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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions + +Author: Charles Mackay + +Release Date: August, 1996 [EBook #636] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + MEMOIRS OF <br />EXTRAORDINARY POPULAR DELUSIONS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles Mackay + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h4> + Author Of + </h4> + <h4> + "The Thames And Its Tributaries," "The Hope Of The World," Etc. <br /> + </h4> + <blockquote> + <p> + "Il est bon de connaitre les delires de l'esprit humain. Chaque people a + ses folies plus ou moins grossieres." MILLOT + </p> + </blockquote> + <h3> + VOL I. <br /> <br /> LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. + PUBLISHER IN ORDINARY TO HER MAJESTY. 1841. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> NATIONAL DELUSIONS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF BUBBLES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> THE TULIPOMANIA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> RELICS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> MODERN PROPHECIES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR + AND BEARD. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> DUELS AND ORDEALS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF + THE TRUE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> THE O.P. MANIA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + NATIONAL DELUSIONS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + N'en deplaise a ces fous nommes sages de Grece; + En ce monde il n'est point de parfaite sagesse; + Tous les hommes sont fous, et malgre tous leurs soins, + Ne different entre eux que du plus ou du moins. + + BOILEAU. +</pre> + <p> + In reading the history of nations, we find that, like individuals, they + have their whims and their peculiarities; their seasons of excitement and + recklessness, when they care not what they do. We find that whole + communities suddenly fix their minds upon one object, and go mad in its + pursuit; that millions of people become simultaneously impressed with one + delusion, and run after it, till their attention is caught by some new + folly more captivating than the first. We see one nation suddenly seized, + from its highest to its lowest members, with a fierce desire of military + glory; another as suddenly becoming crazed upon a religious scruple, and + neither of them recovering its senses until it has shed rivers of blood + and sowed a harvest of groans and tears, to be reaped by its posterity. At + an early age in the annals of Europe its population lost their wits about + the Sepulchre of Jesus, and crowded in frenzied multitudes to the Holy + Land: another age went mad for fear of the Devil, and offered up hundreds + of thousands of victims to the delusion of witchcraft. At another time, + the many became crazed on the subject of the Philosopher's Stone, and + committed follies till then unheard of in the pursuit. It was once thought + a venial offence in very many countries of Europe to destroy an enemy by + slow poison. Persons who would have revolted at the idea of stabbing a man + to the heart, drugged his pottage without scruple. Ladies of gentle birth + and manners caught the contagion of murder, until poisoning, under their + auspices, became quite fashionable. Some delusions, though notorious to + all the world, have subsisted for ages, flourishing as widely among + civilized and polished nations as among the early barbarians with whom + they originated,—that of duelling, for instance, and the belief in + omens and divination of the future, which seem to defy the progress of + knowledge to eradicate entirely from the popular mind. Money, again, has + often been a cause of the delusion of multitudes. Sober nations have all + at once become desperate gamblers, and risked almost their existence upon + the turn of a piece of paper. To trace the history of the most prominent + of these delusions is the object of the present pages. Men, it has been + well said, think in herds; it will be seen that they go mad in herds, + while they only recover their senses slowly, and one by one. + </p> + <p> + In the present state of civilization, society has often shown itself very + prone to run a career of folly from the last-mentioned cases. This + infatuation has seized upon whole nations in a most extraordinary manner. + France, with her Mississippi madness, set the first great example, and was + very soon imitated by England with her South Sea Bubble. At an earlier + period, Holland made herself still more ridiculous in the eyes of the + world, by the frenzy which came over her people for the love of Tulips. + Melancholy as all these delusions were in their ultimate results, their + history is most amusing. A more ludicrous and yet painful spectacle, than + that which Holland presented in the years 1635 and 1636, or France in 1719 + and 1720, can hardly be imagined. Taking them in the order of their + importance, we shall commence our history with John Law and the famous + Mississippi scheme of the years above mentioned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Some in clandestine companies combine; + Erect new stocks to trade beyond the line; + With air and empty names beguile the town, + And raise new credits first, then cry 'em down; + Divide the empty nothing into shares, + And set the crowd together by the ears. + + Defoe. +</pre> + <p> + The personal character and career of one man are so intimately connected + with the great scheme of the years 1719 and 1720, that a history of the + Mississippi madness can have no fitter introduction than a sketch of the + life of its great author, John Law. Historians are divided in opinion as + to whether they should designate him a knave or a madman. Both epithets + were unsparingly applied to him in his lifetime, and while the unhappy + consequences of his projects were still deeply felt. Posterity, however, + has found reason to doubt the justice of the accusation, and to confess + that John Law was neither knave nor madman, but one more deceived than + deceiving; more sinned against than sinning. He was thoroughly acquainted + with the philosophy and true principles of credit. He understood the + monetary question better than any man of his day; and if his system fell + with a crash so tremendous, it was not so much his fault as that of the + people amongst whom he had erected it. He did not calculate upon the + avaricious frenzy of a whole nation; he did not see that confidence, like + mistrust, could be increased, almost ad infinitum, and that hope was as + extravagant as fear. How was he to foretell that the French people, like + the man in the fable, would kill, in their frantic eagerness, the fine + goose he had brought to lay them so many golden eggs? His fate was like + that which may be supposed to have overtaken the first adventurous boatman + who rowed from Erie to Ontario. Broad and smooth was the river on which he + embarked; rapid and pleasant was his progress; and who was to stay him in + his career? Alas for him! the cataract was nigh. He saw, when it was too + late, that the tide which wafted him so joyously along was a tide of + destruction; and when he endeavoured to retrace his way, he found that the + current was too strong for his weak efforts to stem, and that he drew + nearer every instant to the tremendous falls. Down he went over the sharp + rocks, and the waters with him. He was dashed to pieces with his bark, but + the waters, maddened and turned to foam by the rough descent, only boiled + and bubbled for a time, and then flowed on again as smoothly as ever. Just + so it was with Law and the French people. He was the boatman and they were + the waters. + </p> + <p> + John Law was born at Edinburgh in the year 1671. His father was the + younger son of an ancient family in Fife, and carried on the business of a + goldsmith and banker. He amassed considerable wealth in his trade, + sufficient to enable him to gratify the wish, so common among his + countrymen, of adding a territorial designation to his name. He purchased + with this view the estates of Lauriston and Randleston, on the Frith of + Forth on the borders of West and Mid Lothian, and was thenceforth known as + Law of Lauriston. The subject of our memoir, being the eldest son, was + received into his father's counting-house at the age of fourteen, and for + three years laboured hard to acquire an insight into the principles of + banking, as then carried on in Scotland. He had always manifested great + love for the study of numbers, and his proficiency in the mathematics was + considered extraordinary in one of his tender years. At the age of + seventeen he was tall, strong, and well made; and his face, although + deeply scarred with the small-pox, was agreeable in its expression, and + full of intelligence. At this time he began to neglect his business, and + becoming vain of his person, indulged in considerable extravagance of + attire. He was a great favourite with the ladies, by whom he was called + Beau Law, while the other sex, despising his foppery, nicknamed him + Jessamy John. At the death of his father, which happened in 1688, he + withdrew entirely from the desk, which had become so irksome, and being + possessed of the revenues of the paternal estate of Lauriston, he + proceeded to London, to see the world. + </p> + <p> + He was now very young, very vain, good-looking, tolerably rich, and quite + uncontrolled. It is no wonder that, on his arrival in the capital, he + should launch out into extravagance. He soon became a regular frequenter + of the gaming-houses, and by pursuing a certain plan, based upon some + abstruse calculation of chances, he contrived to gain considerable sums. + All the gamblers envied him his luck, and many made it a point to watch + his play, and stake their money on the same chances. In affairs of + gallantry he was equally fortunate; ladies of the first rank smiled + graciously upon the handsome Scotchman—the young, the rich, the + witty, and the obliging. But all these successes only paved the way for + reverses. After he had been for nine years exposed to the dangerous + attractions of the gay life he was leading, he became an irrecoverable + gambler. As his love of play increased in violence, it diminished in + prudence. Great losses were only to be repaired by still greater ventures, + and one unhappy day he lost more than he could repay without mortgaging + his family estate. To that step he was driven at last. At the same time + his gallantry brought him into trouble. A love affair, or slight + flirtation, with a lady of the name of Villiers [Miss Elizabeth Villiers, + afterwards Countess of Orkney] exposed him to the resentment of a Mr. + Wilson, by whom he was challenged to fight a duel. Law accepted, and had + the ill fortune to shoot his antagonist dead upon the spot. He was + arrested the same day, and brought to trial for murder by the relatives of + Mr. Wilson. He was afterwards found guilty, and sentenced to death. The + sentence was commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only + amounted to manslaughter. An appeal being lodged by a brother of the + deceased, Law was detained in the King's Bench, whence, by some means or + other, which he never explained, he contrived to escape; and an action + being instituted against the sheriffs, he was advertised in the Gazette, + and a reward offered for his apprehension. He was described as "Captain + John Law, a Scotchman, aged twenty-six; a very tall, black, lean man; well + shaped, above six feet high, with large pockholes in his face; big nosed, + and speaking broad and loud." As this was rather a caricature than a + description of him, it has been supposed that it was drawn up with a view + to favour his escape. He succeeded in reaching the Continent, where he + travelled for three years, and devoted much of his attention to the + monetary and banking affairs of the countries through which he passed. He + stayed a few months in Amsterdam, and speculated to some extent in the + funds. His mornings were devoted to the study of finance and the + principles of trade, and his evenings to the gaming-house. It is generally + believed that he returned to Edinburgh in the year 1700. It is certain + that he published in that city his "Proposals and Reasons for constituting + a Council of Trade." This pamphlet did not excite much attention. + </p> + <p> + In a short time afterwards he published a project for establishing what he + called a Land-bank [The wits of the day called it a sand-bank, which would + wreck the vessel of the state.], the notes issued by which were never to + exceed the value of the entire lands of the state, upon ordinary interest, + or were to be equal in value to the land, with the right to enter into + possession at a certain time. The project excited a good deal of + discussion in the Scottish parliament, and a motion for the establishment + of such a bank was brought forward by a neutral party, called the + Squadrone, whom Law had interested in his favour. The Parliament + ultimately passed a resolution to the effect, that, to establish any kind + of paper credit, so as to force it to pass, was an improper expedient for + the nation. + </p> + <p> + Upon the failure of this project, and of his efforts to procure a pardon + for the murder of Mr. Wilson, Law withdrew to the Continent, and resumed + his old habits of gaming. For fourteen years he continued to roam about, + in Flanders, Holland, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and France. He soon became + intimately acquainted with the extent of the trade and resources of each, + and daily more confirmed in his opinion that no country could prosper + without a paper currency. During the whole of this time he appears to have + chiefly supported himself by successful play. At every gambling-house of + note in the capitals of Europe, he was known and appreciated as one better + skilled in the intricacies of chance than any other man of the day. It is + stated in the "Biographie Universelle" that he was expelled, first from + Venice, and afterwards from Genoa, by the magistrates, who thought him a + visitor too dangerous for the youth of those cities. During his residence + in Paris he rendered himself obnoxious to D'Argenson, the + lieutenant-general of the police, by whom he was ordered to quit the + capital. This did not take place, however, before he had made the + acquaintance in the saloons, of the Duke de Vendome, the Prince de Conti, + and of the gay Duke of Orleans, the latter of whom was destined afterwards + to exercise so much influence over his fate. The Duke of Orleans was + pleased with the vivacity and good sense of the Scottish adventurer, while + the latter was no less pleased with the wit and amiability of a prince who + promised to become his patron. They were often thrown into each other's + society, and Law seized every opportunity to instil his financial + doctrines into the mind of one whose proximity to the throne pointed him + out as destined, at no very distant date, to play an important part in the + government. + </p> + <p> + Shortly before the death of Louis XIV, or, as some say, in 1708, Law + proposed a scheme of finance to Desmarets, the Comptroller. Louis is + reported to have inquired whether the projector were a Catholic, and, on + being answered in the negative, to have declined having anything to do + with him. [This anecdote, which is related in the correspondence of Madame + de Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, and mother of the Regent, is discredited + by Lord John Russell, in his "History of the principal States of Europe, + from the Peace of Utrecht;" for what reason he does not inform us. There + is no doubt that Law proposed his scheme to Desmarets, and that Louis + refused to hear of it. The reason given for the refusal is quite + consistent with the character of that bigoted and tyrannical monarch.] + </p> + <p> + It was after this repulse that he visited Italy. His mind being still + occupied with schemes of finance, he proposed to Victor Amadeus, Duke of + Savoy, to establish his land-bank in that country. The Duke replied that + his dominions were too circumscribed for the execution of so great a + project, and that he was by far too poor a potentate to be ruined. He + advised him, however, to try the King of France once more; for he was + sure, if he knew anything of the French character, that the people would + be delighted with a plan, not only so new, but so plausible. + </p> + <p> + Louis XIV died in 1715, and the heir to the throne being an infant only + seven years of age, the Duke of Orleans assumed the reins of government, + as Regent, during his minority. Law now found himself in a more favourable + position. The tide in his affairs had come, which, taken at the flood, was + to waft him on to fortune. The Regent was his friend, already acquainted + with his theory and pretensions, and inclined, moreover, to aid him in any + efforts to restore the wounded credit of France, bowed down to the earth + by the extravagance of the long reign of Louis XIV. + </p> + <p> + Hardly was that monarch laid in his grave ere the popular hatred, + suppressed so long, burst forth against his memory. He who, during his + life, had been flattered with an excess of adulation, to which history + scarcely offers a parallel, was now cursed as a tyrant, a bigot, and a + plunderer. His statues were pelted and disfigured; his effigies torn down, + amid the execrations of the populace, and his name rendered synonymous + with selfishness and oppression. The glory of his arms was forgotten, and + nothing was remembered but his reverses, his extravagance, and his + cruelty. + </p> + <p> + The finances of the country were in a state of the utmost disorder. A + profuse and corrupt monarch, whose profuseness and corruption were + imitated by almost every functionary, from the highest to the lowest + grade, had brought France to the verge of ruin. The national debt amounted + to 3000 millions of livres, the revenue to 145 millions, and the + expenditure to 142 millions per annum; leaving only three millions to pay + the interest upon 3000 millions. The first care of the Regent was to + discover a remedy for an evil of such magnitude, and a council was early + summoned to take the matter into consideration. The Duke de St. Simon was + of opinion that nothing could save the country from revolution but a + remedy at once bold and dangerous. He advised the Regent to convoke the + States-General, and declare a national bankruptcy. The Duke de Noailles, a + man of accommodating principles, an accomplished courtier, and totally + averse from giving himself any trouble or annoyance that ingenuity could + escape from, opposed the project of St. Simon with all his influence. He + represented the expedient as alike dishonest and ruinous. The Regent was + of the same opinion, and this desperate remedy fell to the ground. + </p> + <p> + The measures ultimately adopted, though they promised fair, only + aggravated the evil. The first, and most dishonest measure, was of no + advantage to the state. A recoinage was ordered, by which the currency was + depreciated one-fifth; those who took a thousand pieces of gold or silver + to the mint received back an amount of coin of the same nominal value, but + only four-fifths of the weight of metal. By this contrivance the treasury + gained seventy-two millions of livres, and all the commercial operations + of the country were disordered. A trifling diminution of the taxes + silenced the clamours of the people, and for the slight present advantage + the great prospective evil was forgotten. + </p> + <p> + A chamber of justice was next instituted, to inquire into the + malversations of the loan-contractors and the farmers of the revenues. Tax + collectors are never very popular in any country, but those of France at + this period deserved all the odium with which they were loaded. As soon as + these farmers-general, with all their hosts of subordinate agents, called + maltotiers [From maltote, an oppressive tax.], were called to account for + their misdeeds, the most extravagant joy took possession of the nation. + The Chamber of Justice, instituted chiefly for this purpose, was endowed + with very extensive powers. It was composed of the presidents and councils + of the parliament, the judges of the Courts of Aid and of Requests, and + the officers of the Chamber of Account, under the general presidence of + the minister of finance. Informers were encouraged to give evidence + against the offenders by the promise of one-fifth part of the fines and + confiscations. A tenth of all concealed effects belonging to the guilty + was promised to such as should furnish the means of discovering them. + </p> + <p> + The promulgation of the edict constituting this court caused a degree of + consternation among those principally concerned which can only be + accounted for on the supposition that their peculation had been enormous. + But they met with no sympathy. The proceedings against them justified + their terror. The Bastile was soon unable to contain the prisoners that + were sent to it, and the gaols all over the country teemed with guilty or + suspected persons. An order was issued to all innkeepers and postmasters + to refuse horses to such as endeavoured to seek safety in flight; and all + persons were forbidden, under heavy fines, to harbour them or favour their + evasion. Some were condemned to the pillory, others to the gallies, and + the least guilty to fine and imprisonment. One only, Samuel Bernard, a + rich banker, and farmer-general of a province remote from the capital, was + sentenced to death. So great had been the illegal profits of this man,—looked + upon as the tyrant and oppressor of his district,—that he offered + six millions of livres, or 250,000 pounds sterling, to be allowed to + escape. + </p> + <p> + His bribe was refused, and he suffered the penalty of death. Others, + perhaps more guilty, were more fortunate. Confiscation, owing to the + concealment of their treasures by the delinquents, often produced less + money than a fine. The severity of the government relaxed, and fines, + under the denomination of taxes, were indiscriminately levied upon all + offenders. But so corrupt was every department of the administration, that + the country benefited but little by the sums which thus flowed into the + treasury. Courtiers, and courtiers' wives and mistresses, came in for the + chief share of the spoils. One contractor had been taxed in proportion to + his wealth and guilt, at the sum of twelve millions of livres. The Count * + * *, a man of some weight in the government, called upon him, and offered + to procure a remission of the fine, if he would give him a hundred + thousand crowns. "Vous etes trop tard, mon ami," replied the financier; "I + have already made a bargain with your wife for fifty thousand." [This + anecdote is related by M. de la Hode, in his Life of Philippe of Orleans. + It would have looked more authentic if he had given the names of the + dishonest contractor and the still more dishonest minister. But M. de la + Hode's book is liable to the same objection as most of the French memoirs + of that and of subsequent periods. It is sufficient with most of them that + an anecdote be ben trovato; the veto is but matter of secondary + consideration.] + </p> + <p> + About a hundred and eighty millions of livres were levied in this manner, + of which eighty were applied in payment of the debts contracted by the + government. The remainder found its way into the pockets of the courtiers. + Madame de Maintenon, writing on this subject, says, "We hear every day of + some new grant of the Regent; the people murmur very much at this mode of + employing the money taken from the peculators." The people, who, after the + first burst of their resentment is over, generally express a sympathy for + the weak, were indignant that so much severity should be used to so little + purpose. They did not see the justice of robbing one set of rogues to + fatten another. In a few months all the more guilty had been brought to + punishment, and the chamber of justice looked for victims in humbler walks + of life. Charges of fraud and extortion were brought against tradesmen of + good character, in consequence of the great inducements held out to common + informers. They were compelled to lay open their affairs before this + tribunal in order to establish their innocence. The voice of complaint + resounded from every side, and at the expiration of a year the government + found it advisable to discontinue further proceedings. The chamber of + justice was suppressed, and a general amnesty granted to all against whom + no charges had yet been preferred. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of this financial confusion Law appeared upon the scene. No + man felt more deeply than the Regent the deplorable state of the country, + but no man could be more averse from putting his shoulders manfully to the + wheel. He disliked business; he signed official documents without proper + examination, and trusted to others what he should have undertaken himself. + The cares inseparable from his high office were burdensome to him; he saw + that something was necessary to be done, but he lacked the energy to do + it, and had not virtue enough to sacrifice his case and his pleasures in + the attempt. No wonder that, with this character, he listened favourably + to the mighty projects, so easy of execution, of the clever adventurer + whom he had formerly known, and whose talents he appreciated. + </p> + <p> + When Law presented himself at court, he was most cordially received. He + offered two memorials to the Regent, in which he set forth the evils that + had befallen France, owing to an insufficient currency, at different times + depreciated. He asserted that a metallic currency, unaided by a paper + money, was wholly inadequate to the wants of a commercial country, and + particularly cited the examples of Great Britain and Holland to show the + advantages of paper. He used many sound arguments on the subject of + credit, and proposed, as a means of restoring that of France, then at so + low an ebb among the nations, that he should be allowed to set up a bank, + which should have the management of the royal revenues, and issue notes, + both on that and on landed security. He further proposed that this bank + should be administered in the King's name, but subject to the control of + commissioners, to be named by the States-General. + </p> + <p> + While these memorials were under consideration, Law translated into French + his essay on money and trade, and used every means to extend through the + nation his renown as a financier. He soon became talked of. The confidants + of the Regent spread abroad his praise, and every one expected great + things of Monsieur Lass. [The French pronounced his name in this manner to + avoid the ungallic sound, aw. After the failure of his scheme, the wags + said the nation was lasse de lui, and proposed that he should in future be + known by the name of Monsieur Helas!] + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of May, 1716, a royal edict was published, by which Law was + authorised, in conjunction with his brother, to establish a bank, under + the name of Law and Company, the notes of which should be received in + payment of the taxes. The capital was fixed at six millions of livres, in + twelve thousand shares of five hundred livres each, purchasable one-fourth + in specie and the remainder in billets d'etat. It was not thought + expedient to grant him the whole of the privileges prayed for in his + memorials until experience should have shown their safety and advantage. + </p> + <p> + Law was now on the high road to fortune. The study of thirty years was + brought to guide him in the management of his bank. He made all his notes + payable at sight, and in the coin current at the time they were issued. + This last was a master-stroke of policy, and immediately rendered his + notes more valuable than the precious metals. The latter were constantly + liable to depreciation by the unwise tampering of the government. A + thousand livres of silver might be worth their nominal value one day and + be reduced one-sixth the next, but a note of Law's bank retained its + original value. He publicly declared at the same time that a banker + deserved death if he made issues without having sufficient security to + answer all demands. The consequence was, that his notes advanced rapidly + in public estimation, and were received at one per cent. more than specie. + It was not long before the trade of the country felt the benefit. + Languishing commerce began to lift up her head; the taxes were paid with + greater regularity and less murmuring, and a degree of confidence was + established that could not fail, if it continued, to become still more + advantageous. In the course of a year Law's notes rose to fifteen per + cent. premium, while the billets d'etat, or notes issued by the + government, as security for the debts contracted by the extravagant Louis + XIV, were at a discount of no less than seventy-eight and a half per cent. + The comparison was too great in favour of Law not to attract the attention + of the whole kingdom, and his credit extended itself day by day. Branches + of his bank were almost simultaneously established at Lyons, Rochelle, + Tours, Amiens, and Orleans. + </p> + <p> + The Regent appears to have been utterly astonished at his success, and + gradually to have conceived the idea, that paper, which could so aid a + metallic currency, could entirely supersede it. Upon this fundamental + error he afterwards acted. In the mean time, Law commenced the famous + project which has handed his name down to posterity. He proposed to the + Regent, who could refuse him nothing, to establish a company, that should + have the exclusive privilege of trading to the great river Mississippi and + the province of Louisiana, on its western bank. The country was supposed + to abound in the precious metals, and the company, supported by the + profits of their exclusive commerce, were to be the sole farmers of the + taxes, and sole coiners of money. Letters patent were issued, + incorporating the company, in August 1717. The capital was divided into + two hundred thousand shares of five hundred livres each, the whole of + which might be paid in billets d'etat, at their nominal value, although + worth no more than 160 livres in the market. + </p> + <p> + It was now that the frenzy of speculating began to seize upon the nation. + Law's bank had effected so much good, that any promises for the future + which he thought proper to make were readily believed. The Regent every + day conferred new privileges upon the fortunate projector. The bank + obtained the monopoly of the sale of tobacco; the sole right of refinage + of gold and silver, and was finally erected into the Royal Bank of France. + Amid the intoxication of success, both Law and the Regent forgot the maxim + so loudly proclaimed by the former, that a banker deserved death who made + issues of paper without the necessary funds to provide for them. As soon + as the bank, from a private, became a public institution, the Regent + caused a fabrication of notes to the amount of one thousand millions of + livres. This was the first departure from sound principles, and one for + which Law is not justly blameable. While the affairs of the bank were + under his control, the issues had never exceeded sixty millions. Whether + Law opposed the inordinate increase is not known, but as it took place as + soon as the bank was made a royal establishment, it is but fair to lay the + blame of the change of system upon the Regent. + </p> + <p> + Law found that he lived under a despotic government, but he was not yet + aware of the pernicious influence which such a government could exercise + upon so delicate a framework as that of credit. He discovered it + afterwards to his cost, but in the mean time suffered himself to be + impelled by the Regent into courses which his own reason must have + disapproved. With a weakness most culpable, he lent his aid in inundating + the country with paper money, which, based upon no solid foundation, was + sure to fall, sooner or later. The extraordinary present fortune dazzled + his eyes, and prevented him from seeing the evil day that would burst over + his head, when once, from any cause or other, the alarm was sounded. The + Parliament were from the first jealous of his influence as a foreigner, + and had, besides, their misgivings as to the safety of his projects. As + his influence extended, their animosity increased. D'Aguesseau, the + Chancellor, was unceremoniously dismissed by the Regent for his opposition + to the vast increase of paper money, and the constant depreciation of the + gold and silver coin of the realm. This only served to augment the enmity + of the Parliament, and when D'Argenson, a man devoted to the interests of + the Regent, was appointed to the vacant chancellorship, and made at the + same time minister of finance, they became more violent than ever. The + first measure of the new minister caused a further depreciation of the + coin. In order to extinguish the billets d'etat, it was ordered that + persons bringing to the mint four thousand livres in specie and one + thousand livres in billets d'etat, should receive back coin to the amount + of five thousand livres. D'Argenson plumed himself mightily upon thus + creating five thousand new and smaller livres out of the four thousand old + and larger ones, being too ignorant of the true principles of trade and + credit to be aware of the immense injury he was inflicting upon both. + </p> + <p> + The Parliament saw at once the impolicy and danger of such a system, and + made repeated remonstrances to the Regent. The latter refused to entertain + their petitions, when the Parliament, by a bold, and very unusual stretch + of authority, commanded that no money should be received in payment but + that of the old standard. The Regent summoned a lit de justice, and + annulled the decree. The Parliament resisted, and issued another. Again + the Regent exercised his privilege, and annulled it, till the Parliament, + stung to fiercer opposition, passed another decree, dated August 12th, + 1718, by which they forbade the bank of Law to have any concern, either + direct or indirect, in the administration of the revenue; and prohibited + all foreigners, under heavy penalties, from interfering, either in their + own names, or in that of others, in the management of the finances of the + state. The Parliament considered Law to be the author of all the evil, and + some of the counsellors, in the virulence of their enmity, proposed that + he should be brought to trial, and, if found guilty, be hung at the gates + of the Palais de Justice. + </p> + <p> + Law, in great alarm, fled to the Palais Royal, and threw himself on the + protection of the Regent, praying that measures might be taken to reduce + the Parliament to obedience. The Regent had nothing so much at heart, both + on that account and because of the disputes that had arisen relative to + the legitimation of the Duke of Maine and the Count of Thoulouse, the sons + of the late King. The Parliament was ultimately overawed by the arrest of + their president and two of the counsellors, who were sent to distant + prisons. + </p> + <p> + Thus the first cloud upon Law's prospects blew over: freed from + apprehension of personal danger, he devoted his attention to his famous + Mississippi project, the shares of which were rapidly rising, in spite of + the Parliament. At the commencement of the year 1719 an edict was + published, granting to the Mississippi Company the exclusive privilege of + trading to the East Indies, China, and the South Seas, and to all the + possessions of the French East India Company, established by Colbert. The + Company, in consequence of this great increase of their business, assumed, + as more appropriate, the title of Company of the Indies, and created fifty + thousand new shares. The prospects now held out by Law were most + magnificent. He promised a yearly dividend of two hundred livres upon each + share of five hundred, which, as the shares were paid for in billets + d'etat, at their nominal value, but worth only 100 livres, was at the rate + of about 120 per cent. profit. + </p> + <p> + The public enthusiasm, which had been so long rising, could not resist a + vision so splendid. At least three hundred thousand applications were made + for the fifty thousand new shares, and Law's house in the Rue de + Quincampoix was beset from morning to night by the eager applicants. As it + was impossible to satisfy them all, it was several weeks before a list of + the fortunate new stockholders could be made out, during which time the + public impatience rose to a pitch of frenzy. Dukes, marquises, counts, + with their duchesses, marchionesses, and countesses, waited in the streets + for hours every day before Mr. Law's door to know the result. At last, to + avoid the jostling of the plebeian crowd, which, to the number of + thousands, filled the whole thoroughfare, they took apartments in the + adjoining houses, that they might be continually near the temple whence + the new Plutus was diffusing wealth. Every day the value of the old shares + increased, and the fresh applications, induced by the golden dreams of the + whole nation, became so numerous that it was deemed advisable to create no + less than three hundred thousand new shares, at five thousand livres each, + in order that the Regent might take advantage of the popular enthusiasm to + pay off the national debt. For this purpose, the sum of fifteen hundred + millions of livres was necessary. Such was the eagerness of the nation, + that thrice the sum would have been subscribed if the government had + authorised it. + </p> + <p> + Law was now at the zenith of his prosperity, and the people were rapidly + approaching the zenith of their infatuation. The highest and the lowest + classes were alike filled with a vision of boundless wealth. There was not + a person of note among the aristocracy, with the exception of the Duke of + St. Simon and Marshal Villars, who was not engaged in buying or selling + stock. People of every age and sex, and condition in life, speculated in + the rise and fall of the Mississippi bonds. The Rue de Quincampoix was the + grand resort of the jobbers, and it being a narrow, inconvenient street, + accidents continually occurred in it, from the tremendous pressure of the + crowd. Houses in it, worth, in ordinary times, a thousand livres of yearly + rent, yielded as much as twelve or sixteen thousand. A cobbler, who had a + stall in it, gained about two hundred livres a day by letting it out, and + furnishing writing materials to brokers and their clients. The story goes, + that a hump-backed man who stood in the street gained considerable sums by + lending his hump as a writing-desk to the eager speculators! The great + concourse of persons who assembled to do business brought a still greater + concourse of spectators. These again drew all the thieves and immoral + characters of Paris to the spot, and constant riots and disturbances took + place. At nightfall, it was often found necessary to send a troop of + soldiers to clear the street. + </p> + <p> + Law, finding the inconvenience of his residence, removed to the Place + Vendome, whither the crowd of agioteurs followed him. That spacious square + soon became as thronged as the Rue de Quincampoix: from morning to night + it presented the appearance of a fair. Booths and tents were erected for + the transaction of business and the sale of refreshments, and gamblers + with their roulette tables stationed themselves in the very middle of the + place, and reaped a golden, or rather a paper, harvest from the throng. + The Boulevards and public gardens were forsaken; parties of pleasure took + their walks in preference in the Place Vendome, which became the + fashionable lounge of the idle, as well as the general rendezvous of the + busy. The noise was so great all day, that the Chancellor, whose court was + situated in the square, complained to the Regent and the municipality, + that he could not hear the advocates. Law, when applied to, expressed his + willingness to aid in the removal of the nuisance, and for this purpose + entered into a treaty with the Prince de Carignan for the Hotel de + Soissons, which had a garden of several acres in the rear. A bargain was + concluded, by which Law became the purchaser of the hotel, at an enormous + price, the Prince reserving to himself the magnificent gardens as a new + source of profit. They contained some fine statues and several fountains, + and were altogether laid out with much taste. As soon as Law was installed + in his new abode, an edict was published, forbidding all persons to buy or + sell stock anywhere but in the gardens of the Hotel de Soissons. In the + midst among the trees, about five hundred small tents and pavilions were + erected, for the convenience of the stock-jobbers. Their various colours, + the gay ribands and banners which floated from them, the busy crowds which + passed continually in and out—the incessant hum of voices, the + noise, the music, and the strange mixture of business and pleasure on the + countenances of the throng, all combined to give the place an air of + enchantment that quite enraptured the Parisians. The Prince de Carignan + made enormous profits while the delusion lasted. Each tent was let at the + rate of five hundred livres a month; and, as there were at least five + hundred of them, his monthly revenue from this source alone must have + amounted to 250,000 livres, or upwards of 10,000 pounds sterling. + </p> + <p> + The honest old soldier, Marshal Villars, was so vexed to see the folly + which had smitten his countrymen, that he never could speak with temper on + the subject. Passing one day through the Place Vendome in his carriage, + the choleric gentleman was so annoyed at the infatuation of the people, + that he abruptly ordered his coachman to stop, and, putting his head out + of the carriage window, harangued them for full half an hour on their + "disgusting avarice." This was not a very wise proceeding on his part. + Hisses and shouts of laughter resounded from every side, and jokes without + number were aimed at him. There being at last strong symptoms that + something more tangible was flying through the air in the direction of his + head, Marshal was glad to drive on. He never again repeated the + experiment. + </p> + <p> + Two sober, quiet, and philosophic men of letters, M. de la Motte and the + Abbe Terrason, congratulated each other, that they, at least, were free + from this strange infatuation. A few days afterwards, as the worthy Abbe + was coming out of the Hotel de Soissons, whither he had gone to buy shares + in the Mississippi, whom should he see but his friend La Motte entering + for the same purpose. "Ha!" said the Abbe, smiling, "is that you?" "Yes," + said La Motte, pushing past him as fast as he was able; "and can that be + you?" The next time the two scholars met, they talked of philosophy, of + science, and of religion, but neither had courage for a long time to + breathe one syllable about the Mississippi. At last, when it was + mentioned, they agreed that a man ought never to swear against his doing + any one thing, and that there was no sort of extravagance of which even a + wise man was not capable. + </p> + <p> + During this time, Law, the new Plutus, had become all at once the most + important personage of the state. The ante-chambers of the Regent were + forsaken by the courtiers. Peers, judges, and bishops thronged to the + Hotel de Soissons; officers of the army and navy, ladies of title and + fashion, and every one to whom hereditary rank or public employ gave a + claim to precedence, were to be found waiting in his ante-chambers to beg + for a portion of his India stock. Law was so pestered that he was unable + to see one-tenth part of the applicants, and every manoeuvre that + ingenuity could suggest was employed to gain access to him. Peers, whose + dignity would have been outraged if the Regent had made them wait half an + hour for an interview, were content to wait six hours for the chance of + seeing Monsieur Law. Enormous fees were paid to his servants, if they + would merely announce their names. Ladies of rank employed the + blandishments of their smiles for the same object; but many of them came + day after day for a fortnight before they could obtain an audience. When + Law accepted an invitation, he was sometimes so surrounded by ladies, all + asking to have their names put down in his lists as shareholders in the + new stock, that, in spite of his well-known and habitual gallantry, he was + obliged to tear himself away par force. The most ludicrous stratagems were + employed to have an opportunity of speaking to him. One lady, who had + striven in vain during several days, gave up in despair all attempts to + see him at his own house, but ordered her coachman to keep a strict watch + whenever she was out in her carriage, and if he saw Mr. Law coming, to + drive against a post, and upset her. The coachman promised obedience, and + for three days the lady was driven incessantly through the town, praying + inwardly for the opportunity to be overturned. At last she espied Mr. Law, + and, pulling the string, called out to the coachman, "Upset us now! for + God's sake, upset us now!" The coachman drove against a post, the lady + screamed, the coach was overturned, and Law, who had seen the accident, + hastened to the spot to render assistance. The cunning dame was led into + the Hotel de Soissons, where she soon thought it advisable to recover from + her fright, and, after apologizing to Mr. Law, confessed her stratagem. + Law smiled, and entered the lady in his books as the purchaser of a + quantity of India stock. Another story is told of a Madame de Boucha, who, + knowing that Mr. Law was at dinner at a certain house, proceeded thither + in her carriage, and gave the alarm of fire. The company started from + table, and Law among the rest; but, seeing one lady making all haste into + the house towards him, while everybody else was scampering away, he + suspected the trick, and ran off in another direction. + </p> + <p> + Many other anecdotes are related, which even, though they may be a little + exaggerated, are nevertheless worth preserving, as showing the spirit of + that singular period. [The curious reader may find an anecdote of the + eagerness of the French ladies to retain Law in their company, which will + make him blush or smile according as he happens to be very modest or the + reverse. It is related in the Letters of Madame Charlotte Elizabeth de + Baviere, Duchess of Orleans, vol. ii. p. 274.] The Regent was one day + mentioning, in the presence of D'Argenson, the Abbe Dubois, and some other + persons, that he was desirous of deputing some lady, of the rank at least + of a Duchess, to attend upon his daughter at Modena; "but," added he, "I + do not exactly know where to find one." "No!" replied one, in affected + surprise; "I can tell you where to find every Duchess in France:—you + have only to go to Mr. Law's; you will see them every one in his + ante-chamber." + </p> + <p> + M. de Chirac, a celebrated physician, had bought stock at an unlucky + period, and was very anxious to sell out. Stock, however continued to fall + for two or three days, much to his alarm. His mind was filled with the + subject, when he was suddenly called upon to attend a lady, who imagined + herself unwell. He arrived, was shown up stairs, and felt the lady's + pulse. "It falls! it falls! good God! it falls continually!" said he, + musingly, while the lady looked up in his face, all anxiety for his + opinion. "Oh! M. de Chirac," said she, starting to her feet, and ringing + the bell for assistance; "I am dying! I am dying! it falls! it falls! it + falls!" "What falls?" inquired the doctor, in amazement. "My pulse! my + pulse!" said the lady; "I must be dying." "Calm your apprehensions, my + dear Madam," said M. de Chirac; "I was speaking of the stocks. The truth + is, I have been a great loser, and my mind is so disturbed, I hardly know + what I have been saying." + </p> + <p> + The price of shares sometimes rose ten or twenty per cent. in the course + of a few hours, and many persons in the humbler walks of life, who had + risen poor in the morning, went to bed in affluence. An extensive holder + of stock, being taken ill, sent his servant to sell two hundred and fifty + shares, at eight thousand livres each, the price at which they were then + quoted. The servant went, and, on his arrival in the Jardin de Soissons, + found that in the interval the price had risen to ten thousand livres. The + difference of two thousand livres on the two hundred and fifty shares, + amounting to 500,000 livres, or 20,000 pounds sterling, he very coolly + transferred to his own use, and, giving the remainder to his master, set + out the same evening for another country. Law's coachman in a very short + time made money enough to set up a carriage of his own, and requested + permission to leave his service. Law, who esteemed the man, begged of him + as a favour, that he would endeavour, before he went, to find a substitute + as good as himself. The coachman consented, and in the evening brought two + of his former comrades, telling Mr. Law to choose between them, and he + would take the other. Cookmaids and footmen were now and then as lucky, + and, in the full-blown pride of their easily-acquired wealth, made the + most ridiculous mistakes. Preserving the language and manners of their + old, with the finery of their new station, they afforded continual + subjects for the pity of the sensible, the contempt of the sober, and the + laughter of everybody. But the folly and meanness of the higher ranks of + society were still more disgusting. One instance alone, related by the + Duke de St. Simon, will show the unworthy avarice which infected the whole + of society. A man of the name of Andre, without character or education, + had, by a series of well-timed speculations in Mississippi bonds, gained + enormous wealth, in an incredibly short space of time. As St. Simon + expresses it, "he had amassed mountains of gold." As he became rich, he + grew ashamed of the lowness of his birth, and anxious above all things to + be allied to nobility. He had a daughter, an infant only three years of + age, and he opened a negotiation with the aristocratic and needy family of + D'Oyse, that this child should, upon certain conditions, marry a member of + that house. The Marquis d'Oyse, to his shame, consented, and promised to + marry her himself on her attaining the age of twelve, if the father would + pay him down the sum of a hundred thousand crowns, and twenty thousand + livres every year, until the celebration of the marriage. The Marquis was + himself in his thirty-third year. This scandalous bargain was duly signed + and sealed, the stockjobber furthermore agreeing to settle upon his + daughter, on the marriage-day, a fortune of several millions. The Duke of + Brancas, the head of the family, was present throughout the negotiation, + and shared in all the profits. St. Simon, who treats the matter with the + levity becoming what he thought so good a joke, adds, "that people did not + spare their animadversions on this beautiful marriage," and further + informs us, "that the project fell to the ground some months afterwards by + the overthrow of Law, and the ruin of the ambitious Monsieur Andre." It + would appear, however, that the noble family never had the honesty to + return the hundred thousand crowns. + </p> + <p> + Amid events like these, which, humiliating though they be, partake largely + of the ludicrous, others occurred of a more serious nature. Robberies in + the streets were of daily occurrence, in consequence of the immense sums, + in paper, which people carried about with them. Assassinations were also + frequent. One case in particular fixed the attention of the whole of + France, not only on account of the enormity of the offence, but of the + rank and high connexions of the criminal. + </p> + <p> + The Count d'Horn, a younger brother of the Prince d'Horn, and related to + the noble families of D'Aremberg, De Ligne, and De Montmorency, was a + young man of dissipated character, extravagant to a degree, and + unprincipled as he was extravagant. In connexion with two other young men + as reckless as himself, named Mille, a Piedmontese captain, and one + Destampes, or Lestang, a Fleming, he formed a design to rob a very rich + broker, who was known, unfortunately for himself, to carry great sums + about his person. The Count pretended a desire to purchase of him a number + of shares in the Company of the Indies, and for that purpose appointed to + meet him in a cabaret, or low public-house, in the neighbourhood of the + Place Vendome. The unsuspecting broker was punctual to his appointment; so + were the Count d'Horn and his two associates, whom he introduced as his + particular friends. After a few moments' conversation, the Count d'Horn + suddenly sprang upon his victim, and stabbed him three times in the breast + with a poniard. The man fell heavily to the ground, and, while the Count + was employed in rifling his portfolio of bonds in the Mississippi and + Indian schemes to the amount of one hundred thousand crowns, Mille, the + Piedmontese, stabbed the unfortunate broker again and again, to make sure + of his death. But the broker did not fall without a struggle, and his + cries brought the people of the cabaret to his assistance. Lestang, the + other assassin, who had been set to keep watch at a staircase, sprang from + a window and escaped; but Mille and the Count d'Horn were seized in the + very act. + </p> + <p> + This crime, committed in open day, and in so public a place as a cabaret, + filled Paris with consternation. The trial of the assassins commenced on + the following day, and the evidence being so clear, they were both found + guilty and condemned to be broken alive on the wheel. The noble relatives + of the Count d'Horn absolutely blocked up the ante-chambers of the Regent, + praying for mercy on the misguided youth, and alleging that he was insane. + The Regent avoided them as long as possible, being determined that, in a + case so atrocious, justice should take its course; but the importunity of + these influential suitors was not to be overcome so silently, and they at + last forced themselves into the presence of the Regent, and prayed him to + save their house the shame of a public execution. They hinted that the + Princes d'Horn were allied to the illustrious family of Orleans, and added + that the Regent himself would be disgraced if a kinsman of his should die + by the hands of a common executioner. The Regent, to his credit, was proof + against all their solicitations, and replied to their last argument in the + words of Corneille,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Le crime fait la honte, et non pas l'echafaud:" +</pre> + <p> + adding, that whatever shame there might be in the punishment he would very + willingly share with the other relatives. Day after day they renewed their + entreaties, but always with the same result. At last they thought that if + they could interest the Duke de St. Simon in their layout, a man for whom + the Regent felt sincere esteem, they might succeed in their object. The + Duke, a thorough aristocrat, was as shocked as they were, that a noble + assassin should die by the same death as a plebeian felon, and represented + to the Regent the impolicy of making enemies of so numerous, wealthy, and + powerful a family. He urged, too, that in Germany, where the family of + D'Aremberg had large possessions, it was the law, that no relative of a + person broken on the wheel could succeed to any public office or employ + until a whole generation had passed away. For this reason he thought the + punishment of the guilty Count might be transmuted into beheading, which + was considered all over Europe as much less infamous. The Regent was moved + by this argument, and was about to consent, when Law, who felt peculiarly + interested in the fate of the murdered man, confirmed him in his former + resolution, to let the law take its course. + </p> + <p> + The relatives of D'Horn were now reduced to the last extremity. The Prince + de Robec Montmorency, despairing of other methods, found means to + penetrate into the dungeon of the criminal, and offering him a cup of + poison, implored him to save them from disgrace. The Count d'Horn turned + away his head, and refused to take it. Montmorency pressed him once more, + and losing all patience at his continued refusal, turned on his heel, and + exclaiming, "Die, then, as thou wilt, mean-spirited wretch! thou art fit + only to perish by the hands of the hangman!" left him to his fate. + </p> + <p> + D'Horn himself petitioned the Regent that he might be beheaded, but Law, + who exercised more influence over his mind than any other person, with the + exception of the notorious Abbe Dubois, his tutor, insisted that he could + not in justice succumb to the self-interested views of the D'Horns. The + Regent had from the first been of the same opinion, and within six days + after the commission of their crime, D'Horn and Mille were broken on the + wheel in the Place de Greve. The other assassin, Lestang, was never + apprehended. + </p> + <p> + This prompt and severe justice was highly pleasing to the populace of + Paris; even M. de Quincampoix, as they called Law, came in for a share of + their approbation for having induced the Regent to show no favour to a + patrician. But the number of robberies and assassinations did not + diminish. No sympathy was shown for rich jobbers when they were plundered: + the general laxity of public morals, conspicuous enough before, was + rendered still more so by its rapid pervasion of the middle classes, who + had hitherto remained comparatively pure, between the open vices of the + class above and the hidden crimes of the class below them. The pernicious + love of gambling diffused itself through society, and bore all public, and + nearly all private, virtue before it. + </p> + <p> + For a time, while confidence lasted, an impetus was given to trade, which + could not fail to be beneficial. In Paris, especially, the good results + were felt. Strangers flocked into the capital from every part, bent, not + only upon making money, but on spending it. The Duchess of Orleans, mother + of the Regent, computes the increase of the population during this time, + from the great influx of strangers from all parts of the world, at 305,000 + souls. The housekeepers were obliged to make up beds in garrets, kitchens, + and even stables, for the accommodation of lodgers; and the town was so + full of carriages and vehicles of every description, that they were + obliged in the principal streets to drive at a foot-pace for fear of + accidents. The looms of the country worked with unusual activity, to + supply rich laces, silks, broad-cloth, and velvets, which being paid for + in abundant paper, increased in price four-fold. Provisions shared the + general advance; bread, meat, and vegetables were sold at prices greater + than had ever before been known; while the wages of labour rose in exactly + the same proportion. The artisan, who formerly gained fifteen sous per + diem, now gained sixty. New houses were built in every direction; an + illusory prosperity shone over the land, and so dazzled the eyes of the + whole nation that none could see the dark cloud on the horizon, announcing + the storm that was too rapidly approaching. + </p> + <p> + Law himself, the magician whose wand had wrought so surprising a change, + shared, of course, in the general prosperity. His wife and daughter were + courted by the highest nobility, and their alliance sought by the heirs of + ducal and princely houses. He bought two splendid estates in different + parts of France, and entered into a negotiation with the family of the + Duke de Sully for the purchase of the Marquisate of Rosny. His religion + being an obstacle to his advancement, the Regent promised, if he would + publicly conform to the Catholic faith, to make him comptroller-general of + the finances. Law, who had no more real religion than any other professed + gambler, readily agreed, and was confirmed by the Abbe de Tencin in the + cathedral of Melun, in presence of a great crowd of spectators. + </p> + <p> + [The following squib was circulated on the occasion:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Foin de ton zele seraphique, + Malheureux Abbe de Tencin, + Depuis que Law est Catholique, + Tout le royaume est Capucin +</pre> + <p> + Thus, somewhat weakly and paraphrastically rendered by Justansond, in his + translation of the "Memoirs of Louis XV:"— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Tencin, a curse on thy seraphic zeal, + Which by persuasion hath contrived the means + To make the Scotchman at our altars kneel, + Since which we all are poor as Capucines?] +</pre> + <p> + On the following day he was elected honorary churchwarden of the parish of + St. Roch, upon which occasion he made it a present of the sum of five + hundred thousand livres. His charities, always magnificent, were not + always so ostentatious. He gave away great sums privately, and no tale of + real distress ever reached his ears in vain. + </p> + <p> + At this time, he was by far the most influential person of the state. The + Duke of Orleans had so much confidence in his sagacity, and the success of + his plans, that he always consulted him upon every matter of moment. He + was by no means unduly elevated by his prosperity, but remained the same + simple, affable, sensible man that he had shown himself in adversity. His + gallantry, which was always delightful to the fair objects of it, was of a + nature, so kind, so gentlemanly, and so respectful, that not even a lover + could have taken offence at it. If upon any occasion he showed any + symptoms of haughtiness, it was to the cringing nobles, who lavished their + adulation upon him till it became fulsome. He often took pleasure in + seeing how long he could make them dance attendance upon him for a single + favour. To such of his own countrymen as by chance visited Paris, and + sought an interview with him, he was, on the contrary, all politeness and + attention. When Archibald Campbell, Earl of Islay, and afterwards Duke of + Argyle, called upon him in the Place Vendome, he had to pass through an + ante-chamber crowded with persons of the first distinction, all anxious to + see the great financier, and have their names put down as first on the + list of some new subscription. Law himself was quietly sitting in his + library, writing a letter to the gardener at his paternal estate of + Lauriston about the planting of some cabbages! The Earl stayed for a + considerable time, played a game of piquet with his countryman, and left + him, charmed with his ease, good sense, and good breeding. + </p> + <p> + Among the nobles who, by means of the public credulity at this time, + gained sums sufficient to repair their ruined fortunes, may be mentioned + the names of the Dukes de Bourbon, de Guiche, de la Force [The Duke de la + Force gained considerable sums, not only by jobbing in the stocks, but in + dealing in porcelain, spices, &c. It was debated for a length of time + in the Parliament of Paris whether he had not, in his quality of + spice-merchant, forfeited his rank in the peerage. It was decided in the + negative. A caricature of him was made, dressed as a street porter, + carrying a large bale of spices on his back, with the inscription, + "Admirez La Force."], de Chaulnes, and d'Antin; the Marechal d'Estrees, + the Princes de Rohan, de Poix, and de Leon. The Duke de Bourbon, son of + Louis XIV by Madame de Montespan, was peculiarly fortunate in his + speculations in Mississippi paper. He rebuilt the royal residence of + Chantilly in a style of unwonted magnificence, and, being passionately + fond of horses, he erected a range of stables, which were long renowned + throughout Europe, and imported a hundred and fifty of the finest racers + from England, to improve the breed in France. He bought a large extent of + country in Picardy, and became possessed of nearly all the valuable lands + lying between the Oise and the Somme. + </p> + <p> + When fortunes such as these were gained, it is no wonder that Law should + have been almost worshipped by the mercurial population. Never was monarch + more flattered than he was. All the small poets and litterateurs of the + day poured floods of adulation upon him. According to them he was the + saviour of the country, the tutelary divinity of France; wit was in all + his words, goodness in all his looks, and wisdom in all his actions. So + great a crowd followed his carriage whenever he went abroad, that the + Regent sent him a troop of horse as his permanent escort, to clear the + streets before him. + </p> + <p> + It was remarked at this time, that Paris had never before been so full of + objects of elegance and luxury. Statues, pictures, and tapestries were + imported in great quantities from foreign countries, and found a ready + market. All those pretty trifles in the way of furniture and ornament + which the French excel in manufacturing, were no longer the exclusive + play-things of the aristocracy, but were to be found in abundance in the + houses of traders and the middle classes in general. Jewellery of the most + costly description was brought to Paris as the most favourable mart. Among + the rest, the famous diamond, bought by the Regent, and called by his + name, and which long adorned the crown of France. It was purchased for the + sum of two millions of livres, under circumstances which show that the + Regent was not so great a gainer as some of his subjects, by the impetus + which trade had received. When the diamond was first offered to him, he + refused to buy it, although he desired, above all things, to possess it, + alleging as his reason, that his duty to the country he governed would not + allow him to spend so large a sum of the public money for a mere jewel. + This valid and honourable excuse threw all the ladies of the court into + alarm, and nothing was heard for some days but expressions of regret, that + so rare a gem should be allowed to go out of France; no private individual + being rich enough to buy it. The Regent was continually importuned about + it; but all in vain, until the Duke de St. Simon, who, with all his + ability, was something of a twaddler, undertook the weighty business. His + entreaties, being seconded by Law, the good-natured Regent gave his + consent, leaving to Law's ingenuity to find the means to pay for it. The + owner took security for the payment of the sum of two millions of livres + within a stated period, receiving, in the mean time, the interest of five + per cent. upon that amount, and being allowed, besides, all the valuable + clippings of the gem. St. Simon, in his Memoirs, relates, with no little + complacency, his share in this transaction. After describing the diamond + to be as large as a greengage, of a form nearly round, perfectly white, + and without flaw, and weighing more than five hundred grains, he concludes + with a chuckle, by telling the world, "that he takes great credit to + himself for having induced the Regent to make so illustrious a purchase." + In other words, he was proud that he had induced him to sacrifice his + duty, and buy a bauble for himself, at an extravagant price, out of the + public money. + </p> + <p> + Thus the system continued to flourish till the commencement of the year + 1720. The warnings of the Parliament, that too great a creation of paper + money would, sooner or later, bring the country to bankruptcy, were + disregarded. The Regent, who knew nothing whatever of the philosophy of + finance, thought that a system which had produced such good effects could + never be carried to excess. If five hundred millions of paper had been of + such advantage, five hundred millions additional would be of still greater + advantage. This was the grand error of the Regent, and which Law did not + attempt to dispel. The extraordinary avidity of the people kept up the + delusion; and the higher the price of Indian and Mississippi stock, the + more billets de banque were issued to keep pace with it. The edifice thus + reared might not unaptly be compared to the gorgeous palace erected by + Potemkin, that princely barbarian of Russia, to surprise and please his + imperial mistress: huge blocks of ice were piled one upon another; ionic + pillars, of chastest workmanship, in ice, formed a noble portico; and a + dome, of the same material, shone in the sun, which had just strength + enough to gild, but not to melt it. It glittered afar, like a palace of + crystals and diamonds; but there came one warm breeze from the south, and + the stately building dissolved away, till none were able even to gather up + the fragments. So with Law and his paper system. No sooner did the breath + of popular mistrust blow steadily upon it, than it fell to ruins, and none + could raise it up again. + </p> + <p> + The first slight alarm that was occasioned was early in 1720. The Prince + de Conti, offended that Law should have denied him fresh shares in India + stock, at his own price, sent to his bank to demand payment in specie of + so enormous a quantity of notes, that three waggons were required for its + transport. Law complained to the Regent, and urged on his attention the + mischief that would be done, if such an example found many imitators. The + Regent was but too well aware of it, and, sending for the Prince de Conti, + ordered him, under penalty of his high displeasure, to refund to the Bank + two-thirds of the specie which he had withdrawn from it. The Prince was + forced to obey the despotic mandate. Happily for Law's credit, De Conti + was an unpopular man: everybody condemned his meanness and cupidity, and + agreed that Law had been hardly treated. It is strange, however, that so + narrow an escape should not have made both Law and the Regent more anxious + to restrict their issues. Others were soon found who imitated, from + motives of distrust, the example which had been set by De Conti in + revenge. The more acute stockjobbers imagined justly that prices could not + continue to rise for ever. Bourdon and La Richardiere, renowned for their + extensive operations in the funds, quietly and in small quantities at a + time, converted their notes into specie, and sent it away to foreign + countries. They also bought as much as they could conveniently carry of + plate and expensive jewellery, and sent it secretly away to England or to + Holland. Vermalet, a jobber, who sniffed the coming storm, procured gold + and silver coin to the amount of nearly a million of livres, which he + packed in a farmer's cart, and covered over with hay and cow-dung. He then + disguised himself in the dirty smock-frock, or blouse, of a peasant, and + drove his precious load in safety into Belgium. From thence he soon found + means to transport it to Amsterdam. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto no difficulty had been experienced by any class in procuring + specie for their wants. But this system could not long be carried on + without causing a scarcity. The voice of complaint was heard on every + side, and inquiries being instituted, the cause was soon discovered. The + council debated long on the remedies to be taken, and Law, being called on + for his advice, was of opinion, that an edict should be published, + depreciating the value of coin five per cent. below that of paper. The + edict was published accordingly; but, failing of its intended effect, was + followed by another, in which the depreciation was increased to ten per + cent. The payments of the bank were at the same time restricted to one + hundred livres in gold, and ten in silver. All these measures were + nugatory to restore confidence in the paper, though the restriction of + cash payments within limits so extremely narrow kept up the credit of the + Bank. