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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a612760 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #63739 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63739) diff --git a/old/63739-0.txt b/old/63739-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d75851b..0000000 --- a/old/63739-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10697 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, English Cathedrals Illustrated, by Francis -Bond - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: English Cathedrals Illustrated - Second and Revised Edition - - -Author: Francis Bond - - - -Release Date: November 14, 2020 [eBook #63739] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH CATHEDRALS ILLUSTRATED*** - - -E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed Proofreading -Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by -Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the 180 original illustrations. - See 63739-h.htm or 63739-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63739/63739-h/63739-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/63739/63739-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/gri_33125014518423 - - - Some characters might not display properly in this UTF-8 - text file (e.g., empty squares). If so, the reader should - consult the html version or the original page images noted - above. - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -[Illustration: ELY: NORTH AISLE OF CHOIR.] - - -ENGLISH CATHEDRALS ILLUSTRATED - -by - -FRANCIS BOND - -M.A., F.G.S., HON. A.R.I.B.A. - -Second and Revised Edition - -One Hundred and Eighty Illustrations from Photographs - - - - - - -London -George Newnes, Limited -Southampton Street, Strand -1900 - -Printed by -Hazell, Watson, and Viney, Ld., -London and Aylesbury. - - - - -Introduction. - - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHOIR SCREEN.] - -The following pages are an attempt to make the study of the English -cathedrals more interesting. Every ancient building has a life-history of -its own, and should be studied biographically. But open a guide-book, or -visit the different portions of a cathedral (Winchester, for example,) -in the regulation order, and what you read of or see will probably be, -first, what was done in the nave in the latter part of the fourteenth -and in the fifteenth century; then the work done in the crossing in the -twelfth century; then work done in the transepts in the eleventh century; -then the work in the choir in the first half of the fourteenth century; -then the work done in the retro-choir early in the thirteenth century; -finally, sixteenth-century work in the Lady chapel. To the reader this -hop, skip, and jump method—if it deserves to be called a method—is -simply maddening. For the visitor it has one merit, and one merit only: -it saves his legs. I do not propose to save the visitor’s legs; I must -candidly confess that the biographical method of studying a cathedral -involves a certain amount of marching and countermarching. But I venture -to hope that there are some visitors who will not be deterred by a little -additional bodily fatigue from studying the cathedrals aright. With what -horror a reader would study a biography of the Great Duke which commenced -with the Peninsular War, then described his school-days at Eton, followed -these up by the battle of Waterloo, digressed into a description of his -childhood and ancestry, described his career as a Tory Prime Minister, -and wound up with his campaigns in India! Yet that is how the English -cathedrals are studied. - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHOIR.] - -But it is not sufficient to study the different parts of a cathedral in -chronological order. It would be a dull biography of a man, and a dull -history of a people, which put events correctly in chronological order, -but did not point out the causal connection between them. It is just when -we reach this point that the real interest begins. It does not interest -one much to hear that an acquaintance whom we saw in London in the spring -is now in the Australian bush: it does interest one when one hears that -he had to leave the country because three months ago he was detected -cheating at cards. So, in a cathedral, it is not enough to know that such -a vault was put up or such a row of windows inserted in the fifteenth -century. We want to know why the cathedral people constructed the vault -or the windows