsel of his "onion." Little did he dream that he +had been eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a whole ship's +crew for a twelvemonth; or, as the plundered merchant himself expressed +it, "might have sumptuously feasted the Prince of Orange and the whole +court of the Stadtholder." Anthony caused pearls to be dissolved in +wine to drink the health of Cleopatra; Sir Richard Whittington was +as foolishly magnificent in an entertainment to King Henry V; and Sir +Thomas Gresham drank a diamond, dissolved in wine, to the health of +Queen Elizabeth, when she opened the Royal Exchange: but the breakfast +of this roguish Dutchman was as splendid as either. He had an advantage, +too, over his wasteful predecessors: their gems did not improve the +taste or the wholesomeness of their wine, while his tulip was quite +delicious with his red herring. The most unfortunate part of the +business for him was, that he remained in prison for some months, on a +charge of felony, preferred against him by the merchant. + +Another story is told of an English traveller, which is scarcely less +ludicrous. This gentleman, an amateur botanist, happened to see a +tulip-root lying in the conservatory of a wealthy Dutchman. Being +ignorant of its quality, he took out his penknife, and peeled off its +coats, with the view of making experiments upon it. When it was by +this means reduced to half its original size, he cut it into two equal +sections, making all the time many learned remarks on the singular +appearances of the unknown bulb. Suddenly the owner pounced upon him, +and, with fury in his eyes, asked him if he knew what he had been doing? +"Peeling a most extraordinary onion," replied the philosopher. "Hundert +tausend duyvel," said the Dutchman; "it's an Admiral Van der E. yck." +"Thank you," replied the traveller, taking out his note-book to make +a memorandum of the same; "are these admirals common in your country?" +"Death and the devil," said the Dutchman, seizing the astonished man of +science by the collar; "come before the syndic, and you shall see." In +spite of his remonstrances, the traveller was led through the streets, +followed by a mob of persons. When brought into the presence of the +magistrate, he learned, to his consternation, that the root upon which +he had been experimentalizing was worth four thousand florins; and, +notwithstanding all he could urge in extenuation, he was lodged in +prison until he found securities for the payment of this sum. + +The demand for tulips of a rare species increased so much in the year +1636, that regular marts for their sale were established on the Stock +Exchange of Amsterdam, in Rotterdam, Harlaem, Leyden, Alkmar, Hoorn, +and other towns. Symptoms of gambling now became, for the first time, +apparent. The stockjobbers, ever on the alert for a new speculation, +dealt largely in tulips, making use of all the means they so well knew +how to employ, to cause fluctuations in prices. At first, as in all +these gambling mania, confidence was at its height, and everybody +gained. The tulip-jobbers speculated in the rise and fall of the tulip +stocks, and made large profits by buying when prices fell, and selling +out when they rose. Many individuals grew suddenly rich. A golden bait +hung temptingly out before the people, and, one after the other, they +rushed to the tulip marts, like flies around a honeypot. Every one +imagined that the passion for tulips would last for ever, and that the +wealthy from every part of the world would send to Holland, and pay +whatever prices were asked for them. The riches of Europe would be +concentrated on the shores of the Zuyder Zee, and poverty banished from +the favoured clime of Holland. Nobles, citizens, farmers, mechanics, +seamen, footmen, maidservants, even chimney-sweeps and old clotheswomen, +dabbled in tulips. People of all grades converted their property into +cash, and invested it in flowers. Houses and lands were offered for sale +at ruinously low prices, or assigned in payment of bargains made at the +tulip-mart. Foreigners became smitten with the same frenzy, and money +poured into Holland from all directions. The prices of the necessaries +of life rose again by degrees; houses and lands, horses and carriages, +and luxuries of every sort, rose in value with them, and for some months +Holland seemed the very antechamber of Plutus. The operations of the +trade became so extensive and so intricate, that it was found necessary +to draw up a code of laws for the guidance of the dealers. Notaries and +clerks were also appointed, who devoted themselves exclusively to the +interests of the trade. The designation of public notary was hardly +known in some towns, that of tulip notary usurping its place. In the +smaller towns, where there was no exchange, the principal tavern was +usually selected as the "showplace," where high and low traded in +tulips, and confirmed their bargains over sumptuous entertainments. +These dinners were sometimes attended by two or three hundred persons, +and large vases of tulips, in full bloom, were placed at regular +intervals upon the tables and sideboards, for their gratification during +the repast. + +At last, however, the more prudent began to see that this folly could +not last for ever. Rich people no longer bought the flowers to keep them +in their gardens, but to sell them again at cent. per cent. profit. +It was seen that somebody must lose fearfully in the end. As this +conviction spread, prices fell, and never rose again. Confidence was +destroyed, and a universal panic seized upon the dealers. A had agreed +to purchase ten Sempers Augustines from B, at four thousand florins +each, at six weeks after the signing of the contract. B was ready with +the flowers at the appointed time; but the price had fallen to three +or four hundred florins, and A refused either to pay the difference or +receive the tulips. Defaulters were announced day after day in all the +towns of Holland. Hundreds who, a few months previously, had begun to +doubt that there was such a thing as poverty in the land, suddenly found +themselves the possessors of a few bulbs, which nobody would buy, even +though they offered them at one quarter of the sums they had paid for +them. The cry of distress resounded everywhere, and each man accused +his neighbour. The few who had contrived to enrich themselves hid their +wealth from the knowledge of their fellow-citizens, and invested it in +the English or other funds. Many who, for a brief season, had emerged +from the humbler walks of life, were cast back into their original +obscurity. Substantial merchants were reduced almost to beggary, and +many a representative of a noble line saw the fortunes of his house +ruined beyond redemption. + +When the first alarm subsided, the tulip-holders in the several towns +held public meetings to devise what measures were best to be taken to +restore public credit. It was generally agreed, that deputies should be +sent from all parts to Amsterdam, to consult with the government upon +some remedy for the evil. The Government at first refused to interfere, +but advised the tulip-holders to agree to some plan among themselves. +Several meetings were held for this purpose; but no measure could be +devised likely to give satisfaction to the deluded people, or repair +even a slight portion of the mischief that had been done. The language +of complaint and reproach was in everybody's mouth, and all the +meetings were of the most stormy character. At last, however, after much +bickering and ill-will, it was agreed, at Amsterdam, by the assembled +deputies, that all contracts made in the height of the mania, or prior +to the month of November 1636, should be declared null and void, and +that, in those made after that date, purchasers should be freed from +their engagements, on paying ten per cent. to the vendor. This decision +gave no satisfaction. The vendors who had their tulips on hand were, of +course, discontented, and those who had pledged themselves to purchase, +thought themselves hardly treated. Tulips which had, at one time, been +worth six thousand florins, were now to be procured for five hundred; so +that the composition of ten per cent. was one hundred florins more than +the actual value. Actions for breach of contract were threatened in all +the courts of the country; but the latter refused to take cognizance of +gambling transactions. + +The matter was finally referred to the Provincial Council at the Hague, +and it was confidently expected that the wisdom of this body would +invent some measure by which credit should be restored. Expectation +was on the stretch for its decision, but it never came. The members +continued to deliberate week after week, and at last, after thinking +about it for three months, declared that they could offer no final +decision until they had more information. They advised, however, that, +in the mean time, every vendor should, in the presence of witnesses, +offer the tulips in natura to the purchaser for the sums agreed upon. If +the latter refused to take them, they might be put up for sale by public +auction, and the original contractor held responsible for the difference +between the actual and the stipulated price. This was exactly the plan +recommended by the deputies, and which was already shown to be of no +avail. There was no court in Holland which would enforce payment. The +question was raised in Amsterdam, but the judges unanimously refused to +interfere, on the ground that debts contracted in gambling were no debts +in law. + +Thus the matter rested. To find a remedy was beyond the power of the +government. Those who were unlucky enough to have had stores of tulips +on hand at the time of the sudden reaction were left to bear their +ruin as philosophically as they could; those who had made profits were +allowed to keep them; but the commerce of the country suffered a severe +shock, from which it was many years ere it recovered. + +The example of the Dutch was imitated to some extent in England. In the +year 1636 tulips were publicly sold in the Exchange of London, and the +jobbers exerted themselves to the utmost to raise them to the fictitious +value they had acquired in Amsterdam. In Paris also the jobbers strove +to create a tulipomania. In both cities they only partially succeeded. +However, the force of example brought the flowers into great favour, +and amongst a certain class of people tulips have ever since been prized +more highly than any other flowers of the field. The Dutch are still +notorious for their partiality to them, and continue to pay higher +prices for them than any other people. As the rich Englishman boasts of +his fine race-horses or his old pictures, so does the wealthy Dutchman +vaunt him of his tulips. + + +In England, in our day, strange as it may appear, a tulip will produce +more money than an oak. If one could be found, rara in tetris, and black +as the black swan alluded to by Juvenal, its price would equal that of +a dozen acres of standing corn. In Scotland, towards the close of the +seventeenth century, the highest price for tulips, according to the +authority of a writer in the supplement to the third edition of the +"Encyclopedia Britannica," was ten guineas. Their value appears to have +diminished from that time till the year 1769, when the two most valuable +species in England were the Don Quevedo and the Valentinier, the former +of which was worth two guineas and the latter two guineas and a half. +These prices appear to have been the minimum. In the year 1800, a common +price was fifteen guineas for a single bulb. In 1835, so foolish were +the fanciers, that a bulb of the species called the Miss Fanny Kemble +was sold by public auction in London for seventy-five pounds. Still more +astonishing was the price of a tulip in the possession of a gardener +in the King's Road, Chelsea. In his catalogues, it was labelled at +two hundred guineas! Thus a flower, which for beauty and perfume was +surpassed by the abundant roses of the garden,--a nosegay of which might +be purchased for a penny,--was priced at a sum which would have provided +an industrious labourer and his family with food, and clothes, and +lodging for six years! Should chickweed and groundsel ever come into +fashion, the wealthy would, no doubt, vie with each other in adorning +their gardens with them, and paying the most extravagant prices for +them. In so doing, they would hardly be more foolish than the admirers +of tulips. The common prices for these flowers at the present time vary +from five to fifteen guineas, according to the rarity of the species. + + + + +RELICS. + + A fouth o' auld knick-knackets, + Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets, + Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets, + A towmond guid; + An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets, + Afore the flood. + + Burns. + +The love for relics is one which will never be eradicated as long as +feeling and affection are denizens of the heart. It is a love which is +most easily excited in the best and kindliest natures, and which few are +callous enough to scoff at. Who would not treasure the lock of hair that +once adorned the brow of the faithful wife, now cold in death, or that +hung down the neck of a beloved infant, now sleeping under the sward? +Not one. They are home-relics, whose sacred worth is intelligible +to all; spoils rescued from the devouring grave, which, to the +affectionate, are beyond all price. How dear to a forlorn survivor the +book over whose pages he has pored with one departed! How much greater +its value, if that hand, now cold, had written a thought, an opinion, or +a name, upon the leaf! Besides these sweet, domestic relics, there are +others, which no one can condemn; relics sanctified by that admiration +of greatness and goodness which is akin to love; such as the copy of +Montaigne's Florio, with the name of Shakspeare upon the leaf, written +by the poet of all time himself; the chair preserved at Antwerp, in +which Rubens sat when he painted the immortal "Descent from the Cross;" +or the telescope, preserved in the Museum of Florence, which aided +Galileo in his sublime discoveries. Who would not look with veneration +upon the undoubted arrow of William Tell--the swords of Wallace or of +Hampden--or the Bible whose leaves were turned by some stern old father +of the faith? + +Thus the principle of reliquism is hallowed and enshrined by love. +But from this germ of purity how numerous the progeny of errors and +superstitions! Men, in their admiration of the great, and of all that +appertained to them, have forgotten that goodness is a component part of +true greatness, and have made fools of themselves for the jaw-bone of a +saint, the toe-nail of an apostle, the handkerchief a king blew his nose +in, or the rope that hanged a criminal. Desiring to rescue some slight +token from the graves of their predecessors, they have confounded the +famous and the infamous, the renowned and the notorious. Great saints, +great sinners; great philosophers, great quacks; great conquerors, great +murderers; great ministers, great thieves; each and all have had their +admirers, ready to ransack earth, from the equator to either pole, to +find a relic of them. + +The reliquism of modern times dates its origin from the centuries +immediately preceding the Crusades. The first pilgrims to the Holy Land +brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the purchase +of which they had expended all their store. The greatest favourite was +the wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never +diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions of the Romish +Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, +first discovered the veritable "true cross" in her pilgrimage to +Jerusalem. The Emperor Theodosius made a present of the greater part of +it to St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded with precious +stones, and deposited in the principal church of that city. It was +carried away by the Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted +the valuable jewels it contained. Fragments, purporting to have been +cut from it were, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in +almost every church in Europe, and would, if collected together in one +place, have been almost sufficient to have built a cathedral. Happy +was the sinner who could get a sight of one of them; happier he who +possessed one! To obtain them the greatest dangers were cheerfully +braved. They were thought to preserve from all evils, and to cure the +most inveterate diseases. Annual pilgrimages were made to the shrines +that contained them, and considerable revenues collected from the +devotees. + +Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour. By +whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrims did not often +inquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy +Land, and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of +St. Peter, were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, +which the pious might wear in their bosoms. After the tears the next +most precious relics were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs. +Hair and toe-nails were also in great repute, and were sold at +extravagant prices. Thousands of pilgrims annually visited Palestine in +the eleventh and twelfth centuries, to purchase pretended relics for the +home market. The majority of them had no other means of subsistence than +the profits thus obtained. Many a nail, cut from the filthy foot of some +unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was sold at a diamond's price, within six +months after its severance from its parent toe, upon the supposition +that it had once belonged to a saint. Peter's toes were uncommonly +prolific, for there were nails enough in Europe, at the time of the +Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which were devoutly +believed to have grown on the sacred feet of that great apostle. Some of +them are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The pious come +from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their eyes upon them. + +At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the +priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns that +bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by whom +it was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous thorn, +celebrated in the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists, +and which worked the miraculous cure upon Mademoiselle Perrier: by +merely kissing it, she was cured of a disease of the eyes of long +standing. [Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV.] + +What traveller is unacquainted with the Santa Scala, or Holy Stairs, at +Rome? They were brought from Jerusalem along with the true cross, by the +Empress Helen, and were taken from the house which, according to popular +tradition, was inhabited by Pontius Pilate. They are said to be the +steps which Jesus ascended and descended when brought into the presence +of the Roman governor. They are held in the greatest veneration at Rome: +it is sacrilegious to walk upon them. The knees of the faithful must +alone touch them in ascending or descending, and that only after they +have reverentially kissed them. + +Europe still swarms with these religious relics. There is hardly a Roman +Catholic church in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, or Belgium, without +one or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches of the villages +boast the possession of miraculous thigh-bones of the innumerable +saints of the Romish calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable +chasse, or thigh-bone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a +thighbone of the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be +undoubted relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, +the teeth of St. Gudule. The faithful, who suffered from the tooth-ache, +had only to pray, look at them, and be cured. Some of these holy bones +have been buried in different parts of the Continent. After a certain +lapse of time, water is said to ooze from them, which soon forms a +spring, and cures all the diseases of the faithful. At a church in +Halle, there is a famous thigh-bone, which cures barrenness in women. Of +this bone, which is under the special superintendence of the Virgin, a +pleasant story is related by the incredulous. There resided at Ghent +a couple who were blessed with all the riches of this world, but whose +happiness was sore troubled by the want of children. Great was the +grief of the lady, who was both beautiful and loving, and many her +lamentations to her husband. The latter, annoyed by her unceasing +sorrow, advised her to make a pilgrimage to the celebrated chasse of +the Virgin. She went, was absent a week, and returned with a face all +radiant with joy and pleasure. Her lamentations ceased, and, in nine +months afterwards, she brought forth a son. But, oh! the instability of +human joys! The babe, so long desired and so greatly beloved, survived +but a few months. Two years passed over the heads of the disconsolate +couple, and no second child appeared to cheer their fire-side. A third +year passed away with the same result, and the lady once more began to +weep. "Cheer up, my love," said her husband, "and go to the holy chasse, +at Halle; perhaps the Virgin will again listen to your prayers." The +lady took courage at the thought, wiped away her tears, and proceeded on +the morrow towards Halle. She was absent only three days, and returned +home sad, weeping, and sorrow-stricken. "What is the matter?" said +her husband; "is the Virgin unwilling to listen to your prayers?" "The +Virgin is willing enough," said the disconsolate wife, "and will do what +she can for me; but I shall never have any more children! The priest! +the priest!--He is gone from Halle, and nobody knows where to find him!" + +It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all +countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any persons who have +been much spoken of, even for their crimes. When William Longbeard, +leader of the populace of London, in the reign of Richard I, was hanged +at Smithfield, the utmost eagerness was shown to obtain a hair from +his head, or a shred from his garments. Women came from Essex, Kent, +Suffolk, Sussex, and all the surrounding counties, to collect the mould +at the foot of his gallows. A hair of his beard was believed to preserve +from evil spirits, and a piece of his clothes from aches and pains. + +In more modern days, a similar avidity was shown to obtain a relic of +the luckless Masaniello, the fisherman of Naples. After he had been +raised by mob favour to a height of power more despotic than monarch +ever wielded, he was shot by the same populace in the streets, as if he +had been a mad dog. His headless trunk was dragged through the mire for +several hours, and cast at night-fall into the city ditch. On the morrow +the tide of popular feeling turned once more in his favour. His +corpse was sought, arrayed in royal robes, and buried magnificently +by torch-light in the cathedral, ten thousand armed men, and as many +mourners, attending at the ceremony. The fisherman's dress which he had +worn was rent into shreds by the crowd, to be preserved as relics; the +door of his hut was pulled off its hinges by a mob of women, and eagerly +cut up into small pieces, to be made into images, caskets, and other +mementos. The scanty furniture of his poor abode became of more value +than the adornments of a palace; the ground he had walked upon was +considered sacred, and, being collected in small phials, was sold at its +weight in gold, and worn in the bosom as an amulet. + +Almost as extraordinary was the frenzy manifested by the populace of +Paris on the execution of the atrocious Marchioness de Brinvilliers. +There were grounds for the popular wonder in the case of Masaniello, +who was unstained with personal crimes. But the career of Madame de +Brinvilliers was of a nature to excite no other feelings than disgust +and abhorrence. She was convicted of poisoning several persons, and +sentenced to be burned in the Place de Greve, and to have her ashes +scattered to the winds. On the day of her execution, the populace, +struck by her gracefulness and beauty, inveighed against the severity of +her sentence. Their pity soon increased to admiration, and, ere evening, +she was considered a saint. Her ashes were industriously collected, even +the charred wood, which had aided to consume her, was eagerly purchased +by the populace. Her ashes were thought to preserve from witchcraft. + +In England many persons have a singular love for the relics of thieves +and murderers, or other great criminals. The ropes with which they have +been hanged are very often bought by collectors at a guinea per foot. +Great sums were paid for the rope which hanged Dr. Dodd, and for those +more recently which did justice upon Mr. Fauntleroy for forgery, and +on Thurtell for the murder of Mr. Weare. The murder of Maria Marten, +by Corder, in the year 1828, excited the greatest interest all over the +country. People came from Wales and Scotland, and even from Ireland, to +visit the barn where the body of the murdered woman was buried. Every +one of them was anxious to carry away some memorial of his visit. Pieces +of the barn-door, tiles from the roof, and, above all, the clothes of +the poor victim, were eagerly sought after. A lock of her hair was sold +for two guineas, and the purchaser thought himself fortunate in getting +it so cheaply. + +So great was the concourse of people to visit the house in Camberwell +Lane, where Greenacre murdered Hannah Brown, in 1837, that it was found +necessary to station a strong detachment of police on the spot. The +crowd was so eager to obtain a relic of the house of this atrocious +criminal, that the police were obliged to employ force to prevent the +tables and chairs, and even the doors, from being carried away. + +In earlier times, a singular superstition was attached to the hand of +a criminal who had suffered execution. It was thought that by merely +rubbing the dead hand on the body, the patient afflicted with the king's +evil would be instantly cured. The executioner at Newgate, sixty or +seventy years ago, derived no inconsiderable revenue from this foolish +practice. The possession of the hand was thought to be of still greater +efficacy in the cure of diseases and the prevention of misfortunes. In +the time of Charles II as much as ten guineas was thought a small price +for one of these disgusting relics. + +When the maniac, Thom, or Courtenay, was shot, in the spring of 1838, +the relic-hunters were immediately in motion to obtain a memento of so +extraordinary an individual. His long, black beard and hair, which were +cut off by the surgeons, fell into the hands of his disciples, by +whom they are treasured with the utmost reverence. A lock of his hair +commands a great price, not only amongst his followers, but among the +more wealthy inhabitants of Canterbury and its neighbourhood. The tree +against which he fell when he was shot, has already been stripped of all +its bark by the curious, and bids fair to be entirely demolished within +a twelvemonth. A letter, with his signature to it, is paid for in gold +coins; and his favourite horse promises to become as celebrated as his +master. Parties of ladies and gentlemen have come to Boughton from a +distance of a hundred and fifty miles, to visit the scene of that fatal +affray, and stroke on the back the horse of the "mad Knight of Malta." +If a strict watch had not been kept over his grave for months, the body +would have been disinterred, and the bones carried away as memorials. + +Among the Chinese no relics are more valued than the boots which have +been worn by an upright magistrate. In Davis's interesting Description +of the Empire of China, we are informed, that whenever a judge of +unusual integrity resigns his situation, the people all congregate to +do him honour. If he leaves the city where he has presided, the crowd +accompany him from his residence to the gates, where his boots are drawn +off with great ceremony, to be preserved in the hall of justice. Their +place is immediately supplied by a new pair, which, in their turn, are +drawn off to make room for others before he has worn them five minutes, +it being considered sufficient to consecrate them that he should have +merely drawn them on. + +Among the most favourite relics of modern times, in Europe, are +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, Napoleon's willow, and the table at +Waterloo, on which the Emperor wrote his despatches. Snuffboxes of +Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, are comparatively rare, though there are +doubtless more of them in the market than were ever made of the wood +planted by the great bard. Many a piece of alien wood passes under this +name. The same may be said of Napoleon's table at Waterloo. The original +has long since been destroyed, and a round dozen of counterfeits along +with it. Many preserve the simple stick of wood; others have them cut +into brooches and every variety of ornament; but by far the greater +number prefer them as snuff-boxes. In France they are made into +bonbonnieres, and are much esteemed by the many thousands whose cheeks +still glow, and whose eyes still sparkle at the name of Napoleon. + +Bullets from the field of Waterloo, and buttons from the coats of the +soldiers who fell in the fight, are still favourite relics in Europe. +But the same ingenuity which found new tables after the old one was +destroyed, has cast new bullets for the curious. Many a one who thinks +himself the possessor of a bullet which aided in giving peace to the +world on that memorable day, is the owner of a dump, first extracted +from the ore a dozen years afterwards. Let all lovers of genuine relics +look well to their money before they part with it to the ciceroni that +swarm in the village of Waterloo. + +Few travellers stop at the lonely isle of St. Helena, without cutting +a twig from the willow that droops over the grave of Napoleon. Many +of them have since been planted in different parts of Europe, and have +grown into trees as large as their parent. Relic-hunters, who are unable +to procure a twig of the original, are content with one from these. +Several of them are growing in the neighbourhood of London, more prized +by their cultivators than any other tree in their gardens. But in +relics, as in everything else, there is the use and the abuse. The +undoubted relics of great men, or great events, will always possess +attractions for the thinking and refined. There are few who would +not join with Cowley in the extravagant wish introduced in his lines +"written while sitting in a chair made of the remains of the ship in +which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world:"-- + + And I myself, who now love quiet too, + Almost as much as any chair can do, + Would yet a journey take + An old wheel of that chariot to see, + Which Phaeton so rashly brake. + + + + +MODERN PROPHECIES. + +As epidemic terror of the end of the world has several times spread over +the nations. The most remarkable was that which seized Christendom about +the middle of the tenth century. Numbers of fanatics appeared in France, +Germany, and Italy at that time, preaching that the thousand years +prophesied in the Apocalypse as the term of the world's duration, were +about to expire, and that the Son of Man would appear in the clouds +to judge the godly and the ungodly. The delusion appears to have been +discouraged by the church, but it nevertheless spread rapidly among the +people. [See Gibbon and Voltaire for further notice of this subject.] + +The scene of the last judgment was expected to be at Jerusalem. In +the year 999, the number of pilgrims proceeding eastward, to await the +coming of the Lord in that city, was so great that they were compared to +a desolating army. Most of them sold their goods and possessions before +they quitted Europe, and lived upon the proceeds in the Holy Land. +Buildings of every sort were suffered to fall into ruins. It was thought +useless to repair them, when the end of the world was so near. Many +noble edifices were deliberately pulled down. Even churches, usually +so well maintained, shared the general neglect. Knights, citizens, and +serfs, travelled eastwards in company, taking with them their wives and +children, singing psalms as they went, and looking with fearful eyes +upon the sky, which they expected each minute to open, to let the Son of +God descend in his glory. + +During the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased. Most of +them were smitten with terror as with a plague. Every phenomenon of +nature filled them with alarm. A thunder-storm sent them all upon their +knees in mid-march. It was the opinion that thunder was the voice of +God, announcing the day of judgment. Numbers expected the earth to +open, and give up its dead at the sound. Every meteor in the sky seen +at Jerusalem brought the whole Christian population into the streets to +weep and pray. The pilgrims on the road were in the same alarm:-- + + Lorsque, pendant la nuit, un globe de lumiere + S'echappa quelquefois de la voute des cieux, + Et traca dans sa chute un long sillon de feux, + La troupe suspendit sa marche solitaire. + [Charlemagne. Pomme Epique, par Lucien Buonaparte.] + +Fanatic preachers kept up the flame of terror. Every shooting star +furnished occasion for a sermon, in which the sublimity of the +approaching judgment was the principal topic. + +The appearance of comets has been often thought to foretell the speedy +dissolution of this world. Part of this belief still exists; but +the comet is no longer looked upon as the sign, but the agent of +destruction. So lately as in the year 1832 the greatest alarm spread +over the Continent of Europe, especially in Germany, lest the comet, +whose appearance was then foretold by astronomers, should destroy the +earth. The danger of our globe was gravely discussed. Many persons +refrained from undertaking or concluding any business during that year, +in consequence solely of their apprehension that this terrible comet +would dash us and our world to atoms. + +During seasons of great pestilence men have often believed the +prophecies of crazed fanatics, that the end of the world was come. +Credulity is always greatest in times of calamity. Prophecies of all +sorts are rife on such occasions, and are readily believed, whether for +good or evil. During the great plague, which ravaged all Europe, between +the years 1345 and 1350, it was generally considered that the end of +the world was at hand. Pretended prophets were to be found in all the +principal cities of Germany, France, and Italy, predicting that within +ten years the trump of the Archangel would sound, and the Saviour appear +in the clouds to call the earth to judgment. + +No little consternation was created in London in 1736 by the prophecy of +the famous Whiston, that the world would be destroyed in that year, on +the 13th of October. Crowds of people went out on the appointed day to +Islington, Hampstead, and the fields intervening, to see the destruction +of London, which was to be the "beginning of the end." A satirical +account of this folly is given in Swift's Miscellanies, vol. iii. +entitled, "A True and Faithful Narrative of what passed in London on a +Rumour of the Day of Judgment." An authentic narrative of this delusion +would be interesting; but this solemn witticism of Pope and Gay is not +to be depended upon. + +In the year 1761 the citizens of London were again frightened out of +their wits by two shocks of an earthquake, and the prophecy of a third, +which was to destroy them altogether. The first shock was felt on the +8th of February, and threw down several chimneys in the neighbourhood of +Limehouse and Poplar; the second happened on the 8th of March, and was +chiefly felt in the north of London, and towards Hampstead and Highgate. +It soon became the subject of general remark, that there was exactly +an interval of a month between the shocks; and a crack-brained fellow, +named Bell, a soldier in the Life Guards, was so impressed with the idea +that there would be a third in another month, that he lost his senses +altogether, and ran about the streets predicting the destruction of +London on the 5th of April. Most people thought that the first would +have been a more appropriate day; but there were not wanting thousands +who confidently believed the prediction, and took measures to transport +themselves and families from the scene of the impending calamity. As the +awful day approached, the excitement became intense, and great numbers +of credulous people resorted to all the villages within a circuit +of twenty miles, awaiting the doom of London. Islington, Highgate, +Hampstead, Harrow, and Blackheath, were crowded with panic-stricken +fugitives, who paid exorbitant prices for accommodation to the +housekeepers of these secure retreats. Such as could not afford to pay +for lodgings at any of those places, remained in London until two or +three days before the time, and then encamped in the surrounding fields, +awaiting the tremendous shock which was to lay their high city all level +with the dust. As happened during a similar panic in the time of Henry +VIII, the fear became contagious, and hundreds who had laughed at the +prediction a week before, packed up their goods, when they saw others +doing so, and hastened away. The river was thought to be a place of +great security, and all the merchant vessels in the port were filled +with people, who passed the night between the 4th and 5th on board, +expecting every instant to see St. Paul's totter, and the towers of +Westminster Abbey rock in the wind and fall amid a cloud of dust. The +greater part of the fugitives returned on the following day, convinced +that the prophet was a false one; but many judged it more prudent to +allow a week to elapse before they trusted their dear limbs in London. +Bell lost all credit in a short time, and was looked upon even by the +most credulous as a mere madman. He tried some other prophecies, but +nobody was deceived by them; and, in a few months afterwards, he was +confined in a lunatic asylum. + +A panic terror of the end of the world seized the good people of Leeds +and its neighbourhood in the year 1806. It arose from the following +circumstances. A hen, in a village close by, laid eggs, on which were +inscribed, in legible characters, the words "Christ is coming." Great +numbers visited the spot, and examined these wondrous eggs, convinced +that the day of judgment was near at hand. Like sailors in a storm, +expecting every instant to go to the bottom, the believers suddenly +became religious, prayed violently, and flattered themselves that they +repented them of their evil courses. But a plain tale soon put them +down, and quenched their religion entirely. Some gentlemen, hearing of +the matter, went one fine morning, and caught the poor hen in the act +of laying one of her miraculous eggs. They soon ascertained beyond doubt +that the egg had been inscribed with some corrosive ink, and cruelly +forced up again into the bird's body. At this explanation, those who had +prayed, now laughed, and the world wagged as merrily as of yore. + +At the time of the plague in Milan, in 1630, of which so affecting a +description has been left us by Ripamonte, in his interesting work "De +Peste Mediolani", the people, in their distress, listened with avidity +to the predictions of astrologers and other impostors. It is singular +enough that the plague was foretold a year before it broke out. A large +comet appearing in 1628, the opinions of astrologers were divided with +regard to it. Some insisted that it was a forerunner of a bloody war; +others maintained that it predicted a great famine; but the greater +number, founding their judgment upon its pale colour, thought it +portended a pestilence. The fulfilment of their prediction brought them +into great repute while the plague was raging. + +Other prophecies were current, which were asserted to have been +delivered hundreds of years previously. They had a most pernicious +effect upon the mind of the vulgar, as they induced a belief in +fatalism. By taking away the hope of recovery--that greatest balm in +every malady--they increased threefold the ravages of the disease. One +singular prediction almost drove the unhappy people mad. An ancient +couplet, preserved for ages by tradition, foretold, that in the year +1630 the devil would poison all Milan. Early one morning in April, +and before the pestilence had reached its height, the passengers were +surprised to see that all the doors in the principal streets of the city +were marked with a curious daub, or spot, as if a sponge, filled with +the purulent matter of the plague-sores, had been pressed against them. +The whole population were speedily in movement to remark the strange +appearance, and the greatest alarm spread rapidly. Every means was taken +to discover the perpetrators, but in vain. At last the ancient prophecy +was remembered, and prayers were offered up in all the churches that +the machinations of the Evil One might be defeated. Many persons were +of opinion that the emissaries of foreign powers were employed to spread +infectious poison over the city; but by far the greater number were +convinced that the powers of hell had conspired against them, and that +the infection was spread by supernatural agencies. In the mean time the +plague increased fearfully. Distrust and alarm took possession of every +mind. Everything was believed to have been poisoned by the devil; the +waters of the wells, the standing corn in the fields, and the fruit upon +the trees. It was believed that all objects of touch were poisoned; the +walls of the houses, the pavement of the streets, and the very handles +of the doors. The populace were raised to a pitch of ungovernable fury. +A strict watch was kept for the devil's emissaries, and any man who +wanted to be rid of an enemy, had only to say that he had seen him +besmearing a door with ointment; his fate was certain death at the +hands of the mob. An old man, upwards of eighty years of age, a daily +frequenter of the church of St. Antonio, was seen, on rising from his +knees, to wipe with the skirt of his cloak the stool on which he was +about to sit down. A cry was raised immediately that he was besmearing +the seat with poison. A mob of women, by whom the church was crowded, +seized hold of the feeble old man, and dragged him out by the hair of +his head, with horrid oaths and imprecations. He was trailed in this +manner through the mire to the house of the municipal judge, that he +might be put to the rack, and forced to discover his accomplices; but +he expired on the way. Many other victims were sacrificed to the popular +fury. One Mora, who appears to have been half a chemist and half a +barber, was accused of being in league with the devil to poison Milan. +His house was surrounded, and a number of chemical preparations were +found. The poor man asserted, that they were intended as preservatives +against infection; but some physicians, to whom they were submitted, +declared they were poison. Mora was put to the rack, where he for a long +time asserted his innocence. He confessed at last, when his courage was +worn down by torture, that he was in league with the devil and foreign +powers to poison the whole city; that he had anointed the doors, +and infected the fountains of water. He named several persons as his +accomplices, who were apprehended and put to a similar torture. They +were all found guilty, and executed. Mora's house was rased to the +ground, and a column erected on the spot, with an inscription to +commemorate his guilt. + +While the public mind was filled with these marvellous occurrences, the +plague continued to increase. The crowds that were brought together to +witness the executions, spread the infection among one another. But the +fury of their passions, and the extent of their credulity, kept pace +with the violence of the plague; every wonderful and preposterous story +was believed. One, in particular, occupied them to the exclusion, for a +long time, of every other. The Devil himself had been seen. He had +taken a house in Milan, in which he prepared his poisonous unguents, and +furnished them to his emissaries for distribution. One man had brooded +over such tales till he became firmly convinced that the wild flights of +his own fancy were realities. He stationed himself in the market-place +of Milan, and related the following story to the crowds that gathered +round him. He was standing, he said, at the door of the cathedral, late +in the evening, and when there was nobody nigh, he saw a dark-coloured +chariot, drawn by six milk-white horses, stop close beside him. The +chariot was followed by a numerous train of domestics in dark liveries, +mounted on dark-coloured steeds. In the chariot there sat a tall +stranger of a majestic aspect; his long black hair floated in the +wind--fire flashed from his large black eyes, and a curl of ineffable +scorn