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding every effort to the contrary, the precious metals + continued to be conveyed to England and Holland. The little coin that was + left in the country was carefully treasured, or hidden until the scarcity + became so great, that the operations of trade could no longer be carried + on. In this emergency, Law hazarded the bold experiment of forbidding the + use of specie altogether. In February 1720 an edict was published, which, + instead of restoring the credit of the paper, as was intended, destroyed + it irrecoverably, and drove the country to the very brink of revolution. + By this famous edict it was forbidden to any person whatever to have more + than five hundred livres (20 pounds sterling) of coin in his possession, + under pain of a heavy fine, and confiscation of the sums found. It was + also forbidden to buy up jewellery, plate, and precious stones, and + informers were encouraged to make search for offenders, by the promise of + one-half the amount they might discover. The whole country sent up a cry + of distress at this unheard-of tyranny. The most odious persecution daily + took place. The privacy of families was violated by the intrusion of + informers and their agents. The most virtuous and honest were denounced + for the crime of having been seen with a louis d'or in their possession. + Servants betrayed their masters, one citizen became a spy upon his + neighbour, and arrests and confiscations so multiplied, that the courts + found a difficulty in getting through the immense increase of business + thus occasioned. It was sufficient for an informer to say that he + suspected any person of concealing money in his house, and immediately a + search-warrant was granted. Lord Stair, the English ambassador, said, that + it was now impossible to doubt of the sincerity of Law's conversion to the + Catholic religion; he had established the inquisition, after having given + abundant evidence of his faith in transubstantiation, by turning so much + gold into paper. + </p> + <p> + Every epithet that popular hatred could suggest was showered upon the + Regent and the unhappy Law. Coin, to any amount above five hundred livres, + was an illegal tender, and nobody would take paper if he could help it. No + one knew to-day what his notes would be worth to-morrow. "Never," says + Duclos, in his Secret Memoirs of the Regency, "was seen a more capricious + government-never was a more frantic tyranny exercised by hands less firm. + It is inconceivable to those who were witnesses of the horrors of those + times, and who look back upon them now as on a dream, that a sudden + revolution did not break out—that Law and the Regent did not perish + by a tragical death. They were both held in horror, but the people + confined themselves to complaints; a sombre and timid despair, a stupid + consternation, had seized upon all, and men's minds were too vile even to + be capable of a courageous crime." It would appear that, at one time, a + movement of the people was organised. Seditious writings were posted up + against the walls, and were sent, in hand-bills, to the houses of the most + conspicuous people. One of them, given in the "Memoires de la Regence," + was to the following effect:—"Sir and Madam,—This is to give + you notice that a St. Bartholomew's Day will be enacted again on Saturday + and Sunday, if affairs do not alter. You are desired not to stir out, nor + you, nor your servants. God preserve you from the flames! Give notice to + your neighbours. Dated Saturday, May 25th, 1720." The immense number of + spies with which the city was infested rendered the people mistrustful of + one another, and beyond some trifling disturbances made in the evening by + an insignificant group, which was soon dispersed, the peace of the capital + was not compromised. + </p> + <p> + The value of shares in the Louisiana, or Mississippi stock, had fallen + very rapidly, and few indeed were found to believe the tales that had once + been told of the immense wealth of that region. A last effort was + therefore tried to restore the public confidence in the Mississippi + project. For this purpose, a general conscription of all the poor wretches + in Paris was made by order of government. Upwards of six thousand of the + very refuse of the population were impressed, as if in time of war, and + were provided with clothes and tools to be embarked for New Orleans, to + work in the gold mines alleged to abound there. They were paraded day + after day through the streets with their pikes and shovels, and then sent + off in small detachments to the out-ports to be shipped for America. + Two-thirds of them never reached their destination, but dispersed + themselves over the country, sold their tools for what they could get, and + returned to their old course of life. In less than three weeks afterwards, + one-half of them were to be found again in Paris. The manoeuvre, however, + caused a trifling advance in Mississippi stock. Many persons of + superabundant gullibility believed that operations had begun in earnest in + the new Golconda, and that gold and silver ingots would again be found in + France. + </p> + <p> + In a constitutional monarchy some surer means would have been found for + the restoration of public credit. In England, at a subsequent period, when + a similar delusion had brought on similar distress, how different were the + measures taken to repair the evil; but in France, unfortunately, the + remedy was left to the authors of the mischief. The arbitrary will of the + Regent, which endeavoured to extricate the country, only plunged it deeper + into the mire. All payments were ordered to be made in paper, and between + the 1st of February and the end of May, notes were fabricated to the + amount of upwards of 1500 millions of livres, or 60,000,000 pounds + sterling. But the alarm once sounded, no art could make the people feel + the slightest confidence in paper which was not exchangeable into metal. + M. Lambert, the President of the Parliament of Paris, told the Regent to + his face that he would rather have a hundred thousand livres in gold or + silver than five millions in the notes of his bank. When such was the + general feeling, the superabundant issues of paper but increased the evil, + by rendering still more enormous the disparity between the amount of + specie and notes in circulation. Coin, which it was the object of the + Regent to depreciate, rose in value on every fresh attempt to diminish it. + In February, it was judged advisable that the Royal Bank should be + incorporated with the Company of the Indies. An edict to that effect was + published and registered by the Parliament. The state remained the + guarantee for the notes of the bank, and no more were to be issued without + an order in council. All the profits of the bank, since the time it had + been taken out of Law's hands and made a national institution, were given + over by the Regent to the Company of the Indies. This measure had the + effect of raising for a short time the value of the Louisiana and other + shares of the company, but it failed in placing public credit on any + permanent basis. + </p> + <p> + A council of state was held in the beginning of May, at which Law, + D'Argenson (his colleague in the administration of the finances), and all + the ministers were present. It was then computed that the total amount of + notes in circulation was 2600 millions of livres, while the coin in the + country was not quite equal to half that amount. It was evident to the + majority of the council that some plan must be adopted to equalise the + currency. Some proposed that the notes should be reduced to the value of + the specie, while others proposed that the nominal value of the specie + should be raised till it was on an equality with the paper. Law is said to + have opposed both these projects, but failing in suggesting any other, it + was agreed that the notes should be depreciated one-half. On the 21st of + May, an edict was accordingly issued, by which it was decreed that the + shares of the Company of the Indies, and the notes of the bank, should + gradually diminish in value, till at the end of a year they should only + pass current for one half of their nominal worth. The Parliament refused + to register the edict—the greatest outcry was excited, and the state + of the country became so alarming, that, as the only means of preserving + tranquillity, the council of the regency was obliged to stultify its own + proceedings, by publishing within seven days another edict, restoring the + notes to their original value. + </p> + <p> + On the same day (the 27th of May) the bank stopped payment in specie. Law + and D'Argenson were both dismissed from the ministry. The weak, + vacillating, and cowardly Regent threw the blame of all the mischief upon + Law, who, upon presenting himself at the Palais Royal, was refused + admitance. At nightfall, however, he was sent for, and admitted into the + palace by a secret door,[Duclos, Memoires Secrets de la Regence.] when the + Regent endeavoured to console him, and made all manner of excuses for the + severity with which in public he had been compelled to treat him. So + capricious was his conduct, that, two days afterwards, he took him + publicly to the opera, where he sat in the royal box, alongside of the + Regent, who treated him with marked consideration in face of all the + people. But such was the hatred against Law that the experiment had well + nigh proved fatal to him. The mob assailed his carriage with stones just + as he was entering his own door; and if the coachman had not made a sudden + jerk into the court-yard, and the domestics closed the gate immediately, + he would, in all probability, have been dragged out and torn to pieces. On + the following day, his wife and daughter were also assailed by the mob as + they were returning in their carriage from the races. When the Regent was + informed of these occurrences he sent Law a strong detachment of Swiss + guards, who were stationed night and day in the court of his residence. + The public indignation at last increased so much, that Law, finding his + own house, even with this guard, insecure, took refuge in the Palais + Royal, in the apartments of the Regent. + </p> + <p> + The Chancellor, D'Aguesseau, who had been dismissed in 1718 for his + opposition to the projects of Law, was now recalled to aid in the + restoration of credit. The Regent acknowledged too late, that he had + treated with unjustifiable harshness and mistrust one of the ablest, and + perhaps the sole honest public man of that corrupt period. He had retired + ever since his disgrace to his country-house at Fresnes, where, in the + midst of severe but delightful philosophic studies, he had forgotten the + intrigues of an unworthy court. Law himself, and the Chevalier de + Conflans, a gentleman of the Regent's household, were despatched in a + post-chaise, with orders to bring the ex-chancellor to Paris along with + them. D'Aguesseau consented to render what assistance he could, contrary + to the advice of his friends, who did not approve that he should accept + any recall to office of which Law was the bearer. On his arrival in Paris, + five counsellors of the Parliament were admitted to confer with the + Commissary of Finance, and on the 1st of June an order was published, + abolishing the law which made it criminal to amass coin to the amount of + more than five hundred livres. Every one was permitted to have as much + specie as he pleased. In order that the bank-notes might be withdrawn, + twenty-five millions of new notes were created, on the security of the + revenues of the city of Paris, at two-and-a-half per cent. The bank-notes + withdrawn were publicly burned in front of the Hotel de Ville. The new + notes were principally of the value of ten livres each; and on the 10th of + June the bank was re-opened, with a sufficiency of silver coin to give in + change for them. + </p> + <p> + These measures were productive of considerable advantage. All the + population of Paris hastened to the bank, to get coin for their small + notes; and silver becoming scarce, they were paid in copper. Very few + complained that this was too heavy, although poor fellows might be + continually seen toiling and sweating along the streets, laden with more + than they could comfortably carry, in the shape of change for fifty + livres. The crowds around the bank were so great, that hardly a day passed + that some one was not pressed to death. On the 9th of July, the multitude + was so dense and clamorous that the guards stationed at the entrance of + the Mazarin Gardens closed the gate, and refused to admit any more. The + crowd became incensed, and flung stones through the railings upon the + soldiers. The latter, incensed in their turn, threatened to fire upon the + people. At that instant one of them was hit by a stone, and, taking up his + piece, he fired into the crowd. One man fell dead immediately, and another + was severely wounded. It was every instant expected that a general attack + would have been commenced upon the bank; but the gates of the Mazarin + Gardens being opened to the crowd, who saw a whole troop of soldiers, with + their bayonets fixed, ready to receive them, they contented themselves by + giving vent to their indignation in groans and hisses. + </p> + <p> + Eight days afterwards the concourse of people was so tremendous, that + fifteen persons were squeezed to death at the doors of the bank. The + people were so indignant that they took three of the bodies on stretchers + before them, and proceeded, to the number of seven or eight thousand, to + the gardens of the Palais Royal, that they might show the Regent the + misfortunes that he and Law had brought upon the country. Law's coachman, + who was sitting on the box of his master's carriage, in the court-yard of + the palace, happened to have more zeal than discretion, and, not liking + that the mob should abuse his master, he said, loud enough to be overheard + by several persons, that they were all blackguards, and deserved to be + hanged. The mob immediately set upon him, and, thinking that Law was in + the carriage, broke it to pieces. The imprudent coachman narrowly escaped + with his life. No further mischief was done; a body of troops making their + appearance, the crowd quietly dispersed, after an assurance had been given + by the Regent that the three bodies they had brought to show him should be + decently buried at his own expense. The Parliament was sitting at the time + of this uproar, and the President took upon himself to go out and see what + was the matter. On his return he informed the councillors, that Law's + carriage had been broken by the mob. All the members rose simultaneously, + and expressed their joy by a loud shout, while one man, more zealous in + his hatred than the rest, exclaimed, "And Law himself, is he torn to + pieces?" [The Duchess of Orleans gives a different version of this story; + but whichever be the true one, the manifestation of such feeling in a + legislative assembly was not very creditable. She says, that the President + was so transported with joy, that he was seized with a rhyming fit, and, + returning into the hall, exclaimed to the members:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Messieurs! Messieurs! bonne nouvelle! + Le carfosse de Lass est reduit en canelle!"] +</pre> + <p> + Much undoubtedly depended on the credit of the Company of the Indies, + which was answerable for so great a sum to the nation. It was, therefore, + suggested in the council of the ministry, that any privileges which could + be granted to enable it to fulfil its engagements, would be productive of + the best results. With this end in view, it was proposed that the + exclusive privilege of all maritime commerce should be secured to it, and + an edict to that effect was published. But it was unfortunately forgotten + that by such a measure all the merchants of the country would be ruined. + The idea of such an immense privilege was generally scouted by the nation, + and petition on petition was presented to the Parliament, that they would + refuse to register the decree. They refused accordingly, and the Regent, + remarking that they did nothing but fan the flame of sedition, exiled them + to Blois. At the intercession of D'Aguesseau, the place of banishment was + changed to Pontoise, and thither accordingly the councillors repaired, + determined to set the Regent at defiance. They made every arrangement for + rendering their temporary exile as agreeable as possible. The President + gave the most elegant suppers, to which he invited all the gayest and + wittiest company of Paris. Every night there was a concert and ball for + the ladies. The usually grave and solemn judges and councillors joined in + cards and other diversions, leading for several weeks a life of the most + extravagant pleasure, for no other purpose than to show the Regent of how + little consequence they deemed their banishment, and that when they willed + it, they could make Pontoise a pleasanter residence than Paris. + </p> + <p> + Of all the nations in the world the French are the most renowned for + singing over their grievances. Of that country it has been remarked with + some truth, that its whole history may be traced in its songs. When Law, + by the utter failure of his best-laid plans, rendered himself obnoxious, + satire of course seized hold upon him, and, while caricatures of his + person appeared in all the shops, the streets resounded with songs, in + which neither he nor the Regent was spared. Many of these songs were far + from decent; and one of them in particular counselled the application of + all his notes to the most ignoble use to which paper can be applied. But + the following, preserved in the letters of the Duchess of Orleans, was the + best and the most popular, and was to be heard for months in all the + carrefours of Paris. The application of the chorus is happy enough:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Aussitot que Lass arriva + Dans notre bonne ville, + Monsieur le Regent publia + Que Lass serait utile + Pour retablir la nation. + La faridondaine! la faridondon. + Mais il nous a tous enrich!, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mort ami! + + Ce parpaillot, pour attirer + Tout l'argent de la France, + Songea d'abord a s'assurer + De notre confiance. + Il fit son abjuration. + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Mais le fourbe s'est converti, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! + + Lass, le fils aine de Satan + Nous met tous a l'aumone, + Il nous a pris tout notre argent + Et n'en rend a personne. + Mais le Regent, humain et bon, + La faridondaine! la faridondon! + Nous rendra ce qu'on nous a pris, + Biribi! + A la facon de Barbari, + Mon ami! +</pre> + <p> + The following smart epigram is of the same date:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lundi, j'achetai des actions; + Mardi, je gagnai des millions; + Mercredi, j'arrangeai mon menage, + Jeudi, je pris un equipage, + Vendredi, je m'en fus au bal, + Et Samedi, a l'Hopital. +</pre> + <p> + Among the caricatures that were abundantly published, and that showed as + plainly as graver matters, that the nation had awakened to a sense of its + folly, was one, a fac-simile of which is preserved in the "Memoires de la + Regence." It was thus described by its author: "The 'Goddess of Shares," + in her triumphal car, driven by the Goddess of Folly. Those who are + drawing the car are impersonations of the Mississippi, with his wooden + leg, the South Sea, the Bank of England, the Company of the West of + Senegal, and of various assurances. Lest the car should not roll fast + enough, the agents of these companies, known by their long fox-tails and + their cunning looks, turn round the spokes of the wheels, upon which are + marked the names of the several stocks, and their value, sometimes high + and sometimes low, according to the turns of the wheel. Upon the ground + are the merchandise, day-books and ledgers of legitimate commerce, crushed + under the chariot of Folly. Behind is an immense crowd of persons, of all + ages, sexes, and conditions, clamoring after Fortune, and fighting with + each other to get a portion of the shares which she distributes so + bountifully among them. In the clouds sits a demon, blowing bubbles of + soap, which are also the objects of the admiration and cupidity of the + crowd, who jump upon one another's backs to reach them ere they burst. + Right in the pathway of the car, and blocking up the passage, stands a + large building, with three doors, through one of which it must pass, if it + proceeds further, and all the crowd along with it. Over the first door are + the words, "Hopital des Foux," over the second, "Hopital des Malades," and + over the third, "Hopital des Gueux." Another caricature represented Law + sitting in a large cauldron, boiling over the flames of popular madness, + surrounded by an impetuous multitude, who were pouring all their gold and + silver into it, and receiving gladly in exchange the bits of paper which + he distributed among them by handsfull. + </p> + <p> + While this excitement lasted, Law took good care not to expose himself + unguarded in the streets. Shut up in the apartments of the Regent, he was + secure from all attack, and, whenever he ventured abroad, it was either + incognito, or in one of the Royal carriages, with a powerful escort. An + amusing anecdote is recorded of the detestation in which he was held by + the people, and the ill treatment he would have met, had he fallen into + their hands. A gentleman, of the name of Boursel, was passing in his + carriage down the Rue St. Antoine, when his further progress was stayed by + a hackneycoach that had blocked up the road. M. Boursel's servant called + impatiently to the hackneycoachman to get out of the way, and, on his + refusal, struck him a blow on the face. A crowd was soon drawn together by + the disturbance, and M. Boursel got out of the carriage to restore order. + The hackney-coachman, imagining that he had now another assailant, + bethought him of an expedient to rid himself of both, and called out as + loudly as he was able, "Help! help! murder! murder! Here are Law and his + servant going to kill me! Help! help!" At this cry, the people came out of + their shops, armed with sticks and other weapons, while the mob gathered + stones to inflict summary vengeance upon the supposed financier. Happily + for M. Boursel and his servant, the door of the church of the Jesuits + stood wide open, and, seeing the fearful odds against them, they rushed + towards it with all speed. They reached the altar, pursued by the people, + and would have been ill treated even there, if, finding the door open + leading to the sacristy, they had not sprang through, and closed it after + them. The mob were then persuaded to leave the church by the alarmed and + indignant priests; and, finding M. Boursel's carriage still in the + streets, they vented their ill-will against it, and did it considerable + damage. + </p> + <p> + The twenty-five millions secured on the municipal revenues of the city of + Paris, bearing so low an interest as two and a half per cent., were not + very popular among the large holders of Mississippi stock. The conversion + of the securities was, therefore, a work of considerable difficulty; for + many preferred to retain the falling paper of Law's Company, in the hope + that a favourable turn might take place. On the 15th of August, with a + view to hasten the conversion, an edict was passed, declaring that all + notes for sums between one thousand and ten thousand livres; should not + pass current, except for the purchase of annuities and bank accounts, or + for the payment of instalments still due on the shares of the company. + </p> + <p> + In October following another edict was passed, depriving these notes of + all value whatever after the month of November next ensuing. The + management of the mint, the farming of the revenue, and all the other + advantages and privileges of the India, or Mississippi Company, were taken + from them, and they were reduced to a mere private company. This was the + deathblow to the whole system, which had now got into the hands of its + enemies. Law had lost all influence in the Council of Finance, and the + company, being despoiled of its immunities, could no longer hold out the + shadow of a prospect of being able to fulfil its engagements. All those + suspected of illegal profits at the time the public delusion was at its + height, were sought out and amerced in heavy fines. It was previously + ordered that a list of the original proprietors should be made out, and + that such persons as still retained their shares should place them in + deposit with the company, and that those who had neglected to complete the + shares for which they had put down their names, should now purchase them + of the company, at the rate of 13,500 livres for each share of 500 livres. + Rather than submit to pay this enormous sum for stock which was actually + at a discount, the shareholders packed up all their portable effects, and + endeavoured to find a refuge in foreign countries. Orders were immediately + issued to the authorities at the ports and frontiers, to apprehend all + travellers who sought to leave the kingdom, and keep them in custody, + until it was ascertained whether they had any plate or jewellery with + them, or were concerned in the late stock-jobbing. Against such few as + escaped, the punishment of death was recorded, while the most arbitrary + proceedings were instituted against those who remained. + </p> + <p> + Law himself, in a moment of despair, determined to leave a country where + his life was no longer secure. He at first only demanded permission to + retire from Paris to one of his country-seats; a permission which the + Regent cheerfully granted. The latter was much affected at the unhappy + turn affairs had taken, but his faith continued unmoved in the truth and + efficacy of Law's financial system. His eyes were opened to his own + errors, and during the few remaining years of his life, he constantly + longed for an opportunity of again establishing the system upon a securer + basis. At Law's last interview with the Prince, he is reported to have + said—"I confess that I have committed many faults; I committed them + because I am a man, and all men are liable to error; but I declare to you + most solemnly that none of them proceeded from wicked or dishonest + motives, and that nothing of the kind will be found in the whole course of + my conduct." + </p> + <p> + Two or three days after his departure the Regent sent him a very kind + letter, permitting him to leave the kingdom whenever he pleased, and + stating that he had ordered his passports to be made ready. He at the same + time offered him any sum of money he might require. Law respectfully + declined the money, and set out for Brussels in a postchaise belonging to + Madame de Prie, the mistress of the Duke of Bourbon, escorted by six + horse-guards. From thence he proceeded to Venice, where he remained for + some months, the object of the greatest curiosity to the people, who + believed him to be the possessor of enormous wealth. No opinion, however, + could be more erroneous. With more generosity than could have been + expected from a man who during the greatest part of his life had been a + professed gambler, he had refused to enrich himself at the expense of a + ruined nation. During the height of the popular frenzy for Mississippi + stock, he had never doubted of the final success of his projects, in + making France the richest and most powerful nation of Europe. He invested + all his gains in the purchase of landed property in France—a sure + proof of his own belief in the stability of his schemes. He had hoarded no + plate or jewellery, and sent no money, like the dishonest jobbers, to + foreign countries. His all, with the exception of one diamond, worth about + five or six thousand pounds sterling, was invested in the French soil; and + when he left that country, he left it almost a beggar. This fact alone + ought to rescue his memory from the charge of knavery, so often and so + unjustly brought against him. + </p> + <p> + As soon as his departure was known, all his estates and his valuable + library were confiscated. Among the rest, an annuity of 200,000 livres, + (8000 pounds sterling,) on the lives of his wife and children, which had + been purchased for five millions of livres, was forfeited, notwithstanding + that a special edict, drawn up for the purpose in the days of his + prosperity, had expressly declared that it should never be confiscated for + any cause whatever. Great discontent existed among the people that Law had + been suffered to escape. The mob and the Parliament would have been + pleased to have seen him hanged. The few who had not suffered by the + commercial revolution, rejoiced that the quack had left the country; but + all those (and they were by far the most numerous class) whose fortunes + were implicated, regretted that his intimate knowledge of the distress of + the country, and of the causes that had led to it, had not been rendered + more available in discovering a remedy. + </p> + <p> + At a meeting of the Council of Finance, and the general council of the + Regency, documents were laid upon the table, from which it appeared that + the amount of notes in circulation was 2700 millions. The Regent was + called upon to explain how it happened that there was a discrepancy + between the dates at which these issues were made, and those of the edicts + by which they were authorised. He might have safely taken the whole blame + upon himself, but he preferred that an absent man should bear a share of + it, and he therefore stated that Law, upon his own authority, had issued + 1200 millions of notes at different times, and that he (the Regent) seeing + that the thing had been irrevocably done, had screened Law, by antedating + the decrees of the council, which authorised the augmentation. It would + have been more to his credit if he had told the whole truth while he was + about it, and acknowledged that it was mainly through his extravagance and + impatience that Law had been induced to overstep the bounds of safe + speculation. It was also ascertained that the national debt, on the 1st of + January, 1721, amounted to upwards of $100 millions of livres, or more + than 124,000,000 pounds sterling, the interest upon which was 3,196,000 + pounds. A commission, or visa, was forthwith appointed to examine into all + the securities of the state creditors, who were to be divided into five + classes, the first four comprising those who had purchased their + securities with real effects, and the latter comprising those who could + give no proofs that the transactions they had entered into were real and + bona fide. The securities of the latter were ordered to be destroyed, + while those of the first four classes were subjected to a most rigid and + jealous scrutiny. The result of the labours of the visa was a report, in + which they counselled the reduction of the interest upon these securities + to fifty-six millions of livres. They justified this advice by a statement + of the various acts of peculation and extortion which they had discovered, + and an edict to that effect was accordingly published and duly registered + by the parliaments of the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Another tribunal was afterwards established, under the title of the + Chambre de l'Arsenal, which took cognizance of all the malversations + committed in the financial departments of the government during the late + unhappy period. A Master of Requests, named Falhonet, together with the + Abbe Clement, and two clerks in their employ, had been concerned in divers + acts of peculation, to the amount of upwards of a million of livres. The + first two were sentenced to be beheaded, and the latter to be hanged; but + their punishment was afterwards commuted into imprisonment for life in the + Bastile. Numerous other acts of dishonesty were discovered, and punished + by fine and imprisonment. + </p> + <p> + D'Argenson shared with Law and the Regent the unpopularity which had + alighted upon all those concerned in the Mississippi madness. He was + dismissed from his post of Chancellor, to make room for D'Aguesseau; but + he retained the title of Keeper of the Seals, and was allowed to attend + the councils whenever he pleased. He thought it better, however, to + withdraw from Paris, and live for a time a life of seclusion at his + country-seat. But he was not formed for retirement, and becoming moody and + discontented, he aggravated a disease under which he had long laboured, + and died in less than a twelvemonth. The populace of of Paris so detested + him, that they carried their hatred even to his grave. As his funeral + procession passed to the church of St. Nicholas du Chardonneret, the + burying-place of his family, it was beset by a riotous mob, and his two + sons, who were following as chief-mourners, were obliged to drive as fast + as they were able down a by-street to escape personal violence. + </p> + <p> + As regards Law, he for some time entertained a hope that he should be + recalled to France, to aid in establishing its credit upon a firmer basis. + The death of the Regent, in 1723, who expired suddenly, as he was sitting + by the fireside conversing with his mistress, the Duchess de Phalaris, + deprived him of that hope, and he was reduced to lead his former life of + gambling. He was more than once obliged to pawn his diamond, the sole + remnant of his vast wealth, but successful play generally enabled him to + redeem it. Being persecuted by his creditors at Rome, he proceeded to + Copenhagen, where he received permission from the English ministry to + reside in his native country, his pardon for the murder of Mr. Wilson + having been sent over to him in 1719. He was brought over in the admiral's + ship, a circumstance which gave occasion for a short debate in the House + of Lords. Earl Coningsby complained that a man, who had renounced both his + country and his religion, should have been treated with such honour, and + expressed his belief that his presence in England, at a time when the + people were so bewildered by the nefarious practices of the South Sea + directors, would be attended with no little danger. He gave notice of a + motion on the subject; but it was allowed to drop, no other member of the + House having the slightest participation in his lordship's fears. Law + remained for about four years in England, and then proceeded to Venice, + where he died in 1729, in very embarrassed circumstances. The following + epitaph was written at the time:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Ci git cet Ecossais celebre, + Ce calculateur sans egal, + Qui, par les regles de l'algebre, + A mis la France a l'Hopital." +</pre> + <p> + His brother, William Law, who had been concerned with him in the + administration both of the Bank and the Louisiana Company, was imprisoned + in the Bastile for alleged malversation, but no guilt was ever proved + against him. He was liberated after fifteen months, and became the founder + of a family, which is still known in France under the title of Marquises + of Lauriston. + </p> + <p> + In the next chapter will be found an account of the madness which infected + the people of England at the same time, and under very similar + circumstances, but which, thanks to the energies and good sense of a + constitutional government, was attended with results far less disastrous + than those which were seen in France. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + At length corruption, like a general flood, + Did deluge all, and avarice creeping on, + Spread, like a low-born mist, and hid the sun. + Statesmen and patriots plied alike the stocks, + Peeress and butler shared alike the box; + And judges jobbed, and bishops bit the town, + And mighty dukes packed cards for half-a-crown: + Britain was sunk in lucre's sordid charms. + —Pope. +</pre> + <p> + The South Sea Company was originated by the celebrated Harley, Earl of + Oxford, in the year 1711, with the view of restoring public credit, which + had suffered by the dismissal of the Whig ministry, and of providing for + the discharge of the army and navy debentures, and other parts of the + floating debt, amounting to nearly ten millions sterling. A company of + merchants, at that time without a name, took this debt upon themselves, + and the government agreed to secure them, for a certain period, the + interest of six per cent. To provide for this interest, amounting to + 600,000 pounds per annum, the duties upon wines, vinegar, India goods, + wrought silks, tobacco, whale-fins, and some other articles, were rendered + permanent. The monopoly of the trade to the South Seas was granted, and + the company, being incorporated by Act of Parliament, assumed the title by + which it has ever since been known. The minister took great credit to + himself for his share in this transaction, and the scheme was always + called by his flatterers "the Earl of Oxford's masterpiece." + </p> + <p> + Even at this early period of its history, the most visionary ideas were + formed by the company and the public of the immense riches of the eastern + coast of South America. Everybody had heard of the gold and silver mines + of Peru and Mexico; every one believed them to be inexhaustible, and that + it was only necessary to send the manufactures of England to the coast, to + be repaid a hundredfold in gold and silver ingots by the natives. A + report, industriously spread, that Spain was willing to concede four + ports, on the coasts of Chili and Peru, for the purposes of traffic, + increased the general confidence; and for many years the South Sea + Company's stock was in high favour. + </p> + <p> + Philip V of Spain, however, never had any intention of admitting the + English to a free trade in the ports of Spanish America. Negotiations were + set on foot, but their only result was the assiento contract, or the + privilege of supplying the colonies with negroes for thirty years, and of + sending once a year a vessel, limited both as to tonnage and value of + cargo, to trade with Mexico, Peru, or Chili. The latter permission was + only granted upon the hard condition, that the King of Spain should enjoy + one-fourth of the profits, and a tax of five per cent. on the remainder. + This was a great disappointment to the Earl of Oxford and his party, who + were reminded much oftener than they found agreeable of the + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Parturiunt montes, nascitur ridiculus mus." +</pre> + <p> + But the public confidence in the South Sea Company was not shaken. The + Earl of Oxford declared, that Spain would permit two ships, in addition to + the annual ship, to carry out merchandise during the first year; and a + list was published, in which all the ports and harbours of these coasts + were pompously set forth as open to the trade of Great Britain. The first + voyage of the annual ship was not made till the year 1717, and in the + following year the trade was suppressed by the rupture with Spain. + </p> + <p> + The King's speech, at the opening of the session of 1717, made pointed + allusion to the state of public credit, and recommended that proper + measures should be taken to reduce the national debt. The two great + monetary corporations, the South Sea Company and the Bank of England, made + proposals to Parliament on the 20th of May ensuing. The South Sea Company + prayed that their capital stock of ten millions might be increased to + twelve, by subscription or otherwise, and offered to accept five per cent. + instead of six upon the whole amount. The Bank made proposals equally + advantageous. The House debated for some time, and finally three acts were + passed, called the South Sea Act, the Bank Act, and the General Fund Act. + By the first, the proposals of the South Sea Company were accepted, and + that body held itself ready to advance the sum of two millions towards + discharging the principal and interest of the debt due by the state for + the four lottery funds of the ninth and tenth years of Queen Anne. By the + second act, the Bank received a lower rate of interest for the sum of + 1,775,027 pounds 15 shillings due to it by the state, and agreed to + deliver up to be cancelled as many Exchequer bills as amounted to two + millions sterling, and to accept of an annuity of one hundred thousand + pounds, being after the rate of five per cent, the whole redeemable at one + year's notice. They were further required to be ready to advance, in case + of need, a sum not exceeding 2,500,000 pounds upon the same terms of five + per cent interest, redeemable by Parliament. The General Fund Act recited + the various deficiencies, which were to be made good by the aids derived + from the foregoing sources. + </p> + <p> + The name of the South Sea Company was thus continually before the public. + Though their trade with the South American States produced little or no + augmentation of their revenues, they continued to flourish as a monetary + corporation. Their stock was in high request, and the directors, buoyed up + with success, began to think of new means for extending their influence. + The Mississippi scheme of John Law, which so dazzled and captivated the + French people, inspired them with an idea that they could carry on the + same game in England. The anticipated failure of his plans did not divert + them from their intention. Wise in their own conceit, they imagined they + could avoid his faults, carry on their schemes for ever, and stretch the + cord of credit to its extremest tension, without causing it to snap + asunder. + </p> + <p> + It was while Law's plan was at its greatest height of popularity, while + people were crowding in thousands to the Rue Quincampoix, and ruining + themselves with frantic eagerness, that the South Sea directors laid + before Parliament their famous plan for paying off the national debt. + Visions of boundless wealth floated before the fascinated eyes of the + people in the two most celebrated countries of Europe. The English + commenced their career of extravagance somewhat later than the French; but + as soon as the delirium seized them, they were determined not to be + outdone. Upon the 22nd of January 1720, the House of Commons resolved + itself into a Committee of the whole House, to take into consideration + that part of the King's speech at the opening of the session which related + to the public debts, and the proposal of the South Sea Company towards the + redemption and sinking of the same. The proposal set forth at great + length, and under several heads, the debts of the state, amounting to + 30,981,712 pounds, which the Company were anxious to take upon themselves, + upon consideration of five per cent. per annum, secured to them until + Midsummer 1727; after which time, the whole was to become redeemable at + the pleasure of the legislature, and the interest to be reduced to four + per cent. The proposal was received with great favour; but the Bank of + England had many friends in the House of Commons, who were desirous that + that body should share in the advantages that were likely to accrue. On + behalf of this corporation it was represented, that they had performed + great and eminent services to the state, in the most difficult times, and + deserved, at least, that if any advantage was to be made by public + bargains of this nature, they should be preferred before a company that + had never done any thing for the nation. The further consideration of the + matter was accordingly postponed for five days. In the mean time, a plan + was drawn up by the Governors of the Bank. The South Sea Company, afraid + that the Bank might offer still more advantageous terms to the government + than themselves, reconsidered their former proposal, and made some + alterations in it, which they hoped would render it more acceptable. The + principal change was a stipulation that the government might redeem these + debts at the expiration of four years, instead of seven, as at first + suggested. The Bank resolved not to be outbidden in this singular auction, + and the Governors also reconsidered their first proposal, and sent in a + new one. + </p> + <p> + Thus, each corporation having made two proposals, the House began to + deliberate. Mr. Robert Walpole was the chief speaker in favour of the + Bank, and Mr. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the principal + advocate on behalf of the South Sea Company. It was resolved, on the 2nd + of February, that the proposals of the latter were most advantageous to + the country. They were accordingly received, and leave was given to bring + in a bill to that effect. + </p> + <p> + Exchange Alley was in a fever of excitement. The Company's stock, which + had been at a hundred and thirty the previous day, gradually rose to three + hundred, and continued to rise with the most astonishing rapidity during + the whole time that the bill in its several stages was under discussion. + Mr. Walpole was almost the only statesman in the House who spoke out + boldly against it. He warned them, in eloquent and solemn language, of the + evils that would ensue. It countenanced, he said, "the dangerous practice + of stockjobbing, and would divert the genius of the nation from trade and + industry. It would hold out a dangerous lure to decoy the unwary to their + ruin, by making them part with the earnings of their labour for a prospect + of imaginary wealth." The great principle of the project was an evil of + first-rate magnitude; it was to raise artificially the value of the stock, + by exciting and keeping up a general infatuation, and by promising + dividends out of funds which could never be adequate to the purpose. In a + prophetic spirit he added, that if the plan succeeded, the directors would + become masters of the government, form a new and absolute aristocracy in + the kingdom, and control the resolutions of the legislature. If it failed, + which he was convinced it would, the result would bring general discontent + and ruin upon the country. Such would be the delusion, that when the evil + day came, as come it would, the people would start up, as from a dream, + and ask themselves if these things could have been true. All his eloquence + was in vain. He was looked upon as a false prophet, or compared to the + hoarse raven, croaking omens of evil. His friends, however, compared him + to Cassandra, predicting evils which would only be believed when they came + home to men's hearths, and stared them in the face at their own boards. + Although, in former times, the House had listened with the utmost + attention to every word that fell from his lips, the benches became + deserted when it was known that he would speak on the South Sea question. + </p> + <p> + The bill was two months in its progress through the House of Commons. + During this time every exertion was made by the directors and their + friends, and more especially by the Chairman, the noted Sir John Blunt, to + raise the price of the stock. The most extravagant rumours were in + circulation. Treaties between England and Spain were spoken of, whereby + the latter was to grant a free trade to all her colonies; and the rich + produce of the mines of Potosi-la-Paz was to be brought to England until + silver should become almost as plentiful as iron. For cotton and woollen + goods, with which we could supply them in abundance, the dwellers in + Mexico were to empty their golden mines. The company of merchants trading + to the South Seas would be the richest the world ever saw, and every + hundred pounds invested in it would produce hundreds per annum to the + stockholder. At last the stock was raised by these means to near four + hundred; but, after fluctuating a good deal, settled at three hundred and + thirty, at which price it remained when the bill passed the Commons by a + majority of 172 against 55. + </p> + <p> + In the House of Lords the bill was hurried through all its stages with + unexampled rapidity. On the 4th of April it was read a first time; on the + 5th, it was read a second time; on the 6th, it was committed; and on the + 7th, was read a third time, and passed. + </p> + <p> + Several peers spoke warmly against the scheme; but their warnings fell + upon dull, cold ears. A speculating frenzy had seized them as well as the + plebeians. Lord North and Grey said the bill was unjust in its nature, and + might prove fatal in its consequences, being calculated to enrich the few + and impoverish the many. The Duke of Wharton followed; but, as he only + retailed at second-hand the arguments so eloquently stated by Walpole in + the Lower House, he was not listened to with even the same attention that + had been bestowed upon Lord North and Grey. Earl Cowper followed on the + same side, and compared the bill to the famous horse of the siege of Troy. + Like that, it was ushered in and received with great pomp and acclamations + of joy, but bore within it treachery and destruction. The Earl of + Sunderland endeavoured to answer all objections; and, on the question + being put, there appeared only seventeen peers against, and eighty-three + in favour of the project. The very same day on which it passed the Lords, + it received the Royal assent, and became the law of the land. + </p> + <p> + It seemed at that time as if the whole nation had turned stockjobbers. + Exchange Alley was every day blocked up by crowds, and Cornhill was + impassable for the number of carriages. Everybody came to purchase stock. + "Every fool aspired to be a knave." In the words of a ballad, published at + the time, and sung about the streets, ["A South Sea Ballad; or, Merry + Remarks upon Exchange Alley Bubbles. To a new tune, called 'The Grand + Elixir; or, the Philosopher's Stone Discovered.'"] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Then stars and garters did appear + Among the meaner rabble; + To buy and sell, to see and hear, + The Jews and Gentiles squabble. + + The greatest ladies thither came, + And plied in chariots daily, + Or pawned their jewels for a sum + To venture in the Alley. +</pre> + <p> + The inordinate thirst of gain that had afflicted all ranks of society, was + not to be slaked even in the South Sea. Other schemes, of the most + extravagant kind, were started. The share-lists were speedily filled up, + and an enormous traffic carried on in shares, while, of course, every + means were resorted to, to raise them to an artificial value in the + market. + </p> + <p> + Contrary to all expectation, South Sea stock fell when the bill received + the Royal assent. On the 7th of April the shares were quoted at three + hundred and ten, and on the following day, at two hundred and ninety. + Already the directors had tasted the profits of their scheme, and it was + not likely that they should quietly allow the stock to find its natural + level, without an effort to raise it. Immediately their busy emissaries + were set to work. Every person interested in the success of the project + endeavoured to draw a knot of listeners around him, to whom he expatiated + on the treasures of the South American seas. Exchange Alley was crowded + with attentive groups. One rumour alone, asserted with the utmost + confidence, had an immediate effect upon the stock. It was said, that Earl + Stanhope had received overtures in France from the Spanish Government to + exchange Gibraltar and Port Mahon for some places on the coast of Peru, + for the security and enlargement of the trade in the South Seas. Instead + of one annual ship trading to those ports, and allowing the King of Spain + twenty-five per cent. out of the profits, the Company might build and + charter as many ships as they pleased, and pay no per centage whatever to + any foreign potentate. + </p> + <p> + Visions of ingots danced before their eyes, and stock rose rapidly. On the + 12th of April, five days after the bill had become law, the directors + opened their books for a subscription of a million, at the rate of 300 + pounds for every 100 pounds capital. Such was the concourse of persons, of + all ranks, that this first subscription was found to amount to above two + millions of original stock. It was to be paid at five payments, of 60 + pounds each for every 100 pounds. In a few days the stock advanced to + three hundred and forty, and the subscriptions were sold for double the + price of the first payment. To raise the stock still higher, it was + declared, in a general court of directors, on the 21st of April, that the + midsummer dividend should be ten per cent., and that all subscriptions + should be entitled to the same. These resolutions answering the end + designed, the directors, to improve the infatuation of the monied men, + opened their books for a second subscription of a million, at four hundred + per cent. Such was the frantic eagerness of people of every class to + speculate in these funds, that in the course of a few hours no less than a + million and a half was subscribed at that rate. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, innumerable joint-stock companies started up everywhere. + They soon received the name of Bubbles, the most appropriate that + imagination could devise. The populace are often most happy in the + nicknames they employ. None could be more apt than that of Bubbles. Some + of them lasted for a week, or a fortnight, and were no more heard of, + while others could not even live out that short span of existence. Every + evening produced new schemes, and every morning new projects. The highest + of the aristocracy were as eager in this hot pursuit of gain as the most + plodding jobber in Cornhill. The Prince of Wales became governor of one + company, and is said to have cleared 40,000 pounds by his speculations. + [Coxe's Walpole, Correspondence between Mr. Secretary Craggs and Earl + Stanhope.] The Duke of Bridgewater started a scheme for the improvement of + London and Westminster, and the Duke of Chandos another. There were nearly + a hundred different projects, each more extravagant and deceptive than the + other. To use the words of the "Political State," they were "set on foot + and promoted by crafty knaves, then pursued by multitudes of covetous + fools, and at last appeared to be, in effect, what their vulgar + appellation denoted them to be—bubbles and mere cheats." It was + computed that near one million and a half sterling was won and lost by + these unwarrantable practices, to the impoverishment of many a fool, and + the enriching of many a rogue. + </p> + <p> + Some of these schemes were plausible enough, and, had they been undertaken + at a time when the public mind was unexcited, might have been pursued with + advantage to all concerned. But they were established merely with the view + of raising the shares in the market. The projectors took the first + opportunity of a rise to sell out, and next morning the scheme was at an + end. Maitland, in his History of London, gravely informs us, that one of + the projects which received great encouragement, was for the establishment + of a company "to make deal-boards out of saw-dust." This is, no doubt, + intended as a joke; but there is abundance of evidence to show that dozens + of schemes hardly a whir more reasonable, lived their little day, ruining + hundreds ere they fell. One of them was for a wheel for perpetual motion—capital, + one million; another was "for encouraging the breed of horses in England, + and improving of glebe and church lands, and repairing and rebuilding + parsonage and vicarage houses." Why the clergy, who were so mainly + interested in the latter clause, should have taken so much interest in the + first, is only to be explained on the supposition that the scheme was + projected by a knot of the foxhunting parsons, once so common in England. + The shares of this company were rapidly subscribed for. But the most + absurd and preposterous of all, and which showed, more completely than any + other, the utter madness of the people, was one, started by an unknown + adventurer, entitled "company for carrying on an undertaking of great + advantage, but nobody to know what it is." Were not the fact stated by + scores of credible witnesses, it would be impossible to believe that any + person could have been duped by such a project. The man of genius who + essayed this bold and successful inroad upon public credulity, merely + stated in his prospectus that the required capital was half a million, in + five thousand shares of 100 pounds each, deposit 2 pounds per share. Each + subscriber, paying his deposit, would be entitled to 100 pounds per annum + per share. How this immense profit was to be obtained, he did not + condescend to inform them at that time, but promised, that in a month full + particulars should be duly announced, and a call made for the remaining 98 + pounds of the subscription. Next morning, at nine o'clock, this great man + opened an office in Cornhill. Crowds of people beset his door, and when he + shut up at three o'clock, he found that no less than one thousand shares + had been subscribed for, and the deposits paid. He was thus, in five + hours, the winner of 2,000 pounds. He was philosopher enough to be + contented with his venture, and set off the same evening for the + Continent. He was never heard of again. + </p> + <p> + Well might Swift exclaim, comparing Change Alley to a gulf in the South + Sea,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Subscribers here by thousands float, + And jostle one another down, + Each paddling in his leaky boat, + And here they fish for gold, and drown. + + Now buried in the depths below, + Now mounted up to heaven again, + They reel and stagger to and fro, + At their wit's end, like drunken men + + Meantime, secure on Garraway cliffs, + A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, + Lie waiting for the foundered skiffs, + And strip the bodies of the dead. +</pre> + <p> + Another fraud that was very successful, was that of the "Globe Permits," + as they were called. They were nothing more than square pieces of playing + cards, on which was the impression of a seal, in wax, bearing the sign of + the Globe Tavern, in the neighbourhood of Exchange Alley, with the + inscription of "Sail Cloth Permits." The possessors enjoyed no other + advantage from them than permission to subscribe, at some future time, to + a new sail-cloth manufactory, projected by one who was then known to be a + man of fortune, but who was afterwards involved in the peculation and + punishment of the South Sea directors. These permits sold for as much as + sixty guineas in the Alley. + </p> + <p> + Persons of distinction, of both sexes, were deeply engaged in all these + bubbles, those of the male sex going to taverns and coffee-houses to meet + their brokers, and the ladies resorting for the same purpose to the shops + of milliners and haberdashers. But it did not follow that all these people + believed in the feasibility of the schemes to which they subscribed; it + was enough for their purpose that their shares would, by stock-jobbing + arts, be soon raised to a premium, when they got rid of them with all + expedition to the really credulous. So great was the confusion of the + crowd in the alley, that shares in the same bubble were known to have been + sold at the same instant ten per cent. higher at one end of the alley than + at the other. Sensible men beheld the extraordinary infatuation of the + people with sorrow and alarm. There were some, both in and out of + Parliament, who foresaw clearly the ruin that was impending. Mr. Walpole + did not cease his gloomy forebodings. His fears were shared by all the + thinking few, and impressed most forcibly upon the government. On the 11th + of June, the day the Parliament rose, the King published a proclamation, + declaring that all these unlawful projects should be deemed public + nuisances, and prosecuted accordingly, and forbidding any broker, under a + penalty of five hundred pounds, from buying or selling any shares in them. + Notwithstanding this proclamation, roguish speculators still carried them + on, and the deluded people still encouraged them. On the 12th of July, an + order of the Lords Justices assembled in privy council was published, + dismissing all the petitions that had been presented for patents and + charters, and dissolving all the bubble companies. The following copy of + their lordships' order, containing a list of all these nefarious projects, + will not be deemed uninteresting at the present day, when there is but too + much tendency in the public mind to indulge in similar practices:— + </p> + <p> + "At the Council Chamber, Whitehall, the 12th day of July, 1720. Present, + their Excellencies the Lords Justices in Council. + </p> + <p> + "Their Excellencies, the Lords Justices in council, taking into + consideration the many inconveniences arising to the public from several + projects set on foot for raising of joint stock for various purposes, and + that a great many of his Majesty's subjects have been drawn in to part + with their money on pretence of assurances that their petitions for + patents and charters, to enable them to carry on the same, would be + granted: to prevent such impositions, their Excellencies, this day, + ordered the said several petitions, together with such reports from the + Board of Trade, and from his Majesty's Attorney and Solicitor General, as + had been obtained thereon, to be laid before them, and after mature + consideration thereof, were pleased, by advice of his Majesty's Privy + Council, to order that the said petitions be dismissed, which are as + follow:— + </p> + <p> + "1. Petition of several persons, praying letters patent for carrying on a + fishing trade, by the name of the Grand Fishery of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + "2. Petition of the Company of the Royal Fishery of England, praying + letters patent for such further powers as will effectually contribute to + carry on the said fishery. + </p> + <p> + "3. Petition of George James, on behalf of himself and divers persons of + distinction concerned in a national fishery; praying letters patent of + incorporation to enable them to carry on the same. + </p> + <p> + "4. Petition of several merchants, traders, and others, whose names are + thereunto subscribed, praying to be incorporated for reviving and carrying + on a whale fishery to Greenland and elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + "5. Petition of Sir John Lambert, and others thereto subscribing, on + behalf of themselves and a great number of merchants, praying to be + incorporated for carrying on a Greenland trade, and particularly a whale + fishery in Davis's Straits. + </p> + <p> + "6. Another petition for a Greenland trade. + </p> + <p> + "7. Petition of several merchants, gentlemen, and citizens, praying to be + incorporated, for buying and building of ships to let or freight. + </p> + <p> + "8. Petition of Samuel Antrim and others, praying for letters patent for + sowing hemp and flax. + </p> + <p> + "9. Petition of several merchants, masters of ships, sail-makers, and + manufacturers of sail-cloth, praying a charter of incorporation, to enable + them to carry on and promote the said manufactory by a joint stock. + </p> + <p> + "10. Petition of Thomas Boyd, and several hundred merchants, owners and + masters of ships, sailmakers, weavers, and other traders, praying a + charter of incorporation, empowering them to borrow money for purchasing + lands, in order to the manufacturing sail-cloth and fine Holland. + </p> + <p> + "11. Petition on behalf of several persons interested in a patent granted + by the late King William and Queen Mary, for the making of linen and + sail-cloth, praying that no charter may be granted to any persons + whatsoever for making sail-cloth, but that the privilege now enjoyed by + them may be confirmed, and likewise an additional power to carry on the + cotton and cotton-silk manufactures. + </p> + <p> + "12. Petition of several citizens, merchants, and traders in London, and + others, subscribers to a British stock, for a general insurance from fire + in any part of England, praying to be incorporated for carrying on the + said undertaking. + </p> + <p> + "13. Petition of several of his Majesty's loyal subjects of the city of + London, and other parts of Great Britain, praying to be incorporated, for + carrying on a general insurance from losses by fire within the kingdom of + England. + </p> + <p> + "14. Petition of Thomas Burges, and others his Majesty's subjects thereto + subscribing, in behalf of themselves and others, subscribers to a fund of + 1,200,000 pounds, for carrying on a trade to his Majesty's German + dominions, praying to be incorporated, by the name of the Harburg Company. + </p> + <p> + "15. Petition of Edward Jones, a dealer in timber, on behalf of himself + and others, praying to be incorporated for the importation of timber from + Germany. + </p> + <p> + "16. Petition of several merchants of London, praying a charter of + incorporation for carrying on a salt-work. + </p> + <p> + "17. Petition of Captain Macphedris, of London, merchant, on behalf of + himself and several merchants, clothiers, hatters, dyers, and other + traders, praying a charter of incorporation, empowering them to raise a + sufficient sum of money to purchase lands for planting and rearing a wood + called madder, for the use of dyers. + </p> + <p> + "18. Petition of Joseph Galendo, of London, snuff-maker, praying a patent + for his invention to prepare and cure Virginia tobacco for snuff in + Virginia, and making it into the same in all his Majesty's dominions." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF BUBBLES. + </h2> + <p> + The following Bubble Companies were by the same order declared to be + illegal, and abolished accordingly:— + </p> + <p> + 1. For the importation of Swedish iron. + </p> + <p> + 2. For supplying London with sea-coal. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 3. For building and rebuilding houses throughout all England. Capital, + three millions. + </p> + <p> + 4. For making of muslin. + </p> + <p> + 5. For carrying on and improving the British alum works. + </p> + <p> + 6. For effectually settling the island of Blanco and Sal Tartagus. + </p> + <p> + 7. For supplying the town of Deal with fresh water. + </p> + <p> + 8. For the importation of Flanders lace. + </p> + <p> + 9. For improvement of lands in Great Britain. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 10. For encouraging the breed of horses in England, and improving of glebe + and church lands, and for repairing and rebuilding parsonage and vicarage + houses. + </p> + <p> + 11. For making of iron and steel in Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 12. For improving the land in the county of Flint. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 13. For purchasing lands to build on. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 14. For trading in hair. + </p> + <p> + 15. For erecting salt-works in Holy Island. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 16. For buying and selling estates, and lending money on mortgage. + </p> + <p> + 17. For carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, but nobody to know + what it is. + </p> + <p> + 18. For paving the streets of London. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 19. For furnishing funerals to any part of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 20. For buying and selling lands and lending money at interest. Capital, + five millions. + </p> + <p> + 21. For carrying on the Royal Fishery of Great Britain. Capital, ten + millions. + </p> + <p> + 22. For assuring of seamen's wages. + </p> + <p> + 23. For erecting loan-offices for the assistance and encouragement of the + industrious. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 24. For purchasing and improving leasable lands. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 25. For importing pitch and tar, and other naval stores, from North + Britain and America. + </p> + <p> + 26. For the clothing, felt, and pantile trade. + </p> + <p> + 27. For purchasing and improving a manor and royalty in Essex. + </p> + <p> + 28. For insuring of horses. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 29. For exporting the woollen manufacture, and importing copper, brass, + and iron. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 30. For a grand dispensary. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 31. For erecting mills and purchasing lead mines. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 32. For improving the art of making soap. + </p> + <p> + 33. For a settlement on the island of Santa Cruz. + </p> + <p> + 34. For sinking pits and smelting lead ore in Derbyshire. + </p> + <p> + 35. For making glass bottles and other glass. + </p> + <p> + 36. For a wheel for perpetual motion. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 37. For improving of gardens. + </p> + <p> + 38. For insuring and increasing children's fortunes. + </p> + <p> + 39. For entering and loading goods at the custom-house, and for + negotiating business for merchants. + </p> + <p> + 40. For carrying on a woollen manufacture in the north of England. + </p> + <p> + 41. For importing walnut-trees from Virginia. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 42. For making Manchester stuffs of thread and cotton. + </p> + <p> + 43. For making Joppa and Castile soap. + </p> + <p> + 44. For improving the wrought-iron and steel manufactures of this kingdom. + Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 45. For dealing in lace, Hollands, cambrics, lawns, &c. Capital, two + millions. + </p> + <p> + 46. For trading in and improving certain commodities of the produce of + this kingdom, &c. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 47. For supplying the London markets with cattle. + </p> + <p> + 48. For making looking-glasses, coach glasses, &c. Capital, two + millions. + </p> + <p> + 49. For working the tin and lead mines in Cornwall and Derbyshire. + </p> + <p> + 50. For making rape-oil. + </p> + <p> + 51. For importing beaver fur. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 52. For making pasteboard and packing-paper. + </p> + <p> + 53. For importing of oils and other materials used in the woollen + manufacture. + </p> + <p> + 54. For improving and increasing the silk manufactures. + </p> + <p> + 55. For lending money on stock, annuities, tallies, &c. + </p> + <p> + 56. For paying pensions to widows and others, at a small discount. + Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 57. For improving malt liquors. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 58. For a grand American fishery. + </p> + <p> + 59. For purchasing and improving the fenny lands in Lincolnshire. Capital, + two millions. + </p> + <p> + 60. For improving the paper manufacture of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 61. The Bottomry Company. + </p> + <p> + 62. For drying malt by hot air. + </p> + <p> + 63. For carrying on a trade in the river Oronooko. + </p> + <p> + 64. For the more effectual making of baize, in Colchester and other parts + of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 65. For buying of naval stores, supplying the victualling, and paying the + wages of the workmen. + </p> + <p> + 66. For employing poor artificers, and furnishing merchants and others + with watches. + </p> + <p> + 67. For improvement of tillage and the breed of cattle. + </p> + <p> + 68. Another for the improvement of our breed of horses. + </p> + <p> + 69. Another for a horse-insurance. + </p> + <p> + 70. For carrying on the corn trade of Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 71. For insuring to all masters and mistresses the losses they may sustain + by servants. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 72. For erecting houses or hospitals, for taking in and maintaining + illegitimate children. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 73. For bleaching coarse sugars, without the use of fire or loss of + substance. + </p> + <p> + 74. For building turnpikes and wharfs in Great Britain. + </p> + <p> + 75. For insuring from thefts and robberies. + </p> + <p> + 76. For extracting silver from lead. + </p> + <p> + 77. For making China and Delft ware. Capital, one million. + </p> + <p> + 78. For importing tobacco, and exporting it again to Sweden and the north + of Europe. Capital, four millions. + </p> + <p> + 79. For making iron with pit coal. + </p> + <p> + 80. For furnishing the cities of London and Westminster with hay and + straw. Capital, three millions. + </p> + <p> + 81. For a sail and packing cloth manufactory in Ireland. + </p> + <p> + 82. For taking up ballast. + </p> + <p> + 83. For buying and fitting out ships to suppress pirates. + </p> + <p> + 84. For the importation of timber from Wales. Capital, two millions. + </p> + <p> + 85. For rock-salt. + </p> + <p> + 86. For the transmutation of quicksilver into a malleable fine metal. + </p> + <p> + Besides these bubbles, many others sprang up daily, in spite of the + condemnation of the Government and the ridicule of the still sane portion + of the public. The print-shops teemed with caricatures, and the newspapers + with epigrams and satires, upon the prevalent folly. An ingenious + card-maker published a pack of South Sea playing-cards, which are now + extremely rare, each card containing, besides the usual figures, of a very + small size, in one corner, a caricature of a bubble company, with + appropriate verses underneath. One of the most famous bubbles was + "Puckle's Machine Company," for discharging round and square cannon-balls + and bullets, and making a total revolution in the art of war. Its + pretensions to public favour were thus summed up, on the eight of spades:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A rare invention to destroy the crowd + Of fools at home, instead of fools abroad. + Fear not, my friends, this terrible machine, + They're only wounded who have shares therein. + + The nine of hearts was a caricature of the English Copper and Brass + Company, with the following epigram:— + + The headlong fool that wants to be a swopper + Of gold and silver coin for English copper, + May, in Change Alley, prove himself an ass, + And give rich metal for adulterate brass. + + The eight of diamonds celebrated the Company for the Colonization of + Acadia, with this doggrel:— + + He that is rich and wants to fool away + A good round sum in North America, + Let him subscribe himself a headlong sharer, + And asses' ears shall honour him or bearer. +</pre> + <p> + And in a similar style every card of the pack exposed some knavish scheme, + and ridiculed the persons who were its dupes. It was computed that the + total amount of the sums proposed for carrying on these projects was + upwards of three hundred millions sterling, a sum so immense that it + exceeded the value of all the lands in England at twenty years' purchase. + </p> + <p> + It is time, however, to return to the great South Sea gulf, that swallowed + the fortunes of so many thousands of the avaricious and the credulous. On + the 29th of May, the stock had risen as high as five hundred, and about + two-thirds of the government annuitants had exchanged the securities of + the state for those of the South Sea Company. During the whole of the + month of May the stock continued to rise, and on the 28th it was quoted at + five hundred and fifty. In four days after this it took a prodigious leap, + rising suddenly from five hundred and fifty to eight hundred and ninety. + It was now the general opinion that the stock could rise no higher, and + many persons took that opportunity of selling out, with a view of + realising their profits. Many noblemen and persons in the train of the + King, and about to accompany him to Hanover, were also anxious to sell + out. So many sellers, and so few buyers, appeared in the Alley on the 3rd + of June, that the stock fell at once from eight hundred and ninety to six + hundred and forty. The directors were alarmed, and gave their agents + orders to buy. Their efforts succeeded. Towards evening confidence was + restored, and the stock advanced to seven hundred and fifty. It continued + at this price, with some slight fluctuation, until the company closed + their books on the 22nd of June. + </p> + <p> + It would be needless and uninteresting to detail the various arts employed + by the directors to keep up the price of stock. It will be sufficient to + state that it finally rose to one thousand per cent. It was quoted at this + price in the commencement of August. The bubble was then full-blown, and + began to quiver and shake, preparatory to its bursting. + </p> + <p> + Many of the government annuitants expressed dissatisfaction against the + directors. They accused them of partiality in making out the lists for + shares in each subscription. Further uneasiness was occasioned by its + being generally known that Sir John Blunt, the chairman, and some others, + had sold out. During the whole of the month of August the stock fell, and + on the 2nd of September it was quoted at seven hundred only. + </p> + <p> + The state of things now became alarming. To prevent, if possible, the + utter extinction of public confidence in their proceedings, the directors + summoned a general court of the whole corporation, to meet in Merchant + Tailors' Hall, on the 8th of September. By nine o'clock in the morning, + the room was filled to suffocation; Cheapside was blocked up by a crowd + unable to gain admittance, and the greatest excitement prevailed. The + directors and their friends mustered in great numbers. Sir John Fellowes, + the sub-governor, was called to the chair. He acquainted the assembly with + the cause of their meeting, read to them the several resolutions of the + court of directors, and gave them an account of their proceedings; of the + taking in the redeemable and unredeemable funds, and of the subscriptions + in money. Mr. Secretary Craggs then made a short speech, wherein he + commended the conduct of the directors, and urged that nothing could more + effectually contribute to the bringing this scheme to perfection than + union among themselves. He concluded with a motion for thanking the court + of directors for their prudent and skilful management, and for desiring + them to proceed in such manner as they should think most proper for the + interest and advantage of the corporation. Mr. Hungerford, who had + rendered himself very conspicuous in the House of Commons for his zeal in + behalf of the South Sea Company, and who was shrewdly suspected to have + been a considerable gainer by knowing the right time to sell out, was very + magniloquent on this occasion. He said that he had seen the rise and fall, + the decay and resurrection of many communities of this nature, but that, + in his opinion, none had ever performed such wonderful things in so short + a time as the South Sea Company. They had done more than the crown, the + pulpit, or the bench could do. They had reconciled all parties in one + common interest; they had laid asleep, if not wholly extinguished, all the + domestic jars and animosities of the nation. By the rise of their stock, + monied men had vastly increased their fortunes; country-gentlemen had seen + the value of their lands doubled and trebled in their hands. They had at + the same time done good to the Church, not a few of the reverend clergy + having got great sums by the project. In short, they had enriched the + whole nation, and he hoped they had not forgotten themselves. There was + some hissing at the latter part of this speech, which for the extravagance + of its eulogy was not far removed from satire; but the directors and their + friends, and all the winners in the room, applauded vehemently. The Duke + of Portland spoke in a similar strain, and expressed his great wonder why + anybody should be dissatisfied: of course, he was a winner by his + speculations, and in a condition similar to that of the fat alderman in + Joe Miller's Jests, who, whenever he had eaten a good dinner, folded his + hands upon his paunch, and expressed his doubts whether there could be a + hungry man in the world. + </p> + <p> + Several resolutions were passed at this meeting, but they had no effect + upon the public. Upon the very same evening the stock fell to six hundred + and forty, and on the morrow to five hundred and forty. Day after day it + continued to fall, until it was as low as four hundred. In a letter dated + September 13th, from Mr. Broderick, M.P. to Lord Chancellor Middleton, and + published in Coxo's Walpole, the former says,—"Various are the + conjectures why the South Sea directors have suffered the cloud to break + so early. I made no doubt but they would do so when they found it to their + advantage. They have stretched credit so far beyond what it would bear, + that specie proves insufficient to support it. Their most considerable men + have drawn out, securing themselves by the losses of the deluded, + thoughtless numbers, whose understandings have been overruled by avarice + and the hope of making mountains out of mole-hills. Thousands of families + will be reduced to beggary. The consternation is inexpressible—the + rage beyond description, and the case altogether so desperate that I do + not see any plan or scheme so much as thought of for averting the blow, so + that I cannot pretend to guess what is next to be done." Ten days + afterwards, the stock still falling, he writes,—"The Company have + yet come to no determination, for they are in such a wood that they know + not which way to turn. By several gentlemen lately come to town, I + perceive the very name of a South-Sea-man grows abominable in every + country. A great many goldsmiths are already run off, and more will daily. + I question whether one-third, nay, one-fourth, of them can stand it. From + the very beginning, I founded my judgment of the whole affair upon the + unquestionable maxim, that ten millions (which is more than our running + cash) could not circulate two hundred millions, beyond which our paper + credit extended. That, therefore, whenever that should become doubtful, be + the cause what it would, our noble state machine must inevitably fall to + the ground." + </p> + <p> + On the 12th of September, at the earnest solicitation of Mr. Secretary + Craggs, several conferences were held between the directors of the South + Sea and the directors of the Bank. A report which was circulated, that the + latter had agreed to circulate six millions of the South Sea Company's + bonds, caused the stock to rise to six hundred and seventy; but in the + afternoon, as soon as the report was known to be groundless, the stock + fell again to five hundred and eighty; the next day to five hundred and + seventy, and so gradually to four hundred. [Gay (the poet), in that + disastrous year, had a present from young Craggs of some South Sea stock, + and once supposed himself to be master of twenty thousand pounds. His + friends persuaded him to sell his share, but he dreamed of dignity and + splendour, and could not bear to obstruct his own fortune. He was then + importuned to sell as much as would purchase a hundred a year for life, + "which," says Fenton, "will make you sure of a clean shirt and a shoulder + of mutton every day." This counsel was rejected; the profit and principal + were lost, and Gay sunk under the calamity so low that his life became in + danger.—Johnson's Lives of the Poets.] + </p> + <p> + The ministry were seriously alarmed at the aspect of affairs. The + directors could not appear in the streets without being insulted; + dangerous riots were every moment apprehended. Despatches were sent off to + the King at Hanover, praying his immediate return. Mr. Walpole, who was + staying at his country-seat, was sent for, that he might employ his known + influence with the directors of the Bank of England to induce them to + accept the proposal made by the South Sea Company for circulating a number + of their bonds. + </p> + <p> + The Bank was very unwilling to mix itself up with the affairs of the + Company; it dreaded being involved in calamities which it could not + relieve, and received all overtures with visible reluctance. But the + universal voice of the nation called upon it to come to the rescue. Every + person of note in commercial politics was called in to advise in the + emergency. A rough draft of a contract drawn up by Mr. Walpole was + ultimately adopted as the basis of further negotiations, and the public + alarm abated a little. + </p> + <p> + On the following day, the 20th of September, a general court of the South + Sea Company was held at Merchant Tailors' Hall, in which resolutions were + carried, empowering the directors to agree with the Bank of England, or + any other persons, to circulate the Company's bonds, or make any other + agreement with the Bank which they should think proper. One of the + speakers, a Mr. Pulteney, said it was most surprising to see the + extraordinary panic which had seized upon the people. Men were running to + and fro in alarm and terror, their imaginations filled with some great + calamity, the form and dimensions of which nobody knew. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Black it stood as night— + Fierce as ten furies—terrible as hell." +</pre> + <p> + At a general court of the Bank of England held two days afterwards, the + governor informed them of the several meetings that had been held on the + affairs of the South Sea Company, adding that the directors had not yet + thought fit to come to any decision upon the matter. A resolution was then + proposed, and carried without a dissentient voice, empowering the + directors to agree with those of the South Sea to circulate their bonds, + to what sum, and upon what terms, and for what time, they might think + proper. + </p> + <p> + Thus both parties were at liberty to act as they might judge best for the + public interest. Books were opened at the Bank for a subscription of three + millions for the support of public credit, on the usual terms of 15 pounds + per cent. deposit, per cent. premium, and 5 pounds per cent. interest. So + great was the concourse of people in the early part of the morning, all + eagerly bringing their money, that it was thought the subscription would + be filled that day; but before noon, the tide turned. In spite of all that + could be done to prevent it, the South Sea Company's stock fell rapidly. + Their bonds were in such discredit, that a run commenced upon the most + eminent goldsmiths and bankers, some of whom having lent out great sums + upon South Sea stock were obliged to shut up their shops and abscond. The + Sword-blade Company, who had hitherto been the chief cashiers of the South + Sea Company, stopped payment. This being looked upon as but the beginning + of evil, occasioned a great run upon the Bank, who were now obliged to pay + out money much faster than they had received it upon the subscription in + the morning. The day succeeding was a holiday (the 29th of September), and + the Bank had a little breathing time. They bore up against the storm; but + their former rivals, the South Sea Company, were wrecked upon it. Their + stock fell to one hundred and fifty, and gradually, after various + fluctuations, to one hundred and thirty-five. + </p> + <p> + The Bank, finding they were not able to restore public confidence, and + stem the tide of ruin, without running the risk of being swept away with + those they intended to save, declined to carry out the agreement into + which they had partially entered. They were under no obligation whatever + to continue; for the so called Bank contract was nothing more than the + rough draught of an agreement, in which blanks had been left for several + important particulars, and which contained no penalty for their secession. + "And thus," to use the words of the Parliamentary History, "were seen, in + the space of eight months, the rise, progress, and fall of that mighty + fabric, which, being wound up by mysterious springs to a wonderful height, + had fixed the eyes and expectations of all Europe, but whose foundation, + being fraud, illusion, credulity, and infatuation, fell to the ground as + soon as the artful management of its directors was discovered." + </p> + <p> + In the hey-day of its blood, during the progress of this dangerous + delusion, the manners of the nation became sensibly corrupted. The + Parliamentary inquiry, set on foot to discover the delinquents, disclosed + scenes of infamy, disgraceful alike to the morals of the offenders and the + intellects of the people among whom they had arisen. It is a deeply + interesting study to investigate all the evils that were the result. + Nations, like individuals, cannot become desperate gamblers with impunity. + Punishment is sure to overtake them sooner or later. A celebrated writer + [Smollett.] is quite wrong, when he says, "that such an era as this is the + most unfavourable for a historian; that no reader of sentiment and + imagination can be entertained or interested by a detail of transactions + such as these, which admit of no warmth, no colouring, no embellishment; a + detail of which only serves to exhibit an inanimate picture of tasteless + vice and mean degeneracy." On the contrary, and Smollett might have + discovered it, if he had been in the humour—the subject is capable + of inspiring as much interest as even a novelist can desire. Is there no + warmth in the despair of a plundered people?—no life and animation + in the picture which might be drawn of the woes of hundreds of + impoverished and ruined families? of the wealthy of yesterday become the + beggars of to-day? of the powerful and influential changed into exiles and + outcasts, and the voice of self-reproach and imprecation resounding from + every corner of the land? Is it a dull or uninstructive picture to see a + whole people shaking suddenly off the trammels of reason, and running wild + after a golden vision, refusing obstinately to believe that it is not + real, till, like a deluded hind running after an ignis fatuus, they are + plunged into a quagmire? But in this false spirit has history too often + been written. The intrigues of unworthy courtiers to gain the favour of + still more unworthy kings; or the records of murderous battles and sieges + have been dilated on, and told over and over again, with all the eloquence + of style and all the charms of fancy; while the circumstances which have + most deeply affected the morals and welfare of the people, have been + passed over with but slight notice as dry and dull, and capable of neither + warmth nor colouring. + </p> + <p> + During the progress of this famous bubble, England presented a singular + spectacle. The public mind was in a state of unwholesome fermentation. Men + were no longer satisfied with the slow but sure profits of cautious + industry. The hope of boundless wealth for the morrow made them heedless + and extravagant for to-day. A luxury, till then unheard-of, was + introduced, bringing in its train a corresponding laxity of morals. The + overbearing insolence of ignorant men, who had arisen to sudden wealth by + successful gambling, made men of true gentility of mind and manners, blush + that gold should have power to raise the unworthy in the scale of society. + The haughtiness of some of these "cyphering cits," as they were termed by + Sir Richard Steele, was remembered against them in the day of their + adversity. In the Parliamentary inquiry, many of the directors suffered + more for their insolence than for their peculation. One of them, who, in + the full-blown pride of an ignorant rich man, had said that he would feed + his horse upon gold, was reduced almost to bread and water for himself; + every haughty look, every overbearing speech, was set down, and repaid + them a hundredfold in poverty and humiliation. + </p> + <p> + The state of matters all over the country was so alarming, that George I + shortened his intended stay in Hanover, and returned in all haste to + England. He arrived on the 11th of November, and Parliament was summoned + to meet on the 8th of December. In the mean time, public meetings were + held in every considerable town of the empire, at which petitions were + adopted, praying the vengeance of the Legislature upon the South Sea + directors, who, by their fraudulent practices, had brought the nation to + the brink of ruin. Nobody seemed to imagine that the nation itself was as + culpable as the South Sea Company. Nobody blamed the credulity and avarice + of the people,—the degrading lust of gain, which had swallowed up + every nobler quality in the national character, or the infatuation which + had made the multitude run their heads with such frantic eagerness into + the net held out for them by scheming projectors. These things were never + mentioned. The people were a simple, honest, hard-working people, ruined + by a gang of robbers, who were to be hanged, drawn, and quartered without + mercy. + </p> + <p> + This was the almost unanimous feeling of the country. The two Houses of + Parliament were not more reasonable. Before the guilt of the South Sea + directors was known, punishment was the only cry. The King, in his speech + from the throne, expressed his hope that they would remember that all + their prudence, temper, and resolution were necessary to find out and + apply the proper remedy for their misfortunes. In the debate on the answer + to the address, several speakers indulged in the most violent invectives + against the directors of the South Sea project. The Lord Molesworth was + particularly vehement. "It had been said by some, that there was no law to + punish the directors of the South Sea Company, who were justly looked upon + as the authors of the present misfortunes of the state. In his opinion + they ought, upon this occasion, to follow the example of the ancient + Romans, who, having no law against parricide, because their legislators + supposed no son could be so unnaturally wicked as to embrue his hands in + his father's blood, made a law to punish this heinous crime as soon as it + was committed. They adjudged the guilty wretch to be sown in a sack, and + thrown alive into the Tyber. He looked upon the contrivers and executors + of the villanous South Sea scheme as the parricides of their country, and + should be satisfied to see them tied in like manner in sacks, and thrown + into the Thames." Other members spoke with as much want of temper and + discretion. Mr. Walpole was more moderate. He recommended that their first + care should be to restore public credit. "If the city of London were on + fire, all wise men would aid in extinguishing the flames, and preventing + the spread of the conflagration before they inquired after the + incendiaries. Public credit had received a dangerous wound, and lay + bleeding, and they ought to apply a speedy remedy to it. It was time + enough to punish the assassin afterwards." On the 9th of December an + address, in answer to his Majesty's speech, was agreed upon, after an + amendment, which was carried without a division, that words should be + added expressive of the determination of the House not only to seek a + remedy for the national distresses, but to punish the authors of them. + </p> + <p> + The inquiry proceeded rapidly. The directors were ordered to lay before + the House a full account of all their proceedings. Resolutions were passed + to the effect that the calamity was mainly owing to the vile arts of + stockjobbers, and that nothing could tend more to the re-establishment of + public credit than a law to prevent this infamous practice. Mr. Walpole + then rose, and said, that "as he had previously hinted, he had spent some + time upon a scheme for restoring public credit, but that, the execution of + it depending upon a position which had been laid down as fundamental, he + thought it proper, before he opened out his scheme, to be informed whether + he might rely upon that foundation. It was, whether the subscription of + public debts and encumbrances, money subscriptions, and other contracts, + made with the South Sea Company should remain in the present state?" This + question occasioned an animated debate. It was finally agreed, by a + majority of 259 against 117, that all these contracts should remain in + their present state, unless altered for the relief of the proprietors by a + general court of the South Sea Company, or set aside by due course of law. + On the following day Mr. Walpole laid before a committee of the whole + House his scheme for the restoration of public credit, which was, in + substance, to ingraft nine millions of South Sea stock into the Bank of + England, and the same sum into the East India Company, upon certain + conditions. The plan was favourably received by the House. After some few + objections, it was ordered that proposals should be received from the two + great corporations. They were both unwilling to lend their aid, and the + plan met with a warm but fruitless opposition at the general courts + summoned for the purpose of deliberating upon it. They, however, + ultimately agreed upon the terms on which they would consent to circulate + the South Sea bonds, and their report, being presented to the committee, a + bill was brought in, under the superintendence of Mr. Walpole, and safely + carried through both Houses of Parliament. + </p> + <p> + A bill was at the same time brought in, for restraining the South Sea + directors, governor, sub-governor, treasurer, cashier, and clerks from + leaving the kingdom for a twelvemonth, and for discovering their estates + and effects, and preventing them from transporting or alienating the same. + All the most influential members of the House supported the bill. Mr. + Shippen, seeing Mr. Secretary Craggs in his place, and believing the + injurious rumours that were afloat of that minister's conduct in the South + Sea business, determined to touch him to the quick. He said, he was glad + to see a British House of Commons resuming its pristine vigour and spirit, + and acting with so much unanimity for the public good. It was necessary to + secure the persons and estates of the South Sea directors and their + officers; "but," he added, looking fixedly at Mr. Craggs as he spoke, + "there were other men in high station, whom, in time, he would not be + afraid to name, who were no less guilty than the directors." Mr. Craggs + arose in great wrath, and said, that if the innuendo were directed against + him, he was ready to give satisfaction to any man who questioned him, + either in the House or out of it. Loud cries of order immediately arose on + every side. In the midst of the uproar Lord Molesworth got up, and + expressed his wonder at the boldness of Mr. Craggs in challenging the + whole House of Commons. He, Lord Molesworth, though somewhat old, past + sixty, would answer Mr. Craggs whatever he had to say in the House, and he + trusted there were plenty of young men beside him, who would not be afraid + to look Mr. Craggs in the face, out of the House. The cries of order again + resounded from every side; the members arose simultaneously; everybody + seemed to be vociferating at once. The Speaker in vain called order. The + confusion lasted several minutes, during which Lord Molesworth and Mr. + Craggs were almost the only members who kept their seats. At last the call + for Mr. Craggs became so violent that he thought proper to submit to the + universal feeling of the House, and explain his unparliamentary + expression. He said, that by giving satisfaction to the impugners of his + conduct in that House, he did not mean that he would fight, but that he + would explain his conduct. Here the matter ended, and the House proceeded + to debate in what manner they should conduct their inquiry into the + affairs of the South Sea Company, whether in a grand or a select + committee. Ultimately, a Secret Committee of thirteen was appointed, with + power to send for persons, papers, and records. + </p> + <p> + The Lords were as zealous and as hasty as the Commons. The Bishop of + Rochester said the scheme had been like a pestilence. The Duke of Wharton + said the House ought to show no respect of persons; that, for his part, he + would give up the dearest friend he had, if he had been engaged in the + project. The nation had been plundered in a most shameful and flagrant + manner, and he would go as far as anybody in the punishment of the + offenders. Lord Stanhope said, that every farthing possessed by the + criminals, whether directors or not directors, ought to be confiscated, to + make good the public losses. + </p> + <p> + During all this time the public excitement was extreme. We learn, front + Coxe's Walpole, that the very name of a South Sea director was thought to + be synonymous with every species of fraud and villany. Petitions from + counties, cities, and boroughs, in all parts of the kingdom, were + presented, crying for the justice due to an injured nation and the + punishment of the villanous peculators. Those moderate men, who would not + go to extreme lengths, even in the punishment of the guilty, were accused + of being accomplices, were exposed to repeated insults and virulent + invectives, and devoted, both in anonymous letters and public writings, to + the speedy vengeance of an injured people. The accusations against Mr. + Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Mr. Craggs, another member of + the ministry, were so loud, that the House of Lords resolved to proceed at + once into the investigation concerning them. It was ordered, on the 21st + of January, that all brokers concerned in the South Sea scheme should lay + before the House an account of the stock or subscriptions bought or sold + by them for any of the officers of the Treasury or Exchequer, or in trust + for any of them, since Michaelmas 1719. When this account was delivered, + it appeared that large quantities of stock had been transferred to the use + of Mr. Aislabie. Five of the South Sea directors, including Mr. Edward + Gibbon, the grandfather of the celebrated historian, were ordered into the + custody of the black rod. Upon a motion made by Earl Stanhope, it was + unanimously resolved, that the taking in or giving credit for stock + without a valuable consideration actually paid or sufficiently secured; or + the purchasing stock by any director or agent of the South Sea Company, + for the use or benefit of any member of the administration, or any member + of either House of Parliament, during such time as the South Sea Bill was + yet pending in Parliament, was a notorious and dangerous corruption. + Another resolution was passed a few days afterwards, to the effect that + several of the directors and officers of the Company having, in a + clandestine manner, sold their own stock to the Company, had been guilty + of a notorious fraud and breach of trust, and had thereby mainly caused + the unhappy turn of affairs that had so much affected public credit. Mr. + Aislabie resigned his office as Chancellor of the Exchequer, and absented + himself from Parliament until the formal inquiry into his individual guilt + was brought under the consideration of the Legislature. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, Knight, the treasurer of the Company, and who was + intrusted with all the dangerous secrets of the dishonest directors, + packed up his books and documents, and made his escape from the country. + He embarked in disguise, in a small boat on the river, and proceeding to a + vessel hired for the purpose, was safely conveyed to Calais. The Committee + of Secrecy informed the House of the circumstance, when it was resolved + unanimously that two addresses should be presented to the King; the first + praying that he would issue a proclamation, offering a reward for the + apprehension of Knight; and the second, that he would give immediate + orders to stop the ports, and to take effectual care of the coasts, to + prevent the said Knight, or any other officers of the South Sea Company, + from escaping out of the kingdom. The ink was hardly dry upon these + addresses before they were carried to the King by Mr. Methuen, deputed by + the House for that purpose. The same evening a royal proclamation was + issued, offering a reward of two thousand pounds for the apprehension of + Knight. The Commons ordered the doors of the House to be locked, and the + keys to be placed upon the table. General Ross, one of the members of the + Committee of Secrecy, acquainted them that they had already discovered a + train of the deepest villany and fraud that Hell had ever contrived to + ruin a nation, which in due time they would lay before the House. In the + mean time, in order to a further discovery, the Committee thought it + highly necessary to secure the persons of some of the directors and + principal South Sea officers, and to seize their papers. A motion to this + effect having been made, was carried unanimously. Sir Robert Chaplin, Sir + Theodore Janssen, Mr. Sawbridge, and Mr. F. Eyles, members of the House, + and directors of the South Sea Company, were summoned to appear in their + places, and answer for their corrupt practices. Sir Theodore Janssen and + Mr. Sawbridge answered to their names, and endeavoured to exculpate + themselves. The House heard them patiently, and then ordered them to + withdraw. A motion was then made, and carried nemine contradicente, that + they had been guilty of a notorious breach of trust—had occasioned + much loss to great numbers of his Majesty's subjects, and had highly + prejudiced the public credit. It was then ordered that, for their offence, + they should be expelled the House, and taken into the custody of the + sergeant-at-arms. Sir Robert Chaplin and Mr. Eyles, attending in their + places four days afterwards, were also expelled the House. It was resolved + at the same time to address the King, to give directions to his ministers + at foreign courts to make application for Knight, that he might be + delivered up to the English authorities, in ease he took refuge in any of + their dominions. The King at once agreed, and messengers were despatched + to all parts of the Continent the same night. + </p> + <p> + Among the directors taken into custody, was Sir John Blunt, the man whom + popular opinion has generally accused of having been the original author + and father of the scheme. This man, we are informed by Pope, in his + epistle to Allen, Lord Bathurst, was a dissenter, of a most religious + deportment, and professed to be a great believer. He constantly declaimed + against the luxury and corruption of the age, the partiality of + parliaments, and the misery of party spirit. He was particularly eloquent + against avarice in great and noble persons. He was originally a scrivener, + and afterwards became, not only a director, but the most active manager of + the South Sea Company. Whether it was during his career in this capacity + that he first began to declaim against the avarice of the great, we are + not informed. He certainly must have seen enough of it to justify his + severest anathema; but if the preacher had himself been free from the vice + he condemned, his declamations would have had a better effect. He was + brought up in custody to the bar of the House of Lords, and underwent a + long examination. He refused to answer several important questions. He + said he had been examined already by a committee of the House of Commons, + and as he did not remember his answers, and might contradict himself, he + refused to answer before another tribunal. This declaration, in itself an + indirect proof of guilt, occasioned some commotion in the House. He was + again asked peremptorily whether he had ever sold any portion of the stock + to any member of the administration, or any member of either House of + Parliament, to facilitate the passing of the hill. He again declined to + answer. He was anxious, he said, to treat the House with all possible + respect, but he thought it hard to be compelled to accuse himself. After + several ineffectual attempts to refresh his memory, he was directed to + withdraw. A violent discussion ensued between the friends and opponents of + the ministry. It was asserted that the administration were no strangers to + the convenient taciturnity of Sir John Blunt. The Duke of Wharton made a + reflection upon the Earl Stanhope, which the latter warmly resented. He + spoke under great excitement, and with such vehemence as to cause a sudden + determination of blood to the head. He felt himself so ill that he was + obliged to leave the House and retire to his chamber. He was cupped + immediately, and also let blood on the following morning, but with slight + relief. The fatal result was not anticipated. Towards evening he became + drowsy, and turning himself on his face, expired. The sudden death of this + statesman caused great grief to the nation. George I was exceedingly + affected, and shut himself up for some hours in his closet, inconsolable + for his loss. + </p> + <p> + Knight, the treasurer of the company, was apprehended at Tirlemont, near + Liege, by one of the secretaries of Mr. Leathes, the British resident at + Brussels, and lodged in the citadel of Antwerp. Repeated applications were + made to the court of Austria to deliver him up, but in vain. Knight threw + himself upon the protection of the states of Brabant, and demanded to be + tried in that country. It was a privilege granted to the states of Brabant + by one of the articles of the Joyeuse Entree, that every criminal + apprehended in that country should be tried in that country. The states + insisted on their privilege, and refused to deliver Knight to the British + authorities. The latter did not cease their solicitations; but in the mean + time, Knight escaped from the citadel. + </p> + <p> + On the 16th of February the Committee of Secrecy made their first report + to the House. They stated that their inquiry had been attended with + numerous difficulties and embarrassments; every one they had examined had + endeavoured, as far as in him lay, to defeat the ends of justice. In some + of the books produced before them, false and fictitious entries had been + made; in others, there were entries of money, with blanks for the name of + the stockholders. There were frequent erasures and alterations, and in + some of the books leaves were torn out. They also found that some books of + great importance had been destroyed altogether, and that some had been + taken away or secreted. At the very entrance into their inquiry, they had + observed that the matters referred to them were of great variety and + extent. Many persons had been intrusted with various parts in the + execution of the law, and under colour thereof had acted in an + unwarrantable manner, in disposing of the properties of many thousands of + persons, amounting to many millions of money. They discovered that, before + the South Sea Act was passed, there was an entry in the Company's books of + the sum of 1,259,325 pounds, upon account of stock stated to have been + sold to the amount of 574,500 pounds. This stock was all fictitious, and + had been disposed of with a view to promote the passing of the bill. It + was noted as sold at various days, and at various prices, from 150 to 325 + per cent. Being surprised to see so large an account disposed of, at a + time when the Company were not empowered to increase their capital, the + committee determined to investigate most carefully the whole transaction. + The governor, sub-governor, and several directors were brought before + them, and examined rigidly. They found that, at the time these entries + were made, the Company was not in possession of such a quantity of stock, + having in their own right only a small quantity, not exceeding thirty + thousand pounds at the utmost. Pursuing the inquiry, they found that this + amount of stock, was to be esteemed as taken in or holden by the Company, + for the benefit of the pretended purchasers, although no mutual agreement + was made for its delivery or acceptance at any certain time. No money was + paid down, nor any deposit or security whatever given to the Company by + the supposed purchasers; so that if the stock had fallen, as might have + been expected, had the act not passed, they would have sustained no loss. + If, on the contrary, the price of stock advanced (as it actually did by + the success of the scheme), the difference by the advanced price was to be + made good to them. Accordingly, after the passing of the act, the account + of stock was made up and adjusted with Mr. Knight, and the pretended + purchasers were paid the difference out of the Company's cash. This + fictitious stock, which had been chiefly at the disposal of Sir John + Blunt, Mr. Gibbon, and Mr. Knight, was distributed among several members + of the government and their connexions, by way of bribe, to facilitate the + passing of the bill. To the Earl of Sunderland was assigned 50,000 pounds + of this stock; to the Duchess of Kendal 10,000 pounds; to the Countess of + Platen 10,000 pounds; to her two nieces 10,000 pounds; to Mr. Secretary + Craggs 30,000 pounds; to Mr. Charles Stanhope (one of the Secretaries of + the Treasury) 10,000 pounds; to the Swordblade Company 50,000 pounds. It + also appeared that Mr. Stanhope had received the enormous sum of 250,000 + pounds as the difference in the price of some stock, through the hands of + Turner, Caswall, and Co., but that his name had been partly erased from + their books, and altered to Stangape. Aislabie, the Chancellor of the + Exchequer, had made profits still more abominable. He had an account with + the same firm, who were also South Sea directors, to the amount of 794,451 + pounds. He had, besides, advised the Company to make their second + subscription one million and a half, instead of a million, by their own + authority, and without any warrant. The third subscription had been + conducted in a manner as disgraceful. Mr. Aislabie's name was down for + 70,000 pounds; Mr. Craggs, senior, for 659,000 pounds; the Earl of + Sunderland's for 160,000 pounds; and Mr. Stanhope for 47,000 pounds. This + report was succeeded by six others, less important. At the end of the + last, the committee declared that the absence of Knight, who had been + principally intrusted, prevented them from carrying on their inquiries. + </p> + <p> + The first report was ordered to be printed, and taken into consideration + on the next day but one succeeding. After a very angry and animated + debate, a series of resolutions were agreed to, condemnatory of the + conduct of the directors, of the members of the Parliament and of the + administration concerned with them; and declaring that they ought, each + and all, to make satisfaction out of their own estates for the injury they + had done the public. Their practices were declared to be corrupt, + infamous, and dangerous; and a bill was ordered to be brought in for the + relief of the unhappy sufferers. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Charles Stanhope was the first person brought to account for his share + in these transactions. He urged in his defence that, for some years past, + he had lodged all the money he was possessed of in Mr. Knight's hands, and + whatever stock Mr. Knight had taken in for him, he had paid a valuable + consideration for it. As to the stock that had been bought for him by + Turner, Caswall, and Co. he knew nothing about it. Whatever had been done + in that matter was done without his authority, and he could not be + responsible for it. Turner and Co. took the latter charge upon themselves, + but it was notorious to every unbiased and unprejudiced person that Mr. + Stanhope was a gainer of the 250,000 pounds which lay in the hands of that + firm to his credit. He was, however, acquitted by a majority of three + only. The greatest exertions were made to screen him. Lord Stanhope, the + son of the Earl of Chesterfield, went round to the wavering members, using + all the eloquence he was possessed of to induce them either to vote for + the acquittal or to absent themselves from the house. Many weak-headed + country-gentlemen were led astray by his persuasions, and the result was + as already stated. The acquittal caused the greatest discontent throughout + the country. Mobs of a menacing character assembled in different parts of + London; fears of riots were generally entertained, especially as the + examination of a still greater delinquent was expected by many to have a + similar termination. Mr. Aislabie, whose high office and deep + responsibilities should have kept him honest, even had native principle + been insufficient, was very justly regarded as perhaps the greatest + criminal of all. His case was entered into on the day succeeding the + acquittal of Mr. Starthope. Great excitement prevailed, and the lobbies + and avenues of the house were beset by crowds, impatient to know the + result. The debate lasted the whole day. Mr. Aislabie found few friends: + his guilt was so apparent and so heinous that nobody had courage to stand + up in his favour. It was finally resolved, without a dissentient voice, + that Mr. Aislabie had encouraged and promoted the destructive execution of + the South Sea scheme with a view to his own exorbitant profit, and had + combined with the directors in their pernicious practices to the ruin of + the public trade and credit of the kingdom: that he should for his + offences be ignominiously expelled from the House of Commons, and + committed a close prisoner to the Tower of London; that he should be + restrained from going out of the kingdom for a whole year, or till the end + of the next session of Parliament; and that he should make out a correct + account of all his estate, in order that it might be applied to the relief + of those who had suffered by his malpractices. + </p> + <p> + This verdict caused the greatest joy. Though it was delivered at half-past + twelve at night, it soon spread over the city. Several persons illuminated + their houses in token of their joy. On the following day, when Mr. + Aislabie was conveyed to the Tower, the mob assembled on Tower-hill with + the intention of hooting and pelting him. Not succeeding in this, they + kindled a large bonfire, and danced around it in the exuberance of their + delight. Several bonfires were made in other places; London presented the + appearance of a holiday, and people congratulated one another as if they + had just escaped from some great calamity. The rage upon the acquittal of + Mr. Stanhope had grown to such a height that none could tell where it + would have ended, had Mr. Aislabie met with the like indulgence. + </p> + <p> + To increase the public satisfaction, Sir George Caswall, of the firm of + Turner, Caswall, & Co. was expelled the House on the following day, + and ordered to refund the sum of 250,000 pounds. + </p> + <p> + That part of the report of the Committee of Secrecy which related to the + Earl of Sunderland was next taken into consideration. Every effort was + made to clear his Lordship from the imputation. As the case against him + rested chiefly on the evidence extorted from Sir John Blunt, great pains + were taken to make it appear that Sir John's word was not to be believed, + especially in a matter affecting the honour of a peer and privy + councillor. All the friends of the ministry rallied around the Earl, it + being generally reported that a verdict of guilty against him would bring + a Tory ministry into power. He was eventually acquitted, by a majority of + 233 against 172; but the country was convinced of his guilt. The greatest + indignation was everywhere expressed, and menacing mobs again assembled in + London. Happily no disturbances took place. + </p> + <p> + This was the day on which Mr. Craggs, the elder, expired. The morrow had + been appointed for the consideration of his case. It was very generally + believed that he had poisoned himself. It appeared, however, that grief + for the loss of his son, one of the Secretaries of the Treasury, who had + died five weeks previously of the small-pox, preyed much on his mind. For + this son, dearly beloved, he had been amassing vast heaps of riches: he + had been getting money, but not honestly; and he for whose sake he had + bartered his honour and sullied his fame, was now no more. The dread of + further exposure increased his trouble of mind, and ultimately brought on + an apoplectic fit, in which he expired. He left a fortune of a million and + a half, which was afterwards confiscated for the benefit of the sufferers + by the unhappy delusion he had been so mainly instrumental in raising. + </p> + <p> + One by one the case of every director of the Company was taken into + consideration. A sum amounting to two millions and fourteen thousand + pounds was confiscated from their estates towards repairing the mischief + they had done, each man being allowed a certain residue, in proportion to + his conduct and circumstances, with which he might begin the world anew. + Sir John Blunt was only allowed 5,000 pounds out of his fortune of upwards + of 183,000 pounds; Sir John Fellows was allowed 10,000 pounds out of + 243,000 pounds; Sir Theodore Janssen, 50,000 pounds out of 243,000 pounds; + Mr. Edward Gibbon, 10,000 pounds out of 106,000 pounds.; Sir John Lambert, + 5000 pounds out of 72,000 pounds. Others, less deeply involved, were + treated with greater liberality. Gibbon, the historian, whose grandfather + was the Mr. Edward Gibbon so severely mulcted, has given, in the Memoirs + of his Life and Writings, an interesting account of the proceedings in + Parliament at this time. He owns that he is not an unprejudiced witness; + but, as all the writers from which it is possible to extract any notice of + the proceedings of these disastrous years, were prejudiced on the other + side, the statements of the great historian become of additional value. If + only on the principle of audi alteram partem, his opinion is entitled to + consideration. "In the year 1716," he says, "my grandfather was elected + one of the directors of the South Sea Company, and his books exhibited the + proof that before his acceptance of that fatal office, he had acquired an + independent fortune of 60,000 pounds. But his fortune was overwhelmed in + the shipwreck of the year twenty, and the labours of thirty years were + blasted in a single day. Of the use or abuse of the South Sea scheme, of + the guilt or innocence of my grandfather and his brother directors, I am + neither a competent nor a disinterested judge. Yet the equity of modern + times must condemn the violent and arbitrary proceedings, which would have + disgraced the cause of justice, and rendered injustice still more odious. + No sooner had the nation awakened from its golden dream, than a popular, + and even a Parliamentary clamour, demanded its victims; but it was + acknowledged on all sides, that the directors, however guilty, could not + be touched by any known laws of the land. The intemperate notions of Lord + Molesworth were not literally acted on; but a bill of pains and penalties + was introduced—a retro-active statute, to punish the offences which + did not exist at the time they were committed. The Legislature restrained + the persons of the directors, imposed an exorbitant security for their + appearance, and marked their character with a previous note of ignominy. + They were compelled to deliver, upon oath, the strict value of their + estates, and were disabled from making any transfer or alienation of any + part of their property. Against a bill of pains and penalties, it is the + common right of every subject to be heard by his counsel at the bar. They + prayed to be heard. Their prayer was refused, and their oppressors, who + required no evidence, would listen to no defence. It had been at first + proposed, that one eighth of their respective estates should be allowed + for the future support of the directors; but it was speciously urged, that + in the various shades of opulence and guilt, such a proportion would be + too light for many, and for some might possibly be too heavy. The + character and conduct of each man were separately weighed; but, instead of + the calm solemnity of a judicial inquiry, the fortune and honour of + thirty-three Englishmen were made the topics of hasty conversation, the + sport of a lawless majority; and the basest member of the committee, by a + malicious word, or a silent vote, might indulge his general spleen or + personal animosity. Injury was aggravated by insult, and insult was + embittered by pleasantry. Allowances of 20 pounds or 1 shilling were + facetiously moved. A vague report that a director had formerly been + concerned in another project, by which some unknown persons had lost their + money, was admitted as a proof of his actual guilt. One man was ruined + because he had dropped a foolish speech, that his horses should feed upon + gold; another, because he was grown so proud, that one day, at the + Treasury, he had refused a civil answer to persons much above him. All + were condemned, absent and unheard, in arbitrary fines and forfeitures, + which swept away the greatest part of their substance. Such bold + oppression can scarcely be shielded by the omnipotence of Parliament. My + grandfather could not expect to be treated with more lenity than his + companions. His Tory principles and connexions rendered him obnoxious to + the ruling powers. His name was reported in a suspicious secret. His + well-known abilities could not plead the excuse of ignorance or error. In + the first proceedings against the South Sea directors, Mr. Gibbon was one + of the first taken into custody, and in the final sentence the measure of + his fine proclaimed him eminently guilty. The total estimate, which he + delivered on oath to the House of Commons, amounted to 106,543 pounds 5 + shillings 6 pence, exclusive of antecedent settlements. Two different + allowances of 15,000 pounds and of 10,000 pounds were moved for Mr. + Gibbon; but, on the question being put, it was carried without a division + for the smaller sum. On these ruins, with the skill and credit of which + Parliament had not been able to despoil him, my grandfather, at a mature + age, erected the edifice of a new fortune. The labours of sixteen years + were amply rewarded; and I have reason to believe that the second + structure was not much inferior to the first." + </p> + <p> + The next consideration of the Legislature, after the punishment of the + directors, was to restore public credit. The scheme of Walpole had been + found insufficient, and had fallen into disrepute. A computation was made + of the whole capital stock of the South Sea Company at the end of the year + 1720. It was found to amount to thirty-seven millions eight hundred + thousand pounds, of which the stock allotted to all the proprietors only + amounted to twenty-four millions five hundred thousand pounds. The + remainder of thirteen millions three hundred thousand pounds belonged to + the Company in their corporate capacity, and was the profit they had made + by the national delusion. Upwards of eight millions of this were taken + from the Company, and divided among the proprietors and subscribers + generally, making a dividend of about 33 pounds 6 shillings 8 pence per + cent. This was a great relief. It was further ordered, that such persons + as had borrowed money from the South Sea Company upon stock actually + transferred and pledged at the time of borrowing to or for the use of the + Company, should be free from all demands, upon payment of ten per cent. of + the sums so borrowed. They had lent about eleven millions in this manner, + at a time when prices were unnaturally raised; and they now received back + one million one hundred thousand, when prices had sunk to their ordinary + level. + </p> + <p> + But it was a long time before public credit was thoroughly restored. + Enterprise, like Icarus, had soared too high, and melted the wax of her + wings; like Icarus, she had fallen into a sea, and learned, while + floundering in its waves, that her proper element was the solid ground. + She has never since attempted so high a flight. + </p> + <p> + In times of great commercial prosperity there has been a tendency to + over-speculation on several occasions since then. The success of one + project generally produces others of a similar kind. Popular imitativeness + will always, in a trading nation, seize hold of such successes, and drag a + community too anxious for profits into an abyss from which extrication is + difficult. Bubble companies, of a kind similar to those engendered by the + South Sea project, lived their little day in the famous year of the panic, + 1825. On that occasion, as in 1720, knavery gathered a rich harvest from + cupidity, but both suffered when the day of reckoning came. The schemes of + the year 1836 threatened, at one time, results as disastrous; but they + were happily averted before it was too late. The South Sea project thus + remains, and, it is to be hoped, always will remain, the greatest example + in British history, of the infatuation of the people for commercial + gambling. From the bitter experience of that period, posterity may learn + how dangerous it is to let speculation riot unrestrained, and to hope for + enormous profits from inadequate causes. Degrading as were the + circumstances, there is wisdom to be gained from the lesson which they + teach. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE TULIPOMANIA. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quis furor o cives!—Lucan. +</pre> + <p> + The tulip,—so named, it is said, from a Turkish word, signifying a + turban,—was introduced into western Europe about the middle of the + sixteenth century. Conrad Gesner, who claims the merit of having brought + it into repute,—little dreaming of the extraordinary commotion it + was to make in the world,—says that he first saw it in the year + 1559, in a garden at Augsburg, belonging to the learned Counsellor + Herwart, a man very famous in his day for his collection of rare exotics. + The bulbs were sent to this gentleman by a friend at Constantinople, where + the flower had long been a favourite. In the course of ten or eleven years + after this period, tulips were much sought after by the wealthy, + especially in Holland and Germany. Rich people at Amsterdam sent for the + bulbs direct to Constantinople, and paid the most extravagant prices for + them. The first roots planted in England were brought from Vienna in 1600. + Until the year 1634 the tulip annually increased in reputation, until it + was deemed a proof of bad taste in any man of fortune to be without a + collection of them. Many learned men, including Pompeius de Angelis and + the celebrated Lipsius of Leyden, the author of the treatise "De + Constantia," were passionately fond of tulips. The rage for possessing + them soon caught the middle classes of society, and merchants and + shopkeepers, even of moderate means, began to vie with each other in the + rarity of these flowers and the preposterous prices they paid for them. A + trader at Harlaem was known to pay one-half of his fortune for a single + root—not with the design of selling it again at a profit, but to + keep in his own conservatory for the admiration of his acquaintance. + </p> + <p> + One would suppose that there must have been some great virtue in this + flower to have made it so valuable in the eyes of so prudent a people as + the Dutch; but it has neither the beauty nor the perfume of the rose—hardly + the beauty of the "sweet, sweet-pea;" neither is it as enduring as either. + Cowley, it is true, is loud in its praise. He says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The tulip next appeared, all over gay, + But wanton, full of pride, and full of play; + The world can't show a dye but here has place; + Nay, by new mixtures, she can change her face; + Purple and gold are both beneath her care— + The richest needlework she loves to wear; + Her only study is to please the eye, + And to outshine the rest in finery." +</pre> + <p> + This, though not very poetical, is the description of a poet. Beckmann, in + his History of Inventions, paints it with more fidelity, and in prose more + pleasing than Cowley's poetry. He says, "There are few plants which + acquire, through accident, weakness, or disease, so many variegations as + the tulip. When uncultivated, and in its natural state, it is almost of + one colour, has large leaves, and an extraordinarily long stem. When it + has been weakened by cultivation, it becomes more agreeable in the eyes of + the florist. The petals are then paler, smaller, and more diversified in + hue; and the leaves acquire a softer green colour. Thus this masterpiece + of culture, the more beautiful it turns, grows so much the weaker, so + that, with the greatest skill and most careful attention, it can scarcely + be transplanted, or even kept alive." + </p> + <p> + Many persons grow insensibly attached to that which gives them a great + deal of trouble, as a mother often loves her sick and ever-ailing child + better than her more healthy offspring. Upon the same principle we must + account for the unmerited encomia lavished upon these fragile blossoms. In + 1634, the rage among the Dutch to possess them was so great that the + ordinary industry of the country was neglected, and the population, even + to its lowest dregs, embarked in the tulip trade. As the mania increased, + prices augmented, until, in the year 1635, many persons were known to + invest a fortune of 100,000 florins in the purchase of forty roots. It + then became necessary to sell them by their weight in perits, a small + weight less than a grain. A tulip of the species called Admiral Liefken, + weighing 400 perits, was worth 4400 florins; an Admiral Von der Eyk, + weighing 446 perits, was worth 1260 florins; a shilder of 106 perits was + worth 1615 florins; a viceroy of 400 perits, 3000 florins, and, most + precious of all, a Semper Augustus, weighing 200 perits, was thought to be + very cheap at 5500 florins. The latter was much sought after, and even an + inferior bulb might command a price of 2000 florins. It is related that, + at one time, early in 1636, there were only two roots of this description + to be had in all Holland, and those not of the best. One was in the + possession of a dealer in Amsterdam, and the other in Harlaem. So anxious + were the speculators to obtain them that one person offered the fee-simple + of twelve acres of building ground for the Harlaem tulip. That of + Amsterdam was bought for 4600 florins, a new carriage, two grey horses, + and a complete suit of harness. Munting, an industrious author of that + day, who wrote a folio volume of one thousand pages upon the tulipomania, + has preserved the following list of the various articles, and their value, + which were delivered for one single root of the rare species called the + viceroy:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + florins. + Two lasts of wheat.............. 448 + Four lasts of rye............... 558 + Four fat oxen................... 480 + Eight fat swine................. 240 + Twelve fat sheep................ 120 + Two hogsheads of wine........... 70 + Four tuns of beer............... 32 + Two tons of butter.............. 192 + One thousand lbs. of cheese..... 120 + A complete bed.................. 100 + A suit of clothes............... 80 + A silver drinking cup........... 60 + ——- + 2500 + ——- +</pre> + <p> + People who had been absent from Holland, and whose chance it was to return + when this folly was at its maximum, were sometimes led into awkward + dilemmas by their ignorance. There is an amusing instance of the kind + related in Blainville's Travels. A wealthy merchant, who prided himself + not a little on his rare tulips, received upon one occasion a very + valuable consignment of merchandise from the Levant. Intelligence of its + arrival was brought him by a sailor, who presented himself for that + purpose at the counting-house, among bales of goods of every description. + The merchant, to reward him for his news, munificently made him a present + of a fine red herring for his breakfast. The sailor had, it appears, a + great partiality for onions, and seeing a bulb very like an onion lying + upon the counter of this liberal trader, and thinking it, no doubt, very + much out of its place among silks and velvets, he slily seized an + opportunity and slipped it into his pocket, as a relish for his herring. + He got clear off with his prize, and proceeded to the quay to eat his + breakfast. Hardly was his back turned when the merchant missed his + valuable Semper Augustus, worth three thousand florins, or about 280 + pounds sterling. The whole establishment was instantly in an uproar; + search was everywhere made for the precious root, but it was not to be + found. Great was the merchant's distress of mind. The search was renewed, + but again without success. At last some one thought of the sailor. + </p> + <p> + The unhappy merchant sprang into the street at the bare suggestion. His + alarmed household followed him. The sailor, simple soul! had not thought + of concealment. He was found quietly sitting on a coil of ropes, + masticating the last morsel of his "onion." Little did he dream that he + had been eating a breakfast whose cost might have regaled a whole ship's + crew for a twelvemonth; or, as the plundered merchant himself expressed + it, "might have sumptuously feasted the Prince of Orange and the whole + court of the Stadtholder." Anthony caused pearls to be dissolved in wine + to drink the health of Cleopatra; Sir Richard Whittington was as foolishly + magnificent in an entertainment to King Henry V; and Sir Thomas Gresham + drank a diamond, dissolved in wine, to the health of Queen Elizabeth, when + she opened the Royal Exchange: but the breakfast of this roguish Dutchman + was as splendid as either. He had an advantage, too, over his wasteful + predecessors: their gems did not improve the taste or the wholesomeness of + their wine, while his tulip was quite delicious with his red herring. The + most unfortunate part of the business for him was, that he remained in + prison for some months, on a charge of felony, preferred against him by + the merchant. + </p> + <p> + Another story is told of an English traveller, which is scarcely less + ludicrous. This gentleman, an amateur botanist, happened to see a + tulip-root lying in the conservatory of a wealthy Dutchman. Being ignorant + of its quality, he took out his penknife, and peeled off its coats, with + the view of making experiments upon it. When it was by this means reduced + to half its original size, he cut it into two equal sections, making all + the time many learned remarks on the singular appearances of the unknown + bulb. Suddenly the owner pounced upon him, and, with fury in his eyes, + asked him if he knew what he had been doing? "Peeling a most extraordinary + onion," replied the philosopher. "Hundert tausend duyvel," said the + Dutchman; "it's an Admiral Van der E. yck." "Thank you," replied the + traveller, taking out his note-book to make a memorandum of the same; "are + these admirals common in your country?" "Death and the devil," said the + Dutchman, seizing the astonished man of science by the collar; "come + before the syndic, and you shall see." In spite of his remonstrances, the + traveller was led through the streets, followed by a mob of persons. When + brought into the presence of the magistrate, he learned, to his + consternation, that the root upon which he had been experimentalizing was + worth four thousand florins; and, notwithstanding all he could urge in + extenuation, he was lodged in prison until he found securities for the + payment of this sum. + </p> + <p> + The demand for tulips of a rare species increased so much in the year + 1636, that regular marts for their sale were established on the Stock + Exchange of Amsterdam, in Rotterdam, Harlaem, Leyden, Alkmar, Hoorn, and + other towns. Symptoms of gambling now became, for the first time, + apparent. The stockjobbers, ever on the alert for a new speculation, dealt + largely in tulips, making use of all the means they so well knew how to + employ, to cause fluctuations in prices. At first, as in all these + gambling mania, confidence was at its height, and everybody gained. The + tulip-jobbers speculated in the rise and fall of the tulip stocks, and + made large profits by buying when prices fell, and selling out when they + rose. Many individuals grew suddenly rich. A golden bait hung temptingly + out before the people, and, one after the other, they rushed to the tulip + marts, like flies around a honeypot. Every one imagined that the passion + for tulips would last for ever, and that the wealthy from every part of + the world would send to Holland, and pay whatever prices were asked for + them. The riches of Europe would be concentrated on the shores of the + Zuyder Zee, and poverty banished from the favoured clime of Holland. + Nobles, citizens, farmers, mechanics, seamen, footmen, maidservants, even + chimney-sweeps and old clotheswomen, dabbled in tulips. People of all + grades converted their property into cash, and invested it in flowers. + Houses and lands were offered for sale at ruinously low prices, or + assigned in payment of bargains made at the tulip-mart. Foreigners became + smitten with the same frenzy, and money poured into Holland from all + directions. The prices of the necessaries of life rose again by degrees; + houses and lands, horses and carriages, and luxuries of every sort, rose + in value with them, and for some months Holland seemed the very + antechamber of Plutus. The operations of the trade became so extensive and + so intricate, that it was found necessary to draw up a code of laws for + the guidance of the dealers. Notaries and clerks were also appointed, who + devoted themselves exclusively to the interests of the trade. The + designation of public notary was hardly known in some towns, that of tulip + notary usurping its place. In the smaller towns, where there was no + exchange, the principal tavern was usually selected as the "showplace," + where high and low traded in tulips, and confirmed their bargains over + sumptuous entertainments. These dinners were sometimes attended by two or + three hundred persons, and large vases of tulips, in full bloom, were + placed at regular intervals upon the tables and sideboards, for their + gratification during the repast. + </p> + <p> + At last, however, the more prudent began to see that this folly could not + last for ever. Rich people no longer bought the flowers to keep them in + their gardens, but to sell them again at cent. per cent. profit. It was + seen that somebody must lose fearfully in the end. As this conviction + spread, prices fell, and never rose again. Confidence was destroyed, and a + universal panic seized upon the dealers. A had agreed to purchase ten + Sempers Augustines from B, at four thousand florins each, at six weeks + after the signing of the contract. B was ready with the flowers at the + appointed time; but the price had fallen to three or four hundred florins, + and A refused either to pay the difference or receive the tulips. + Defaulters were announced day after day in all the towns of Holland. + Hundreds who, a few months previously, had begun to doubt that there was + such a thing as poverty in the land, suddenly found themselves the + possessors of a few bulbs, which nobody would buy, even though they + offered them at one quarter of the sums they had paid for them. The cry of + distress resounded everywhere, and each man accused his neighbour. The few + who had contrived to enrich themselves hid their wealth from the knowledge + of their fellow-citizens, and invested it in the English or other funds. + Many who, for a brief season, had emerged from the humbler walks of life, + were cast back into their original obscurity. Substantial merchants were + reduced almost to beggary, and many a representative of a noble line saw + the fortunes of his house ruined beyond redemption. + </p> + <p> + When the first alarm subsided, the tulip-holders in the several towns held + public meetings to devise what measures were best to be taken to restore + public credit. It was generally agreed, that deputies should be sent from + all parts to Amsterdam, to consult with the government upon some remedy + for the evil. The Government at first refused to interfere, but advised + the tulip-holders to agree to some plan among themselves. Several meetings + were held for this purpose; but no measure could be devised likely to give + satisfaction to the deluded people, or repair even a slight portion of the + mischief that had been done. The language of complaint and reproach was in + everybody's mouth, and all the meetings were of the most stormy character. + At last, however, after much bickering and ill-will, it was agreed, at + Amsterdam, by the assembled deputies, that all contracts made in the + height of the mania, or prior to the month of November 1636, should be + declared null and void, and that, in those made after that date, + purchasers should be freed from their engagements, on paying ten per cent. + to the vendor. This decision gave no satisfaction. The vendors who had + their tulips on hand were, of course, discontented, and those who had + pledged themselves to purchase, thought themselves hardly treated. Tulips + which had, at one time, been worth six thousand florins, were now to be + procured for five hundred; so that the composition of ten per cent. was + one hundred florins more than the actual value. Actions for breach of + contract were threatened in all the courts of the country; but the latter + refused to take cognizance of gambling transactions. + </p> + <p> + The matter was finally referred to the Provincial Council at the Hague, + and it was confidently expected that the wisdom of this body would invent + some measure by which credit should be restored. Expectation was on the + stretch for its decision, but it never came. The members continued to + deliberate week after week, and at last, after thinking about it for three + months, declared that they could offer no final decision until they had + more information. They advised, however, that, in the mean time, every + vendor should, in the presence of witnesses, offer the tulips in natura to + the purchaser for the sums agreed upon. If the latter refused to take + them, they might be put up for sale by public auction, and the original + contractor held responsible for the difference between the actual and the + stipulated price. This was exactly the plan recommended by the deputies, + and which was already shown to be of no avail. There was no court in + Holland which would enforce payment. The question was raised in Amsterdam, + but the judges unanimously refused to interfere, on the ground that debts + contracted in gambling were no debts in law. + </p> + <p> + Thus the matter rested. To find a remedy was beyond the power of the + government. Those who were unlucky enough to have had stores of tulips on + hand at the time of the sudden reaction were left to bear their ruin as + philosophically as they could; those who had made profits were allowed to + keep them; but the commerce of the country suffered a severe shock, from + which it was many years ere it recovered. + </p> + <p> + The example of the Dutch was imitated to some extent in England. In the + year 1636 tulips were publicly sold in the Exchange of London, and the + jobbers exerted themselves to the utmost to raise them to the fictitious + value they had acquired in Amsterdam. In Paris also the jobbers strove to + create a tulipomania. In both cities they only partially succeeded. + However, the force of example brought the flowers into great favour, and + amongst a certain class of people tulips have ever since been prized more + highly than any other flowers of the field. The Dutch are still notorious + for their partiality to them, and continue to pay higher prices for them + than any other people. As the rich Englishman boasts of his fine + race-horses or his old pictures, so does the wealthy Dutchman vaunt him of + his tulips. + </p> + <p> + In England, in our day, strange as it may appear, a tulip will produce + more money than an oak. If one could be found, rara in tetris, and black + as the black swan alluded to by Juvenal, its price would equal that of a + dozen acres of standing corn. In Scotland, towards the close of the + seventeenth century, the highest price for tulips, according to the + authority of a writer in the supplement to the third edition of the + "Encyclopedia Britannica," was ten guineas. Their value appears to have + diminished from that time till the year 1769, when the two most valuable + species in England were the Don Quevedo and the Valentinier, the former of + which was worth two guineas and the latter two guineas and a half. These + prices appear to have been the minimum. In the year 1800, a common price + was fifteen guineas for a single bulb. In 1835, so foolish were the + fanciers, that a bulb of the species called the Miss Fanny Kemble was sold + by public auction in London for seventy-five pounds. Still more + astonishing was the price of a tulip in the possession of a gardener in + the King's Road, Chelsea. In his catalogues, it was labelled at two + hundred guineas! Thus a flower, which for beauty and perfume was surpassed + by the abundant roses of the garden,—a nosegay of which might be + purchased for a penny,—was priced at a sum which would have provided + an industrious labourer and his family with food, and clothes, and lodging + for six years! Should chickweed and groundsel ever come into fashion, the + wealthy would, no doubt, vie with each other in adorning their gardens + with them, and paying the most extravagant prices for them. In so doing, + they would hardly be more foolish than the admirers of tulips. The common + prices for these flowers at the present time vary from five to fifteen + guineas, according to the rarity of the species. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + RELICS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A fouth o' auld knick-knackets, + Rusty airn caps and jinglin' jackets, + Wad haud the Lothians three, in tackets, + A towmond guid; + An' parritch pats, and auld saut backets, + Afore the flood. + + Burns. +</pre> + <p> + The love for relics is one which will never be eradicated as long as + feeling and affection are denizens of the heart. It is a love which is + most easily excited in the best and kindliest natures, and which few are + callous enough to scoff at. Who would not treasure the lock of hair that + once adorned the brow of the faithful wife, now cold in death, or that + hung down the neck of a beloved infant, now sleeping under the sward? Not + one. They are home-relics, whose sacred worth is intelligible to all; + spoils rescued from the devouring grave, which, to the affectionate, are + beyond all price. How dear to a forlorn survivor the book over whose pages + he has pored with one departed! How much greater its value, if that hand, + now cold, had written a thought, an opinion, or a name, upon the leaf! + Besides these sweet, domestic relics, there are others, which no one can + condemn; relics sanctified by that admiration of greatness and goodness + which is akin to love; such as the copy of Montaigne's Florio, with the + name of Shakspeare upon the leaf, written by the poet of all time himself; + the chair preserved at Antwerp, in which Rubens sat when he painted the + immortal "Descent from the Cross;" or the telescope, preserved in the + Museum of Florence, which aided Galileo in his sublime discoveries. Who + would not look with veneration upon the undoubted arrow of William Tell—the + swords of Wallace or of Hampden—or the Bible whose leaves were + turned by some stern old father of the faith? + </p> + <p> + Thus the principle of reliquism is hallowed and enshrined by love. But + from this germ of purity how numerous the progeny of errors and + superstitions! Men, in their admiration of the great, and of all that + appertained to them, have forgotten that goodness is a component part of + true greatness, and have made fools of themselves for the jaw-bone of a + saint, the toe-nail of an apostle, the handkerchief a king blew his nose + in, or the rope that hanged a criminal. Desiring to rescue some slight + token from the graves of their predecessors, they have confounded the + famous and the infamous, the renowned and the notorious. Great saints, + great sinners; great philosophers, great quacks; great conquerors, great + murderers; great ministers, great thieves; each and all have had their + admirers, ready to ransack earth, from the equator to either pole, to find + a relic of them. + </p> + <p> + The reliquism of modern times dates its origin from the centuries + immediately preceding the Crusades. The first pilgrims to the Holy Land + brought back to Europe thousands of apocryphal relics, in the purchase of + which they had expended all their store. The greatest favourite was the + wood of the true cross, which, like the oil of the widow, never + diminished. It is generally asserted, in the traditions of the Romish + Church, that the Empress Helen, the mother of Constantine the Great, first + discovered the veritable "true cross" in her pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The + Emperor Theodosius made a present of the greater part of it to St. + Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, by whom it was studded with precious stones, and + deposited in the principal church of that city. It was carried away by the + Huns, by whom it was burnt, after they had extracted the valuable jewels + it contained. Fragments, purporting to have been cut from it were, in the + eleventh and twelfth centuries, to be found in almost every church in + Europe, and would, if collected together in one place, have been almost + sufficient to have built a cathedral. Happy was the sinner who could get a + sight of one of them; happier he who possessed one! To obtain them the + greatest dangers were cheerfully braved. They were thought to preserve + from all evils, and to cure the most inveterate diseases. Annual + pilgrimages were made to the shrines that contained them, and considerable + revenues collected from the devotees. + </p> + <p> + Next in renown were those precious relics, the tears of the Saviour. By + whom and in what manner they were preserved, the pilgrims did not often + inquire. Their genuineness was vouched by the Christians of the Holy Land, + and that was sufficient. Tears of the Virgin Mary, and tears of St. Peter, + were also to be had, carefully enclosed in little caskets, which the pious + might wear in their bosoms. After the tears the next most precious relics + were drops of the blood of Jesus and the martyrs. Hair and toe-nails were + also in great repute, and were sold at extravagant prices. Thousands of + pilgrims annually visited Palestine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, + to purchase pretended relics for the home market. The majority of them had + no other means of subsistence than the profits thus obtained. Many a nail, + cut from the filthy foot of some unscrupulous ecclesiastic, was sold at a + diamond's price, within six months after its severance from its parent + toe, upon the supposition that it had once belonged to a saint. Peter's + toes were uncommonly prolific, for there were nails enough in Europe, at + the time of the Council of Clermont, to have filled a sack, all of which + were devoutly believed to have grown on the sacred feet of that great + apostle. Some of them are still shown in the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. + The pious come from a distance of a hundred German miles to feast their + eyes upon them. + </p> + <p> + At Port Royal, in Paris, is kept with great care a thorn, which the + priests of that seminary assert to be one of the identical thorns that + bound the holy head of the Son of God. How it came there, and by whom it + was preserved, has never been explained. This is the famous thorn, + celebrated in the long dissensions of the Jansenists and the Molenists, + and which worked the miraculous cure upon Mademoiselle Perrier: by merely + kissing it, she was cured of a disease of the eyes of long standing. + [Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV.] + </p> + <p> + What traveller is unacquainted with the Santa Scala, or Holy Stairs, at + Rome? They were brought from Jerusalem along with the true cross, by the + Empress Helen, and were taken from the house which, according to popular + tradition, was inhabited by Pontius Pilate. They are said to be the steps + which Jesus ascended and descended when brought into the presence of the + Roman governor. They are held in the greatest veneration at Rome: it is + sacrilegious to walk upon them. The knees of the faithful must alone touch + them in ascending or descending, and that only after they have + reverentially kissed them. + </p> + <p> + Europe still swarms with these religious relics. There is hardly a Roman + Catholic church in Spain, Portugal, Italy, France, or Belgium, without one + or more of them. Even the poorly endowed churches of the villages boast + the possession of miraculous thigh-bones of the innumerable saints of the + Romish calendar. Aix-la-Chapelle is proud of the veritable chasse, or + thigh-bone of Charlemagne, which cures lameness. Halle has a thighbone of + the Virgin Mary; Spain has seven or eight, all said to be undoubted + relics. Brussels at one time preserved, and perhaps does now, the teeth of + St. Gudule. The faithful, who suffered from the tooth-ache, had only to + pray, look at them, and be cured. Some of these holy bones have been + buried in different parts of the Continent. After a certain lapse of time, + water is said to ooze from them, which soon forms a spring, and cures all + the diseases of the faithful. At a church in Halle, there is a famous + thigh-bone, which cures barrenness in women. Of this bone, which is under + the special superintendence of the Virgin, a pleasant story is related by + the incredulous. There resided at Ghent a couple who were blessed with all + the riches of this world, but whose happiness was sore troubled by the + want of children. Great was the grief of the lady, who was both beautiful + and loving, and many her lamentations to her husband. The latter, annoyed + by her unceasing sorrow, advised her to make a pilgrimage to the + celebrated chasse of the Virgin. She went, was absent a week, and returned + with a face all radiant with joy and pleasure. Her lamentations ceased, + and, in nine months afterwards, she brought forth a son. But, oh! the + instability of human joys! The babe, so long desired and so greatly + beloved, survived but a few months. Two years passed over the heads of the + disconsolate couple, and no second child appeared to cheer their + fire-side. A third year passed away with the same result, and the lady + once more began to weep. "Cheer up, my love," said her husband, "and go to + the holy chasse, at Halle; perhaps the Virgin will again listen to your + prayers." The lady took courage at the thought, wiped away her tears, and + proceeded on the morrow towards Halle. She was absent only three days, and + returned home sad, weeping, and sorrow-stricken. "What is the matter?" + said her husband; "is the Virgin unwilling to listen to your prayers?" + "The Virgin is willing enough," said the disconsolate wife, "and will do + what she can for me; but I shall never have any more children! The priest! + the priest!—He is gone from Halle, and nobody knows where to find + him!" + </p> + <p> + It is curious to remark the avidity manifested in all ages, and in all + countries, to obtain possession of some relic of any persons who have been + much spoken of, even for their crimes. When William Longbeard, leader of + the populace of London, in the reign of Richard I, was hanged at + Smithfield, the utmost eagerness was shown to obtain a hair from his head, + or a shred from his garments. Women came from Essex, Kent, Suffolk, + Sussex, and all the surrounding counties, to collect the mould at the foot + of his gallows. A hair of his beard was believed to preserve from evil + spirits, and a piece of his clothes from aches and pains. + </p> + <p> + In more modern days, a similar avidity was shown to obtain a relic of the + luckless Masaniello, the fisherman of Naples. After he had been raised by + mob favour to a height of power more despotic than monarch ever wielded, + he was shot by the same populace in the streets, as if he had been a mad + dog. His headless trunk was dragged through the mire for several hours, + and cast at night-fall into the city ditch. On the morrow the tide of + popular feeling turned once more in his favour. His corpse was sought, + arrayed in royal robes, and buried magnificently by torch-light in the + cathedral, ten thousand armed men, and as many mourners, attending at the + ceremony. The fisherman's dress which he had worn was rent into shreds by + the crowd, to be preserved as relics; the door of his hut was pulled off + its hinges by a mob of women, and eagerly cut up into small pieces, to be + made into images, caskets, and other mementos. The scanty furniture of his + poor abode became of more value than the adornments of a palace; the + ground he had walked upon was considered sacred, and, being collected in + small phials, was sold at its weight in gold, and worn in the bosom as an + amulet. + </p> + <p> + Almost as extraordinary was the frenzy manifested by the populace of Paris + on the execution of the atrocious Marchioness de Brinvilliers. There were + grounds for the popular wonder in the case of Masaniello, who was + unstained with personal crimes. But the career of Madame de Brinvilliers + was of a nature to excite no other feelings than disgust and abhorrence. + She was convicted of poisoning several persons, and sentenced to be burned + in the Place de Greve, and to have her ashes scattered to the winds. On + the day of her execution, the populace, struck by her gracefulness and + beauty, inveighed against the severity of her sentence. Their pity soon + increased to admiration, and, ere evening, she was considered a saint. Her + ashes were industriously collected, even the charred wood, which had aided + to consume her, was eagerly purchased by the populace. Her ashes were + thought to preserve from witchcraft. + </p> + <p> + In England many persons have a singular love for the relics of thieves and + murderers, or other great criminals. The ropes with which they have been + hanged are very often bought by collectors at a guinea per foot. Great + sums were paid for the rope which hanged Dr. Dodd, and for those more + recently which did justice upon Mr. Fauntleroy for forgery, and on + Thurtell for the murder of Mr. Weare. The murder of Maria Marten, by + Corder, in the year 1828, excited the greatest interest all over the + country. People came from Wales and Scotland, and even from Ireland, to + visit the barn where the body of the murdered woman was buried. Every one + of them was anxious to carry away some memorial of his visit. Pieces of + the barn-door, tiles from the roof, and, above all, the clothes of the + poor victim, were eagerly sought after. A lock of her hair was sold for + two guineas, and the purchaser thought himself fortunate in getting it so + cheaply. + </p> + <p> + So great was the concourse of people to visit the house in Camberwell + Lane, where Greenacre murdered Hannah Brown, in 1837, that it was found + necessary to station a strong detachment of police on the spot. The crowd + was so eager to obtain a relic of the house of this atrocious criminal, + that the police were obliged to employ force to prevent the tables and + chairs, and even the doors, from being carried away. + </p> + <p> + In earlier times, a singular superstition was attached to the hand of a + criminal who had suffered execution. It was thought that by merely rubbing + the dead hand on the body, the patient afflicted with the king's evil + would be instantly cured. The executioner at Newgate, sixty or seventy + years ago, derived no inconsiderable revenue from this foolish practice. + The possession of the hand was thought to be of still greater efficacy in + the cure of diseases and the prevention of misfortunes. In the time of + Charles II as much as ten guineas was thought a small price for one of + these disgusting relics. + </p> + <p> + When the maniac, Thom, or Courtenay, was shot, in the spring of 1838, the + relic-hunters were immediately in motion to obtain a memento of so + extraordinary an individual. His long, black beard and hair, which were + cut off by the surgeons, fell into the hands of his disciples, by whom + they are treasured with the utmost reverence. A lock of his hair commands + a great price, not only amongst his followers, but among the more wealthy + inhabitants of Canterbury and its neighbourhood. The tree against which he + fell when he was shot, has already been stripped of all its bark by the + curious, and bids fair to be entirely demolished within a twelvemonth. A + letter, with his signature to it, is paid for in gold coins; and his + favourite horse promises to become as celebrated as his master. Parties of + ladies and gentlemen have come to Boughton from a distance of a hundred + and fifty miles, to visit the scene of that fatal affray, and stroke on + the back the horse of the "mad Knight of Malta." If a strict watch had not + been kept over his grave for months, the body would have been disinterred, + and the bones carried away as memorials. + </p> + <p> + Among the Chinese no relics are more valued than the boots which have been + worn by an upright magistrate. In Davis's interesting Description of the + Empire of China, we are informed, that whenever a judge of unusual + integrity resigns his situation, the people all congregate to do him + honour. If he leaves the city where he has presided, the crowd accompany + him from his residence to the gates, where his boots are drawn off with + great ceremony, to be preserved in the hall of justice. Their place is + immediately supplied by a new pair, which, in their turn, are drawn off to + make room for others before he has worn them five minutes, it being + considered sufficient to consecrate them that he should have merely drawn + them on. + </p> + <p> + Among the most favourite relics of modern times, in Europe, are + Shakspeare's mulberry-tree, Napoleon's willow, and the table at Waterloo, + on which the Emperor wrote his despatches. Snuffboxes of Shakspeare's + mulberry-tree, are comparatively rare, though there are doubtless more of + them in the market than were ever made of the wood planted by the great + bard. Many a piece of alien wood passes under this name. The same may be + said of Napoleon's table at Waterloo. The original has long since been + destroyed, and a round dozen of counterfeits along with it. Many preserve + the simple stick of wood; others have them cut into brooches and every + variety of ornament; but by far the greater number prefer them as + snuff-boxes. In France they are made into bonbonnieres, and are much + esteemed by the many thousands whose cheeks still glow, and whose eyes + still sparkle at the name of Napoleon. + </p> + <p> + Bullets from the field of Waterloo, and buttons from the coats of the + soldiers who fell in the fight, are still favourite relics in Europe. But + the same ingenuity which found new tables after the old one was destroyed, + has cast new bullets for the curious. Many a one who thinks himself the + possessor of a bullet which aided in giving peace to the world on that + memorable day, is the owner of a dump, first extracted from the ore a + dozen years afterwards. Let all lovers of genuine relics look well to + their money before they part with it to the ciceroni that swarm in the + village of Waterloo. + </p> + <p> + Few travellers stop at the lonely isle of St. Helena, without cutting a + twig from the willow that droops over the grave of Napoleon. Many of them + have since been planted in different parts of Europe, and have grown into + trees as large as their parent. Relic-hunters, who are unable to procure a + twig of the original, are content with one from these. Several of them are + growing in the neighbourhood of London, more prized by their cultivators + than any other tree in their gardens. But in relics, as in everything + else, there is the use and the abuse. The undoubted relics of great men, + or great events, will always possess attractions for the thinking and + refined. There are few who would not join with Cowley in the extravagant + wish introduced in his lines "written while sitting in a chair made of the + remains of the ship in which Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world:"— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And I myself, who now love quiet too, + Almost as much as any chair can do, + Would yet a journey take + An old wheel of that chariot to see, + Which Phaeton so rashly brake. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + MODERN PROPHECIES. + </h2> + <p> + As epidemic terror of the end of the world has several times spread over + the nations. The most remarkable was that which seized Christendom about + the middle of the tenth century. Numbers of fanatics appeared in France, + Germany, and Italy at that time, preaching that the thousand years + prophesied in the Apocalypse as the term of the world's duration, were + about to expire, and that the Son of Man would appear in the clouds to + judge the godly and the ungodly. The delusion appears to have been + discouraged by the church, but it nevertheless spread rapidly among the + people. [See Gibbon and Voltaire for further notice of this subject.] + </p> + <p> + The scene of the last judgment was expected to be at Jerusalem. In the + year 999, the number of pilgrims proceeding eastward, to await the coming + of the Lord in that city, was so great that they were compared to a + desolating army. Most of them sold their goods and possessions before they + quitted Europe, and lived upon the proceeds in the Holy Land. Buildings of + every sort were suffered to fall into ruins. It was thought useless to + repair them, when the end of the world was so near. Many noble edifices + were deliberately pulled down. Even churches, usually so well maintained, + shared the general neglect. Knights, citizens, and serfs, travelled + eastwards in company, taking with them their wives and children, singing + psalms as they went, and looking with fearful eyes upon the sky, which + they expected each minute to open, to let the Son of God descend in his + glory. + </p> + <p> + During the thousandth year the number of pilgrims increased. Most of them + were smitten with terror as with a plague. Every phenomenon of nature + filled them with alarm. A thunder-storm sent them all upon their knees in + mid-march. It was the opinion that thunder was the voice of God, + announcing the day of judgment. Numbers expected the earth to open, and + give up its dead at the sound. Every meteor in the sky seen at Jerusalem + brought the whole Christian population into the streets to weep and pray. + The pilgrims on the road were in the same alarm:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lorsque, pendant la nuit, un globe de lumiere + S'echappa quelquefois de la voute des cieux, + Et traca dans sa chute un long sillon de feux, + La troupe suspendit sa marche solitaire. + [Charlemagne. Pomme Epique, par Lucien Buonaparte.] +</pre> + <p> + Fanatic preachers kept up the flame of terror. Every shooting star + furnished occasion for a sermon, in which the sublimity of the approaching + judgment was the principal topic. + </p> + <p> + The appearance of comets has been often thought to foretell the speedy + dissolution of this world. Part of this belief still exists; but the comet + is no longer looked upon as the sign, but the agent of destruction. So + lately as in the year 1832 the greatest alarm spread over the Continent of + Europe, especially in Germany, lest the comet, whose appearance was then + foretold by astronomers, should destroy the earth. The danger of our globe + was gravely discussed. Many persons refrained from undertaking or + concluding any business during that year, in consequence solely of their + apprehension that this terrible comet would dash us and our world to + atoms. + </p> + <p> + During seasons of great pestilence men have often believed the prophecies + of crazed fanatics, that the end of the world was come. Credulity is + always greatest in times of calamity. Prophecies of all sorts are rife on + such occasions, and are readily believed, whether for good or evil. During + the great plague, which ravaged all Europe, between the years 1345 and + 1350, it was generally considered that the end of the world was at hand. + Pretended prophets were to be found in all the principal cities of + Germany, France, and Italy, predicting that within ten years the trump of + the Archangel would sound, and the Saviour appear in the clouds to call + the earth to judgment. + </p> + <p> + No little consternation was created in London in 1736 by the prophecy of + the famous Whiston, that the world would be destroyed in that year, on the + 13th of October. Crowds of people went out on the appointed day to + Islington, Hampstead, and the fields intervening, to see the destruction + of London, which was to be the "beginning of the end." A satirical account + of this folly is given in Swift's Miscellanies, vol. iii. entitled, "A + True and Faithful Narrative of what passed in London on a Rumour of the + Day of Judgment." An authentic narrative of this delusion would be + interesting; but this solemn witticism of Pope and Gay is not to be + depended upon. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1761 the citizens of London were again frightened out of their + wits by two shocks of an earthquake, and the prophecy of a third, which + was to destroy them altogether. The first shock was felt on the 8th of + February, and threw down several chimneys in the neighbourhood of + Limehouse and Poplar; the second happened on the 8th of March, and was + chiefly felt in the north of London, and towards Hampstead and Highgate. + It soon became the subject of general remark, that there was exactly an + interval of a month between the shocks; and a crack-brained fellow, named + Bell, a soldier in the Life Guards, was so impressed with the idea that + there would be a third in another month, that he lost his senses + altogether, and ran about the streets predicting the destruction of London + on the 5th of April. Most people thought that the first would have been a + more appropriate day; but there were not wanting thousands who confidently + believed the prediction, and took measures to transport themselves and + families from the scene of the impending calamity. As the awful day + approached, the excitement became intense, and great numbers of credulous + people resorted to all the villages within a circuit of twenty miles, + awaiting the doom of London. Islington, Highgate, Hampstead, Harrow, and + Blackheath, were crowded with panic-stricken fugitives, who paid + exorbitant prices for accommodation to the housekeepers of these secure + retreats. Such as could not afford to pay for lodgings at any of those + places, remained in London until two or three days before the time, and + then encamped in the surrounding fields, awaiting the tremendous shock + which was to lay their high city all level with the dust. As happened + during a similar panic in the time of Henry VIII, the fear became + contagious, and hundreds who had laughed at the prediction a week before, + packed up their goods, when they saw others doing so, and hastened away. + The river was thought to be a place of great security, and all the + merchant vessels in the port were filled with people, who passed the night + between the 4th and 5th on board, expecting every instant to see St. + Paul's totter, and the towers of Westminster Abbey rock in the wind and + fall amid a cloud of dust. The greater part of the fugitives returned on + the following day, convinced that the prophet was a false one; but many + judged it more prudent to allow a week to elapse before they trusted their + dear limbs in London. Bell lost all credit in a short time, and was looked + upon even by the most credulous as a mere madman. He tried some other + prophecies, but nobody was deceived by them; and, in a few months + afterwards, he was confined in a lunatic asylum. + </p> + <p> + A panic terror of the end of the world seized the good people of Leeds and + its neighbourhood in the year 1806. It arose from the following + circumstances. A hen, in a village close by, laid eggs, on which were + inscribed, in legible characters, the words "Christ is coming." Great + numbers visited the spot, and examined these wondrous eggs, convinced that + the day of judgment was near at hand. Like sailors in a storm, expecting + every instant to go to the bottom, the believers suddenly became + religious, prayed violently, and flattered themselves that they repented + them of their evil courses. But a plain tale soon put them down, and + quenched their religion entirely. Some gentlemen, hearing of the matter, + went one fine morning, and caught the poor hen in the act of laying one of + her miraculous eggs. They soon ascertained beyond doubt that the egg had + been inscribed with some corrosive ink, and cruelly forced up again into + the bird's body. At this explanation, those who had prayed, now laughed, + and the world wagged as merrily as of yore. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the plague in Milan, in 1630, of which so affecting a + description has been left us by Ripamonte, in his interesting work "De + Peste Mediolani", the people, in their distress, listened with avidity to + the predictions of astrologers and other impostors. It is singular enough + that the plague was foretold a year before it broke out. A large comet + appearing in 1628, the opinions of astrologers were divided with regard to + it. Some insisted that it was a forerunner of a bloody war; others + maintained that it predicted a great famine; but the greater number, + founding their judgment upon its pale colour, thought it portended a + pestilence. The fulfilment of their prediction brought them into great + repute while the plague was raging. + </p> + <p> + Other prophecies were current, which were asserted to have been delivered + hundreds of years previously. They had a most pernicious effect upon the + mind of the vulgar, as they induced a belief in fatalism. By taking away + the hope of recovery—that greatest balm in every malady—they + increased threefold the ravages of the disease. One singular prediction + almost drove the unhappy people mad. An ancient couplet, preserved for + ages by tradition, foretold, that in the year 1630 the devil would poison + all Milan. Early one morning in April, and before the pestilence had + reached its height, the passengers were surprised to see that all the + doors in the principal streets of the city were marked with a curious + daub, or spot, as if a sponge, filled with the purulent matter of the + plague-sores, had been pressed against them. The whole population were + speedily in movement to remark the strange appearance, and the greatest + alarm spread rapidly. Every means was taken to discover the perpetrators, + but in vain. At last the ancient prophecy was remembered, and prayers were + offered up in all the churches that the machinations of the Evil One might + be defeated. Many persons were of opinion that the emissaries of foreign + powers were employed to spread infectious poison over the city; but by far + the greater number were convinced that the powers of hell had conspired + against them, and that the infection was spread by supernatural agencies. + In the mean time the plague increased fearfully. Distrust and alarm took + possession of every mind. Everything was believed to have been poisoned by + the devil; the waters of the wells, the standing corn in the fields, and + the fruit upon the trees. It was believed that all objects of touch were + poisoned; the walls of the houses, the pavement of the streets, and the + very handles of the doors. The populace were raised to a pitch of + ungovernable fury. A strict watch was kept for the devil's emissaries, and + any man who wanted to be rid of an enemy, had only to say that he had seen + him besmearing a door with ointment; his fate was certain death at the + hands of the mob. An old man, upwards of eighty years of age, a daily + frequenter of the church of St. Antonio, was seen, on rising from his + knees, to wipe with the skirt of his cloak the stool on which he was about + to sit down. A cry was raised immediately that he was besmearing the seat + with poison. A mob of women, by whom the church was crowded, seized hold + of the feeble old man, and dragged him out by the hair of his head, with + horrid oaths and imprecations. He was trailed in this manner through the + mire to the house of the municipal judge, that he might be put to the + rack, and forced to discover his accomplices; but he expired on the way. + Many other victims were sacrificed to the popular fury. One Mora, who + appears to have been half a chemist and half a barber, was accused of + being in league with the devil to poison Milan. His house was surrounded, + and a number of chemical preparations were found. The poor man asserted, + that they were intended as preservatives against infection; but some + physicians, to whom they were submitted, declared they were poison. Mora + was put to the rack, where he for a long time asserted his innocence. He + confessed at last, when his courage was worn down by torture, that he was + in league with the devil and foreign powers to poison the whole city; that + he had anointed the doors, and infected the fountains of water. He named + several persons as his accomplices, who were apprehended and put to a + similar torture. They were all found guilty, and executed. Mora's house + was rased to the ground, and a column erected on the spot, with an + inscription to commemorate his guilt. + </p> + <p> + While the public mind was filled with these marvellous occurrences, the + plague continued to increase. The crowds that were brought together to + witness the executions, spread the infection among one another. But the + fury of their passions, and the extent of their credulity, kept pace with + the violence of the plague; every wonderful and preposterous story was + believed. One, in particular, occupied them to the exclusion, for a long + time, of every other. The Devil himself had been seen. He had taken a + house in Milan, in which he prepared his poisonous unguents, and furnished + them to his emissaries for distribution. One man had brooded over such + tales till he became firmly convinced that the wild flights of his own + fancy were realities. He stationed himself in the market-place of Milan, + and related the following story to the crowds that gathered round him. He + was standing, he said, at the door of the cathedral, late in the evening, + and when there was nobody nigh, he saw a dark-coloured chariot, drawn by + six milk-white horses, stop close beside him. The chariot was followed by + a numerous train of domestics in dark liveries, mounted on dark-coloured + steeds. In the chariot there sat a tall stranger of a majestic aspect; his + long black hair floated in the wind—fire flashed from his large + black eyes, and a curl of ineffable scorn dwelt upon his lips. The look of + the stranger was so sublime that he was awed, and trembled with fear when + he gazed upon him. His complexion was much darker than that of any man he + had ever seen, and the atmosphere around him was hot and suffocating. He + perceived immediately that he was a being of another world. The stranger, + seeing his trepidation, asked him blandly, yet majestically, to mount + beside him. He had no power to refuse, and before he was well aware that + he had moved, he found himself in the chariot. Onwards they went, with the + rapidity of the wind, the stranger speaking no word, until they stopped + before a door in the high-street of Milan. There was a crowd of people in + the street, but, to his great surprise, no one seemed to notice the + extraordinary equipage and its numerous train. From this he concluded that + they were invisible. The house at which they stopped appeared to be a + shop, but the interior was like a vast half-ruined palace. He went with + his mysterious guide through several large and dimly-lighted rooms. In one + of them, surrounded by huge pillars of marble, a senate of ghosts was + assembled, debating on the progress of the plague. Other parts of the + building were enveloped in the thickest darkness, illumined at intervals + by flashes of lightning, which allowed him to distinguish a number of + gibing and chattering skeletons, running about and pursuing each other, or + playing at leap-frog over one another's backs. At the rear of the mansion + was a wild, uncultivated plot of ground, in the midst of which arose a + black rock. Down its sides rushed with fearful noise a torrent of + poisonous water, which, insinuating itself through the soil, penetrated to + all the springs of the city, and rendered them unfit for use. After he had + been shown all this, the stranger led him into another large chamber, + filled with gold and precious stones, all of which he offered him if he + would kneel down and worship him, and consent to smear the doors and + houses of Milan with a pestiferous salve which he held out to him. He now + knew him to be the Devil, and in that moment of temptation, prayed to God + to give him strength to resist. His prayer was heard—he refused the + bribe. The stranger scowled horribly upon him—a loud clap of thunder + burst over his head—the vivid lightning flashed in his eyes, and the + next moment he found himself standing alone at the porch of the cathedral. + He repeated this strange tale day after day, without any variation, and + all the populace were firm believers in its truth. Repeated search was + made to discover the mysterious house, but all in vain. The man pointed + out several as resembling it, which were searched by the police; but the + Demon of the Pestilence was not to be found, nor the hall of ghosts, nor + the poisonous fountain. But the minds of the people were so impressed with + the idea that scores of witnesses, half crazed by disease, came forward to + swear that they also had seen the diabolical stranger, and had heard his + chariot, drawn by the milk-white steeds, rumbling over the streets at + midnight with a sound louder than thunder. + </p> + <p> + The number of persons who confessed that they were employed by the Devil + to distribute poison is almost incredible. An epidemic frenzy was abroad, + which seemed to be as contagious as the plague. Imagination was as + disordered as the body, and day after day persons came voluntarily forward + to accuse themselves. They generally had the marks of disease upon them, + and some died in the act of confession. + </p> + <p> + During the great plague of London, in 1665, the people listened with + similar avidity to the predictions of quacks and fanatics. Defoe says, + that at that time the people were more addicted to prophecies and + astronomical conjurations, dreams, and old wives' tales than ever they + were before or since. Almanacs, and their predictions, frightened them + terribly. Even the year before the plague broke out, they were greatly + alarmed by the comet which then appeared, and anticipated that famine, + pestilence, or fire would follow. Enthusiasts, while yet the disease had + made but little progress, ran about the streets, predicting that in a few + days London would be destroyed. + </p> + <p> + A still more singular instance of the faith in predictions occurred in + London in the year 1524. The city swarmed at that time with + fortune-tellers and astrologers, who were consulted daily by people of + every class in society on the secrets of futurity. As early as the month + of June 1523, several of them concurred in predicting that, on the 1st day + of February, 1524, the waters of the Thames would swell to such a height + as to overflow the whole city of London, and wash away ten thousand + houses. The prophecy met implicit belief. It was reiterated with the + utmost confidence month after month, until so much alarm was excited that + many families packed up their goods, and removed into Kent and Essex. As + the time drew nigh, the number of these emigrants increased. In January, + droves of workmen might be seen, followed by their wives and children, + trudging on foot to the villages within fifteen or twenty miles, to await + the catastrophe. People of a higher class were also to be seen, in waggons + and other vehicles, bound on a similar errand. By the middle of January, + at least twenty thousand persons had quitted the doomed city, leaving + nothing but the bare walls of their homes to be swept away by the + impending floods. Many of the richer sort took up their abode on the + heights of Highgate, Hampstead, and Blackheath; and some erected tents as + far away as Waltham Abbey, on the north, and Croydon, on the south of the + Thames. Bolton, the prior of St. Bartholomew's, was so alarmed that he + erected, at very great expense, a sort of fortress at Harrow-on-the-Hill, + which he stocked with provisions for two months. On the 24th of January, a + week before the awful day which was to see the destruction of London, he + removed thither, with the brethren and officers of the priory and all his + household. A number of boats were conveyed in waggons to his fortress, + furnished abundantly with expert rowers, in case the flood, reaching so + high as Harrow, should force them to go further for a resting-place. Many + wealthy citizens prayed to share his retreat, but the Prior, with a + prudent forethought, admitted only his personal friends, and those who + brought stores of eatables for the blockade. + </p> + <p> + At last the morn, big with the fate of London, appeared in the east. The + wondering crowds were astir at an early hour to watch the rising of the + waters. The inundation, it was predicted, would be gradual, not sudden; so + that they expected to have plenty of time to escape, as soon as they saw + the bosom of old Thames heave beyond the usual mark. But the majority were + too much alarmed to trust to this, and thought themselves safer ten or + twenty miles off. The Thames, unmindful of the foolish crowds upon its + banks, flowed on quietly as of yore. The tide ebbed at its usual hour, + flowed to its usual height, and then ebbed again, just as if twenty + astrologers had not pledged their words to the contrary. Blank were their + faces as evening approached, and as blank grew the faces of the citizens + to think that they had made such fools of themselves. At last night set + in, and the obstinate river would not lift its waters to sweep away even + one house out of the ten thousand. Still, however, the people were afraid + to go to sleep. Many hundreds remained up till dawn of the next day, lest + the deluge should come upon them like a thief in the night. + </p> + <p> + On the morrow, it was seriously discussed whether it would not be + advisable to duck the false prophets in the river. Luckily for them, they + thought of an expedient which allayed the popular fury. They asserted + that, by an error (a very slight one) of a little figure, they had fixed + the date of this awful inundation a whole century too early. The stars + were right after all, and they, erring mortals, were wrong. The present + generation of cockneys was safe, and London 'would be washed away, not in + 1524, but in 1624. At this announcement, Bolton, the prior, dismantled his + fortress, and the weary emigrants came back. + </p> + <p> + An eye-witness of the great fire of London, in an account preserved among + the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum, and recently published in the + Transactions of the Royal Society of Antiquaries, relates another instance + of the credulity of the Londoners. The writer, who accompanied the Duke of + York day by day through the district included between the Fleet-bridge and + the Thames, states that, in their efforts to check the progress of the + flames, they were much impeded by the superstition of the people. Mother + Shipton, in one of her prophecies, had said that London would be reduced + to ashes, and they refused to make any efforts to prevent it. [This + prophecy seems to have been that set forth at length in the popular Life + of Mother Shipton:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When fate to England shall restore + A king to reign as heretofore, + Great death in London shall be though, + And many houses be laid low."] +</pre> + <p> + A son of the noted Sir Kenelm Digby, who was also a pretender to the gifts + of prophecy, persuaded them that no power on earth could prevent the + fulfilment of the prediction; for it was written in the great book of fate + that London was to be destroyed. Hundreds of persons, who might have + rendered valuable assistance, and saved whole parishes from devastation, + folded their arms and looked on. As many more gave themselves up, with the + less compunction, to plunder a city which they could not save. + </p> + <p> + The prophecies of Mother Shipton are still believed in many of the rural + districts of England. In cottages and servants' halls her reputation is + great; and she rules, the most popular of British prophets, among all the + uneducated, or half-educated, portions of the community. She is generally + supposed to have been born at Knaresborough, in the reign of Henry VII, + and to have sold her soul to the Devil for the power of foretelling future + events. Though during her lifetime she was looked upon as a witch, she yet + escaped the witch's fate, and died peaceably in her bed at an extreme old + age, near Clifton in Yorkshire. A stone is said to have been erected to + her memory in the church-yard of that place, with the following epitaph:— + </p> + <p> + "Here lies she who never lied; Whose skill often has been tried: Her + prophecies shall still survive, And ever keep her name alive." + </p> + <p> + "Never a day passed," says her traditionary biography, "wherein she did + not relate something remarkable, and that required the most serious + consideration. People flocked to her from far and near, her fame was so + great. They went to her of all sorts, both old and young, rich and poor, + especially young maidens, to be resolved of their doubts relating to + things to come; and all returned wonderfully satisfied in the explanations + she gave to their questions." Among the rest, went the Abbot of Beverley, + to whom she foretold the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII; his + marriage with Anne Boleyn; the fires for heretics in Smithfield, and the + execution of Mary Queen of Scots. She also foretold the accession of James + I, adding that, with him, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "From the cold North, + Every evil should come forth." +</pre> + <p> + On a subsequent visit she uttered another prophecy, which, in the opinion + of her believers, still remains unfulfilled, but may be expected to be + realised during the present century:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The time shall come when seas of blood + Shall mingle with a greater flood. + Great noise there shall be heard—great shouts and cries, + And seas shall thunder louder than the skies; + Then shall three lions fight with three, and bring + Joy to a people, honour to a king. + That fiery year as soon as o'er, + Peace shall then be as before; + Plenty shall everywhere be found, + And men with swords shall plough the ground." +</pre> + <p> + But the most famous of all her prophecies is one relating to London. + Thousands of persons still shudder to think of the woes that are to burst + over this unhappy realm, when London and Highgate are joined by one + continuous line of houses. This junction, which, if the rage for building + lasts much longer, in the same proportion as heretofore, bids fair to be + soon accomplished, was predicted by her shortly before her death. + Revolutions—the fall of mighty monarchs, and the shedding of much + blood are to signalise that event. The very angels, afflicted by our woes, + are to turn aside their heads, and weep for hapless Britain. + </p> + <p> + But great as is the fame of Mother Shipton, she ranks but second in the + list of British prophets. Merlin, the mighty Merlin, stands alone in his + high pre-eminence—the first and greatest. As old Drayton sings, in + his Poly-olbion:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Of Merlin and his skill what region doth not hear? + The world shall still be full of Merlin every year. + A thousand lingering years his prophecies have run, + And scarcely shall have end till time itself be done." +</pre> + <p> + Spenser, in his divine poem, has given us a powerful description of this + renowned seer— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ".......who had in magic more insight + Than ever him before, or after, living wight. + + "For he by words could call out of the sky + Both sun and moon, and make them him obey; + The land to sea, and sea to mainland dry, + And darksome night he eke could turn to day— + Huge hosts of men he could, alone, dismay. + And hosts of men and meanest things could frame, + Whenso him list his enemies to fray, + That to this day, for terror of his name, + The fiends do quake, when any him to them does name. + + "And soothe men say that he was not the sonne, + Of mortal sire or other living wighte, + But wondrously begotten and begoune + By false illusion of a guileful sprite, + On a faire ladye nun." +</pre> + <p> + In these verses the poet has preserved the popular belief with regard to + Merlin, who is generally supposed to have been a contemporary of + Vortigern. Opinion is divided as to whether he were a real personage, or a + mere impersonation, formed by the poetic fancy of a credulous people. It + seems most probable that such a man did exist, and that, possessing + knowledge as much above the comprehension of his age, as that possessed by + Friar Bacon was beyond the reach of his, he was endowed by the wondering + crowd with the supernatural attributes that Spenser has enumerated. + </p> + <p> + Geoffrey of Monmouth translated Merlin's poetical odes, or prophecies, + into Latin prose, and he was much reverenced, not only by Geoffrey, but by + most of the old annalists. In a "Life of Merlin, with his Prophecies and + Predictions, interpreted and made good by our English Annals," by Thomas + Heywood, published in the reign of Charles I, we find several of these + pretended prophecies. They seem, however, to have been all written by + Heywood himself. They are in terms too plain and positive to allow any one + to doubt for a moment of their having been composed ex post facto. + Speaking of Richard I, he says:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The Lion's heart will 'gainst the Saracen rise, + And purchase from him many a glorious prize; + The rose and lily shall at first unite, + But, parting of the prey prove opposite. + + * * * * + + But while abroad these great acts shall be done; + All things at home shall to disorder run. + Cooped up and caged then shall the Lion be, + But, after sufferance, ransomed and set free." +</pre> + <p> + The sapient Thomas Heywood gravely goes on to inform us, that all these + things actually came to pass. Upon Richard III he is equally luminous. He + says:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A hunch-backed monster, who with teeth is born, + The mockery of art and nature's scorn; + Who from the womb preposterously is hurled, + And, with feet forward, thrust into the world, + Shall, from the lower earth on which he stood, + Wade, every step he mounts, knee-deep in blood. + He shall to th' height of all his hopes aspire, + And, clothed in state, his ugly shape admire; + But, when he thinks himself most safe to stand, + From foreign parts a native whelp shall land." +</pre> + <p> + Another of these prophecies after the event tells us that Henry VIII + should take the power from Rome, "and bring it home unto his British + bower;" that he should "root out from the land all the razored skulls;" + and that he should neither spare "man in his rage nor woman in his lust;" + and that, in the time of his next successor but one, "there should come in + the fagot and the stake." Master Heywood closes Merlin's prophecies at his + own day, and does not give even a glimpse of what was to befall England + after his decease. Many other prophecies, besides those quoted by him, + were, he says, dispersed abroad, in his day, under the name of Merlin; but + he gives his readers a taste of one only, and that is the following:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "When hempe is ripe and ready to pull, + Then Englishman beware thy skull." +</pre> + <p> + This prophecy, which, one would think, ought to have put him in mind of + the gallows, the not unusual fate of false prophets, and perchance his + own, he explains thus:—"In this word HEMPE be five letters. Now, by + reckoning the five successive princes from Henry VIII, this prophecy is + easily explained: H signifieth King Henry before named; E, Edward, his + son, the sixth of that name; M, Mary, who succeeded him; P, Philip of + Spain, who, by marrying Queen Mary, participated with her in the English + diadem; and, lastly, E signifieth Queen Elizabeth, after whose death there + was a great feare that some troubles might have arisen about the crown." + As this did not happen, Heywood, who was a sly rogue in a small way, gets + out of the scrape by saying, "Yet proved this augury true, though not + according to the former expectation; for, after the peaceful inauguration + of King James, there was great mortality, not in London only, but through + the whole kingdom, and from which the nation was not quite clean in seven + years after." + </p> + <p> + This is not unlike the subterfuge of Peter of Pontefract, who had + prophesied the death and deposition of King John, and who was hanged by + that monarch for his pains. A very graphic and amusing account of this + pretended prophet is given by Grafton, in his Chronicles of England. There + is so much homely vigour about the style of the old annalist, that it + would be a pity to give the story in other words than his own. [Chronicles + of England, by Richard Grafton; London, 1568, p. 106.] "In the meanwhile," + says he, "the priestes within England had provided them a false and + counterfeated prophet, called Peter Wakefielde, a Yorkshire man, who was + an hermite, an idle gadder about, and a pratlyng marchant. Now to bring + this Peter in credite, and the kyng out of all credite with his people, + diverse vaine persons bruted dayly among the commons of the realme, that + Christe had twice appered unto him in the shape of a childe, betwene the + prieste's handes, once at Yorke, another tyme at Pomfret; and that he had + breathed upon him thrice, saying, 'Peace, peace, peace,' and teachyng many + things, which he anon declared to the bishops, and bid the people amend + their naughtie living. Being rapt also in spirite, they sayde he behelde + the joyes of heaven and sorowes of hell, for scant were there three in the + realme, sayde he, that lived Christainly. + </p> + <p> + "This counterfeated soothsayer prophecied of King John, that he should + reigne no longer than the Ascension-day next followyng, which was in the + yere of our Lord 1211, and was the thirteenth yere from his coronation; + and this, he said, he had by revelation. Then it was of him demanded, + whether he should be slaine or be deposed, or should voluntarily give over + the crowne? He aunswered, that he could not tell; but of this he was sure + (he sayd), that neither he nor any of his stock or lineage should reigne + after that day. + </p> + <p> + "The king hering of this, laughed much at it, and made but a scoff + thereat. 'Tush!' saith he, 'it is but an ideot knave, and such an one as + lacketh his right wittes.' But when this foolish prophet had so escaped + the daunger of the Kinge's displeasure, and that he made no more of it, he + gate him abroad, and prated thereof at large, as he was a very idle + vagabond, and used to trattle and talke more than ynough, so that they + which loved the King caused him anon after to be apprehended as a + malefactor, and to be throwen in prison, the King not yet knowing thereof. + </p> + <p> + "Anone after the fame of this phantasticall prophet went all the realme + over, and his name was knowen everywhere, as foolishnesse is much regarded + of the people, where wisdome is not in place; specially because he was + then imprisoned for the matter, the rumour was the larger, their + wonderynges were the wantoner, their practises the foolisher, their busye + talkes and other idle doinges the greater. Continually from thence, as the + rude manner of people is, olde gossyps tales went abroade, new tales were + invented, fables were added to fables, and lyes grew upon lyes. So that + every daye newe slanders were laide upon the King, and not one of them + true. Rumors arose, blasphemyes were sprede, the enemyes rejoyced, and + treasons by the priestes were mainteyned; and what lykewise was surmised, + or other subtiltye practised, all was then lathered upon this foolish + prophet, as 'thus saith Peter Wakefield;' 'thus hath he prophecied;' 'and + thus it shall come to pass;' yea, many times, when he thought nothing + lesse. And when the Ascension-day was come, which was prophecyed of + before, King John commanded his royal tent to be spread in the open + fielde, passing that day with his noble counseyle and men of honour, in + the greatest solemnitie that ever he did before; solacing himself with + musickale instrumentes and songs, most in sight among his trustie + friendes. When that day was paste in all prosperitie and myrth, his + enemyes being confused, turned all into an allegorical understanding to + make the prophecie good, and sayde, 'he is no longer King, for the Pope + reigneth, and not he.'" [King John was labouring under a sentence of + excommunication at the time.] + </p> + <p> + "Then was the King by his council perswaded that this false prophet had + troubled the realme, perverted the heartes of the people, and raysed the + commons against him; for his wordes went over the sea, by the help of his + prelates, and came to the French King's care, and gave to him a great + encouragement to invade the lande. He had not else done it so sodeinely. + But he was most lowly deceived, as all they are and shall be that put + their trust in such dark drowsye dreames of hipocrites. The King therefore + commanded that he should be hanged up, and his sonne also with him, lest + any more false prophets should arise of that race." + </p> + <p> + Heywood, who was a great stickler for the truth of all sorts of + prophecies, gives a much more favourable account of this Peter of Pomfret, + or Pontefract, whose fate he would, in all probability, have shared, if he + had had the misfortune to have flourished in the same age. He says, that + Peter, who was not only a prophet, but a bard, predicted divers of King + John's disasters, which fell out accordingly. On being taxed for a lying + prophet in having predicted that the King would be deposed before he + entered into the fifteenth year of his reign, he answered him boldly, that + all he had said was justifiable and true; for that, having given up his + crown to the Pope, and paying him an annual tribute, the Pope reigned, and + not he. Heywood thought this explanation to be perfectly satisfactory, and + the prophet's faith for ever established. + </p> + <p> + But to return to Merlin. Of him even to this day it may be said, in the + words which Burns has applied to another notorious personage, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Great was his power and great his fame; + Far kenned and noted is his name? +</pre> + <p> + His reputation is by no means confined to the land of his birth, but + extends through most of the nations of Europe. A very curious volume of + his Life, Prophecies, and Miracles, written, it is supposed, by Robert de + Bosron, was printed at Paris in 1498, which states, that the Devil himself + was his father, and that he spoke the instant he was born, and assured his + mother, a very virtuous young woman, that she should not die in child-bed + with him, as her ill-natured neighbours had predicted. The judge of the + district, hearing of so marvellous an occurrence, summoned both mother and + child to appear before him; and they went accordingly the same day. To put + the wisdom of the young prophet most effectually to the test, the judge + asked him if he knew his own father? To which the infant Merlin replied, + in a clear, sonorous voice, "Yes, my father is the Devil; and I have his + power, and know all things, past, present, and to come." His worship + clapped his hands in astonishment, and took the prudent resolution of not + molesting so awful a child, or its mother either. + </p> + <p> + Early tradition attributes the building of Stonehenge to the power of + Merlin. It was believed that those mighty stones were whirled through the + air, at his command, from Ireland to Salisbury Plain, and that he arranged + them in the form in which they now stand, to commemorate for ever the + unhappy fate of three hundred British chiefs, who were massacred on that + spot by the Saxons. + </p> + <p> + At Abergwylly, near Caermarthen, is still shown the cave of the prophet + and the scene of his incantations. How beautiful is the description of it + given by Spenser in his "Faerie Queene." The lines need no apology for + their repetition here, and any sketch of the great prophet of Britain + would be incomplete without them:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "There the wise Merlin, whilom wont (they say), + To make his wonne low underneath the ground, + In a deep delve far from the view of day, + That of no living wight he mote be found, + Whenso he counselled with his sprites encompassed round. + + "And if thou ever happen that same way + To travel, go to see that dreadful place; + It is a hideous, hollow cave, they say, + Under a rock that lies a little space + From the swift Barry, tumbling down apace + Amongst the woody hills of Dynevoure; + But dare thou not, I charge, in any case, + To enter into that same baleful bower, + For fear the cruel fiendes should thee unwares devour! + + "But, standing high aloft, low lay thine care, + And there such ghastly noise of iron chaines, + And brazen caudrons thou shalt rombling heare, + Which thousand sprites, with long-enduring paines, + Doe tosse, that it will stun thy feeble braines; + And often times great groans and grievous stownds, + When too huge toile and labour them constraines; + And often times loud strokes and ringing sounds + From under that deep rock most horribly rebounds. + + "The cause, they say, is this. A little while + Before that Merlin died, he did intend + A brazen wall in compass, to compile + About Cayr Merdin, and did it commend + Unto these sprites to bring to perfect end; + During which work the Lady of the Lake, + Whom long he loved, for him in haste did send, + Who thereby forced his workmen to forsake, + Them bound till his return their labour not to slake. + + "In the mean time, through that false ladie's traine, + He was surprised, and buried under biere, + Ne ever to his work returned again; + Natheless these fiendes may not their work forbeare, + So greatly his commandement they fear, + But there doe toile and travaile day and night, + Until that brazen wall they up doe reare." + + [Faerie Queene, b. 3. c. 3. s. 6—13.] +</pre> + <p> + Amongst other English prophets, a belief in whose power has not been + entirely effaced by the light of advancing knowledge, is Robert Nixon, the + Cheshire idiot, a contemporary of Mother Shipton. The popular accounts of + this man say, that he was born of poor parents, not far from Vale Royal, + on the edge of the forest of Delamere. He was brought up to the plough, + but was so ignorant and stupid, that nothing could be made of him. + Everybody thought him irretrievably insane, and paid no attention to the + strange, unconnected discourses which he held. Many of his prophecies are + believed to have been lost in this manner. But they were not always + destined to be wasted upon dull and inattentive ears. An incident occurred + which brought him into notice, and established his fame as a prophet of + the first calibre. He was ploughing in a field when he suddenly stopped + from his labour, and, with a wild look and strange gestures, exclaimed, + "Now, Dick! now, Harry! O, ill done, Dick! O, well done, Harry! Harry has + gained the day!" His fellow labourers in the field did not know what to + make of this rhapsody; but the next day cleared up the mystery. News was + brought by a messenger, in hot haste, that at the very instant when Nixon + had thus ejaculated, Richard III had been slain at the battle of Bosworth, + and Henry VII proclaimed King of England. + </p> + <p> + It was not long before the fame of the new prophet reached the ears of the + King, who expressed a wish to see and converse with him. A messenger was + accordingly despatched to bring him to court; but long before he reached + Cheshire, Nixon knew and dreaded the honours that awaited him. Indeed it + was said, that at the very instant the King expressed the wish, Nixon was, + by supernatural means, made acquainted with it, and that he ran about the + town of Over in great distress of mind, calling out, like a madman, that + Henry had sent for him, and that he must go to court, and be clammed; that + is, starved to death. These expressions excited no little wonder; but, on + the third day, the messenger arrived, and carried him to court, leaving on + the minds of the good people of Cheshire an impression that their prophet + was one of the greatest ever born. On his arrival King Henry appeared to + be troubled exceedingly at the loss of a valuable diamond, and asked Nixon + if he could inform him where it was to be found. Henry had hidden the + diamond himself, with a view to test the prophet's skill. Great, + therefore, was his surprise when Nixon answered him in the words of the + old proverb, "Those who hide can find." From that time forth the King + implicitly believed that he had the gift of prophecy, and ordered all his + words to be taken down. + </p> + <p> + During all the time of his residence at court he was in constant fear of + being starved to death, and repeatedly told the King that such would be + his fate, if he were not allowed to depart, and return into his own + country. Henry would not suffer it, but gave strict orders to all his + officers and cooks to give him as much to eat as he wanted. He lived so + well, that for some time he seemed to be thriving like a nobleman's + steward, and growing as fat as an alderman. One day the king went out + hunting, when Nixon ran to the palace gate, and entreated on his knees + that he might not be left behind to be starved. The King laughed, and, + calling an officer, told him to take especial care of the prophet during + his absence, and rode away to the forest. After his departure, the + servants of the palace began to jeer at and insult Nixon, whom they + imagined to be much better treated than he deserved. Nixon complained to + the officer, who, to prevent him from being further molested, locked him + up in the King's own closet, and brought him regularly his four meals a + day. But it so happened that a messenger arrived from the King to this + officer, requiring his immediate presence at Winchester, on a matter of + life and death. So great was his haste to obey the King's command, that he + mounted on the horse behind the messenger, and rode off, without bestowing + a thought upon poor Nixon. He did not return till three days afterwards, + when, remembering the prophet for the first time, he went to the King's + closet, and found him lying upon the floor, starved to death, as he had + predicted. + </p> + <p> + Among the prophecies of his which are believed to have been fulfilled, are + the following, which relate to the times of the Pretender:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A great man shall come into England, + But the son of a King + Shall take from him the victory." + + "Crows shall drink the blood of many nobles, + And the North shall rise against the South." + "The cock of the North shall be made to flee, + And his feather be plucked for his pride, + That he shall almost curse the day that he was born," +</pre> + <p> + All these, say his admirers, are as clear as the sun at noon-day. The + first denotes the defeat of Prince Charles Edward, at the battle of + Culloden, by the Duke of Cumberland; the second, the execution of Lords + Derwentwater, Balmerino, and Lovat; and the third, the retreat of the + Pretender from the shores of Britain. Among the prophecies that still + remain to be accomplished, are the following:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Between seven, eight, and nine, + In England wonders shall be seen; + Between nine and thirteen + All sorrow shall be done!" + + "Through our own money and our men + Shall a dreadful war begin. + Between the sickle and the suck + All England shall have a pluck," +</pre> + <p> + "Foreign nations shall invade England with snow on their helmets, and + shall bring plague, famine, and murder in the skirts of their garments." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The town of Nantwich shall be swept away by a flood" +</pre> + <p> + Of the two first of these no explanation has yet been attempted; but some + event or other will doubtless be twisted into such a shape as will fit + them. The third, relative to the invasion of England by a nation with snow + on their helmets, is supposed by the old women to foretell most clearly + the coming war with Russia. As to the last, there are not a few in the + town mentioned who devoutly believe that such will be its fate. Happily + for their peace of mind, the prophet said nothing of the year that was to + witness the awful calamity; so that they think it as likely to be two + centuries hence as now. + </p> + <p> + The popular biographers of Nixon conclude their account of him by saying, + that "his prophecies are by some persons thought fables; yet by what has + come to pass, it is now thought, and very plainly appears, that most of + them have proved, or will prove, true; for which we, on all occasions, + ought not only to exert our utmost might to repel by force our enemies, + but to refrain from our abandoned and wicked course of life, and to make + our continual prayer to God for protection and safety." To this, though a + non sequitur, every one will cry Amen! + </p> + <p> + Besides the prophets, there have been the almanack makers, Lilly, Poor + Robin, Partridge, and Francis Moore, physician, in England, and Matthew + Laensbergh, in France and Belgium. But great as were their pretensions, + they were modesty itself in comparison with Merlin, Shipton, and Nixon, + who fixed their minds upon higher things than the weather, and who were + not so restrained in their flights of fancy as to prophesy for only one + year at a time. After such prophets as they, the almanack makers hardly + deserve to be mentioned; no, not even the renowned Partridge, whose + wonderful prognostications set all England agog in 1708, and whose death, + at a time when he was still alive and kicking, was so pleasantly and + satisfactorily proved by Isaac Bickerstaff. The anti-climax would be too + palpable, and they and their doings must be left uncommemorated. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POPULAR ADMIRATION FOR GREAT THIEVES. + </h2> + <p> + Jack. Where shall we find such another set of practical philosophers who, + to a man, are above the fear of death? + </p> + <p> + Wat. Sound men and true! + </p> + <p> + Robin. Of tried courage and indefatigable industry! + </p> + <p> + Ned. Who is there here that would not die for his friend? + </p> + <p> + Harry. Who is there here that would betray him for his interest? + </p> + <p> + Mat. Show me a gang of courtiers that could say as much! + </p> + <p> + Dialogue of thieves in the Beggars' Opera. + </p> + <p> + Whether it be that the multitude, feeling the pangs of poverty, sympathise + with the daring and ingenious depredators who take away the rich man's + superfluity, or whether it be the interest that mankind in general feel + for the records of perilous adventures, it is certain that the populace of + all countries look with admiration upon great and successful thieves. + Perhaps both these causes combine to invest their career with charms in + the popular eye. Almost every country in Europe has its traditional thief, + whose exploits are recorded with all the graces of poetry, and whose + trespasses— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—are cited up in rhymes, + And sung by children in succeeding times." + + [Shakspeare's Rape of Lucretia.] +</pre> + <p> + Those travellers who have made national manners and characteristics their + peculiar study, have often observed and remarked upon this feeling. The + learned Abbe le Blanc, who resided for some time in England at the + commencement of the eighteenth century, says, in his amusing letters on + the English and French nations, that he continually met with Englishmen + who were not less vain in boasting of the success of their highwaymen than + of the bravery of their troops. Tales of their address, their cunning, or + their generosity, were in the mouths of everybody, and a noted thief was a + kind of hero in high repute. He adds that the mob, in all countries, being + easily moved, look in general with concern upon criminals going to the + gallows; but an English mob looked upon such scenes with 'extraordinary + interest: they delighted to see them go through their last trials with + resolution, and applauded those who were insensible enough to die as they + had lived, braving the justice both of God and men: such, he might have + added, as the noted robber Macpherson, of whom the old ballad says— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sae rantingly, sae wantonly, + Sae dauntingly gaed he: + He played a spring, and danced it round + Beneath the gallows tree." +</pre> + <p> + Among these traditional thieves the most noted in England, or perhaps in + any country, is Robin Hood, a name which popular affection has encircled + with a peculiar halo. "He robbed the rich to give to the poor;" and his + reward has been an immortality of fame, a tithe of which would be thought + more than sufficient to recompense a benefactor of his species. Romance + and poetry have been emulous to make him all their own; and the forest of + Sherwood, in which he roamed with his merry men, armed with their long + bows, and clad in Lincoln green, has become the resort of pilgrims, and a + classic spot sacred to his memory. The few virtues he had, which would + have ensured him no praise if he had been an honest man, have been + blazoned forth by popular renown during seven successive centuries, and + will never be forgotten while the English tongue endures. His charity to + the poor, and his gallantry and respect for women, have made him the + pre-eminent thief of all the world. + </p> + <p> + Among English thieves of a later date, who has not heard of Claude Duval, + Dick Turpin, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard, those knights of the road + and of the town, whose peculiar chivalry formed at once the dread and the + delight of England during the eighteenth century? Turpin's fame is unknown + to no portion of the male population of England after they have attained + the age of ten. His wondrous ride from London to York has endeared him to + the imagination of millions; his cruelty in placing an old woman upon a + fire, to force her to tell him where she had hidden her money, is regarded + as a good joke; and his proud bearing upon the scaffold is looked upon as + a virtuous action. The Abbe le Blanc, writing in 1737, says he was + continually entertained with stories of Turpin—how, when he robbed + gentlemen, he would generously leave them enough to continue their + journey, and exact a pledge from them never to inform against him, and how + scrupulous such gentlemen were in keeping their word. He was one day told + a story with which the relator was he the highest degree delighted. + Turpin, or some other noted robber, stopped a man whom he knew to be very + rich, with the usual salutation—"Your money or your life!" but not + finding more than five or six guineas about him, he took the liberty of + entreating him, in the most affable manner, never to come out so ill + provided; adding that, if he fell in with him, and he had no more than + such a paltry sum, he would give him a good licking. Another story, told + by one of Turpin's admirers, was of a robbery he had committed upon a Mr. + C. near Cambridge. He took from this gentleman his watch, his snuff-box, + and all his money but two shillings, and, before he left him, required his + word of honour that he would not cause him to be pursued or brought before + a justice. The promise being given, they both parted very courteously. + They afterwards met at Newmarket, and renewed their acquaintance. Mr. C. + kept his word religiously; he not only refrained from giving Turpin into + custody, but made a boast that he had fairly won some of his money back + again in an honest way. Turpin offered to bet with him on some favourite + horse, and Mr. C. accepted the wager with as good a grace as he could have + done from the best gentleman in England. Turpin lost his bet and paid it + immediately, and was so smitten with the generous behaviour of Mr. C. that + he told him how deeply he regretted that the trifling affair which had + happened between them did not permit them to drink together. The narrator + of this anecdote was quite proud that England was the birthplace of such a + highwayman. + </p> + <p> + [The Abbe, in the second volume, in the letter No. 79, dressed to Monsieur + de Buffon, gives the following curious particulars of the robbers of 1757, + which are not without interest at this day, if it were only to show the + vast improvement which has taken place since that period:—"It is + usual, in travelling, to put ten or a dozen guineas in a separate pocket, + as a tribute to the first that comes to demand them: the right of + passport, which custom has established here in favour of the robbers, who + are almost the only highway surveyors in England, has made this necessary; + and accordingly the English call these fellows the 'Gentlemen of the + Road,' the government letting them exercise their jurisdiction upon + travellers without giving them any great molestation. To say the truth, + they content themselves with only taking the money of those who obey + without disputing; but notwithstanding their boasted humanity, the lives + of those who endeavour to get away are not always safe. They are very + strict and severe in levying their impost; and if a man has not + wherewithal to pay them, he may run the chance of getting himself knocked + on the head for his poverty. + </p> + <p> + "About fifteen years ago, these robbers, with the view of maintaining + their rights, fixed up papers at the doors of rich people about London, + expressly forbidding all persons, of whatsoever quality or condition, from + going out of town without ten guineas and a watch about them, on pain of + death. In bad times, when there is little or nothing to be got on the + roads, these fellows assemble in gangs, to raise contributions even in + London itself; and the watchmen seldom trouble themselves to interfere + with them in their vocation."] + </p> + <p> + Not less familiar to the people of England is the career of Jack Sheppard, + as brutal a ruffian as ever disgraced his country, but who has claims upon + the popular admiration which are very generally acknowledged. He did not, + like Robin Hood, plunder the rich to relieve the poor, nor rob with an + uncouth sort of courtesy, like Turpin; but he escaped from Newgate with + the fetters on his limbs. This achievement, more than once repeated, has + encircled his felon brow with the wreath of immortality, and made him + quite a pattern thief among the populace. He was no more than twenty-three + years of age at the time of his execution, and he died much pitied by the + crowd. His adventures were the sole topics of conversation for months; the + print-shops were filled with his effigies, and a fine painting of him was + made by Sir Richard Thornhill. The following complimentary verses to the + artist appeared in the "British Journal" of November 28th, 1724. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Thornhill! 'tis thine to gild with fame + Th' obscure, and raise the humble name; + To make the form elude the grave, + And Sheppard from oblivion save! + + Apelles Alexander drew— + Cesar is to Aurelius due; + Cromwell in Lilly's works doth shine, + And Sheppard, Thornhill, lives in thine!" +</pre> + <p> + So high was Jack's fame that a pantomime entertainment, called "Harlequin + Jack Sheppard," was devised by one Thurmond, and brought out with great + success at Drury Lane Theatre. All the scenes were painted from nature, + including the public-house that the robber frequented in Claremarket, and + the condemned cell from which he had made his escape in Newgate. + </p> + <p> + The Rev. Mr. Villette, the editor of the "Annals of Newgate," published in + 1754, relates a curious sermon which, he says, a friend of his heard + delivered by a street-preacher about the time of Jack's execution. The + orator, after animadverting on the great care men took of their bodies, + and the little care they bestowed upon their souls, continued as follows, + by way of exemplifying the position:—"We have a remarkable instance + of this in a notorious malefactor, well known by the name of Jack + Sheppard. What amazing difficulties has he overcome! what astonishing + things has he performed! and all for the sake of a stinking, miserable + carcass; hardly worth the hanging! How dexterously did he pick the chain + of his padlock with a crooked nail! how manfully he burst his fetters + asunder!—climb up the chimney!—wrench out an iron bar!—break + his way through a stone wall!—make the strong door of a dark entry + fly before him, till he got upon the leads of the prison! then, fixing a + blanket to the wall with a spike, he stole out of the chapel. How + intrepidly did he descend to the top of the turner's house!—how + cautiously pass down the stair, and make his escape to the street door! + </p> + <p> + "Oh! that ye were all like Jack Sheppard! Mistake me not, my brethren; I + don't mean in a carnal, but in a spiritual sense, for I propose to + spiritualise these things. What a shame it would be if we should not think + it worth our while to take as much pains, and employ as many deep + thoughts, to save our souls as he has done to preserve his body! + </p> + <p> + "Let me exhort ye, then, to open the locks of your hearts with the nail of + repentance! Burst asunder the fetters of your beloved lusts!—mount + the chimney of hope!—take from thence the bar of good resolution!—break + through the stone wall of despair, and all the strongholds in the dark + entry of the valley of the shadow of death! Raise yourselves to the leads + of divine meditation!—fix the blanket of faith with the spike of the + church! let yourselves down to the turner's house of resignation, and + descend the stairs of humility! So shall you come to the door of + deliverance from the prison of iniquity, and escape the clutches of that + old executioner the Devil!" + </p> + <p> + But popular as the name of Jack Sheppard was immediately after he had + suffered the last penalty of his crimes, it was as nothing compared to the + vast renown which he has acquired in these latter days, after the lapse of + a century and a quarter. Poets too often, are not fully appreciated till + they have been dead a hundred years, and thieves, it would appear, share + the disadvantage. But posterity is grateful if our contemporaries are not; + and Jack Sheppard, faintly praised in his own day, shines out in ours the + hero of heroes, preeminent above all his fellows. Thornhill made but one + picture of the illustrious robber, but Cruikshank has made dozens, and the + art of the engraver has multiplied them into thousands and tens of + thousands, until the populace of England have become as familiar with + Jack's features as they are with their own. Jack, the romantic, is the + hero of three goodly volumes, and the delight of the circulating + libraries; and the theatres have been smitten with the universal + enthusiasm. Managers have set their playmongers at work, and Jack's story + has been reproduced in the shape of drama, melodrama, and farce, at half a + dozen places of entertainment at once. Never was such a display of popular + regard for a hero as was exhibited in London in 1840 for the renowned Jack + Sheppard: robbery acquired additional lustre in the popular eye, and not + only Englishmen, but foreigners, caught the contagion; and one of the + latter, fired by the example, robbed and murdered a venerable, + unoffending, and too confiding nobleman, whom it was his especial duty to + have obeyed and protected. But he was a coward and a wretch;—it was + a solitary crime—he had not made a daring escape from dungeon walls, + or ridden from London to York, and he died amid the execrations of the + people, affording a melancholy exemplification of the trite remark, that + every man is not great who is desirous of being so. + </p> + <p> + Jonathan Wild, whose name has been immortalised by Fielding, was no + favourite with the people. He had none of the virtues which, combined with + crimes, make up the character of the great thief. He was a pitiful fellow, + who informed against his comrades, and was afraid of death. This meanness + was not to be forgiven by the crowd, and they pelted him with dirt and + stones on his way to Tyburn, and expressed their contempt by every + possible means. How different was their conduct to Turpin and Jack + Sheppard, who died in their neatest attire, with nosegays in their + button-holes, and with the courage that a crowd expects! It was + anticipated that the body of Turpin would have been delivered up to the + surgeons for dissection, and the people seeing some men very busily + employed in removing it, suddenly set upon them, rescued the body, bore it + about the town in triumph, and then buried it in a very deep grave, filled + with quick-lime, to hasten the progress of decomposition. They would not + suffer the corpse of their hero, of the man who had ridden from London to + York in four-and-twenty hours to be mangled by the rude hands of + unmannerly surgeons. + </p> + <p> + The death of Claude Duval would appear to have been no less triumphant. + Claude was a gentlemanly thief. According to Butler, in the famous ode to + his memory, he + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Taught the wild Arabs of the road + To rob in a more gentle mode; + Take prizes more obligingly than those + Who never had breen bred filous; + And how to hang in a more graceful fashion + Than e'er was known before to the dull English nation." +</pre> + <p> + In fact, he was the pink of politeness, and his gallantry to the fair sex + was proverbial. When he was caught at last, pent in "stone walls and + chains and iron grates,"—their grief was in proportion to his rare + merits and his great fame. Butler says, that to his dungeon + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—came ladies from all parts, + To offer up close prisoners their hearts, + Which he received as tribute due— + + * * * * + + Never did bold knight, to relieve + Distressed dames, such dreadful feats achieve, + As feeble damsels, for his sake, + Would have been proud to undertake, + And, bravely ambitious to redeem + The world's loss and their own, + Strove who should have the honour to lay down, + And change a life with him." +</pre> + <p> + Among the noted thieves of France, there is none to compare with the + famous Aimerigot Tetenoire, who flourished in the reign of Charles VI. + This fellow was at the head of four or five hundred men, and possessed two + very strong castles in Limousin and Auvergne. There was a good deal of the + feudal baron about him, although he possessed no revenues but such as the + road afforded him. At his death he left a singular will. "I give and + bequeath," said the robber, "one thousand five hundred francs to St. + George's Chapel, for such repairs as it may need. To my sweet girl who so + tenderly loved me, I give two thousand five hundred; and the surplus I + give to my companions. I hope they will all live as brothers, and divide + it amicably among them. If they cannot agree, and the devil of contention + gets among them, it is no fault of mine; and I advise them to get a good + strong, sharp axe, and break open my strong box. Let them scramble for + what it contains, and the Devil seize the hindmost." The people of + Auvergne still recount with admiration the daring feats of this brigand. + </p> + <p> + Of later years, the French thieves have been such unmitigated scoundrels + as to have left but little room for popular admiration. The famous + Cartouche, whose name has become synonymous with ruffian in their + language, had none of the generosity, courtesy, and devoted bravery which + are so requisite to make a robber-hero. He was born at Paris, towards the + end of the seventeenth century, and broken alive on the wheel in November + 1727. He was, however, sufficiently popular to have been pitied at his + death, and afterwards to have formed the subject of a much admired drama, + which bore his name, and was played with great success in all the theatres + of France during the years 1734, 5, and 6. In our own day the French have + been more fortunate in a robber; Vidocq bids fair to rival the fame of + Turpin and Jack Sheppard. Already he has become the hero of many an + apocryphal tale—already his compatriots boast of his manifold + achievements, and express their doubts whether any other country in Europe + could produce a thief so clever, so accomplished, so gentlemanly, as + Vidocq. + </p> + <p> + Germany has its Schinderhannes, Hungary its Schubry, and Italy and Spain a + whole host of brigands, whose names and exploits are familiar as household + words in the mouths of the children and populace of those countries. The + Italian banditti are renowned over the world; and many of them are not + only very religious (after a fashion), but very charitable. Charity from + such a source is so unexpected, that the people dote upon them for it. One + of them, when he fell into the hands of the police, exclaimed, as they led + him away, "Ho fatto pitt carita!"—"I have given away more in charity + than any three convents in these provinces." And the fellow spoke truth. + </p> + <p> + In Lombardy, the people cherish the memory of two notorious robbers, who + flourished about two centuries ago under the Spanish government. Their + story, according to Macfarlane, is contained in a little book well known + to all the children of the province, and read by them with much more gusto + than their Bibles. + </p> + <p> + Schinderhannes, the robber of the Rhine, is a great favourite on the banks + of the river which he so long kept in awe. Many amusing stories are + related by the peasantry of the scurvy tricks he played off upon rich + Jews, or too-presuming officers of justice—of his princely + generosity, and undaunted courage. In short, they are proud of him, and + would no more consent to have the memory of his achievements dissociated + from their river than they would to have the rock of Ehrenbreitstein blown + to atoms by gunpowder. + </p> + <p> + There is another robber-hero, of whose character and exploits the people + of Germany speak admiringly. Mausch Nadel was captain of a considerable + band that infested the Rhine, Switzerland, Alsatia, and Lorraine during + the years 1824, 5, and 6. Like Jack Sheppard, he endeared himself to the + populace by his most hazardous escape from prison. Being confined, at + Bremen, in a dungeon, on the third story of the prison of that town, he + contrived to let himself down without exciting the vigilance of the + sentinels, and to swim across the Weser, though heavily laden with irons. + When about half way over, he was espied by a sentinel, who fired at him, + and shot him in the calf of the leg: but the undaunted robber struck out + manfully, reached the shore, and was out of sight before the officers of + justice could get ready their boats to follow him. He was captured again + in 1826, tried at Mayence, and sentenced to death. He was a tall, strong, + handsome man, and his fate, villain as he was, excited much sympathy all + over Germany. The ladies especially were loud in their regret that nothing + could be done to save a hero so good-looking, and of adventures so + romantic, from the knife of the headsman. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Macfarlane, in speaking of Italian banditti, remarks, that the abuses + of the Catholic religion, with its confessions and absolutions, have + tended to promote crime of this description. But, he adds, more truly, + that priests and monks have not done half the mischief which has been + perpetrated by ballad-mongers and story-tellers. If he had said + play-wrights also, the list would have been complete. In fact, the + theatre, which can only expect to prosper, in a pecuniary sense, by + pandering to the tastes of the people, continually recurs to the annals of + thieves and banditti for its most favourite heroes. These theatrical + robbers; with their picturesque attire, wild haunts, jolly, reckless, + devil-may-care manners, take a wonderful hold upon the imagination, and, + whatever their advocates may say to the contrary, exercise a very + pernicious influence upon public morals. In the Memoirs of the Duke of + Guise upon the Revolution of Naples in 1647 and 1648, it is stated, that + the manners, dress, and mode of life of the Neapolitan banditti were + rendered so captivating upon the stage, that the authorities found it + absolutely necessary to forbid the representation of dramas in which they + figured, and even to prohibit their costume at the masquerades. So + numerous were the banditti at this time, that the Duke found no difficulty + in raising an army of them, to aid him in his endeavours to seize on the + throne of Naples. He thus describes them; [See also "Foreign Quarterly + Review," vol. iv. p. 398.] + </p> + <p> + "They were three thousand five hundred men, of whom the oldest came short + of five and forty years, and the youngest was above twenty. They were all + tall and well made, with long black hair, for the most part curled, coats + of black Spanish leather, with sleeves of velvet, or cloth of gold, cloth + breeches with gold lace, most of them scarlet; girdles of velvet, laced + with gold, with two pistols on each side; a cutlass hanging at a belt, + suitably trimmed, three fingers broad and two feet long; a hawking-bag at + their girdle, and a powder-flask hung about their neck with a great silk + riband. Some of them carried firelocks, and others blunder-busses; they + had all good shoes, with silk stockings, and every one a cap of cloth of + gold, or cloth of silver, of different colours, on his head, which was + very delightful to the eye." + </p> + <p> + "The Beggars' Opera," in our own country, is another instance of the + admiration that thieves excite upon the stage. Of the extraordinary + success of this piece, when first produced, the following account is given + in the notes to "The Dunciad," and quoted by Johnson in his "Lives of the + Poets." "This piece was received with greater applause than was ever + known. Besides being acted in London sixty-three days without + interruption, and renewed the next season with equal applause, it spread + into all the great towns of England; was played in many places to the + thirtieth and fortieth time; at Bath and Bristol, &c. fifty. It made + its progress into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where it was performed + twenty-four days successively. The ladies carried about with them the + favourite songs of it in fans, and houses were furnished with it in + screens. The fame of it was not confined to the author only. The person + who acted Polly, till then obscure, became all at once the favourite of + the town; [Lavinia Fenton, afterwards Duchess of Bolton.] her pictures + were engraved and sold in great numbers; her life written, books of + letters and verses to her published, and pamphlets made even of her + sayings and jests. Furthermore, it drove out of England, for that season, + the Italian Opera, which had carried all before it for ten years." Dr. + Johnson, in his Life of the Author, says, that Herring, afterwards + Archbishop of Canterbury, censured the opera, as giving encouragement, not + only to vice, but to crimes, by making the highwayman the hero, and + dismissing him at last unpunished; and adds, that it was even said, that + after the exhibition the gangs of robbers were evidently multiplied. The + Doctor doubts the assertion, giving as his reason that highwaymen and + housebreakers seldom frequent the playhouse, and that it was not possible + for any one to imagine that he might rob with safety, because he saw + Macheath reprieved upon the stage. But if Johnson had wished to be + convinced, he might very easily have discovered that highwaymen and + housebreakers did frequent the theatre, and that nothing was more probable + than that a laughable representation of successful villany should induce + the young and the already vicious to imitate it. Besides, there is the + weighty authority of Sir John Fielding, the chief magistrate of Bow + Street, who asserted positively, and proved his assertion by the records + of his office, that the number of thieves was greatly increased at the + time when that opera was so popular. + </p> + <p> + We have another instance of the same result much nearer our own times. + Schiller's "Rauber," that wonderful play, written by a green youth, + perverted the taste and imagination of all the young men in Germany. An + accomplished critic of our own country (Hazlitt), speaking of this play, + says it was the first he ever read, and such was the effect it produced on + him, that "it stunned him, like a blow." After the lapse of + five-and-twenty years he could not forget it; it was still, to use his own + words, "an old dweller in the chambers of his brain," and he had not even + then recovered enough from it, to describe how it was. The high-minded, + metaphysical thief, its hero, was so warmly admired, that several raw + students, longing to imitate a character they thought so noble, actually + abandoned their homes and their colleges, and betook themselves to the + forests and wilds to levy contributions upon travellers. They thought they + would, like Moor, plunder the rich, and deliver eloquent soliloquies to + the setting sun or the rising moon; relieve the poor when they met them, + and drink flasks of Rhenish with their free companions in rugged mountain + passes, or in tents in the thicknesses of the forests. But a little + experience wonderfully cooled their courage; they found that real, + every-day robbers were very unlike the conventional banditti of the stage, + and that three months in prison, with bread and water for their fare, and + damp straw to lie upon, was very well to read about by their own fire + sides, but not very agreeable to undergo in their own proper persons. + </p> + <p> + Lord Byron, with his soliloquising, high-souled thieves, has, in a slight + degree, perverted the taste of the greenhorns and incipient rhymesters of + his country. As yet, however, they have shown more good sense than their + fellows of Germany, and have not taken to the woods or the highways. Much + as they admire Conrad the Corsair, they will not go to sea, and hoist the + black flag in emulation of him. By words only, and not by deeds, they + testify their admiration, and deluge the periodicals and music shops of + the hand with verses describing pirates' and bandits' brides, and robber + adventures of every kind. + </p> + <p> + But it is the play-wright who does most harm; and Byron has fewer sins of + this nature to answer for than Gay or Schiller, and the modern dramatizers + of Jack Sheppard. With the aid of scenery, fine dresses, and music, and + the very false notions they convey, they vitiate the public taste, not + knowing, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "—————-vulgaires rimeurs + Quelle force ont les arts pour demolir les moeurs." +</pre> + <p> + In the penny theatres that abound in the poor and populous districts of + London, and which are chiefly frequented by striplings of idle and + dissolute habits, tales of thieves and murderers are more admired, and + draw more crowded audiences, than any other species of representation. + There the footpad, the burglar, and the highwayman are portrayed in + unnatural colours, and give pleasant lessons in crime to their delighted + listeners. There the deepest tragedy and the broadest farce are + represented in the career of the murderer and the thief, and are applauded + in proportion to their depth and their breadth. There, whenever a crime of + unusual atrocity is committed, it is brought out afresh, with all its + disgusting incidents copied from the life, for the amusement of those who + will one day become its imitators. + </p> + <p> + With the mere reader the case is widely different; and most people have a + partiality for knowing the adventures of noted rogues. Even in fiction + they are delightful: witness the eventful story of Gil Blas de Santillane, + and of that great rascal Don Guzman d'Alfarache. Here there is no fear of + imitation. Poets, too, without doing mischief, may sing of such heroes + when they please, wakening our sympathies for the sad fate of Gilderoy, or + Macpherson the Dauntless; or celebrating in undying verse the wrongs and + the revenge of the great thief of Scotland, Rob Roy. If, by the music of + their sweet rhymes, they can convince the world that such heroes are but + mistaken philosophers, born a few ages too late, and having both a + theoretical and practical love for + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The good old rule, the simple plan, + That they should take who have the power, + That they should keep who can," +</pre> + <p> + the world may, perhaps, become wiser, and consent to some better + distribution of its good things, by means of which thieves may become + reconciled to the age, and the age to them. The probability, however, + seems to be, that the charmers will charm in vain, charm they ever so + wisely. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INFLUENCE OF POLITICS AND RELIGION ON THE HAIR AND BEARD. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Speak with respect and honour + Both of the beard and the beard's owner. + + HUDIBRAS, +</pre> + <p> + The famous declaration of St. Paul, "that long hair was a shame unto a + man" has been made the pretext for many singular enactments, both of civil + and ecclesiastical governments. The fashion of the hair and the cut of the + beard were state questions in France and England from the establishment of + Christianity until the fifteenth century. + </p> + <p> + We find, too, that in much earlier times men were not permitted to do as + they liked with their own hair. Alexander the Great thought that the + beards of his soldiery afforded convenient handles for the enemy to lay + hold of, preparatory to cutting off their heads; and, with the view of + depriving them of this advantage, he ordered the whole of his army to be + closely shaven. His notions of courtesy towards an enemy were quite + different from those entertained by the North American Indians, amongst + whom it is held a point of honour to allow one "chivalrous lock" to grow, + that the foe, in taking the scalp, may have something to catch hold of. + </p> + <p> + At one time, long hair was the symbol of sovereignty in Europe. We learn + from Gregory of Tours that, among the successors of Clovis, it was the + exclusive privilege of the royal family to have their hair long, and + curled. The nobles, equal to kings in power, would not show any + inferiority in this respect, and wore not only their hair, but their + beards, of an enormous length. This fashion lasted, with but slight + changes, till the time of Louis the Debonnaire, but his successors, up to + Hugh Capet, wore their hair short, by way of distinction. Even the serfs + had set all regulation at defiance, and allowed their locks and beards to + grow. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the invasion of England by William the Conqueror, the + Normans wore their hair very short. Harold, in his progress towards + Hastings, sent forward spies to view the strength and number of the enemy. + They reported, amongst other things, on their return, that "the host did + almost seem to be priests, because they had all their face and both their + lips shaven." The fashion among the English at the time was to wear the + hair long upon the head and the upper lip, but to shave the chin. When the + haughty victors had divided the broad lands of the Saxon thanes and + franklins among them, when tyranny of every kind was employed to make the + English feel that they were indeed a subdued and broken nation, the latter + encouraged the growth of their hair, that they might resemble as little as + possible their cropped and shaven masters. + </p> + <p> + This fashion was exceedingly displeasing to the clergy, and prevailed to a + considerable extent in France and Germany. Towards the end of the eleventh + century, it was decreed by the Pope, and zealously supported by the + ecclesiastical authorities all over Europe, that such persons as wore long + hair should be excommunicated while living, and not be prayed for when + dead. William of Malmesbury relates, that the famous St. Wulstan, Bishop + of Worcester, was peculiarly indignant whenever he saw a man with long + hair. He declaimed against the practice as one highly immoral, criminal, + and beastly. He continually carried a small knife in his pocket, and + whenever anybody, offending in this respect, knelt before him to receive + his blessing, he would whip it out slily, and cut off a handful, and then, + throwing it in his face, tell him to cut off all the rest, or he would go + to hell. + </p> + <p> + But fashion, which at times it is possible to move with a wisp, stands + firm against a lever; and men preferred to run the risk of damnation to + parting with the superfluity of their hair. In the time of Henry I, + Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, found it necessary to republish the + famous decree of excommunication and outlawry against the offenders; but, + as the court itself had begun to patronize curls, the fulminations of the + church were unavailing. Henry I and his nobles wore their hair in long + ringlets down their backs and shoulders, and became a scandalum magnatum + in the eyes of the godly. One Serlo, the King's chaplain, was so grieved + in spirit at the impiety of his master, that he preached a sermon from the + well-known text of St. Paul, before the assembled court, in which he drew + so dreadful a picture of the torments that awaited them in the other + world, that several of them burst into tears, and wrung their hair, as if + they would have pulled it out by the roots. Henry himself was observed to + weep. The priest, seeing the impression he had made, determined to strike + while the iron was hot, and, pulling a pair of scissors from his pocket, + cut the king's hair in presence of them all. Several of the principal + courtiers consented to do the like, and, for a short time, long hair + appeared to be going out of fashion. But the courtiers thought, after the + first glow of their penitence had been cooled by reflection, that the + clerical Dalilah had shorn them of their strength, and, in less than six + months, they were as great sinners as ever. + </p> + <p> + Anselm, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been a monk of Bec, in + Normandy, and who had signalized himself at Rouen by his fierce opposition + to long hair, was still anxious to work a reformation in this matter. But + his pertinacity was far from pleasing to the King, who had finally made up + his mind to wear ringlets. There were other disputes, of a more serious + nature, between them; so that when the Archbishop died, the King was so + glad to be rid of him, that he allowed the see to remain vacant for five + years. Still the cause had other advocates, and every pulpit in the land + resounded with anathemas against that disobedient and long-haired + generation. But all was of no avail. Stowe, in writing of this period, + asserts, on the authority of some more ancient chronicler, "that men, + forgetting their birth, transformed themselves, by the length of their + haires, into the semblance of woman kind;" and that when their hair + decayed from age, or other causes, "they knit about their heads certain + rolls and braidings of false hair." At last accident turned the tide of + fashion. A knight of the court, who was exceedingly proud of his beauteous + locks, dreamed one night that, as he lay in bed, the devil sprang upon + him, and endeavoured to choke him with his own hair. He started in + affright, and actually found that he had a great quantity of hair in his + mouth. Sorely stricken in conscience, and looking upon the dream as a + warning from Heaven, he set about the work of reformation, and cut off his + luxuriant tresses the same night. The story was soon bruited abroad; of + course it was made the most of by the clergy, and the knight, being a man + of influence and consideration, and the acknowledged leader of the + fashion, his example, aided by priestly exhortations, was very generally + imitated. Men appeared almost as decent as St. Wulstan himself could have + wished, the dream of a dandy having proved more efficacious than the + entreaties of a saint. But, as Stowe informs us, "scarcely was one year + past, when all that thought themselves courtiers fell into the former + vice, and contended with women in their long haires." Henry, the King, + appears to have been quite uninfluenced by the dreams of others, for even + his own would not induce him a second time to undergo a cropping from + priestly shears. It is said, that he was much troubled at this time by + disagreeable visions. Having offended the church in this and other + respects, he could get no sound refreshing sleep, and used to imagine that + he saw all the bishops, abbots, and monks of every degree, standing around + his bed-side, and threatening to belabour him with their pastoral staves; + which sight, we are told, so frightened him, that he often started naked + out of his bed, and attacked the phantoms sword in hand. Grimbalde, his + physician, who, like most of his fraternity at that day, was an + ecclesiastic, never hinted that his dreams were the result of a bad + digestion, but told him to shave his head, be reconciled to the Church, + and reform himself with alms and prayer. But he would not take this good + advice, and it was not until he had been nearly drowned a year afterwards, + in a violent storm at sea, that he repented of his evil ways, cut his hair + short, and paid proper deference to the wishes of the clergy. + </p> + <p> + In France, the thunders of the Vatican with regard to long curly hair were + hardly more respected than in England. Louis VII. however, was more + obedient than his brother-king, and cropped himself as closely as a monk, + to the great sorrow of all the gallants of his court. His Queen, the gay, + haughty, and pleasure-seeking Eleanor of Guienne, never admired him in + this trim, and continually reproached him with imitating, not only the + headdress, but the asceticism of the monks. From this cause, a coldness + arose between them. The lady proving at last unfaithful to her shaven and + indifferent lord, they were divorced, and the Kings of France lost the + rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou, which were her dowry. She soon after + bestowed her hand and her possessions upon Henry Duke of Normandy, + afterwards Henry II of England, and thus gave the English sovereigns that + strong footing in France which was for so many centuries the cause of such + long and bloody wars between the nations. + </p> + <p> + When the Crusades had drawn all the smart young fellows into Palestine, + the clergy did not find it so difficult to convince the staid burghers who + remained in Europe, of the enormity of long hair. During the absence of + Richard Coeur de Lion, his English subjects not only cut their hair close, + but shaved their faces. William Fitzosbert, or Long-beard, the great + demagogue of that day, reintroduced among the people who claimed to be of + Saxon origin the fashion of long hair. He did this with the view of making + them as unlike as possible to the citizens and the Normans. He wore his + own beard hanging down to his waist, from whence the name by which he is + best known to posterity. + </p> + <p> + The Church never showed itself so great an enemy to the beard as to long + hair on the head. It generally allowed fashion to take its own course, + both with regard to the chin and the upper lip. This fashion varied + continually; for we find that, in little more than a century after the + time of Richard I, when beards were short, that they had again become so + long as to be mentioned in the famous epigram made by the Scots who + visited London in 1327, when David, son of Robert Bruce, was married to + Joan, the sister of King Edward. This epigram, which was stuck on the + church-door of St. Peter Stangate, ran as follows— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Long beards heartlesse, + Painted hoods witlesse, + Gray coats gracelesse, + Make England thriftlesse." +</pre> + <p> + When the Emperor Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, he had no beard. + It was not to be expected that the obsequious parasites who always + surround a monarch, could presume to look more virile than their master. + Immediately all the courtiers appeared beardless, with the exception of + such few grave old men as had outgrown the influence of fashion, and who + had determined to die bearded as they had lived. Sober people in general + saw this revolution with sorrow and alarm, and thought that every manly + virtue would be banished with the beard. It became at the time a common + saying,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Desde que no hay barba, no hay mas alma." + We have no longer souls since we have lost our beards. +</pre> + <p> + In France, also, the beard fell into disrepute after the death of Henry + IV, from the mere reason that his successor was too young to have one. + Some of the more immediate friends of the great Bearnais, and his minister + Sully among the rest, refused to part with their beards, notwithstanding + the jeers of the new generation. + </p> + <p> + Who does not remember the division of England into the two great parties + of Roundheads and Cavaliers? In those days, every species of vice and + iniquity was thought by the Puritans to lurk in the long curly tresses of + the Monarchists, while the latter imagined that their opponents were as + destitute of wit, of wisdom, and of virtue, as they were of hair. A man's + locks were the symbol of his creed, both in politics and religion. The + more abundant the hair, the more scant the faith; and the balder the head, + the more sincere the piety. + </p> + <p> + But among all the instances of the interference of governments with men's + hair, the most extraordinary, not only for its daring, but for its success + is that of Peter the Great, in 1705. By this time, fashion had condemned + the beard in every other country in Europe, and with a voice more potent + than Popes or Emperors, had banished it from civilized society. But this + only made the Russians cling more fondly to their ancient ornament, as a + mark to distinguish them from foreigners, whom they hated. Peter, however + resolved that they should be shaven. If he had been a man deeply read in + history, he might have hesitated before he attempted so despotic an attack + upon the time-hallowed customs and prejudices of his countrymen; but he + was not. He did not know or consider the danger of the innovation; he only + listened to the promptings of his own indomitable will, and his fiat went + forth, that not only the army, but all ranks of citizens, from the nobles + to the serfs, should shave their beards. A certain time was given, that + people might get over the first throes of their repugnance, after which + every man who chose to retain his beard was to pay a tax of one hundred + roubles. The priests and the serfs were put on a lower footing, and + allowed to retain theirs upon payment of a copeck every time they passed + the gate of a city. Great discontent existed in consequence, but the + dreadful fate of the Strelitzes was too recent to be forgotten, and + thousands who had the will had not the courage to revolt. As is well + remarked by a writer in the "Encyclopedia Britannica," they thought it + wiser to cut off their beards than to run the risk of incensing a man who + would make no scruple in cutting off their heads. Wiser, too, than the + popes and bishops of a former age, he did not threaten them with eternal + damnation, but made them pay in hard cash the penalty of their + disobedience. For many years, a very considerable revenue was collected + from this source. The collectors gave in receipt for its payment a small + copper coin, struck expressly for the purpose, and called the + "borodovaia," or "the bearded." On one side it bore the figure of a nose, + mouth, and moustachios, with a long bushy beard, surmounted by the words, + "Deuyee Vyeatee," "money received;" the whole encircled by a wreath, and + stamped with the black eagle of Russia. On the reverse, it bore the date + of the year. Every man who chose to wear a beard was obliged to produce + this receipt on his entry into a town. Those who were refractory, and + refused to pay the tax, were thrown into prison. + </p> + <p> + Since that day, the rulers of modern Europe have endeavoured to persuade, + rather than to force, in all matters pertaining to fashion. The Vatican + troubles itself no more about beards or ringlets, and men may become hairy + as bears, if such is their fancy, without fear of excommunication or + deprivation of their political rights. Folly has taken a new start, and + cultivates the moustachio. + </p> + <p> + Even upon this point governments will not let men alone. Religion as yet + has not meddled with it; but perhaps it will; and politics already + influence it considerably. Before the revolution of 1830, neither the + French nor Belgian citizens were remarkable for their moustachios; but, + after that event, there was hardly a shopkeeper either in Paris or + Brussels whose upper lip did not suddenly become hairy with real or mock + moustachios. During a temporary triumph gained by the Dutch soldiers over + the citizens of Louvain, in October 1830, it became a standing joke + against the patriots, that they shaved their faces clean immediately; and + the wits of the Dutch army asserted, that they had gathered moustachios + enough from the denuded lips of the Belgians to stuff mattresses for all + the sick and wounded in their hospital. + </p> + <p> + The last folly of this kind is still more recent. In the German + newspapers, of August 1838, appeared an ordonnance, signed by the King of + Bavaria, forbidding civilians, on any pretence whatever, to wear + moustachios, and commanding the police and other authorities to arrest, + and cause to be shaved, the offending parties. "Strange to say," adds "Le + Droit," the journal from which this account is taken, "moustachios + disappeared immediately, like leaves from the trees in autumn; everybody + made haste to obey the royal order, and not one person was arrested." + </p> + <p> + The King of Bavaria, a rhymester of some celebrity, has taken a good many + poetical licences in his time. His licence in this matter appears neither + poetical nor reasonable. It is to be hoped that he will not take it into + his royal head to make his subjects shave theirs; nothing but that is + wanting to complete their degradation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DUELS AND ORDEALS + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + There was an ancient sage philosopher, + Who swore the world, as he could prove, + Was mad of fighting. * * * + + Hudibras, +</pre> + <p> + Most writers, in accounting for the origin of duelling, derive it from the + warlike habits of those barbarous nations who overran Europe in the early + centuries of the Christian era, and who knew no mode so effectual for + settling their differences as the point of the sword. In fact, duelling, + taken in its primitive and broadest sense, means nothing more than + combatting, and is the universal resort of all wild animals, including + man, to gain or defend their possessions, or avenge their insults. Two + dogs who tear each other for a bone, or two bantams fighting on a dunghill + for the love of some beautiful hen, or two fools on Wimbledon Common, + shooting at each other to satisfy the laws of offended honour, stand on + the same footing in this respect, and are, each and all, mere duellists. + As civilization advanced, the best informed men naturally grew ashamed of + such a mode of adjusting disputes, and the promulgation of some sort of + laws for obtaining redress for injuries was the consequence. Still there + were many cases in which the allegations of an accuser could not be + rebutted by any positive proof on the part of the accused; and in all + these, which must have been exceedingly numerous in the early stages of + European society, the combat was resorted to. From its decision there was + no appeal. God was supposed to nerve the arm of the combatant whose cause + was just, and to grant him the victory over his opponent. As Montesquieu + well remarks, ["Esprit des Loix," liv. xxviii. chap. xvii.] this belief + was not unnatural among a people just emerging from barbarism. Their + manners being wholly warlike, the man deficient in courage, the prime + virtue of his fellows, was not unreasonably suspected of other vices + besides cowardice, which is generally found to be co-existent with + treachery. He, therefore, who showed himself most valiant in the + encounter, was absolved by public opinion from any crime with which he + might be charged. As a necessary consequence, society would have been + reduced to its original elements, if the men of thought, as distinguished + from the men of action, had not devised some means for taming the unruly + passions of their fellows. With this view, governments commenced by + restricting within the narrowest possible limits the cases in which it was + lawful to prove or deny guilt by the single combat. By the law of + Gondebaldus, King of the Burgundians, passed in the year 501, the proof by + combat was allowed in all legal proceedings, in lieu of swearing. In the + time of Charlemagne, the Burgundian practice had spread over the empire of + the Francs, and not only the suitors for justice, but the witnesses, and + even the judges, were obliged to defend their cause, their evidence, or + their decision, at the point of the sword. Louis the Debonnaire, his + successor, endeavoured to remedy the growing evil, by permitting the duel + only in appeals of felony, in civil cases, or issue joined in a writ of + right, and in cases of the court of chivalry, or attacks upon a man's + knighthood. None were exempt from these trials, but women, the sick and + the maimed, and persons under fifteen or above sixty years of age. + Ecclesiastics were allowed to produce champions in their stead. This + practice, in the course of time, extended to all trials of civil and + criminal cases, which had to be decided by battle. + </p> + <p> + The clergy, whose dominion was an intellectual one, never approved of a + system of jurisprudence which tended so much to bring all things under the + rule of the strongest arm. From the first they set their faces against + duelling, and endeavoured, as far as the prejudices of their age would + allow them, to curb the warlike spirit, so alien from the principles of + religion. In the Council of Valentia, and afterwards in the Council of + Trent, they excommunicated all persons engaged in duelling, and not only + them, but even the assistants and spectators, declaring the custom to be + hellish and detestable, and introduced by the Devil for the destruction + both of body and soul. They added, also, that princes who connived at + duels, should be deprived of all temporal power, jurisdiction, and + dominion over the places where they had permitted them to be fought. It + will be seen hereafter that this clause only encouraged the practice which + it was intended to prevent. + </p> + <p> + But it was the blasphemous error of these early ages to expect that the + Almighty, whenever he was called upon, would work a miracle in favour of a + person unjustly accused. The priesthood, in condemning the duel, did not + condemn the principle on which it was founded. They still encouraged the + popular belief of Divine interference in all the disputes or differences + that might arise among nations or individuals. It was the very same + principle that regulated the ordeals, which, with all their influence, + they supported against the duel. By the former, the power of deciding the + guilt or innocence was vested wholly in their hands, while, by the latter, + they enjoyed no power or privilege at all. It is not to be wondered at, + that for this reason, if for no other, they should have endeavoured to + settle all differences by the peaceful mode. While that prevailed, they + were as they wished to be, the first party in the state; but while the + strong arm of individual prowess was allowed to be the judge in all + doubtful cases, their power and influence became secondary to those of + nobility. + </p> + <p> + Thus, it was not the mere hatred of bloodshed which induced them to launch + the thunderbolts excommunication against the combatants; it a desire to + retain the power, which, to do them justice, they were, in those times, + the persons best qualified to wield. The germs of knowledge and + civilization lay within the bounds of their order; for they were the + representatives of the intellectual, as the nobility were of the physical + power of man. To centralize this power in the Church, and make it the + judge of the last resort in all appeals, both in civil and criminal cases, + they instituted five modes of trial, the management of which lay wholly in + their hands. These were the oath upon the Evangelists; the ordeal of the + cross, and the fire ordeal, for persons in the higher ranks; the water + ordeal, for the humbler classes; and, lastly, the Corsned, or bread and + cheese ordeal, for members of their own body. + </p> + <p> + The oath upon the Evangelists was taken in the following manner: the + accused who was received to this proof, says Paul Hay, Count du Chastelet, + in his Memoirs of Bertrand du Guesclin, swore upon a copy of the New + Testament, and on the relics of the holy martyrs, or on their tombs, that + he was innocent of the crime imputed to him. He was also obliged to find + twelve persons, of acknowledged probity, who should take oath at the same + time, that they believed him innocent. This mode of trial led to very + great abuses, especially in cases of disputed inheritance, where the + hardest swearer was certain of the victory. This abuse was one of the + principal causes which led to the preference given to the trial by battle. + It is not all surprising that a feudal baron, or captain of the early + ages, should have preferred the chances of a fair fight with his opponent, + to a mode by which firm perjury would always be successful. + </p> + <p> + The trial by, or judgment of, the cross, which Charlemagne begged his sons + to have recourse to, in case of disputes arising between them, was + performed thus:—When a person accused of any crime had declared his + innocence upon oath, and appealed to the cross for its judgment in his + favour, he was brought into the church, before the altar. The priests + previously prepared two sticks exactly like one another, upon one of which + was carved a figure of the cross. They were both wrapped up with great + care and many ceremonies, in a quantity of fine wool, and laid upon the + altar, or on the relics of the saints. A solemn prayer was then offered up + to God, that he would be pleased to discover, by the judgment of his holy + cross, whether the accused person were innocent or guilty. A priest then + approached the altar, and took up one of the sticks, and the assistants + unswathed it reverently. If it was marked with the cross, the accused + person was innocent; if unmarked, he was guilty. It would be unjust to + assert, that the judgments thus delivered were, in all cases, erroneous; + and it would be absurd to believe that they were left altogether to + chance. Many true judgments were doubtless given, and, in all probability, + most conscientiously; for we cannot but believe that the priests + endeavoured beforehand to convince themselves by secret inquiry and a + strict examination of the circumstances, whether the appellant were + innocent or guilty, and that they took up the crossed or uncrossed stick + accordingly. Although, to all other observers, the sticks, as enfolded in + the wool, might appear exactly similar, those who enwrapped them could, + without any difficulty, distinguish the one from the other. + </p> + <p> + By the fire-ordeal the power of deciding was just as unequivocally left in + their hands. It was generally believed that fire would not burn the + innocent, and the clergy, of course, took care that the innocent, or such + as it was their pleasure or interest to declare so, should be so warned + before undergoing the ordeal, as to preserve themselves without any + difficulty from the fire. One mode of ordeal was to place red-hot + ploughshares on the ground at certain distances, and then, blindfolding + the accused person, make him walk barefooted over them. If he stepped + regularly in the vacant spaces, avoiding the fire, he was adjudged + innocent; if he burned himself, he was declared guilty. As none but the + clergy interfered with the arrangement of the ploughshares, they could + always calculate beforehand the result of the ordeal. To find a person + guilty, they had only to place them at irregular distances, and the + accused was sure to tread upon one of them. When Emma, the wife of King + Ethelred, and mother of Edward the Confessor, was accused of a guilty + familiarity with Alwyn, Bishop of Winchester, she cleared her character in + this manner. The reputation, not only of their order, but of a queen, + being at stake, a verdict of guilty was not to be apprehended from any + ploughshares which priests had the heating of. This ordeal was called the + Judicium Dei, and sometimes the Vulgaris Purgatio, and might also be tried + by several other methods. One was to hold in the hand, unhurt, a piece of + red-hot iron, of the weight of one, two, or three pounds. When we read not + only that men with hard hands, but women of softer and more delicate skin, + could do this with impunity, we must be convinced that the hands were + previously rubbed with some preservative, or that the apparently hot iron + was merely cold iron painted red. Another mode was to plunge the naked arm + into a caldron of boiling water. The priests then enveloped it in several + folds of linen and flannel, and kept the patient confined within the + church, and under their exclusive care, for three days. If, at the end of + that time, the arm appeared without a scar, the innocence of the accused + person was firmly established. [Very similar to this is the fire-ordeal of + the modern Hindoos, which is thus described in Forbes's "Oriental + Memoirs," vol. i. c. xi.—"When a man, accused of a capital crime, + chooses to undergo the ordeal trial, he is closely confined for several + days; his right hand and arm are covered with thick wax-cloth, tied up and + sealed, in the presence of proper officers, to prevent deceit. In the + English districts the covering was always sealed with the Company's arms, + and the prisoner placed under an European guard. At the time fixed for the + ordeal, a caldron of oil is placed over a fire; when it boils, a piece of + money is dropped into the vessel; the prisoner's arm is unsealed, and + washed in the presence of his judges and accusers. During this part of the + ceremony, the attendant Brahmins supplicate the Deity. On receiving their + benediction, the accused plunges his hand into the boiling fluid, and + takes out the coin. The arm is afterwards again Sealed up until the time + appointed for a re-examination. The seal is then broken: if no blemish + appears, the prisoner is declared innocent; if the contrary, he suffers + the punishment due to his crime." * * * On this trial the accused thus + addresses the element before plunging his hand into the boiling oil:—"Thou, + O fire! pervadest all things. O cause of purity! who givest evidence of + virtue and of sin, declare the truth in this my hand!" If no juggling were + practised, the decisions by this ordeal would be all the same way; but, as + some are by this means declared guilty, and others innocent, it is clear + that the Brahmins, like the Christian priests of the middle ages, practise + some deception in saving those whom they wish to be thought guiltless.] + </p> + <p> + As regards the water-ordeal, the same trouble was not taken. It was a + trial only for the poor and humble, and, whether they sank or swam, was + thought of very little consequence. Like the witches of more modern times, + the accused were thrown into a pond or river; if they sank, and were + drowned, their surviving friends had the consolation of knowing that they + were innocent; if they swam, they were guilty. In either case society was + rid of them. + </p> + <p> + But of all the ordeals, that which the clergy reserved for themselves was + the one least likely to cause any member of their corps to be declared + guilty. The most culpable monster in existence came off clear when tried + by this method. It was called the Corsned, and was thus performed. A piece + of barley bread and a piece of cheese were laid upon the altar, and the + accused priest, in his full canonicals, and surrounded by all the pompous + adjuncts of Roman ceremony, pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed + with great fervency for several minutes. The burden of his prayer was, + that if he were guilty of the crime laid to his charge, God would send his + angel Gabriel to stop his throat, that he might not be able to swallow the + bread and cheese. There is no instance upon record of a priest having been + choked in this manner. [An ordeal very like this is still practised in + India. Consecrated rice is the article chosen, instead of bread and + cheese. Instances are not rare in which, through the force of imagination, + guilty persons are not able to swallow a single grain. Conscious of their + crime, and fearful of the punishment of Heaven, they feel a suffocating + sensation in their throat when they attempt it, and they fall on their + knees, and confess all that is laid to their charge. The same thing, no + doubt, would have happened with the bread and cheese of the Roman church, + if it had been applied to any others but ecclesiastics. The latter had too + much wisdom to be caught in a trap of their own setting.] + </p> + <p> + When, under Pope Gregory VII, it was debated whether the Gregorian chant + should be introduced into Castile, instead of the Musarabic, given by St. + Isidore, of Seville, to the churches of that kingdom, very much ill + feeling was excited. The churches refused to receive the novelty, and it + was proposed that the affair should be decided by a battle between two + champions, one chosen from each side. The clergy would not consent to a + mode of settlement which they considered impious, but had no objection to + try the merits of each chant by the fire ordeal. A great fire was + accordingly made, and a book of the Gregorian and one of the Musarabic + chant were thrown into it, that the flames might decide which was most + agreeable to God by refusing to burn it. Cardinal Baronius, who says he + was an eye-witness of the miracle, relates, that the book of the Gregorian + chant was no sooner laid upon the fire, than it leaped out uninjured, + visibly, and with a great noise. Every one present thought that the saints + had decided in favour of Pope Gregory. After a slight interval, the fire + was extinguished; but, wonderful to relate! the other book of St. Isidore + was found covered with ashes, but not injured in the slightest degree. The + flames had not even warmed it. Upon this it was resolved, that both were + alike agreeable to God, and that they should be used by turns in all the + churches of Seville? [Histoire de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, par Paul + Hay du Chastelet. Livre i. chap. xix.] + </p> + <p> + If the ordeals had been confined to questions like this, the laity would + have had little or no objection to them; but when they were introduced as + decisive in all the disputes that might arise between man and man, the + opposition of all those whose prime virtue was personal bravery, was + necessarily excited. In fact, the nobility, from a very early period, + began to look with jealous eyes upon them. They were not slow to perceive + their true purport, which was no other than to make the Church the last + court of appeal in all cases, both civil and criminal: and not only did + the nobility prefer the ancient mode of single combat from this cause, in + itself a sufficient one, but they clung to it because an acquittal gained + by those displays of courage and address which the battle afforded, was + more creditable in the eyes of their compeers, than one which it required + but little or none of either to accomplish. To these causes may be added + another, which was, perhaps, more potent than either, in raising the + credit of the judicial combat at the expense of the ordeal. The noble + institution of chivalry was beginning to take root, and, notwithstanding + the clamours of the clergy, war was made the sole business of life, and + the only elegant pursuit of the aristocracy. The fine spirit of honour was + introduced, any attack upon which was only to be avenged in the lists, + within sight of applauding crowds, whose verdict of approbation was far + more gratifying than the cold and formal acquittal of the ordeal. + Lothaire, the son of Louis I, abolished that by fire and the trial of the + cross within his dominions; but in England they were allowed so late as + the time of Henry III, in the early part of whose reign they were + prohibited by an order of council. In the mean time, the Crusades had + brought the institution of chivalry to the full height of perfection. The + chivalric spirit soon achieved the downfall of the ordeal system, and + established the judicial combat on a basis too firm to be shaken. It is + true that with the fall of chivalry, as an institution, fell the + tournament, and the encounter in the lists; but the duel, their offspring, + has survived to this day, defying the efforts of sages and philosophers to + eradicate it. Among all the errors bequeathed to us by a barbarous age, it + has proved the most pertinacious. It has put variance between men's reason + and their honour; put the man of sense on a level with the fool, and made + thousands who condemn it submit to it, or practise it. Those who are + curious to see the manner in which these combats were regulated, may + consult the learned Montesquieu, where they will find a copious summary of + the code of ancient duelling. ["Esprit des Loix," livre xxviii. chap. + xxv.] Truly does he remark, in speaking of the clearness and excellence of + the arrangements, that, as there were many wise matters which were + conducted in a very foolish manner, so there were many foolish matters + conducted very wisely. No greater exemplification of it could be given, + than the wise and religious rules of the absurd and blasphemous trial by + battle. + </p> + <p> + In the ages that intervened between the Crusades and the new era that was + opened out by the invention of gunpowder and printing, a more rational + system of legislation took root. The inhabitants of cities, engaged in the + pursuits of trade and industry, were content to acquiesce in the decisions + of their judges and magistrates whenever any differences arose among them. + Unlike the class above them, their habits and manners did not lead them to + seek the battle-field on every slight occasion. A dispute as to the price + of a sack of corn, a bale of broad-cloth, or a cow, could be more + satisfactorily adjusted before the mayor or bailiff of their district. + Even the martial knights and nobles, quarrelsome as they were, began to + see that the trial by battle would lose its dignity and splendour if too + frequently resorted to. Governments also shared this opinion, and on + several occasions restricted the cases in which it was legal to proceed to + this extremity. In France, before the time of Louis IX, duels were + permitted only in cases of Lese Majesty, Rape, Incendiarism, + Assassination, and Burglary. Louis IX, by taking off all restriction, made + them legal in civil eases. This was not found to work well, and, in 1303, + Philip the Fair judged it necessary to confine them, in criminal matters, + to state offences, rape, and incendiarism; and in civil cases, to + questions of disputed inheritance. Knighthood was allowed to be the best + judge of its own honour, and might defend or avenge it as often as + occasion arose. + </p> + <p> + Among the earliest duels upon record, is a very singular one that took + place in the reign of Louis II (A.D. 878). Ingelgerius, Count of + Gastinois, was one morning discovered by his Countess dead in bed at her + side. Gontran, a relation of the Count, accused the Countess of having + murdered her husband, to whom, he asserted, she had long been unfaithful, + and challenged her to produce a champion to do battle in her behalf, that + he might establish her guilt by killing him.