just then; also, why they were not satisfied with what -was there before; also, what was there before. And with the latter -query comes in a fine field of action for what I believe is called the -“constructive imagination.” - -On the motives which influenced mediæval builders I have laid -considerable stress throughout the book, simply because, if it has -occurred at all to writers to ask why such and such a change was made, -the answer usually has been—I quote from an article on one of the -cathedrals—“simply a desire for what was thought a far superior kind of -beauty led to the alteration of this work”: _i.e._, the Gothic builders -were æsthetic dilettanti, striving after prettiness for prettiness’ sake; -on a level with painters and poets and musicians. Now, some changes were -due, I admit, to æsthetic considerations simply: _e.g._, the substitution -of the present choir for the former Transitional choir at York; so also -one of every pair of towers at the west end of a cathedral; and every -spire in the country. - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -But the more the history of the cathedrals is studied, the more clearly -it will be seen that the great majority of the alterations in the -structure were forced on the ecclesiastical authorities of the day by -practical considerations. - -The monastery was large, as at Canterbury, and the church the seat of an -archbishop; Lanfranc’s short choir had to be replaced by a longer one. - -Saint-worship increased; pilgrimages increased; pilgrims came in -thousands and tens of thousands. They could not be accommodated in the -crypts as before: room had to be found on the floor of the choir for -shrines transferred from the crypt; and aisles had to be constructed -round the shrines, that there might be a free passage, and no dangerous -block in the stream of pilgrims. For the local Saint—the St. Thomas of -Canterbury, the St. Hugh of Lincoln—accommodation on a vast scale had to -be provided. But beside the local saints, there were the great saints of -the Church; for them special chapels, with altars, had to be provided, -either in a new eastern transept or in aisles added to the central -transept. There was, moreover, especially in the first half of the -thirteenth century, a great outburst of Mariolatry. For these reasons, -then—what we may call ritualistic reasons—vast eastern extensions were -made in nearly every cathedral. - -But the original Norman cathedrals were not only small and inconvenient -to the east, but they were throughout very badly lighted; a very -large amount of history, as I have tried to point out in speaking of -Gloucester, Hereford, and Norwich, consists of attempts to improve the -lighting of the cathedral. Sometimes, indeed, the improvement took the -shape of total destruction of the old gloomy church, and its replacement -by a brilliantly illuminated successor, as at York. Connected with this -was the mania for an increased acreage of stained glass—an æsthetic -motive which, however, had its practical side; the stained glass -justifying itself to the monks and canons as providing a series of -lessons in Scripture history or Church history. - -Many changes were due to damage from fire or storm, or to jerry-building. -The clerestory of Norwich had to be rebuilt because it had been crushed -by the fall of the spire. The Norwich monks were driven to fireproof the -whole church, because fires in 1463 and 1509 showed them the necessity of -it, by burning down successively the wooden roofs, first of the nave and -choir, then of the transept. I am sure that if our documentary evidence -were not so deplorably incomplete, we should find that very many other -alterations were due to the effect of fire and tempest: in which case -the list of æsthetic changes would be yet further cut down—_e.g._, we -might find after all that York choir had to be rebuilt for some purely -matter-of-fact reason. - -Add to these causes the frequent collapses due to mediæval -jerry-building, both Norman and Gothic. Many central towers -collapsed—_e.g._, at Winchester, Ripon, Wells, Ely, Peterborough, -Lincoln; and doubtless there were collapses of many others, of which we -have no record. Hence, for example, the fourteenth-century choir of Ely. -Whole sections of a cathedral tumbled down—_e.g._, in St. Alban’s nave. -The early masonry was but skin-deep; inside the thin casing of masonry -the core of piers and walls alike had crumbled into powder; foundations -were insufficient, or were simply omitted. The