dwelt upon his lips. The look of the stranger was so sublime +that he was awed, and trembled with fear when he gazed upon him. His +complexion was much darker than that of any man he had ever seen, +and the atmosphere around him was hot and suffocating. He perceived +immediately that he was a being of another world. The stranger, seeing +his trepidation, asked him blandly, yet majestically, to mount beside +him. He had no power to refuse, and before he was well aware that he +had moved, he found himself in the chariot. Onwards they went, with the +rapidity of the wind, the stranger speaking no word, until they stopped +before a door in the high-street of Milan. There was a crowd of people +in the street, but, to his great surprise, no one seemed to notice the +extraordinary equipage and its numerous train. From this he concluded +that they were invisible. The house at which they stopped appeared to +be a shop, but the interior was like a vast half-ruined palace. He went +with his mysterious guide through several large and dimly-lighted rooms. +In one of them, surrounded by huge pillars of marble, a senate of ghosts +was assembled, debating on the progress of the plague. Other parts +of the building were enveloped in the thickest darkness, illumined at +intervals by flashes of lightning, which allowed him to distinguish a +number of gibing and chattering skeletons, running about and pursuing +each other, or playing at leap-frog over one another's backs. At the +rear of the mansion was a wild, uncultivated plot of ground, in the +midst of which arose a black rock. Down its sides rushed with fearful +noise a torrent of poisonous water, which, insinuating itself through +the soil, penetrated to all the springs of the city, and rendered them +unfit for use. After he had been shown all this, the stranger led him +into another large chamber, filled with gold and precious stones, all of +which he offered him if he would kneel down and worship him, and consent +to smear the doors and houses of Milan with a pestiferous salve which he +held out to him. He now knew him to be the Devil, and in that moment of +temptation, prayed to God to give him strength to resist. His prayer was +heard--he refused the bribe. The stranger scowled horribly upon him--a +loud clap of thunder burst over his head--the vivid lightning flashed +in his eyes, and the next moment he found himself standing alone at the +porch of the cathedral. He repeated this strange tale day after day, +without any variation, and all the populace were firm believers in its +truth. Repeated search was made to discover the mysterious house, but +all in vain. The man pointed out several as resembling it, which were +searched by the police; but the Demon of the Pestilence was not to be +found, nor the hall of ghosts, nor the poisonous fountain. But the minds +of the people were so impressed with the idea that scores of witnesses, +half crazed by disease, came forward to swear that they also had +seen the diabolical stranger, and had heard his chariot, drawn by the +milk-white steeds, rumbling over the streets at midnight with a sound +louder than thunder. + +The number of persons who confessed that they were employed by the +Devil to distribute poison is almost incredible. An epidemic frenzy was +abroad, which seemed to be as contagious as the plague. Imagination was +as disordered as the body, and day after day persons came voluntarily +forward to accuse themselves. They generally had the marks of disease +upon them, and some died in the act of confession. + +During the great plague of London, in 1665, the people listened with +similar avidity to the predictions of quacks and fanatics. Defoe says, +that at that time the people were more addicted to prophecies and +astronomical conjurations, dreams, and old wives' tales than ever they +were before or since. Almanacs, and their predictions, frightened them +terribly. Even the year before the plague broke out, they were greatly +alarmed by the comet which then appeared, and anticipated that famine, +pestilence, or fire would follow. Enthusiasts, while yet the disease had +made but little progress, ran about the streets, predicting that in a +few days London would be destroyed. + +A still more singular instance of the faith in predictions occurred +in London in the year 1524. The city swarmed at that time with +fortune-tellers and astrologers, who were consulted daily by people of +every class in society on the secrets of futurity. As early as the month +of June 1523, several of them concurred in predicting that, on the 1st +day of February, 1524, the waters of the Thames would swell to such +a height as to overflow the whole city of London, and wash away ten +thousand houses. The prophecy met implicit belief. It was reiterated +with the utmost confidence month after month, until so much alarm was +excited that many families packed up their goods, and removed into +Kent and Essex. As the time drew nigh, the number of these emigrants +increased. In January, droves of workmen might be seen, followed by +their wives and children, trudging on foot to the villages within +fifteen or twenty miles, to await the catastrophe. People of a higher +class were also to be seen, in waggons and other vehicles, bound on +a similar errand. By the middle of January, at least twenty thousand +persons had quitted the doomed city, leaving nothing but the bare walls +of their homes to be swept away by the impending floods. Many of the +richer sort took up their abode on the heights of Highgate, Hampstead, +and Blackheath; and some erected tents as far away as Waltham Abbey, on +the north, and Croydon, on the south of the Thames. Bolton, the prior +of St. Bartholomew's, was so alarmed that he erected, at very great +expense, a sort of fortress at Harrow-on-the-Hill, which he stocked with +provisions for two months. On the 24th of January, a week before +the awful day which was to see the destruction of London, he removed +thither, with the brethren and officers of the priory and all his +household. A number of boats were conveyed in waggons to his fortress, +furnished abundantly with expert rowers, in case the flood, reaching +so high as Harrow, should force them to go further for a resting-place. +Many wealthy citizens prayed to share his retreat, but the Prior, with +a prudent forethought, admitted only his personal friends, and those who +brought stores of eatables for the blockade. + +At last the morn, big with the fate of London, appeared in the east. The +wondering crowds were astir at an early hour to watch the rising of the +waters. The inundation, it was predicted, would be gradual, not sudden; +so that they expected to have plenty of time to escape, as soon as +they saw the bosom of old Thames heave beyond the usual mark. But the +majority were too much alarmed to trust to this, and thought themselves +safer ten or twenty miles off. The Thames, unmindful of the foolish +crowds upon its banks, flowed on quietly as of yore. The tide ebbed at +its usual hour, flowed to its usual height, and then ebbed again, just +as if twenty astrologers had not pledged their words to the contrary. +Blank were their faces as evening approached, and as blank grew +the faces of the citizens to think that they had made such fools of +themselves. At last night set in, and the obstinate river would not lift +its waters to sweep away even one house out of the ten thousand. Still, +however, the people were afraid to go to sleep. Many hundreds remained +up till dawn of the next day, lest the deluge should come upon them like +a thief in the night. + +On the morrow, it was seriously discussed whether it would not be +advisable to duck the false prophets in the river. Luckily for them, +they thought of an expedient which allayed the popular fury. They +asserted that, by an error (a very slight one) of a little figure, they +had fixed the date of this awful inundation a whole century too early. +The stars were right after all, and they, erring mortals, were wrong. +The present generation of cockneys was safe, and London 'would be washed +away, not in 1524, but in 1624. At this announcement, Bolton, the prior, +dismantled his fortress, and the weary emigrants came back. + +An eye-witness of the great fire of London, in an account preserved +among the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, and recently published +in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, relates another +instance of the credulity of the Londoners. The writer, who accompanied +the Duke of York day by day through the district included between the +Fleet-bridge and the Thames, states that, in their efforts to check the +progress of the flames, they were much impeded by the superstition of +the people. Mother Shipton, in one of her prophecies, had said that +London would be reduced to ashes, and they refused to make any efforts +to prevent it. [This prophecy seems to have been that set forth at +length in the popular Life of Mother Shipton:-- + + "When fate to England shall restore + A king to reign as heretofore, + Great death in London shall be though, + And many houses be laid low."] + +A son of the noted Sir Kenelm Digby, who was also a pretender to the +gifts of prophecy, persuaded them that no power on earth could prevent +the fulfilment of the prediction; for it was written in the great book +of fate that London was to be destroyed. Hundreds of persons, who +might have rendered valuable assistance, and saved whole parishes +from devastation, folded their arms and looked on. As many more gave +themselves up, with the less compunction, to plunder a city which they +could not save. + +The prophecies of Mother Shipton are still believed in many of the rural +districts of England. In cottages and servants' halls her reputation is +great; and she rules, the most popular of British prophets, among all +the uneducated, or half-educated, portions of the community. She is +generally supposed to have been born at Knaresborough, in the reign +of Henry VII, and to have sold her soul to the Devil for the power of +foretelling future events. Though during her lifetime she was looked +upon as a witch, she yet escaped the witch's fate, and died peaceably +in her bed at an extreme old age, near Clifton in Yorkshire. A stone +is said to have been erected to her memory in the church-yard of that +place, with the following epitaph:-- + +"Here lies she who never lied; Whose skill often has been tried: Her +prophecies shall still survive, And ever keep her name alive." + +"Never a day passed," says her traditionary biography, "wherein she +did not relate something remarkable, and that required the most serious +consideration. People flocked to her from far and near, her fame was so +great. They went to her of all sorts, both old and young, rich and poor, +especially young maidens, to be resolved of their doubts relating +to things to come; and all returned wonderfully satisfied in the +explanations she gave to their questions." Among the rest, went +the Abbot of Beverley, to whom she foretold the suppression of the +monasteries by Henry VIII; his marriage with Anne Boleyn; the fires for +heretics in Smithfield, and the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. She +also foretold the accession of James I, adding that, with him, + + "From the cold North, + Every evil should come forth." + +On a subsequent visit she uttered another prophecy, which, in the +opinion of her believers, still remains unfulfilled, but may be expected +to be realised during the present century:-- + + "The time shall come when seas of blood + Shall mingle with a greater flood. + Great noise there shall be heard--great shouts and cries, + And seas shall thunder louder than the skies; + Then shall three lions fight with three, and bring + Joy to a people, honour to a king. + That fiery year as soon as o'er, + Peace shall then be as before; + Plenty shall everywhere be found, + And men with swords shall plough the ground." + +But the most famous of all her prophecies is one relating to London. +Thousands of persons still shudder to think of the woes that are to +burst over this unhappy realm, when London and Highgate are joined by +one continuous line of houses. This junction, which, if the rage for +building lasts much longer, in the same proportion as heretofore, bids +fair to be soon accomplished, was predicted by her shortly before her +death. Revolutions--the fall of mighty monarchs, and the shedding of +much blood are to signalise that event. The very angels, afflicted by +our woes, are to turn aside their heads, and weep for hapless Britain. + +But great as is the fame of Mother Shipton, she ranks but second in the +list of British prophets. Merlin, the mighty Merlin, stands alone in his +high pre-eminence--the first and greatest. As old Drayton sings, in his +Poly-olbion:-- + + "Of Merlin and his skill what region doth not hear? + The world shall still be full of Merlin every year. + A thousand lingering years his prophecies have run, + And scarcely shall have end till time itself be done." + +Spenser, in his divine poem, has given us a powerful description of this +renowned seer-- + + ".......who had in magic more insight + Than ever him before, or after, living wight. + + "For he by words could call out of the sky + Both sun and moon, and make them him obey; + The land to sea, and sea to mainland dry, + And darksome night he eke could turn to day-- + Huge hosts of men he could, alone, dismay. + And hosts of men and meanest things could frame, + Whenso him list his enemies to fray, + That to this day, for terror of his name, + The fiends do quake, when any him to them does name. + + "And soothe men say that he was not the sonne, + Of mortal sire or other living wighte, + But wondrously begotten and begoune + By false illusion of a guileful sprite, + On a faire ladye nun." + +In these verses the poet has preserved the popular belief with regard +to Merlin, who is generally supposed to have been a contemporary of +Vortigern. Opinion is divided as to whether he were a real personage, or +a mere impersonation, formed by the poetic fancy of a credulous people. +It seems most probable that such a man did exist, and that, possessing +knowledge as much above the comprehension of his age, as that possessed +by Friar Bacon was beyond the reach of his, he was endowed by the +wondering crowd with the supernatural attributes that Spenser has +enumerated. + +Geoffrey of Monmouth translated Merlin's poetical odes, or prophecies, +into Latin prose, and he was much reverenced, not only by Geoffrey, but +by most of the old annalists. In a "Life of Merlin, with his Prophecies +and Predictions, interpreted and made good by our English Annals," by +Thomas Heywood, published in the reign of Charles I, we find several of +these pretended prophecies. They seem, however, to have been all written +by Heywood himself. They are in terms too plain and positive to allow +any one to doubt for a moment of their having been composed ex post +facto. Speaking of Richard I, he says:-- + + "The Lion's heart will 'gainst the Saracen rise, + And purchase from him many a glorious prize; + The rose and lily shall at first unite, + But, parting of the prey prove opposite. + + * * * * + + But while abroad these great acts shall be done; + All things at home shall to disorder run. + Cooped up and caged then shall the Lion be, + But, after sufferance, ransomed and set free." + +The sapient Thomas Heywood gravely goes on to inform us, that all these +things actually came to pass. Upon Richard III he is equally luminous. +He says:-- + + "A hunch-backed monster, who with teeth is born, + The mockery of art and nature's scorn; + Who from the womb preposterously is hurled, + And, with feet forward, thrust into the world, + Shall, from the lower earth on which he stood, + Wade, every step he mounts, knee-deep in blood. + He shall to th' height of all his hopes aspire, + And, clothed in state, his ugly shape admire; + But, when he thinks himself most safe to stand, + From foreign parts a native whelp shall land." + +Another of these prophecies after the event tells us that Henry VIII +should take the power from Rome, "and bring it home unto his British +bower;" that he should "root out from the land all the razored skulls;" +and that he should neither spare "man in his rage nor woman in his +lust;" and that, in the time of his next successor but one, "there +should come in the fagot and the stake." Master Heywood closes Merlin's +prophecies at his own day, and does not give even a glimpse of what +was to befall England after his decease. Many other prophecies, besides +those quoted by him, were, he says, dispersed abroad, in his day, under +the name of Merlin; but he gives his readers a taste of one only, and +that is the following:-- + + "When hempe is ripe and ready to pull, + Then Englishman beware thy skull." + +This prophecy, which, one would think, ought to have put him in mind of +the gallows, the not unusual fate of false prophets, and perchance his +own, he explains thus:--"In this word HEMPE be five letters. Now, by +reckoning the five successive princes from Henry VIII, this prophecy is +easily explained: H signifieth King Henry before named; E, Edward, his +son, the sixth of that name; M, Mary, who succeeded him; P, Philip of +Spain, who, by marrying Queen Mary, participated with her in the English +diadem; and, lastly, E signifieth Queen Elizabeth, after whose death +there was a great feare that some troubles might have arisen about the +crown." As this did not happen, Heywood, who was a sly rogue in a small +way, gets out of the scrape by saying, "Yet proved this augury true, +though not according to the former expectation; for, after the peaceful +inauguration of King James, there was great mortality, not in London +only, but through the whole kingdom, and from which the nation was not +quite clean in seven years after." + +This is not unlike the subterfuge of Peter of Pontefract, who had +prophesied the death and deposition of King John, and who was hanged by +that monarch for his pains. A very graphic and amusing account of this +pretended prophet is given by Grafton, in his Chronicles of England. +There is so much homely vigour about the style of the old annalist, +that it would be a pity to give the story in other words than his own. +[Chronicles of England, by Richard Grafton; London, 1568, p. 106.] "In +the meanwhile," says he, "the priestes within England had provided them +a false and counterfeated prophet, called Peter Wakefielde, a Yorkshire +man, who was an hermite, an idle gadder about, and a pratlyng marchant. +Now to bring this Peter in credite, and the kyng out of all credite with +his people, diverse vaine persons bruted dayly among the commons of +the realme, that Christe had twice appered unto him in the shape of a +childe, betwene the prieste's handes, once at Yorke, another tyme at +Pomfret; and that he had breathed upon him thrice, saying, 'Peace, +peace, peace,' and teachyng many things, which he anon declared to the +bishops, and bid the people amend their naughtie living. Being rapt also +in spirite, they sayde he behelde the joyes of heaven and sorowes of +hell, for scant were there three in the realme, sayde he, that lived +Christainly. + +"This counterfeated soothsayer prophecied of King John, that he should +reigne no longer than the Ascension-day next followyng, which was in the +yere of our Lord 1211, and was the thirteenth yere from his coronation; +and this, he said, he had by revelation. Then it was of him demanded, +whether he should be slaine or be deposed, or should voluntarily give +over the crowne? He aunswered, that he could not tell; but of this he +was sure (he sayd), that neither he nor any of his stock or lineage +should reigne after that day. + +"The king hering of this, laughed much at it, and made but a scoff +thereat. 'Tush!' saith he, 'it is but an ideot knave, and such an one as +lacketh his right wittes.' But when this foolish prophet had so escaped +the daunger of the Kinge's displeasure, and that he made no more of it, +he gate him abroad, and prated thereof at large, as he was a very idle +vagabond, and used to trattle and talke more than ynough, so that +they which loved the King caused him anon after to be apprehended as +a malefactor, and to be throwen in prison, the King not yet knowing +thereof. + +"Anone after the fame of this phantasticall prophet went all the realme +over, and his name was knowen everywhere, as foolishnesse is much +regarded of the people, where wisdome is not in place; specially because +he was then imprisoned for the matter, the rumour was the larger, their +wonderynges were the wantoner, their practises the foolisher, their +busye talkes and other idle doinges the greater. Continually from +thence, as the rude manner of people is, olde gossyps tales went +abroade, new tales were invented, fables were added to fables, and lyes +grew upon lyes. So that every daye newe slanders were laide upon the +King, and not one of them true. Rumors arose, blasphemyes were sprede, +the enemyes rejoyced, and treasons by the priestes were mainteyned; and +what lykewise was surmised, or other subtiltye practised, all was then +lathered upon this foolish prophet, as 'thus saith Peter Wakefield;' +'thus hath he prophecied;' 'and thus it shall come to pass;' yea, many +times, when he thought nothing lesse. And when the Ascension-day was +come, which was prophecyed of before, King John commanded his royal +tent to be spread in the open fielde, passing that day with his noble +counseyle and men of honour, in the greatest solemnitie that ever he did +before; solacing himself with musickale instrumentes and songs, most +in sight among his trustie friendes. When that day was paste in all +prosperitie and myrth, his enemyes being confused, turned all into an +allegorical understanding to make the prophecie good, and sayde, 'he +is no longer King, for the Pope reigneth, and not he.'" [King John was +labouring under a sentence of excommunication at the time.] + +"Then was the King by his council perswaded that this false prophet had +troubled the realme, perverted the heartes of the people, and raysed the +commons against him; for his wordes went over the sea, by the help of +his prelates, and came to the French King's care, and gave to him a +great encouragement to invade the lande. He had not else done it so +sodeinely. But he was most lowly deceived, as all they are and shall +be that put their trust in such dark drowsye dreames of hipocrites. The +King therefore commanded that he should be hanged up, and his sonne also +with him, lest any more false prophets should arise of that race." + +Heywood, who was a great stickler for the truth of all sorts of +prophecies, gives a much more favourable account of this Peter of +Pomfret, or Pontefract, whose fate he would, in all probability, have +shared, if he had had the misfortune to have flourished in the same age. +He says, that Peter, who was not only a prophet, but a bard, predicted +divers of King John's disasters, which fell out accordingly. On being +taxed for a lying prophet in having predicted that the King would be +deposed before he entered into the fifteenth year of his reign, he +answered him boldly, that all he had said was justifiable and true; for +that, having given up his crown to the Pope, and paying him an annual +tribute, the Pope reigned, and not he. Heywood thought this explanation +to be perfectly satisfactory, and the prophet's faith for ever +established. + +But to return to Merlin. Of him even to this day it may be said, in the +words which Burns has applied to another notorious personage, + + "Great was his power and great his fame; + Far kenned and noted is his name? + +His reputation is by no means confined to the land of his birth, but +extends through most of the nations of Europe. A very curious volume of +his Life, Prophecies, and Miracles, written, it is supposed, by Robert +de Bosron, was printed at Paris in 1498, which states, that the Devil +himself was his father, and that he spoke the instant he was born, and +assured his mother, a very virtuous young woman, that she should not die +in child-bed with him, as her ill-natured neighbours had predicted. The +judge of the district, hearing of so marvellous an occurrence, summoned +both mother and child to appear before him; and they went accordingly +the same day. To put the wisdom of the young prophet most effectually +to the test, the judge asked him if he knew his own father? To which the +infant Merlin replied, in a clear, sonorous voice, "Yes, my father is +the Devil; and I have his power, and know all things, past, present, and +to come." His worship clapped his hands in astonishment, and took the +prudent resolution of not molesting so awful a child, or its mother +either. + +Early tradition attributes the building of Stonehenge to the power of +Merlin. It was believed that those mighty stones were whirled through +the air, at his command, from Ireland to Salisbury Plain, and that he +arranged them in the form in which they now stand, to commemorate +for ever the unhappy fate of three hundred British chiefs, who were +massacred on that spot by the Saxons. + +At Abergwylly, near Caermarthen, is still shown the cave of the prophet +and the scene of his incantations. How beautiful is the description of +it given by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene." The lines need no apology +for their repetition here, and any sketch of the great prophet of +Britain would be incomplete without them:-- + + "There the wise Merlin, whilom wont (they say), + To make his wonne low underneath the ground, + In a deep delve far from the view of day, + That of no living wight he mote be found, + Whenso he counselled with his sprites encompassed round. + + "And if thou ever happen that same way + To travel, go to see that dreadful place; + It is a hideous, hollow cave, they say, + Under a rock that lies a little space + From the swift Barry, tumbling down apace + Amongst the woody hills of Dynevoure; + But dare thou not, I charge, in any case, + To enter into that same baleful bower, + For fear the cruel fiendes should thee unwares devour! + + "But, standing high aloft, low lay thine care, + And there such ghastly noise of iron chaines, + And brazen caudrons thou shalt rombling heare, + Which thousand sprites, with long-enduring paines, + Doe tosse, that it will stun thy feeble braines; + And often times great groans and grievous stownds, + When too huge toile and labour them constraines; + And often times loud strokes and ringing sounds + From under that deep rock most horribly rebounds. + + "The cause, they say, is this. A little while + Before that Merlin died, he did intend + A brazen wall in compass, to compile + About Cayr Merdin, and did it commend + Unto these sprites to bring to perfect end; + During which work the Lady of the Lake, + Whom long he loved, for him in haste did send, + Who thereby forced his workmen to forsake, + Them bound till his return their labour not to slake. + + "In the mean time, through that false ladie's traine, + He was surprised, and buried under biere, + Ne ever to his work returned again; + Natheless these fiendes may not their work forbeare, + So greatly his commandement they fear, + But there doe toile and travaile day and night, + Until that brazen wall they up doe reare." + + [Faerie Queene, b. 3. c. 3. s. 6--13.] + +Amongst other English prophets, a belief in whose power has not been +entirely effaced by the light of advancing knowledge, is Robert Nixon, +the Cheshire idiot, a contemporary of Mother Shipton. The popular +accounts of this man say, that he was born of poor parents, not far from +Vale Royal, on the edge of the forest of Delamere. He was brought up to +the plough, but was so ignorant and stupid, that nothing could be +made of him. Everybody thought him irretrievably insane, and paid no +attention to the strange, unconnected discourses which he held. Many of +his prophecies are believed to have been lost in this manner. But they +were not always destined to be wasted upon dull and inattentive ears. +An incident occurred which brought him into notice, and established his +fame as a prophet of the first calibre. He was ploughing in a field when +he suddenly stopped from his labour, and, with a wild look and strange +gestures, exclaimed, "Now, Dick! now, Harry! O, ill done, Dick! O, well +done, Harry! Harry has gained the day!" His fellow labourers in the +field did not know what to make of this rhapsody; but the next day +cleared up the mystery. News was brought by a messenger, in hot haste, +that at the very instant when Nixon had thus ejaculated, Richard III had +been slain at the battle of Bosworth, and Henry VII proclaimed King of +England. + +It was not long before the fame of the new prophet reached the ears of +the King, who expressed a wish to see and converse with him. A messenger +was accordingly despatched to bring him to court; but long before he +reached Cheshire, Nixon knew and dreaded the honours that awaited him. +Indeed it was said, that at the very instant the King expressed the +wish, Nixon was, by supernatural means, made acquainted with it, and +that he ran about the town of Over in great distress of mind, calling +out, like a madman, that Henry had sent for him, and that he must go +to court, and be clammed; that is, starved to death. These expressions +excited no little wonder; but, on the third day, the messenger arrived, +and carried him to court, leaving on the minds of the good people of +Cheshire an impression that their prophet was one of the greatest ever +born. On his arrival King Henry appeared to be troubled exceedingly at +the loss of a valuable diamond, and asked Nixon if he could inform him +where it was to be found. Henry had hidden the diamond himself, with +a view to test the prophet's skill. Great, therefore, was his surprise +when Nixon answered him in the words of the old proverb, "Those who hide +can find." From that time forth the King implicitly believed that he had +the gift of prophecy, and ordered all his words to be taken down. + +During all the time of his residence at court he was in constant fear of +being starved to death, and repeatedly told the King that such would +be his fate, if he were not allowed to depart, and return into his own +country. Henry would not suffer it, but gave strict orders to all his +officers and cooks to give him as much to eat as he wanted. He lived +so well, that for some time he seemed to be thriving like a nobleman's +steward, and growing as fat as an alderman. One day the king went out +hunting, when Nixon ran to the palace gate, and entreated on his knees +that he might not be left behind to be starved. The King laughed, and, +calling an officer, told him to take especial care of the prophet during +his absence, and rode away to the forest. After his departure, the +servants of the palace began to jeer at and insult Nixon, whom they +imagined to be much better treated than he deserved. Nixon complained to +the officer, who, to prevent him from being further molested, locked him +up in the King's own closet, and brought him regularly his four meals a +day. But it so happened that a messenger arrived from the King to this +officer, requiring his immediate presence at Winchester, on a matter of +life and death. So great was his haste to obey the King's command, that +he mounted on the horse behind the messenger, and rode off, without +bestowing a thought upon poor Nixon. He did not return till three days +afterwards, when, remembering the prophet for the first time, he went to +the King's closet, and found him lying upon the floor, starved to death, +as he had predicted. + +Among the prophecies of his which are believed to have been fulfilled, +are the following, which relate to the times of the Pretender:-- + + "A great man shall come into England, + But the son of a King + Shall take from him the victory." + + "Crows shall drink the blood of many nobles, + And the North shall rise against the South." + "The cock of the North shall be made to flee, + And his feather be plucked for his pride, + That he shall almost curse the day that he was born," + +All these, say his admirers, are as clear as the sun at noon-day. The +first denotes the defeat of Prince Charles Edward, at the battle of +Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland; the second, the execution of Lords +Derwentwater, Balmerino, and Lovat; and the third, the retreat of the +Pretender from the shores of Britain. Among the prophecies that still +remain to be accomplished, are the following:-- + + "Between seven, eight, and nine, + In England wonders shall be seen; + Between nine and thirteen + All sorrow shall be done!" + + "Through our own money and our men + Shall a dreadful war begin. + Between the sickle and the suck + All England shall have a pluck," + +"Foreign nations shall invade England with snow on their helmets, and +shall bring plague, famine, and murder in the skirts of their garments." + + "The town of Nantwich shall be swept away by a flood" + +Of the two first of these no explanation has yet been attempted; but +some event or other will doubtless be twisted into such a shape as will +fit them. The third, relative to the invasion of England by a nation +with snow on their helmets, is supposed by the old women to foretell +most clearly the coming war with Russia. As to the last, there are not +a few in the town mentioned who devoutly believe that such will be its +fate. Happily for their peace of mind, the prophet said nothing of the +year that was to witness the awful calamity; so that they think it as +likely to be two centuries hence as now. + +The popular biographers of Nixon conclude their account of him by +saying, that "his prophecies are by some persons thought fables; yet by +what has come to pass, it is now thought, and very plainly appears, +that most of them have proved, or will prove, true; for which we, on all +occasions, ought not only to exert our utmost might to repel by force +our enemies, but to refrain from our abandoned and wicked course +of life, and to make our continual prayer to God for protection and +safety." To this, though a non sequitur, every one will cry Amen! + +Besides the prophets, there have been the almanack makers, Lilly, Poor +Robin, Partridge, and Francis Moore, physician, in England, and Matthew +Laensbergh, in France and Belgium. But great as were their pretensions, +they were modesty itself in comparison with Merlin, Shipton, and Nixon, +who fixed their minds upon higher things than the weather, and who were +not so restrained in their flights of fancy as to prophesy for only one +year at a time. After such prophets as they, the almanack makers hardly +deserve to be mentioned; no, not even the renowned Partridge, whose +wonderful prognostications set all England agog in 1708, and whose +death, at a time when he was still alive and kicking, was so pleasantly +and satisfactorily proved by Isaac Bickerstaff. The anti-climax would be +too palpable, and they and their doings must be left uncommemorated. + + + + +POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. + + +Jack. Where shall we find such another set of practical philosophers +who, to a man, are above the fear of death? + +Wat. Sound men and true! + +Robin. Of tried courage and indefatigable industry! + +Ned. Who is there here that would not die for his friend? + +Harry. Who is there here that would betray him for his interest? + +Mat. Show me a gang of courtiers that could say as much! + +Dialogue of thieves in the Beggars' Opera. + +Whether it be that the multitude, feeling the pangs of poverty, +sympathise with the daring and ingenious depredators who take away the +rich man's superfluity, or whether it be the interest that mankind in +general feel for the records of perilous adventures, it is certain +that the populace of all countries look with admiration upon great and +successful thieves. Perhaps both these causes combine to invest their +career with charms in the popular eye. Almost every country in Europe +has its traditional thief, whose exploits are recorded with all the +graces of poetry, and whose trespasses-- + + "--are cited up in rhymes, + And sung by children in succeeding times." + + [Shakspeare's Rape of Lucretia.] + +Those travellers who have made national manners and characteristics +their peculiar study, have often observed and remarked upon this +feeling. The learned Abbe le Blanc, who resided for some time in England +at the commencement of the eighteenth century, says, in his amusing +letters on the English and French nations, that he continually met with +Englishmen who were not less vain in boasting of the success of their +highwaymen than of the bravery of their troops. Tales of their address, +their cunning, or their generosity, were in the mouths of everybody, and +a noted thief was a kind of hero in high repute. He adds that the mob, +in all countries, being easily moved, look in general with concern upon +criminals going to the gallows; but an English mob looked upon such +scenes with 'extraordinary interest: they delighted to see them go +through their last trials with resolution, and applauded those who were +insensible enough to die as they had lived, braving the justice both of +God and men: such, he might have added, as the noted robber Macpherson, +of whom the old ballad says-- + + "Sae rantingly, sae wantonly, + Sae dauntingly gaed he: + He played a spring, and danced it round + Beneath the gallows tree." + +Among these traditional thieves the most noted in England, or perhaps in +any country, is Robin Hood, a name which popular affection has encircled +with a peculiar halo. "He robbed the rich to give to the poor;" and +his reward has been an immortality of fame, a tithe of which would be +thought more than sufficient to recompense a benefactor of his species. +Romance and poetry have been emulous to make him all their own; and the +forest of Sherwood, in which he roamed with his merry men, armed with +their long bows, and clad in Lincoln green, has become the resort of +pilgrims, and a classic spot sacred to his memory. The few virtues he +had, which would have ensured him no praise if he had been an honest +man, have been blazoned forth by popular renown during seven successive +centuries, and will never be forgotten while the English tongue endures. +His charity to the poor, and his gallantry and respect for women, have +made him the pre-eminent thief of all the world. + +Among English thieves of a later date, who has not heard of Claude +Duval, Dick Turpin, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard, those knights of +the road and of the town, whose peculiar chivalry formed at once the +dread and the delight of England during the eighteenth century? Turpin's +fame is unknown to no portion of the male population of England after +they have attained the age of ten. His wondrous ride from London to York +has endeared him to the imagination of millions; his cruelty in placing +an old woman upon a fire, to force her to tell him where she had hidden +her money, is regarded as a good joke; and his proud bearing upon the +scaffold is looked upon as a virtuous action. The Abbe le Blanc, +writing in 1737, says he was continually entertained with stories of +Turpin--how, when he robbed gentlemen, he would generously leave them +enough to continue their journey, and exact a pledge from them never to +inform against him, and how scrupulous such gentlemen were in keeping +their word. He was one day told a story with which the relator was +he the highest degree delighted. Turpin, or some other noted +robber, stopped a man whom he knew to be very rich, with the usual +salutation--"Your money or your life!" but not finding more than five +or six guineas about him, he took the liberty of entreating him, in the +most affable manner, never to come out so ill provided; adding that, if +he fell in with him, and he had no more than such a paltry sum, he +would give him a good licking. Another story, told by one of Turpin's +admirers, was of a robbery he had committed upon a Mr. C. near +Cambridge. He took from this gentleman his watch, his snuff-box, and all +his money but two shillings, and, before he left him, required his word +of honour that he would not cause him to be pursued or brought before +a justice. The promise being given, they both parted very courteously. +They afterwards met at Newmarket, and renewed their acquaintance. Mr. C. +kept his word religiously; he not only refrained from giving Turpin into +custody, but made a boast that he had fairly won some of his money back +again in an honest way. Turpin offered to bet with him on some favourite +horse, and Mr. C. accepted the wager with as good a grace as he could +have done from the best gentleman in England. Turpin lost his bet and +paid it immediately, and was so smitten with the generous behaviour of +Mr. C. that he told him how deeply he regretted that the trifling affair +which had happened between them did not permit them to drink together. +The narrator of this anecdote was quite proud that England was the +birthplace of such a highwayman. + +[The Abbe, in the second volume, in the letter No. 79, dressed to +Monsieur de Buffon, gives the following curious particulars of the +robbers of 1757, which are not without interest at this day, if it +were only to show the vast improvement which has taken place since that +period:--"It is usual, in travelling, to put ten or a dozen guineas in +a separate pocket, as a tribute to the first that comes to demand them: +the right of passport, which custom has established here in favour of +the robbers, who are almost the only highway surveyors in England, has +made this necessary; and accordingly the English call these fellows +the 'Gentlemen of the Road,' the government letting them exercise their +jurisdiction upon travellers without giving them any great molestation. +To say the truth, they content themselves with only taking the money +of those who obey without disputing; but notwithstanding their boasted +humanity, the lives of those who endeavour to get away are not always +safe. They are very strict and severe in levying their impost; and if +a man has not wherewithal to pay them, he may run the chance of getting +himself knocked on the head for his poverty. + +"About fifteen years ago, these robbers, with the view of maintaining +their rights, fixed up papers at the doors of rich people about London, +expressly forbidding all persons, of whatsoever quality or condition, +from going out of town without ten guineas and a watch about them, on +pain of death. In bad times, when there is little or nothing to be got +on the roads, these fellows assemble in gangs, to raise contributions +even in London itself; and the watchmen seldom trouble themselves to +interfere with them in their vocation."] + +Not less familiar to the people of England is the career of Jack +Sheppard, as brutal a ruffian as ever disgraced his country, but who +has claims upon the popular admiration which are very generally +acknowledged. He did not, like Robin Hood, plunder the rich to relieve +the poor, nor rob with an uncouth sort of courtesy, like Turpin; but he +escaped from Newgate with the fetters on his limbs. This achievement, +more than once repeated, has encircled his felon brow with the wreath of +immortality, and made him quite a pattern thief among the populace. He +was no more than twenty-three years of age at the time of his execution, +and he died much pitied by the crowd. His adventures were the sole +topics of conversation for months; the print-shops were filled with his +effigies, and a fine painting of him was made by Sir Richard Thornhill. +The following complimentary verses to the artist appeared in the +"British Journal" of November 28th, 1724. + + "Thornhill! 'tis thine to gild with fame + Th' obscure, and raise the humble name; + To make the form elude the grave, + And Sheppard from oblivion save! + + Apelles Alexander drew-- + Cesar is to Aurelius due; + Cromwell in Lilly's works doth shine, + And Sheppard, Thornhill, lives in thine!" + +So high was Jack's fame that a pantomime entertainment, called +"Harlequin Jack Sheppard," was devised by one Thurmond, and brought out +with great success at Drury Lane Theatre. All the scenes were painted +from nature, including the public-house that the robber frequented in +Claremarket, and the condemned cell from which he had made his escape in +Newgate. + +The Rev. Mr. Villette, the editor of the "Annals of Newgate," published +in 1754, relates a curious sermon which, he says, a friend of his heard +delivered by a street-preacher about the time of Jack's execution. The +orator, after animadverting on the great care men took of their bodies, +and the little care they bestowed upon their souls, continued as +follows, by way of exemplifying the position:--"We have a remarkable +instance of this in a notorious malefactor, well known by the name +of Jack Sheppard. What amazing difficulties has he overcome! what +astonishing things has he performed! and all for the sake of a stinking, +miserable carcass; hardly worth the hanging! How dexterously did he pick +the chain of his padlock with a crooked nail! how manfully he burst his +fetters asunder!--climb up the chimney!