[Memoires de Brantome touchant + les Duels.] All the friends and relatives of the Countess believed in her + innocence; but Gontran was so stout and bold and renowned a warrior, that + no one dared to meet him, for which, as Brantome quaintly says, "Mauvais + et poltrons parens estaient." The unhappy Countess began to despair, when + a champion suddenly appeared in the person of Ingelgerius, Count of Anjou, + a boy of sixteen years of age, who had been held by the Countess on the + baptismal font, and received her husband's name. He tenderly loved his + godmother, and offered to do battle in her cause against any and every + opponent. The King endeavoured to persuade the generous boy from his + enterprise, urging the great strength, tried skill, and invincible courage + of the challenger; but he persisted in his resolution, to the great sorrow + of all the court, who said it was a cruel thing to permit so brave and + beautiful a child to rush to such butchery and death. + </p> + <p> + When the lists were prepared, the Countess duly acknowledged her champion, + and the combatants commenced the onset. Gontran rode so fiercely at his + antagonist, and hit him on the shield with such impetuosity, that he lost + his own balance and rolled to the ground. The young Count, as Gontran + fell, passed his lance through his body, and then dismounting, cut off his + head, which, Brantome says, "he presented to the King, who received it + most graciously, and was very joyful, as much so as if any one had made + him a present of a city." The innocence of the Countess was then + proclaimed with great rejoicings; and she kissed her godson, and wept over + his neck with joy, in the presence of all the assembly. + </p> + <p> + When the Earl of Essex was accused, by Robert de Montfort, before King + Henry II, in 1162, of having traitorously suffered the royal standard of + England to fall from his hands in a skirmish with the Welsh, at Coleshill, + five years previously, the latter offered to prove the truth of the charge + by single combat. The Earl of Essex accepted the challenge, and the lists + were prepared near Reading. An immense concourse of persons assembled to + witness the battle. Essex at first fought stoutly, but, losing his temper + and self-command, he gave an advantage to his opponent, which soon decided + the struggle. He was unhorsed, and so severely wounded, that all present + thought he was dead. At the solicitation of his relatives, the monks of + the Abbey of Reading were allowed to remove the body for interment, and + Montfort was declared the victor. Essex, however, was not dead, but + stunned only, and, under the care of the monks, recovered in a few weeks + from his bodily injuries. The wounds of his mind were not so easily + healed. Though a loyal and brave subject, the whole realm believed him a + traitor and a coward because he had been vanquished. He could not brook to + return to the world deprived of the good opinion of his fellows; he, + therefore, made himself a monk, and passed the remainder of his days + within the walls of the Abbey. + </p> + <p> + Du Chastelet relates a singular duel that was proposed in Spain.[Histoire + de Messire Bertrand du Guesclin, livre i. chap. xix.] A Christian + gentleman of Seville sent a challenge to a Moorish cavalier, offering to + prove against him, with whatever weapons he might choose, that the + religion of Jesus Christ was holy and divine, and that of Mahomet impious + and damnable. The Spanish prelates did not choose that Christianity should + be com promised within their jurisdiction by the result of any such + combat, and they commanded the knight, under pain of excommunication, to + withdraw the challenge. + </p> + <p> + The same author relates, that under Otho I a question arose among + jurisconsults, viz. whether grandchildren, who had lost their father, + should share equally with their uncles in the property of their + grandfather, at the death of the latter. The difficulty of this question + was found so insurmountable, that none of the lawyers of that day could + resolve it. It was at last decreed, that it should be decided by single + combat. Two champions were accordingly chosen; one for, and the other + against, the claims of the little ones. After a long struggle, the + champion of the uncles was unhorsed and slain; and it was, therefore, + decided, that the right of the grandchildren was established, and that + they should enjoy the same portion of their grandfather's possessions that + their father would have done had he been alive. + </p> + <p> + Upon pretexts, just as frivolous as these, duels continued to be fought in + most of the countries of Europe during the whole of the fourteenth and + fifteenth centuries. A memorable instance of the slightness of the pretext + on which a man could be forced to fight a duel to the death, occurs in the + Memoirs of the brave Constable, Du Guesclin. The advantage he had + obtained, in a skirmish before Rennes, against William Brembre, an English + captain, so preyed on the spirits of William Troussel, the chosen friend + and companion of the latter, that nothing would satisfy him but a mortal + combat with the Constable. The Duke of Lancaster, to whom Troussel applied + for permission to fight the great Frenchman, forbade the battle, as not + warranted by the circumstances. Troussel nevertheless burned with a fierce + desire to cross his weapon with Du Guesclin, and sought every occasion to + pick a quarrel with him. Having so good a will for it, of course he found + a way. A relative of his had been taken prisoner by the Constable, in + whose hands he remained till he was able to pay his ransom. Troussel + resolved to make a quarrel out of this, and despatched a messenger to Du + Guesclin, demanding the release of his prisoner, and offering a bond, at a + distant date, for the payment of the ransom. Du Guesclin, who had received + intimation of the hostile purposes of the Englishman, sent back word, that + he would not accept his bond, neither would he release his prisoner, until + the full amount of his ransom was paid. As soon as this answer was + received, Troussel sent a challenge to the Constable, demanding reparation + for the injury he had done his honour, by refusing his bond, and offering + a mortal combat, to be fought three strokes with the lance, three with the + sword, and three with the dagger. Du Guesclin, although ill in bed with + the ague, accepted the challenge, and gave notice to the Marshal + d'Andreghem, the King's Lieutenant-General in Lower Normandy, that he + might fix the day and the place of combat. The Marshal made all necessary + arrangements, upon condition that he who was beaten should pay a hundred + florins of gold to feast the nobles and gentlemen who were witnesses of + the encounter. + </p> + <p> + The Duke of Lancaster was very angry with his captain, and told him, that + it would be a shame to his knighthood and his nation, if he forced on a + combat with the brave Du Guesclin, at a time when he was enfeebled by + disease and stretched on the couch of suffering. Upon these + representations, Troussel, ashamed of himself, sent notice to Du Guesclin + that he was willing to postpone the duel until such time as he should be + perfectly recovered. Du Guesclin replied, that he could not think of + postponing the combat, after all the nobility had received notice of it; + that he had sufficient strength left, not only to meet, but to conquer + such an opponent as he was; and that, if he did not make his appearance in + the lists at the time appointed, he would publish him everywhere as a man + unworthy to be called a knight, or to wear an honourable sword by his + side. Troussel carried this haughty message to the Duke of Lancaster, who + immediately gave permission for the battle. + </p> + <p> + On the day appointed, the two combatants appeared in the lists, in the + presence of several thousand spectators. Du Guesclin was attended by the + flower of the French nobility, including the Marshal de Beaumanoir, + Olivier de Mauny, Bertrand de Saint Pern, and the Viscount de la Belliere, + while the Englishman appeared with no more than the customary retinue of + two seconds, two squires, two coutilliers, or daggermen, and two + trumpeters. The first onset was unfavourable to the Constable: he received + so heavy a blow on his shield-arm, that he fell forward to the left, upon + his horse's neck, and, being weakened by his fever, was nearly thrown to + the ground. All his friends thought he could never recover himself, and + began to deplore his ill fortune; but Du Guesclin collected his energies + for a decisive effort, and, at the second charge, aimed a blow at the + shoulder of his enemy, which felled him to the earth, mortally wounded. He + then sprang from his horse, sword in hand, with the intention of cutting + off the head of his fallen foe, when the Marshal D'Andreghem threw a + golden wand into the arena, as a signal that hostilities should cease. Du + Guesclin was proclaimed the victor, amid the joyous acclamations of the + crowd, and retiring, left the field to the meaner combatants, who were + afterwards to make sport for the people. Four English and as many French + squires fought for some time with pointless lances, when the French, + gaining the advantage, the sports were declared at an end. + </p> + <p> + In the time of Charles VI, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, a + famous duel was ordered by the Parliament of Paris. The Sieur de Carrouges + being absent in the Holy Land, his lady was violated by the Sieur Legris. + Carrouges, on his return, challenged Legris to mortal combat, for the + twofold crime of violation and slander, inasmuch as he had denied his + guilt, by asserting that the lady was a willing party. The lady's + asseverations of innocence were held to be no evidence by the Parliament, + and the duel was commanded with all the ceremonies. "On the day + appointed," says Brantome, [Memoires de Brantome touchant les Duels.] "the + lady came to witness the spectacle in her chariot; but the King made her + descend, judging her unworthy, because she was criminal in his eyes till + her innocence was proved, and caused her to stand upon a scaffold to await + the mercy of God and this judgment by the battle. After a short struggle, + the Sieur de Carrouges overthrew his enemy, and made him confess both the + rape and the slander. He was then taken to the gallows and hanged in the + presence of the multitude; while the innocence of the lady was proclaimed + by the heralds, and recognized by her husband, the King, and all the + spectators." + </p> + <p> + Numerous battles, of a similar description, constantly took place, until + the unfortunate issue of one encounter of the kind led the French King, + Henry II, to declare solemnly, that he would never again permit any such + encounter, whether it related to a civil or criminal case, or the honour + of a gentleman. + </p> + <p> + This memorable combat was fought in the year 1547. Francois de Vivonne, + Lord of La Chataigneraie, and Guy de Chabot, Lord of Jarnac, had been + friends from their early youth, and were noted at the court of Francis I + for the gallantry of their bearing and the magnificence of their retinue. + Chataigneraie, who knew that his friend's means were not very ample, asked + him one day, in confidence, how it was that he contrived to be so well + provided? Jarnac replied, that his father had married a young and + beautiful woman, who, loving the son far better than the sire, supplied + him with as much money as he desired. La Chataigneraie betrayed the base + secret to the Dauphin, the Dauphin to the King, the King to his courtiers, + and the courtiers to all their acquaintance. In a short time it reached + the ears of the old Lord de Jarnac, who immediately sent for his son, and + demanded to know in what manner the report had originated, and whether he + had been vile enough not only to carry on such a connexion, but to boast + of it? De Jarnac indignantly denied that he had ever said so, or given + reason to the world to say so, and requested his father to accompany him + to court, and confront him with his accuser, that he might see the manner + in which he would confound him. They went accordingly, and the younger De + Jarnac, entering a room where the Dauphin, La Chataigneraie, and several + courtiers were present, exclaimed aloud, "That whoever had asserted, that + he maintained a criminal connexion with his mother-in-law, was a liar and + a coward!" Every eye was turned to the Dauphin and La Chataigneraie, when + the latter stood forward, and asserted, that De Jarnac had himself avowed + that such was the fact, and he would extort from his lips another + confession of it. A case like this could not be met or rebutted by any + legal proof, and the royal council ordered that it should be decided by + single combat. The King, however, set his face against the duel [Although + Francis showed himself in this case an enemy to duelling, yet, in his own + case, he had not the same objection. Every reader of history must remember + his answer to the challenge of the Emperor Charles V. The Emperor wrote + that he had failed in his word, and that he would sustain their quarrel + single-handed against him. Francis replied, that he lied—qu'il en + avait menti par la gorge, and that he was ready to meet him in single + combat whenever and wherever he pleased.] and forbade them both, under + pain of his high displeasure, to proceed any further in the matter. But + Francis died in the following year, and the Dauphin, now Henry II, who was + himself compromised, resolved that the combat should take place. The lists + were prepared in the court-yard of the chateau of St. Germain-en-Laye, and + the 10th of July 1547 was appointed for the encounter. The cartels of the + combatants, which are preserved in the "Memoires de Castelnau," were as + follow:— + </p> + <p> + "Cartel of Francois de Vivonne, Lord of La Chataigneraie. + </p> + <p> + "Sire, + </p> + <p> + "Having learned that Guy Chabot de Jarnac, being lately at Compeigne, + asserted, that whoever had said that he boasted of having criminal + intercourse with his mother-in-law, was wicked and a wretch,—I, + Sire, with your good-will and pleasure, do answer, that he has wickedly + lied, and will lie as many times as he denies having said that which I + affirm he did say; for I repeat, that he told me several times, and + boasted of it, that he had slept with his mother-in-law. + </p> + <p> + "Francois de Vivonne." + </p> + <p> + To this cartel De Jarnac replied:— + </p> + <p> + "Sire, + </p> + <p> + "With your good will and permission, I say, that Francois de Vivonne has + lied in the imputation which he has cast upon me, and of which I spoke to + you at Compeigne. I, therefore, entreat you, Sire, most humbly, that you + be pleased to grant us a fair field, that we may fight this battle to the + death. + </p> + <p> + "Guy Chabot." + </p> + <p> + The preparations were conducted on a scale of the greatest magnificence, + the King having intimated his intention of being present. La Chataigneraie + made sure of the victory, and invited the King and a hundred and fifty of + the principal personages of the court to sup with him in the evening, + after the battle, in a splendid tent, which he had prepared at the + extremity of the lists. De Jarnac was not so confident, though perhaps + more desperate. At noon, on the day appointed, the combatants met, and + each took the customary oath, that he bore no charms or amulets about him, + or made use of any magic, to aid him against his antagonist. They then + attacked each other, sword in hand. La Chataigneraie was a strong, robust + man, and over confident; De Jarnac was nimble, supple, and prepared for + the worst. The combat lasted for some time doubtful, until De Jarnac, + overpowered by the heavy blows of his opponent, covered his head with his + shield, and, stooping down, endeavoured to make amends by his agility for + his deficiency of strength. In this crouching posture he aimed two blows + at the left thigh of La Chataigneraie, who had left it uncovered, that the + motion of his leg might not be impeded. Each blow was successful, and, + amid the astonishment of all the spectators, and to the great regret of + the King, La Chataigneraie rolled over upon the sand. He seized his + dagger, and made a last effort to strike De Jarnac; but he was unable to + support himself, and fell powerless into the arms of the assistants. The + officers now interfered, and De Jarnac being declared the victor, fell + down upon his knees, uncovered his head, and, clasping his hands together, + exclaimed:—"O Domine, non sum dignus!" La Chataigneraie was so + mortified by the result of the encounter, that he resolutely refused to + have his wounds dressed. He tore off the bandages which the surgeons + applied, and expired two days afterwards. Ever since that time, any sly + and unforeseen attack has been called by the French a coup de Jarnac. + Henry was so grieved at the loss of his favourite, that he made the solemn + oath already alluded to, that he would never again, so long as he lived, + permit a due]. Some writers have asserted, and among others, Mezeraie, + that he issued a royal edict forbidding them. This has been doubted by + others, and, as there appears no registry of the edict in any of the + courts, it seems most probable that it was never issued. This opinion is + strengthened by the fact, that two years afterwards, the council ordered + another duel to be fought, with similar forms, but with less magnificence, + on account of the inferior rank of the combatants. It is not anywhere + stated, that Henry interfered to prevent it, notwithstanding his solemn + oath; but that, on the contrary, he encouraged it, and appointed the + Marshal de la Marque to see that it was conducted according to the rules + of chivalry. The disputants were Fendille and D'Aguerre, two gentlemen of + the household, who, quarrelling in the King's chamber, had proceeded from + words to blows. The council, being informed of the matter, decreed that it + could only be decided in the lists. Marshal de la Marque, with the King's + permission, appointed the city of Sedan as the place of combat. Fendille, + who was a bad swordsman, was anxious to avoid an encounter with D'Aguerre, + who was one of the most expert men of the age; but the council + authoritatively commanded that he should fight, or be degraded from all + his honours. D'Aguerre appeared in the field attended by Francois de + Vendome, Count de Chartres, while Fendille was accompanied by the Duke de + Nevers. Fendille appears to have been not only an inexpert swordsman, but + a thorough coward; one who, like Cowley, might have heaped curses on the + man, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "———-(Death's factor sure), who brought + Dire swords into this peaceful world." +</pre> + <p> + On the very first encounter he was thrown from his horse, and, confessing + on the ground all that his victor required of him, slunk away + ignominiously from the arena. + </p> + <p> + One is tempted to look upon the death of Henry II as a judgment upon him + for his perjury in the matter of duelling. In a grand tournament + instituted on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter, he broke + several lances in encounters with some of the bravest knights of the time. + Ambitious of still further renown, he would not rest satisfied until he + had also engaged the young Count de Montgomeri. He received a wound in the + eye from the lance of this antagonist, and died from its effects shortly + afterwards, in the forty-first year of his age. + </p> + <p> + In the succeeding reigns of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, the + practice of duelling increased to an alarming extent. Duels were not rare + in the other countries of Europe at the same period; but in France they + were so frequent, that historians, in speaking of that age, designate it + as "l'epoque de la fureur des duels." The Parliament of Paris endeavoured, + as far as in its power lay, to discourage the practice. By a decree dated + the 26th of June 1559, it declared all persons who should be present at + duels, or aiding and abetting in them, to be rebels to the King, + transgressors of the law, and disturbers of the public peace. + </p> + <p> + When Henry III was assassinated at St. Cloud, in 1589, a young gentleman, + named L'isle Marivaut, who had been much beloved by him, took his death so + much to heart, that he resolved not to survive him. Not thinking suicide + an honourable death, and wishing, as he said, to die gloriously in + revenging his King and master, he publicly expressed his readiness to + fight anybody to the death who should assert that Henry's assassination + was not a great misfortune to the community. Another youth, of a fiery + temper and tried courage, named Marolles, took him at his word, and the + day and place of the combat were forthwith appointed. When the hour had + come, and all were ready, Marolles turned to his second, and asked whether + his opponent had a casque or helmet only, or whether he wore a sallade, or + headpiece. Being answered a helmet only, he said gaily, "So much the + better; for, sir, my second, you shall repute me the wickedest man in all + the world, if I do not thrust my lance right through the the middle of his + head and kill him." Truth to say, he did so at the very first onset, and + the unhappy L'isle Marivaut expired without a groan. Brantome, who relates + this story, adds, that the victor might have done as he pleased with the + body, cut off the head, dragged it out of the camp, or exposed it upon an + ass, but that, being a wise and very courteous gentleman, he left it to + the relatives of the deceased to be honourably buried, contenting himself + with the glory of his triumph, by which he gained no little renown and + honour among the ladies of Paris. + </p> + <p> + On the accession of Henry IV that monarch pretended to set his face + against duelling; but such was the influence of early education and the + prejudices of society upon him, that he never could find it in his heart + to punish a man for this offence. He thought it tended to foster a warlike + spirit among his people. When the chivalrous Crequi demanded his + permission to fight Don Philippe de Savoire, he is reported to have said, + "Go, and if I were not a King, I would be your second." It is no wonder + that when such were known to be the King's disposition, his edicts + attracted but small attention. A calculation was made by M. de Lomenie, in + the year 1607, that since the accession of Henry, in 1589, no less than + four thousand French gentlemen had lost their lives in these conflicts, + which, for the eighteen years, would have been at the rate of four or five + in a week, or eighteen per month! Sully, who reports this fact in his + Memoirs, does not throw the slightest doubt upon its exactness, and adds, + that it was chiefly owing to the facility and ill-advised good-nature of + his royal master that the bad example had so empoisoned the court, the + city, and the whole country. This wise minister devoted much of his time + and attention to the subject; for the rage, he says, was such as to cause + him a thousand pangs, and the King also. There was hardly a man moving in + what was called good society, who had not been engaged in a duel either as + principal or second; and if there were such a man, his chief desire was to + free himself from the imputation of non-duelling, by picking a quarrel + with somebody. Sully constantly wrote letters to the King, in which he + prayed him to renew the edicts against this barbarous custom, to aggravate + the punishment against offenders, and never, in any instance, to grant a + pardon, even to a person who had wounded another in a duel, much less to + any one who had taken away life. He also advised, that some sort of + tribunal, or court of honour, should be established, to take cognizance of + injurious and slanderous language, and of all such matters as usually led + to duels; and that the justice to be administered by this court should be + sufficiently prompt and severe to appease the complainant, and make the + offender repent of his aggression. + </p> + <p> + Henry, being so warmly pressed by his friend and minister, called together + an extraordinary council in the gallery of the palace of Fontainebleau, to + take the matter into consideration. When all the members were assembled, + his Majesty requested that some person conversant with the subject would + make a report to him on the origin, progress, and different forms of the + duel. Sully complacently remarks, that none of the counsllors gave the + King any great reason to felicitate them on their erudition. In fact, they + all remained silent. Sully held his peace with the rest; but he looked so + knowing, that the King turned towards him, and said:—"Great master! + by your face I conjecture that you know more of this matter than you would + have us believe. I pray you, and indeed I command, that you tell us what + you think and what you know." The coy minister refused, as he says, out of + mere politeness to his more ignorant colleagues; but, being again pressed + by the King, he entered into a history of duelling both in ancient and + modern times. He has not preserved this history in his Memoirs; and, as + none of the ministers or counsellors present thought proper to do so, the + world is deprived of a discourse which was, no doubt, a learned and + remarkable one. The result was, that a royal edict was issued, which Sully + lost no time in transmitting to the most distant provinces, with a + distinct notification to all parties concerned that the King was in + earnest, and would exert the full rigour of the law in punishment of the + offenders. Sully himself does not inform us what were the provisions of + the new law; but Father Matthias has been more explicit, and from him we + learn, that the Marshals of France were created judges of a court of + chivalry, for the hearing of all causes wherein the honour of a noble or + gentleman was concerned, and that such as resorted to duelling should be + punished by death and confiscation of property, and that the seconds and + assistants should lose their rank, dignity, or offices, and be banished + from the court of their sovereign. [Le Pere Matthias, tome ii. livre iv.] + </p> + <p> + But so strong a hold had the education and prejudice of his age upon the + mind of the King, that though his reason condemned, his sympathies + approved the duel. Notwithstanding this threatened severity, the number of + duels did not diminish, and the wise Sully had still to lament the + prevalence of an evil which menaced society with utter disorganization. In + the succeeding reign the practice prevailed, if possible, to a still + greater extent, until the Cardinal de Richelieu, better able to grapple + with it than Sully had been, made some severe examples in the very highest + classes. Lord Herbert, the English ambassador at the court of Louis XIII + repeats, in his letters, an observation that had been previously made in + the reign of Henry IV, that it was rare to find a Frenchman moving in good + society who had not killed his man in a duel. The Abbe Millot says of this + period, that the duel madness made the most terrible ravages. Men had + actually a frenzy for combatting. Caprice and vanity, as well as the + excitement of passion, imposed the necessity of fighting. Friends were + obliged to enter into the quarrels of their friends, or be themselves + called out for their refusal, and revenge became hereditary in many + families. It was reckoned that in twenty years eight thousand letters of + pardon had been issued to persons who had killed others in single combat. + ["Elemens de l'Histoire de France, vol. iii. p. 219.] + </p> + <p> + Other writers confirm this statement. Amelot de Houssaye, in his Memoirs, + says, upon this subject, that duels were so common in the first years of + the reign of Louis XIII, that the ordinary conversation of persons when + they met in the morning was, "Do you know who fought yesterday?" and after + dinner, "Do you know who fought this morning?" The most infamous duellist + at that period was De Bouteville. It was not at all necessary to quarrel + with this assassin to be forced to fight a duel with him. When he heard + that any one was very brave, he would go to him, and say, "People tell me + that you are brave; you and I must fight together!" Every morning the most + notorious bravos and duellists used to assemble at his house, to take a + breakfast of bread and wine, and practise fencing. M. de Valencay, who was + afterwards elevated to the rank of a cardinal, ranked very high in the + estimation of De Bouteville and his gang. Hardly a day passed but what he + was engaged in some duel or other, either as principal or second; and he + once challenged De Bouteville himself, his best friend, because De + Bouteville had fought a duel without inviting him to become his second. + This quarrel was only appeased on the promise of De Bouteville that, in + his next encounter, he would not fail to avail himself of his services. + For that purpose he went out the same day, and picked a quarrel with the + Marquis des Portes. M. de Valencay, according to agreement, had the + pleasure of serving as his second, and of running through the body M. de + Cavois, the second of the Marquis des Portes, a man who had never done him + any injury, and whom he afterwards acknowledged he had never seen before. + </p> + <p> + Cardinal Richelieu devoted much attention to this lamentable state of + public morals, and seems to have concurred with his great predecessor, + Sully, that nothing but the most rigorous severity could put a stop to the + evil. The subject indeed was painfully forced upon him by his enemies. The + Marquis de Themines, to whom Richelieu, then Bishop of Lucon, had given + offence by some representations he had made to Mary of Medicis, + determined, since he could not challenge an ecclesiastic, to challenge his + brother. An opportunity was soon found. Themines, accosting the Marquis de + Richelieu, complained, in an insulting tone, that the Bishop of Lucon had + broken his faith. The Marquis resented both the manner and matter of his + speech, and readily accepted a challenge. They met in the Rue d'Angouleme, + and the unfortunate Richelieu was stabbed to the heart, and instantly + expired. From that moment the Bishop became the steady foe of the practice + of duelling. Reason and the impulse of brotherly love alike combined to + make him detest it, and when his power in France was firmly established, + he set vigorously about repressing it. In his "Testament Politique," he + has collected his thoughts upon the subject, in the chapter entitled "Des + moyens d'arreter les Duels." In spite of the edicts that he published, the + members of the nobility persisted in fighting upon the most trivial and + absurd pretences. At last Richelieu made a terrible example. The infamous + De Bouteville challenged and fought the Marquis de Beuoron; and, although + the duel itself was not fatal to either, its consequences were fatal to + both. High as they were, Richelieu resolved that the law should reach + them, and they were both tried, found guilty, and beheaded. Thus did + society get rid of one of the most bloodthirsty scoundrels that ever + polluted it. + </p> + <p> + In 1632 two noblemen fought a duel, in which they were both killed. The + officers of justice had notice of the breach of the law, and arrived at + the scene of combat before the friends of the parties had time to remove + the bodies. In conformity with the Cardinal's severe code upon the + subject, the bodies were ignominiously stripped, and hanged upon a + gallows, with their heads downwards, for several hours, within sight of + all the people. [Mercure de France, vol. xiii.] This severity sobered the + frenzy of the nation for a time; but it was soon forgotten. Men's minds + were too deeply imbued with a false notion of honour to be brought to a + right way of thinking: by such examples, however striking, Richelieu was + unable to persuade them to walk in the right path, though he could punish + them for choosing the wrong one. He had, with all his acuteness, + miscalculated the spirit of duelling. It was not death that a duellist + feared: it was shame, and the contempt of his fellows. As Addison remarked + more than eighty years afterwards, "Death was not sufficient to deter men + who made it their glory to despise it; but if every one who fought a duel + were to stand in the pillory, it would quickly diminish the number of + those imaginary men of honour, and put an end to so absurd a practice." + Richelieu never thought of this. + </p> + <p> + Sully says, that in his time the Germans were also much addicted to + duelling. There were three places where it was legal to fight; Witzburg, + in Franconia, and Uspach and Halle, in Swabia. Thither, of course, vast + numbers repaired, and murdered each other under sanction of the law. At an + earlier period, in Germany, it was held highly disgraceful to refuse to + fight. Any one who surrendered to his adversary for a simple wound that + did not disable him, was reputed infamous, and could neither cut his + beard, bear arms, mount on horseback, or hold any Office in the state. He + who fell in a duel was buried with great pomp and splendour. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1652, just after Louis XIV had attained his majority, a + desperate duel was fought between the Dukes de Beaufort and De Nemours, + each attended by four gentlemen. Although brothers-in-law, they had long + been enemies, and their constant dissensions had introduced much + disorganization among the troops which they severally commanded. Each had + long sought an opportunity for combat, which at last arose on a + misunderstanding relative to the places they were to occupy at the council + board. They fought with pistols, and, at the first discharge, the Duke de + Nemours was shot through the body, and almost instantly expired. Upon this + the Marquis de Villars, who seconded Nemours, challenged Hericourt, the + second of the Duke de Beaufort, a man whom he had never before seen; and + the challenge being accepted, they fought even more desperately than their + principals. This combat, being with swords, lasted longer than the first, + and was more exciting to the six remaining gentlemen who stayed to witness + it. The result was fatal to Hericourt, who fell pierced to the heart by + the sword of De Villars. Anything more savage than this can hardly be + imagined. Voltaire says such duels were frequent, and the compiler of the + "Dictionnaire d'Anecdotes" informs us, that the number of seconds was not + fixed. As many as ten, or twelve, or twenty, were not unfrequent, and they + often fought together after their principals were disabled. The highest + mark of friendship one man could manifest towards another, was to choose + him for his second; and many gentlemen were so desirous of serving in this + capacity, that they endeavoured to raise every slight misunderstanding + into a quarrel, that they might have the pleasure of being engaged in it. + The Count de Bussy Rabutin relates an instance of this in his Memoirs. He + says, that as he was one evening coming out of the theatre, a gentleman, + named Bruc, whom he had not before known, stopped him very politely, and, + drawing him aside, asked him if it was true that the Count de Thianges had + called him (Bruc) a drunkard? Bussy replied, that he really did not know, + for he saw the Count very seldom. "Oh! he is your uncle!" replied Bruc; + "and, as I cannot have satisfaction from him, because he lives so far off + in the country, I apply to you." "I see what you are at," replied Bussy, + "and, since you wish to put me in my uncle's place, I answer, that whoever + asserted that he called you a drunkard, told a lie!" "My brother said so," + replied Bruc, "and he is a child." "Horsewhip him, then, for his + falsehood," returned De Bussy. "I will not have my brother called a liar," + returned Bruc, determined to quarrel with him; "so draw, and defend + yourself!" They both drew their swords in the public street, but were + separated by the spectators. They agreed, however, to fight on a future + occasion, and with all regular forms of the duello. A few days afterwards, + a gentleman, whom De Bussy had never before seen, and whom he did not + know, even by name, called upon him, and asked if he might have the + privilege of serving as his second. He added, that he neither knew him nor + Bruc, except by reputation, but, having made up his mind to be second to + one of them, he had decided upon accompanying De Bussy as the braver man + of the two. De Bussy thanked him very sincerely for his politeness, but + begged to be excused, as he had already engaged four seconds to accompany + him, and he was afraid that if he took any more, the affair would become a + battle instead of a duel. + </p> + <p> + When such quarrels as these were looked upon as mere matters of course, + the state of society must have been indeed awful. Louis XIV very early saw + the evil, and as early determined to remedy it. It was not, however, till + the year 1679, when he instituted the "Chambre Ardente," for the trial of + the slow poisoners and pretenders to sorcery, that he published any edict + against duelling. In that year his famous edict was promulgated, in which + he reiterated and confirmed the severe enactments of his predecessors, + Henry IV and Louis XIII, and expressed his determination never to pardon + any offender. By this celebrated ordinance a supreme court of honour was + established, composed of the Marshals of France. They were bound, on + taking the office, to give to every one who brought a well-founded + complaint before them, such reparation as would satisfy the justice of the + case. Should any gentleman against whom complaint was made refuse to obey + the mandate of the court of honour, he might be punished by fine and + imprisonment; and when that was not possible, by reason of his absenting + himself from the kingdom, his estates might be confiscated till his + return. + </p> + <p> + Every man who sent a challenge, be the cause of offence what it might, was + deprived of all redress from the court of honour—suspended three + years from the exercise of any office in the state—was further + imprisoned for two years, and sentenced to pay a fine of half his yearly + income. He who accepted a challenge, was subject to the same punishment. + Any servant, or other person, who knowingly became the bearer of a + challenge, was, if found guilty, sentenced to stand in the pillory and be + publicly whipped for the first offence, and for the second, sent for three + years to the galleys. + </p> + <p> + Any person who actually fought, was to be held guilty of murder, even + though death did not ensue, and was to be punished accordingly. Persons in + the higher ranks of life were to be beheaded, and those of the middle + class hanged upon a gallows, and their bodies refused Christian burial. + </p> + <p> + At the same time that Louis published this severe edict, he exacted a + promise from his principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel + on any pretence whatever. He never swerved from his resolution to pursue + all duellists with the utmost rigour, and many were executed in various + parts of the country. A slight abatement of the evil was the consequence, + and in the course of a few years one duel was not fought where twelve had + been fought previously. A medal was struck to commemorate the + circumstance, by the express command of the King. So much had he this + object at heart, that, in his will, he particularly recommended to his + successor the care of his edict against duelling, and warned him against + any ill-judged lenity to those who disobeyed it. A singular law formerly + existed in Malta with regard to duelling. By this law it was permitted, + but only upon condition that the parties should fight in one particular + street. If they presumed to settle their quarrel elsewhere, they were held + guilty of murder, and punished accordingly. What was also very singular, + they were bound, under heavy penalties, to put up their swords when + requested to do so by a priest, a knight, or a woman. It does not appear, + however, that the ladies or the knights exercised this mild and beneficent + privilege to any great extent; the former were too often themselves the + cause of duels, and the latter sympathised too much in the wounded honour + of the combatants to attempt to separate them. The priests alone were the + great peacemakers. Brydone says, that a cross was always painted on the + wall opposite to the spot where a knight had been killed, and that in the + "street of duels" he counted about twenty of them. [Brydone's "Tour in + Malta." 1772.] + </p> + <p> + In England the private duel was also practised to a scandalous extent, + towards the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seventeenth + centuries. The judicial combat now began to be more rare, but several + instances of it are mentioned in history. One was instituted in the reign + of Elizabeth, and another so late as the time of Charles I. Sir Henry + Spelman gives an account of that which took place in Elizabeth's reign, + which is curious, perhaps the more so when we consider that it was + perfectly legal, and that similar combats remained so till the year 1819. + A proceeding having been instituted in the Court of Common Pleas for the + recovery of certain manorial rights in the county of Kent, the defendant + offered to prove by single combat his right to retain possession. The + plaintiff accepted the challenge, and the Court having no power to stay + the proceedings, agreed to the champions who were to fight in lieu of the + principals. The Queen commanded the parties to compromise; but it being + represented to Her Majesty that they were justified by law in the course + they were pursuing, she allowed them to proceed. On the day appointed, the + Justices of the Common Pleas, and all the council engaged in the cause, + appeared as umpires of the combat, at a place in Tothill-fields, where the + lists had been prepared. The champions were ready for the encounter, and + the plaintiff and defendant were publicly called to come forward and + acknowledge them. The defendant answered to his name, and recognised his + champion with the due formalities, but the plaintiff did not appear. + Without his presence and authority the combat could not take place; and + his absence being considered an abandonment of his claim, he was declared + to be nonsuited, and barred for ever from renewing his suit before any + other tribunal whatever. + </p> + <p> + The Queen appears to have disapproved personally of this mode of settling + a disputed claim, but her judges and legal advisers made no attempt to + alter the barbarous law. The practice of private duelling excited more + indignation, from its being of every-day occurrence. In the time of James + I the English were so infected with the French madness, that Bacon, when + he was Attorney-general, lent the aid of his powerful eloquence to effect + a reformation of the evil. Informations were exhibited in the Star Chamber + against two persons, named Priest and Wright, for being engaged, as + principal and second, in a duel, on which occasion he delivered a charge + that was so highly approved of by the Lords of the Council, that they + ordered it to be printed and circulated over the country, as a thing "very + meet and worthy to be remembered and made known unto the world." He began + by considering the nature and greatness of the mischief of duelling. "It + troubleth peace—it disfurnisheth war—it bringeth calamity upon + private men, peril upon the state, and contempt upon the law. Touching the + causes of it," he observed, "that the first motive of it, no doubt, is a + false and erroneous imagination of honour and credit; but then, the seed + of this mischief being such, it is nourished by vain discourses and green + and unripe conceits. Hereunto may be added, that men have almost lost the + true notion and understanding of fortitude and valour. For fortitude + distinguisheth of the grounds of quarrel whether they be just; and not + only so, but whether they be worthy, and setteth a better price upon men's + lives than to bestow them idly. Nay, it is weakness and disesteem of a + man's self to put a man's life upon such liedger performances. A man's + life is not to be trifled with: it is to be offered up and sacrificed to + honourable services, public merits, good causes, and noble adventures. It + is in expense of blood as it is in expense of money. It is no liberality + to make a profusion of money upon every vain occasion, neither is it + fortitude to make effusion of blood, except the cause of it be worth." + [See "Life and Character of Lord Bacon," by Thomas Martin, + Barrister-at-law.] + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable event connected with duelling in this reign was that + between Lord Sanquir, a Scotch nobleman, and one Turner, a fencing-master. + In a trial of skill between them, his lordship's eye was accidentally + thrust out by the point of Turner's sword. Turner expressed great regret + at the circumstance, and Lord Sanquir bore his loss with as much + philosophy as he was master of, and forgave his antagonist. Three years + afterwards, Lord Sanquir was at Paris, where he was a constant visitor at + the court of Henry IV. One day, in the course of conversation, the affable + monarch inquired how he had lost his eye. Sanquir, who prided himself on + being the most expert swordsman of the age, blushed as he replied that it + was inflicted by the sword of a fencing-master. Henry, forgetting his + assumed character of an antiduellist, carelessly, and as a mere matter of + course, inquired whether the man lived? Nothing more was said, but the + query sank deep into the proud heart of the Scotch baron, who returned + shortly afterwards to England, burning for revenge. His first intent was + to challenge the fencing-master to single combat, but, on further + consideration, he deemed it inconsistent with his dignity to meet him as + an equal in fair and open fight. He therefore hired two bravos, who set + upon the fencing-master, and murdered him in his own house at Whitefriars. + The assassins were taken and executed, and a reward of one thousand pounds + offered for the apprehension of their employer. Lord Sanquir concealed + himself for several days, and then surrendered to take his trial, in the + hope (happily false) that Justice would belie her name, and be lenient to + a murderer because he was a nobleman, who, on a false point of honour, had + thought fit to take revenge into his own hands. The most powerful + intercessions were employed in his favour, but James, to his credit, was + deaf to them all. Bacon, in his character of Attorney-general, prosecuted + the prisoner to conviction; and he died the felon's death, on the 29th of + June, 1612, on a gibbet erected in front of the gate of Westminster Hall. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the public duel, or trial by battle, demanded under the + sanction of the law, to terminate a quarrel which the ordinary course of + justice could with difficulty decide, Bacon was equally opposed to it, and + thought that in no case should it be granted. He suggested that there + should be declared a constant and settled resolution in the state to + abolish it altogether; that care should be taken that the evil be no more + cockered, nor the humour of it fed, but that all persons found guilty + should be rigorously punished by the Star Chamber, and these of eminent + quality banished from the court. + </p> + <p> + In the succeeding reign, when Donald Mackay, the first Lord Reay, accused + David Ramsay of treason, in being concerned with the Marquis of Hamilton + in a design upon the crown of Scotland, he was challenged by the latter to + make good his assertion by single combat. [See "History of the House and + Clan of Mackay."] It had been at first the intention of the government to + try the case by the common law, but Ramsay thought he would stand a better + chance of escape by recurring to the old and almost exploded custom, but + which was still the right of every man in appeals of treason. Lord Reay + readily accepted the challenge, and both were confined in the Tower until + they found security that they would appear on a certain day, appointed by + the court, to determine the question. The management of the affair was + delegated to the Marischal Court of Westminster, and the Earl of Lindsay + was created Lord Constable of England for the purpose. Shortly before the + day appointed, Ramsay confessed in substance all that Lord Reay had laid + to his charge, upon which Charles I put a stop to the proceedings. + </p> + <p> + But in England, about this period, sterner disputes arose among men than + those mere individual matters which generate duels. The men of the + Commonwealth encouraged no practice of the kind, and the subdued + aristocracy carried their habits and prejudices elsewhere, and fought + their duels at foreign courts. Cromwell's Parliament, however,—although + the evil at that time was not so crying,—published an order, in + 1654, for the prevention of duels, and the punishment of all con cerned in + them. Charles II, on his restoration, also issued a proclamation upon the + subject. In his reign an infamous duel was fought—infamous, not only + from its own circumstances, but from the lenity that was shown to the + principal offenders. + </p> + <p> + The worthless Duke of Buckingham, having debauched the Countess of + Shrewsbury, was challenged by her husband to mortal combat, in January + 1668. Charles II endeavoured to prevent the duel, not from any regard to + public morality, but from fear for the life of his favourite. He gave + commands to the Duke of Albemarle to confine Buckingham to his house, or + take some other measures to prevent him flora fighting. Albemarle + neglected the order, thinking that the King himself might prevent the + combat by some surer means. The meeting took place at Barn Elms, the + injured Shrewsbury being attended by Sir John Talbot, his relative, and + Lord Bernard Howard, son of the Earl of Arundel. Buckingham was + accompanied by two of his dependants, Captain Holmes and Sir John Jenkins. + According to the barbarous custom of the age, not only the principals, but + the seconds, engaged each other. Jenkins was pierced to the heart, and + left dead upon the field, and Sir John Talbot severely wounded in both + arms. Buckingham himself escaping with slight wounds, ran his unfortunate + antagonist through the body, and then left the field with the wretched + woman, the cause of all the mischief, who, in the dress of a page, awaited + the issue of the conflict in a neighbouring wood, holding her paramour's + horse to avoid suspicion. Great influence was exerted to save the guilty + parties from punishment, and the master, as base as the favourite, made + little difficulty in granting a free pardon to all concerned. In a royal + proclamation issued shortly afterwards, Charles II formally pardoned the + murderers, but declared his intention never to extend, in future, any + mercy to such offenders. It would be hard after this to say who was the + most infamous, the King, the favourite, or the courtezan. + </p> + <p> + In the reign of Queen Anne, repeated complaints were made of the + prevalence of duelling. Addison, Swift, Steele, and other writers, + employed their powerful pens in reprobation of it. Steele especially, in + the "Tatler" and "Guardian," exposed its impiety and absurdity, and + endeavoured, both by argument and by ridicule, to bring his countrymen to + a right way of thinking. [See "Spectator," Nos. 84. 97, and 99; and + "Tatler," Nos. 25, 26, 29, 31, 38, and 39; and "Guardian," No. 20.] His + comedy of "The Conscious Lovers" contains an admirable exposure of the + abuse of the word honour, which led men into an error so lamentable. + Swift, writing upon the subject, remarked that he could see no harm in + rogues and fools shooting each other. Addison and Steele took higher + ground, and the latter, in the "Guardian," summed up nearly all that could + be said upon the subject in the following impressive words:—"A + Christian and a gentleman are made inconsistent appellations of the same + person. You are not to expect eternal life if you do not forgive injuries, + and your mortal life is rendered uncomfortable if you are not ready to + commit a murder in resentment of an affront; for good sense, as well as + religion, is so utterly banished the world that men glory in their very + passions, and pursue trifles with the utmost vengeance, so little do they + know that to forgive is the most arduous pitch human nature can arrive at. + A coward has often fought—a coward has often conquered, but a coward + never forgave." Steele also published a pamphlet, in which he gave a + detailed account of the edict of Louis XIV, and the measures taken by that + monarch to cure his subjects of their murderous folly. + </p> + <p> + On the 8th of May, 1711, Sir Cholmely Deering, M.P. for the county of + Kent, was slain in a duel by Mr. Richard Thornhill, also a member of the + House of Commons. Three days afterwards, Sir Peter King brought the + subject under the notice of the Legislature, and after dwelling at + considerable length on the alarming increase of the practice, obtained + leave to bring in a bill for the prevention and punishment of duelling. It + was read a first time that day, and ordered for a second reading in the + ensuing week. + </p> + <p> + About the same time the attention of the Upper House of Parliament was + also drawn to the subject in the most painful manner. Two of its most + noted members would have fought, had it not been that Queen Anne received + notice of their intention, and exacted a pledge that they would desist; + while a few months afterwards, two other of its members lost their lives + in one of the most remarkable duels upon record. The first affair, which + happily terminated without a meeting, was between the Duke of Marlborough + and the Earl Pawlet. The latter, and fatal encounter, was between the Duke + of Hamilton and Lord Mohun. + </p> + <p> + The first arose out of a debate in the Lords upon the conduct of the Duke + of Ormond, in refusing to hazard a general engagement with the enemy, in + which Earl Pawlet remarked that nobody could doubt the courage of the Duke + of Ormond. "He was not like a certain general, who led troops to the + slaughter, to cause great numbers of officers to be knocked on the head in + a battle, or against stone walls, in order to fill his pockets by + disposing of their commissions." Every one felt that the remark was aimed + at the Duke of Marlborough, but he remained silent, though evidently + suffering in mind. Soon after the House broke up, the Earl Pawlet received + a visit from Lord Mohun, who told him that the Duke of Marlborough was + anxious to come to an explanation with him relative to some expressions he + had made use of in that day's debate, and therefore prayed him to "go and + take a little air in the country." Earl Pawlet did not affect to + misunderstand the hint, but asked him in plain terms whether he brought a + challenge from the Duke. Lord Mohun said his message needed no + explanation, and that he (Lord Mohun) would accompany the Duke of + Marlborough. He then took his leave, and Earl Pawlet returned home and + told his lady that he was going out to fight a duel with the Duke of + Marlborough. His lady, alarmed for her lord's safety, gave notice of his + intention to the Earl of Dartmouth, who immediately, in the Queen's name, + sent to the Duke of Marlborough, and commanded him not to stir abroad. He + also caused Earl Pawlet's house to be guarded by two sentinels; and having + taken these precautions, informed the Queen of the whole affair. Her + Majesty sent at once for the Duke, expressed her abhorrence of the custom + of duelling, and required his word of honour that he would proceed no + further. The Duke pledged his word accordingly, and the affair terminated. + </p> + <p> + The lamentable duel between the Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun took place + in November 1712, and sprang from the following circumstances. A lawsuit + had been pending for eleven years between these two noblemen, and they + looked upon each other in consequence with a certain degree of coldness. + They met together on the 13th of November in the chambers of Mr. Orlebar, + a Master in Chancery, when, in the course of conversation, the Duke of + Hamilton reflected upon the conduct of one of the witnesses in the cause, + saying that he was a person who had neither truth nor justice in him. Lord + Mohun, somewhat nettled at this remark, applied to a witness favourable to + his side, made answer hastily, that Mr. Whiteworth, the person alluded to, + had quite as much truth and justice in him as the Duke of Hamilton. The + Duke made no reply, and no one present imagined that he took offence at + what was said; and when he went out, of the room, he made a low and + courteous salute to the Lord Mohun. In the evening, General Macartney + called twice upon the Duke with a challenge from Lord Mohun, and failing + in seeing him, sought him a third time at a tavern, where he found him, + and delivered his message. The Duke accepted the challenge, and the day + after the morrow, which was Sunday, the 15th of November, at seven in the + morning, was appointed for the meeting. + </p> + <p> + At that hour they assembled in Hyde Park, the Duke being attended by his + relative, Colonel Hamilton, and the Lord Mohun by General Macartney. They + jumped over a ditch into a place called the Nursery, and prepared for the + combat. The Duke of Hamilton, turning to General Macartney, said, "Sir, + you are the cause of this, let the event be what it will." Lord Mohun did + not wish that the seconds should engage, but the Duke insisted that + "Macartney should have a share in the dance." All being ready, the two + principals took up their positions, and fought with swords so desperately + that, after a short time, they both fell down, mortally wounded. The Lord + Mohun expired upon the spot, and the Duke of Hamilton in the arms of his + servants as they were carrying him to his coach. + </p> + <p> + This unhappy termination caused the greatest excitement, not only in the + metropolis, but all over the country. The Tories, grieved at the loss of + the Duke of Hamilton, charged the fatal combat on the Whig party, whose + leader, the Duke of Marlborough, had so recently set the example of + political duels. They called Lord Mohun the bully of the Whig faction, (he + had already killed three men in duels, and been twice tried for murder), + and asserted openly, that the quarrel was concocted between him and + General Macartney to rob the country of the services of the Duke of + Hamilton by murdering him. It was also asserted, that the wound of which + the Duke died was not inflicted by Lord Mohun, but by Macartney; and every + means was used to propagate this belief. Colonel Hamilton, against whom + and Macartney the coroner's jury had returned a verdict of wilful murder, + surrendered a few days afterwards, and was examined before a privy council + sitting at the house of Lord Dartmouth. He then deposed, that seeing Lord + Mohun fall, and the Duke upon him, he ran to the Duke's assistance, and + that he might with the more ease help him, he flung down both their + swords, and, as he was raising the Duke up, he saw Macartney, make a push + at him. Upon this deposition a royal proclamation was immediately issued, + offering a reward of 500 pounds for the apprehension of Macartney, to + which the Duchess of Hamilton afterwards added a reward of 300 pounds. + </p> + <p> + Upon the further examination of Colonel Hamilton, it was found that + reliance could not be placed on all his statements, and that he + contradicted himself in several important particulars. He was arraigned at + the Old Bailey for the murder of Lord Mohun, the whole political circles + of London being in a fever of excitement for the result. All the Tory + party prayed for his acquittal, and a Tory mob surrounded the doors and + all the avenues leading to the court of justice for many hours before the + trial began. The examination of witnesses lasted seven hours. The criminal + still persisted in accusing General Macartney of the murder of the Duke of + Hamilton, but, in other respects, say the newspapers of the day, + prevaricated foully. He was found guilty of manslaughter. This favourable + verdict was received with universal applause, "not only from the court and + all the gentlemen present, but the common people showed a mighty + satisfaction, which they testified by loud and repeated huzzas." ["Post + Boy," December l3th, 1712.] + </p> + <p> + As the popular delirium subsided, and men began to reason coolly upon the + subject, they disbelieved the assertions of Colonel Hamilton, that + Macartney had stabbed the Duke, although it was universally admitted that + he had been much too busy and presuming. Hamilton was shunned by all his + former companions, and his life rendered so irksome to him, that he sold + out of the Guards, and retired to private life, in which he died + heart-broken four years afterwards. + </p> + <p> + General Macartney surrendered about the same time, and was tried for + murder in the Court of King's Bench. He was, however, found guilty of + manslaughter only. + </p> + <p> + At the opening of the session of Parliament of 1713, the Queen made + pointed allusion in her speech to the frequency of duelling, and + recommended to the Legislature to devise some speedy and effectual remedy + for it. A bill to that effect was brought forward, but thrown out on the + second reading, to the very great regret of all the sensible portion of + the community. + </p> + <p> + A famous duel was fought in 1765 between Lord Byron and Mr. Chaworth. The + dispute arose at a club-dinner, and was relative to which of the two had + the largest quantity of game on his estates. Infuriated by wine and + passion, they retired instantly into an adjoining room, and fought with + swords across a table, by the feeble glimmer of a tallow-candle. Mr. + Chaworth, who was the more expert swordsman of the two, received a mortal + wound, and shortly afterwards expired. Lord Byron was brought to trial for + the murder before the House of Lords; and it appearing clearly, that the + duel was not premeditated, but fought at once, and in the heat of passion, + he was found guilty of manslaughter only, and ordered to be discharged + upon payment of his fees. This was a very bad example for the country, and + duelling of course fell into no disrepute after such a verdict. + </p> + <p> + In France, more severity was exercised. In the year 1769, the Parliament + of Grenoble took cognizance of the delinquency of the Sieur Duchelas, one + of its members, who challenged and killed in a duel a captain of the + Flemish legion. The servant of Duchelas officiated as second, and was + arraigned with his master for the murder of the captain. They were both + found guilty. Duchelas was broken alive on the wheel, and the servant + condemned to the galleys for life. + </p> + <p> + A barbarous and fiercely-contested duel was fought in November 1778, + between two foreign adventurers, at Bath, named Count Rice and the Vicomte + du Barri. Some dispute arose relative to a gambling transaction, in the + course of which Du Barri contradicted an assertion of the other, by + saying, "That is not true!" Count Rice immediately asked him if he knew + the very disagreeable meaning of the words he had employed. Du Barri said + he was perfectly well aware of their meaning, and that Rice might + interpret them just as he pleased. A challenge was immediately given and + accepted. Seconds were sent for, who, arriving with but little delay, the + whole party, though it was not long after midnight, proceeded to a place + called Claverton Down, where they remained with a surgeon until daylight. + They then prepared for the encounter, each being armed with two pistols + and a sword. The ground having been marked out by the seconds, Du Barri + fired first, and wounded his opponent in the thigh. Count Rice then + levelled his pistol, and shot Du Barri mortally in the breast. So angry + were the combatants, that they refused to desist; both stepped back a few + paces, and then rushing forward, discharged their second pistols at each + other. Neither shot took effect, and both throwing away their pistols, + prepared to finish the sanguinary struggle by the sword. They took their + places, and were advancing towards each other, when the Vicomte du Barri + suddenly staggered, grew pale, and, falling to the ground, exclaimed, "Je + vous demande ma vie." His opponent had but just time to answer, that he + granted it, when the unfortunate Du Barri turned upon the grass, and + expired with a heavy groan. The survivor of this savage conflict was then + removed to his lodgings, where he lay for some weeks in a dangerous state. + The coroner's jury, in the mean while, sat upon the body of Du Barri, and + disgraced themselves by returning a verdict of manslaughter only. Count + Rice, upon his recovery, was indicted for the murder notwithstanding this + verdict. On his trial he entered into a long defence of his conduct, + pleading the fairness of the duel, and its unpremeditated nature; and, at + the same time, expressing his deep regret for the unfortunate death of Du + Barri, with whom for many years he had been bound in ties of the strictest + friendship. These considerations appear to have weighed with the jury, and + this fierce duellist was again found guilty of manslaughter only, and + escaped with a merely nominal punishment. + </p> + <p> + A duel, less remarkable from its circumstances, but more so from the rank + of the parties, took place in 1789. The combatants on this occasion were + the Duke of York and Colonel Lenox, the nephew and heir of the Duke of + Richmond. The cause of offence was given by the Duke of York, who had + said, in presence of several officers of the Guards, that words had been + used to Colonel Lenox at Daubigny's to which no gentleman ought to have + submitted. Colonel Lenox went up to the Duke on parade, and asked him + publicly whether he had made such an assertion. The Duke of York, without + answering his question, coldly ordered him to his post. When parade was + over, he took an opportunity of saying publicly in the orderly room before + Colonel Lenox, that he desired no protection from his rank as a prince and + his station as commanding officer; adding that, when he was off duty, he + wore a plain brown coat like a private gentleman, and was ready as such to + give satisfaction. Colonel Lenox desired nothing better than satisfaction; + that is to say, to run the chance of shooting the Duke through the body, + or being himself shot. He accordingly challenged his Royal Highness, and + they met on Wimbledon Common. Colonel Lenox fired first, and the ball + whizzed past the head of his opponent, so near to it as to graze his + projecting curl. The Duke refused to return the fire, and the seconds + interfering, the affair terminated. + </p> + <p> + Colonel Lenox was very shortly afterwards engaged in another duel arising + out of this. A Mr. Swift wrote a pamphlet in reference to the dispute + between him and the Duke of York, at some expressions in which he took so + much offence, as to imagine that nothing but a shot at the writer could + atone for them. They met on the Uxbridge Road, but no damage was done to + either party. + </p> + <p> + The Irish were for a long time renowned for their love of duelling. The + slightest offence which it is possible to imagine that one man could offer + to another, was sufficient to provoke a challenge. Sir Jonah Barrington + relates, in his Memoirs, that, previous to the Union, during the time of a + disputed election in Dublin, it was no unusual thing for three-and-twenty + duels to be fought in a day. Even in times of less excitement, they were + so common as to be deemed unworthy of note by the regular chroniclers of + events, except in cases where one or both of the combatants were killed. + </p> + <p> + In those days, in Ireland, it was not only the man of the military, but of + every profession, who had to work his way to eminence with the sword or + the pistol. Each political party had its regular corps of bullies, or + fire-eaters, as they were called, who qualified themselves for being the + pests of society by spending all their spare time in firing at targets. + They boasted that they could hit an opponent in any part of his body they + pleased, and made up their minds before the encounter began whether they + should kill him, disable, or disfigure him for life—lay him on a bed + of suffering for a twelve-month, or merely graze a limb. + </p> + <p> + The evil had reached an alarming height, when, in the year 1808, an + opportunity was afforded to King George III of showing in a striking + manner his detestation of the practice, and of setting an example to the + Irish that such murders were not to be committed with impunity. A dispute + arose, in the month of June 1807, between Major Campbell and Captain Boyd, + officers of the 21st regiment, stationed in Ireland, about the proper + manner of giving the word of command on parade. Hot words ensued on this + slight occasion, and the result was a challenge from Campbell to Boyd. + They retired into the mess-room shortly afterwards, and each stationed + himself at a corner, the distance obliquely being but seven paces. Here, + without friends or seconds being present, they fired at each other, and + Captain Boyd fell mortally wounded between the fourth and fifth ribs. A + surgeon who came in shortly, found him sitting in a chair, vomiting and + suffering great agony. He was led into another room, Major Campbell + following, in great distress and perturbation of mind. Boyd survived but + eighteen hours; and just before his death, said, in reply to a question + from his opponent, that the duel was not fair, and added, "You hurried me, + Campbell—you're a bad man."