object was, but too often, -not to build soundly, but to build a bigger church than the rival over -the way, and to hurry it up as quickly as possible. Hence the shocking -building done by the Peterborough people in their rivalry with Ely. - -A considerable amount of space has been devoted to what is called the -ichnography of the cathedrals—their ground-plans. It has not been -possible to insert plans in the book; it seemed hardly desirable to do -so. The _Builder_ has published valuable plans, on a large scale, of all -the cathedrals; they can be obtained separately, with the accompanying -letterpress and illustrations. The student should never visit a cathedral -without one of these plans. (I may add that he should always have a -binocular to study the detail, much of which—_e.g._, the bosses—is quite -out of the reach of the unaided eye.) - -As regards the nomenclature of the parts of a cathedral, it may be useful -to mention that the high altar is to the east; and that, facing the east, -the visitor has the south transept and south aisles on his right, and -the north transept and north aisles on his left hand. Standing at the -altar or the choir-screen, and looking down the nave to the great doors, -he has the north transept and north aisle of the nave on his right, and -the south transept and south aisle of the nave on his left. - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -The western limb of the cathedral is called the nave. The term “choir” -is sometimes loosely applied to the whole of the eastern limb. Strictly -it applies just to that part of the church where the stalls are; and -that part, as in St. Alban’s and Norwich, need not necessarily be in the -eastern limb at all, but in the crossing and in the easternmost bays of -the nave. - -In a cathedral with a fully-developed plan,—_e.g._, St. Alban’s or -Winchester—the following ritualistic divisions will be met with in -passing from west to east:—(1) The nave; (2) the choir; (3) the -sanctuary; (4) the retro-choir, containing (_a_) processional aisle, -(_b_) Saint’s chapel, (_c_) ante-chapel or vestibule to the Lady chapel; -(5) Lady chapel. Sometimes these ritualistic divisions correspond with -the architectural divisions of the church; sometimes they do not: _e.g._, -the ritualistic divisions of the eastern limbs of York and Lincoln were -not shown in the structure, but merely marked off by screens, most of -which have been destroyed. - -Much time and trouble have been spent in the endeavour to correct the -current chronology of the cathedrals. The subject is a difficult one; -suffice it to say that I have relied rather on architectural than on -documentary evidence. “In the earlier days of archæological study the -tendency was to discredit the former and to accept the latter; in these -days the results of strict analytical investigation and comparison of -the minor details of the buildings of the Middle Ages dispose us to -place much more reliance upon this species of internal evidence than -on even the most unequivocal assertions of ecclesiastical historians.” -The inductive reasoning based on the former is safer than the possibly -hearsay or downright mendacious testimony of the latter. In all cases, -however, where I have departed from an accepted chronology, I have given -my reasons: _e.g._, in the chapters on Hereford and Wells. - -As a rule, I have refrained from describing architectural detail. The -visitor to the cathedral does not need the description; the reader does -not need it, if he has an illustration before him; if he has not, no -amount of verbiage will make clear to him what, for instance, a bay of -the Angel triforium of Lincoln is like. - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -On the other hand, I have ventured on perilous ground in attempting to -criticise design. Where the old builders seem to me to have done bad -design, I have not scrupled to say so. Indiscriminate admiration of old -work is as bad as indiscriminate censure of new work: both are fatal to -the training of a right perceptive faculty. The student of design must -compare and weigh and judge; he must not be misled by local enthusiasm -to put St. Hugh’s choir at Lincoln on the level of Ely presbytery, or -York nave on the level of that of Exeter. I may add that I have laid more -stress than, perhaps, is usual, on proportion, as a leading factor in -architectural effect. - -I have followed the convenient custom of ascribing the design of -different parts of the cathedrals to various bishops