--wrench out an iron bar!--break +his way through a stone wall!--make the strong door of a dark entry fly +before him, till he got upon the leads of the prison! then, fixing +a blanket to the wall with a spike, he stole out of the chapel. How +intrepidly did he descend to the top of the turner's house!--how +cautiously pass down the stair, and make his escape to the street door! + +"Oh! that ye were all like Jack Sheppard! Mistake me not, my brethren; +I don't mean in a carnal, but in a spiritual sense, for I propose to +spiritualise these things. What a shame it would be if we should not +think it worth our while to take as much pains, and employ as many deep +thoughts, to save our souls as he has done to preserve his body! + +"Let me exhort ye, then, to open the locks of your hearts with the nail +of repentance! Burst asunder the fetters of your beloved +lusts!--mount the chimney of hope!--take from thence the bar of good +resolution!--break through the stone wall of despair, and all the +strongholds in the dark entry of the valley of the shadow of death! +Raise yourselves to the leads of divine meditation!--fix the blanket of +faith with the spike of the church! let yourselves down to the turner's +house of resignation, and descend the stairs of humility! So shall you +come to the door of deliverance from the prison of iniquity, and escape +the clutches of that old executioner the Devil!" + +But popular as the name of Jack Sheppard was immediately after he had +suffered the last penalty of his crimes, it was as nothing compared to +the vast renown which he has acquired in these latter days, after +the lapse of a century and a quarter. Poets too often, are not fully +appreciated till they have been dead a hundred years, and thieves, it +would appear, share the disadvantage. But posterity is grateful if our +contemporaries are not; and Jack Sheppard, faintly praised in his own +day, shines out in ours the hero of heroes, preeminent above all his +fellows. Thornhill made but one picture of the illustrious robber, but +Cruikshank has made dozens, and the art of the engraver has multiplied +them into thousands and tens of thousands, until the populace of England +have become as familiar with Jack's features as they are with their own. +Jack, the romantic, is the hero of three goodly volumes, and the delight +of the circulating libraries; and the theatres have been smitten with +the universal enthusiasm. Managers have set their playmongers at work, +and Jack's story has been reproduced in the shape of drama, melodrama, +and farce, at half a dozen places of entertainment at once. Never was +such a display of popular regard for a hero as was exhibited in London +in 1840 for the renowned Jack Sheppard: robbery acquired additional +lustre in the popular eye, and not only Englishmen, but foreigners, +caught the contagion; and one of the latter, fired by the example, +robbed and murdered a venerable, unoffending, and too confiding +nobleman, whom it was his especial duty to have obeyed and protected. +But he was a coward and a wretch;--it was a solitary crime--he had not +made a daring escape from dungeon walls, or ridden from London to York, +and he died amid the execrations of the people, affording a melancholy +exemplification of the trite remark, that every man is not great who is +desirous of being so. + +Jonathan Wild, whose name has been immortalised by Fielding, was no +favourite with the people. He had none of the virtues which, combined +with crimes, make up the character of the great thief. He was a pitiful +fellow, who informed against his comrades, and was afraid of death. This +meanness was not to be forgiven by the crowd, and they pelted him with +dirt and stones on his way to Tyburn, and expressed their contempt by +every possible means. How different was their conduct to Turpin and +Jack Sheppard, who died in their neatest attire, with nosegays in +their button-holes, and with the courage that a crowd expects! It was +anticipated that the body of Turpin would have been delivered up to +the surgeons for dissection, and the people seeing some men very busily +employed in removing it, suddenly set upon them, rescued the body, bore +it about the town in triumph, and then buried it in a very deep grave, +filled with quick-lime, to hasten the progress of decomposition. They +would not suffer the corpse of their hero, of the man who had ridden +from London to York in four-and-twenty hours to be mangled by the rude +hands of unmannerly surgeons. + +The death of Claude Duval would appear to have been no less triumphant. +Claude was a gentlemanly thief. According to Butler, in the famous ode +to his memory, he + + "Taught the wild Arabs of the road + To rob in a more gentle mode; + Take prizes more obligingly than those + Who never had breen bred filous; + And how to hang in a more graceful fashion + Than e'er was known before to the dull English nation." + +In fact, he was the pink of politeness, and his gallantry to the fair +sex was proverbial. When he was caught at last, pent in "stone walls +and chains and iron grates,"--their grief was in proportion to his rare +merits and his great fame. Butler says, that to his dungeon + + "--came ladies from all parts, + To offer up close prisoners their hearts, + Which he received as tribute due-- + + * * * * + + Never did bold knight, to relieve + Distressed dames, such dreadful feats achieve, + As feeble damsels, for his sake, + Would have been proud to undertake, + And, bravely ambitious to redeem + The world's loss and their own, + Strove who should have the honour to lay down, + And change a life with him." + +Among the noted thieves of France, there is none to compare with the +famous Aimerigot Tetenoire, who flourished in the reign of Charles VI. +This fellow was at the head of four or five hundred men, and possessed +two very strong castles in Limousin and Auvergne. There was a good deal +of the feudal baron about him, although he possessed no revenues but +such as the road afforded him. At his death he left a singular will. "I +give and bequeath," said the robber, "one thousand five hundred francs +to St. George's Chapel, for such repairs as it may need. To my sweet +girl who so tenderly loved me, I give two thousand five hundred; and the +surplus I give to my companions. I hope they will all live as brothers, +and divide it amicably among them. If they cannot agree, and the devil +of contention gets among them, it is no fault of mine; and I advise them +to get a good strong, sharp axe, and break open my strong box. Let them +scramble for what it contains, and the Devil seize the hindmost." The +people of Auvergne still recount with admiration the daring feats of +this brigand. + +Of later years, the French thieves have been such unmitigated scoundrels +as to have left but little room for popular admiration. The famous +Cartouche, whose name has become synonymous with ruffian in their +language, had none of the generosity, courtesy, and devoted bravery +which are so requisite to make a robber-hero. He was born at Paris, +towards the end of the seventeenth century, and broken alive on the +wheel in November 1727. He was, however, sufficiently popular to have +been pitied at his death, and afterwards to have formed the subject of +a much admired drama, which bore his name, and was played with great +success in all the theatres of France during the years 1734, 5, and 6. +In our own day the French have been more fortunate in a robber; Vidocq +bids fair to rival the fame of Turpin and Jack Sheppard. Already he +has become the hero of many an apocryphal tale--already his compatriots +boast of his manifold achievements, and express their doubts whether +any other country in Europe could produce a thief so clever, so +accomplished, so gentlemanly, as Vidocq. + +Germany has its Schinderhannes, Hungary its Schubry, and Italy and +Spain a whole host of brigands, whose names and exploits are familiar +as household words in the mouths of the children and populace of those +countries. The Italian banditti are renowned over the world; and many of +them are not only very religious (after a fashion), but very charitable. +Charity from such a source is so unexpected, that the people dote upon +them for it. One of them, when he fell into the hands of the police, +exclaimed, as they led him away, "Ho fatto pitt carita!"--"I have given +away more in charity than any three convents in these provinces." And +the fellow spoke truth. + +In Lombardy, the people cherish the memory of two notorious robbers, who +flourished about two centuries ago under the Spanish government. Their +story, according to Macfarlane, is contained in a little book well known +to all the children of the province, and read by them with much more +gusto than their Bibles. + +Schinderhannes, the robber of the Rhine, is a great favourite on the +banks of the river which he so long kept in awe. Many amusing stories +are related by the peasantry of the scurvy tricks he played off upon +rich Jews, or too-presuming officers of justice--of his princely +generosity, and undaunted courage. In short, they are proud of him, and +would no more consent to have the memory of his achievements dissociated +from their river than they would to have the rock of Ehrenbreitstein +blown to atoms by gunpowder. + +There is another robber-hero, of whose character and exploits the people +of Germany speak admiringly. Mausch Nadel was captain of a considerable +band that infested the Rhine, Switzerland, Alsatia, and Lorraine during +the years 1824, 5, and 6. Like Jack Sheppard, he endeared himself to the +populace by his most hazardous escape from prison. Being confined, at +Bremen, in a dungeon, on the third story of the prison of that town, +he contrived to let himself down without exciting the vigilance of +the sentinels, and to swim across the Weser, though heavily laden with +irons. When about half way over, he was espied by a sentinel, who fired +at him, and shot him in the calf of the leg: but the undaunted robber +struck out manfully, reached the shore, and was out of sight before the +officers of justice could get ready their boats to follow him. He was +captured again in 1826, tried at Mayence, and sentenced to death. He was +a tall, strong, handsome man, and his fate, villain as he was, excited +much sympathy all over Germany. The ladies especially were loud in their +regret that nothing could be done to save a hero so good-looking, and of +adventures so romantic, from the knife of the headsman. + +Mr. Macfarlane, in speaking of Italian banditti, remarks, that the +abuses of the Catholic religion, with its confessions and absolutions, +have tended to promote crime of this description. But, he adds, more +truly, that priests and monks have not done half the mischief which has +been perpetrated by ballad-mongers and story-tellers. If he had said +play-wrights also, the list would have been complete. In fact, the +theatre, which can only expect to prosper, in a pecuniary sense, by +pandering to the tastes of the people, continually recurs to the annals +of thieves and banditti for its most favourite heroes. These theatrical +robbers; with their picturesque attire, wild haunts, jolly, reckless, +devil-may-care manners, take a wonderful hold upon the imagination, +and, whatever their advocates may say to the contrary, exercise a very +pernicious influence upon public morals. In the Memoirs of the Duke of +Guise upon the Revolution of Naples in 1647 and 1648, it is stated, that +the manners, dress, and mode of life of the Neapolitan banditti were +rendered so captivating upon the stage, that the authorities found it +absolutely necessary to forbid the representation of dramas in which +they figured, and even to prohibit their costume at the masquerades. +So numerous were the banditti at this time, that the Duke found no +difficulty in raising an army of them, to aid him in his endeavours +to seize on the throne of Naples. He thus describes them; [See also +"Foreign Quarterly Review," vol. iv. p. 398.] + +"They were three thousand five hundred men, of whom the oldest came +short of five and forty years, and the youngest was above twenty. They +were all tall and well made, with long black hair, for the most part +curled, coats of black Spanish leather, with sleeves of velvet, or cloth +of gold, cloth breeches with gold lace, most of them scarlet; girdles +of velvet, laced with gold, with two pistols on each side; a cutlass +hanging at a belt, suitably trimmed, three fingers broad and two feet +long; a hawking-bag at their girdle, and a powder-flask hung about +their neck with a great silk riband. Some of them carried firelocks, and +others blunder-busses; they had all good shoes, with silk stockings, +and every one a cap of cloth of gold, or cloth of silver, of different +colours, on his head, which was very delightful to the eye." + +"The Beggars' Opera," in our own country, is another instance of the +admiration that thieves excite upon the stage. Of the extraordinary +success of this piece, when first produced, the following account is +given in the notes to "The Dunciad," and quoted by Johnson in his "Lives +of the Poets." "This piece was received with greater applause than +was ever known. Besides being acted in London sixty-three days without +interruption, and renewed the next season with equal applause, it spread +into all the great towns of England; was played in many places to the +thirtieth and fortieth time; at Bath and Bristol, &c. fifty. It made +its progress into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where it was performed +twenty-four days successively. The ladies carried about with them the +favourite songs of it in fans, and houses were furnished with it in +screens. The fame of it was not confined to the author only. The person +who acted Polly, till then obscure, became all at once the favourite of +the town; [Lavinia Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton.] her pictures +were engraved and sold in great numbers; her life written, books of +letters and verses to her published, and pamphlets made even of her +sayings and jests. Furthermore, it drove out of England, for that +season, the Italian Opera, which had carried all before it for ten +years." Dr. Johnson, in his Life of the Author, says, that Herring, +afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, censured the opera, as giving +encouragement, not only to vice, but to crimes, by making the highwayman +the hero, and dismissing him at last unpunished; and adds, that it was +even said, that after the exhibition the gangs of robbers were evidently +multiplied. The Doctor doubts the assertion, giving as his reason that +highwaymen and housebreakers seldom frequent the playhouse, and that it +was not possible for any one to imagine that he might rob with safety, +because he saw Macheath reprieved upon the stage. But if Johnson had +wished to be convinced, he might very easily have discovered that +highwaymen and housebreakers did frequent the theatre, and that nothing +was more probable than that a laughable representation of successful +villany should induce the young and the already vicious to imitate it. +Besides, there is the weighty authority of Sir John Fielding, the +chief magistrate of Bow Street, who asserted positively, and proved his +assertion by the records of his office, that the number of thieves was +greatly increased at the time when that opera was so popular. + +We have another instance of the same result much nearer our own times. +Schiller's "Rauber," that wonderful play, written by a green youth, +perverted the taste and imagination of all the young men in Germany. An +accomplished critic of our own country (Hazlitt), speaking of this play, +says it was the first he ever read, and such was the effect it +produced on him, that "it stunned him, like a blow." After the lapse of +five-and-twenty years he could not forget it; it was still, to use his +own words, "an old dweller in the chambers of his brain," and he had +not even then recovered enough from it, to describe how it was. The +high-minded, metaphysical thief, its hero, was so warmly admired, that +several raw students, longing to imitate a character they thought so +noble, actually abandoned their homes and their colleges, and betook +themselves to the forests and wilds to levy contributions upon +travellers. They thought they would, like Moor, plunder the rich, and +deliver eloquent soliloquies to the setting sun or the rising moon; +relieve the poor when they met them, and drink flasks of Rhenish with +their free companions in rugged mountain passes, or in tents in the +thicknesses of the forests. But a little experience wonderfully cooled +their courage; they found that real, every-day robbers were very unlike +the conventional banditti of the stage, and that three months in prison, +with bread and water for their fare, and damp straw to lie upon, was +very well to read about by their own fire sides, but not very agreeable +to undergo in their own proper persons. + +Lord Byron, with his soliloquising, high-souled thieves, has, in a +slight degree, perverted the taste of the greenhorns and incipient +rhymesters of his country. As yet, however, they have shown more good +sense than their fellows of Germany, and have not taken to the woods or +the highways. Much as they admire Conrad the Corsair, they will not go +to sea, and hoist the black flag in emulation of him. By words only, and +not by deeds, they testify their admiration, and deluge the periodicals +and music shops of the hand with verses describing pirates' and bandits' +brides, and robber adventures of every kind. + +But it is the play-wright who does most harm; and Byron has fewer +sins of this nature to answer for than Gay or Schiller, and the modern +dramatizers of Jack Sheppard. With the aid of scenery, fine dresses, and +music, and the very false notions they convey, they vitiate the public +taste, not knowing, + + "-----------vulgaires rimeurs + Quelle force ont les arts pour demolir les moeurs." + +In the penny theatres that abound in the poor and populous districts +of London, and which are chiefly frequented by striplings of idle and +dissolute habits, tales of thieves and murderers are more admired, and +draw more crowded audiences, than any other species of representation. +There the footpad, the burglar, and the highwayman are portrayed in +unnatural colours, and give pleasant lessons in crime to their delighted +listeners. There the deepest tragedy and the broadest farce are +represented in the career of the murderer and the thief, and are +applauded in proportion to their depth and their breadth. There, +whenever a crime of unusual atrocity is committed, it is brought out +afresh, with all its disgusting incidents copied from the life, for the +amusement of those who will one day become its imitators. + +With the mere reader the case is widely different; and most people have +a partiality for knowing the adventures of noted rogues. Even in +fiction they are delightful: witness the eventful story of Gil Blas de +Santillane, and of that great rascal Don Guzman d'Alfarache. Here there +is no fear of imitation. Poets, too, without doing mischief, may sing of +such heroes when they please, wakening our sympathies for the sad fate +of Gilderoy, or Macpherson the Dauntless; or celebrating in undying +verse the wrongs and the revenge of the great thief of Scotland, Rob +Roy. If, by the music of their sweet rhymes, they can convince the world +that such heroes are but mistaken philosophers, born a few ages too +late, and having both a theoretical and practical love for + + "The good old rule, the simple plan, + That they should take who have the power, + That they should keep who can," + +the world may, perhaps, become wiser, and consent to some better +distribution of its good things, by means of which thieves may become +reconciled to the age, and the age to them. The probability, however, +seems to be, that the charmers will charm in vain, charm they ever so +wisely. + + + + +INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD. + + + Speak with respect and honour + Both of the beard and the beard's owner. + + HUDIBRAS, + +The famous declaration of St. Paul, "that long hair was a shame unto +a man" has been made the pretext for many singular enactments, both of +civil and ecclesiastical governments. The fashion of the hair and the +cut of the beard were state questions in France and England from the +establishment of Christianity until the fifteenth century. + +We find, too, that in much earlier times men were not permitted to do +as they liked with their own hair. Alexander the Great thought that the +beards of his soldiery afforded convenient handles for the enemy to lay +hold of, preparatory to cutting off their heads; and, with the view of +depriving them of this advantage, he ordered the whole of his army to +be closely shaven. His notions of courtesy towards an enemy were quite +different from those entertained by the North American Indians, amongst +whom it is held a point of honour to allow one "chivalrous lock" to +grow, that the foe, in taking the scalp, may have something to catch +hold of. + +At one time, long hair was the symbol of sovereignty in Europe. We learn +from Gregory of Tours that, among the successors of Clovis, it was the +exclusive privilege of the royal family to have their hair long, +and curled. The nobles, equal to kings in power, would not show any +inferiority in this respect, and wore not only their hair, but their +beards, of an enormous length. This fashion lasted, with but slight +changes, till the time of Louis the Debonnaire, but his successors, up +to Hugh Capet, wore their hair short, by way of distinction. Even the +serfs had set all regulation at defiance, and allowed their locks and +beards to grow. + +At the time of the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, the +Normans wore their hair very short. Harold, in his progress towards +Hastings, sent forward spies to view the strength and number of the +enemy. They reported, amongst other things, on their return, that "the +host did almost seem to be priests, because they had all their face and +both their lips shaven." The fashion among the English at the time was +to wear the hair long upon the head and the upper lip, but to shave the +chin. When the haughty victors had divided the broad lands of the Saxon +thanes and franklins among them, when tyranny of every kind was employed +to make the English feel that they were indeed a subdued and broken +nation, the latter encouraged the growth of their hair, that they might +resemble as little as possible their cropped and shaven masters. + +This fashion was exceedingly displeasing to the clergy, and prevailed +to a considerable extent in France and Germany. Towards the end of the +eleventh century, it was decreed by the Pope, and zealously supported +by the ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, that such persons as +wore long hair should be excommunicated while living, and not be prayed +for when dead. William of Malmesbury relates, that the famous St. +Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, was peculiarly indignant whenever he saw +a man with long hair. He declaimed against the practice as one highly +immoral, criminal, and beastly. He continually carried a small knife +in his pocket, and whenever anybody, offending in this respect, knelt +before him to receive his blessing, he would whip it out slily, and cut +off a handful, and then, throwing it in his face, tell him to cut off +all the rest, or he would go to hell. + +But fashion, which at times it is possible to move with a wisp, stands +firm against a lever; and men preferred to run the risk of damnation +to parting with the superfluity of their hair. In the time of Henry I, +Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, found it necessary to republish the +famous decree of excommunication and outlawry against the offenders; +but, as the court itself had begun to patronize curls, the fulminations +of the church were unavailing. Henry I and his nobles wore their hair +in long ringlets down their backs and shoulders, and became a scandalum +magnatum in the eyes of the godly. One Serlo, the King's chaplain, was +so grieved in spirit at the impiety of his master, that he preached a +sermon from the well-known text of St. Paul, before the assembled court, +in which he drew so dreadful a picture of the torments that awaited them +in the other world, that several of them burst into tears, and wrung +their hair, as if they would have pulled it out by the roots. Henry +himself was observed to weep. The priest, seeing the impression he had +made, determined to strike while the iron was hot, and, pulling a pair +of scissors from his pocket, cut the king's hair in presence of them +all. Several of the principal courtiers consented to do the like, and, +for a short time, long hair appeared to be going out of fashion. But +the courtiers thought, after the first glow of their penitence had been +cooled by reflection, that the clerical Dalilah had shorn them of their +strength, and, in less than six months, they were as great sinners as +ever. + +Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been a monk of Bec, +in Normandy, and who had signalized himself at Rouen by his fierce +opposition to long hair, was still anxious to work a reformation in this +matter. But his pertinacity was far from pleasing to the King, who had +finally made up his mind to wear ringlets. There were other disputes, of +a more serious nature, between them; so that when the Archbishop died, +the King was so glad to be rid of him, that he allowed the see to remain +vacant for five years. Still the cause had other advocates, and every +pulpit in the land resounded with anathemas against that disobedient and +long-haired generation. But all was of no avail. Stowe, in writing of +this period, asserts, on the authority of some more ancient chronicler, +"that men, forgetting their birth, transformed themselves, by the length +of their haires, into the semblance of woman kind;" and that when their +hair decayed from age, or other causes, "they knit about their heads +certain rolls and braidings of false hair." At last accident turned the +tide of fashion. A knight of the court, who was exceedingly proud of +his beauteous locks, dreamed one night that, as he lay in bed, the devil +sprang upon him, and endeavoured to choke him with his own hair. He +started in affright, and actually found that he had a great quantity of +hair in his mouth. Sorely stricken in conscience, and looking upon the +dream as a warning from Heaven, he set about the work of reformation, +and cut off his luxuriant tresses the same night. The story was soon +bruited abroad; of course it was made the most of by the clergy, and the +knight, being a man of influence and consideration, and the acknowledged +leader of the fashion, his example, aided by priestly exhortations, was +very generally imitated. Men appeared almost as decent as St. Wulstan +himself could have wished, the dream of a dandy having proved more +efficacious than the entreaties of a saint. But, as Stowe informs us, +"scarcely was one year past, when all that thought themselves courtiers +fell into the former vice, and contended with women in their long +haires." Henry, the King, appears to have been quite uninfluenced by the +dreams of others, for even his own would not induce him a second time +to undergo a cropping from priestly shears. It is said, that he was +much troubled at this time by disagreeable visions. Having offended +the church in this and other respects, he could get no sound refreshing +sleep, and used to imagine that he saw all the bishops, abbots, and +monks of every degree, standing around his bed-side, and threatening to +belabour him with their pastoral staves; which sight, we are told, so +frightened him, that he often started naked out of his bed, and attacked +the phantoms sword in hand. Grimbalde, his physician, who, like most of +his fraternity at that day, was an ecclesiastic, never hinted that his +dreams were the result of a bad digestion, but told him to shave his +head, be reconciled to the Church, and reform himself with alms and +prayer. But he would not take this good advice, and it was not until he +had been nearly drowned a year afterwards, in a violent storm at sea, +that he repented of his evil ways, cut his hair short, and paid proper +deference to the wishes of the clergy. + +In France, the thunders of the Vatican with regard to long curly hair +were hardly more respected than in England. Louis VII. however, was +more obedient than his brother-king, and cropped himself as closely as +a monk, to the great sorrow of all the gallants of his court. His Queen, +the gay, haughty, and pleasure-seeking Eleanor of Guienne, never admired +him in this trim, and continually reproached him with imitating, not +only the headdress, but the asceticism of the monks. From this cause, a +coldness arose between them. The lady proving at last unfaithful to her +shaven and indifferent lord, they were divorced, and the Kings of France +lost the rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou, which were her dowry. +She soon after bestowed her hand and her possessions upon Henry Duke +of Normandy, afterwards Henry II of England, and thus gave the English +sovereigns that strong footing in France which was for so many centuries +the cause of such long and bloody wars between the nations. + +When the Crusades had drawn all the smart young fellows into Palestine, +the clergy did not find it so difficult to convince the staid burghers +who remained in Europe, of the enormity of long hair. During the absence +of Richard Coeur de Lion, his English subjects not only cut their hair +close, but shaved their faces. William Fitzosbert, or Long-beard, the +great demagogue of that day, reintroduced among the people who claimed +to be of Saxon origin the fashion of long hair. He did this with the +view of making them as unlike as possible to the citizens and the +Normans. He wore his own beard hanging down to his waist, from whence +the name by which he is best known to posterity. + +The Church never showed itself so great an enemy to the beard as to long +hair on the head. It generally allowed fashion to take its own course, +both with regard to the chin and the upper lip. This fashion varied +continually; for we find that, in little more than a century after the +time of Richard I, when beards were short, that they had again become +so long as to be mentioned in the famous epigram made by the Scots who +visited London in 1327, when David, son of Robert Bruce, was married to +Joan, the sister of King Edward. This epigram, which was stuck on the +church-door of St. Peter Stangate, ran as follows-- + + "Long beards heartlesse, + Painted hoods witlesse, + Gray coats gracelesse, + Make England thriftlesse." + +When the Emperor Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, he had no +beard. It was not to be expected that the obsequious parasites who +always surround a monarch, could presume to look more virile than their +master. Immediately all the courtiers appeared beardless, with the +exception of such few grave old men as had outgrown the influence of +fashion, and who had determined to die bearded as they had lived. Sober +people in general saw this revolution with sorrow and alarm, and thought +that every manly virtue would be banished with the beard. It became at +the time a common saying,-- + + "Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma." + We have no longer souls since we have lost our beards. + +In France, also, the beard fell into disrepute after the death of Henry +IV, from the mere reason that his successor was too young to have +one. Some of the more immediate friends of the great Bearnais, and +his minister Sully among the rest, refused to part with their beards, +notwithstanding the jeers of the new generation. + +Who does not remember the division of England into the two great parties +of Roundheads and Cavaliers? In those days, every species of vice and +iniquity was thought by the Puritans to lurk in the long curly tresses +of the Monarchists, while the latter imagined that their opponents were +as destitute of wit, of wisdom, and of virtue, as they were of hair. A +man's locks were the symbol of his creed, both in politics and religion. +The more abundant the hair, the more scant the faith; and the balder the +head, the more sincere the piety. + +But among all the instances of the interference of governments with +men's hair, the most extraordinary, not only for its daring, but for its +success is that of Peter the Great, in 1705. By this time, fashion had +condemned the beard in every other country in Europe, and with a voice +more potent than Popes or Emperors, had banished it from civilized +society. But this only made the Russians cling more fondly to their +ancient ornament, as a mark to distinguish them from foreigners, whom +they hated. Peter, however resolved that they should be shaven. If he +had been a man deeply read in history, he might have hesitated before +he attempted so despotic an attack upon the time-hallowed customs +and prejudices of his countrymen; but he was not. He did not know +or consider the danger of the innovation; he only listened to the +promptings of his own indomitable will, and his fiat went forth, that +not only the army, but all ranks of citizens, from the nobles to the +serfs, should shave their beards. A certain time was given, that people +might get over the first throes of their repugnance, after which every +man who chose to retain his beard was to pay a tax of one hundred +roubles. The priests and the serfs were put on a lower footing, and +allowed to retain theirs upon payment of a copeck every time they passed +the gate of a city. Great discontent existed in consequence, but the +dreadful fate of the Strelitzes was too recent to be forgotten, and +thousands who had the will had not the courage to revolt. As is well +remarked by a writer in the "Encyclopedia Britannica," they thought it +wiser to cut off their beards than to run the risk of incensing a man +who would make no scruple in cutting off their heads. Wiser, too, than +the popes and bishops of a former age, he did not threaten them with +eternal damnation, but made them pay in hard cash the penalty of their +disobedience. For many years, a very considerable revenue was collected +from this source. The collectors gave in receipt for its payment a +small copper coin, struck expressly for the purpose, and called the +"borodovaia," or "the bearded." On one side it bore the figure of a +nose, mouth, and moustachios, with a long bushy beard, surmounted by +the words, "Deuyee Vyeatee," "money received;" the whole encircled by a +wreath, and stamped with the black eagle of Russia. On the reverse, +it bore the date of the year. Every man who chose to wear a beard was +obliged to produce this receipt on his entry into a town. Those who were +refractory, and refused to pay the tax, were thrown into prison. + +Since that day, the rulers of modern Europe have endeavoured to +persuade, rather than to force, in all matters pertaining to fashion. +The Vatican troubles itself no more about beards or ringlets, and men +may become hairy as bears, if such is their fancy, without fear of +excommunication or deprivation of their political rights. Folly has +taken a new start, and cultivates the moustachio. + +Even upon this point governments will not let men alone. Religion as +yet has not meddled with it; but perhaps it will; and politics already +influence it considerably. Before the revolution of 1830, neither the +French nor Belgian citizens were remarkable for their moustachios; +but, after that event, there was hardly a shopkeeper either in Paris or +Brussels whose upper lip did not suddenly become hairy with real or mock +moustachios. During a temporary triumph gained by the Dutch soldiers +over the citizens of Louvain, in October 1830, it became a standing joke +against the patriots, that they shaved their faces clean immediately; +and the wits of the Dutch army asserted, that they had gathered +moustachios enough from the denuded lips of the Belgians to stuff +mattresses for all the sick and wounded in their hospital. + +The last folly of this kind is still more recent. In the German +newspapers, of August 1838, appeared an ordonnance, signed by the King +of Bavaria, forbidding civilians, on any pretence whatever, to wear +moustachios, and commanding the police and other authorities to arrest, +and cause to be shaved, the offending parties. "Strange to say," adds +"Le Droit," the journal from which this account is taken, "moustachios +disappeared immediately, like leaves from the trees in autumn; everybody +made haste to obey the royal order, and not one person was arrested." + +The King of Bavaria, a rhymester of some celebrity, has taken a good +many poetical licences in his time. His licence in this matter appears +neither poetical nor reasonable. It is to be hoped that he will not take +it into his royal head to make his subjects shave theirs; nothing but +that is wanting to complete their degradation. + + + + +DUELS AND ORDEALS + + There was an ancient sage philosopher, + Who swore the world, as he could prove, + Was mad of fighting. * * * + + Hudibras, + +Most writers, in accounting for the origin of duelling, derive it from +the warlike habits of those barbarous nations who overran Europe in the +early centuries of the Christian era, and who knew no mode so effectual +for settling their differences as the point of the sword. In fact, +duelling, taken in its primitive and broadest sense, means nothing +more than combatting, and is the universal resort of all wild animals, +including man, to gain or defend their possessions, or avenge their +insults. Two dogs who tear each other for a bone, or two bantams +fighting on a dunghill for the love of some beautiful hen, or two fools +on Wimbledon Common, shooting at each other to satisfy the laws of +offended honour, stand on the same footing in this respect, and are, +each and all, mere duellists. As civilization advanced, the best +informed men naturally grew ashamed of such a mode of adjusting +disputes, and the promulgation of some sort of laws for obtaining +redress for injuries was the consequence. Still there were many cases +in which the allegations of an accuser could not be rebutted by any +positive proof on the part of the accused; and in all these, which must +have been exceedingly numerous in the early stages of European society, +the combat was resorted to. From its decision there was no appeal. God +was supposed to nerve the arm of the combatant whose cause was just, and +to grant him the victory over his opponent. As Montesquieu well remarks, +["Esprit des Loix," liv. xxviii. chap. xvii.] this belief was not +unnatural among a people just emerging from barbarism. Their manners +being wholly warlike, the man deficient in courage, the prime virtue +of his fellows, was not unreasonably suspected of other vices besides +cowardice, which is generally found to be co-existent with treachery. +He, therefore, who showed himself most valiant in the encounter, +was absolved by public opinion from any crime with which he might be +charged. As a necessary consequence, society would have been reduced to +its original elements, if the men of thought, as distinguished from the +men of action, had not devised some means for taming the unruly passions +of their fellows. With this view, governments commenced by restricting +within the narrowest possible limits the cases in which it was lawful +to prove or deny guilt by the single combat. By the law of Gondebaldus, +King of the Burgundians, passed in the year 501, the proof by combat was +allowed in all legal proceedings, in lieu of swearing. In the time of +Charlemagne, the Burgundian practice had spread over the empire of the +Francs, and not only the suitors for justice, but the witnesses, and +even the judges, were obliged to defend their cause, their evidence, +or their decision, at the point of the sword. Louis the Debonnaire, his +successor, endeavoured to remedy the growing evil, by permitting the +duel only in appeals of felony, in civil cases, or issue joined in a +writ of right, and in cases of the court of chivalry, or attacks upon +a man's knighthood. None were exempt from these trials, but women, the +sick and the maimed, and persons under fifteen or above sixty years of +age. Ecclesiastics were allowed to produce champions in their stead. +This practice, in the course of time, extended to all trials of civil +and criminal cases, which had to be decided by battle. + +The clergy, whose dominion was an intellectual one, never approved of a +system of jurisprudence which tended so much to bring all things under +the rule of the strongest arm. From the first they set their faces +against duelling, and endeavoured, as far as the prejudices of their +age would allow them, to curb the warlike spirit, so alien from the +principles of religion. In the Council of Valentia, and afterwards +in the Council of Trent, they excommunicated all persons engaged in +duelling, and not only them, but even the assistants and spectators, +declaring the custom to be hellish and detestable, and introduced by the +Devil for the destruction both of body and soul. They added, also, that +princes who connived at duels, should be deprived of all temporal power, +jurisdiction, and dominion over the places where they had permitted them +to be fought. It will be seen hereafter that this clause only encouraged +the practice which it was intended to prevent. + +But it was the blasphemous error of these early ages to expect that the +Almighty, whenever he was called upon, would work a miracle in favour of +a person unjustly accused. The priesthood, in condemning the duel, did +not condemn the principle on which it was founded. They still encouraged +the popular belief of Divine interference in all the disputes or +differences that might arise among nations or individuals. It was the +very same principle that regulated the ordeals, which, with all their +influence, they supported against the duel. By the former, the power of +deciding the guilt or innocence was vested wholly in their hands, while, +by the latter, they enjoyed no power or privilege at all. It is not to +be wondered at, that for this reason, if for no other, they should have +endeavoured to settle all differences by the peaceful mode. While that +prevailed, they were as they wished to be, the first party in the state; +but while the strong arm of individual prowess was allowed to be the +judge in all doubtful cases, their power and influence became secondary +to those of nobility. + +Thus, it was not the mere hatred of bloodshed which induced them to +launch the thunderbolts excommunication against the combatants; it a +desire to retain the power, which, to do them justice, they were, in +those times, the persons best qualified to wield. The germs of knowledge +and civilization lay within the bounds of their order; for they were +the representatives of the intellectual, as the nobility were of the +physical power of man. To centralize this power in the Church, and +make it the judge of the last resort in all appeals, both in civil and +criminal cases, they instituted five modes of trial, the management +of which lay wholly in their hands. These were the oath upon the +Evangelists; the ordeal of the cross, and the fire ordeal, for persons +in the higher ranks; the water ordeal, for the humbler classes; and, +lastly, the Corsned, or bread and cheese ordeal, for members of their +own body. + +The oath upon the Evangelists was taken in the following manner: +the accused who was received to this proof, says Paul Hay, Count du +Chastelet, in his Memoirs of Bertrand du Guesclin, swore upon a copy of +the New Testament, and on the relics of the holy martyrs, or on their +tombs, that he was innocent of the crime imputed to him. He was also +obliged to find twelve persons, of acknowledged probity, who should take +oath at the same time, that they believed him innocent. This mode +of trial led to very great abuses, especially in cases of disputed +inheritance, where the hardest swearer was certain of the victory. This +abuse was one of the principal causes which led to the preference given +to the trial by battle. It is not all surprising that a feudal baron, or +captain of the early ages, should have preferred the chances of a fair +fight with his opponent, to a mode by which firm perjury would always be +successful. + +The trial by, or judgment of, the cross, which Charlemagne begged his +sons to have recourse to, in case of disputes arising between them, was +performed thus:--When a person accused of any crime had declared his +innocence upon oath, and appealed to the cross for its judgment in his +favour, he was brought into the church, before the altar. The priests +previously prepared two sticks exactly like one another, upon one of +which was carved a figure of the cross. They were both wrapped up with +great care and many ceremonies, in a quantity of fine wool, and laid +upon the altar, or on the relics of the saints. A solemn prayer was then +offered up to God, that he would be pleased to discover, by the judgment +of his holy cross, whether the accused person were innocent or guilty. A +priest then approached the altar, and took up one of the sticks, and the +assistants unswathed it reverently. If it was marked with the cross, +the accused person was innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would be +unjust to assert, that the judgments thus delivered were, in all +cases, erroneous; and it would be absurd to believe that they were left +altogether to chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given, and, in +all probability, most conscientiously; for we cannot but believe that +the priests endeavoured beforehand to convince themselves by secret +inquiry and a strict examination of the circumstances, whether the +appellant were innocent or guilty, and that they took up the crossed +or uncrossed stick accordingly. Although, to all other observers, the +sticks, as enfolded in the wool, might appear exactly similar, those who +enwrapped them could, without any difficulty, distinguish the one from +the other. + +By the fire-ordeal the power of deciding was just as unequivocally left +in their hands. It was generally believed that fire would not burn the +innocent, and the clergy, of course, took care that the innocent, or +such as it was their pleasure or interest to declare so, should be so +warned before undergoing the ordeal, as to preserve themselves without +any difficulty from the fire. One mode of ordeal was to place red-hot +ploughshares on the ground at certain distances, and then, blindfolding +the accused person, make him walk barefooted over them. If he stepped +regularly in the vacant spaces, avoiding the fire, he was adjudged +innocent; if he burned himself, he was declared guilty. As none but the +clergy interfered with the arrangement of the ploughshares, they could +always calculate beforehand the result of the ordeal. To find a person +guilty, they had only to place them at irregular distances, and the +accused was sure to tread upon one of them. When Emma, the wife of King +Ethelred, and mother of Edward the Confessor, was accused of a guilty +familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of Winchester, she cleared her character +in this manner. The reputation, not only of their order, but of a queen, +being at stake, a verdict of guilty was not to be apprehended from any +ploughshares which priests had the heating of. This ordeal was called +the Judicium Dei, and sometimes the Vulgaris Purgatio, and might also be +tried by several other methods. One was to hold in the hand, unhurt, a +piece of red-hot iron, of the weight of one, two, or three pounds. When +we read not only that men with hard hands, but women of softer and more +delicate skin, could do this with impunity, we must be convinced that +the hands were previously rubbed with some preservative, or that the +apparently hot iron was merely cold iron painted red. Another mode was +to plunge the naked arm into a caldron of boiling water. The priests +then enveloped it in several folds of linen and flannel, and kept the +patient confined within the church, and under their exclusive care, +for three days. If, at the end of that time, the arm appeared without a +scar, the innocence of the accused person was firmly established. [Very +similar to this is the fire-ordeal of the modern Hindoos, which is thus +described in Forbes's "Oriental Memoirs," vol. i. c. xi.