——"Good God!" replied + Campbell, "will you mention before these gentlemen, was not everything + fair? Did you not say that you were ready?" Boyd answered faintly, "Oh, + no! you know I wanted you to wait and have friends." On being again asked + whether all was fair, the dying man faintly murmured "Yes:" but in a + minute after, he said, "You're a bad man!" Campbell was now in great + agitation, and wringing his hands convulsively, he exclaimed, "Oh, Boyd! + you are the happiest man of the two! Do you forgive me?" Boyd replied, "I + forgive you—I feel for you, as I know you do for me." He shortly + afterwards expired, and Major Campbell made his escape from Ireland, and + lived for some months with his family under an assumed name, in the + neighbourhood of Chelsea. He was, however, apprehended, and brought to + trial at Armagh, in August 1808. He said while in prison, that, if found + guilty of murder, he should suffer as an example to duellists in Ireland; + but he endeavoured to buoy himself up, with the hope that the jury would + only convict him of manslaughter. It was proved in evidence upon the + trial, that the duel was not fought immediately after the offence was + given, but that Major Campbell went home and drank tea with his family, + before he sought Boyd for the fatal encounter. The jury returned a verdict + of wilful murder against him, but recommended him to mercy on the ground + that the duel had been a fair one. He was condemned to die on the Monday + following, but was afterwards respited for a few days longer. In the mean + time the greatest exertions were made in his behalf. His unfortunate wife + went upon her knees before the Prince of Wales, to move him to use his + influence with the King, in favour of her unhappy husband. Everything a + fond wife and a courageous woman could do, she tried, to gain the royal + clemency; but George III was inflexible, in consequence of the + representations of the Irish Viceroy that an example was necessary. The + law was therefore allowed to take its course, and the victim of a false + spirit of honour died the death of a felon. + </p> + <p> + The most inveterate duellists of the present day are the students in the + Universities of Germany. They fight on the most frivolous pretences, and + settle with swords and pistols the schoolboy disputes which in other + countries are arranged by the more harmless medium of the fisticuffs. It + was at one time the custom among these savage youths to prefer the sword + combat, for the facility it gave them of cutting off the noses of their + opponents. To disfigure them in this manner was an object of ambition, and + the German duellists reckoned the number of these disgusting trophies + which they had borne away, with as much satisfaction as a successful + general the provinces he had reduced or the cities he had taken. + </p> + <p> + But it would be wearisome to enter into the minute detail of all the duels + of modern times. If an examination were made into the general causes which + produced them, it would be found that in every case they had been either + of the most trivial or the most unworthy nature. Parliamentary duels were + at one time very common, and amongst the names of those who have soiled a + great reputation by conforming to the practice, may be mentioned those of + Warren Hastings, Sir Philip Francis, Wilkes, Pitt, Fox, Grattan, Curran, + Tierney, and Canning. So difficult is it even for the superior mind to + free itself from the trammels with which foolish opinion has enswathed it—not + one of these celebrated persons who did not in his secret soul condemn the + folly to which he lent himself. The bonds of reason, though iron-strong, + are easily burst through; but those of folly, though lithe and frail as + the rushes by a stream, defy the stoutest heart to snap them asunder. + Colonel Thomas, an officer of the Guards, who was killed in a duel, added + the following clause to his will the night before he died:—"In the + first place, I commit my soul to Almighty God, in hope of his mercy and + pardon for the irreligious step I now (in compliance with the + unwarrantable customs of this wicked world) put myself under the necessity + of taking." How many have been in the same state of mind as this wise, + foolish man! He knew his error, and abhorred it, but could not resist it, + for fear of the opinion of the prejudiced and unthinking. No other could + have blamed him for refusing to fight a duel. + </p> + <p> + The list of duels that have sprung from the most degrading causes might be + stretched out to an almost indefinite extent. Sterne's father fought a + duel about a goose; and the great Raleigh about a tavern bill. [Raleigh, + at one period of his life, appeared to be an inveterate duellist, and it + was said of him that he had been engaged in more encounters of the kind + than any man of note among his contemporaries. More than one + fellow-creature he had deprived of life; but he lived long enough to be + convinced of the sinfulness of his conduct, and made a solemn vow never to + fight another duel. The following anecdote of his forbearance is well + known, but it will bear repetition:— + </p> + <p> + A dispute arose in a coffee-house between him and a young man on some + trivial point, and the latter, losing his temper, impertinently spat in + the face of the veteran. Sir Walter, instead of running him through the + body, as many would have done, or challenging him to mortal combat, coolly + took out his handkerchief, wiped his face, and said, "Young man, if I + could as easily wipe from my conscience the stain of killing you, as I can + this spittle from my face, you should not live another minute." The young + man immediately begged his pardon.] Scores of duels (many of them fatal) + have been fought from disputes at cards, or a place at a theatre, while + hundreds of challenges, given and accepted over-night, in a fit of + drunkenness, have been fought out the next morning to the death of one or + both of the antagonists. + </p> + <p> + Two of the most notorious duels of modern times had their origin in causes + no more worthy than the quarrel of a dog and the favour of a prostitute: + that between Macnamara and Montgomery arising from the former; and that + between Best and Lord Camelford, from the latter. The dog of Montgomery + attacked a dog belonging to Macnamara, and each master interfering in + behalf of his own animal, high words ensued. The result was the giving and + accepting a challenge to mortal combat. The parties met on the following + day, when Montgomery was shot dead, and his antagonist severely wounded. + This affair created a great sensation at the time, and Heaviside, the + surgeon who attended at the fatal field to render his assistance, if + necessary, was arrested as an accessory to the murder, and committed to + Newgate. + </p> + <p> + In the duel between Best and Lord Camelford, two pistols were used which + were considered to be the best in England. One of them was thought + slightly superior to the other, and it was agreed that the belligerents + should toss up a piece of money to decide the choice of weapons. Best + gained it, and, at the first discharge, Lord Camelford fell, mortally + wounded. But little sympathy was expressed for his fate; he was a + confirmed duellist, had been engaged in many meetings of the kind, and the + blood of more than one fellow-creature lay at his door. As he had sowed, + so did he reap; and the violent man met an appropriate death. + </p> + <p> + It now only remains to notice the means that have been taken to stay the + prevalence of this madness of false honour in the various countries of the + civilized world. The efforts of the governments of France and England have + already been mentioned, and their want of success is but too well known. + The same efforts have been attended with the same results elsewhere. In + despotic countries, where the will of the monarch has been strongly + expressed and vigorously supported, a diminution of the evil has for a + while resulted, but only to be increased again, when death relaxed the + iron grasp, and a successor appeared of less decided opinions upon the + subject. This was the case in Prussia under the great Frederick, of whose + aversion to duelling a popular anecdote is recorded. It is stated of him + that he permitted duelling in his army, but only upon the condition that + the combatants should fight in presence of a whole battalion of infantry, + drawn up on purpose, to see fair play. The latter received strict orders, + when one of the belligerents fell, to shoot the other immediately. It is + added, that the known determination of the King effectually put a stop to + the practice. + </p> + <p> + The Emperor Joseph II of Austria was as firm as Frederick, although the + measures he adopted were not so singular. The following letter explains + his views on the subject:— + </p> + <p> + "To GENERAL * * * * * + </p> + <p> + "MY GENERAL, + </p> + <p> + "You will immediately arrest the Count of K. and Captain W. The Count is + young, passionate, and influenced by wrong notions of birth and a false + spirit of honour. Captain W. is an old soldier, who will adjust every + dispute with the sword and pistol, and who has received the challenge of + the young Count with unbecoming warmth. + </p> + <p> + "I will suffer no duelling in my army. I despise the principles of those + who attempt to justify the practice, and who would run each other through + the body in cold blood. + </p> + <p> + "When I have officers who bravely expose themselves to every danger in + facing the enemy—who at all times exhibit courage, valour, and + resolution in attack and defence, I esteem them highly. The coolness with + which they meet death on such occasions is serviceable to their country, + and at the same time redounds to their own honour; but should there be men + amongst them who are ready to sacrifice everything to their vengeance and + hatred, I despise them. I consider such a man as no better than a Roman + gladiator. + </p> + <p> + "Order a court-martial to try the two officers. Investigate the subject of + their dispute with that impartiality which I demand from every judge; and + he that is guilty, let him be a sacrifice to his fate and the laws. + </p> + <p> + "Such a barbarous custom, which suits the age of the Tamerlanes and + Bajazets, and which has often had such melancholy effects on single + families, I will have suppressed and punished, even if it should deprive + me of one half of my officers. There are still men who know how to unite + the character of a hero with that of a good subject; and he only can be so + who respects the laws. + </p> + <p> + "JOSEPH." + </p> + <p> + "August 1771." + </p> + <p> + [Vide the Letters of Joseph II to distinguished Princes and Statesmen, + published for the first time in England in "The Pamphleteer" for 1821. + They were originally published in Germany a few years previously, and + throw a great light upon the character of that monarch and the events of + his reign.] + </p> + <p> + In the United States of America the code varies considerably. In one or + two of the still wild and simple States of the Far West, where no duel has + yet been fought, there is no specific law upon the subject beyond that in + the Decalogue, which says, "Thou shalt do no murder." But duelling + everywhere follows the steps of modern civilization, and by the time the + backwoodsman is transformed into the citizen, he has imbibed the false + notions of honour which are prevalent in Europe, and around him, and is + ready, like his progenitors, to settle his differences with the pistol. In + the majority of the States the punishment for challenging, fighting, or + acting as second, is solitary imprisonment and hard labour for any period + less than a year, and disqualification for serving any public office for + twenty years. In Vermont the punishment is total disqualification for + office, deprivation of the rights of citizenship, and a fine; in fatal + cases, the same punishment as that of murderers. In Rhode Island, the + combatant, though death does not ensue, is liable to be carted to the + gallows, with a rope about his neck, and to sit in this trim for an hour, + exposed to the peltings of the mob. He may be further imprisoned for a + year, at the option of the magistrate. In Connecticut the punishment is + total disqualification for office or employ, and a fine, varying from one + hundred to a thousand dollars. The laws of Illinois require certain + officers of the state to make oath, previous to their instalment, that + they have never been, nor ever will be, concerned in a duel. + ["Encyclopedia Americana," art. Duelling.] + </p> + <p> + Amongst the edicts against duelling promulgated at various times in + Europe, may be mentioned that of Augustus King of Poland, in 1712, which + decreed the punishment of death against principals and seconds, and minor + punishments against the bearers of a challenge. An edict was also + published at Munich, in 1773, according to which both principals and + seconds, even in duels where no one was either killed or wounded, should + be hanged, and their bodies buried at the foot of the gallows. The King of + Naples issued an ordinance against duelling in 1838, in which the + punishment of death is decreed against all concerned in a fatal duel. The + bodies of those killed, and of those who may be executed in consequence, + are to be buried in unconsecrated ground, and without any religious + ceremony; nor is any monument to be erected on the spot. The punishment + for duels in which either, or both, are wounded, and for those in which no + damage whatever is done, varies according to the case, and consists of + fine, imprisonment, loss of rank and honours, and incapacity for filling + any public situation. Bearers of challenges may also be punished with fine + and imprisonment. + </p> + <p> + It might be imagined that enactments so severe all over the civilized + world would finally eradicate a custom, the prevalence of which every wise + and good man must deplore. But the frowns of the law never yet have + taught, and never will teach, men to desist from this practice, as long as + it is felt that the lawgiver sympathises with it in his heart. The stern + judge upon the bench may say to the unfortunate wight who has been called + a liar by some unmannerly opponent, "If you challenge him, you meditate + murder, and are guilty of murder!" but the same judge, divested of his + robes of state, and mixing in the world with other men, would say, "If you + do not challenge him, if you do not run the risk of making yourself a + murderer, you will be looked upon as a mean-spirited wretch, unfit to + associate with your fellows, and deserving nothing but their scorn and + their contempt!" It is society, and not the duellist, who is to blame. + Female influence, too, which is so powerful in leading men either to good + or to evil, takes, in this case, the evil part. Mere animal bravery has, + unfortunately, such charms in the female eye, that a successful duellist + is but too often regarded as a sort of hero; and the man who refuses to + fight, though of truer courage, is thought a poltroon, who may be trampled + on. Mr. Graves, a member of the American Legislature, who, early in 1838, + killed a Mr. Cilley in a duel, truly and eloquently said, on the floor of + the House of Representatives, when lamenting the unfortunate issue of that + encounter, that society was more to blame than he was. "Public opinion," + said the repentant orator, "is practically the paramount law of the land. + Every other law, both human and divine, ceases to be observed; yea, + withers and perishes in contact with it. It was this paramount law of this + nation, and of this House, that forced me, under the penalty of dishonour, + to subject myself to the code, which impelled me unwillingly into this + tragical affair. Upon the heads of this nation, and at the doors of this + House, rests the blood with which my unfortunate hands have been stained!" + </p> + <p> + As long as society is in this mood; as long as it thinks that the man who + refuses to resent an insult, deserved that insult, and should be scouted + accordingly, so long, it is to be feared, will duelling exist, however + severe the laws may be. Men must have redress for injuries inflicted, and + when those injuries are of such a nature that no tribunal will take + cognizance of them, the injured will take the law into their own hands, + and right themselves in the opinion of their fellows, at the hazard of + their lives. Much as the sage may affect to despise the opinion of the + world, there are few who would not rather expose their lives a hundred + times than be condemned to live on, in society, but not of it—a + by-word of reproach to all who know their history, and a mark for scorn to + point his finger at. + </p> + <p> + The only practicable means for diminishing the force of a custom which is + the disgrace of civilization, seems to be the establishment of a court of + honour, which should take cognizance of all those delicate and almost + intangible offences which yet wound so deeply. The court established by + Louis XIV might be taken as a model. No man now fights a duel when a fit + apology has been offered, and it should be the duty of this court to weigh + dispassionately the complaint of every man injured in his honour, either + by word or deed, and to force the offender to make a public apology. If he + refused the apology, he would be the breaker of a second law; an offender + against a high court, as well as against the man he had injured, and might + be punished with fine and imprisonment, the latter to last until he saw + the error of his conduct, and made the concession which the court + demanded. + </p> + <p> + If, after the establishment of this tribunal, men should be found of a + nature so bloodthirsty as not to be satisfied with its peaceful decisions, + and should resort to the old and barbarous mode of an appeal to the + pistol, some means might be found of dealing with them. To hang them as + murderers would be of no avail; for to such men death would have few + terrors. Shame alone would bring them to reason. The following code, it is + humbly suggested to all future legislators upon the subject, would, in + conjunction with the establishment of a court of honour, do much towards + eradicating this blot from society. Every man who fought a duel, even + though he did not wound his opponent, should be tried, and, upon proof of + the fact, be sentenced to have his right hand cut off. The world would + then know his true character as long as he lived. If his habits of + duelling were so inveterate, and he should learn to fire a pistol with his + left hand, he should, upon conviction of a second offence, lose that hand + also. This law, which should allow no commutation of the punishment, under + any circumstances, would lend strength and authority to the court of + honour. In the course of a few years duelling would be ranked amongst + exploded follies, and men would begin to wonder that a custom so barbarous + and so impious had ever existed amongst them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE LOVE OF THE MARVELLOUS AND THE DISBELIEF OF THE TRUE. + </h2> + <p> + "Well, son John," said the old woman, "and what wonderful things did you + meet with all the time you were at sea?"—"Oh! mother," replied John, + "I saw many strange things."—"Tell us all about them," replied his + mother, "for I long to hear your adventures."—"Well, then," said + John, "as we were sailing over the Line, what do you think we saw?"—"I + can't imagine," replied his mother.—"Well, we saw a fish rise out of + the sea, and fly over our ship!" "Oh! John! John! what a liar you are!" + said his mother, shaking her head, and smiling incredulously. "True as + death? said John; "and we saw still more wonderful things than that."—"Let + us hear them," said his mother, shaking her head again; "and tell the + truth, John, if you can."—"Believe it, or believe it not, as you + please," replied her son; "but as we were sailing up the Red Sea, our + captain thought he should like some fish for dinner; so he told us to + throw our nets, and catch some."—"Well," inquired his mother, seeing + that he paused in his story. "Well," rejoined her son, "we did throw them, + and, at the very first haul, we brought up a chariot-wheel, made all of + gold, and inlaid with diamonds!" "Lord bless us!" said his mother, "and + what did the captain say?"—"Why, he said it was one of the wheels of + Pharaoh's chariot, that had lain in the Red Sea ever since that wicked + King was drowned, with all his host, while pursuing the Israelites."—"Well, + well," said his mother, lifting up her hands in admiration; "now, that's + very possible, and I think the captain was a very sensible man. Tell me + such stories as that, and I'll believe you; but never talk to me of such + things as flying fish! No, no, John, such stories won't go down with me, I + can assure you!" + </p> + <p> + Such old women as the sailor's mother, in the above well-known anecdote, + are by no means rare in the world. Every age and country has produced + them. They have been found in high places, and have sat down among the + learned of the earth. Instances must be familiar to every reader in which + the same person was willing, with greedy credulity, to swallow the most + extravagant fiction, and yet refuse credence to a philosophical fact. The + same Greeks who believed readily that Jupiter wooed Leda in the form of a + swan, denied stoutly that there were any physical causes for storms and + thunder, and treated as impious those who attempted to account for them on + true philosophical principles. + </p> + <p> + The reasons that thus lead mankind to believe the marvellously false, and + to disbelieve the marvellously true, may be easily gathered. Of all the + offspring of Time, Error is the most ancient, and is so old and familiar + an acquaintance, that Truth, when discovered, comes upon most of us like + an intruder, and meets the intruder's welcome. We all pay an involuntary + homage to antiquity—a "blind homage," as Bacon calls it in his + "Novum Organum," which tends greatly to the obstruction of truth. To the + great majority of mortal eyes, Time sanctifies everything that he does not + destroy. The mere fact of anything being spared by the great foe makes it + a favourite with us, who are sure to fall his victims. To call a prejudice + "time-hallowed," is to open a way for it into hearts where it never before + penetrated. Some peculiar custom may disgrace the people amongst whom it + flourishes; yet men of a little wisdom refuse to aid in its extirpation, + merely because it is old. Thus it is with human belief, and thus it is we + bring shame upon our own intellect. + </p> + <p> + To this cause may be added another, also mentioned by Lord Bacon—a + misdirected zeal in matters of religion, which induces so many to decry a + newly-discovered truth, because the Divine records contain no allusion to + it, or because, at first sight, it appears to militate, not against + religion, but against some obscure passage which has never been fairly + interpreted. The old woman in the story could not believe that there was + such a creature as a flying-fish, because her Bible did not tell her so, + but she believed that her son had drawn up the golden and bejewelled wheel + from the Red Sea, because her Bible informed her that Pharaoh was drowned + there. + </p> + <p> + Upon a similar principle the monks of the inquisition believed that the + devil appeared visibly among men, that St. Anthony pulled his nose with a + pair of red-hot pincers, and that the relics of the saints worked + miracles; yet they would not believe Galileo, when he proved that the + earth turned round the sun. + </p> + <p> + Keppler, when he asserted the same fact, could gain no bread, and little + credence; but when he pretended to tell fortunes and cast nativities, the + whole town flocked to him, and paid him enormous fees for his falsehood. + </p> + <p> + When Roger Bacon invented the telescope and the magic-lantern, no one + believed that the unaided ingenuity of man could have done it; but when + some wiseacres asserted that the devil had appeared to him, and given him + the knowledge which he turned to such account, no one was bold enough to + assert that it was improbable. His hint that saltpetre, sulphur, and + charcoal, mixed in certain proportions, would produce effects similar to + thunder and lightning, was disregarded or disbelieved; but the legend of + the brazen head which delivered oracles, was credited for many ages. + </p> + <p> + [Godwin, in his "Lives of the Necromancers," gives the following version + of this legend. Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay entertained the project of + enclosing England with a wall, so as to render it inaccessible to any + invader. They accordingly raised the devil, as the person best able to + inform them how this was to be done. The devil advised them to make a + brazen head, with all the internal structure and organs of a human head. + The construction would cost them much time, and they must wait with + patience till the faculty of speech descended upon it. Finally, however, + it would become an oracle, and, if the question were propounded to it, + would teach them the solution of their problem. The friars spent seven + years in bringing the subject to perfection, and waited day after day in + expectation that it would utter articulate sounds. At length nature became + exhausted in them, and they lay down to sleep, having first given it + strictly in charge to a servant of theirs, clownish in nature, but of + strict fidelity, that he should awaken them the moment the image began to + speak. That period arrived. The head uttered sounds, but such as the clown + judged unworthy of notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was taken, and a + long pause ensued. "Time was!"—a similar pause, and no notice. "Time + is passed!" The moment these words were uttered, a tremendous storm + ensued, with thunder and lightning, and the head was shivered into a + thousand pieces. Thus the experiment of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay came + to nothing.] + </p> + <p> + Solomon De Cans, who, in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, conceived the + idea of a steam-engine, was shut up in the Bastille as a madman, because + the idea of such an extraordinary instrument was too preposterous for the + wise age that believed in all the absurdities of witchcraft. + </p> + <p> + When Harvey first proved the circulation of the blood, every tongue was + let loose against him. The thing was too obviously an imposition, and an + attempt to deceive that public who believed that a king's touch had power + to cure the scrofula. That a dead criminal's hand, rubbed against a wen, + would cure it, was reasonable enough; but that the blood flowed through + the veins was beyond all probability. + </p> + <p> + In our own day, a similar fate awaited the beneficent discovery of Dr. + Jenner. That vaccination could abate the virulence of, or preserve from, + the smallpox, was quite incredible; none but a cheat and a quack could + assert it: but that the introduction of the vaccine matter into the human + frame could endow men with the qualities of a cow, was quite probable. + Many of the poorer people actually dreaded that their children would grow + hairy and horned as cattle, if they suffered them to be vaccinated. + </p> + <p> + The Jesuit, Father Labat, the shrewd and learned traveller in South + America, relates an experiment which he made upon the credulity of some + native Peruvians. Holding a powerful lens in his hand, and concentrating + the rays of the sun upon the naked arm of an admiring savage, he soon made + him roar with pain. All the tribe looked on, first with wonder, and then + with indignation and wonder both combined. In vain the philosopher + attempted to explain the cause of the phenomenon—in vain he offered + to convince them that there was nothing devilish in the experiment—he + was thought to be in league with the infernal gods to draw down the fire + from Heaven, and was looked upon, himself, as an awful and supernatural + being. Many attempts were made to gain possession of the lens, with the + view of destroying it, and thereby robbing the Western stranger of the + means of bringing upon them the vengeance of his deities. + </p> + <p> + Very similar was the conduct of that inquiring Brahmin, which is related + by Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs. The Brahmin had a mind better + cultivated than his fellows; he was smitten with a love for the knowledge + of Europe—read English books—pored over the pages of the + Encyclopedia, and profited by various philosophical instruments; but on + religious questions the Brahmin was firm to the faith of his caste and the + doctrine of the Metempsychosis. Lest he might sacrilegiously devour his + progenitors, he abstained from all animal food; and thinking that he ate + nothing which enjoyed life, he supported himself, like his brethren, upon + fruits and vegetables. All the knowledge that did not run counter to this + belief, he sought after with avidity, and bade fair to become the wisest + of his race. In an evil hour, his English friend and instructor exhibited + a very powerful solar microscope, by means of which he showed him that + every drop of water that he drank teemed with life—that every fruit + was like a world, covered with innumerable animalculae, each of which was + fitted by its organization for the sphere in which it moved, and had its + wants, and the capability of supplying them as completely as visible + animals millions of times its bulk. The English philosopher expected that + his Hindoo friend would be enraptured at the vast field of knowledge thus + suddenly opened out to him, but he was deceived. The Brahmin from that + time became an altered man—thoughtful, gloomy, reserved, and + discontented. He applied repeatedly to his friend that he would make him a + present of the microscope; but as it was the only one of its kind in + India, and the owner set a value upon it for other reasons, he constantly + refused the request, but offered him the loan of it for any period he + might require. But nothing short of an unconditional gift of the + instrument would satisfy the Brahmin, who became at last so importunate + that the patience of the Englishman was exhausted, and he gave it him. A + gleam of joy shot across the care-worn features of the Hindoo as he + clutched it, and bounding with an exulting leap into the garden, he seized + a large stone, and dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces. When + called upon to explain his extraordinary conduct, he said to his friend, + "Oh that I had remained in that happy state of ignorance wherein you first + found me! Yet will I confess that, as my knowledge increased, so did my + pleasure, until I beheld the last wonders of the microscope; from that + moment I have been tormented by doubt and perplexed by mystery: my mind, + overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest, nor how to + extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable, and must continue to be + so, until I enter on another stage of existence. I am a solitary + individual among fifty millions of people, all educated in the same belief + with myself—all happy in their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I + shall keep the secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my peace + and break my rest. But I shall have some satisfaction in knowing that I + alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed the instrument, might + have been extensively communicated, and rendered thousands miserable! + Forgive me, my valuable friend! and oh, convey no more implements of + knowledge and destruction!" + </p> + <p> + Many a learned man may smile at the ignorance of the Peruvian and the + Hindoo, unconscious that he himself is just as ignorant and as prejudiced. + Who does not remember the outcry against the science of geology, which has + hardly yet subsided? Its professors were impiously and absurdly accused of + designing to "hurl the Creator from his throne." They were charged with + sapping the foundations of religion, and of propping atheism by the aid of + a pretended science. + </p> + <p> + The very same principle which leads to the rejection of the true, leads to + the encouragement of the false. Thus we may account for the success which + has attended great impostors, at times when the truth, though not half so + wondrous as their impositions, has been disregarded as extravagant and + preposterous. The man who wishes to cheat the people, must needs found his + operations upon some prejudice or belief that already exists. Thus the + philosophic pretenders who told fortunes by the stars cured all diseases + by one nostrum, and preserved from evil by charms and amulets, ran with + the current of popular belief. Errors that were consecrated by time and + long familiarity, they heightened and embellished, and succeeded to their + hearts' content; but the preacher of truth had a foundation to make as + well as a superstructure, a difficulty which did not exist for the + preacher of error. Columbus preached a new world, but was met with + distrust and incredulity; had he preached with as much zeal and + earnestness the discovery of some valley in the old one, where diamonds + hung upon the trees, or a herb grew that cured all the ills incidental to + humanity, he would have found a warm and hearty welcome—might have + sold dried cabbage leaves for his wonderful herb, and made his fortune. + </p> + <p> + In fact, it will be found in the history of every generation and race of + men, that whenever a choice of belief between the "Wondrously False" and + the "Wondrously True" is given to ignorance or prejudice, that their + choice will be fixed upon the first, for the reason that it is most akin + to their own nature. The great majority of mankind, and even of the wisest + among us, are still in the condition of the sailor's mother—believing + and disbelieving on the same grounds that she did—protesting against + the flying fish, but cherishing the golden wheels. Thousands there are + amongst us, who, rather than pin their faith in the one fish, would + believe not only in the wheel of gold, but the chariot—not only in + the chariot, but in the horses and the driver. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + POPULAR FOLLIES IN GREAT CITIES + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + La faridondaine—la faridondon, + Vive la faridondaine! + + BERANGER. +</pre> + <p> + The popular humours of a great city are a never-failing source of + amusement to the man whose sympathies are hospitable enough to embrace all + his kind, and who, refined though he may be himself, will not sneer at the + humble wit or grotesque peculiarities of the boozing mechanic, the squalid + beggar, the vicious urchin, and all the motley group of the idle, the + reckless, and the imitative that swarm in the alleys and broadways of a + metropolis. He who walks through a great city to find subjects for + weeping, may, God knows, find plenty at every corner to wring his heart; + but let such a man walk on his course, and enjoy his grief alone—we + are not of those who would accompany him. The miseries of us poor + earth-dwellers gain no alleviation from the sympathy of those who merely + hunt them out to be pathetic over them. The weeping philosopher too often + impairs his eyesight by his woe, and becomes unable from his tears to see + the remedies for the evils which he deplores. Thus it will often be found + that the man of no tears is the truest philanthropist, as he is the best + physician who wears a cheerful face, even in the worst of cases. + </p> + <p> + So many pens have been employed to point out the miseries, and so many to + condemn the crimes and vices, and more serious follies of the multitude, + that our's shall not increase the number, at least in this chapter. Our + present task shall be less ungracious, and wandering through the busy + haunts of great cities, we shall seek only for amusement, and note as we + pass a few of the harmless follies and whimsies of the poor. + </p> + <p> + And, first of all, walk where we will, we cannot help hearing from every + side a phrase repeated with delight, and received with laughter, by men + with hard hands and dirty faces—by saucy butcher lads and + errand-boys—by loose women—by hackney coachmen, cabriolet + drivers, and idle fellows who loiter at the corners of streets. Not one + utters this phrase without producing a laugh from all within hearing. It + seems applicable to every circumstance, and is the universal answer to + every question; in short, it is the favourite slang phrase of the day, a + phrase that, while its brief season of popularity lasts, throws a dash of + fun and frolicsomeness over the existence of squalid poverty and + ill-requited labour, and gives them reason to laugh as well as their more + fortunate fellows in a higher stage of society. + </p> + <p> + London is peculiarly fertile in this sort of phrases, which spring up + suddenly, no one knows exactly in what spot, and pervade the whole + population in a few hours, no one knows how. Many years ago the favourite + phrase (for, though but a monosyllable, it was a phrase in itself) was + Quoz. This odd word took the fancy of the multitude in an extraordinary + degree, and very soon acquired an almost boundless meaning. When vulgar + wit wished to mark its incredulity and raise a laugh at the same time, + there was no resource so sure as this popular piece of slang. When a man + was asked a favour which he did not choose to grant, he marked his sense + of the suitor's unparalleled presumption by exclaiming Quoz! When a + mischievous urchin wished to annoy a passenger, and create mirth for his + chums, he looked him in the face, and cried out Quoz! and the exclamation + never failed in its object. When a disputant was desirous of throwing a + doubt upon the veracity of his opponent, and getting summarily rid of an + argument which he could not overturn, he uttered the word Quoz, with a + contemptuous curl of his lip and an impatient shrug of his shoulders. The + universal monosyllable conveyed all his meaning, and not only told his + opponent that he lied, but that he erred egregiously if he thought that + any one was such a nincompoop as to believe him. Every alehouse resounded + with Quoz; every street corner was noisy with it, and every wall for miles + around was chalked with it. + </p> + <p> + But, like all other earthly things, Quoz had its season, and passed away + as suddenly as it arose, never again to be the pet and the idol of the + populace. A new claimant drove it from its place, and held undisputed sway + till, in its turn, it was hurled from its pre-eminence, and a successor + appointed in its stead. + </p> + <p> + "What a shocking bad hat!" was the phrase that was next in vogue. No + sooner had it become universal, than thousands of idle but sharp eyes were + on the watch for the passenger whose hat showed any signs, however slight, + of ancient service. Immediately the cry arose, and, like the what-whoop of + the Indians, was repeated by a hundred discordant throats. He was a wise + man who, finding himself under these circumstances "the observed of all + observers," bore his honours meekly. He who showed symptoms of ill-feeling + at the imputations cast upon his hat, only brought upon himself redoubled + notice. The mob soon perceive whether a man is irritable, and, if of their + own class, they love to make sport of him. When such a man, and with such + a hat, passed in those days through a crowded neighbourhood, he might + think himself fortunate if his annoyances were confined to the shouts and + cries of the populace. The obnoxious hat was often snatched from his head, + and thrown into the gutter by some practical joker, and then raised, + covered with mud, upon the end of a stick, for the admiration of the + spectators, who held their sides with laughter, and exclaimed in the + pauses of their mirth, "Oh! what a shocking bad hat!... What a shocking + bad hat!" Many a nervous, poor man, whose purse could but ill spare the + outlay, doubtless purchased a new hat before the time, in order to avoid + exposure in this manner. + </p> + <p> + The origin of this singular saying, which made fun for the metropolis for + months, is not involved in the same obscurity as that which shrouds the + origin of Quoz and some others. There had been a hotly-contested election + for the borough of Southwark, and one of the candidates was an eminent + hatter. This gentleman, in canvassing the electors, adopted a somewhat + professional mode of conciliating their good-will, and of bribing them + without letting them perceive that they were bribed. Whenever he called + upon or met a voter whose hat was not of the best material, or, being so, + had seen its best days, he invariably said, "What a shocking bad hat you + have got; call at my warehouse, and you shall have a new one!" Upon the + day of election this circumstance was remembered, and his opponents made + the most of it, by inciting the crowd to keep up an incessant cry of "What + a shocking bad hat!" all the time the honourable candidate was addressing + them. From Southwark the phrase spread over all London, and reigned, for a + time, the supreme slang of the season. + </p> + <p> + Hookey Walker, derived from the chorus of a popular ballad, was also high + in favour at one time, and served, like its predecessor, Quoz, to answer + all questions. In the course of time the latter word alone became the + favourite, and was uttered with a peculiar drawl upon the first syllable, + and a sharp turn upon the last. If a lively servant girl was importuned + for a kiss by a fellow she did not care about, she cocked her little nose, + and cried "Walker!" If a dustman asked his friend for the loan of a + shilling, and his friend was either unable or unwilling to accommodate + him, the probable answer he would receive was "Walker!" If a drunken man + was reeling along the streets, and a boy pulled his coat-tails, or a man + knocked his hat over his eyes to make fun of him, the joke was always + accompanied by the same exclamation. This lasted for two or three months, + and "Walker!" walked off the stage, never more to be revived for the + entertainment of that or any future generation. + </p> + <p> + The next phrase was a most preposterous one. Who invented it, how it + arose, or where it was first heard, are alike unknown. Nothing about it is + certain, but that for months it was the slang par excellence of the + Londoners, and afforded them a vast gratification. "There he goes with his + eye out!" or "There she goes with her eye out!" as the sex of the party + alluded to might be, was in the mouth of everybody who knew the town. The + sober part of the community were as much puzzled by this unaccountable + saying as the vulgar were delighted with it. The wise thought it very + foolish, but the many thought it very funny, and the idle amused + themselves by chalking it upon walls, or scribbling it upon monuments. + But, "all that's bright must fade," even in slang. The people grew tired + of their hobby, and "There he goes with his eye out!" was heard no more in + its accustomed haunts. + </p> + <p> + Another very odd phrase came into repute in a brief space afterwards, in + the form of the impertinent and not universally apposite query, "Has your + mother sold her mangle?" But its popularity was not of that boisterous and + cordial kind which ensures a long continuance of favour. What tended to + impede its progress was, that it could not be well applied to the older + portions of society. It consequently ran but a brief career, and then sank + into oblivion. Its successor enjoyed a more extended fame, and laid its + foundations so deep, that years and changing fashions have not sufficed to + eradicate it. This phrase was "Flare up!" and it is, even now, a + colloquialism in common use. It took its rise in the time of the Reform + riots, when Bristol was nearly half burned by the infuriated populace. The + flames were said to have flared up in the devoted city. Whether there was + anything peculiarly captivating in the sound, or in the idea of these + words, is hard to say; but whatever was the reason, it tickled the + mob-fancy mightily, and drove all other slang out of the field before it. + Nothing was to be heard all over London but "flare up!" It answered all + questions, settled all disputes, was applied to all persons, all things, + and all circumstances, and became suddenly the most comprehensive phrase + in the English language. The man who had overstepped the bounds of decorum + in his speech was said to have flared up; he who had paid visits too + repeated to the gin-shop, and got damaged in consequence, had flared up. + To put one's-self into a passion; to stroll out on a nocturnal frolic, and + alarm a neighbourhood, or to create a disturbance in any shape, was to + flare up. A lovers' quarrel was a fare up; so was a boxing-match between + two blackguards in the streets, and the preachers of sedition and + revolution recommended the English nation to flare up, like the French. So + great a favourite was the word, that people loved to repeat it for its + very sound. They delighted apparently in hearing their own organs + articulate it; and labouring men, when none who could respond to the call + were within hearing, would often startle the aristocratic echoes of the + West by the well-known slang phrase of the East. Even in the dead hours of + the night, the ears of those who watched late, or who could not sleep, + were saluted with the same sound. The drunkard reeling home showed that he + was still a man and a citizen, by calling "flare up" in the pauses of his + hiccough. Drink had deprived him of the power of arranging all other + ideas; his intellect was sunk to the level of the brute's; but he clung to + humanity by the one last link of the popular cry. While he could + vociferate that sound, he had rights as an Englishman, and would not sleep + in a gutter, like a dog! Onwards he went, disturbing quiet streets and + comfortable people by his whoop, till exhausted nature could support him + no more, and he rolled powerless into the road. When, in due time + afterwards, the policeman stumbled upon him as he lay, that guardian of + the peace turned the full light of his lantern on his face, and exclaimed, + "Here's a poor devil who's been flaring up!" Then came the stretcher, on + which the victim of deep potations was carried to the watchhouse, and + pitched into a dirty cell, among a score of wretches about as far gone as + himself, who saluted their new comrade by a loud, long shout of flare up! + </p> + <p> + So universal was this phrase, and so enduring seemed its popularity, that + a speculator, who knew not the evanescence of slang, established a weekly + newspaper under its name. But he was like the man who built his house upon + the sand; his foundation gave way under him, and the phrase and the + newspaper were washed into the mighty sea of the things that were. The + people grew at last weary of the monotony, and "flare up" became vulgar + even among them. Gradually it was left to little boys who did not know the + world, and in process of time sank altogether into neglect. It is now + heard no more as a piece of popular slang; but the words are still used to + signify any sudden outburst either of fire, disturbance, or ill-nature. + </p> + <p> + The next phrase that enjoyed the favour of the million was less concise, + and seems to have been originally aimed against precocious youths who gave + themselves the airs of manhood before their time. "Does your mother know + you're out?" was the provoking query addressed to young men of more than + reasonable swagger, who smoked cigars in the streets, and wore false + whiskers to look irresistible. We have seen many a conceited fellow who + could not suffer a woman to pass him without staring her out of + countenance, reduced at once into his natural insignificance by the mere + utterance of this phrase. Apprentice lads and shopmen in their Sunday + clothes held the words in abhorrence, and looked fierce when they were + applied to them. Altogether the phrase had a very salutary effect, and in + a thousand instances showed young Vanity, that it was not half so pretty + and engaging as it thought itself. What rendered it so provoking was the + doubt it implied as to the capability of self-guidance possessed by the + individual to whom it was addressed. "Does your mother know you're out?" + was a query of mock concern and solicitude, implying regret and concern + that one so young and inexperienced in the ways of a great city should be + allowed to wander abroad without the guidance of a parent. Hence the great + wrath of those who verged on manhood, but had not reached it, whenever + they were made the subject of it. Even older heads did not like it; and + the heir of a ducal house, and inheritor of a warrior's name, to whom they + were applied by a cabriolet driver, who was ignorant of his rank, was so + indignant at the affront, that he summoned the offender before the + magisterial bench. The fellow had wished to impose upon his Lordship by + asking double the fare he was entitled to, and when his Lordship resisted + the demand, he was insultingly asked "if his mother knew he was out?" All + the drivers on the stand joined in the query, and his Lordship was fain to + escape their laughter by walking away with as much haste as his dignity + would allow. The man pleaded ignorance that his customer was a Lord, but + offended justice fined him for his mistake. + </p> + <p> + When this phrase had numbered its appointed days, it died away, like its + predecessors, and "Who are you?" reigned in its stead. This new favourite, + like a mushroom, seems to have sprung up in a night, or, like a frog in + Cheapside, to have come down in a sudden shower. One day it was unheard, + unknown, uninvented; the next it pervaded London; every alley resounded + with it; every highway was musical with it, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "And street to street, and lane to lane flung back + The one unvarying cry." +</pre> + <p> + The phrase was uttered quickly, and with a sharp sound upon the first and + last words, leaving the middle one little more than an aspiration. Like + all its compeers which had been extensively popular, it was applicable to + almost every variety of circumstance. The lovers of a plain answer to a + plain question did not like it at all. Insolence made use of it to give + offence; ignorance, to avoid exposing itself; and waggery, to create + laughter. Every new comer into an alehouse tap-room was asked + unceremoniously, "Who are you?" and if he looked foolish, scratched his + head, and did not know what to reply, shouts of boisterous merriment + resounded on every side. An authoritative disputant was not unfrequently + put down, and presumption of every kind checked by the same query. When + its popularity was at its height, a gentleman, feeling the hand of a thief + in his pocket, turned suddenly round, and caught him in the act, + exclaiming, "Who are you?" The mob which gathered round applauded to the + very echo, and thought it the most capital joke they had ever heard—the + very acme of wit—the very essence of humour. Another circumstance, + of a similar kind, gave an additional fillip to the phrase, and infused + new life and vigour into it, just as it was dying away. The scene occurred + in the chief criminal court of the kingdom. A prisoner stood at the bar; + the offence with which he had been charged was clearly proved against him; + his counsel had been heard, not in his defence, but in extenuation, + insisting upon his previous good life and character, as reasons for the + lenity of the court. "And where are your witnesses?" inquired the learned + judge who presided. "Please you, my Lord, I knows the prisoner at the bar, + and a more honester feller never breathed," said a rough voice in the + gallery. The officers of the court looked aghast, and the strangers + tittered with ill-suppressed laughter. "Who are you?" said the Judge, + looking suddenly up, but with imperturbable gravity. The court was + convulsed; the titter broke out into a laugh, and it was several minutes + before silence and decorum could be restored. When the Ushers recovered + their self-possession, they made diligent search for the profane + transgressor; but he was not to be found. Nobody knew him; nobody had seen + him. After a while the business of the court again proceeded. The next + prisoner brought up for trial augured favourably of his prospects when he + learned that the solemn lips of the representative of justice had uttered + the popular phrase as if he felt and appreciated it. There was no fear + that such a judge would use undue severity; his heart was with the people; + he understood their language and their manners, and would make allowances + for the temptations which drove them into crime. So thought many of the + prisoners, if we may infer it from the fact, that the learned judge + suddenly acquired an immense increase of popularity. The praise of his wit + was in every mouth, and "Who are you?" renewed its lease, and remained in + possession of public favour for another term in consequence. + </p> + <p> + But it must not be supposed that there were no interregni between the + dominion of one slang phrase and another. They did not arise in one long + line of unbroken succession, but shared with song the possession of + popular favour. Thus, when the people were in the mood for music, slang + advanced its claims to no purpose, and, when they were inclined for slang, + the sweet voice of music wooed them in vain. About twenty years ago London + resounded with one chorus, with the love of which everybody seemed to be + smitten. Girls and boys, young men and old, maidens and wives, and widows, + were all alike musical. There was an absolute mania for singing, and the + worst of it was, that, like good Father Philip, in the romance of "The + Monastery," they seemed utterly unable to change their tune. "Cherry + ripe!" "Cherry ripe!" was the universal cry of all the idle in the town. + Every unmelodious voice gave utterance to it; every crazy fiddle, every + cracked flute, every wheezy pipe, every street organ was heard in the same + strain, until studious and quiet men stopped their ears in desperation, or + fled miles away into the fields or woodlands, to be at peace. This plague + lasted for a twelvemonth, until the very name of cherries became an + abomination in the land. At last the excitement wore itself away, and the + tide of favour set in a new direction. Whether it was another song or a + slang phrase, is difficult to determine at this distance of time; but + certain it is, that very shortly afterwards, people went mad upon a + dramatic subject, and nothing was to be heard of but "Tom and Jerry." + Verbal wit had amused the multitude long enough, and they became more + practical in their recreation. Every youth on the town was seized with the + fierce desire of distinguishing himself, by knocking down the "charlies," + being locked up all night in a watchhouse, or kicking up a row among loose + women and blackguard men in the low dens of St. Giles's. Imitative boys + vied with their elders in similar exploits, until this unworthy passion, + for such it was, had lasted, like other follies, its appointed time, and + the town became merry after another fashion. It was next thought the + height of vulgar wit to answer all questions by placing the point of the + thumb upon the tip of the nose, and twirling the fingers in the air. If + one man wished to insult or annoy another, he had only to make use of this + cabalistic sign in his face, and his object was accomplished. At every + street corner where a group was assembled, the spectator who was curious + enough to observe their movements, would be sure to see the fingers of + some of them at their noses, either as a mark of incredulity, surprise, + refusal, or mockery, before he had watched two minutes. There is some + remnant of this absurd custom to be seen to this day; but it is thought + low, even among the vulgar. + </p> + <p> + About six years ago, London became again most preposterously musical. The + vox populi wore itself hoarse by singing the praises of "The Sea, the + Sea!" If a stranger (and a philosopher) had walked through London, and + listened to the universal chorus, he might have constructed a very pretty + theory upon the love of the English for the sea-service, and our + acknowledged superiority over all other nations upon that element. "No + wonder," he might have said, "that this people is invincible upon the + ocean. The love of it mixes with their daily thoughts: they celebrate it + even in the market-place: their street-minstrels excite charity by it; and + high and low, young and old, male and female, chant Io paeans in its + praise. Love is not honoured in the national songs of this warlike race—Bacchus + is no god to them; they are men of sterner mould, and think only of 'the + Sea, the Sea!' and the means of conquering upon it." + </p> + <p> + Such would, doubtless, have been his impression if he had taken the + evidence only of his ears. Alas! in those days for the refined ears that + were musical! great was their torture when discord, with its thousand + diversities of tone, struck up this appalling anthem—there was no + escape from it. The migratory minstrels of Savoy caught the strain, and + pealed it down the long vistas of quiet streets, till their innermost and + snuggest apartments re-echoed with the sound. Men were obliged to endure + this crying evil for full six months, wearied to desperation, and made + sea-sick on the dry land. + </p> + <p> + Several other songs sprang up in due succession afterwards, but none of + them, with the exception of one, entitled "All round my Hat," enjoyed any + extraordinary share of favour, until an American actor introduced a vile + song called "Jim Crow." The singer sang his verses in appropriate costume, + with grotesque gesticulations, and a sudden whirl of his body at the close + of each verse. It took the taste of the town immediately, and for months + the ears of orderly people were stunned by the senseless chorus— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Turn about and wheel about, + And do just so— + Turn about and wheel about, + And jump, Jim Crow!" +</pre> + <p> + Street-minstrels blackened their faces in order to give proper effect to + the verses; and fatherless urchins, who had to choose between thieving and + singing for their livelihood, took the latter course, as likely to be the + more profitable, as long as the public taste remained in that direction. + The uncouth dance, its accompaniment, might be seen in its full perfection + on market nights in any great thoroughfare; and the words of the song + might be heard, piercing above all the din and buzz of the ever-moving + multitude. He, the calm observer, who during the hey-day popularity of + this doggrel, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Sate beside the public way, + Thick strewn with summer dust, and saw the stream + Of people there was hurrying to and fro, + Numerous as gnats upon the evening gleam," +</pre> + <p> + might have exclaimed with Shelley, whose fine lines we quote, that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The million, with fierce song and maniac dance, + Did rage around." +</pre> + <p> + The philosophic theorist we have already supposed soliloquising upon the + English character, and forming his opinion of it from their exceeding love + for a sea-song, might, if he had again dropped suddenly into London, have + formed another very plausible theory to account for our unremitting + efforts for the abolition of the Slave Trade. "Benevolent people!" he + might have said, "how unbounded are your sympathies! Your unhappy brethren + of Africa, differing from you only in the colour of their skins, are so + dear to you, and you begrudge so little the twenty millions you have paid + on their behalf, that you love to have a memento of them continually in + your sight. Jim Crow is the representative of that injured race, and as + such is the idol of your populace! See how they all sing his praises!—how + they imitate his peculiarities!—how they repeat his name in their + moments of leisure and relaxation! They even carve images of him to adorn + their hearths, that his cause and his sufferings may never be forgotten! + Oh, philanthropic England!—oh, vanguard of civilization!" + </p> + <p> + Such are a few of the peculiarities of the London multitude, when no riot, + no execution, no murder, no balloon, disturbs the even current of their + thoughts. These are the whimseys of the mass—the harmless follies by + which they unconsciously endeavour to lighten the load of care which + presses upon their existence. The wise man, even though he smile at them, + will not altogether withhold his sympathy, and will say, "Let them enjoy + their slang phrases and their choruses if they will; and if they cannot be + happy, at least let them be merry." To the Englishman, as well as to the + Frenchman of whom Beranger sings, there may be some comfort in so small a + thing as a song, and we may, own with him that + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Au peuple attriste + Ce qui rendra la gaite, + C'est la GAUDRIOLE! + O gue! + C'est la GAUDRIOLE!" +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE O.P. MANIA. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And these things bred a great combustion in the town. + Wagstaffe's "Apparition of Mother Haggis." +</pre> + <p> + The acrimonious warfare carried on for a length of time by the playgoers + of London against the proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, is one of the + most singular instances upon record of the small folly which will + sometimes pervade a multitude of intelligent men. Carried on at first from + mere obstinacy by a few, and afterwards for mingled obstinacy and frolic + by a greater number, it increased at last to such a height, that the sober + dwellers in the provinces held up their hands in astonishment, and + wondered that the people of London should be such fools. As much firmness + and perseverance displayed in a better cause, might have achieved + important triumphs; and we cannot but feel regret, in recording this + matter, that so much good and wholesome energy should have been thrown + away on so unworthy an object. But we will begin with the beginning, and + trace the O. P. mania from its source. + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 20th of September, 1808, the old theatre of + Covent-Garden was totally destroyed by fire. Preparations were immediately + made for the erection of a more splendid edifice, and the managers, Harris + and the celebrated John Philip Kemble, announced that the new theatre + should be without a rival in Europe. In less than three months, the + rubbish of the old building was cleared away, and the foundation-stone of + the new one laid with all due ceremony by the Duke of Sussex. With so much + celerity were the works carried on that, in nine months more, the edifice + was completed, both without and within. The opening night was announced + for the 18th of September 1809, within two days of a twelvemonth since the + destruction of the original building. + </p> + <p> + But the undertaking had proved more expensive than the Committee + anticipated. To render the pit entrance more commodious, it had been + deemed advisable to remove a low public-house that stood in the way. This + turned out a matter of no little difficulty, for the proprietor was a man + well skilled in driving a hard bargain. The more eager the Committee + showed themselves to come to terms with him for his miserable pot-house, + the more grasping he became in his demands for compensation. They were + ultimately obliged to pay him an exorbitant sum. Added to this, the + interior decorations were on the most costly scale; and Mrs. Siddons, and + other members of the Kemble family, together with the celebrated Italian + singer, Madame Catalani, had been engaged at very high salaries. As the + night of opening drew near, the Committee found that they had gone a + little beyond their means; and they issued a notice, stating that, in + consequence of the great expense they had been at in building the theatre, + and the large salaries they had agreed to pay, to secure the services of + the most eminent actors, they were under the necessity of fixing the + prices of admission at seven shillings to the boxes and four shillings to + the pit, instead of six shillings and three and sixpence, as heretofore. + </p> + <p> + This announcement created the greatest dissatisfaction. The boxes might + have borne the oppression, but the dignity of the pit was wounded. A + war-cry was raised immediately. For some weeks previous to the opening, a + continual clatter was kept up in clubs and coffee-rooms, against what was + considered a most unconstitutional aggression on the rights of play-going + man. The newspapers assiduously kept up the excitement, and represented, + day after day, to the managers the impolicy of the proposed advance. The + bitter politics of the time were disregarded, and Kemble and Covent-Garden + became as great sources of interest as Napoleon and France. Public + attention was the more fixed upon the proceedings at Covent-Garden, since + it was the only patent theatre then in existence, Drury-Lane theatre + having also been destroyed by fire in the month of February previous. But + great as was the indignation of the lovers of the drama at that time, no + one could have anticipated the extraordinary lengths to which opposition + would be carried. + </p> + <p> + First Night, September 20th.—The performances announced were the + tragedy of "Macbeth" and the afterpiece of "The Quaker." The house was + excessively crowded (the pit especially) with persons who had gone for no + other purpose than to make a disturbance. They soon discovered another + grievance to add to the list. The whole of the lower, and three-fourths of + the upper tier of boxes, were let out for the season; so that those who + had paid at the door for a seat in the boxes, were obliged to mount to a + level with the gallery. Here they were stowed into boxes which, from their + size and shape, received the contemptuous, and not inappropriate + designation of pigeon-holes. This was considered in the light of a new + aggression upon established rights; and long before the curtain drew up, + the managers might have heard in their green-room the indignant shouts of + "Down with the pigeon-holes!"—"Old prices for ever!" Amid this din + the curtain rose, and Mr. Kemble stood forward to deliver a poetical + address in honour of the occasion. The riot now began in earnest; not a + word of the address was audible, from the stamping and groaning of the + people in the pit. This continued, almost without intermission, through + the five acts of the tragedy. Now and then, the sublime acting of Mrs. + Siddons, as "the awful woman," hushed the noisy multitude into silence, in + spite of themselves: but it was only for a moment; the recollection of + their fancied wrongs made them ashamed of their admiration, and they + shouted and hooted again more vigorously than before. The comedy of Munden + in the afterpiece met with no better reception; not a word was listened + to, and the curtain fell amid still increasing uproar and shouts of "Old + prices!" Some magistrates, who happened to be present, zealously came to + the rescue, and appeared on the stage with copies of the Riot Act. This + ill-judged proceeding made the matter worse. The men of the pit were + exasperated by the indignity, and strained their lungs to express how + deeply they felt it. Thus remained the war till long after midnight, when + the belligerents withdrew from sheer exhaustion. + </p> + <p> + Second Night.—The crowd was not so great; all those who had gone on + the previous evening to listen to the performances, now stayed away, and + the rioters had it nearly all to themselves. With the latter, "the play + was not the thing," and Macheath and Polly sang in "The Beggar's Opera" in + vain. The actors and the public appeared to have changed sides—the + audience acted, and the actors listened. A new feature of this night's + proceedings was the introduction of placards. Several were displayed from + the pit and boxes, inscribed in large letters with the words, "Old + prices." With a view of striking terror, the constables who had been + plentifully introduced into the house, attacked the placard-bearers, and + succeeded, after several severe battles, in dragging off a few of them to + the neighbouring watch-house, in Bow Street. Confusion now became worse + and worse confounded. The pitites screamed themselves hoarse; while, to + increase the uproar, some mischievous frequenters of the upper regions + squeaked through dozens of cat-calls, till the combined noise was enough + to blister every tympanum in the house. + </p> + <p> + Third Night.—The appearance of several gentlemen in the morning at + the bar of the Bow Street police office, to answer for their riotous + conduct, had been indignantly commented upon during the day. All augured + ill for the quiet of the night. The performances announced were "Richard + the Third" and "The Poor Soldier," but the popularity of the tragedy could + not obtain it a hearing. The pitites seemed to be drawn into closer union + by the attacks made upon them, and to act more in concert than on the + previous nights. The placards were, also, more numerous; not only the pit, + but the boxes and galleries exhibited them. Among the most conspicuous, + was one inscribed, "John Bull against John Kemble.—Who'll win?" + Another bore "King George for ever! but no King Kemble." A third was + levelled against Madame Catalani, whose large salary was supposed to be + one of the causes of the increased prices, and was inscribed "No + foreigners to tax us—we're taxed enough already." This last was a + double-barrelled one, expressing both dramatic and political discontent, + and was received with loud cheers by the pitites. + </p> + <p> + The tragedy and afterpiece were concluded full two hours before their + regular time; and the cries for Mr. Kemble became so loud, that the + manager thought proper to obey the summons. Amid all these scenes of + uproar he preserved his equanimity, and was never once betrayed into any + expression of petulance or anger. With some difficulty he obtained a + hearing. He entered into a detail of the affairs of the theatre, assuring + the audience at the same time of the solicitude of the proprietors to + accommodate themselves to the public wish. This was received with some + applause, as it was thought at first to manifest a willingness to come + back to the old prices, and the pit eagerly waited for the next sentence, + that was to confirm their hopes. That sentence was never uttered, for Mr. + Kemble, folding his arms majestically, added, in his deep tragic voice, + "Ladies and Gentlemen, I wait here to know what you want!" Immediately the + uproar was renewed, and became so tremendous and so deafening, that the + manager, seeing the uselessness of further parley, made his bow and + retired. + </p> + <p> + A gentleman then rose in the boxes and requested a hearing. He obtained it + without difficulty. He began by inveighing in severe terms against the + pretended ignorance of Mr. Kemble, in asking them so offensively what they + wanted, and concluded by exhorting the people never to cease their + opposition until they brought down the prices to their old level. The + speaker, whose name was understood to be Leigh, then requested a cheer for + the actors, to show that no disrespect was intended them. The cheer was + given immediately. + </p> + <p> + A barrister of the name of Smythe then rose to crave another hearing for + Mr. Kemble. The manager stood forth again, calm, unmoved, and severe. + "Ladies and gentlemen," said he, "I wait here to know your wishes." Mr. + Leigh, who took upon himself, "for that night only," the character of + popular leader, said, the only reply he could give was one in three words, + "the old prices." Hereat the shouts of applause again rose, till the + building rang. Still serene amid the storm, the manager endeavoured to + enter into explanations. The men of the pit would hear nothing of the + sort. They wanted entire and absolute acquiescence. Less would not satisfy + them; and, as Mr. Kemble only wished to explain, they would not hear a + word. He finally withdrew amid a noise to which Babel must have been + comparatively silent. + </p> + <p> + Fourth night.—The rioters were more obstinate than ever. The noises + were increased by the addition of whistles, bugle-horns, and watchmen's + rattles, sniffling, snorting, and clattering from all parts of the house. + Human lungs were taxed to the uttermost, and the stamping on the floor + raised such a dust as to render all objects but dimly visible. In + placards, too, there was greater variety. The loose wits of the town had + all day been straining their ingenuity to invent new ones. Among them + were, "Come forth, O Kemble! come forth and tremble!" "Foolish John + Kemble, we'll make you tremble!" and "No cats! no Catalani! English actors + for ever!" + </p> + <p> + Those who wish to oppose a mob successfully, should never lose their + temper. It is a proof of weakness which masses of people at once perceive, + and never fail to take advantage of. Thus, when the managers unwisely + resolved to fight the mob with their own weapons, it only increased the + opposition it was intended to allay. A dozen pugilists, commanded by a + notorious boxer of the day, were introduced into the pit, to use the + argumentum ad hominem to the rioters. Continual scuffles ensued: but the + invincible resolution of the playgoers would not allow them to quail; it + rather aroused them to renewed opposition, and a determination never to + submit or yield. It also strengthened their cause, by affording them + further ground of complaint against the managers. + </p> + <p> + The performances announced on the bills were the opera of "Love in a + Village," and "Who wins?" but the bills had it all to themselves, for + neither actors nor public were much burthened with them. The latter, + indeed, afforded some sport. The title was too apt to the occasion to + escape notice, and shouts of "Who wins? who wins?" displaced for a time + the accustomed cry of old prices. + </p> + <p> + After the fall of the curtain, Mr. Leigh, with another gentleman, again + spoke, complaining bitterly of the introduction of the prize-fighters, and + exhorting the public never to give in. Mr. Kemble was again called + forward; but when he came, the full tide of discord ran so strongly + against him that, being totally unable to stem it, he withdrew. Each man + seemed to shout as if he had been a Stentor; and when his lungs were + wearied, took to his feet and stamped, till all the black coats in his + vicinity became grey with dust. At last the audience were tired out, and + the theatre was closed before eleven o'clock. + </p> + <p> + Fifth night.