and abbots and -priors. Such names, however, are merely convenient chronological -fixtures, not intended to signify that the dignitaries of the church -personally designed and erected them, but simply that they were in office -when the work was done. - -On the vexed question of architect _v._ master-mason, I may say that, -just as I find it easier to believe in one Homer than in many Homers, so, -in contemplating such a poem in stone as the west front of Peterborough -or the retro-choir of Wells, I find it easier to believe in one inspired -architect than in a crowd of inspired clerks of the works. - -I have gratefully to acknowledge my obligations to the “Cathedral -Handbooks” of Mr. John Murray, and to the _Builder_ series of cathedrals; -and to the brilliant word-painting of Mrs. Van Rensselaer in her -“Handbook of Twelve English Cathedrals.” - -All the English cathedrals have been studied on the spot; but I had the -misfortune to lose the whole of my notes and the greater part of the -completed MS., so that the work must be less accurate than I had hoped. -Complete accuracy, however, is impossible in dealing with a subject so -vast. It is impossible even to know a single cathedral. As has been -finely said by Mr. Fergusson: “Not only is there built into a mediæval -cathedral the accumulated thought of all the men who had occupied -themselves with building during the preceding centuries, but you have -the dream and aspiration of the bishop, abbot, or clergy for whom it -was designed; the master-mason’s skilled construction; the work of the -carver, the painter, the glazier, the host of men who, each in his own -craft, knew all that had been done before them, and had spent their -lives in struggling to surpass the works of their forefathers. It is more -than this: there is not one shaft, one moulding, one carving, not one -chisel-mark in such a building, that was not designed specially for the -place where it is found, and which was not the best that the experience -of the age could invent for the purposes to which it is applied; nothing -was borrowed; and nothing that was designed for one purpose was used for -another. A thought or a motive peeps out through every joint; you may -wander in such a building for weeks or for months together, and never -know it all.” - -[Illustration: SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -I trust that this attempt to open the way to understand and enjoy -more fully the highest achievement of the English race in any branch -of art—our mediæval architecture—may be helpful not only to English -students, but to our American cousins also, who—so the vergers assure -me—are the best-informed and most appreciative visitors to our cathedrals. - -_The initials which appear at the foot of the various illustrations -indicate the names of the photographers whose negatives have been used. -Thus:—B. and S.B. = S. B. Bolas & Co.; B. & Co. = J. Bulbeck & Co.; P. = -The Photochrom Co.; W. = F. Wetherman & Co., Ltd.; R. = Rock Bros., Ltd.; -A.F. = Mr. Arnold Fairbairns._ - - - - -CLASSIFICATION OF THE CATHEDRALS. - - -THIRTEEN CATHEDRALS OF THE OLD FOUNDATION (Pre-Conquest).—Bangor, -Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, Llandaff, London, St. -Asaph, St. David’s, Salisbury, Wells, York. These were served by secular -canons. Not being served by monks, they required none of the monastic -buildings, except the chapter-house. Some, however, have cloisters. The -establishments of these cathedrals were not suppressed, as were other -ecclesiastic colleges, at the Reformation. - -THIRTEEN CATHEDRALS OF THE NEW FOUNDATION.— - -(_a_) _Pre-Reformation Sees._ Seven cathedrals attached to Benedictine -monasteries—viz., Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, -Winchester, Worcester; one, Carlisle, attached to a house of Augustinian -canons. - -(_b_) _Sees founded by Henry VIII._, who converted into cathedrals three -Benedictine churches—viz., Chester, Gloucester, and Peterborough; and two -Augustinian churches—viz., Bristol and Oxford. - -All the above thirteen churches ceased at the Reformation to be served -by monks or regular canons, and received a new foundation of dean and -secular canons. - -EIGHT VICTORIAN CATHEDRALS.—Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Ripon, St. -Albans, Southwell, Truro, Wakefield. - -ELEVEN CHURCHES OF BENEDICTINE MONKS.—Canterbury, Chester, Durham, Ely, -Gloucester, Norwich, Peterborough, Rochester, Winchester, Worcester, St. -Albans. - -FOUR CHURCHES OF REGULAR CANONS OF THE AUGUSTINIAN ORDER.