--"When a man, +accused of a capital crime, chooses to undergo the ordeal trial, he is +closely confined for several days; his right hand and arm are covered +with thick wax-cloth, tied up and sealed, in the presence of proper +officers, to prevent deceit. In the English districts the covering was +always sealed with the Company's arms, and the prisoner placed under an +European guard. At the time fixed for the ordeal, a caldron of oil is +placed over a fire; when it boils, a piece of money is dropped into the +vessel; the prisoner's arm is unsealed, and washed in the presence of +his judges and accusers. During this part of the ceremony, the attendant +Brahmins supplicate the Deity. On receiving their benediction, the +accused plunges his hand into the boiling fluid, and takes out the coin. +The arm is afterwards again Sealed up until the time appointed for a +re-examination. The seal is then broken: if no blemish appears, +the prisoner is declared innocent; if the contrary, he suffers the +punishment due to his crime." * * * On this trial the accused thus +addresses the element before plunging his hand into the boiling +oil:--"Thou, O fire! pervadest all things. O cause of purity! who givest +evidence of virtue and of sin, declare the truth in this my hand!" If no +juggling were practised, the decisions by this ordeal would be all the +same way; but, as some are by this means declared guilty, and others +innocent, it is clear that the Brahmins, like the Christian priests of +the middle ages, practise some deception in saving those whom they wish +to be thought guiltless.] + +As regards the water-ordeal, the same trouble was not taken. It was a +trial only for the poor and humble, and, whether they sank or swam, +was thought of very little consequence. Like the witches of more modern +times, the accused were thrown into a pond or river; if they sank, and +were drowned, their surviving friends had the consolation of knowing +that they were innocent; if they swam, they were guilty. In either case +society was rid of them. + +But of all the ordeals, that which the clergy reserved for themselves +was the one least likely to cause any member of their corps to be +declared guilty. The most culpable monster in existence came off clear +when tried by this method. It was called the Corsned, and was thus +performed. A piece of barley bread and a piece of cheese were laid +upon the altar, and the accused priest, in his full canonicals, and +surrounded by all the pompous adjuncts of Roman ceremony, pronounced +certain conjurations, and prayed with great fervency for several +minutes. The burden of his prayer was, that if he were guilty of the +crime laid to his charge, God would send his angel Gabriel to stop his +throat, that he might not be able to swallow the bread and cheese. +There is no instance upon record of a priest having been choked in +this manner. [An ordeal very like this is still practised in India. +Consecrated rice is the article chosen, instead of bread and cheese. +Instances are not rare in which, through the force of imagination, +guilty persons are not able to swallow a single grain. Conscious of +their crime, and fearful of the punishment of Heaven, they feel a +suffocating sensation in their throat when they attempt it, and they +fall on their knees, and confess all that is laid to their charge. The +same thing, no doubt, would have happened with the bread and cheese +of the Roman church, if it had been applied to any others but +ecclesiastics. The latter had too much wisdom to be caught in a trap of +their own setting.] + +When, under Pope Gregory VII, it was debated whether the Gregorian chant +should be introduced into Castile, instead of the Musarabic, given by +St. Isidore, of Seville, to the churches of that kingdom, very much ill +feeling was excited. The churches refused to receive the novelty, and it +was proposed that the affair should be decided by a battle between two +champions, one chosen from each side. The clergy would not consent to a +mode of settlement which they considered impious, but had no objection +to try the merits of each chant by the fire ordeal. A great fire was +accordingly made, and a book of the Gregorian and one of the Musarabic +chant were thrown into it, that the flames might decide which was most +agreeable to God by refusing to burn it. Cardinal Baronius, who says +he was an eye-witness of the miracle, relates, that the book of the +Gregorian chant was no sooner laid upon the fire, than it leaped out +uninjured, visibly, and with a great noise. Every one present thought +that the saints had decided in favour of Pope Gregory. After a slight +interval, the fire was extinguished; but, wonderful to relate! the other +book of St. Isidore was found covered with ashes, but not injured in the +slightest degree. The flames had not even warmed it. Upon this it was +resolved, that both were alike agreeable to God, and that they should +be used by turns in all the churches of Seville? [Histoire de Messire +Bertrand du Guesclin, par Paul Hay du Chastelet. Livre i. chap. xix.] + +If the ordeals had been confined to questions like this, the laity would +have had little or no objection to them; but when they were introduced +as decisive in all the disputes that might arise between man and man, +the opposition of all those whose prime virtue was personal bravery, was +necessarily excited. In fact, the nobility, from a very early period, +began to look with jealous eyes upon them. They were not slow to +perceive their true purport, which was no other than to make the Church +the last court of appeal in all cases, both civil and criminal: and not +only did the nobility prefer the ancient mode of single combat from +this cause, in itself a sufficient one, but they clung to it because +an acquittal gained by those displays of courage and address which the +battle afforded, was more creditable in the eyes of their compeers, than +one which it required but little or none of either to accomplish. To +these causes may be added another, which was, perhaps, more potent than +either, in raising the credit of the judicial combat at the expense +of the ordeal. The noble institution of chivalry was beginning to take +root, and, notwithstanding the clamours of the clergy, war was made the +sole business of life, and the only elegant pursuit of the aristocracy. +The fine spirit of honour was introduced, any attack upon which was only +to be avenged in the lists, within sight of applauding crowds, whose +verdict of approbation was far more gratifying than the cold and formal +acquittal of the ordeal. Lothaire, the son of Louis I, abolished that +by fire and the trial of the cross within his dominions; but in England +they were allowed so late as the time of Henry III, in the early part +of whose reign they were prohibited by an order of council. In the mean +time, the Crusades had brought the institution of chivalry to the full +height of perfection. The chivalric spirit soon achieved the downfall +of the ordeal system, and established the judicial combat on a basis +too firm to be shaken. It is true that with the fall of chivalry, as an +institution, fell the tournament, and the encounter in the lists; but +the duel, their offspring, has survived to this day, defying the +efforts of sages and philosophers to eradicate it. Among all the +errors bequeathed to us by a barbarous age, it has proved the most +pertinacious. It has put variance between men's reason and their honour; +put the man of sense on a level with the fool, and made thousands who +condemn it submit to it, or practise it. Those who are curious to +see the manner in which these combats were regulated, may consult the +learned Montesquieu, where they will find a copious summary of the code +of ancient duelling. ["Esprit des Loix," livre xxviii. chap. xxv.] +Truly does he remark, in speaking of the clearness and excellence of the +arrangements, that, as there were many wise matters which were conducted +in a very foolish manner, so there were many foolish matters conducted +very wisely. No greater exemplification of it could be given, than the +wise and religious rules of the absurd and blasphemous trial by battle. + +In the ages that intervened between the Crusades and the new era that +was opened out by the invention of gunpowder and printing, a more +rational system of legislation took root. The inhabitants of cities, +engaged in the pursuits of trade and industry, were content to +acquiesce in the decisions of their judges and magistrates whenever any +differences arose among them. Unlike the class above them, their habits +and manners did not lead them to seek the battle-field on every slight +occasion. A dispute as to the price of a sack of corn, a bale of +broad-cloth, or a cow, could be more satisfactorily adjusted before the +mayor or bailiff of their district. Even the martial knights and nobles, +quarrelsome as they were, began to see that the trial by battle +would lose its dignity and splendour if too frequently resorted +to. Governments also shared this opinion, and on several occasions +restricted the cases in which it was legal to proceed to this extremity. +In France, before the time of Louis IX, duels were permitted only in +cases of Lese Majesty, Rape, Incendiarism, Assassination, and Burglary. +Louis IX, by taking off all restriction, made them legal in civil eases. +This was not found to work well, and, in 1303, Philip the Fair judged it +necessary to confine them, in criminal matters, to state offences, +rape, and incendiarism; and in civil cases, to questions of disputed +inheritance. Knighthood was allowed to be the best judge of its own +honour, and might defend or avenge it as often as occasion arose. + +Among the earliest duels upon record, is a very singular one that +took place in the reign of Louis II (A.D. 878). Ingelgerius, Count of +Gastinois, was one morning discovered by his Countess dead in bed at her +side. Gontran, a relation of the Count, accused the Countess of +having murdered her husband, to whom, he asserted, she had long been +unfaithful, and challenged her to produce a champion to do battle in her +behalf, that he might establish her guilt by killing him.[Memoires +de Brantome touchant les Duels.] All the friends and relatives of the +Countess believed in her innocence; but Gontran was so stout and bold +and renowned a warrior, that no one dared to meet him, for which, as +Brantome quaintly says, "Mauvais et poltrons parens estaient." The +unhappy Countess began to despair, when a champion suddenly appeared +in the person of Ingelgerius, Count of Anjou, a boy of sixteen years +of age, who had been held by the Countess on the baptismal font, and +received her husband's name. He tenderly loved his godmother, and +offered to do battle in her cause against any and every opponent. The +King endeavoured to persuade the generous boy from his enterprise, +urging the great strength, tried skill, and invincible courage of the +challenger; but he persisted in his resolution, to the great sorrow +of all the court, who said it was a cruel thing to permit so brave and +beautiful a child to rush to such butchery and death. + +When the lists were prepared, the Countess duly acknowledged her +champion, and the combatants commenced the onset. Gontran rode so +fiercely at his antagonist, and hit him on the shield with such +impetuosity, that he lost his own balance and rolled to the ground. The +young Count, as Gontran fell, passed his lance through his body, and +then dismounting, cut off his head, which, Brantome says, "he presented +to the King, who received it most graciously, and was very joyful, as +much so as if any one had made him a present of a city." The innocence +of the Countess was then proclaimed with great rejoicings; and she +kissed her godson, and wept over his neck with joy, in the presence of +all the assembly. + +When the Earl of Essex was accused, by Robert de Montfort, before King +Henry II, in 1162, of having traitorously suffered the royal standard +of England to fall from his hands in a skirmish with the Welsh, at +Coleshill, five years previously, the latter offered to prove the +truth of the charge by single combat. The Earl of Essex accepted +the challenge, and the lists were prepared near Reading. An immense +concourse of persons assembled to witness the battle. Essex at first +fought stoutly, but, losing his temper and self-command, he gave an +advantage to his opponent, which soon decided the struggle. He was +unhorsed, and so severely wounded, that all present thought he was dead. +At the solicitation of his relatives, the monks of the Abbey of Reading +were allowed to remove the body for interment, and Montfort was declared +the victor. Essex, however, was not dead, but stunned only, and, +under the care of the monks, recovered in a few weeks from his bodily +injuries. The wounds of his mind were not so easily healed. Though a +loyal and brave subject, the whole realm believed him a traitor and a +coward because he had been vanquished. He could not brook to return to +the world deprived of the good opinion of his fellows; he, therefore, +made himself a monk, and passed the remainder of his days within the +walls of the Abbey. + +Du Chastelet relates a singular duel that was proposed in +Spain.[Histoire de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, livre i. chap. xix.] A +Christian gentleman of Seville sent a challenge to a Moorish cavalier, +offering to prove against him, with whatever weapons he might choose, +that the religion of Jesus Christ was holy and divine, and that of +Mahomet impious and damnable. The Spanish prelates did not choose that +Christianity should be com promised within their jurisdiction by the +result of any such combat, and they commanded the knight, under pain of +excommunication, to withdraw the challenge. + +The same author relates, that under Otho I a question arose among +jurisconsults, viz. whether grandchildren, who had lost their father, +should share equally with their uncles in the property of their +grandfather, at the death of the latter. The difficulty of this question +was found so insurmountable, that none of the lawyers of that day could +resolve it. It was at last decreed, that it should be decided by single +combat. Two champions were accordingly chosen; one for, and the other +against, the claims of the little ones. After a long struggle, the +champion of the uncles was unhorsed and slain; and it was, therefore, +decided, that the right of the grandchildren was established, and that +they should enjoy the same portion of their grandfather's possessions +that their father would have done had he been alive. + +Upon pretexts, just as frivolous as these, duels continued to be fought +in most of the countries of Europe during the whole of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries. A memorable instance of the slightness of the +pretext on which a man could be forced to fight a duel to the death, +occurs in the Memoirs of the brave Constable, Du Guesclin. The advantage +he had obtained, in a skirmish before Rennes, against William Brembre, +an English captain, so preyed on the spirits of William Troussel, the +chosen friend and companion of the latter, that nothing would satisfy +him but a mortal combat with the Constable. The Duke of Lancaster, +to whom Troussel applied for permission to fight the great Frenchman, +forbade the battle, as not warranted by the circumstances. Troussel +nevertheless burned with a fierce desire to cross his weapon with Du +Guesclin, and sought every occasion to pick a quarrel with him. Having +so good a will for it, of course he found a way. A relative of his had +been taken prisoner by the Constable, in whose hands he remained till he +was able to pay his ransom. Troussel resolved to make a quarrel out of +this, and despatched a messenger to Du Guesclin, demanding the release +of his prisoner, and offering a bond, at a distant date, for the payment +of the ransom. Du Guesclin, who had received intimation of the hostile +purposes of the Englishman, sent back word, that he would not accept his +bond, neither would he release his prisoner, until the full amount of +his ransom was paid. As soon as this answer was received, Troussel sent +a challenge to the Constable, demanding reparation for the injury he had +done his honour, by refusing his bond, and offering a mortal combat, to +be fought three strokes with the lance, three with the sword, and +three with the dagger. Du Guesclin, although ill in bed with the ague, +accepted the challenge, and gave notice to the Marshal d'Andreghem, the +King's Lieutenant-General in Lower Normandy, that he might fix the day +and the place of combat. The Marshal made all necessary arrangements, +upon condition that he who was beaten should pay a hundred florins +of gold to feast the nobles and gentlemen who were witnesses of the +encounter. + +The Duke of Lancaster was very angry with his captain, and told him, +that it would be a shame to his knighthood and his nation, if he forced +on a combat with the brave Du Guesclin, at a time when he was enfeebled +by disease and stretched on the couch of suffering. Upon these +representations, Troussel, ashamed of himself, sent notice to Du +Guesclin that he was willing to postpone the duel until such time as he +should be perfectly recovered. Du Guesclin replied, that he could not +think of postponing the combat, after all the nobility had received +notice of it; that he had sufficient strength left, not only to meet, +but to conquer such an opponent as he was; and that, if he did not make +his appearance in the lists at the time appointed, he would publish +him everywhere as a man unworthy to be called a knight, or to wear an +honourable sword by his side. Troussel carried this haughty message to +the Duke of Lancaster, who immediately gave permission for the battle. + +On the day appointed, the two combatants appeared in the lists, in the +presence of several thousand spectators. Du Guesclin was attended by +the flower of the French nobility, including the Marshal de Beaumanoir, +Olivier de Mauny, Bertrand de Saint Pern, and the Viscount de la +Belliere, while the Englishman appeared with no more than the customary +retinue of two seconds, two squires, two coutilliers, or daggermen, and +two trumpeters. The first onset was unfavourable to the Constable: he +received so heavy a blow on his shield-arm, that he fell forward to +the left, upon his horse's neck, and, being weakened by his fever, was +nearly thrown to the ground. All his friends thought he could never +recover himself, and began to deplore his ill fortune; but Du Guesclin +collected his energies for a decisive effort, and, at the second charge, +aimed a blow at the shoulder of his enemy, which felled him to the +earth, mortally wounded. He then sprang from his horse, sword in hand, +with the intention of cutting off the head of his fallen foe, when the +Marshal D'Andreghem threw a golden wand into the arena, as a signal that +hostilities should cease. Du Guesclin was proclaimed the victor, amid +the joyous acclamations of the crowd, and retiring, left the field to +the meaner combatants, who were afterwards to make sport for the people. +Four English and as many French squires fought for some time with +pointless lances, when the French, gaining the advantage, the sports +were declared at an end. + +In the time of Charles VI, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, +a famous duel was ordered by the Parliament of Paris. The Sieur de +Carrouges being absent in the Holy Land, his lady was violated by the +Sieur Legris. Carrouges, on his return, challenged Legris to mortal +combat, for the twofold crime of violation and slander, inasmuch as he +had denied his guilt, by asserting that the lady was a willing party. +The lady's asseverations of innocence were held to be no evidence by the +Parliament, and the duel was commanded with all the ceremonies. "On +the day appointed," says Brantome, [Memoires de Brantome touchant les +Duels.] "the lady came to witness the spectacle in her chariot; but the +King made her descend, judging her unworthy, because she was criminal in +his eyes till her innocence was proved, and caused her to stand upon +a scaffold to await the mercy of God and this judgment by the battle. +After a short struggle, the Sieur de Carrouges overthrew his enemy, and +made him confess both the rape and the slander. He was then taken to the +gallows and hanged in the presence of the multitude; while the innocence +of the lady was proclaimed by the heralds, and recognized by her +husband, the King, and all the spectators." + +Numerous battles, of a similar description, constantly took place, until +the unfortunate issue of one encounter of the kind led the French King, +Henry II, to declare solemnly, that he would never again permit any such +encounter, whether it related to a civil or criminal case, or the honour +of a gentleman. + +This memorable combat was fought in the year 1547. Francois de Vivonne, +Lord of La Chataigneraie, and Guy de Chabot, Lord of Jarnac, had been +friends from their early youth, and were noted at the court of Francis +I for the gallantry of their bearing and the magnificence of their +retinue. Chataigneraie, who knew that his friend's means were not very +ample, asked him one day, in confidence, how it was that he contrived to +be so well provided? Jarnac replied, that his father had married a +young and beautiful woman, who, loving the son far better than the sire, +supplied him with as much money as he desired. La Chataigneraie betrayed +the base secret to the Dauphin, the Dauphin to the King, the King to his +courtiers, and the courtiers to all their acquaintance. In a short time +it reached the ears of the old Lord de Jarnac, who immediately sent for +his son, and demanded to know in what manner the report had originated, +and whether he had been vile enough not only to carry on such a +connexion, but to boast of it? De Jarnac indignantly denied that he had +ever said so, or given reason to the world to say so, and requested his +father to accompany him to court, and confront him with his accuser, +that he might see the manner in which he would confound him. They +went accordingly, and the younger De Jarnac, entering a room where the +Dauphin, La Chataigneraie, and several courtiers were present, exclaimed +aloud, "That whoever had asserted, that he maintained a criminal +connexion with his mother-in-law, was a liar and a coward!" Every eye +was turned to the Dauphin and La Chataigneraie, when the latter stood +forward, and asserted, that De Jarnac had himself avowed that such was +the fact, and he would extort from his lips another confession of it. A +case like this could not be met or rebutted by any legal proof, and the +royal council ordered that it should be decided by single combat. The +King, however, set his face against the duel [Although Francis showed +himself in this case an enemy to duelling, yet, in his own case, he had +not the same objection. Every reader of history must remember his answer +to the challenge of the Emperor Charles V. The Emperor wrote that he +had failed in his word, and that he would sustain their quarrel +single-handed against him. Francis replied, that he lied--qu'il en avait +menti par la gorge, and that he was ready to meet him in single combat +whenever and wherever he pleased.] and forbade them both, under pain of +his high displeasure, to proceed any further in the matter. But Francis +died in the following year, and the Dauphin, now Henry II, who was +himself compromised, resolved that the combat should take place. +The lists were prepared in the court-yard of the chateau of St. +Germain-en-Laye, and the 10th of July 1547 was appointed for the +encounter. The cartels of the combatants, which are preserved in the +"Memoires de Castelnau," were as follow:-- + +"Cartel of Francois de Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie. + +"Sire, + +"Having learned that Guy Chabot de Jarnac, being lately at Compeigne, +asserted, that whoever had said that he boasted of having criminal +intercourse with his mother-in-law, was wicked and a wretch,--I, Sire, +with your good-will and pleasure, do answer, that he has wickedly lied, +and will lie as many times as he denies having said that which I affirm +he did say; for I repeat, that he told me several times, and boasted of +it, that he had slept with his mother-in-law. + +"Francois de Vivonne." + +To this cartel De Jarnac replied:-- + +"Sire, + +"With your good will and permission, I say, that Francois de Vivonne has +lied in the imputation which he has cast upon me, and of which I spoke +to you at Compeigne. I, therefore, entreat you, Sire, most humbly, that +you be pleased to grant us a fair field, that we may fight this battle +to the death. + +"Guy Chabot." + +The preparations were conducted on a scale of the greatest magnificence, +the King having intimated his intention of being present. La +Chataigneraie made sure of the victory, and invited the King and a +hundred and fifty of the principal personages of the court to sup with +him in the evening, after the battle, in a splendid tent, which he had +prepared at the extremity of the lists. De Jarnac was not so confident, +though perhaps more desperate. At noon, on the day appointed, the +combatants met, and each took the customary oath, that he bore no charms +or amulets about him, or made use of any magic, to aid him against +his antagonist. They then attacked each other, sword in hand. La +Chataigneraie was a strong, robust man, and over confident; De Jarnac +was nimble, supple, and prepared for the worst. The combat lasted for +some time doubtful, until De Jarnac, overpowered by the heavy blows +of his opponent, covered his head with his shield, and, stooping +down, endeavoured to make amends by his agility for his deficiency of +strength. In this crouching posture he aimed two blows at the left thigh +of La Chataigneraie, who had left it uncovered, that the motion of +his leg might not be impeded. Each blow was successful, and, amid the +astonishment of all the spectators, and to the great regret of the King, +La Chataigneraie rolled over upon the sand. He seized his dagger, and +made a last effort to strike De Jarnac; but he was unable to support +himself, and fell powerless into the arms of the assistants. The +officers now interfered, and De Jarnac being declared the victor, +fell down upon his knees, uncovered his head, and, clasping his hands +together, exclaimed:--"O Domine, non sum dignus!" La Chataigneraie was +so mortified by the result of the encounter, that he resolutely refused +to have his wounds dressed. He tore off the bandages which the surgeons +applied, and expired two days afterwards. Ever since that time, any sly +and unforeseen attack has been called by the French a coup de Jarnac. +Henry was so grieved at the loss of his favourite, that he made the +solemn oath already alluded to, that he would never again, so long as +he lived, permit a due]. Some writers have asserted, and among others, +Mezeraie, that he issued a royal edict forbidding them. This has been +doubted by others, and, as there appears no registry of the edict in +any of the courts, it seems most probable that it was never issued. +This opinion is strengthened by the fact, that two years afterwards, the +council ordered another duel to be fought, with similar forms, but with +less magnificence, on account of the inferior rank of the combatants. +It is not anywhere stated, that Henry interfered to prevent it, +notwithstanding his solemn oath; but that, on the contrary, he +encouraged it, and appointed the Marshal de la Marque to see that it +was conducted according to the rules of chivalry. The disputants were +Fendille and D'Aguerre, two gentlemen of the household, who, quarrelling +in the King's chamber, had proceeded from words to blows. The council, +being informed of the matter, decreed that it could only be decided in +the lists. Marshal de la Marque, with the King's permission, appointed +the city of Sedan as the place of combat. Fendille, who was a bad +swordsman, was anxious to avoid an encounter with D'Aguerre, who was +one of the most expert men of the age; but the council authoritatively +commanded that he should fight, or be degraded from all his honours. +D'Aguerre appeared in the field attended by Francois de Vendome, Count +de Chartres, while Fendille was accompanied by the Duke de Nevers. +Fendille appears to have been not only an inexpert swordsman, but a +thorough coward; one who, like Cowley, might have heaped curses on the +man, + + "-------(Death's factor sure), who brought + Dire swords into this peaceful world." + +On the very first encounter he was thrown from his horse, and, +confessing on the ground all that his victor required of him, slunk away +ignominiously from the arena. + +One is tempted to look upon the death of Henry II as a judgment upon +him for his perjury in the matter of duelling. In a grand tournament +instituted on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, he broke +several lances in encounters with some of the bravest knights of the +time. Ambitious of still further renown, he would not rest satisfied +until he had also engaged the young Count de Montgomeri. He received a +wound in the eye from the lance of this antagonist, and died from its +effects shortly afterwards, in the forty-first year of his age. + +In the succeeding reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, the +practice of duelling increased to an alarming extent. Duels were not +rare in the other countries of Europe at the same period; but in +France they were so frequent, that historians, in speaking of that age, +designate it as "l'epoque de la fureur des duels." The Parliament +of Paris endeavoured, as far as in its power lay, to discourage the +practice. By a decree dated the 26th of June 1559, it declared all +persons who should be present at duels, or aiding and abetting in them, +to be rebels to the King, transgressors of the law, and disturbers of +the public peace. + +When Henry III was assassinated at St. Cloud, in 1589, a young +gentleman, named L'isle Marivaut, who had been much beloved by him, took +his death so much to heart, that he resolved not to survive him. Not +thinking suicide an honourable death, and wishing, as he said, to die +gloriously in revenging his King and master, he publicly expressed his +readiness to fight anybody to the death who should assert that Henry's +assassination was not a great misfortune to the community. Another +youth, of a fiery temper and tried courage, named Marolles, took him at +his word, and the day and place of the combat were forthwith appointed. +When the hour had come, and all were ready, Marolles turned to his +second, and asked whether his opponent had a casque or helmet only, or +whether he wore a sallade, or headpiece. Being answered a helmet only, +he said gaily, "So much the better; for, sir, my second, you shall +repute me the wickedest man in all the world, if I do not thrust my +lance right through the the middle of his head and kill him." Truth to +say, he did so at the very first onset, and the unhappy L'isle Marivaut +expired without a groan. Brantome, who relates this story, adds, that +the victor might have done as he pleased with the body, cut off the +head, dragged it out of the camp, or exposed it upon an ass, but that, +being a wise and very courteous gentleman, he left it to the relatives +of the deceased to be honourably buried, contenting himself with the +glory of his triumph, by which he gained no little renown and honour +among the ladies of Paris. + +On the accession of Henry IV that monarch pretended to set his face +against duelling; but such was the influence of early education and the +prejudices of society upon him, that he never could find it in his +heart to punish a man for this offence. He thought it tended to foster a +warlike spirit among his people. When the chivalrous Crequi demanded +his permission to fight Don Philippe de Savoire, he is reported to have +said, "Go, and if I were not a King, I would be your second." It is +no wonder that when such were known to be the King's disposition, his +edicts attracted but small attention. A calculation was made by M. de +Lomenie, in the year 1607, that since the accession of Henry, in 1589, +no less than four thousand French gentlemen had lost their lives in +these conflicts, which, for the eighteen years, would have been at +the rate of four or five in a week, or eighteen per month! Sully, who +reports this fact in his Memoirs, does not throw the slightest doubt +upon its exactness, and adds, that it was chiefly owing to the facility +and ill-advised good-nature of his royal master that the bad example +had so empoisoned the court, the city, and the whole country. This wise +minister devoted much of his time and attention to the subject; for the +rage, he says, was such as to cause him a thousand pangs, and the King +also. There was hardly a man moving in what was called good society, +who had not been engaged in a duel either as principal or second; and +if there were such a man, his chief desire was to free himself from the +imputation of non-duelling, by picking a quarrel with somebody. Sully +constantly wrote letters to the King, in which he prayed him to renew +the edicts against this barbarous custom, to aggravate the punishment +against offenders, and never, in any instance, to grant a pardon, even +to a person who had wounded another in a duel, much less to any one who +had taken away life. He also advised, that some sort of tribunal, or +court of honour, should be established, to take cognizance of injurious +and slanderous language, and of all such matters as usually led to +duels; and that the justice to be administered by this court should be +sufficiently prompt and severe to appease the complainant, and make the +offender repent of his aggression. + +Henry, being so warmly pressed by his friend and minister, called +together an extraordinary council in the gallery of the palace of +Fontainebleau, to take the matter into consideration. When all +the members were assembled, his Majesty requested that some person +conversant with the subject would make a report to him on the origin, +progress, and different forms of the duel. Sully complacently remarks, +that none of the counsllors gave the King any great reason to felicitate +them on their erudition. In fact, they all remained silent. Sully held +his peace with the rest; but he looked so knowing, that the King turned +towards him, and said:--"Great master! by your face I conjecture that +you know more of this matter than you would have us believe. I pray +you, and indeed I command, that you tell us what you think and what you +know." The coy minister refused, as he says, out of mere politeness to +his more ignorant colleagues; but, being again pressed by the King, he +entered into a history of duelling both in ancient and modern times. +He has not preserved this history in his Memoirs; and, as none of the +ministers or counsellors present thought proper to do so, the world is +deprived of a discourse which was, no doubt, a learned and remarkable +one. The result was, that a royal edict was issued, which Sully lost +no time in transmitting to the most distant provinces, with a distinct +notification to all parties concerned that the King was in earnest, and +would exert the full rigour of the law in punishment of the offenders. +Sully himself does not inform us what were the provisions of the new +law; but Father Matthias has been more explicit, and from him we learn, +that the Marshals of France were created judges of a court of chivalry, +for the hearing of all causes wherein the honour of a noble or gentleman +was concerned, and that such as resorted to duelling should be punished +by death and confiscation of property, and that the seconds and +assistants should lose their rank, dignity, or offices, and be banished +from the court of their sovereign. [Le Pere Matthias, tome ii. livre +iv.] + +But so strong a hold had the education and prejudice of his age upon +the mind of the King, that though his reason condemned, his sympathies +approved the duel. Notwithstanding this threatened severity, the number +of duels did not diminish, and the wise Sully had still to lament the +prevalence of an evil which menaced society with utter disorganization. +In the succeeding reign the practice prevailed, if possible, to a still +greater extent, until the Cardinal de Richelieu, better able to grapple +with it than Sully had been, made some severe examples in the very +highest classes. Lord Herbert, the English ambassador at the court +of Louis XIII repeats, in his letters, an observation that had been +previously made in the reign of Henry IV, that it was rare to find a +Frenchman moving in good society who had not killed his man in a duel. +The Abbe Millot says of this period, that the duel madness made the most +terrible ravages. Men had actually a frenzy for combatting. Caprice and +vanity, as well as the excitement of passion, imposed the necessity +of fighting. Friends were obliged to enter into the quarrels of their +friends, or be themselves called out for their refusal, and revenge +became hereditary in many families. It was reckoned that in twenty years +eight thousand letters of pardon had been issued to persons who had +killed others in single combat. ["Elemens de l'Histoire de France, vol. +iii. p. 219.] + +Other writers confirm this statement. Amelot de Houssaye, in his +Memoirs, says, upon this subject, that duels were so common in the first +years of the reign of Louis XIII, that the ordinary conversation of +persons when they met in the morning was, "Do you know who fought +yesterday?" and after dinner, "Do you know who fought this morning?" The +most infamous duellist at that period was De Bouteville. It was not at +all necessary to quarrel with this assassin to be forced to fight a duel +with him. When he heard that any one was very brave, he would go to +him, and say, "People tell me that you are brave; you and I must fight +together!" Every morning the most notorious bravos and duellists used +to assemble at his house, to take a breakfast of bread and wine, and +practise fencing. M. de Valencay, who was afterwards elevated to the +rank of a cardinal, ranked very high in the estimation of De Bouteville +and his gang. Hardly a day passed but what he was engaged in some duel +or other, either as principal or second; and he once challenged De +Bouteville himself, his best friend, because De Bouteville had fought +a duel without inviting him to become his second. This quarrel was only +appeased on the promise of De Bouteville that, in his next encounter, +he would not fail to avail himself of his services. For that purpose he +went out the same day, and picked a quarrel with the Marquis des Portes. +M. de Valencay, according to agreement, had the pleasure of serving as +his second, and of running through the body M. de Cavois, the second +of the Marquis des Portes, a man who had never done him any injury, and +whom he afterwards acknowledged he had never seen before. + +Cardinal Richelieu devoted much attention to this lamentable state of +public morals, and seems to have concurred with his great predecessor, +Sully, that nothing but the most rigorous severity could put a stop +to the evil. The subject indeed was painfully forced upon him by his +enemies. The Marquis de Themines, to whom Richelieu, then Bishop of +Lucon, had given offence by some representations he had made to Mary of +Medicis, determined, since he could not challenge an ecclesiastic, +to challenge his brother. An opportunity was soon found. Themines, +accosting the Marquis de Richelieu, complained, in an insulting tone, +that the Bishop of Lucon had broken his faith. The Marquis resented both +the manner and matter of his speech, and readily accepted a challenge. +They met in the Rue d'Angouleme, and the unfortunate Richelieu was +stabbed to the heart, and instantly expired. From that moment the +Bishop became the steady foe of the practice of duelling. Reason and the +impulse of brotherly love alike combined to make him detest it, and +when his power in France was firmly established, he set vigorously +about repressing it. In his "Testament Politique," he has collected his +thoughts upon the subject, in the chapter entitled "Des moyens d'arreter +les Duels." In spite of the edicts that he published, the members of +the nobility persisted in fighting upon the most trivial and absurd +pretences. At last Richelieu made a terrible example. The infamous De +Bouteville challenged and fought the Marquis de Beuoron; and, although +the duel itself was not fatal to either, its consequences were fatal to +both. High as they were, Richelieu resolved that the law should reach +them, and they were both tried, found guilty, and beheaded. Thus did +society get rid of one of the most bloodthirsty scoundrels that ever +polluted it. + +In 1632 two noblemen fought a duel, in which they were both killed. The +officers of justice had notice of the breach of the law, and arrived at +the scene of combat before the friends of the parties had time to remove +the bodies. In conformity with the Cardinal's severe code upon the +subject, the bodies were ignominiously stripped, and hanged upon a +gallows, with their heads downwards, for several hours, within sight of +all the people. [Mercure de France, vol. xiii.] This severity sobered +the frenzy of the nation for a time; but it was soon forgotten. Men's +minds were too deeply imbued with a false notion of honour to be +brought to a right way of thinking: by such examples, however striking, +Richelieu was unable to persuade them to walk in the right path, though +he could punish them for choosing the wrong one. He had, with all his +acuteness, miscalculated the spirit of duelling. It