—The play was Coleman's amusing comedy of "John Bull." + There was no diminution of the uproar. Every note on the diapason of + discord was run through. The prize-fighters, or hitites as they were + called, mustered in considerable numbers, and the battles between them and + the pitites were fierce and many. It was now, for the first time, that the + letters O.P. came into general use as an abbreviation of the accustomed + watchword of old prices. Several placards were thus inscribed; and, as + brevity is so desirable in shouting, the mob adopted the emendation. As + usual, the manager was called for. After some delay he came forward, and + was listened to with considerable patience. He repeated, in respectful + terms, the great loss that would be occasioned to the proprietors by a + return to the old prices, and offered to submit a statement of their + accounts to the eminent lawyers, Sir Vicary Gibbs and Sir Thomas Plumer; + the eminent merchants, Sir Francis Baring and Mr. Angerstein; and Mr. + Whitmore, the Governor of the Bank of England. By their decision as to the + possibility of carrying on the theatre at the old prices, he would consent + to be governed, and he hoped the public would do the same. This reasonable + proposition was scouted immediately. Not even the high and reputable names + he had mentioned were thought to afford any guarantee for impartiality. + The pitites were too wrong-headed to abate one iota of their pretensions; + and they had been too much insulted by the prize-fighters in the manager's + pay, to show any consideration for him, or agree to any terms he might + propose. They wanted full acquiescence, and nothing less. Thus the + conference broke off, and the manager retired amid a storm of hisses. + </p> + <p> + An Irish gentleman, named O'Reilly, then stood up in one of the boxes. + With true Irish gallantry, he came to the rescue of an ill-used lady. He + said he was disgusted at the attacks made upon Madame Catalani, the finest + singer in the world, and a lady inestimable in private life. It was + unjust, unmanly, and un-English to make the innocent suffer for the + guilty; and he hoped this blot would be no longer allowed to stain a fair + cause. As to the quarrel with the manager, he recommended them to + persevere. They were not only wronged by his increased prices, but + insulted by his boxers, and he hoped, that before they had done with him, + they would teach him a lesson he would not soon forget. The gallant + Hibernian soon became a favourite, and sat down amid loud cheers. + </p> + <p> + Sixth night.—No signs of a cessation of hostilities on the one side, + or of a return to the old prices on the other. The playgoers seemed to + grow more united as the managers grew more obstinate. The actors had by + far the best time of it; for they were spared nearly all the labour of + their parts, and merely strutted on the stage to see how matters went on, + and then strutted off again. Notwithstanding the remonstrance of Mr. + O'Reilly on the previous night, numerous placards reflecting upon Madame + Catalani were exhibited. One was inscribed with the following doggrel:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Seventeen thousand a-year goes pat, + To Kemble, his sister, and Madame Cat." +</pre> + <p> + On another was displayed, in large letters, "No compromise, old prices, + and native talent!" Some of these were stuck against the front of the + boxes, and others were hoisted from the pit on long poles. The following + specimens will suffice to show the spirit of them; wit they had none, or + humour either, although when they were successively exhibited, they + elicited roars of laughter:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "John Kemble alone is the cause of this riot; + When he lowers his prices, John Bull will be quiet." + + "John Kemble be damn'd, + We will not be cramm'd." + + "Squire Kemble + Begins to tremble." +</pre> + <p> + The curtain fell as early as nine o'clock, when there being loud calls for + Mr. Kemble, he stood forward. He announced that Madame Catalani, against + whom so unjustifiable a prejudice had been excited, had thrown up her + engagement rather than stand in the way of any accommodation of existing + differences. This announcement was received with great applause. Mr. + Kemble then went on to vindicate himself and co-proprietors from the + charge of despising public opinion. No assertion, he assured them, could + be more unjust. They were sincerely anxious to bring these unhappy + differences to a close, and he thought he had acted in the most fair and + reasonable manner in offering to submit the accounts to an impartial + committee, whose decision, and the grounds for it, should be fully + promulgated. This speech was received with cheering, but interrupted at + the close by some individuals, who objected to any committee of the + manager's nomination. This led to a renewal of the uproar, and it was some + time before silence could be obtained. When, at last, he was able to make + himself heard, he gave notice, that until the decision of the committee + had been drawn up, the theatre should remain closed. Immediately every + person in the pit stood up, and a long shout of triumph resounded through + the house, which was heard at the extremity of Bow Street. As if this + result had been anticipated, a placard was at the same moment hoisted, + inscribed, "Here lies the body of NEW PRICE, an ugly brat and base born, + who expired on the 23rd of September 1809, aged six days.—Requiescat + in pace!" + </p> + <p> + Mr. Kemble then retired, and the pitites flung up their hats in the air, + or sprang over the benches, shouting and hallooing in the exuberance of + their joy; and thus ended the first act of this popular farce. + </p> + <p> + The committee ultimately chosen differed from that first named, Alderman + Sir Charles Price, Bart. and Mr. Silvester, the Recorder of London, being + substituted for Sir Francis Baring and Sir Vicary Gibbs. In a few days + they had examined the multitudinous documents of the theatre, and agreed + to a report which was published in all the newspapers, and otherwise + distributed. They stated the average profits of the six preceding years at + 6 and 3/8 per cent, being only 1 and 3/8 per cent. beyond the legal + interest of money, to recompense the proprietors for all their care and + enterprise. Under the new prices they would receive 3 and 1/2 per cent. + profit; but if they returned to the old prices, they would suffer a loss + of fifteen shillings per cent. upon their capital. Under these + circumstances, they could do no other than recommend the proprietors to + continue the new prices. + </p> + <p> + This report gave no satisfaction. It certainly convinced the reasonable, + but they, unfortunately, were in a minority of one to ten. The managers, + disregarding the outcry that it excited, advertised the recommencement of + the performances for Wednesday the 4th of October following. They + endeavoured to pack the house with their friends, but the sturdy O.P. men + were on the alert, and congregated in the pit in great numbers. The play + was "The Beggar's Opera," but, as on former occasions, it was wholly + inaudible. The noises were systematically arranged, and the actors, seeing + how useless it was to struggle against the popular feeling, hurried over + their parts as quickly as they could, and the curtain fell shortly after + nine o'clock. Once more the manager essayed the difficult task of + convincing madness by appealing to reason. As soon as the din of the + rattles and post-horns would permit him to speak, he said, he would throw + himself on the fairness of the most enlightened metropolis in the world. + He was sure, however strongly they might feel upon the subject, they would + not be accessory to the ruin of the theatre, by insisting upon a return to + the former prices. Notwithstanding the little sop he had thrown out to + feed the vanity of this roaring Cerberus, the only answer he received was + a renewal of the noise, intermingled with shouts of "Hoax! hoax! + imposition!" Mr. O'Reilly, the gallant friend of Madame Catalani, + afterwards addressed the pit, and said no reliance could be placed on the + report of the committee. The profits of the theatre were evidently great: + they had saved the heavy salary of Madame Catalani; and by shutting out + the public from all the boxes but the pigeon-holes, they made large sums. + The first and second tiers were let at high rents to notorious courtesans, + several of whom he then saw in the house; and it was clear that the + managers preferred a large revenue from this impure source to the + reasonable profits they would receive from respectable people. Loud cheers + greeted this speech; every eye was turned towards the boxes, and the few + ladies in them immediately withdrew. At the same moment, some inveterate + petite hoisted a large placard, on which was inscribed, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "We lads of the pit + Will never submit." +</pre> + <p> + Several others were introduced. One of them was a caricature likeness of + Mr. Kemble, asking, "What do you want?" with a pitite replying, "The old + prices, and no pigeon-holes!" Others merely bore the drawing of a large + key, in allusion to a notorious house in the neighbourhood, the denizens + of which were said to be great frequenters of the private boxes. These + appeared to give the managers more annoyance than all the rest, and the + prize-fighters made vigorous attacks upon the holders of them. Several + persons were, on this night, and indeed nearly every night, taken into + custody, and locked up in the watchhouse. On their appearance the + following morning, they were generally held to bail in considerable sums + to keep the peace. This proceeding greatly augmented the animosity of the + pit. + </p> + <p> + It would be useless to detail the scenes of confusion which followed night + after night. For about three weeks the war continued with unabated fury. + Its characteristics were nearly always the same. Invention was racked to + discover new noises, and it was thought a happy idea when one fellow got + into the gallery with a dustman's bell, and rang it furiously. Dogs were + also brought into the boxes, to add their sweet voices to the general + uproar. The animals seemed to join in it con amore, and one night a large + mastiff growled and barked so loudly, as to draw down upon his exertions + three cheers from the gratified pitites. + </p> + <p> + So strong did the popular enthusiasm run in favour of the row, that + well-dressed ladies appeared in the boxes with the letters O. P. on their + bonnets. O. P. hats for the gentlemen were still more common, and some + were so zealous in the cause, as to sport waistcoats with an O embroidered + upon one flap and a P on the other. O.P. toothpicks were also in fashion; + and gentlemen and ladies carried O.P. handkerchiefs, which they waved + triumphantly whenever the row was unusually deafening. The latter + suggested the idea of O. P. flags, which were occasionally unfurled from + the gallery to the length of a dozen feet. Sometimes the first part of the + night's performances were listened to with comparative patience, a + majority of the manager's friends being in possession of the house. But as + soon as the half-price commenced, the row began again in all its pristine + glory. At the fall of the curtain it soon became customary to sing "God + save the King," the whole of the O.P.'s joining in loyal chorus. Sometimes + this was followed by "Rule Britannia;" and, on two or three occasions, by + a parody of the national anthem, which excited great laughter. A verse may + not be uninteresting as a specimen. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "O Johnny Bull, be true, + Confound the prices new, + And make them fall! + Curse Kemble's politics, + Frustrate his knavish tricks, + On thee our hopes we fix, + T' upset them all!" +</pre> + <p> + This done, they scrambled over the benches, got up sham fights in the pit, + or danced the famous O.P. dance. The latter may as well be described here: + half a dozen, or a dozen fellows formed in a ring, and stamped alternately + with the right and left foot, calling out at regular intervals, O. P.—O. + P. with a drawling and monotonous sound. This uniformly lasted till the + lights were put out, when the rioters withdrew, generally in gangs of ten + or twenty, to defend themselves from sudden attacks on the part of the + constables. + </p> + <p> + An idea seemed about this time to break in upon them, that notwithstanding + the annoyance they caused the manager, they were aiding to fill his + coffers. This was hinted at in some of the newspapers, and the consequence + was, that many stayed away to punish him, if possible, under the silent + system. But this did not last long. The love of mischief was as great an + incentive to many of them as enmity to the new prices. Accidental + circumstances also contributed to disturb the temporary calm. At the + Westminster quarter-sessions, on the 27th of October, bills of indictment + were preferred against forty-one persons for creating a disturbance and + interrupting the performances of the theatre. The grand jury ignored + twenty-seven of the bills, left two undecided, and found true bills + against twelve. The latter exercised their right of traverse till the + ensuing sessions. The preferment of these bills had the effect of + re-awakening the subsiding excitement. Another circumstance about the same + time gave a still greater impetus to it, and furnished the rioters with a + chief, round whom they were eager to rally. Mr. Clifford, a barrister, + appeared in the pit on the night of the 31st of October, with the letters + O. P. on his hat. Being a man of some note, he was pounced upon by the + constables, and led off to Bow Street police office, where Brandon, the + box-keeper, charged him with riotous and disorderly conduct. This was + exactly what Clifford wanted. He told the presiding magistrate, a Mr. + Read, that he had purposely displayed the letters on his hat, in order + that the question of right might be determined before a competent + tribunal. He denied that he had committed any offence, and seemed to + manifest so intimate an acquaintance with the law upon the subject, that + the magistrate, convinced by his reasoning, ordered his immediate + dismissal, and stated that he had been taken into custody without the + slightest grounds. The result was made known in the theatre a few minutes + afterwards, where Mr. Clifford, on his appearance victorious, was received + with reiterated huzzas. On his leaving the house, he was greeted by a mob + of five or six hundred persons, who had congregated outside to do him + honour as he passed. From that night the riots may be said to have + recommenced, and "Clifford and O. P." became the rallying cry of the + party. The officious box-keeper became at the same time the object of the + popular dislike, and the contempt with which the genius and fine qualities + of Mr. Kemble would not permit them to regard him, was fastened upon his + underling. So much ill-feeling was directed towards the latter, that at + this time a return to the old prices, unaccompanied by his dismissal, + would not have made the manager's peace with the pitites. + </p> + <p> + In the course of the few succeeding weeks, during which the riots + continued with undiminished fury, O. P. medals were struck, and worn in + great numbers in the theatre. A few of the ultra-zealous even wore them in + the streets. A new fashion also came into favour for hats, waistcoats, and + handkerchiefs, on which the mark, instead of the separate letters O and P, + was a large O, with a small P in the middle of it: thus, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + xxxxxxxxx + x x + x xxx x + x x x x + x xxx x + x x x + x x x + x x + xxxxxxxxx +</pre> + <p> + The managers, seeing that Mr. Clifford was so identified with the rioters, + determined to make him responsible. An action was accordingly brought + against him and other defendants in the Court of King's Bench. On the 20th + of November, the Attorney-general moved, before Lord Ellenborough, for a + rule to show cause why a criminal information should not be filed against + Clifford for unlawfully conspiring with certain others to intimidate the + proprietors of Covent-Garden Theatre, and force them, to their loss and + detriment, to lower their prices of admission. The rule was granted, and + an early day fixed for the trial. In the mean time, these proceedings kept + up the acerbity of the O. P.s, and every night at the fall of the curtain, + three groans were given for John Kemble and three cheers for John Bull. + </p> + <p> + It was during this year that the national Jubilee was celebrated, in + honour of the fiftieth year of the reign of George III. When the riots had + reached their fiftieth night, the O. P.s also determined to have a + jubilee. All their previous efforts in the way of roaring, great as they + were, were this night outdone, and would have continued long after "the + wee short hour," had not the managers wisely put the extinguisher upon + them and the lights about eleven o'clock. + </p> + <p> + Pending the criminal prosecution against himself, Mr. Clifford brought an + action for false imprisonment against Brandon. The cause was fixed for + trial in the Court of Common Pleas, on the 5th of December, before Lord + Chief-Justice Mansfield. From an early hour in the morning all the avenues + leading to the court were thronged with an eager multitude; all London was + in anxiety for the resuit. So dense was the crowd, that counsel found the + greatest difficulty in making their way into court. Mr. Sergeant Best was + retained on the part of the plaintiff, and Mr. Sergeant Shepherd for the + defence. The defendant put two pleas upon the record; first, that he was + not guilty, and secondly, that he was justified. Sergeant Best, in stating + the plaintiff's case, blamed the managers for all the disturbances that + had taken place, and contended that his client, in affixing the letters O. + P. to his hat, was not guilty of any offence. Even if he had joined in the + noises, which he had not, his so doing would not subject him to the + penalties for rioting. Several witnesses were then called to prove the + capture of Mr. Clifford, the hearing of the case before the magistrate at + Bow Street, and his ultimate dismissal. Sergeant Shepherd was heard at + great length on the other side, and contended that his client was + perfectly justified in taking into custody a man who was inciting others + to commit a breach of the peace. + </p> + <p> + The Lord Chief-Justice summed up, with an evident bias in favour of the + defendant. He said an undue apprehension of the rights of an audience had + got abroad. Even supposing the object of the rioters to be fair and legal, + they were not authorized to carry it by unfair means. In order to + constitute a riot, it was not necessary that personal violence should be + committed, and it seemed to him that the defendant had not acted in an + improper manner in giving into custody a person who, by the display of a + symbol, was encouraging others to commit a riot. + </p> + <p> + The jury retired to consider their verdict. The crowd without and within + the court awaited the result in feverish suspense. Half an hour elapsed, + when the jury returned with a verdict for the plaintiff—Damages, + five pounds. The satisfaction of the spectators was evident upon their + countenances, that of the judge expressed the contrary feeling. Turning to + the foreman of the jury, his Lordship asked upon which of the two points + referred to them, namely, the broad question, whether a riot had been + committed, and, if committed, whether the plaintiff had participated in + it, they had found their verdict? + </p> + <p> + The foreman stated, that they were all of opinion generally that the + plaintiff had been illegally arrested. This vague answer did not satisfy + his Lordship, and he repeated his question. He could not, however, obtain + a more satisfactory reply. Evidently vexed at what he deemed the + obtuseness or partiality of the jury, he turned to the bar, and said, that + a spirit of a mischievous and destructive nature was abroad, which, if not + repressed, threatened awful consequences. The country would be lost, he + said, and the government overturned, if such a spirit were encouraged; it + was impossible it could end in good. Time, the destroyer and fulfiller of + predictions, has proved that his Lordship was a false prophet. The + harmless O. P. war has been productive of no such dire results. + </p> + <p> + It was to be expected that after this triumph, the war in the pit would + rage with redoubled acrimony. A riot beginning at half-price would not + satisfy the excited feelings of the O. P.s on the night of such a victory. + Long before the curtain drew up, the house was filled with them, and + several placards were exhibited, which the constables and friends of the + managers strove, as usual, to tear into shreds. One of them, which met + this fate, was inscribed, "Success to O.P.! A British jury for ever!" It + was soon replaced by another of a similar purport. It is needless to + detail the uproar that ensued; the jumping, the fighting, the roaring, and + the howling. For nine nights more the same system was continued; but the + end was at hand. + </p> + <p> + On the 14th a grand dinner was given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, to + celebrate the victory of Mr. Clifford. "The reprobators of managerial + insolence," as they called themselves, attended in considerable numbers; + and Mr. Clifford was voted to the chair. The cloth had been removed, and a + few speeches made, when the company were surprised by a message that their + arch-enemy himself solicited the honour of an audience. It was some time + ere they could believe that Mr. Kemble had ventured to such a place. After + some parley the manager was admitted, and a conference was held. A treaty + was ultimately signed and sealed, which put an end to the long-contested + wars of O.P., and restored peace to the drama. + </p> + <p> + All this time the disturbance proceeded at the theatre with its usual + spirit. It was now the sixty-sixth night of its continuance, and the + rioters were still untired—still determined to resist to the last. + In the midst of it a gentleman arrived from the Crown and Anchor, and + announced to the pit that Mr. Kemble had attended the dinner, and had + yielded at last to the demand of the public. He stated, that it had been + agreed upon between him and the Committee for defending the persons under + prosecution, that the boxes should remain at the advanced price; that the + pit should be reduced to three shillings and sixpence; that the private + boxes should be done away with; and that all prosecutions, on both sides, + should be immediately stayed. This announcement was received with + deafening cheers. As soon as the first burst of enthusiasm was over, the + O. P.s became anxious for a confirmation of the intelligence, and + commenced a loud call for Mr. Kemble. He had not then returned from the + Crown and Anchor; but of this the pitites were not aware, and for nearly + half an hour they kept up a most excruciating din. At length the great + actor made his appearance, in his walking dress, with his cane in hand, as + he had left the tavern. It was a long time before he could obtain silence. + He apologized in the most respectful terms for appearing before them in + such unbecoming costume, which was caused solely by his ignorance that he + should have to appear before them that night. After announcing, as well as + occasional interruptions would allow, the terms that had been agreed upon, + he added, "In order that no trace or recollection of the past differences, + which had unhappily prevailed so long, should remain, he was instructed by + the proprietors to say, that they most sincerely lamented the course that + had been pursued, and engaged that, on their parts, all legal proceedings + should forthwith be put a stop to." The cheering which greeted this speech + was interrupted at the close by loud cries from the pit of "Dismiss + Brandon," while one or two exclaimed, "We want old prices generally,—six + shillings for the boxes." After an ineffectual attempt to address them + again upon this point, Mr. Kemble made respectful and repeated obeisances, + and withdrew. The noises still continued, until Munden stood forward, + leading by the hand the humbled box-keeper, contrition in his looks, and + in his hands a written apology, which he endeavoured to read. The uproar + was increased threefold by his presence, and, amid cries of "We won't hear + him!" "Where's his master?" he was obliged to retire. Mr. Harris, the son + of Kemble's co-manager, afterwards endeavoured to propitiate the audience + in his favour; but it was of no avail; nothing less than his dismissal + would satisfy the offended majesty of the pit. Amid this uproar the + curtain finally fell, and the O. P. dance was danced for the last time + within the walls of Covent Garden. + </p> + <p> + On the following night it was announced that Brandon had resigned his + situation. This turned the tide of popular ill-will. The performances were + "The Wheel of Fortune," and an afterpiece. The house was crowded to + excess; a desire to be pleased was manifest on every countenance, and when + Mr. Kemble, who took his favourite character of Penruddock, appeared upon + the stage, he was greeted with the most vehement applause. The noises + ceased entirely, and the symbols of opposition disappeared. The audience, + hushed into attention, gave vent to no sounds but those of admiration for + the genius of the actor. When, in the course of his part, he repeated the + words, "So! I am in London again!" the aptness of the expression to the + circumstances of the night, was felt by all present, and acknowledged by a + round of boisterous and thrice repeated cheering. It was a triumphant + scene for Mr. Kemble after his long annoyances. He had achieved a double + victory. He had, not only as a manager, soothed the obstinate opposition + of the play-goers, but as an actor he had forced from one of the largest + audiences he had ever beheld, approbation more cordial and unanimous than + he had ever enjoyed before. The popular favour not only turned towards + him; it embraced everybody connected with the theatre, except the poor + victim, Brandon. Most of the favourite actors were called before the + curtain to make their bow, and receive the acclamations of the pit. At the + close of the performances, a few individuals, implacable and stubborn, got + up a feeble cry of "Old prices for the boxes;" but they were quickly + silenced by the reiterated cheers of the majority, or by cries of "Turn + them out!" A placard, the last of its race, was at the same time exhibited + in the front of the pit, bearing, in large letters, the words "We are + satisfied." + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the famous wars of O. P., which, for a period of nearly three + months, had kept the metropolis in an uproar. And after all, what was the + grand result? As if the whole proceeding had been a parody upon the more + destructive, but scarcely more sensible wars recorded in history, it was + commenced in injustice, carried on in bitterness of spirit, and ended, + like the labour of the mountain, in a mouse. The abatement of sixpence in + the price of admission to the pit, and the dismissal of an unfortunate + servant, whose only fault was too much zeal in the service of his + employers,—such were the grand victories of the O. P.'s. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE THUGS, or PHANSIGARS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Orribili favelle—parole di dolor.—DANTE. +</pre> + <p> + Among the black deeds which Superstition has imposed as duties upon her + wretched votaries, none are more horrible than the practices of the + murderers, who, under the name of Thugs, or Phansigars, have so long been + the scourge of India. For ages they have pursued their dark and dreadful + calling, moulding assassination into a science, or extolling it as a + virtue, worthy only to be practised by a race favoured of Heaven. Of late + years this atrocious delusion has excited much attention, both in this + country and in India; an attention which, it is to be hoped, will speedily + lead to the uprooting of a doctrine so revolting and anti-human. Although + the British Government has extended over Hindostan for so long a period, + it does not appear that Europeans even suspected the existence of this + mysterious sect until the commencement of the present century. In the year + 1807, a gang of Thugs, laden with the plunder of murdered travellers, was + accidentally discovered. The inquiries then set on foot revealed to the + astonished Government a system of iniquity unparalleled in the history of + man. Subsequent investigation extended the knowledge; and by throwing + light upon the peculiar habits of the murderers, explained the reason why + their crimes had remained so long undiscovered. In the following pages + will be found an epitome of all the information which has reached Europe + concerning them, derived principally from Dr. Sherwood's treatise upon the + subject, published in 1816, and the still more valuable and more recent + work of Mr. Sleeman, entitled the "Ramaseeana; or, Vocabulary of the + peculiar Language of the Thugs." + </p> + <p> + The followers of this sect are called Thugs, or T'hugs, and their + profession Thuggee. In the south of India they are called Phansigars: the + former word signifying "a deceiver;" and the latter, "a strangler." They + are both singularly appropriate. The profession of Thuggee is hereditary, + and embraces, it is supposed, in every part of India, a body of at least + ten thousand individuals, trained to murder from their childhood; carrying + it on in secret and in silence, yet glorying in it, and holding the + practice of it higher than any earthly honour. During the winter months, + they usually follow some reputable calling, to elude suspicion; and in the + summer, they set out in gangs over all the roads of India, to plunder and + destroy. These gangs generally contain from ten to forty Thugs, and + sometimes as many as two hundred. Each strangler is provided with a noose, + to despatch the unfortunate victim, as the Thugs make it a point never to + cause death by any other means. When the gangs are very large, they divide + into smaller bodies; and each taking a different route, they arrive at the + same general place of rendezvous to divide the spoil. They sometimes + travel in the disguise of respectable traders; sometimes as sepoys or + native soldiers; and at others, as government officers. If they chance to + fall in with an unprotected wayfarer, his fate is certain. One Thug + approaches him from behind, and throws the end of a sash round his neck; + the other end is seized by a second at the same instant, crossed behind + the neck, and drawn tightly, while with their other hand the two Thugs + thrust his head forward to expedite the strangulation: a third Thug seizes + the traveller by the legs at the same moment, and he is thrown to the + ground, a corpse before he reaches it. + </p> + <p> + But solitary travellers are not the prey they are anxious to seek. A + wealthy caravan of forty or fifty individuals has not unfrequently been + destroyed by them; not one soul being permitted to escape. Indeed, there + is hardly an instance upon record of any one's escape from their hands, so + surely are their measures taken, and so well do they calculate beforehand + all the risks and difficulties of the undertaking. Each individual of the + gang has his peculiar duty allotted to him. Upon-approaching a town, or + serai, two or three, known as the Soothaes, or "inveiglers," are sent in + advance to ascertain if any travellers are there; to learn, if possible, + the amount of money or merchandize they carry with them, their hours of + starting in the morning, or any other particulars that may be of use. If + they can, they enter into conversation with them, pretend to be travelling + to the same place, and propose, for mutual security, to travel with them. + This intelligence is duly communicated to the remainder of the gang. The + place usually chosen for the murder is some lonely part of the road in the + vicinity of a jungle, and the time, just before dusk. At given signals, + understood only by themselves, the scouts of the party station themselves + in the front, in the rear, and on each side, to guard against surprise. A + strangler and assistant strangler, called Bhurtote and Shamshea, place + themselves, the one on the right, and the other on the left of the victim, + without exciting his suspicion. At another signal the noose is twisted, + drawn tightly by a strong hand at each extremity, and the traveller, in a + few seconds, hurried into eternity. Ten, twelve, twenty, and in some + instances, sixty persons have been thus despatched at the same moment. + Should any victim, by a rare chance, escape their hands, he falls into + those of the scouts who are stationed within hearing, who run upon him and + soon overpower him. + </p> + <p> + Their next care is to dispose of the bodies. So cautious are they to + prevent detection, that they usually break all the joints to hasten + decomposition. They then cut open the body to prevent it swelling in the + grave and causing fissures in the soil above, by which means the jackals + might be attracted to the spot, and thereby lead to discovery. When + obliged to bury the body in a frequented district, they kindle a fire over + the grave to obliterate the traces of the newly turned earth. Sometimes + the grave-diggers of the party, whose office, like that of all the rest, + is hereditary, are despatched to make the graves in the morning at some + distant spot, by which it is known the travellers will pass. The + stranglers, in the mean time, journey quietly with their victims, + conversing with them in the most friendly manner. Towards nightfall they + approach the spot selected for their murder; the signal is given, and they + fall into the graves that have been ready for them since day-break. On one + occasion, related by Captain Sleeman, a party of fifty-nine people, + consisting of fifty-two men and seven women, were thus simultaneously + strangled, and thrown into the graves prepared for them in the morning. + Some of these travellers were on horseback and well armed, but the Thugs, + who appear to have been upwards of two hundred in a gang, had provided + against all risk of failure. The only one left alive of all that numerous + party, was an infant four years old, who was afterwards initiated into all + the mysteries of Thuggee. + </p> + <p> + If they cannot find a convenient opportunity for disposing of the bodies, + they carry them for many miles, until they come to a spot secure from + intrusion, and to a soil adapted to receive them. If fear of putrefaction + admonishes them to use despatch, they set up a large screen or tent, as + other travellers do, and bury the body within the enclosure, pretending, + if inquiries are made, that their women are within. But this only happens + when they fall in with a victim unexpectedly. In murders which they have + planned previously, the finding of a place of sepulture is never left to + hazard. + </p> + <p> + Travellers who have the misfortune to lodge in the same choultry or + hostelry, as the Thugs, are often murdered during the night. It is either + against their creed to destroy a sleeper, or they find a difficulty in + placing the noose round the neck of a person in a recumbent position. When + this is the case, the slumberer is suddenly aroused by the alarm of a + snake or a scorpion. He starts to his feet, and finds the fatal sash + around his neck.—He never escapes. + </p> + <p> + In addition to these Thugs who frequent the highways, there are others, + who infest the rivers, and are called Pungoos. They do not differ in + creed, but only in a few of their customs, from their brethren on shore. + They go up and down the rivers in their own boats, pretending to be + travellers of consequence, or pilgrims, proceeding to, or returning from + Benares, Allahabad, or other sacred places. The boatmen, who are also + Thugs, are not different in appearance from the ordinary boatmen on the + river. The artifices used to entice victims on board are precisely similar + to those employed by the highway Thugs. They send out their "inveiglers" + to scrape acquaintance with travellers, and find out the direction in + which they are journeying. They always pretend to be bound for the same + place, and vaunt the superior accommodation of the boat by which they are + going. The travellers fall into the snare, are led to the Thug captain, + who very often, to allay suspicion, demurs to take them, but eventually + agrees for a moderate sum. The boat strikes off into the middle of the + stream; the victims are amused and kept in conversation for hours by their + insidious foes, until three taps are given on the deck above. This is a + signal from the Thugs on the look-out that the coast is clear. In an + instant the fatal noose is ready, and the travellers are no more. The + bodies are then thrown, warm and palpitating, into the river, from a hole + in the side of the boat, contrived expressly for the purpose. + </p> + <p> + A river Thug, who was apprehended, turned approver, to save his own life, + and gave the following evidence relative to the practices of his + fraternity:—"We embarked at Rajmahul. The travellers sat on one side + of the boat, and the Thugs on the other; while we three (himself and two + "stranglers,") were placed in the stern, the Thugs on our left, and the + travellers on our right. Some of the Thugs, dressed as boatmen, were above + deck, and others walking along the bank of the river, and pulling the boat + by the joon, or rope, and all, at the same time, on the look-out. We came + up with a gentleman's pinnace and two baggage-boats, and were obliged to + stop, and let them go on. The travellers seemed anxious; but were quieted + by being told that the men at the rope were tired, and must take some + refreshment. They pulled out something, and began to eat; and when the + pinnace had got on a good way, they resumed their work, and our boat + proceeded. It was now afternoon; and, when a signal was given above, that + all was clear, the five Thugs who sat opposite the travellers sprang in + upon them, and, with the aid of others, strangled them. Having done this, + they broke their spinal bones, and then threw them out of a hole made at + the side, into the river, and kept on their course; the boat being all + this time pulled along by the men on the bank." + </p> + <p> + That such atrocities as these should have been carried on for nearly two + centuries without exciting the attention of the British Government, seems + incredible. But our wonder will be diminished when we reflect upon the + extreme caution of the Thugs, and the ordinary dangers of travelling in + India. The Thugs never murder a man near his own home, and they never + dispose of their booty near the scene of the murder. They also pay, in + common with other and less atrocious robbers, a portion of their gains to + the Polygars, or native authorities of the districts in which they reside, + to secure protection. The friends and relatives of the victims, perhaps a + thousand miles off, never surmise their fate till a period has elapsed + when all inquiry would be fruitless, or, at least, extremely difficult. + They have no clue to the assassins, and very often impute to the wild + beasts of the jungles the slaughter committed by that wilder beast, man. + </p> + <p> + There are several gradations through which every member of the fraternity + must regularly pass before he arrives at the high office of a Bhurtote, or + strangler. He is first employed as a scout—then as a sexton—then + as a Shumseea, or holder of hands, and lastly as a Bhurtote. When a man + who is not of Thug lineage, or who has not been brought up from his + infancy among them, wishes to become a strangler, he solicits the oldest, + and most pious and experienced Thug, to take him under his protection and + make him his disciple; and under his guidance he is regularly initiated. + When he has acquired sufficient experience in the lower ranks of the + profession, he applies to his Gooroo, or preceptor, to give the finishing + grace to his education, and make a strangler of him. An opportunity is + found when a solitary traveller is to be murdered; and the tyro, with his + preceptor, having seen that the proposed victim is asleep, and in safe + keeping till their return, proceed to a neighbouring field and perform + several religious ceremonies, accompanied by three or four of the oldest + and steadiest members of the gang. The Gooroo first offers up a prayer to + the goddess, saying, "Oh, Kalee! Kun-kalee! Bhud-kalee! Oh, Kalee! + Maha-kalee! Calkutta Walee! if it seems fit to thee that the traveller now + at our lodging should die by the hands of this thy slave, vouchsafe us thy + good omen." They then sit down and watch for the good omen; and if they + receive it within half an hour, conclude that their goddess is favourable + to the claims of the new candidate for admission. If they have a bad omen, + or no omen at all, some other Thug must put the traveller to death, and + the aspirant must wait a more favourable opportunity, purifying himself in + the mean time by prayer and humiliation for the favour of the goddess. If + the good omen has been obtained, they return to their quarters; and the + Gooroo takes a handkerchief and, turning his face to the west, ties a knot + at one end of it, inserting a rupee, or other piece of silver. This knot + is called the goor khat, or holy knot, and no man who has not been + properly ordained is allowed to tie it. The aspirant receives it + reverently in his right hand from his Gooroo, and stands over the sleeping + victim, with a Shumseea, or holder of hands, at his side. The traveller is + aroused, the handkerchief is passed around his neck, and, at a signal from + the Gooroo, is drawn tight till the victim is strangled; the Shumseea + holding his hands to prevent his making any resistance. The work being now + completed, the Bhurtote (no longer an aspirant, but an admitted member) + bows down reverently in the dust before his Gooroo, and touches his feet + with both his hands, and afterwards performs the same respect to his + relatives and friends who have assembled to witness the solemn ceremony. + He then waits for another favourable omen, when he unties the knot and + takes out the rupee, which he gives to his Gooroo, with any other silver + which he may have about him. The Gooroo adds some of his own money, with + which he purchases what they call goor, or consecrated sugar, when a + solemn sacrifice is performed, to which all the gang are invited. The + relationship between the Gooroo and his disciple is accounted the most + holy that can be formed, and subsists to the latest period of life. A Thug + may betray his father, but never his Gooroo. + </p> + <p> + Dark and forbidding as is the picture already drawn, it will become still + darker and more repulsive, when we consider the motives which prompt these + men to systematic murder. Horrible as their practices would be, if love of + plunder alone incited them, it is infinitely more horrible to reflect that + the idea of duty and religion is joined to the hope of gain, in making + them the scourges of their fellows. If plunder were their sole object, + there would be reason to hope, that when a member of the brotherhood grew + rich, he would rest from his infernal toils; but the dismal superstition + which he cherishes tells him never to desist. He was sent into the world + to be a slayer of men, and he religiously works out his destiny. As + religiously he educates his children to pursue the same career, instilling + into their minds, at the earliest age, that Thuggee is the noblest + profession a man can follow, and that the dark goddess they worship will + always provide rich travellers for her zealous devotees. + </p> + <p> + The following is the wild and startling legend upon which the Thugs found + the divine origin of their sect. They believe that, in the earliest ages + of the world, a gigantic demon infested the earth, and devoured mankind as + soon as they were created. He was of so tall a stature, that when he + strode through the most unfathomable depths of the great sea, the waves, + even in tempest, could not reach above his middle. His insatiable appetite + for human flesh almost unpeopled the world, until Bhawanee, Kalee, or + Davee, the goddess of the Thugs, determined to save mankind by the + destruction of the monster. Nerving herself for the encounter, she armed + herself with an immense sword; and, meeting with the demon, she ran him + through the body. His blood flowed in torrents as he fell dead at her + feet; but from every drop there sprang up another monster, as rapacious + and as terrible as the first. Again the goddess upraised her massive + sword, and hewed down the hellish brood by hundreds; but the more she + slew, the more numerous they became. Every drop of their blood generated a + demon; and, although the goddess endeavoured to lap up the blood ere it + sprang into life, they increased upon her so rapidly, that the labour of + killing became too great for endurance. The perspiration rolled down her + arms in large drops, and she was compelled to think of some other mode of + exterminating them. In this emergency, she created two men out of the + perspiration of her body, to whom she confided the holy task of delivering + the earth from the monsters. To each of the men she gave a handkerchief, + and showed them how to kill without shedding blood. From her they learned + to tie the fatal noose; and they became, under her tuition, such expert + stranglers, that, in a very short space of time, the race of demons became + extinct. + </p> + <p> + When there were no more to slay, the two men sought the great goddess, in + order to return the handkerchiefs. The grateful Bhawanee desired that they + would retain them, as memorials of their heroic deeds; and in order that + they might never lose the dexterity that they had acquired in using them, + she commanded that, from thenceforward, they should strangle men. These + were the two first Thugs, and from them the whole race have descended. To + the early Thugs the goddess was more direct in her favours, than she has + been to their successors. At first, she undertook to bury the bodies of + all the men they slew and plundered, upon the condition that they should + never look back to see what she was doing. The command was religiously + observed for many ages, and the Thugs relied with implicit faith upon the + promise of Bhawanee; but as men became more corrupt, the ungovernable + curiosity of a young Thug offended the goddess, and led to the withdrawal + of a portion of her favour. This youth, burning with a desire to see how + she made her graves, looked back, and beheld her in the act, not of + burying, but of devouring, the body of a man just strangled. Half of the + still palpitating remains was dangling over her lips. She was so highly + displeased that she condemned the Thugs, from that time forward, to bury + their victims themselves. Another account states that the goddess was + merely tossing the body in the air; and that, being naked, her anger was + aggravated by the gaze of mortal eyes upon her charms. Before taking a + final leave of her devotees, she presented them with one of her teeth for + a pickaxe, one of her ribs for a knife, and the hem of her garment for a + noose. She has not since appeared to human eyes. + </p> + <p> + The original tooth having been lost in the lapse of ages, new pickaxes + have been constructed, with great care and many ceremonies, by each + considerable gang of Thugs, to be used in making the graves of strangled + travellers. The pickaxe is looked upon with the utmost veneration by the + tribe. A short account of the process of making it, and the rites + performed, may be interesting, as showing still further their gloomy + superstition. In the first place, it is necessary to fix upon a lucky day. + The chief Thug then instructs a smith to forge the holy instrument: no + other eye is permitted to see the operation. The smith must engage in no + other occupation until it is completed, and the chief Thug never quits his + side during the process. When the instrument is formed, it becomes + necessary to consecrate it to the especial service of Bhawnee. Another + lucky day is chosen for this ceremony, care being had in the mean time + that the shadow of no earthly thing fall upon the pickaxe, as its efficacy + would be for ever destroyed. A learned Thug then sits down; and turning + his face to the west, receives the pickaxe in a brass dish. After + muttering some incantation, he throws it into a pit already prepared for + it, where it is washed in clear water. It is then taken out, and washed + again three times; the first time in sugar and water, the second in sour + milk, and the third in spirits. It is then dried, and marked from the head + to the point with seven red spots. This is the first part of the ceremony: + the second consists in its purification by fire. The pickaxe is again + placed upon the brass dish, along with a cocoa-nut, some sugar, cloves, + white sandal-wood, and other articles. A fire of the mango tree, mixed + with dried cow-dung, is then kindled; and the officiating Thug, taking the + pickaxe with both hands, passes it seven times through the flames. + </p> + <p> + It now remains to be ascertained whether the goddess is favourable to her + followers. For this purpose, the cocoa-nut is taken from the dish and + placed upon the ground. The officiating Thug, turning to the spectators, + and holding the axe uplifted, asks, "Shall I strike?" Assent being given, + he strikes the nut with the but-end of the axe, exclaiming, "All hail! + mighty Davee! great mother of us all!" The spectators respond, "All hail! + mighty Davee! and prosper thy children, the Thugs!" + </p> + <p> + If the nut is severed at the first blow, the goddess is favourable; if + not, she is unpropitious: all their labour is thrown away, and the + ceremony must be repeated upon some more fitting occasion. But if the sign + be favourable, the axe is tied carefully in a white cloth and turned + towards the west, all the spectators prostrating themselves before it. It + is then buried in the earth, with its point turned in the direction the + gang wishes to take on their approaching expedition. If the goddess + desires to warn them that they will be unsuccessful, or that they have not + chosen the right track, the Thugs believe that the point of the axe will + veer round, and point to the better way. During an expedition, it is + entrusted to the most prudent and exemplary Thug of the party: it is his + care to hold it fast. If by any chance he should let it fall, + consternation spreads through the gang: the goddess is thought to be + offended; the enterprise is at once abandoned; and the Thugs return home + in humiliation and sorrow, to sacrifice to their gloomy deity, and win + back her estranged favour. So great is the reverence in which they hold + the sacred axe, that a Thug will never break an oath that he has taken + upon it. He fears that, should he perjure himself, his neck would be so + twisted by the offended Bhawanee as to make his face turn to his back; and + that, in the course of a few days, he would expire in the most + excruciating agonies. + </p> + <p> + The Thugs are diligent observers of signs and omens. No expedition is ever + undertaken before the auspices are solemnly taken. Upon this subject + Captain Sleeman says, "Even the most sensible approvers, who have been + with me for many years, as well Hindoos as Mussulmans, believe that their + good or ill success depended upon the skill with which the omens were + discovered and interpreted, and the strictness with which they were + observed and obeyed. One of the old Sindouse stock told me, in presence of + twelve others, from Hydrabad, Behar, the Dooah, Oude, Rajpootana, and + Bundelcund, that, had they not attended to these omens, they never could + have thrived as they did. In ordinary cases of murder, other men seldom + escaped punishment, while they and their families had, for ten + generations, thrived, although they had murdered hundreds of people. + 'This,' said the Thug,' could never have been the case had we not attended + to omens, and had not omens been intended for us. There were always signs + around us to guide us to rich booty, and warn us of danger, had we been + always wise enough to discern them and religious enough to attend to + them.' Every Thug present concurred with him from his soul." + </p> + <p> + A Thug, of polished manners and great eloquence, being asked by a native + gentleman, in the presence of Captain Sleeman, whether he never felt + compunction in murdering innocent people, replied with a smile that he did + not. "Does any man," said he, "feel compunction in following his trade? + and are not all our trades assigned us by Providence?" He was then asked + how many people he had killed with his own hands in the course of his + life? "I have killed none," was the reply. "What! and have you not been + describing a number of murders in which you were concerned?" "True; but do + you suppose that I committed them? Is any man killed by man's killing? Is + it not the hand of God that kills, and are we not the mere instruments in + the hands of God?" + </p> + <p> + Upon another occasion, Sahib, an approver, being asked if he had never + felt any pity or compunction at murdering old men or young children, or + persons with whom he had sat and conversed, and who had told him, + perchance, of their private affairs—their hopes and their fears, + their wives and their little ones? replied unhesitatingly that he never + did. From the time that the omens were favourable, the Thugs considered + all the travellers they met as victims thrown into their hands by their + divinity to be killed. The Thugs were the mere instruments in the hands of + Bhawanee to destroy them. "If we did not kill them," said Sahib, "the + goddess would never again be propitious to us, and we and our families + would be involved in misery and want. If we see or hear a bad omen, it is + the order of the goddess not to kill the travellers we are in pursuit of, + and we dare not disobey." + </p> + <p> + As soon as an expedition has been planned, the goddess is consulted. On + the day chosen for starting, which is never during the unlucky months of + July, September, and December, nor on a Wednesday or Thursday; the chief + Thug of the party fills a brass jug with water, which he carries in his + right hand by his side. With his left, he holds upon his breast the sacred + pickaxe, wrapped carefully in a white cloth, along with five knots of + turmeric, two copper, and one silver coin. He then moves slowly on, + followed by the whole of the gang, to some field or retired place, where + halting, with his countenance turned in the direction they wish to pursue, + he lifts up his eyes to heaven, saying, "Great goddess! universal mother! + if this, our meditated expedition, be fitting in thy sight, vouchsafe to + help us, and give us the signs of thy approbation." All the Thugs present + solemnly repeat the prayer after their leader, and wait in silence for the + omen. If within half an hour they see Pilhaoo, or good omen on the left, + it signifies that the goddess has taken them by the left hand to lead them + on; if they see the Thibaoo, or omen on the right, it signifies that she + has taken them by the right hand also. The leader then places the brazen + pitcher on the ground and sits down beside it, with his face turned in the + same direction for seven hours, during which time his followers make all + the necessary preparations for the journey. If, during this interval, no + unfavourable signs are observed, the expedition advances slowly, until it + arrives at the bank of the nearest stream, when they all sit down and eat + of the goor, or consecrated sugar. Any evil omens that are perceived after + this ceremony may be averted by sacrifices; but any evil omens before, + would at once put an end to the expedition. + </p> + <p> + Among the evil omens are the following:—If the brazen pitcher drops + from the hand of the Jemadar or leader, it threatens great evil either to + him or to the gang—sometimes to both. If they meet a funeral + procession, a blind man, a lame man, an oil-vender, a carpenter, a potter, + or a dancing-master, the expedition will be dangerous. In like manner it + is unlucky to sneeze, to meet a woman with an empty pail, a couple of + jackals, or a hare. The crossing of their path by the latter is considered + peculiarly inauspicious. Its cry at night on the left is sometimes a good + omen, but if they hear it on the right it is very bad; a warning sent to + them from Bhawanee that there is danger if they kill. Should they + disregard this warning, and led on by the hope of gain, strangle any + traveller, they would either find no booty on him, or such booty as would + eventually lead to the ruin and dispersion of the gang. Bhawanee would be + wroth with her children; and causing them to perish in the jungle, would + send the hares to drink water out of their skulls. + </p> + <p> + The good omens are quite as numerous as the evil. It promises a fortunate + expedition, if, on the first day, they pass through a village where there + is a fair. It is also deemed fortunate, if they hear wailing for the dead + in any village but their own. To meet a woman with a pitcher full of water + upon her head, bodes a prosperous journey and a safe return. The omen is + still more favourable if she be in a state of pregnancy. It is said of the + Thugs of the Jumaldehee and Lodaha tribes, that they always make the + youngest Thug of the party kick the body of the first person they + strangle, five times on the back, thinking that it will bring them good + luck. This practice, however, is not general. If they hear an ass bray on + the left at the commencement of an expedition, and an another soon + afterwards on the right, they believe that they shall be supereminently + successful, that they shall strangle a multitude of travellers, and find + great booty. + </p> + <p> + After every murder a solemn sacrifice, called the Tuponee, is performed by + all the gang. The goor, or consecrated sugar, is placed upon a large cloth + or blanket, which is spread upon the grass. Beside it is deposited the + sacred pickaxe, and a piece of silver for an offering. The Jemadar, or + chief of the party, together with all the oldest and most prudent Thugs, + take their places upon the cloth, and turn their faces to the west. Those + inferior Thugs who cannot find room upon the privileged cloth, sit round + as close to it as possible. A pit is then dug, into which the Jemadar + pours a small quantity of the goor, praying at the same time that the + goddess will always reward her followers with abundant spoils. All the + Thugs repeat the prayer after him. He then sprinkles water upon the + pickaxe, and puts a little of the goor upon the head of every one who has + obtained a seat beside him on the cloth. A short pause ensues, when the + signal for strangling is given, as if a murder were actually about to be + committed, and each Thug eats his goor in solemn silence. So powerful is + the impression made upon their imagination by this ceremony, that it + almost drives them frantic with enthusiasm. Captain Sleeman relates, that + when he reproached a Thug for his share in a murder of great atrocity, and + asked him whether he never felt pity; the man replied, "We all feel pity + sometimes; but the goor of the Tuponee changes our nature; it would change + the nature of a horse. Let any man once taste of that goor, and he will be + a Thug, though he know all the trades and have all the wealth in the + world. I never was in want of food; my mother's family was opulent, and + her relations high in office. I have been high in office myself, and + became so great a favourite wherever I went that I was sure of promotion; + yet I was always miserable when absent from my gang, and obliged to return + to Thuggee. My father made me taste of that fatal goor, when I was yet a + mere boy; and if I were to live a thousand years I should never be able to + follow any other trade." + </p> + <p> + The possession of wealth, station in society, and the esteem of his + fellows, could not keep this man from murder. From his extraordinary + confession we may judge of the extreme difficulty of exterminating a sect + who are impelled to their horrid practises, not only by the motives of + self-interest which govern mankind in general, but by a fanaticism which + fills up the measure of their whole existence. Even severity seems thrown + away upon the followers of this brutalizing creed. To them, punishment is + no example; they have no sympathy for a brother Thug who is hung at his + own door by the British Government, nor have they any dread of his fate. + Their invariable idea is, that their goddess only suffers those Thugs to + fall into the hands of the law, who have contravened the peculiar + observances of Thuggee, and who have neglected the omens she sent them for + their guidance. + </p> + <p> + To their neglect of the warnings of the goddess they attribute all the + reverses which have of late years befallen their sect. It is expressly + forbidden, in the creed of the old Thugs, to murder women or cripples. The + modern Thugs have become unscrupulous upon this point, murdering women, + and even children, with unrelenting barbarity. Captain Sleeman reports + several conversations upon this subject, which he held at different times + with Thugs, who had been taken prisoners, or who had turned approvers. One + of them, named Zolfukar, said, in reply to the Captain, who accused him of + murdering women, "Yes, and was not the greater part of Feringeea's and my + gang seized, after we had murdered the two women and the little girl, at + Manora, in 1830? and were we not ourselves both seized soon after? How + could we survive things like that? Our ancestors never did such things." + Lalmun, another Thug, in reply to a similar question, said, "Most of our + misfortunes have come upon us for the murder of women. We all knew that + they would come upon us some day, for this and other great sins. We were + often admonished, but we did not take warning; and we deserve our fates." + In speaking of the supposed protection which their goddess had extended to + them in former times, Zolfukar said:—"Ah! we had some regard for + religion then! We have lost it since. All kinds of men have been made + Thugs, and all classes of people murdered, without distinction; and little + attention has been paid to omens. How, after this, could we think to + escape? * * * * Davee never forsook us till we neglected her!" + </p> + <p> + It might be imagined that men who spoke in this manner of the anger of the + goddess, and who, even in custody, showed so much veneration for their + unhappy calling, would hesitate before they turned informers, and laid + bare the secrets and exposed the haunts of their fellows:—among the + more civilized ruffians of Europe, we often find the one chivalrous trait + of character, which makes them scorn a reward that must be earned by the + blood of their accomplices: but in India there is no honour among thieves. + When the approvers are asked, if they, who still believe in the power of + the terrible goddess Davee, are not afraid to incur her displeasure by + informing of their fellows, they reply, that Davee has done her worst in + abandoning them. She can inflict no severer punishment, and therefore + gives herself no further concern about her degenerate children. This + cowardly doctrine is, however, of advantage to the Government that seeks + to put an end to the sect, and has thrown a light upon their practices, + which could never have been obtained from other sources. + </p> + <p> + Another branch of the Thug abomination has more recently been discovered + by the indefatigable Captain Sleeman. The followers of this sect are + called MEGPUNNAS, and they murder travellers, not to rob them of their + wealth, but of their children, whom they afterwards sell into slavery. + They entertain the same religious opinions as the Thugs, and have carried + on their hideous practices, and entertained their dismal superstition, for + about a dozen years with impunity. The report of Captain Sleeman states, + that the crime prevails almost exclusively in Delhi and the native + principalities, or Rajpootana of Ulwar and Bhurtpore; and that it first + spread extensively after the siege of Bhurtpore in 1826. + </p> + <p> + The original Thugs never or rarely travel with their wives; but the + Megpunnas invariably take their families with them, the women and children + being used to inveigle the victims. Poor travellers are always chosen by + the Megpunnas as the objects of their murderous traffic. The females and + children are sent on in advance to make acquaintance with emigrants or + beggars on the road, travelling with their families, whom they entice to + pass the night in some secluded place, where they are afterwards set upon + by the men, and strangled. The women take care of the children. Such of + them as are beautiful are sold at a high price to the brothels of Delhi, + or other large cities; while the boys and ill-favoured girls are sold for + servants at a more moderate rate. These murders are perpetrated perhaps + five hundred miles from the homes of the unfortunate victims; and the + children thus obtained, deprived of all their relatives, are never + inquired after. Even should any of their kin be alive, they are too far + off and too poor to institute inquiries. One of the members, on being + questioned, said the Megpunnas made more money than the other Thugs; it + was more profitable to kill poor people for the sake of their children, + than rich people for their wealth. Megpunnaism is supposed by its votaries + to be, like Thuggee, under the immediate protection of the great goddess + Davee, or Kalee, whose favour is to be obtained before the commencement of + every expedition, and whose omens, whether of good or evil, are to be + diligently sought on all occasions. The first apostle to whom she + communicated her commands for the formation of the new sect, and the rules + and ordinances by which it was to be guided, was called Kheama Jemadar. He + was considered so holy a man, that the Thugs and Megpunnas considered it + an extreme felicity to gaze upon and touch him. At the moment of his + arrest by the British authorities, a fire was raging in the village, and + the inhabitants gathered round him and implored him to intercede with his + god, that the flames might be extinguished. The Megpunna, says the + tradition, stretched forth his hand to heaven, prayed, and the fire ceased + immediately. + </p> + <p> + There now only remain to be considered the exertions that have been made + to remove from the face of India this purulent and disgusting sore. From + the year 1807 until 1826, the proceedings against Thuggee were not carried + on with any extraordinary degree of vigour; but, in the latter year, the + Government seems to have begun to act upon a settled determination to + destroy it altogether. From 1826 to 1855, both included, there were + committed to prison, in the various Presidencies, 1562 persons accused of + this crime. Of these, 328 were hanged; 999 transported; 77 imprisoned for + life; 71 imprisoned for shorter periods; 21 held to bail; and only 21 + acquitted. Of the remainder, 31 died in prison, before they were brought + to trial, 11 escaped, and 49 turned approvers. + </p> + <p> + One Feringeea, a Thug leader of great notoriety, was delivered up to + justice in the year 1830, in consequence of the reward of five hundred + rupees offered for his apprehension by the Government. He was brought + before Captain Sleeman, at Sangir, in the December of that year, and + offered, if his life were spared, to give such information as would lead + to the arrest of several extensive gangs which had carried on their + murderous practices undetected for several years. He mentioned the place + of rendezvous, for the following February, of some well organized gangs, + who were to proceed into Guzerat and Candeish. Captain Sleeman appeared to + doubt his information; but accompanied the Thug to a mango grove, two + stages from Sangir, on the road to Seronage. They reached this place in + the evening, and in the morning Feringeea pointed out three places in + which he and his gang had, at different intervals, buried the bodies of + three parties of travellers whom they had murdered. The sward had grown + over all the spots, and not the slightest traces were to be seen that it + had ever been disturbed. Under the sod of Captain Sleeman's tent were + found the bodies of the first party, consisting of a pundit and his six + attendants, murdered in 1818. Another party of five, murdered in 1824, + were under the ground at the place where the Captain's horses had been + tied up for the night; and four Brahmin carriers of the Ganges water, with + a woman, were buried under his sleeping tent. Before the ground was moved, + Captain Sleeman expressed some doubts; but Feringeea, after looking at the + position of some neighbouring trees, said he would risk his life on the + accuracy of his remembrance. The workmen dug five feet without discovering + the bodies; but they were at length found a little beyond that depth, + exactly as the Thug had described them. With this proof of his knowledge + of the haunts of his brethren, Feringeea was promised his liberty and + pardon if he would aid in bringing to justice the many large gangs to + which he had belonged, and which were still prowling over the country. + They were arrested in the February following, at the place of rendezvous + pointed out by the approver, and most of them condemned and executed. + </p> + <p> + So far we learn from Captain Sleeman, who only brought down his tables to + the close of the year 1835. A writer in the "Foreign Quarterly Review" + furnishes an additional list of 241 persons, committed to prison in 1836, + for being concerned in the murder and robbery of 474 individuals. Of these + criminals, 91 were sentenced to death, and 22 to imprisonment for life, + leaving 306, who were sentenced to transportation for life, or shorter + periods of imprisonment, or who turned approvers, or died in gaol. Not one + of the whole number was acquitted. + </p> + <p> + Great as is this amount of criminals who have been brought to justice, it + is to be feared that many years must elapse before an evil so deeply + rooted can be eradicated. The difficulty is increased by the utter + hopelessness of reformation as regards the survivors. Their numbers are + still calculated to amount to ten thousand persons, who, taking the + average of three murders annually for each, as calculated by Captain + Sleeman and other writers, murder every year thirty thousand of their + fellow creatures. This average is said to be under the mark; but even if + we were to take it at only a third of this calculation, what a frightful + list it would be! When religion teaches men to go astray, they go far + astray indeed! + </p> + <p> + END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular +Delusions, by Charles Mackay + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXTRAORDINARY DELUSIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 636-h.htm or 636-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/3/636/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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