was not death that +a duellist feared: it was shame, and the contempt of his fellows. As +Addison remarked more than eighty years afterwards, "Death was not +sufficient to deter men who made it their glory to despise it; but +if every one who fought a duel were to stand in the pillory, it would +quickly diminish the number of those imaginary men of honour, and put an +end to so absurd a practice." Richelieu never thought of this. + +Sully says, that in his time the Germans were also much addicted to +duelling. There were three places where it was legal to fight; Witzburg, +in Franconia, and Uspach and Halle, in Swabia. Thither, of course, vast +numbers repaired, and murdered each other under sanction of the law. At +an earlier period, in Germany, it was held highly disgraceful to refuse +to fight. Any one who surrendered to his adversary for a simple wound +that did not disable him, was reputed infamous, and could neither cut +his beard, bear arms, mount on horseback, or hold any Office in the +state. He who fell in a duel was buried with great pomp and splendour. + +In the year 1652, just after Louis XIV had attained his majority, a +desperate duel was fought between the Dukes de Beaufort and De Nemours, +each attended by four gentlemen. Although brothers-in-law, they had +long been enemies, and their constant dissensions had introduced much +disorganization among the troops which they severally commanded. Each +had long sought an opportunity for combat, which at last arose on a +misunderstanding relative to the places they were to occupy at the +council board. They fought with pistols, and, at the first discharge, +the Duke de Nemours was shot through the body, and almost instantly +expired. Upon this the Marquis de Villars, who seconded Nemours, +challenged Hericourt, the second of the Duke de Beaufort, a man whom +he had never before seen; and the challenge being accepted, they fought +even more desperately than their principals. This combat, being with +swords, lasted longer than the first, and was more exciting to the six +remaining gentlemen who stayed to witness it. The result was fatal to +Hericourt, who fell pierced to the heart by the sword of De Villars. +Anything more savage than this can hardly be imagined. Voltaire +says such duels were frequent, and the compiler of the "Dictionnaire +d'Anecdotes" informs us, that the number of seconds was not fixed. As +many as ten, or twelve, or twenty, were not unfrequent, and they often +fought together after their principals were disabled. The highest mark +of friendship one man could manifest towards another, was to choose him +for his second; and many gentlemen were so desirous of serving in this +capacity, that they endeavoured to raise every slight misunderstanding +into a quarrel, that they might have the pleasure of being engaged +in it. The Count de Bussy Rabutin relates an instance of this in his +Memoirs. He says, that as he was one evening coming out of the theatre, +a gentleman, named Bruc, whom he had not before known, stopped him very +politely, and, drawing him aside, asked him if it was true that the +Count de Thianges had called him (Bruc) a drunkard? Bussy replied, that +he really did not know, for he saw the Count very seldom. "Oh! he is +your uncle!" replied Bruc; "and, as I cannot have satisfaction from him, +because he lives so far off in the country, I apply to you." "I see what +you are at," replied Bussy, "and, since you wish to put me in my uncle's +place, I answer, that whoever asserted that he called you a drunkard, +told a lie!" "My brother said so," replied Bruc, "and he is a child." +"Horsewhip him, then, for his falsehood," returned De Bussy. "I will +not have my brother called a liar," returned Bruc, determined to quarrel +with him; "so draw, and defend yourself!" They both drew their swords +in the public street, but were separated by the spectators. They agreed, +however, to fight on a future occasion, and with all regular forms of +the duello. A few days afterwards, a gentleman, whom De Bussy had never +before seen, and whom he did not know, even by name, called upon him, +and asked if he might have the privilege of serving as his second. He +added, that he neither knew him nor Bruc, except by reputation, but, +having made up his mind to be second to one of them, he had decided upon +accompanying De Bussy as the braver man of the two. De Bussy thanked him +very sincerely for his politeness, but begged to be excused, as he had +already engaged four seconds to accompany him, and he was afraid that if +he took any more, the affair would become a battle instead of a duel. + +When such quarrels as these were looked upon as mere matters of course, +the state of society must have been indeed awful. Louis XIV very early +saw the evil, and as early determined to remedy it. It was not, however, +till the year 1679, when he instituted the "Chambre Ardente," for the +trial of the slow poisoners and pretenders to sorcery, that he +published any edict against duelling. In that year his famous edict was +promulgated, in which he reiterated and confirmed the severe enactments +of his predecessors, Henry IV and Louis XIII, and expressed his +determination never to pardon any offender. By this celebrated ordinance +a supreme court of honour was established, composed of the Marshals of +France. They were bound, on taking the office, to give to every one who +brought a well-founded complaint before them, such reparation as would +satisfy the justice of the case. Should any gentleman against whom +complaint was made refuse to obey the mandate of the court of honour, +he might be punished by fine and imprisonment; and when that was not +possible, by reason of his absenting himself from the kingdom, his +estates might be confiscated till his return. + +Every man who sent a challenge, be the cause of offence what it might, +was deprived of all redress from the court of honour--suspended +three years from the exercise of any office in the state--was further +imprisoned for two years, and sentenced to pay a fine of half his yearly +income. He who accepted a challenge, was subject to the same punishment. +Any servant, or other person, who knowingly became the bearer of a +challenge, was, if found guilty, sentenced to stand in the pillory and +be publicly whipped for the first offence, and for the second, sent for +three years to the galleys. + +Any person who actually fought, was to be held guilty of murder, even +though death did not ensue, and was to be punished accordingly. Persons +in the higher ranks of life were to be beheaded, and those of the middle +class hanged upon a gallows, and their bodies refused Christian burial. + +At the same time that Louis published this severe edict, he exacted a +promise from his principal nobility that they would never engage in a +duel on any pretence whatever. He never swerved from his resolution to +pursue all duellists with the utmost rigour, and many were executed in +various parts of the country. A slight abatement of the evil was the +consequence, and in the course of a few years one duel was not +fought where twelve had been fought previously. A medal was struck to +commemorate the circumstance, by the express command of the King. So +much had he this object at heart, that, in his will, he particularly +recommended to his successor the care of his edict against duelling, and +warned him against any ill-judged lenity to those who disobeyed it. A +singular law formerly existed in Malta with regard to duelling. By this +law it was permitted, but only upon condition that the parties should +fight in one particular street. If they presumed to settle their quarrel +elsewhere, they were held guilty of murder, and punished accordingly. +What was also very singular, they were bound, under heavy penalties, to +put up their swords when requested to do so by a priest, a knight, or +a woman. It does not appear, however, that the ladies or the knights +exercised this mild and beneficent privilege to any great extent; the +former were too often themselves the cause of duels, and the latter +sympathised too much in the wounded honour of the combatants to attempt +to separate them. The priests alone were the great peacemakers. Brydone +says, that a cross was always painted on the wall opposite to the spot +where a knight had been killed, and that in the "street of duels" he +counted about twenty of them. [Brydone's "Tour in Malta." 1772.] + +In England the private duel was also practised to a scandalous extent, +towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth +centuries. The judicial combat now began to be more rare, but several +instances of it are mentioned in history. One was instituted in the +reign of Elizabeth, and another so late as the time of Charles I. Sir +Henry Spelman gives an account of that which took place in Elizabeth's +reign, which is curious, perhaps the more so when we consider that it +was perfectly legal, and that similar combats remained so till the year +1819. A proceeding having been instituted in the Court of Common Pleas +for the recovery of certain manorial rights in the county of Kent, +the defendant offered to prove by single combat his right to retain +possession. The plaintiff accepted the challenge, and the Court having +no power to stay the proceedings, agreed to the champions who were to +fight in lieu of the principals. The Queen commanded the parties to +compromise; but it being represented to Her Majesty that they were +justified by law in the course they were pursuing, she allowed them to +proceed. On the day appointed, the Justices of the Common Pleas, and all +the council engaged in the cause, appeared as umpires of the combat, +at a place in Tothill-fields, where the lists had been prepared. The +champions were ready for the encounter, and the plaintiff and defendant +were publicly called to come forward and acknowledge them. The +defendant answered to his name, and recognised his champion with the due +formalities, but the plaintiff did not appear. Without his presence +and authority the combat could not take place; and his absence being +considered an abandonment of his claim, he was declared to be nonsuited, +and barred for ever from renewing his suit before any other tribunal +whatever. + +The Queen appears to have disapproved personally of this mode of +settling a disputed claim, but her judges and legal advisers made no +attempt to alter the barbarous law. The practice of private duelling +excited more indignation, from its being of every-day occurrence. In the +time of James I the English were so infected with the French madness, +that Bacon, when he was Attorney-general, lent the aid of his powerful +eloquence to effect a reformation of the evil. Informations were +exhibited in the Star Chamber against two persons, named Priest and +Wright, for being engaged, as principal and second, in a duel, on which +occasion he delivered a charge that was so highly approved of by the +Lords of the Council, that they ordered it to be printed and circulated +over the country, as a thing "very meet and worthy to be remembered +and made known unto the world." He began by considering the nature +and greatness of the mischief of duelling. "It troubleth peace--it +disfurnisheth war--it bringeth calamity upon private men, peril upon +the state, and contempt upon the law. Touching the causes of it," +he observed, "that the first motive of it, no doubt, is a false and +erroneous imagination of honour and credit; but then, the seed of this +mischief being such, it is nourished by vain discourses and green and +unripe conceits. Hereunto may be added, that men have almost lost the +true notion and understanding of fortitude and valour. For fortitude +distinguisheth of the grounds of quarrel whether they be just; and not +only so, but whether they be worthy, and setteth a better price upon +men's lives than to bestow them idly. Nay, it is weakness and disesteem +of a man's self to put a man's life upon such liedger performances. +A man's life is not to be trifled with: it is to be offered up and +sacrificed to honourable services, public merits, good causes, and noble +adventures. It is in expense of blood as it is in expense of money. It +is no liberality to make a profusion of money upon every vain occasion, +neither is it fortitude to make effusion of blood, except the cause of +it be worth." [See "Life and Character of Lord Bacon," by Thomas Martin, +Barrister-at-law.] + +The most remarkable event connected with duelling in this reign was +that between Lord Sanquir, a Scotch nobleman, and one Turner, a +fencing-master. In a trial of skill between them, his lordship's eye was +accidentally thrust out by the point of Turner's sword. Turner expressed +great regret at the circumstance, and Lord Sanquir bore his loss with as +much philosophy as he was master of, and forgave his antagonist. Three +years afterwards, Lord Sanquir was at Paris, where he was a +constant visitor at the court of Henry IV. One day, in the course of +conversation, the affable monarch inquired how he had lost his eye. +Sanquir, who prided himself on being the most expert swordsman of the +age, blushed as he replied that it was inflicted by the sword of +a fencing-master. Henry, forgetting his assumed character of an +antiduellist, carelessly, and as a mere matter of course, inquired +whether the man lived? Nothing more was said, but the query sank +deep into the proud heart of the Scotch baron, who returned shortly +afterwards to England, burning for revenge. His first intent was +to challenge the fencing-master to single combat, but, on further +consideration, he deemed it inconsistent with his dignity to meet him as +an equal in fair and open fight. He therefore hired two bravos, who +set upon the fencing-master, and murdered him in his own house at +Whitefriars. The assassins were taken and executed, and a reward of one +thousand pounds offered for the apprehension of their employer. Lord +Sanquir concealed himself for several days, and then surrendered to +take his trial, in the hope (happily false) that Justice would belie her +name, and be lenient to a murderer because he was a nobleman, who, on +a false point of honour, had thought fit to take revenge into his own +hands. The most powerful intercessions were employed in his favour, but +James, to his credit, was deaf to them all. Bacon, in his character of +Attorney-general, prosecuted the prisoner to conviction; and he died the +felon's death, on the 29th of June, 1612, on a gibbet erected in front +of the gate of Westminster Hall. + +With regard to the public duel, or trial by battle, demanded under the +sanction of the law, to terminate a quarrel which the ordinary course of +justice could with difficulty decide, Bacon was equally opposed to it, +and thought that in no case should it be granted. He suggested that +there should be declared a constant and settled resolution in the state +to abolish it altogether; that care should be taken that the evil be +no more cockered, nor the humour of it fed, but that all persons found +guilty should be rigorously punished by the Star Chamber, and these of +eminent quality banished from the court. + +In the succeeding reign, when Donald Mackay, the first Lord Reay, +accused David Ramsay of treason, in being concerned with the Marquis of +Hamilton in a design upon the crown of Scotland, he was challenged by +the latter to make good his assertion by single combat. [See "History +of the House and Clan of Mackay."] It had been at first the intention of +the government to try the case by the common law, but Ramsay thought he +would stand a better chance of escape by recurring to the old and almost +exploded custom, but which was still the right of every man in appeals +of treason. Lord Reay readily accepted the challenge, and both were +confined in the Tower until they found security that they would appear +on a certain day, appointed by the court, to determine the question. +The management of the affair was delegated to the Marischal Court of +Westminster, and the Earl of Lindsay was created Lord Constable of +England for the purpose. Shortly before the day appointed, Ramsay +confessed in substance all that Lord Reay had laid to his charge, upon +which Charles I put a stop to the proceedings. + +But in England, about this period, sterner disputes arose among men +than those mere individual matters which generate duels. The men of +the Commonwealth encouraged no practice of the kind, and the subdued +aristocracy carried their habits and prejudices elsewhere, and fought +their duels at foreign courts. Cromwell's Parliament, however,--although +the evil at that time was not so crying,--published an order, in 1654, +for the prevention of duels, and the punishment of all con cerned in +them. Charles II, on his restoration, also issued a proclamation upon +the subject. In his reign an infamous duel was fought--infamous, not +only from its own circumstances, but from the lenity that was shown to +the principal offenders. + +The worthless Duke of Buckingham, having debauched the Countess of +Shrewsbury, was challenged by her husband to mortal combat, in January +1668. Charles II endeavoured to prevent the duel, not from any regard +to public morality, but from fear for the life of his favourite. He gave +commands to the Duke of Albemarle to confine Buckingham to his house, +or take some other measures to prevent him flora fighting. Albemarle +neglected the order, thinking that the King himself might prevent the +combat by some surer means. The meeting took place at Barn Elms, the +injured Shrewsbury being attended by Sir John Talbot, his relative, +and Lord Bernard Howard, son of the Earl of Arundel. Buckingham was +accompanied by two of his dependants, Captain Holmes and Sir John +Jenkins. According to the barbarous custom of the age, not only the +principals, but the seconds, engaged each other. Jenkins was pierced to +the heart, and left dead upon the field, and Sir John Talbot severely +wounded in both arms. Buckingham himself escaping with slight wounds, +ran his unfortunate antagonist through the body, and then left the field +with the wretched woman, the cause of all the mischief, who, in the +dress of a page, awaited the issue of the conflict in a neighbouring +wood, holding her paramour's horse to avoid suspicion. Great influence +was exerted to save the guilty parties from punishment, and the master, +as base as the favourite, made little difficulty in granting a free +pardon to all concerned. In a royal proclamation issued shortly +afterwards, Charles II formally pardoned the murderers, but declared his +intention never to extend, in future, any mercy to such offenders. It +would be hard after this to say who was the most infamous, the King, the +favourite, or the courtezan. + +In the reign of Queen Anne, repeated complaints were made of the +prevalence of duelling. Addison, Swift, Steele, and other writers, +employed their powerful pens in reprobation of it. Steele especially, +in the "Tatler" and "Guardian," exposed its impiety and absurdity, and +endeavoured, both by argument and by ridicule, to bring his countrymen +to a right way of thinking. [See "Spectator," Nos. 84. 97, and 99; and +"Tatler," Nos. 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, and 39; and "Guardian," No. 20.] His +comedy of "The Conscious Lovers" contains an admirable exposure of the +abuse of the word honour, which led men into an error so lamentable. +Swift, writing upon the subject, remarked that he could see no harm in +rogues and fools shooting each other. Addison and Steele took higher +ground, and the latter, in the "Guardian," summed up nearly all that +could be said upon the subject in the following impressive words:--"A +Christian and a gentleman are made inconsistent appellations of the +same person. You are not to expect eternal life if you do not forgive +injuries, and your mortal life is rendered uncomfortable if you are not +ready to commit a murder in resentment of an affront; for good sense, +as well as religion, is so utterly banished the world that men glory in +their very passions, and pursue trifles with the utmost vengeance, so +little do they know that to forgive is the most arduous pitch human +nature can arrive at. A coward has often fought--a coward has often +conquered, but a coward never forgave." Steele also published a +pamphlet, in which he gave a detailed account of the edict of Louis XIV, +and the measures taken by that monarch to cure his subjects of their +murderous folly. + +On the 8th of May, 1711, Sir Cholmely Deering, M.P. for the county of +Kent, was slain in a duel by Mr. Richard Thornhill, also a member of +the House of Commons. Three days afterwards, Sir Peter King brought +the subject under the notice of the Legislature, and after dwelling at +considerable length on the alarming increase of the practice, obtained +leave to bring in a bill for the prevention and punishment of duelling. +It was read a first time that day, and ordered for a second reading in +the ensuing week. + +About the same time the attention of the Upper House of Parliament was +also drawn to the subject in the most painful manner. Two of its +most noted members would have fought, had it not been that Queen Anne +received notice of their intention, and exacted a pledge that they would +desist; while a few months afterwards, two other of its members lost +their lives in one of the most remarkable duels upon record. The first +affair, which happily terminated without a meeting, was between the Duke +of Marlborough and the Earl Pawlet. The latter, and fatal encounter, was +between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun. + +The first arose out of a debate in the Lords upon the conduct of the +Duke of Ormond, in refusing to hazard a general engagement with the +enemy, in which Earl Pawlet remarked that nobody could doubt the courage +of the Duke of Ormond. "He was not like a certain general, who led +troops to the slaughter, to cause great numbers of officers to be +knocked on the head in a battle, or against stone walls, in order to +fill his pockets by disposing of their commissions." Every one felt that +the remark was aimed at the Duke of Marlborough, but he remained silent, +though evidently suffering in mind. Soon after the House broke up, the +Earl Pawlet received a visit from Lord Mohun, who told him that the Duke +of Marlborough was anxious to come to an explanation with him relative +to some expressions he had made use of in that day's debate, and +therefore prayed him to "go and take a little air in the country." Earl +Pawlet did not affect to misunderstand the hint, but asked him in plain +terms whether he brought a challenge from the Duke. Lord Mohun said his +message needed no explanation, and that he (Lord Mohun) would accompany +the Duke of Marlborough. He then took his leave, and Earl Pawlet +returned home and told his lady that he was going out to fight a duel +with the Duke of Marlborough. His lady, alarmed for her lord's safety, +gave notice of his intention to the Earl of Dartmouth, who immediately, +in the Queen's name, sent to the Duke of Marlborough, and commanded him +not to stir abroad. He also caused Earl Pawlet's house to be guarded by +two sentinels; and having taken these precautions, informed the Queen of +the whole affair. Her Majesty sent at once for the Duke, expressed her +abhorrence of the custom of duelling, and required his word of honour +that he would proceed no further. The Duke pledged his word accordingly, +and the affair terminated. + +The lamentable duel between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun took +place in November 1712, and sprang from the following circumstances. A +lawsuit had been pending for eleven years between these two noblemen, +and they looked upon each other in consequence with a certain degree of +coldness. They met together on the 13th of November in the chambers of +Mr. Orlebar, a Master in Chancery, when, in the course of conversation, +the Duke of Hamilton reflected upon the conduct of one of the witnesses +in the cause, saying that he was a person who had neither truth nor +justice in him. Lord Mohun, somewhat nettled at this remark, applied +to a witness favourable to his side, made answer hastily, that Mr. +Whiteworth, the person alluded to, had quite as much truth and justice +in him as the Duke of Hamilton. The Duke made no reply, and no one +present imagined that he took offence at what was said; and when he went +out, of the room, he made a low and courteous salute to the Lord Mohun. +In the evening, General Macartney called twice upon the Duke with a +challenge from Lord Mohun, and failing in seeing him, sought him a third +time at a tavern, where he found him, and delivered his message. The +Duke accepted the challenge, and the day after the morrow, which was +Sunday, the 15th of November, at seven in the morning, was appointed for +the meeting. + +At that hour they assembled in Hyde Park, the Duke being attended by +his relative, Colonel Hamilton, and the Lord Mohun by General Macartney. +They jumped over a ditch into a place called the Nursery, and prepared +for the combat. The Duke of Hamilton, turning to General Macartney, +said, "Sir, you are the cause of this, let the event be what it will." +Lord Mohun did not wish that the seconds should engage, but the Duke +insisted that "Macartney should have a share in the dance." All being +ready, the two principals took up their positions, and fought with +swords so desperately that, after a short time, they both fell down, +mortally wounded. The Lord Mohun expired upon the spot, and the Duke of +Hamilton in the arms of his servants as they were carrying him to his +coach. + +This unhappy termination caused the greatest excitement, not only in the +metropolis, but all over the country. The Tories, grieved at the loss of +the Duke of Hamilton, charged the fatal combat on the Whig party, whose +leader, the Duke of Marlborough, had so recently set the example of +political duels. They called Lord Mohun the bully of the Whig faction, +(he had already killed three men in duels, and been twice tried for +murder), and asserted openly, that the quarrel was concocted between him +and General Macartney to rob the country of the services of the Duke of +Hamilton by murdering him. It was also asserted, that the wound of which +the Duke died was not inflicted by Lord Mohun, but by Macartney; and +every means was used to propagate this belief. Colonel Hamilton, against +whom and Macartney the coroner's jury had returned a verdict of wilful +murder, surrendered a few days afterwards, and was examined before a +privy council sitting at the house of Lord Dartmouth. He then deposed, +that seeing Lord Mohun fall, and the Duke upon him, he ran to the Duke's +assistance, and that he might with the more ease help him, he flung down +both their swords, and, as he was raising the Duke up, he saw Macartney, +make a push at him. Upon this deposition a royal proclamation was +immediately issued, offering a reward of 500 pounds for the apprehension +of Macartney, to which the Duchess of Hamilton afterwards added a reward +of 300 pounds. + +Upon the further examination of Colonel Hamilton, it was found that +reliance could not be placed on all his statements, and that he +contradicted himself in several important particulars. He was arraigned +at the Old Bailey for the murder of Lord Mohun, the whole political +circles of London being in a fever of excitement for the result. All the +Tory party prayed for his acquittal, and a Tory mob surrounded the +doors and all the avenues leading to the court of justice for many hours +before the trial began. The examination of witnesses lasted seven hours. +The criminal still persisted in accusing General Macartney of the murder +of the Duke of Hamilton, but, in other respects, say the newspapers of +the day, prevaricated foully. He was found guilty of manslaughter. This +favourable verdict was received with universal applause, "not only from +the court and all the gentlemen present, but the common people showed a +mighty satisfaction, which they testified by loud and repeated huzzas." +["Post Boy," December l3th, 1712.] + +As the popular delirium subsided, and men began to reason coolly upon +the subject, they disbelieved the assertions of Colonel Hamilton, that +Macartney had stabbed the Duke, although it was universally admitted +that he had been much too busy and presuming. Hamilton was shunned by +all his former companions, and his life rendered so irksome to him, that +he sold out of the Guards, and retired to private life, in which he died +heart-broken four years afterwards. + +General Macartney surrendered about the same time, and was tried for +murder in the Court of King's Bench. He was, however, found guilty of +manslaughter only. + +At the opening of the session of Parliament of 1713, the Queen made +pointed allusion in her speech to the frequency of duelling, and +recommended to the Legislature to devise some speedy and effectual +remedy for it. A bill to that effect was brought forward, but thrown +out on the second reading, to the very great regret of all the sensible +portion of the community. + +A famous duel was fought in 1765 between Lord Byron and Mr. Chaworth. +The dispute arose at a club-dinner, and was relative to which of the two +had the largest quantity of game on his estates. Infuriated by wine and +passion, they retired instantly into an adjoining room, and fought with +swords across a table, by the feeble glimmer of a tallow-candle. Mr. +Chaworth, who was the more expert swordsman of the two, received a +mortal wound, and shortly afterwards expired. Lord Byron was brought +to trial for the murder before the House of Lords; and it appearing +clearly, that the duel was not premeditated, but fought at once, and +in the heat of passion, he was found guilty of manslaughter only, and +ordered to be discharged upon payment of his fees. This was a very bad +example for the country, and duelling of course fell into no disrepute +after such a verdict. + +In France, more severity was exercised. In the year 1769, the Parliament +of Grenoble took cognizance of the delinquency of the Sieur Duchelas, +one of its members, who challenged and killed in a duel a captain of the +Flemish legion. The servant of Duchelas officiated as second, and was +arraigned with his master for the murder of the captain. They were both +found guilty. Duchelas was broken alive on the wheel, and the servant +condemned to the galleys for life. + +A barbarous and fiercely-contested duel was fought in November 1778, +between two foreign adventurers, at Bath, named Count Rice and the +Vicomte du Barri. Some dispute arose relative to a gambling transaction, +in the course of which Du Barri contradicted an assertion of the other, +by saying, "That is not true!" Count Rice immediately asked him if he +knew the very disagreeable meaning of the words he had employed. Du +Barri said he was perfectly well aware of their meaning, and that Rice +might interpret them just as he pleased. A challenge was immediately +given and accepted. Seconds were sent for, who, arriving with but little +delay, the whole party, though it was not long after midnight, proceeded +to a place called Claverton Down, where they remained with a surgeon +until daylight. They then prepared for the encounter, each being armed +with two pistols and a sword. The ground having been marked out by the +seconds, Du Barri fired first, and wounded his opponent in the thigh. +Count Rice then levelled his pistol, and shot Du Barri mortally in the +breast. So angry were the combatants, that they refused to desist; both +stepped back a few paces, and then rushing forward, discharged their +second pistols at each other. Neither shot took effect, and both +throwing away their pistols, prepared to finish the sanguinary struggle +by the sword. They took their places, and were advancing towards each +other, when the Vicomte du Barri suddenly staggered, grew pale, and, +falling to the ground, exclaimed, "Je vous demande ma vie." His opponent +had but just time to answer, that he granted it, when the unfortunate +Du Barri turned upon the grass, and expired with a heavy groan. The +survivor of this savage conflict was then removed to his lodgings, where +he lay for some weeks in a dangerous state. The coroner's jury, in the +mean while, sat upon the body of Du Barri, and disgraced themselves by +returning a verdict of manslaughter only. Count Rice, upon his recovery, +was indicted for the murder notwithstanding this verdict. On his trial +he entered into a long defence of his conduct, pleading the fairness +of the duel, and its unpremeditated nature; and, at the same time, +expressing his deep regret for the unfortunate death of Du Barri, +with whom for many years he had been bound in ties of the strictest +friendship. These considerations appear to have weighed with the jury, +and this fierce duellist was again found guilty of manslaughter only, +and escaped with a merely nominal punishment. + +A duel, less remarkable from its circumstances, but more so from the +rank of the parties, took place in 1789. The combatants on this occasion +were the Duke of York and Colonel Lenox, the nephew and heir of the Duke +of Richmond. The cause of offence was given by the Duke of York, who had +said, in presence of several officers of the Guards, that words had been +used to Colonel Lenox at Daubigny's to which no gentleman ought to have +submitted. Colonel Lenox went up to the Duke on parade, and asked +him publicly whether he had made such an assertion. The Duke of York, +without answering his question, coldly ordered him to his post. When +parade was over, he took an opportunity of saying publicly in the +orderly room before Colonel Lenox, that he desired no protection from +his rank as a prince and his station as commanding officer; adding +that, when he was off duty, he wore a plain brown coat like a private +gentleman, and was ready as such to give satisfaction. Colonel Lenox +desired nothing better than satisfaction; that is to say, to run the +chance of shooting the Duke through the body, or being himself shot. +He accordingly challenged his Royal Highness, and they met on Wimbledon +Common. Colonel Lenox fired first, and the ball whizzed past the head +of his opponent, so near to it as to graze his projecting curl. The +Duke refused to return the fire, and the seconds interfering, the affair +terminated. + +Colonel Lenox was very shortly afterwards engaged in another duel +arising out of this. A Mr. Swift wrote a pamphlet in reference to the +dispute between him and the Duke of York, at some expressions in which +he took so much offence, as to imagine that nothing but a shot at the +writer could atone for them. They met on the Uxbridge Road, but no +damage was done to either party. + +The Irish were for a long time renowned for their love of duelling. The +slightest offence which it is possible to imagine that one man could +offer to another, was sufficient to provoke a challenge. Sir Jonah +Barrington relates, in his Memoirs, that, previous to the Union, during +the time of a disputed election in Dublin, it was no unusual thing for +three-and-twenty duels to be fought in a day. Even in times of less +excitement, they were so common as to be deemed unworthy of note by the +regular chroniclers of events, except in cases where one or both of the +combatants were killed. + +In those days, in Ireland, it was not only the man of the military, but +of every profession, who had to work his way to eminence with the sword +or the pistol. Each political party had its regular corps of bullies, or +fire-eaters, as they were called, who qualified themselves for being the +pests of society by spending all their spare time in firing at targets. +They boasted that they could hit an opponent in any part of his body +they pleased, and made up their minds before the encounter began whether +they should kill him, disable, or disfigure him for life--lay him on a +bed of suffering for a twelve-month, or merely graze a limb. + +The evil had reached an alarming height, when, in the year 1808, an +opportunity was afforded to King George III of showing in a striking +manner his detestation of the practice, and of setting an example to +the Irish that such murders were not to be committed with impunity. A +dispute arose, in the month of June 1807, between Major Campbell and +Captain Boyd, officers of the 21st regiment, stationed in Ireland, about +the proper manner of giving the word of command on parade. Hot words +ensued on this slight occasion, and the result was a challenge from +Campbell to Boyd. They retired into the mess-room shortly afterwards, +and each stationed himself at a corner, the distance obliquely being but +seven paces. Here, without friends or seconds being present, they fired +at each other, and Captain Boyd fell mortally wounded between the fourth +and fifth ribs. A surgeon who came in shortly, found him sitting in a +chair, vomiting and suffering great agony. He was led into another room, +Major Campbell following, in great distress and perturbation of mind. +Boyd survived but eighteen hours; and just before his death, said, in +reply to a question from his opponent, that the duel was not fair, and +added, "You hurried me, Campbell--you're a bad man."----"Good God!" +replied Campbell, "will you mention before these gentlemen, was not +everything fair? Did you not say that you were ready?" Boyd answered +faintly, "Oh, no! you know I wanted you to wait and have friends." On +being again asked whether all was fair, the dying man faintly murmured +"Yes:" but in a minute after, he said, "You're a bad man!" Campbell +was now in great agitation, and wringing his hands convulsively, he +exclaimed, "Oh, Boyd! you are the happiest man of the two! Do you +forgive me?" Boyd replied, "I forgive you--I feel for you, as I know you +do for me." He shortly afterwards expired, and Major Campbell made his +escape from Ireland, and lived for some months with his family under +an assumed name, in the neighbourhood of Chelsea. He was, however, +apprehended, and brought to trial at Armagh, in August 1808. He said +while in prison, that, if found guilty of murder, he should suffer as an +example to duellists in Ireland; but he endeavoured to buoy himself up, +with the hope that the jury would only convict him of manslaughter. +It was proved in evidence upon the trial, that the duel was not fought +immediately after the offence was given, but that Major Campbell went +home and drank tea with his family, before he sought Boyd for the fatal +encounter. The jury returned a verdict of wilful murder against him, +but recommended him to mercy on the ground that the duel had been a fair +one. He was condemned to die on the Monday following, but was afterwards +respited for a few days longer. In the mean time the greatest exertions +were made in his behalf. His unfortunate wife went upon her knees before +the Prince of Wales, to move him to use his influence with the King, in +favour of her unhappy husband. Everything a fond wife and a courageous +woman could do, she tried, to gain the royal clemency; but George III +was inflexible, in consequence of the representations of the Irish +Viceroy that an example was necessary. The law was therefore allowed +to take its course, and the victim of a false spirit of honour died the +death of a felon. + +The most inveterate duellists of the present day are the students in the +Universities of Germany. They fight on the most frivolous pretences, +and settle with swords and pistols the schoolboy disputes which in other +countries are arranged by the more harmless medium of the fisticuffs. It +was at one time the custom among these savage youths to prefer the sword +combat, for the facility it gave them of cutting off the noses of their +opponents. To disfigure them in this manner was an object of ambition, +and the German duellists reckoned the number of these disgusting +trophies which they had borne away, with as much satisfaction as a +successful general the provinces he had reduced or the cities he had +taken. + +But it would be wearisome to enter into the minute detail of all the +duels of modern times. If an examination were made into the general +causes which produced them, it would be found that in every case +they had been either of the most trivial or the most unworthy nature. +Parliamentary duels were at one time very common, and amongst the +names of those who have soiled a great reputation by conforming to the +practice, may be mentioned those of Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, +Wilkes, Pitt, Fox, Grattan, Curran, Tierney, and Canning. So difficult +is it even for the superior mind to free itself from the trammels with +which foolish opinion has enswathed it--not one of these celebrated +persons who did not in his secret soul condemn the folly to which he +lent himself. The bonds of reason, though iron-strong, are easily burst +through; but those of folly, though lithe and frail as the rushes by a +stream, defy the stoutest heart to snap them asunder. Colonel Thomas, +an officer of the Guards, who was killed in a duel, added the following +clause to his will the night before he died:--"In the first place, I +commit my soul to Almighty God, in hope of his mercy and pardon for the +irreligious step I now (in compliance with the unwarrantable customs of +this wicked world) put myself under the necessity of taking." How many +have been in the same state of mind as this wise, foolish man! He knew +his error, and abhorred it, but could not resist it, for fear of the +opinion of the prejudiced and unthinking. No other could have blamed him +for refusing to fight a duel. + +The list of duels that have sprung from the most degrading causes might +be stretched out to an almost indefinite extent. Sterne's father +fought a duel about a goose; and the great Raleigh about a tavern +bill. [Raleigh, at one period of his life, appeared to be an inveterate +duellist, and it was said of him that he had been engaged in more +encounters of the kind than any man of note among his contemporaries. +More than one fellow-creature he had deprived of life; but he lived +long enough to be convinced of the sinfulness of his conduct, and made +a solemn vow never to fight another duel. The following anecdote of his +forbearance is well known, but it will bear repetition:-- + +A dispute arose in a coffee-house between him and a young man on some +trivial point, and the latter, losing his temper, impertinently spat in +the face of the veteran. Sir Walter, instead of running him through +the body, as many would have done, or challenging him to mortal combat, +coolly took out his handkerchief, wiped his face, and said, "Young man, +if I could as easily wipe from my conscience the stain of killing you, +as I can this spittle from my face, you should not live another minute." +The young man immediately begged his pardon.] Scores of duels (many of +them fatal) have been fought from disputes at cards, or a place at a +theatre, while hundreds of challenges, given and accepted over-night, in +a fit of drunkenness, have been fought out the next morning to the death +of one or both of the antagonists. + +Two of the most notorious duels of modern times had their origin in +causes no more worthy than the quarrel of a dog and the favour of a +prostitute: that between Macnamara and Montgomery arising from the +former; and that between Best and Lord Camelford, from the latter. The +dog of Montgomery attacked a dog belonging to Macnamara, and each master +interfering in behalf of his own animal, high words ensued. The result +was the giving and accepting a challenge to mortal combat. The parties +met on the following day, when Montgomery was shot dead, and his +antagonist severely wounded. This affair created a great sensation at +the time, and Heaviside, the surgeon who attended at the fatal field to +render his assistance, if necessary, was arrested as an accessory to the +murder, and committed to Newgate. + +In the duel between Best and Lord Camelford, two pistols were used +which were considered to be the best in England. One of them was thought +slightly superior to the other, and it was agreed that the belligerents +should toss up a piece of money to decide the choice of weapons. Best +gained it, and, at the first discharge, Lord Camelford fell, mortally +wounded. But little sympathy was expressed for his fate; he was a +confirmed duellist, had been engaged in many meetings of the kind, and +the blood of more than one fellow-creature lay at his door. As he had +sowed, so did he reap; and the violent man met an appropriate death. + +It now only remains to notice the means that have been taken to stay the +prevalence of this madness of false honour in the various countries +of the civilized world. The efforts of the governments of France and +England have already been mentioned, and their want of success is +but too well known. The same efforts have been attended with the same +results elsewhere. In despotic countries, where the will of the monarch +has been strongly expressed and vigorously supported, a diminution of +the evil has for a while resulted, but only to be increased again, when +death relaxed the iron grasp, and a successor appeared of less decided +opinions upon the subject. This was the case in Prussia under the great +Frederick, of whose aversion to duelling a popular anecdote is recorded. +It is stated of him that he permitted duelling in his army, but only +upon the condition that the combatants should fight in presence of a +whole battalion of infantry, drawn up on purpose, to see fair play. The +latter received strict orders, when one of the belligerents fell, to +shoot the other immediately. It is added, that the known determination +of the King effectually put a stop to the practice. + +The Emperor Joseph II of Austria was as firm as Frederick, although the +measures he adopted were not so singular. The following letter explains +his views on the subject:-- + +"To GENERAL * * * * * + +"MY GENERAL, + +"You will immediately arrest the Count of K. and Captain W. The Count is +young, passionate, and influenced by wrong notions of birth and a false +spirit of honour. Captain W. is an old soldier, who will adjust every +dispute with the sword and pistol, and who has received the challenge of +the young Count with unbecoming warmth. + +"I will suffer no duelling in my army. I despise the principles of +those who attempt to justify the practice, and who would run each other +through the body in cold blood. + +"When I have officers who bravely expose themselves to every danger +in facing the enemy--who at all times exhibit courage, valour, and +resolution in attack and defence, I esteem them highly. The coolness +with which they meet death on such occasions is serviceable to their +country, and at the same time redounds to their own honour; but should +there be men amongst them who are ready to sacrifice everything to their +vengeance and hatred, I despise them. I consider such a man as no better +than a Roman gladiator. + +"Order a court-martial to try the two officers. Investigate the subject +of their dispute with that impartiality which I demand from every judge; +and he that is guilty, let him be a sacrifice to his fate and the laws. + +"Such a barbarous custom, which suits the age of the Tamerlanes and +Bajazets, and which has often had such melancholy effects on single +families, I will have suppressed and punished, even if it should deprive +me of one half of my officers. There are still men who know how to unite +the character of a hero with that of a good subject; and he only can be +so who respects the laws. + +"JOSEPH." + +"August 1771." + +[Vide the Letters of Joseph II to distinguished Princes and Statesmen, +published for the first time in England in "The Pamphleteer" for 1821. +They were originally published in Germany a few years previously, and +throw a great light upon the character of that monarch and the events of +his reign.] + +In the United States of America the code varies considerably. In one or +two of the still wild and simple States of the Far West, where no duel +has yet been fought, there is no specific law upon the subject beyond +that in the Decalogue, which says, "Thou shalt do no murder." But +duelling everywhere follows the steps of modern civilization, and by the +time the backwoodsman is transformed into the citizen, he has imbibed +the false notions of honour which are prevalent in Europe, and around +him, and is ready, like his progenitors, to settle his differences +with the pistol. In the majority of the States the punishment for +challenging, fighting, or acting as second, is solitary imprisonment and +hard labour for any period less than a year, and disqualification for +serving any public office for twenty years. In Vermont the punishment +is total disqualification for office, deprivation of the rights of +citizenship, and a fine; in fatal cases, the same punishment as that of +murderers. In Rhode Island, the combatant, though death does not ensue, +is liable to be carted to the gallows, with a rope about his neck, and +to sit in this trim for an hour, exposed to the peltings of the mob. He +may be further imprisoned for a year, at the option of the magistrate. +In Connecticut the punishment is total disqualification for office or +employ, and a fine, varying from one hundred to a thousand dollars. The +laws of Illinois require certain officers of the state to make oath, +previous to their instalment, that they have never been, nor ever will +be, concerned in a duel. ["Encyclopedia Americana," art. Duelling.] + +Amongst the edicts against duelling promulgated at various times in +Europe, may be mentioned that of Augustus King of Poland, in 1712, which +decreed the punishment of death against principals and seconds, and +minor punishments against the bearers of a challenge. An edict was also +published at Munich, in 1773, according to which both principals and +seconds, even in duels where no one was either killed or wounded, should +be hanged, and their bodies buried at the foot of the gallows. The King +of Naples issued an ordinance against duelling in 1838, in which the +punishment of death is decreed against all concerned in a fatal +duel. The bodies of those killed, and of those who may be executed in +consequence, are to be buried in unconsecrated ground, and without any +religious ceremony; nor is any monument to be erected on the spot. The +punishment for duels in which either, or both, are wounded, and for +those in which no damage whatever is done, varies according to the +case, and consists of fine, imprisonment, loss of rank and honours, and +incapacity for filling any public situation. Bearers of challenges may +also be punished with fine and imprisonment. + +It might be imagined that enactments so severe all over the civilized +world would finally eradicate a custom, the prevalence of which every +wise and good man must deplore. But the frowns of the law never yet have +taught, and never will teach, men to desist from this practice, as long +as it is felt that the lawgiver sympathises with it in his heart. The +stern judge upon the bench may say to the unfortunate wight who has been +called a liar by some unmannerly opponent, "If you challenge him, you +meditate murder, and are guilty of murder!" but the same judge, divested +of his robes of state, and mixing in the world with other men, would +say, "If you do not challenge him, if you do not run the risk of making +yourself a murderer, you will be looked upon as a mean-spirited wretch, +unfit to associate with your fellows, and deserving nothing but their +scorn and their contempt!" It is society, and not the duellist, who is +to blame. Female influence, too, which is so powerful in leading men +either to good or to evil, takes, in this case, the evil part. Mere +animal bravery has, unfortunately, such charms in the female eye, that a +successful duellist is but too often regarded as a sort of hero; and +the man who refuses to fight, though of truer courage, is thought a +poltroon, who may be trampled on. Mr. Graves, a member of the American +Legislature, who, early in 1838, killed a Mr. Cilley in a duel, truly +and eloquently said, on the floor of the House of Representatives, when +lamenting the unfortunate issue of that encounter, that society was more +to blame than he was. "Public opinion," said the repentant orator, "is +practically the paramount law of the land. Every other law, both human +and divine, ceases to be observed; yea, withers and perishes in contact +with it. It was this paramount law of this nation, and of this House, +that forced me, under the penalty of dishonour, to subject myself to the +code, which impelled me unwillingly into this tragical affair. Upon the +heads of this nation, and at the doors of this House, rests the blood +with which my unfortunate hands have been stained!" + +As long as society is in this mood; as long as it thinks that the man +who refuses to resent an insult, deserved that insult, and should be +scouted accordingly, so long, it is to be feared, will duelling exist, +however severe the laws may be. Men must have redress for injuries +inflicted, and when those injuries are of such a nature that no tribunal +will take cognizance of them, the injured will take the law into their +own hands, and right themselves in the opinion of their fellows, at +the hazard of their lives. Much as the sage may affect to despise the +opinion of the world, there are few who would not rather expose their +lives a hundred times than be condemned to live on, in society, but not +of it--a by-word of reproach to all who know their history, and a mark +for scorn to point his finger at. + +The only practicable means for diminishing the force of a custom which +is the disgrace of civilization, seems to be the establishment of a +court of honour, which should take cognizance of all those delicate +and almost intangible offences which yet wound so deeply. The court +established by Louis XIV might be taken as a model. No man now fights a +duel when a fit apology has been offered, and it should be the duty of +this court to weigh dispassionately the complaint of every man injured +in his honour, either by word or deed, and to force the offender to make +a public apology. If he refused the apology, he would be the breaker of +a second law; an offender against a high court, as well as against the +man he had injured, and might be punished with fine and imprisonment, +the latter to last until he saw the error of his conduct, and made the +concession which the court demanded. + +If, after the establishment of this tribunal, men should be found of +a nature so bloodthirsty as not to be satisfied with its peaceful +decisions, and should resort to the old and barbarous mode of an appeal +to the pistol, some means might be found of dealing with them. To hang +them as murderers would be of no avail; for to such men death would have +few terrors. Shame alone would bring them to reason. The following +code, it is humbly suggested to all future legislators upon the subject, +would, in conjunction with the establishment of a court of honour, do +much towards eradicating this blot from society. Every man who fought a +duel, even though he did not wound his opponent, should be tried, and, +upon proof of the fact, be sentenced to have his right hand cut off. +The world would then know his true character as long as he lived. If +his habits of duelling were so inveterate, and he should learn to fire +a pistol with his left hand, he should, upon conviction of a second +offence, lose that hand also. This law, which should allow no +commutation of the punishment, under any circumstances, would lend +strength and authority to the court of honour. In the course of a few +years duelling would be ranked amongst exploded follies, and men would +begin to wonder that a custom so barbarous and so impious had ever +existed amongst them. + + + + +THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE. + + +"Well, son John," said the old woman, "and what wonderful things did you +meet with all the time you were at sea?"--"Oh! mother," replied John, "I +saw many strange things."--"Tell us all about them," replied his mother, +"for I long to hear your adventures."--"Well, then," said John, "as +we were sailing over the Line, what do you think we saw?"--"I can't +imagine," replied his mother.--"Well, we saw a fish rise out of the sea, +and fly over our ship!" "Oh! John! John! what a liar you are!" said his +mother, shaking her head, and smiling incredulously. "True as death? +said John; "and we saw still more wonderful things than that."--"Let +us hear them," said his mother, shaking her head again; "and tell +the truth, John, if you can."--"Believe it, or believe it not, as you +please," replied her son; "but as we were sailing up the Red Sea, our +captain thought he should like some fish for dinner; so he told us to +throw our nets, and catch some."--"Well," inquired his mother, seeing +that he paused in his story. "Well," rejoined her son, "we did throw +them, and, at the very first haul, we brought up a chariot-wheel, +made all of gold, and inlaid with diamonds!" "Lord bless us!" said his +mother, "and what did the captain say?"--"Why, he said it was one of +the wheels of Pharaoh's chariot, that had lain in the Red Sea ever since +that wicked King was drowned, with all his host, while pursuing the +Israelites."--"Well, well," said his mother, lifting up her hands in +admiration; "now, that's very possible, and I think the captain was a +very sensible man. Tell me such stories as that, and I'll believe you; +but never talk to me of such things as flying fish! No, no, John, such +stories won't go down with me, I can assure you!" + +Such old women as the sailor's mother, in the above well-known anecdote, +are by no means rare in the world. Every age and country has produced +them. They have been found in high places, and have sat down among the +learned of the earth. Instances must be familiar to every reader in +which the same person was willing, with greedy credulity, to swallow +the most extravagant fiction, and yet refuse credence to a philosophical +fact. The same Greeks who believed readily that Jupiter wooed Leda in +the form of a swan, denied stoutly that there were any physical causes +for storms and thunder, and treated as impious those who attempted to +account for them on true philosophical principles. + +The reasons that thus lead mankind to believe the marvellously false, +and to disbelieve the marvellously true, may be easily gathered. Of +all the offspring of Time, Error is the most ancient, and is so old and +familiar an acquaintance, that Truth, when discovered, comes upon most +of us like an intruder, and meets the intruder's welcome. We all pay an +involuntary homage to antiquity--a "blind homage," as Bacon calls it in +his "Novum Organum," which tends greatly to the obstruction of truth. +To the great majority of mortal eyes, Time sanctifies everything that +he does not destroy. The mere fact of anything being spared by the great +foe makes it a favourite with us, who are sure to fall his victims. To +call a prejudice "time-hallowed," is to open a way for it into hearts +where it never before penetrated. Some peculiar custom may disgrace the +people amongst whom it flourishes; yet men of a little wisdom refuse to +aid in its extirpation, merely because it is old. Thus it is with human +belief, and thus it is we bring shame upon our own intellect. + +To this cause may be added another, also mentioned by Lord Bacon--a +misdirected zeal in matters of religion, which induces so many to decry +a newly-discovered truth, because the Divine records contain no allusion +to it, or because, at first sight, it appears to militate, not against +religion, but against some obscure passage which has never been fairly +interpreted. The old woman in the story could not believe that there was +such a creature as a flying-fish, because her Bible did not tell her +so, but she believed that her son had drawn up the golden and bejewelled +wheel from the Red Sea, because her Bible informed her that Pharaoh was +drowned there. + +Upon a similar principle the monks of the inquisition believed that the +devil appeared visibly among men, that St. Anthony pulled his nose with +a pair of red-hot pincers, and that the relics of the saints worked +miracles; yet they would not believe Galileo, when he proved that the +earth turned round the sun. + +Keppler, when he asserted the same fact, could gain no bread, and little +credence; but when he pretended to tell fortunes and cast nativities, +the whole town flocked to him, and paid him enormous fees for his +falsehood. + +When Roger Bacon invented the telescope and the magic-lantern, no one +believed that the unaided ingenuity of man could have done it; but when +some wiseacres asserted that the devil had appeared to him, and given +him the knowledge which he turned to such account, no one was bold +enough to assert that it was improbable. His hint that saltpetre, +sulphur, and charcoal, mixed in certain proportions, would produce +effects similar to thunder and lightning, was disregarded or +disbelieved; but the legend of the brazen head which delivered oracles, +was credited for many ages. + +[Godwin, in his "Lives of the Necromancers," gives the following version +of this legend. Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay entertained the project of +enclosing England with a wall, so as to render it inaccessible to any +invader. They accordingly raised the devil, as the person best able to +inform them how this was to be done. The devil advised them to make a +brazen head, with all the internal structure and organs of a human head. +The construction would cost them much time, and they must wait with +patience till the faculty of speech descended upon it. Finally, however, +it would become an oracle, and, if the question were propounded to it, +would teach them the solution of their problem. The friars spent seven +years in bringing the subject to perfection, and waited day after day +in expectation that it would utter articulate sounds. At length nature +became exhausted in them, and they lay down to sleep, having first given +it strictly in charge to a servant of theirs, clownish in nature, but of +strict fidelity, that he should awaken them the moment the image began +to speak. That period arrived. The head uttered sounds, but such as +the clown judged unworthy of notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was +taken, and a long pause ensued. "Time was!"--a similar pause, and +no notice. "Time is passed!" The moment these words were uttered, a +tremendous storm ensued, with thunder and lightning, and the head was +shivered into a thousand pieces. Thus the experiment of Friar Bacon and +Friar Bungay came to nothing.] + +Solomon De Cans, who, in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, conceived the +idea of a steam-engine, was shut up in the Bastille as a madman, because +the idea of such an extraordinary instrument was too preposterous for +the wise age that believed in all the absurdities of witchcraft. + +When Harvey first proved the circulation of the blood, every tongue was +let loose against him. The thing was too obviously an imposition, and +an attempt to deceive that public who believed that a king's touch had +power to cure the scrofula. That a dead criminal's hand, rubbed against +a wen, would cure it, was reasonable enough; but that the blood flowed +through the veins was beyond all probability. + +In our own day, a similar fate awaited the beneficent discovery of Dr. +Jenner. That vaccination could abate the virulence of, or preserve from, +the smallpox, was quite incredible; none but a cheat and a quack could +assert it: but that the introduction of the vaccine matter into the +human frame could endow men with the qualities of a cow, was quite +probable. Many of the poorer people actually dreaded that their children +would grow hairy and horned as cattle, if they suffered them to be +vaccinated. + +The Jesuit, Father Labat, the shrewd and learned traveller in South +America, relates an experiment which he made upon the credulity of some +native Peruvians. Holding a powerful lens in his hand, and concentrating +the rays of the sun upon the naked arm of an admiring savage, he soon +made him roar with pain. All the tribe looked on, first with wonder, and +then with indignation and wonder both combined. In vain the philosopher +attempted to explain the cause of the phenomenon--in vain he offered to +convince them that there was nothing devilish in the experiment--he was +thought to be in league with the infernal gods to draw down the fire +from Heaven, and was looked upon, himself, as an awful and supernatural +being. Many attempts were made to gain possession of the lens, with the +view of destroying it, and thereby robbing the Western stranger of the +means of bringing upon them the vengeance of his deities. + +Very similar was the conduct of that inquiring Brahmin, which is +related by Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs. The Brahmin had a mind +better cultivated than his fellows; he was smitten with a love for the +knowledge of Europe--read English books--pored over the pages of the +Encyclopedia, and profited by various philosophical instruments; but on +religious questions the Brahmin was firm to the faith of his caste and +the doctrine of the Metempsychosis. Lest he might sacrilegiously devour +his progenitors, he abstained from all animal food; and thinking that he +ate nothing which enjoyed life, he supported himself, like his brethren, +upon fruits and vegetables. All the knowledge that did not run counter +to this belief, he sought after with avidity, and bade fair to become +the wisest of his race. In an evil hour, his English friend and +instructor exhibited a very powerful solar microscope, by means of +which he showed him that every drop of water that he drank teemed +with life--that every fruit was like a world, covered with innumerable +animalculae, each of which was fitted by its organization for the sphere +in which it moved, and had its wants, and the capability of supplying +them as completely as visible animals millions of times its bulk. The +English philosopher expected that his Hindoo friend would be enraptured +at the vast field of knowledge thus suddenly opened out to him, but +he was deceived. The Brahmin from that time became an altered +man--thoughtful, gloomy, reserved, and discontented. He applied +repeatedly to his friend that he would make him a present of the +microscope; but as it was the only one of its kind in India, and the +owner set a value upon it for other reasons, he constantly refused the +request, but offered him the loan of it for any period he might require. +But nothing short of an unconditional gift of the instrument would +satisfy the Brahmin, who became at last so importunate that the patience +of the Englishman was exhausted, and he gave it him. A gleam of joy +shot across the care-worn features of the Hindoo as he clutched it, and +bounding with an exulting leap into the garden, he seized a large stone, +and dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces. When called upon to +explain his extraordinary conduct, he said to his friend, "Oh that I had +remained in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first found me! +Yet will I confess that, as my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, +until I beheld the last wonders of the microscope; from that moment +I have been tormented by doubt and perplexed by mystery: my mind, +overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest, nor how to +extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue +to be so, until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a solitary +individual among fifty millions of people, all educated in the same +belief with myself--all happy in their ignorance! So may they ever +remain! I shall keep the secret within my own bosom, where it will +corrode my peace and break my rest. But I shall have some satisfaction +in knowing that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed +the instrument, might have been extensively communicated, and rendered +thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable friend! and oh, convey no +more implements of knowledge and destruction!" + +Many a learned man may smile at the ignorance of the Peruvian and +the Hindoo, unconscious that he himself is just as ignorant and as +prejudiced. Who does not remember the outcry against the science of +geology, which has hardly yet subsided? Its professors were impiously +and absurdly accused of designing to "hurl the Creator from his throne." +They were charged with sapping the foundations of religion, and of +propping atheism by the aid of a pretended science. + +The very same principle which leads to the rejection of the true, leads +to the encouragement of the false. Thus we may account for the success +which has attended great impostors, at times when the truth, though +not half so wondrous as their impositions, has been disregarded as +extravagant and preposterous. The man who wishes to cheat the people, +must needs found his operations upon some prejudice or belief that +already exists. Thus the philosophic pretenders who told fortunes by +the stars cured all diseases by one nostrum, and preserved from evil by +charms and amulets, ran with the current of popular belief. Errors +that were consecrated by time and long familiarity, they heightened and +embellished, and succeeded to their hearts' content; but the preacher of +truth had a foundation to make as well as a superstructure, a difficulty +which did not exist for the preacher of error. Columbus preached a new +world, but was met with distrust and incredulity; had he preached with +as much zeal and earnestness the discovery of some valley in the old +one, where diamonds hung upon the trees, or a herb grew that cured all +the ills incidental to humanity, he would have found a warm and hearty +welcome--might have sold dried cabbage leaves for his wonderful herb, +and made his fortune. + +In fact, it will be found in the history of every generation and race of +men, that whenever a choice of belief between the "Wondrously False" +and the "Wondrously True" is given to ignorance or prejudice, that their +choice will be fixed upon the first, for the reason that it is most +akin to their own nature. The great majority of mankind, and even of +the wisest among us, are still in the condition of the sailor's +mother--believing and disbelieving on the same grounds that she +did--protesting against the flying fish, but cherishing the golden +wheels. Thousands there are amongst us, who, rather than pin their faith +in the one fish, would believe not only in the wheel of gold, but the +chariot--not only in the chariot, but in the horses and the driver. + + + + +POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + + + La faridondaine--la faridondon, + Vive la faridondaine! + + BERANGER. + +The popular humours of a great city are a never-failing source of +amusement to the man whose sympathies are hospitable enough to embrace +all his kind, and who, refined though he may be himself, will not sneer +at the humble wit or grotesque peculiarities of the boozing mechanic, +the squalid beggar, the vicious urchin, and all the motley group of +the idle, the reckless, and the imitative that swarm in the alleys and +broadways of a metropolis. He who walks through a great city to find +subjects for weeping, may, God knows, find plenty at every corner to +wring his heart; but let such a man walk on his course, and enjoy his +grief alone--we are not of those who would accompany him. The miseries +of us poor earth-dwellers gain no alleviation from the sympathy of +those who merely hunt them out to be pathetic over them. The weeping +philosopher too often impairs his eyesight by his woe, and becomes +unable from his tears to see the remedies for the evils which he +deplores. Thus it will often be found that the man of no tears is the +truest philanthropist, as he is the best physician who wears a cheerful +face, even in the worst of cases. + +So many pens have been employed to point out the miseries, and so +many to condemn the crimes and vices, and more serious follies of the +multitude, that our's shall not increase the number, at least in this +chapter. Our present task shall be less ungracious, and wandering +through the busy haunts of great cities, we shall seek only for +amusement, and note as we pass a few of the harmless follies and +whimsies of the poor. + +And, first of all, walk where we will, we cannot help hearing from every +side a phrase repeated with delight, and received with laughter, by +men with hard hands and dirty faces--by saucy butcher lads and +errand-boys--by loose women--by hackney coachmen, cabriolet drivers, and +idle fellows who loiter at the corners of streets. Not one utters this +phrase without producing a laugh from all within hearing. It seems +applicable to every circumstance, and is the universal answer to every +question; in short, it is the favourite slang phrase of the day, a +phrase that, while its brief season of popularity lasts, throws a dash +of fun and frolicsomeness over the existence of squalid poverty and +ill-requited labour, and gives them reason to laugh as well as their +more fortunate fellows in a higher stage of society. + +London is peculiarly fertile in this sort of phrases, which spring +up suddenly, no one knows exactly in what spot, and pervade the +whole population in a few hours, no one knows how. Many years ago the +favourite phrase (for, though but a monosyllable, it was a phrase in +itself) was Quoz. This odd word took the fancy of the multitude in +an extraordinary degree, and very soon acquired an almost boundless +meaning. When vulgar wit wished to mark its incredulity and raise a +laugh at the same time, there was no resource so sure as this popular +piece of slang. When a man was asked a favour which he did not choose to +grant, he marked his sense of the suitor's unparalleled presumption by +exclaiming Quoz! When a mischievous urchin wished to annoy a passenger, +and create mirth for his chums, he looked him in the face, and cried out +Quoz! and the exclamation never failed in its object. When a disputant +was desirous of throwing a doubt upon the veracity of his opponent, and +getting summarily rid of an argument which he could not overturn, +he uttered the word Quoz, with a contemptuous curl of his lip and an +impatient shrug of his shoulders. The universal monosyllable conveyed +all his meaning, and not only told his opponent that he lied, but that +he erred egregiously if he thought that any one was such a nincompoop as +to believe him. Every alehouse resounded with Quoz; every street corner +was noisy with it, and every wall for miles around was chalked with it. + +But, like all other earthly things, Quoz had its season, and passed away +as suddenly as it arose, never again to be the pet and the idol of the +populace. A new claimant drove it from its place, and held undisputed +sway till, in its turn, it was hurled from its pre-eminence, and a +successor appointed in its stead. + +"What a shocking bad hat!" was the phrase that was next in vogue. No +sooner had it become universal, than thousands of idle but sharp eyes +were on the watch for the passenger whose hat showed any signs, however +slight, of ancient service. Immediately the cry arose, and, like the +what-whoop of the Indians, was repeated by a hundred discordant throats. +He was a wise man who, finding himself under these circumstances "the +observed of all observers," bore his honours meekly. He who showed +symptoms of ill-feeling at the imputations cast upon his hat, only +brought upon himself redoubled notice. The mob soon perceive whether a +man is irritable, and, if of their own class, they love to make sport of +him. When such a man, and with such a hat, passed in those days through +a crowded neighbourhood, he might think himself fortunate if his +annoyances were confined to the shouts and cries of the populace. The +obnoxious hat was often snatched from his head, and thrown into the +gutter by some practical joker, and then raised, covered with mud, upon +the end of a stick, for the admiration of the spectators, who held their +sides with laughter, and exclaimed in the pauses of their mirth, "Oh! +what a shocking bad hat!... What a shocking bad hat!" Many a nervous, +poor man, whose purse could but ill spare the outlay, doubtless +purchased a new hat before the time, in order to avoid exposure in this +manner. + +The origin of this singular saying, which made fun for the metropolis +for months, is not involved in the same obscurity as that which shrouds +the origin of Quoz and some others. There had been a hotly-contested +election for the borough of Southwark, and one of the candidates was an +eminent hatter. This gentleman, in canvassing the electors, adopted +a somewhat professional mode of conciliating their good-will, and +of bribing them without letting them perceive that they were bribed. +Whenever he called upon or met a voter whose hat was not of the best +material, or, being so, had seen its best days, he invariably said, +"What a shocking bad hat you have got; call at my warehouse, and you +shall have a new one!" Upon the day of election this circumstance was +remembered, and his opponents made the most of it, by inciting the crowd +to keep up an incessant cry of "What a shocking bad hat!" all the time +the honourable candidate was addressing them. From Southwark the phrase +spread over all London, and reigned, for a time, the supreme slang of +the season. + +Hookey Walker, derived from the chorus of a popular ballad, was also +high in favour at one time, and served, like its predecessor, Quoz, to +answer all questions. In the course of time the latter word alone became +the favourite, and was uttered with a peculiar drawl upon the first +syllable, and a sharp turn upon the last. If a lively servant girl was +importuned for a kiss by a fellow she did not care about, she cocked her +little nose, and cried "Walker!" If a dustman asked his friend for the +loan of a shilling, and his friend was either unable or unwilling to +accommodate him, the probable answer he would receive was "Walker!" If +a drunken man was reeling along the streets, and a boy pulled his +coat-tails, or a man knocked his hat over his eyes to make fun of him, +the joke was always accompanied by the same exclamation. This lasted for +two or three months, and "Walker!" walked off the stage, never more to +be revived for the entertainment of that or any future generation. + +The next phrase was a most preposterous one. Who invented it, how it +arose, or where it was first heard, are alike unknown. Nothing about it +is certain, but that for months it was the slang par excellence of the +Londoners, and afforded them a vast gratification. "There he goes with +his eye out!" or "There she goes with her eye out!" as the sex of the +party alluded to might be, was in the mouth of everybody who knew the +town. The sober part of the community were as much puzzled by this +unaccountable saying as the vulgar were delighted with it. The wise +thought it very foolish, but the many thought it very funny, and the +idle amused themselves by chalking it upon walls, or scribbling it upon +monuments. But, "all that's bright must fade," even in slang. The people +grew tired of their hobby, and "There he goes with his eye out!" was +heard no more in its accustomed haunts. + +Another very odd phrase came into repute in a brief space afterwards, +in the form of the impertinent and not universally apposite query, +"Has your mother sold her mangle?" But its popularity was not of that +boisterous and cordial kind which ensures a long continuance of favour. +What tended to impede its progress was, that it could not be well +applied to the older portions of society. It consequently ran but a +brief career, and then sank into oblivion. Its successor enjoyed a more +extended fame, and laid its foundations so deep, that years and changing +fashions have not sufficed to eradicate it. This phrase was "Flare up!" +and it is, even now, a colloquialism in common use. It took its rise in +the time of the Reform riots, when Bristol was nearly half burned by +the infuriated populace. The flames were said to have flared up in the +devoted city. Whether there was anything peculiarly captivating in the +sound, or in the idea of these words, is hard to say; but whatever was +the reason, it tickled the mob-fancy mightily, and drove all other slang +out of the field before it. Nothing was to be heard all over London but +"flare up!" It answered all questions, settled all disputes, was applied +to all persons, all things, and all circumstances, and became suddenly +the most comprehensive phrase in the English language. The man who had +overstepped the bounds of decorum in his speech was said to have flared +up; he who had paid visits too repeated to the gin-shop, and got damaged +in consequence, had flared up. To put one's-self into a passion; to +stroll out on a nocturnal frolic, and alarm a neighbourhood, or to +create a disturbance in any shape, was to flare up. A lovers' quarrel +was a fare up; so was a boxing-match between two blackguards in the +streets, and the preachers of sedition and revolution recommended the +English nation to flare up, like the French. So great a favourite +was the word, that people loved to repeat it for its very sound. They +delighted apparently in hearing their own organs articulate it; and +labouring men, when none who could respond to the call were within +hearing, would often startle the aristocratic echoes of the West by +the well-known slang phrase of the East. Even in the dead hours of the +night, the ears of those who watched late, or who could not sleep, were +saluted with the same sound. The drunkard reeling home showed that he +was still a man and a citizen, by calling "flare up" in the pauses of +his hiccough. Drink had deprived him of the power of arranging all other +ideas; his intellect was sunk to the level of the brute's; but he clung +to humanity by the one last link of the popular cry. While he could +vociferate that sound, he had rights as an Englishman, and would not +sleep in a gutter, like a dog! Onwards he went, disturbing quiet streets +and comfortable people by his whoop, till exhausted nature could support +him no more, and he rolled powerless into the road. When, in due time +afterwards, the policeman stumbled upon him as he lay, that guardian +of the peace turned the full light of his lantern on his face, and +exclaimed, "Here's a poor devil who's been flaring up!" Then came the +stretcher, on which the victim of deep potations was carried to the +watchhouse, and pitched into a dirty cell, among a score of wretches +about as far gone as himself, who saluted their new comrade by a loud, +long shout of flare up! + +So universal was this phrase, and so enduring seemed its popularity, +that a speculator, who knew not the evanescence of slang, established a +weekly newspaper under its name. But he was like the man who built his +house upon the sand; his foundation gave way under him, and the phrase +and the newspaper were washed into the mighty sea of the things that +were. The people grew at last weary of the monotony, and "flare up" +became vulgar even among them. Gradually it was left to little boys +who did not know the world, and in process of time sank altogether into +neglect. It is now heard no more as a piece of popular slang; but the +words are still used to signify any sudden outburst either of fire, +disturbance, or ill-nature. + +The next phrase that enjoyed the favour of the million was less concise, +and seems to have been originally aimed against precocious youths who +gave themselves the airs of manhood before their time. "Does your mother +know you're out?" was the provoking query addressed to young men of +more than reasonable swagger, who smoked cigars in the streets, and +wore false whiskers to look irresistible. We have seen many a conceited +fellow who could not suffer a woman to pass him without staring her out +of countenance, reduced at once into his natural insignificance by the +mere utterance of this phrase. Apprentice lads and shopmen in their +Sunday clothes held the words in abhorrence, and looked fierce when they +were applied to them. Altogether the phrase had a very salutary effect, +and in a thousand instances showed young Vanity, that it was not half so +pretty and engaging as it thought itself. What rendered it so provoking +was the doubt it implied as to the capability of self-guidance possessed +by the individual to whom it was addressed. "Does your mother know +you're out?" was a query of mock concern and solicitude, implying regret +and concern that one so young and inexperienced in the ways of a great +city should be allowed to wander abroad without the guidance of a +parent. Hence the great wrath of those who verged on manhood, but had +not reached it, whenever they were made the subject of it. Even older +heads did not like it; and the heir of a ducal house, and inheritor of a +warrior's name, to whom they were applied by a cabriolet driver, who was +ignorant of his rank, was so indignant at the affront, that he summoned +the offender before the magisterial bench. The fellow had wished to +impose upon his Lordship by asking double the fare he was entitled to, +and when his Lordship resisted the demand, he was insultingly asked "if +his mother knew he was out?" All the drivers on the stand joined in the +query, and his Lordship was fain to escape their laughter by walking +away with as much haste as his dignity would allow. The man pleaded +ignorance that his customer was a Lord, but offended justice fined him +for his mistake. + +When this phrase had numbered its appointed days, it died away, like +its predecessors, and "Who are you?" reigned in its stead. This new +favourite, like a mushroom, seems to have sprung up in a night, or, like +a frog in Cheapside, to have come down in a sudden shower. One day it +was unheard, unknown, uninvented; the next it pervaded London; every +alley resounded with it; every highway was musical with it, + + "And street to street, and lane to lane flung back + The one unvarying cry." + +The phrase was uttered quickly, and with a sharp sound upon the first +and last words, leaving the middle one little more than an aspiration. +Like all its compeers which had been extensively popular, it was +applicable to almost every variety of circumstance. The lovers of a +plain answer to a plain question did not like it at all. Insolence made +use of it to give offence; ignorance, to avoid exposing itself; and +waggery, to create laughter. Every new comer into an alehouse tap-room +was asked unceremoniously, "Who are you?" and if he looked foolish, +scratched his head, and did not know what to reply, shouts of boisterous +merriment resounded on every side. An authoritative disputant was not +unfrequently put down, and presumption of every kind checked by the same +query. When its popularity was at its height, a gentleman, feeling the +hand of a thief in his pocket, turned suddenly round, and caught him +in the act, exclaiming, "Who are you?" The mob which gathered round +applauded to the very echo, and thought it the most capital joke they +had ever heard--the very acme of wit--the very essence of humour. +Another circumstance, of a similar kind, gave an additional fillip to +the phrase, and infused new life and vigour into it, just as it was +dying away. The scene occurred in the chief criminal court of the +kingdom. A prisoner stood at the bar; the offence with which he had been +charged was clearly proved against him; his counsel had been heard, not +in his defence, but in extenuation, insisting upon his previous good +life and character, as reasons for the lenity of the court. "And where +are your witnesses?" inquired the learned judge who presided. "Please +you, my Lord, I knows the prisoner at the bar, and a more honester +feller never breathed," said a rough voice in the gallery. The +officers of the court looked aghast, and the strangers tittered with +ill-suppressed laughter. "Who are you?" said the Judge, looking suddenly +up, but with imperturbable gravity. The court was convulsed; the titter +broke out into a laugh, and it was several minutes before silence +and decorum could be restored. When the Ushers recovered their +self-possession, they made diligent search for the profane transgressor; +but he was not to be found. Nobody knew him; nobody had seen him. After +a while the business of the court again proceeded. The next prisoner +brought up for trial augured favourably of his prospects when he learned +that the solemn lips of the representative of justice had uttered the +popular phrase as if he felt and appreciated it. There was no fear that +such a judge would use undue severity; his heart was with the people; he +understood their language and their manners, and would make allowances +for the temptations which drove them into crime. So thought many of +the prisoners, if we may infer it from the fact, that the learned judge +suddenly acquired an immense increase of popularity. The praise of +his wit was in every mouth, and "Who are you?" renewed its lease, and +remained in possession of public favour for another term in consequence. + +But it must not be supposed that there were no interregni between the +dominion of one slang phrase and another. They did not arise in one +long line of unbroken succession, but shared with song the possession of +popular favour. Thus, when the people were in the mood for music, slang +advanced its claims to no purpose, and, when they were inclined for +slang, the sweet voice of music wooed them in vain. About twenty years +ago London resounded with one chorus, with the love of which everybody +seemed to be smitten. Girls and boys, young men and old, maidens and +wives, and widows, were all alike musical. There was an absolute mania +for singing, and the worst of it was, that, like good Father Philip, +in the romance of "The Monastery," they seemed utterly unable to change +their tune. "Cherry ripe!" "Cherry ripe!" was the universal cry of all +the idle in the town. Every unmelodious voice gave utterance to it; +every crazy fiddle, every cracked flute, every wheezy pipe, every street +organ was heard in the same strain, until studious and quiet men +stopped their ears in desperation, or fled miles away into the fields or +woodlands, to be at peace. This plague lasted for a twelvemonth, until +the very name of cherries became an abomination in the land. At last +the excitement wore itself away, and the tide of favour set in a new +direction. Whether it was another song or a slang phrase, is difficult +to determine at this distance of time; but certain it is, that very +shortly afterwards, people went mad upon a dramatic subject, and nothing +was to be heard of but "Tom and Jerry." Verbal wit had amused the +multitude long enough, and they became more practical in their +recreation. Every youth on the town was seized with the fierce desire of +distinguishing himself, by knocking down the "charlies," being locked +up all night in a watchhouse, or kicking up a row among loose women and +blackguard men in the low dens of St. Giles's. Imitative boys vied with +their elders in similar exploits, until this unworthy passion, for such +it was, had lasted, like other follies, its appointed time, and the town +became merry after another fashion. It was next thought the height of +vulgar wit to answer all questions by placing the point of the thumb +upon the tip of the nose, and twirling the fingers in the air. If one +man wished to insult or annoy another, he had only to make use of this +cabalistic sign in his face, and his object was accomplished. At every +street corner where a group was assembled, the spectator who was curious +enough to observe their movements, would be sure to see the fingers of +some of them at their noses, either as a mark of incredulity, surprise, +refusal, or mockery, before he had watched two minutes. There is some +remnant of this absurd custom to be seen to this day; but it is thought +low, even among the vulgar. + +About six years ago, London became again most preposterously musical. +The vox populi wore itself hoarse by singing the praises of "The Sea, +the Sea!" If a stranger (and a philosopher) had walked through London, +and listened to the universal chorus, he might have constructed a very +pretty theory upon the love of the English for the sea-service, and our +acknowledged superiority over all other nations upon that element. "No +wonder," he might have said, "that this people is invincible upon the +ocean. The love of it mixes with their daily thoughts: they celebrate it +even in the market-place: their street-minstrels excite charity by it; +and high and low, young and old, male and female, chant Io paeans in +its praise. Love is not honoured in the national songs of this warlike +race--Bacchus is no god to them; they are men of sterner mould, and +think only of 'the Sea, the Sea!' and the means of conquering upon it." + +Such would, doubtless, have been his impression if he had taken the +evidence only of his ears. Alas! in those days for the refined ears that +were musical! great was their torture when discord, with its thousand +diversities of tone, struck up this appalling anthem--there was no +escape from it. The migratory minstrels of Savoy caught the strain, and +pealed it down the long vistas of quiet streets, till their innermost +and snuggest apartments re-echoed with the sound. Men were obliged to +endure this crying evil for full six months, wearied to desperation, and +made sea-sick on the dry land. + +Several other songs sprang up in due succession afterwards, but none of +them, with the exception of one, entitled "All round my Hat," enjoyed +any extraordinary share of favour, until an American actor introduced a +vile song called "Jim Crow." The singer sang his verses in appropriate +costume, with grotesque gesticulations, and a sudden whirl of his body +at the close of each verse. It took the taste of the town immediately, +and for months the ears of orderly people were stunned by the senseless +chorus-- + + "Turn about and wheel about, + And do just so-- + Turn about and wheel about, + And jump, Jim Crow!" + +Street-minstrels blackened their faces in order to give proper effect to +the verses; and fatherless urchins, who had to choose between thieving +and singing for their livelihood, took the latter course, as likely to +be the more profitable, as long as the public taste remained in that +direction. The uncouth dance, its accompaniment, might be seen in its +full perfection on market nights in any great thoroughfare; and the +words of the song might be heard, piercing above all the din and buzz of +the ever-moving multitude. He, the calm observer, who during the hey-day +popularity of this doggrel, + + "Sate beside the public way, + Thick strewn with summer dust, and saw the stream + Of people there was hurrying to and fro, + Numerous as gnats upon the evening gleam," + +might have exclaimed with Shelley, whose fine lines we quote, that + + "The million, with fierce song and maniac dance, + Did rage around." + +The philosophic theorist we have already supposed soliloquising upon the +English character, and forming his opinion of it from their exceeding +love for a sea-song, might, if he had again dropped suddenly into +London, have formed another very plausible theory to account for our +unremitting efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. "Benevolent +people!" he might have said, "how unbounded are your sympathies! Your +unhappy brethren of Africa, differing from you only in the colour of +their skins, are so dear to you, and you begrudge so little the twenty +millions you have paid on their behalf, that you love to have a memento +of them continually in your sight. Jim Crow is the representative of +that injured race, and as such is the idol of your populace! See how +they all sing his praises!--how they imitate his peculiarities!--how +they repeat his name in their moments of leisure and relaxation! They +even carve images of him to adorn their hearths, that his cause and +his sufferings may never be forgotten! Oh, philanthropic England!--oh, +vanguard of civilization!" + +Such are a few of the peculiarities of the London multitude, when no +riot, no execution, no murder, no balloon, disturbs the even current of +their thoughts. These are the whimseys of the mass--the harmless follies +by which they unconsciously endeavour to lighten the load of care which +presses upon their existence. The wise man, even though he smile at +them, will not altogether withhold his sympathy, and will say, "Let them +enjoy their slang phrases and their choruses if they will; and if they +cannot be happy, at least let them be merry." To the Englishman, as well +as to the Frenchman of whom Beranger sings, there may be some comfort in +so small a thing as a song, and we may, own with him that + + "Au peuple attriste + Ce qui rendra la gaite, + C'est la GAUDRIOLE! + O gue! + C'est la GAUDRIOLE!" + + + + +THE O.P. MANIA. + + And these things bred a great combustion in the town. + Wagstaffe's "Apparition of Mother Haggis." + +The acrimonious warfare carried on for a length of time by the playgoers +of London against the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, is one of +the most singular instances upon record of the small folly which will +sometimes pervade a multitude of intelligent men. Carried on at first +from mere obstinacy by a few, and afterwards for mingled obstinacy and +frolic by a greater number, it increased at last to such a height, that +the sober dwellers in the provinces held up their hands in astonishment, +and wondered that the people of London should be such fools. As much +firmness and perseverance displayed in a better cause, might have +achieved important triumphs; and we cannot but feel regret, in recording +this matter, that so much good and wholesome energy should have been +thrown away on so unworthy an object. But we will begin with the +beginning, and trace the O. P. mania from its source. + +On the night of the 20th of September, 1808, the old theatre of +Covent-Garden was totally destroyed by fire. Preparations were +immediately made for the erection of a more splendid edifice, and the +managers, Harris and the celebrated John Philip Kemble, announced that +the new theatre should be without a rival in Europe. In less than +three months, the rubbish of the old building was cleared away, and the +foundation-stone of the new one laid with all due ceremony by the Duke +of Sussex. With so much celerity were the works carried on that, in nine +months more, the edifice was completed, both without and within. The +opening night was announced for the 18th of September 1809, within two +days of a twelvemonth since the destruction of the original building. + +But the undertaking had proved more expensive than the Committee +anticipated. To render the pit entrance more commodious, it had been +deemed advisable to remove a low public-house that stood in the way. +This turned out a matter of no little difficulty, for the proprietor +was a man well skilled in driving a hard bargain. The more eager the +Committee showed themselves to come to terms with him for his miserable +pot-house, the more grasping he became in his demands for compensation. +They were ultimately obliged to pay him an exorbitant sum. Added to +this, the interior decorations were on the most costly scale; and Mrs. +Siddons, and other members of the Kemble family, together with the +celebrated Italian singer, Madame Catalani, had been engaged at very +high salaries. As the night of opening drew near, the Committee found +that they had gone a little beyond their means; and they issued a +notice, stating that, in consequence of the great expense they had been +at in building the theatre, and the large salaries they had agreed to +pay, to secure the services of the most eminent actors, they were under +the necessity of fixing the prices of admission at seven shillings to +the boxes and four shillings to the pit, instead of six shillings and +three and sixpence, as heretofore. + +This announcement created the greatest dissatisfaction. The boxes might +have borne the oppression, but the dignity of the pit was wounded. A +war-cry was raised immediately. For some weeks previous to the opening, +a continual clatter was kept up in clubs and coffee-rooms, against +what was considered a most unconstitutional aggression on the rights of +play-going man. The newspapers assiduously kept up the excitement, and +represented, day after day, to the managers the impolicy of the proposed +advance. The bitter politics of the time were disregarded, and Kemble +and Covent-Garden became as great sources of interest as Napoleon and +France. Public attention was the more fixed upon the proceedings at +Covent-Garden, since it was the only patent theatre then in existence, +Drury-Lane theatre having also been destroyed by fire in the month of +February previous. But great as was the indignation of the lovers of +the drama at that time, no one could have anticipated the extraordinary +lengths to which opposition would be carried. + +First Night, September 20th.--The performances announced were the +tragedy of "Macbeth" and the afterpiece of "The Quaker." The house was +excessively crowded (the pit especially) with persons who had gone +for no other purpose than to make a disturbance. They soon discovered +another grievance to add to the list. The whole of the lower, and +three-fourths of the upper tier of boxes, were let out for the season; +so that those who had paid at the door for a seat in the boxes, were +obliged to mount to a level with the gallery. Here they were stowed into +boxes which, from their size and shape, received the contemptuous, and +not inappropriate designation of pigeon-holes. This was considered in +the light of a new aggression upon established rights; and long before +the curtain drew up, the managers might have heard in their green-room +the indignant shouts of "Down with the pigeon-holes!"--"Old prices for +ever!" Amid this din the curtain rose, and Mr. Kemble stood forward to +deliver a poetical address in honour of the occasion. The riot now began +in earnest; not a word of the address was audible, from the stamping +and groaning of the people in the pit. This continued, almost without +intermission, through the five acts of the tragedy. Now and then, the +sublime acting of Mrs. Siddons, as "the awful woman," hushed the noisy +multitude into silence, in spite of themselves: but it was only for a +moment; the recollection of their fancied wrongs made them ashamed of +their admiration, and they shouted and hooted again more vigorously +than before. The comedy of Munden in the afterpiece met with no better +reception; not a word was listened to, and the curtain fell amid still +increasing uproar and shouts of "Old prices!" Some magistrates, who +happened to be present, zealously came to the rescue, and appeared on +the stage with copies of the Riot Act. This ill-judged proceeding made +the matter worse. The men of the pit were exasperated by the indignity, +and strained their lungs to express how deeply they felt it. Thus +remained the war till long after midnight, when the belligerents +withdrew from sheer exhaustion. + +Second Night.--The crowd was not so great; all those who had gone on the +previous evening to listen to the performances, now stayed away, and the +rioters had it nearly all to themselves. With the latter, "the play was +not the thing," and Macheath and Polly sang in "The Beggar's Opera" +in vain. The actors and the public appeared to have changed sides--the +audience acted, and the actors listened. A new feature of this night's +proceedings was the introduction of placards. Several were displayed +from the pit and boxes, inscribed in large letters with the words, "Old +prices." With a view of striking terror, the constables who had been +plentifully introduced into the house, attacked the placard-bearers, and +succeeded, after several severe battles, in dragging off a few of them +to the neighbouring watch-house, in Bow Street. Confusion now became +worse and worse confounded. The pitites screamed themselves hoarse; +while, to increase the uproar, some mischievous frequenters of the upper +regions squeaked through dozens of cat-calls, till the combined noise +was enough to blister every tympanum in the house. + +Third Night.--The appearance of several gentlemen in the morning at +the bar of the Bow Street police office, to answer for their riotous +conduct, had been indignantly commented upon during the day. All augured +ill for the quiet of the night. The performances announced were "Richard +the Third" and "The Poor Soldier," but the popularity of the tragedy +could not obtain it a hearing. The pitites seemed to be drawn into +closer union by the attacks made upon them, and to act more in concert +than on the previous nights. The placards were, also, more numerous; not +only the pit, but the boxes and galleries exhibited them. Among the most +conspicuous, was one inscribed, "John Bull against John Kemble.--Who'll +win?" Another bore "King George for ever! but no King Kemble." A third +was levelled against Madame Catalani, whose large salary was supposed +to be one of the causes of the increased prices, and was inscribed +"No foreigners to tax us--we're taxed enough already." This last was a +double-barrelled one, expressing both dramatic and political discontent, +and was received with loud cheers by the pitites. + +The tragedy and afterpiece were concluded full two hours before their +regular time; and the cries for Mr. Kemble became so loud, that the +manager thought proper to obey the summons. Amid all these scenes of +uproar he preserved his equanimity, and was never once betrayed into +any expression of petulance or anger. With some difficulty he obtained +a hearing. He entered into a detail of the affairs of the theatre, +assuring the audience at the same time of the solicitude of the +proprietors to accommodate themselves to the public wish. This was +received with some applause, as it was thought at first to manifest a +willingness to come back to the old prices, and the pit eagerly waited +for the next sentence, that was to confirm their hopes. That sentence +was never uttered, for Mr. Kemble, folding his arms majestically, added, +in his deep tragic voice, "Ladies and Gentlemen, I wait here to know +what you want!" Immediately the uproar was renewed, and became so +tremendous and so deafening, that the manager, seeing the uselessness of +further parley, made his bow and retired. + +A gentleman then rose in the boxes and requested a hearing. He obtained +it without difficulty. He began by inveighing in severe terms against +the pretended ignorance of Mr. Kemble, in asking them so offensively +what they wanted, and concluded by exhorting the people never to cease +their opposition until they brought down the prices to their old level. +The speaker, whose name was understood to be Leigh, then requested a +cheer for the actors, to show that no disrespect was intended them. The +cheer was given immediately. + +A barrister of the name of Smythe then rose to crave another hearing for +Mr. Kemble. The manager stood forth again, calm, unmoved, and severe. +"Ladies and gentlemen," said he, "I wait here to know your wishes." Mr. +Leigh, who took upon himself, "for that night only," the character of +popular leader, said, the only reply he could give was one in three +words, "the old prices." Hereat the shouts of applause again rose, till +the building rang. Still serene amid the storm, the manager endeavoured +to enter into explanations. The men of the pit would hear nothing of +the sort. They wanted entire and absolute acquiescence. Less would not +satisfy them; and, as Mr. Kemble only wished to explain, they would not +hear a word. He finally withdrew amid a noise to which Babel must have +been comparatively silent. + +Fourth night.--The rioters were more obstinate than ever. The noises +were increased by the addition of whistles, bugle-horns, and watchmen's +rattles, sniffling, snorting, and clattering from all parts of the +house. Human lungs were taxed to the uttermost, and the stamping on the +floor raised such a dust as to render all objects but dimly visible. In +placards, too, there was greater variety. The loose wits of the town had +all day been straining their ingenuity to invent new ones. Among them +were, "Come forth, O Kemble! come forth and tremble!" "Foolish John +Kemble, we'll make you tremble!" and "No cats! no Catalani! English +actors for ever!" + +Those who wish to oppose a mob successfully, should never lose their +temper. It is a proof of weakness which masses of people at once +perceive, and never fail to take advantage of. Thus, when the managers +unwisely resolved to fight the mob with their own weapons, it only +increased the opposition it was intended to allay. A dozen pugilists, +commanded by a notorious boxer of the day, were introduced into the +pit, to use the argumentum ad hominem to the rioters. Continual scuffles +ensued: but the invincible resolution of the playgoers would not allow +them to quail; it rather aroused them to renewed opposition, and a +determination never to submit or yield. It also strengthened their +cause, by affording them further ground of complaint against the +managers. + +The performances announced on the bills were the opera of "Love in a +Village," and "Who wins?" but the bills had it all to themselves, for +neither actors nor public were much burthened with them. The latter, +indeed, afforded some sport. The title was too apt to the occasion to +escape notice, and shouts of "Who wins? who wins?" displaced for a time +the accustomed cry of old prices. + +After the fall of the curtain, Mr. Leigh, with another gentleman, again +spoke, complaining bitterly of the introduction of the prize-fighters, +and exhorting the public never to give in. Mr. Kemble was again called +forward; but when he came, the full tide of discord ran so strongly +against him that, being totally unable to stem it, he withdrew. Each +man seemed to shout as if he had been a Stentor; and when his lungs were +wearied, took to his feet and stamped, till all the black coats in his +vicinity became grey with dust. At last the audience were tired out, and +the theatre was closed before eleven o'clock. + +Fifth night.--The play was Coleman's amusing comedy of "John Bull." +There was no diminution of the uproar. Every note on the diapason of +discord was run through. The prize-fighters, or hitites as they were +called, mustered in considerable numbers, and the battles between them +and the pitites were fierce and many. It was now, for the first time, +that the letters O.P. came into general use as an abbreviation of +the accustomed watchword of old prices. Several placards were thus +inscribed; and, as brevity is so desirable in shouting, the mob adopted +the emendation. As usual, the manager was called for. After some delay +he came forward, and was listened to with considerable patience. He +repeated, in respectful terms, the great loss that would be occasioned +to the proprietors by a return to the old prices, and offered to submit +a statement of their accounts to the eminent lawyers, Sir Vicary Gibbs +and Sir Thomas Plumer; the eminent merchants, Sir Francis Baring and Mr. +Angerstein; and Mr. Whitmore, the Governor of the Bank of England. By +their decision as to the possibility of carrying on the theatre at the +old prices, he would consent to be governed, and he hoped the public +would do the same. This reasonable proposition was scouted immediately. +Not even the high and reputable names he had mentioned were thought to +afford any guarantee for impartiality. The pitites were too wrong-headed +to abate one iota of their pretensions; and they had been too much +insulted by the prize-fighters in the manager's pay, to show any +consideration for him, or agree to any terms he might propose. They +wanted full acquiescence, and nothing less. Thus the conference broke +off, and the manager retired amid a storm of hisses. + +An Irish gentleman, named O'Reilly, then stood up in one of the boxes. +With true Irish gallantry, he came to the rescue of an ill-used lady. +He said he was disgusted at the attacks made upon Madame Catalani, the +finest singer in the world, and a lady inestimable in private life. It +was unjust, unmanly, and un-English to make the innocent suffer for the +guilty; and he hoped this blot would be no longer allowed to stain a +fair cause. As to the quarrel with the manager, he recommended them +to persevere. They were not only wronged by his increased prices, but +insulted by his boxers, and he hoped, that before they had done with +him, they would teach him a lesson he would not soon forget. The gallant +Hibernian soon became a favourite, and sat down amid loud cheers. + +Sixth night.--No signs of a cessation of hostilities on the one side, or +of a return to the old prices on the other. The playgoers seemed to grow +more united as the managers grew more obstinate. The actors had by far +the best time of it; for they were spared nearly all the labour of their +parts, and merely strutted on the stage to see how matters went on, +and then strutted off again. Notwithstanding the remonstrance of Mr. +O'Reilly on the previous night, numerous placards reflecting upon Madame +Catalani were exhibited. One was inscribed with the following doggrel:-- + + "Seventeen thousand a-year goes pat, + To Kemble, his sister, and Madame Cat." + +On another was displayed, in large letters, "No compromise, old prices, +and native talent!" Some of these were stuck against the front of the +boxes, and others were hoisted from the pit on long poles. The following +specimens will suffice to show the spirit of them; wit they had none, +or humour either, although when they were successively exhibited, they +elicited roars of laughter:-- + + "John Kemble alone is the cause of this riot; + When he lowers his prices, John Bull will be quiet." + + "John Kemble be damn'd, + We will not be cramm'd." + + "Squire Kemble + Begins to tremble." + +The curtain fell as early as nine o'clock, when there being loud calls +for Mr. Kemble, he stood forward. He announced that Madame Catalani, +against whom so unjustifiable a prejudice had been excited, had thrown +up her engagement rather than stand in the way of any accommodation +of existing differences. This announcement was received with +great applause. Mr. Kemble then went on to vindicate himself and +co-proprietors from the charge of despising public opinion. No +assertion, he assured them, could be more unjust. They were sincerely +anxious to bring these unhappy differences to a close, and he thought he +had acted in the most fair and reasonable manner in offering to submit +the accounts to an impartial committee, whose decision, and the grounds +for it, should be fully promulgated. This speech was received with +cheering, but interrupted at the close by some individuals, who objected +to any committee of the manager's nomination. This led to a renewal of +the uproar, and it was some time before silence could be obtained. When, +at last, he was able to make himself heard, he gave notice, that until +the decision of the committee had been drawn up, the theatre should +remain closed. Immediately every person in the pit stood up, and a long +shout of triumph resounded through the house, which was heard at the +extremity of Bow Street. As if this result had been anticipated, a +placard was at the same moment hoisted, inscribed, "Here lies the body +of NEW PRICE, an ugly brat and base born, who expired on the 23rd of +September 1809, aged six days.--Requiescat in pace!" + +Mr. Kemble then retired, and the pitites flung up their hats in the air, +or sprang over the benches, shouting and hallooing in the exuberance of +their joy; and thus ended the first act of this popular farce. + +The committee ultimately chosen differed from that first named, Alderman +Sir Charles Price, Bart. and Mr. Silvester, the Recorder of London, +being substituted for Sir Francis Baring and Sir Vicary Gibbs. In a few +days they had examined the multitudinous documents of the theatre, +and agreed to a report which was published in all the newspapers, +and otherwise distributed. They stated the average profits of the six +preceding years at 6 and 3/8 per cent, being only 1 and 3/8 per cent. +beyond the legal interest of money, to recompense the proprietors for +all their care and enterprise. Under the new prices they would receive +3 and 1/2 per cent. profit; but if they returned to the old prices, they +would suffer a loss of fifteen shillings per cent. upon their capital. +Under these circumstances, they could do no other than recommend the +proprietors to continue the new prices. + +This report gave no satisfaction. It certainly convinced the reasonable, +but they, unfortunately, were in a minority of one to ten. The managers, +disregarding the outcry that it excited, advertised the recommencement +of the performances for Wednesday the 4th of October following. They +endeavoured to pack the house with their friends, but the sturdy O.P. +men were on the alert, and congregated in the pit in great numbers. +The play was "The Beggar's Opera," but, as on former occasions, it +was wholly inaudible. The noises were systematically arranged, and +the actors, seeing how useless it was to struggle against the popular +feeling, hurried over their parts as quickly as they could, and the +curtain fell shortly after nine o'clock. Once more the manager essayed +the difficult task of convincing madness by appealing to reason. As soon +as the din of the rattles and post-horns would permit him to speak, he +said, he would throw himself on the fairness of the most enlightened +metropolis in the world. He was sure, however strongly they might +feel upon the subject, they would not be accessory to the ruin of +the theatre, by insisting upon a return to the former prices. +Notwithstanding the little sop he had thrown out to feed the vanity of +this roaring Cerberus, the only answer he received was a renewal of +the noise, intermingled with shouts of "Hoax! hoax! imposition!" Mr. +O'Reilly, the gallant friend of Madame Catalani, afterwards addressed +the pit, and said no reliance could be placed on the report of the +committee. The profits of the theatre were evidently great: they had +saved the heavy salary of Madame Catalani; and by shutting out the +public from all the boxes but the pigeon-holes, they made large +sums. The first and second tiers were let at high rents to notorious +courtesans, several of whom he then saw in the house; and it was clear +that the managers preferred a large revenue from this impure source to +the reasonable profits they would receive from respectable people. Loud +cheers greeted this speech; every eye was turned towards the boxes, and +the few ladies in them immediately withdrew. At the same moment, some +inveterate petite hoisted a large placard, on which was inscribed, + + "We lads of the pit + Will never submit." + +Several others were introduced. One of them was a caricature likeness of +Mr. Kemble, asking, "What do you want?" with a pitite replying, "The old +prices, and no pigeon-holes!" Others merely bore the drawing of a large +key, in allusion to a notorious house in the neighbourhood, the denizens +of which were said to be great frequenters of the private boxes. These +appeared to give the managers more annoyance than all the rest, and the +prize-fighters made vigorous attacks upon the holders of them. Several +persons were, on this night, and indeed nearly every night, taken +into custody, and locked up in the watchhouse. On their appearance the +following morning, they were generally held to bail in considerable sums +to keep the peace. This proceeding greatly augmented the animosity of +the pit. + +It would be useless to detail the scenes of confusion which followed +night after night. For about three weeks the war continued with unabated +fury. Its characteristics were nearly always the same. Invention was +racked to discover new noises, and it was thought a happy idea when +one fellow got into the gallery with a dustman's bell, and rang it +furiously. Dogs were also brought into the boxes, to add their sweet +voices to the general uproar. The animals seemed to join in it con +amore, and one night a large mastiff growled and barked so loudly, as to +draw down upon his exertions three cheers from the gratified pitites. + +So strong did the popular enthusiasm run in favour of the row, that +well-dressed ladies appeared in the boxes with the letters O. P. on +their bonnets. O. P. hats for the gentlemen were still more common, +and some were so zealous in the cause, as to sport waistcoats with an +O embroidered upon one flap and a P on the other. O.P. toothpicks were +also in fashion; and gentlemen and ladies carried O.P. handkerchiefs, +which they waved triumphantly whenever the row was unusually deafening. +The latter suggested the idea of O. P. flags, which were occasionally +unfurled from the gallery to the length of a dozen feet. Sometimes the +first part of the night's performances were listened to with comparative +patience, a majority of the manager's friends being in possession of the +house. But as soon as the half-price commenced, the row began again +in all its pristine glory. At the fall of the curtain it soon became +customary to sing "God save the King," the whole of the O.P.'s joining +in loyal chorus. Sometimes this was followed by "Rule Britannia;" and, +on two or three occasions, by a parody of the national anthem, which +excited great laughter. A verse may not be uninteresting as a specimen. + + "O Johnny Bull, be true, + Confound the prices new, + And make them fall! + Curse Kemble's politics, + Frustrate his knavish tricks, + On thee our hopes we fix, + T' upset them all!" + +This done, they scrambled over the benches, got up sham fights in +the pit, or danced the famous O.P. dance. The latter may as well be +described here: half a dozen, or a dozen fellows formed in a ring, and +stamped alternately with the right and left foot, calling out at regular +intervals, O. P.--O. P. with a drawling and monotonous sound. This +uniformly lasted till the lights were put out, when the rioters +withdrew, generally in gangs of ten or twenty, to defend themselves from +sudden attacks on the part of the constables. + +An idea seemed about this time to break in upon them, that +notwithstanding the annoyance they caused the manager, they were aiding +to fill his coffers. This was hinted at in some of the newspapers, and +the consequence was, that many stayed away to punish him, if possible, +under the silent system. But this did not last long. The love of +mischief was as great an incentive to many of them as enmity to the +new prices. Accidental circumstances also contributed to disturb the +temporary calm. At the Westminster quarter-sessions, on the 27th of +October, bills of indictment were preferred against forty-one persons +for creating a disturbance and interrupting the performances of the +theatre. The grand jury ignored twenty-seven of the bills, left two +undecided, and found true bills against twelve. The latter exercised +their right of traverse till the ensuing sessions. The preferment of +these bills had the effect of re-awakening the subsiding excitement. +Another circumstance about the same time gave a still greater impetus to +it, and furnished the rioters with a chief, round whom they were eager +to rally. Mr. Clifford, a barrister, appeared in the pit on the night of +the 31st of October, with the letters O. P. on his hat. Being a man of +some note, he was pounced upon by the constables, and led off to Bow +Street police office, where Brandon, the box-keeper, charged him with +riotous and disorderly conduct. This was exactly what Clifford wanted. +He told the presiding magistrate, a Mr. Read, that he had purposely +displayed the letters on his hat, in order that the question of right +might be determined before a competent tribunal. He denied that he +had committed any offence, and seemed to manifest so intimate an +acquaintance with the law upon the subject, that the magistrate, +convinced by his reasoning, ordered his immediate dismissal, and stated +that he had been taken into custody without the slightest grounds. The +result was made known in the theatre a few minutes afterwards, where +Mr. Clifford, on his appearance victorious, was received with reiterated +huzzas. On his leaving the house, he was greeted by a mob of five or +six hundred persons, who had congregated outside to do him honour as he +passed. From that night the riots may be said to have recommenced, and +"Clifford and O. P." became the rallying cry of the party. The officious +box-keeper became at the same time the object of the popular dislike, +and the contempt with which the genius and fine qualities of Mr. Kemble +would not permit them to regard him, was fastened upon his underling. +So much ill-feeling was directed towards the latter, that at this time a +return to the old prices, unaccompanied by his dismissal, would not have +made the manager's peace with the pitites. + +In the course of the few succeeding weeks, during which the riots +continued with undiminished fury, O. P. medals were struck, and worn in +great numbers in the theatre. A few of the ultra-zealous even wore +them in the streets. A new fashion also came into favour for hats, +waistcoats, and handkerchiefs, on which the mark, instead of the +separate letters O and P, was a large O, with a small P in the middle of +it: thus, + + xxxxxxxxx + x x + x xxx x + x x x x + x xxx x + x x x + x x x + x x + xxxxxxxxx + +The managers, seeing that Mr. Clifford was so identified with the +rioters, determined to make him responsible. An action was accordingly +brought against him and other defendants in the Court of King's Bench. +On the 20th of November, the Attorney-general moved, before Lord +Ellenborough, for a rule to show cause why a criminal information should +not be filed against Clifford for unlawfully conspiring with certain +others to intimidate the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, and force +them, to their loss and detriment, to lower their prices of admission. +The rule was granted, and an early day fixed for the trial. In the mean +time, these proceedings kept up the acerbity of the O. P.s, and every +night at the fall of the curtain, three groans were given for John +Kemble and three cheers for John Bull. + +It was during this year that the national Jubilee was celebrated, in +honour of the fiftieth year of the reign of George III. When the riots +had reached their fiftieth night, the O. P.s also determined to have a +jubilee. All their previous efforts in the way of roaring, great as they +were, were this night outdone, and would have continued long after "the +wee short hour," had not the managers wisely put the extinguisher upon +them and the lights about eleven o'clock. + +Pending the criminal prosecution against himself, Mr. Clifford brought +an action for false imprisonment against Brandon. The cause was fixed +for trial in the Court of Common Pleas, on the 5th of December, before +Lord Chief-Justice Mansfield. From an early hour in the morning all the +avenues leading to the court were thronged with an eager multitude; +all London was in anxiety for the resuit. So dense was the crowd, that +counsel found the greatest difficulty in making their way into court. +Mr. Sergeant Best was retained on the part of the plaintiff, and Mr. +Sergeant Shepherd for the defence. The defendant put two pleas upon +the record; first, that he was not guilty, and secondly, that he was +justified. Sergeant Best, in stating the plaintiff's case, blamed the +managers for all the disturbances that had taken place, and contended +that his client, in affixing the letters O. P. to his hat, was not +guilty of any offence. Even if he had joined in the noises, which he had +not, his so doing would not subject him to the penalties for rioting. +Several witnesses were then called to prove the capture of Mr. Clifford, +the hearing of the case before the magistrate at Bow Street, and his +ultimate dismissal. Sergeant Shepherd was heard at great length on the +other side, and contended that his client was perfectly justified in +taking into custody a man who was inciting others to commit a breach of +the peace. + +The Lord Chief-Justice summed up, with an evident bias in favour of the +defendant. He said an undue apprehension of the rights of an audience +had got abroad. Even supposing the object of the rioters to be fair and +legal, they were not authorized to carry it by unfair means. In order to +constitute a riot, it was not necessary that personal violence should be +committed, and it seemed to him that the defendant had not acted in an +improper manner in giving into custody a person who, by the display of a +symbol, was encouraging others to commit a riot. + +The jury retired to consider their verdict. The crowd without and within +the court awaited the result in feverish suspense. Half an hour elapsed, +when the jury returned with a verdict for the plaintiff--Damages, +five pounds. The satisfaction of the spectators was evident upon their +countenances, that of the judge expressed the contrary feeling. Turning +to the foreman of the jury, his Lordship asked upon which of the two +points referred to them, namely, the broad question, whether a riot +had been committed, and, if committed, whether the plaintiff had +participated in it, they had found their verdict? + +The foreman stated, that they were all of opinion generally that the +plaintiff had been illegally arrested. This vague answer did not satisfy +his Lordship, and he repeated his question. He could not, however, +obtain a more satisfactory reply. Evidently vexed at what he deemed the +obtuseness or partiality of the jury, he turned to the bar, and said, +that a spirit of a mischievous and destructive nature was abroad, which, +if not repressed, threatened awful consequences. The country would be +lost, he said, and the government overturned, if such a spirit were +encouraged; it was impossible it could end in good. Time, the destroyer +and fulfiller of predictions, has proved that his Lordship was a false +prophet. The harmless O. P. war has been productive of no such dire +results. + +It was to be expected that after this triumph, the war in the pit would +rage with redoubled acrimony. A riot beginning at half-price would +not satisfy the excited feelings of the O. P.s on the night of such +a victory. Long before the curtain drew up, the house was filled with +them, and several placards were exhibited, which the constables and +friends of the managers strove, as usual, to tear into shreds. One of +them, which met this fate, was inscribed, "Success to O.P.! A British +jury for ever!" It was soon replaced by another of a similar purport. It +is needless to detail the uproar that ensued; the jumping, the fighting, +the roaring, and the howling. For nine nights more the same system was +continued; but the end was at hand. + +On the 14th a grand dinner was given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, to +celebrate the victory of Mr. Clifford. "The reprobators of managerial +insolence," as they called themselves, attended in considerable numbers; +and Mr. Clifford was voted to the chair. The cloth had been removed, and +a few speeches made, when the company were surprised by a message that +their arch-enemy himself solicited the honour of an audience. It was +some time ere they could believe that Mr. Kemble had ventured to such a +place. After some parley the manager was admitted, and a conference was +held. A treaty was ultimately signed and sealed, which put an end to the +long-contested wars of O.P., and restored peace to the drama. + +All this time the disturbance proceeded at the theatre with its usual +spirit. It was now the sixty-sixth night of its continuance, and the +rioters were still untired--still determined to resist to the last. +In the midst of it a gentleman arrived from the Crown and Anchor, and +announced to the pit that Mr. Kemble had attended the dinner, and had +yielded at last to the demand of the public. He stated, that it had +been agreed upon between him and the Committee for defending the persons +under prosecution, that the boxes should remain at the advanced price; +that the pit should be reduced to three shillings and sixpence; that the +private boxes should be done away with; and that all prosecutions, on +both sides, should be immediately stayed. This announcement was received +with deafening cheers. As soon as the first burst of enthusiasm was +over, the O. P.s became anxious for a confirmation of the intelligence, +and commenced a loud call for Mr. Kemble. He had not then returned from +the Crown and Anchor; but of this the pitites were not aware, and for +nearly half an hour they kept up a most excruciating din. At length the +great actor made his appearance, in his walking dress, with his cane +in hand, as he had left the tavern. It was a long time before he +could obtain silence. He apologized in the most respectful terms for +appearing before them in such unbecoming costume, which was caused +solely by his ignorance that he should have to appear before them that +night. After announcing, as well as occasional interruptions would +allow, the terms that had been agreed upon, he added, "In order that +no trace or recollection of the past differences, which had unhappily +prevailed so long, should remain, he was instructed by the proprietors +to say, that they most sincerely lamented the course that had been +pursued, and engaged that, on their parts, all legal proceedings should +forthwith be put a stop to." The cheering which greeted this speech +was interrupted at the close by loud cries from the pit of +"Dismiss Brandon," while one or two exclaimed, "We want old prices +generally,--six shillings for the boxes." After an ineffectual attempt +to address them again upon this point, Mr. Kemble made respectful and +repeated obeisances, and withdrew. The noises still continued, until +Munden stood forward, leading by the hand the humbled box-keeper, +contrition in his looks, and in his hands a written apology, which he +endeavoured to read. The uproar was increased threefold by his presence, +and, amid cries of "We won't hear him!" "Where's his master?" he +was obliged to retire. Mr. Harris, the son of Kemble's co-manager, +afterwards endeavoured to propitiate the audience in his favour; but +it was of no avail; nothing less than his dismissal would satisfy the +offended majesty of the pit. Amid this uproar the curtain finally fell, +and the O. P. dance was danced for the last time within the walls of +Covent Garden. + +On the following night it was announced that Brandon had resigned his +situation. This turned the tide of popular ill-will. The performances +were "The Wheel of Fortune," and an afterpiece. The house was crowded +to excess; a desire to be pleased was manifest on every countenance, +and when Mr. Kemble, who took his favourite character of Penruddock, +appeared upon the stage, he was greeted with the most vehement applause. +The noises ceased entirely, and the symbols of opposition disappeared. +The audience, hushed into attention, gave vent to no sounds but those of +admiration for the genius of the actor. When, in the course of his part, +he repeated the words, "So! I am in London again!" the aptness of the +expression to the circumstances of the night, was felt by all present, +and acknowledged by a round of boisterous and thrice repeated cheering. +It was a triumphant scene for Mr. Kemble after his long annoyances. He +had achieved a double victory. He had, not only as a manager, soothed +the obstinate opposition of the play-goers, but as an actor he had +forced from one of the largest audiences he had ever beheld, approbation +more cordial and unanimous than he had ever enjoyed before. The popular +favour not only turned towards him; it embraced everybody connected +with the theatre, except the poor victim, Brandon. Most of the favourite +actors were called before the curtain to make their bow, and receive +the acclamations of the pit. At the close of the performances, a few +individuals, implacable and stubborn, got up a feeble cry of "Old prices +for the boxes;" but they were quickly silenced by the reiterated cheers +of the majority, or by cries of "Turn them out!" A placard, the last +of its race, was at the same time exhibited in the front of the pit, +bearing, in large letters, the words "We are satisfied." + +Thus ended the famous wars of O. P., which, for a period of nearly three +months, had kept the metropolis in an uproar. And after all, what was +the grand result? As if the whole proceeding had been a parody upon the +more destructive, but scarcely more sensible wars recorded in history, +it was commenced in injustice, carried on in bitterness of spirit, and +ended, like the labour of the mountain, in a mouse. The abatement of +sixpence in the price of admission to the pit, and the dismissal of an +unfortunate servant, whose only fault was too much zeal in the service +of his employers,--such were the grand victories of the O. P.'s. + + + + +THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. + + Orribili favelle--parole di dolor.--DANTE. + +Among the black deeds which Superstition has imposed as duties upon +her wretched votaries, none are more horrible than the practices of the +murderers, who, under the name of Thugs, or Phansigars, have so long +been the scourge of India. For ages they have pursued their dark and +dreadful calling, moulding assassination into a science, or extolling it +as a virtue, worthy only to be practised by a race favoured of Heaven. +Of late years this atrocious delusion has excited much attention, both +in this country and in India; an attention which, it is to be hoped, +will speedily lead to the uprooting of a doctrine so revolting and +anti-human. Although the British Government has extended over Hindostan +for so long a period, it does not appear that Europeans even suspected +the existence of this mysterious sect until the commencement of the +present century. In the year 1807, a gang of Thugs, laden with the +plunder of murdered travellers, was accidentally discovered. The +inquiries then set on foot revealed to the astonished Government a +system of iniquity unparalleled in the history of man. Subsequent +investigation extended the knowledge; and by throwing light upon the +peculiar habits of the murderers, explained the reason why their crimes +had remained so long undiscovered. In the following pages will be found +an epitome of all the information which has reached Europe concerning +them, derived principally from Dr. Sherwood's treatise upon the subject, +published in 1816, and the still more valuable and more recent work of +Mr. Sleeman, entitled the "Ramaseeana; or, Vocabulary of the peculiar +Language of the Thugs." + +The followers of this sect are called Thugs, or T'hugs, and their +profession Thuggee. In the south of India they are called Phansigars: +the former word signifying "a deceiver;" and the latter, "a strangler." +They are both singularly appropriate. The profession of Thuggee is +hereditary, and embraces, it is supposed, in every part of India, a +body of at least ten thousand individuals, trained to murder from their +childhood; carrying it on in secret and in silence, yet glorying in it, +and holding the practice of it higher than any earthly honour. During +the winter months, they usually follow some reputable calling, to elude +suspicion; and in the summer, they set out in gangs over all the roads +of India, to plunder and destroy. These gangs generally contain from ten +to forty Thugs, and sometimes as many as two hundred. Each strangler is +provided with a noose, to despatch the unfortunate victim, as the Thugs +make it a point never to cause death by any other means. When the gangs +are very large, they divide into smaller bodies; and each taking a +different route, they arrive at the same general place of rendezvous to +divide the spoil. They sometimes travel in the disguise of respectable +traders; sometimes as sepoys or native soldiers; and at others, as +government officers. If they chance to fall in with an unprotected +wayfarer, his fate is certain. One Thug approaches him from behind, and +throws the end of a sash round his neck; the other end is seized by a +second at the same instant, crossed behind the neck, and drawn tightly, +while with their other hand the two Thugs thrust his head forward to +expedite the strangulation: a third Thug seizes the traveller by the +legs at the same moment, and he is thrown to the ground, a corpse before +he reaches it. + +But solitary travellers are not the prey they are anxious to seek. A +wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals has not unfrequently been +destroyed by them; not one soul being permitted to escape. Indeed, there +is hardly an instance upon record of any one's escape from their hands, +so surely are their measures taken, and so well do they calculate +beforehand all the risks and difficulties of the undertaking. +Each individual of the gang has his peculiar duty allotted to him. +Upon-approaching a town, or serai, two or three, known as the Soothaes, +or "inveiglers," are sent in advance to ascertain if any travellers are +there; to learn, if possible, the amount of money or merchandize they +carry with them, their hours of starting in the morning, or any +other particulars that may be of use. If they can, they enter into +conversation with them, pretend to be travelling to the same place, and +propose, for mutual security, to travel with them. This intelligence +is duly communicated to the remainder of the gang. The place usually +chosen for the murder is some lonely part of the road in the vicinity of +a jungle, and the time, just before dusk. At given signals, understood +only by themselves, the scouts of the party station themselves in the +front, in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surprise. A +strangler and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place +themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the +victim, without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose +is twisted, drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the +traveller, in a few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, twenty, +and in some instances, sixty persons have been thus despatched at the +same moment. Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their hands, he +falls into those of the scouts who are stationed within hearing, who run +upon him and soon overpower him. + +Their next care is to dispose of the bodies. So cautious are they to +prevent detection, that they usually break all the joints to hasten +decomposition. They then cut open the body to prevent it swelling in the +grave and causing fissures in the soil above, by which means the jackals +might be attracted to the spot, and thereby lead to discovery. When +obliged to bury the body in a frequented district, they kindle a fire +over the grave to obliterate the traces of the newly turned earth. +Sometimes the grave-diggers of the party, whose office, like that of +all the rest, is hereditary, are despatched to make the graves in the +morning at some distant spot, by which it is known the travellers will +pass. The stranglers, in the mean time, journey quietly with their +victims, conversing with them in the most friendly manner. Towards +nightfall they approach the spot selected for their murder; the signal +is given, and they fall into the graves that have been ready for them +since day-break. On one occasion, related by Captain Sleeman, a party +of fifty-nine people, consisting of fifty-two men and seven women, were +thus simultaneously strangled, and thrown into the graves prepared for +them in the morning. Some of these travellers were on horseback and well +armed, but the Thugs, who appear to have been upwards of two hundred +in a gang, had provided against all risk of failure. The only one left +alive of all that numerous party, was an infant four years old, who was +afterwards initiated into all the mysteries of Thuggee. + +If they cannot find a convenient opportunity for disposing of the +bodies, they carry them for many miles, until they come to a spot +secure from intrusion, and to a soil adapted to receive them. If fear of +putrefaction admonishes them to use despatch, they set up a large screen +or tent, as other travellers do, and bury the body within the enclosure, +pretending, if inquiries are made, that their women are within. But this +only happens when they fall in with a victim unexpectedly. In murders +which they have planned previously, the finding of a place of sepulture +is never left to hazard. + +Travellers who have the misfortune to lodge in the same choultry or +hostelry, as the Thugs, are often murdered during the night. It +is either against their creed to destroy a sleeper, or they find +a difficulty in placing the noose round the neck of a person in a +recumbent position. When this is the case, the slumberer is suddenly +aroused by the alarm of a snake or a scorpion. He starts to his feet, +and finds the fatal sash around his neck.--He never escapes. + +In addition to these Thugs who frequent the highways, there are others, +who infest the rivers, and are called Pungoos. They do not differ in +creed, but only in a few of their customs, from their brethren on shore. +They go up and down the rivers in their own boats, pretending to be +travellers of consequence, or pilgrims, proceeding to, or returning from +Benares, Allahabad, or other sacred places. The boatmen, who are also +Thugs, are not different in appearance from the ordinary boatmen on +the river. The artifices used to entice victims on board are precisely +similar to those employed by the highway Thugs. They send out their +"inveiglers" to scrape acquaintance with travellers, and find out the +direction in which they are journeying. They always pretend to be bound +for the same place, and vaunt the superior accommodation of the boat by +which they are going. The travellers fall into the snare, are led to the +Thug captain, who very often, to allay suspicion, demurs to take them, +but eventually agrees for a moderate sum. The boat strikes off into the +middle of the stream; the victims are amused and kept in conversation +for hours by their insidious foes, until three taps are given on the +deck above. This is a signal from the Thugs on the look-out that +the coast is clear. In an instant the fatal noose is ready, and +the travellers are no more. The bodies are then thrown, warm and +palpitating, into the river, from a hole in the side of the boat, +contrived expressly for the purpose. + +A river Thug, who was apprehended, turned approver, to save his own +life, and gave the following evidence relative to the practices of his +fraternity:--"We embarked at Rajmahul. The travellers sat on one side +of the boat, and the Thugs on the other; while we three (himself and two +"stranglers,") were placed in the stern, the Thugs on our left, and the +travellers on our right. Some of the Thugs, dressed as boatmen, were +above deck, and others walking along the bank of the river, and pulling +the boat by the joon, or rope, and all, at the same time, on the +look-out. We came up with a gentleman's pinnace and two baggage-boats, +and were obliged to stop, and let them go on. The travellers seemed +anxious; but were quieted by being told that the men at the rope were +tired, and must take some refreshment. They pulled out something, and +began to eat; and when the pinnace had got on a good way, they resumed +their work, and our boat proceeded. It was now afternoon; and, when +a signal was given above, that all was clear, the five Thugs who sat +opposite the travellers sprang in upon them, and, with the aid of +others, strangled them. Having done this, they broke their spinal bones, +and then threw them out of a hole made at the side, into the river, and +kept on their course; the boat being all this time pulled along by the +men on the bank." + +That such atrocities as these should have been carried on for nearly +two centuries without exciting the attention of the British Government, +seems incredible. But our wonder will be diminished when we reflect upon +the extreme caution of the Thugs, and the ordinary dangers of travelling +in India. The Thugs never murder a man near his own home, and they never +dispose of their booty near the scene of the murder. They also pay, in +common with other and less atrocious robbers, a portion of their gains +to the Polygars, or native authorities of the districts in which they +reside, to secure protection. The friends and relatives of the victims, +perhaps a thousand miles off, never surmise their fate till a period +has elapsed when all inquiry would be fruitless, or, at least, extremely +difficult. They have no clue to the assassins, and very often impute to +the wild beasts of the jungles the slaughter committed by that wilder +beast, man. + +There are several gradations through which every member of the +fraternity must regularly pass before he arrives at the high office of +a Bhurtote, or strangler. He is first employed as a scout--then as +a sexton--then as a Shumseea, or holder of hands, and lastly as a +Bhurtote. When a man who is not of Thug lineage, or who has not been +brought up from his infancy among them, wishes to become a strangler, +he solicits the oldest, and most pious and experienced Thug, to take him +under his protection and make him his disciple; and under his guidance +he is regularly initiated. When he has acquired sufficient experience +in the lower ranks of the profession, he applies to his Gooroo, or +preceptor, to give the finishing grace to his education, and make a +strangler of him. An opportunity is found when a solitary traveller is +to be murdered; and the tyro, with his preceptor, having seen that +the proposed victim is asleep, and in safe keeping till their +return, proceed to a neighbouring field and perform several religious +ceremonies, accompanied by three or four of the oldest and steadiest +members of the gang. The Gooroo first offers up a prayer to the goddess, +saying, "Oh, Kalee! Kun-kalee! Bhud-kalee! Oh, Kalee! Maha-kalee! +Calkutta Walee! if it seems fit to thee that the traveller now at our +lodging should die by the hands of this thy slave, vouchsafe us thy +good omen." They then sit down and watch for the good omen; and if +they receive it within half an hour, conclude that their goddess is +favourable to the claims of the new candidate for admission. If they +have a bad omen, or no omen at all, some other Thug must put the +traveller to death, and the aspirant must wait a more favourable +opportunity, purifying himself in the mean time by prayer and +humiliation for the favour of the goddess. If the good omen has +been obtained, they return to their quarters; and the Gooroo takes a +handkerchief and, turning his face to the west, ties a knot at one end +of it, inserting a rupee, or other piece of silver. This knot is called +the goor khat, or holy knot, and no man who has not been properly +ordained is allowed to tie it. The aspirant receives it reverently in +his right hand from his Gooroo, and stands over the sleeping victim, +with a Shumseea, or holder of hands, at his side. The traveller is +aroused, the handkerchief is passed around his neck, and, at a signal +from the Gooroo, is drawn tight till the victim is strangled; the +Shumseea holding his hands to prevent his making any resistance. The +work being now completed, the Bhurtote (no longer an aspirant, but an +admitted member) bows down reverently in the dust before his Gooroo, and +touches his feet with both his hands, and afterwards performs the same +respect to his relatives and friends who have assembled to witness the +solemn ceremony. He then waits for another favourable omen, when he +unties the knot and takes out the rupee, which he gives to his Gooroo, +with any other silver which he may have about him. The Gooroo adds +some of his own money, with which he purchases what they call goor, or +consecrated sugar, when a solemn sacrifice is performed, to which +all the gang are invited. The relationship between the Gooroo and his +disciple is accounted the most holy that can be formed, and subsists to +the latest period of life. A Thug may betray his father, but never his +Gooroo. + +Dark and forbidding as is the picture already drawn, it will become +still darker and more repulsive, when we consider the motives which +prompt these men to systematic murder. Horrible as their practices +would be, if love of plunder alone incited them, it is infinitely more +horrible to reflect that the idea of duty and religion is joined to the +hope of gain, in making them the scourges of their fellows. If plunder +were their sole object, there would be reason to hope, that when a +member of the brotherhood grew rich, he would rest from his infernal +toils; but the dismal superstition which he cherishes tells him never +to desist. He was sent into the world to be a slayer of men, and he +religiously works out his destiny. As religiously he educates his +children to pursue the same career, instilling into their minds, at the +earliest age, that Thuggee is the noblest profession a man can follow, +and that the dark goddess they worship will always provide rich +travellers for her zealous devotees. + +The following is the wild and startling legend upon which the Thugs +found the divine origin of their sect. They believe that, in the +earliest ages of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and +devoured mankind as soon as they were created. He was of so tall a +stature, that when he strode through the most unfathomable depths of the +great sea, the waves, even in tempest, could not reach above his middle. +His insatiable appetite for human flesh almost unpeopled the world, +until Bhawanee, Kalee, or Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, determined to +save mankind by the destruction of the monster. Nerving herself for the +encounter, she armed herself with an immense sword; and, meeting with +the demon, she ran him through the body. His blood flowed in torrents +as he fell dead at her feet; but from every drop there sprang up another +monster, as rapacious and as terrible as the first. Again the goddess +upraised her massive sword, and hewed down the hellish brood by +hundreds; but the more she slew, the more numerous they became. Every +drop of their blood generated a demon; and, although the goddess +endeavoured to lap up the blood ere it sprang into life, they increased +upon her so rapidly, that the labour of killing became too great for +endurance. The perspiration rolled down her arms in large drops, and she +was compelled to think of some other mode of exterminating them. In this +emergency, she created two men out of the perspiration of her body, +to whom she confided the holy task of delivering the earth from the +monsters. To each of the men she gave a handkerchief, and showed them +how to kill without shedding blood. From her they learned to tie the +fatal noose; and they became, under her tuition, such expert stranglers, +that, in a very short space of time, the race of demons became extinct. + +When there were no more to slay, the two men sought the great goddess, +in order to return the handkerchiefs. The grateful Bhawanee desired that +they would retain them, as memorials of their heroic deeds; and in order +that they might never lose the dexterity that they had acquired in using +them, she commanded that, from thenceforward, they should strangle +men. These were the two first Thugs, and from them the whole race +have descended. To the early Thugs the goddess was more direct in her +favours, than she has been to their successors. At first, she undertook +to bury the bodies of all the men they slew and plundered, upon the +condition that they should never look back to see what she was doing. +The command was religiously observed for many ages, and the Thugs relied +with implicit faith upon the promise of Bhawanee; but as men became +more corrupt, the ungovernable curiosity of a young Thug offended the +goddess, and led to the withdrawal of a portion of her favour. This +youth, burning with a desire to see how she made her graves, looked +back, and beheld her in the act, not of burying, but of devouring, the +body of a man just strangled. Half of the still palpitating remains was +dangling over her lips. She was so highly displeased that she condemned +the Thugs, from that time forward, to bury their victims themselves. +Another account states that the goddess was merely tossing the body in +the air; and that, being naked, her anger was aggravated by the gaze +of mortal eyes upon her charms. Before taking a final leave of her +devotees, she presented them with one of her teeth for a pickaxe, one +of her ribs for a knife, and the hem of her garment for a noose. She has +not since appeared to human eyes. + +The original tooth having been lost in the lapse of ages, new pickaxes +have been constructed, with great care and many ceremonies, by each +considerable gang of Thugs, to be used in making the graves of strangled +travellers. The pickaxe is looked upon with the utmost veneration by +the tribe. A short account of the process of making it, and the rites +performed, may be interesting, as showing still further their gloomy +superstition. In the first place, it is necessary to fix upon a lucky +day. The chief Thug then instructs a smith to forge the holy instrument: +no other eye is permitted to see the operation. The smith must engage +in no other occupation until it is completed, and the chief Thug never +quits his side during the process. When the instrument is formed, it +becomes necessary to consecrate it to the especial service of Bhawnee. +Another lucky day is chosen for this ceremony, care being had in the +mean time that the shadow of no earthly thing fall upon the pickaxe, as +its efficacy would be for ever destroyed. A learned Thug then sits down; +and turning his face to the west, receives the pickaxe in a brass +dish. After muttering some incantation, he throws it into a pit already +prepared for it, where it is washed in clear water. It is then taken +out, and washed again three times; the first time in sugar and water, +the second in sour milk, and the third in spirits. It is then dried, +and marked from the head to the point with seven red spots. This is the +first part of the ceremony: the second consists in its purification +by fire. The pickaxe is again placed upon the brass dish, along with a +cocoa-nut, some sugar, cloves, white sandal-wood, and other articles. A +fire of the mango tree, mixed with dried cow-dung, is then kindled; +and the officiating Thug, taking the pickaxe with both hands, passes it +seven times through the flames. + +It now remains to be ascertained whether the goddess is favourable to +her followers. For this purpose, the cocoa-nut is taken from the +dish and placed upon the ground. The officiating Thug, turning to the +spectators, and holding the axe uplifted, asks, "Shall I strike?" Assent +being given, he strikes the nut with the but-end of the axe, exclaiming, +"All hail! mighty Davee! great mother of us all!" The spectators +respond, "All hail! mighty Davee! and prosper thy children, the Thugs!" + +If the nut is severed at the first blow, the goddess is favourable; +if not, she is unpropitious: all their labour is thrown away, and the +ceremony must be repeated upon some more fitting occasion. But if the +sign be favourable, the axe is tied carefully in a white cloth and +turned towards the west, all the spectators prostrating themselves +before it. It is then buried in the earth, with its point turned in the +direction the gang wishes to take on their approaching expedition. If +the goddess desires to warn them that they will be unsuccessful, or that +they have not chosen the right track, the Thugs believe that the point +of the axe will veer round, and point to the better way. During an +expedition, it is entrusted to the most prudent and exemplary Thug of +the party: it is his care to hold it fast. If by any chance he should +let it fall, consternation spreads through the gang: the goddess is +thought to be offended; the enterprise is at once abandoned; and the +Thugs return home in humiliation and sorrow, to sacrifice to their +gloomy deity, and win back her estranged favour. So great is the +reverence in which they hold the sacred axe, that a Thug will never +break an oath that he has taken upon it. He fears that, should he +perjure himself, his neck would be so twisted by the offended Bhawanee +as to make his face turn to his back; and that, in the course of a few +days, he would expire in the most excruciating agonies. + +The Thugs are diligent observers of signs and omens. No expedition +is ever undertaken before the auspices are solemnly taken. Upon this +subject Captain Sleeman says, "Even the most sensible approvers, who +have been with me for many years, as well Hindoos as Mussulmans, believe +that their good or ill success depended upon the skill with which the +omens were discovered and interpreted, and the strictness with which +they were observed and obeyed. One of the old Sindouse stock told me, +in presence of twelve others, from Hydrabad, Behar, the Dooah, Oude, +Rajpootana, and Bundelcund, that, had they not attended to these omens, +they never could have thrived as they did. In ordinary cases of murder, +other men seldom escaped punishment, while they and their families had, +for ten generations, thrived, although they had murdered hundreds of +people. 'This,' said the Thug,' could never have been the case had we +not attended to omens, and had not omens been intended for us. There +were always signs around us to guide us to rich booty, and warn us of +danger, had we been always wise enough to discern them and religious +enough to attend to them.' Every Thug present concurred with him from +his soul." + +A Thug, of polished manners and great eloquence, being asked by a native +gentleman, in the presence of Captain Sleeman, whether he never felt +compunction in murdering innocent people, replied with a smile that he +did not. "Does any man," said he, "feel compunction in following his +trade? and are not all our trades assigned us by Providence?" He was +then asked how many people he had killed with his own hands in the +course of his life? "I have killed none," was the reply. "What! and +have you not been describing a number of murders in which you were +concerned?" "True; but do you suppose that I committed them? Is any man +killed by man's killing? Is it not the hand of God that kills, and are +we not the mere instruments in the hands of God?" + +Upon another occasion, Sahib, an approver, being asked if he had never +felt any pity or compunction at murdering old men or young children, +or persons with whom he had sat and conversed, and who had told him, +perchance, of their private affairs--their hopes and their fears, their +wives and their little ones? replied unhesitatingly that he never did. +From the time that the omens were favourable, the Thugs considered all +the travellers they met as victims thrown into their hands by their +divinity to be killed. The Thugs were the mere instruments in the hands +of Bhawanee to destroy them. "If we did not kill them," said Sahib, "the +goddess would never again be propitious to us, and we and our families +would be involved in misery and want. If we see or hear a bad omen, it +is the order of the goddess not to kill the travellers we are in pursuit +of, and we dare not disobey." + +As soon as an expedition has been planned, the goddess is consulted. On +the day chosen for starting, which is never during the unlucky months of +July, September, and December, nor on a Wednesday or Thursday; the chief +Thug of the party fills a brass jug with water, which he carries in +his right hand by his side. With his left, he holds upon his breast +the sacred pickaxe, wrapped carefully in a white cloth, along with five +knots of turmeric, two copper, and one silver coin. He then moves slowly +on, followed by the whole of the gang, to some field or retired place, +where halting, with his countenance turned in the direction they wish +to pursue, he lifts up his eyes to heaven, saying, "Great goddess! +universal mother! if this, our meditated expedition, be fitting in thy +sight, vouchsafe to help us, and give us the signs of thy approbation." +All the Thugs present solemnly repeat the prayer after their leader, and +wait in silence for the omen. If within half an hour they see Pilhaoo, +or good omen on the left, it signifies that the goddess has taken them +by the left hand to lead them on; if they see the Thibaoo, or omen on +the right, it signifies that she has taken them by the right hand also. +The leader then places the brazen pitcher on the ground and sits down +beside it, with his face turned in the same direction for seven hours, +during which time his followers make all the necessary preparations +for the journey. If, during this interval, no unfavourable signs are +observed, the expedition advances slowly, until it arrives at the bank +of the nearest stream, when they all sit down and eat of the goor, or +consecrated sugar. Any evil omens that are perceived after this ceremony +may be averted by sacrifices; but any evil omens before, would at once +put an end to the expedition. + +Among the evil omens are the following:--If the brazen pitcher drops +from the hand of the Jemadar or leader, it threatens great evil either +to him or to the gang--sometimes to both. If they meet a funeral +procession, a blind man, a lame man, an oil-vender, a carpenter, a +potter, or a dancing-master, the expedition will be dangerous. In like +manner it is unlucky to sneeze, to meet a woman with an empty pail, a +couple of jackals, or a hare. The crossing of their path by the latter +is considered peculiarly inauspicious. Its cry at night on the left is +sometimes a good omen, but if they hear it on the right it is very bad; +a warning sent to them from Bhawanee that there is danger if they kill. +Should they disregard this warning, and led on by the hope of gain, +strangle any traveller, they would either find no booty on him, or such +booty as would eventually lead to the ruin and dispersion of the gang. +Bhawanee would be wroth with her children; and causing them to perish in +the jungle, would send the hares to drink water out of their skulls. + +The good omens are quite as numerous as the evil. It promises a +fortunate expedition, if, on the first day, they pass through a village +where there is a fair. It is also deemed fortunate, if they hear wailing +for the dead in any village but their own. To meet a woman with a +pitcher full of water upon her head, bodes a prosperous journey and a +safe return. The omen is still more favourable if she be in a state of +pregnancy. It is said of the Thugs of the Jumaldehee and Lodaha tribes, +that they always make the youngest Thug of the party kick the body of +the first person they strangle, five times on the back, thinking that +it will bring them good luck. This practice, however, is not general. If +they hear an ass bray on the left at the commencement of an expedition, +and an another soon afterwards on the right, they believe that they +shall be supereminently successful, that they shall strangle a multitude +of travellers, and find great booty. + +After every murder a solemn sacrifice, called the Tuponee, is performed +by all the gang. The goor, or consecrated sugar, is placed upon a large +cloth or blanket, which is spread upon the grass. Beside it is deposited +the sacred pickaxe, and a piece of silver for an offering. The Jemadar, +or chief of the party, together with all the oldest and most prudent +Thugs, take their places upon the cloth, and turn their faces to the +west. Those inferior Thugs who cannot find room upon the privileged +cloth, sit round as close to it as possible. A pit is then dug, into +which the Jemadar pours a small quantity of the goor, praying at +the same time that the goddess will always reward her followers with +abundant spoils. All the Thugs repeat the prayer after him. He then +sprinkles water upon the pickaxe, and puts a little of the goor upon +the head of every one who has obtained a seat beside him on the cloth. +A short pause ensues, when the signal for strangling is given, as if a +murder were actually about to be committed, and each Thug eats his +goor in solemn silence. So powerful is the impression made upon their +imagination by this ceremony, that it almost drives them frantic with +enthusiasm. Captain Sleeman relates, that when he reproached a Thug for +his share in a murder of great atrocity, and asked him whether he never +felt pity; the man replied, "We all feel pity sometimes; but the goor of +the Tuponee changes our nature; it would change the nature of a horse. +Let any man once taste of that goor, and he will be a Thug, though he +know all the trades and have all the wealth in the world. I never was in +want of food; my mother's family was opulent, and her relations high +in office. I have been high in office myself, and became so great a +favourite wherever I went that I was sure of promotion; yet I was always +miserable when absent from my gang, and obliged to return to Thuggee. My +father made me taste of that fatal goor, when I was yet a mere boy; and +if I were to live a thousand years I should never be able to follow any +other trade." + +The possession of wealth, station in society, and the esteem of his +fellows, could not keep this man from murder. From his extraordinary +confession we may judge of the extreme difficulty of exterminating a +sect who are impelled to their horrid practises, not only by the motives +of self-interest which govern mankind in general, but by a fanaticism +which fills up the measure of their whole existence. Even severity +seems thrown away upon the followers of this brutalizing creed. To them, +punishment is no example; they have no sympathy for a brother Thug who +is hung at his own door by the British Government, nor have they any +dread of his fate. Their invariable idea is, that their goddess +only suffers those Thugs to fall into the hands of the law, who have +contravened the peculiar observances of Thuggee, and who have neglected +the omens she sent them for their guidance. + +To their neglect of the warnings of the goddess they attribute all the +reverses which have of late years befallen their sect. It is expressly +forbidden, in the creed of the old Thugs, to murder women or cripples. +The modern Thugs have become unscrupulous upon this point, murdering +women, and even children, with unrelenting barbarity. Captain Sleeman +reports several conversations upon this subject, which he held at +different times with Thugs, who had been taken prisoners, or who had +turned approvers. One of them, named Zolfukar, said, in reply to the +Captain, who accused him of murdering women, "Yes, and was not the +greater part of Feringeea's and my gang seized, after we had murdered +the two women and the little girl, at Manora, in 1830? and were we not +ourselves both seized soon after? How could we survive things like that? +Our ancestors never did such things." Lalmun, another Thug, in reply to +a similar question, said, "Most of our misfortunes have come upon us for +the murder of women. We all knew that they would come upon us some day, +for this and other great sins. We were often admonished, but we did not +take warning; and we deserve our fates." In speaking of the supposed +protection which their goddess had extended to them in former times, +Zolfukar said:--"Ah! we had some regard for religion then! We have lost +it since. All kinds of men have been made Thugs, and all classes of +people murdered, without distinction; and little attention has been paid +to omens. How, after this, could we think to escape? * * * * Davee never +forsook us till we neglected her!" + +It might be imagined that men who spoke in this manner of the anger of +the goddess, and who, even in custody, showed so much veneration for +their unhappy calling, would hesitate before they turned informers, and +laid bare the secrets and exposed the haunts of their fellows:--among +the more civilized ruffians of Europe, we often find the one chivalrous +trait of character, which makes them scorn a reward that must be earned +by the blood of their accomplices: but in India there is no honour among +thieves. When the approvers are asked, if they, who still believe in +the power of the terrible goddess Davee, are not afraid to incur her +displeasure by informing of their fellows, they reply, that Davee +has done her worst in abandoning them. She can inflict no severer +punishment, and therefore gives herself no further concern about her +degenerate children. This cowardly doctrine is, however, of advantage +to the Government that seeks to put an end to the sect, and has thrown +a light upon their practices, which could never have been obtained from +other sources. + +Another branch of the Thug abomination has more recently been discovered +by the indefatigable Captain Sleeman. The followers of this sect are +called MEGPUNNAS, and they murder travellers, not to rob them of their +wealth, but of their children, whom they afterwards sell into slavery. +They entertain the same religious opinions as the Thugs, and have +carried on their hideous practices, and entertained their dismal +superstition, for about a dozen years with impunity. The report of +Captain Sleeman states, that the crime prevails almost exclusively +in Delhi and the native principalities, or Rajpootana of Ulwar and +Bhurtpore; and that it first spread extensively after the siege of +Bhurtpore in 1826. + +The original Thugs never or rarely travel with their wives; but the +Megpunnas invariably take their families with them, the women and +children being used to inveigle the victims. Poor travellers are always +chosen by the Megpunnas as the objects of their murderous traffic. The +females and children are sent on in advance to make acquaintance with +emigrants or beggars on the road, travelling with their families, whom +they entice to pass the night in some secluded place, where they are +afterwards set upon by the men, and strangled. The women take care of +the children. Such of them as are beautiful are sold at a high price +to the brothels of Delhi, or other large cities; while the boys and +ill-favoured girls are sold for servants at a more moderate rate. These +murders are perpetrated perhaps five hundred miles from the homes of +the unfortunate victims; and the children thus obtained, deprived of all +their relatives, are never inquired after. Even should any of their kin +be alive, they are too far off and too poor to institute inquiries. One +of the members, on being questioned, said the Megpunnas made more money +than the other Thugs; it was more profitable to kill poor people for the +sake of their children, than rich people for their wealth. Megpunnaism +is supposed by its votaries to be, like Thuggee, under the immediate +protection of the great goddess Davee, or Kalee, whose favour is to be +obtained before the commencement of every expedition, and whose omens, +whether of good or evil, are to be diligently sought on all occasions. +The first apostle to whom she communicated her commands for the +formation of the new sect, and the rules and ordinances by which it was +to be guided, was called Kheama Jemadar. He was considered so holy a +man, that the Thugs and Megpunnas considered it an extreme felicity +to gaze upon and touch him. At the moment of his arrest by the British +authorities, a fire was raging in the village, and the inhabitants +gathered round him and implored him to intercede with his god, that +the flames might be extinguished. The Megpunna, says the tradition, +stretched forth his hand to heaven, prayed, and the fire ceased +immediately. + +There now only remain to be considered the exertions that have been made +to remove from the face of India this purulent and disgusting sore. +From the year 1807 until 1826, the proceedings against Thuggee were not +carried on with any extraordinary degree of vigour; but, in the +latter year, the Government seems to have begun to act upon a settled +determination to destroy it altogether. From 1826 to 1855, both +included, there were committed to prison, in the various Presidencies, +1562 persons accused of this crime. Of these, 328 were hanged; 999 +transported; 77 imprisoned for life; 71 imprisoned for shorter periods; +21 held to bail; and only 21 acquitted. Of the remainder, 31 died in +prison, before they were brought to trial, 11 escaped, and 49 turned +approvers. + +One Feringeea, a Thug leader of great notoriety, was delivered up to +justice in the year 1830, in consequence of the reward of five hundred +rupees offered for his apprehension by the Government. He was brought +before Captain Sleeman, at Sangir, in the December of that year, and +offered, if his life were spared, to give such information as would +lead to the arrest of several extensive gangs which had carried on their +murderous practices undetected for several years. He mentioned the place +of rendezvous, for the following February, of some well organized gangs, +who were to proceed into Guzerat and Candeish. Captain Sleeman appeared +to doubt his information; but accompanied the Thug to a mango grove, two +stages from Sangir, on the road to Seronage. They reached this place in +the evening, and in the morning Feringeea pointed out three places in +which he and his gang had, at different intervals, buried the bodies of +three parties of travellers whom they had murdered. The sward had grown +over all the spots, and not the slightest traces were to be seen that +it had ever been disturbed. Under the sod of Captain Sleeman's tent were +found the bodies of the first party, consisting of a pundit and his six +attendants, murdered in 1818. Another party of five, murdered in 1824, +were under the ground at the place where the Captain's horses had been +tied up for the night; and four Brahmin carriers of the Ganges water, +with a woman, were buried under his sleeping tent. Before the ground +was moved, Captain Sleeman expressed some doubts; but Feringeea, after +looking at the position of some neighbouring trees, said he would risk +his life on the accuracy of his remembrance. The workmen dug five feet +without discovering the bodies; but they were at length found a little +beyond that depth, exactly as the Thug had described them. With this +proof of his knowledge of the haunts of his brethren, Feringeea was +promised his liberty and pardon if he would aid in bringing to justice +the many large gangs to which he had belonged, and which were still +prowling over the country. They were arrested in the February following, +at the place of rendezvous pointed out by the approver, and most of them +condemned and executed. + +So far we learn from Captain Sleeman, who only brought down his tables +to the close of the year 1835. A writer in the "Foreign Quarterly +Review" furnishes an additional list of 241 persons, committed to +prison in 1836, for being concerned in the murder and robbery of 474 +individuals. Of these criminals, 91 were sentenced to death, and 22 to +imprisonment for life, leaving 306, who were sentenced to transportation +for life, or shorter periods of imprisonment, or who turned approvers, +or died in gaol. Not one of the whole number was acquitted. + +Great as is this amount of criminals who have been brought to justice, +it is to be feared that many years must elapse before an evil so deeply +rooted can be eradicated. The difficulty is increased by the utter +hopelessness of reformation as regards the survivors. Their numbers +are still calculated to amount to ten thousand persons, who, taking the +average of three murders annually for each, as calculated by Captain +Sleeman and other writers, murder every year thirty thousand of their +fellow creatures. This average is said to be under the mark; but even if +we were to take it at only a third of this calculation, what a frightful +list it would be! When religion teaches men to go astray, they go far +astray indeed! + + +END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular +Delusions, by Charles Mackay + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 636.txt or 636.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/636/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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