—Bristol, -Carlisle, Oxford, Ripon. - -TWO COLLEGIATE CHURCHES OF SECULAR CANONS.—Manchester, Southwell. - -FOUR PAROCHIAL CHURCHES.—Liverpool, Newcastle, Truro, Wakefield. - - - - -Contents. - - - PAGE - - BRISTOL 1 - The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity. - - CANTERBURY 10 - The Cathedral of Christ Church. - - CARLISLE 25 - The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity. - - CHESTER 31 - The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin. - - CHICHESTER 42 - The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity. - - DURHAM 51 - The Cathedral Church of St. Cuthbert and St. Mary. - - ELY 64 - The Cathedral Church of St. Ethelreda. - - EXETER 76 - The Cathedral Church of St. Peter. - - GLOUCESTER 94 - The Cathedral Church of St. Peter. - - HEREFORD 109 - The Cathedral Church of St. Mary and St. Ethelbert. - - LICHFIELD 120 - The Cathedral Church of St. Chad and St. Mary. - - LINCOLN 133 - The Cathedral Church of St. Mary. - - LONDON 148 - The Cathedral Church of St. Paul. - - NORWICH 159 - The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity. - - OXFORD 160 - The Cathedral Church of Christ. - - PETERBOROUGH 178 - The Cathedral Church of St. Peter. - - RIPON 189 - The Cathedral Church of St. Peter and St. Wilfrid. - - ROCHESTER 198 - The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew. - - ST. ALBANS 206 - The Cathedral Church of St. Alban. - - SALISBURY 218 - The Cathedral Church of St. Mary. - - SOUTHWELL 234 - The Cathedral Church of St. Mary. - - WELLS 245 - The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew. - - WINCHESTER 260 - The Cathedral Church of the Holy and Indivisible Trinity. - - WORCESTER 275 - The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the - Virgin of Worcester. - - YORK 283 - The Cathedral Church of St. Peter. - - VICTORIAN CATHEDRALS: LIVERPOOL—MANCHESTER—NEWCASTLE—TRURO—WAKEFIELD 296 - - THE WELSH CATHEDRALS: BANGOR—LLANDAFF—ST. ASAPH’S—ST. DAVID’S 301 - - GLOSSARY 310 - - - - -PERIODS OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE. - - - 1. Anglo-Saxon, 680-1100 ⎞ - 2. Early Norman, 1060-1100 ⎠ Primitive Romanesque. - - 3. Late Norman, 1100-1145 ⎞ - 4. Transitional, 1145-1190 ⎠ Romanesque. - - 5. Lancet, 1190-1245 ⎞ - 6. Early Geometrical, 1245-1280 ⎟ Early ⎞ - 7. Late Geometrical, 1280-1315 ⎠ ⎟ - ⎟ Gothic. - 8. Curvilinear, 1315-1360 ⎞ ⎟ - 9. Perpendicular, 1360-1485 ⎟ Late ⎠ - 10. Tudor, 1485-1660 ⎠ - -The above classification is, in the main, that of Mr. Sharpe’s “Seven -Periods of English Architecture.” - - - - -The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Bristol. - - -[Illustration] - -Bristol Cathedral was originally a church of the Regular Canons of the -Augustinian Order, who settled at Bristol in 1142. In 1542, like the -Augustinian churches of Carlisle and Oxford, it became a cathedral. In -1836 the see was united to that of Gloucester: it has recently resumed -its independent status. - -I. LATE NORMAN.—The choir and transepts of the cathedral were almost -wholly rebuilt in the fourteenth century; but here and there the original -work of the founder, Robert Fitzhardinge, survives. This includes (1) -the end wall of the south transept, which contains a doorway, afterwards -blocked up, when the south aisle of the Norman nave was constructed with -a doorway into it from the north-east corner of the cloister. Inside the -transept is a Norman cushion-corbel, supporting a later Perpendicular -capital. (2) Outside the south transept are flat pilaster buttresses at -the angles; the set-off of the ancient parapet; and a plain gable window, -set in a rough wall, on which may be seen the weathering of the original -steep roof. (3) The coursed masonry below the big window of the north -transept. (4) The lower part of the tower-piers; for their Perpendicular -mouldings, as in the earlier remodelling of Winchester nave, are such -as could be developed out of a Norman compound pier. (5) The corbels in -the staircase on the north side of the choir. (6) The gatehouse to the -Abbot’s lodgings. - -[Illustration: THE CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -II. TRANSITIONAL.—About 1145 innovations began to be made in Anglo-Norman -Romanesque. Among other things the pointed arch was introduced; at first -chiefly in arches supporting central towers or vaults. In 1155 the -founder received a grant of the forfeited estates of Roger de Berkeley; -and, owing to this vast accession of wealth, was able to finish his -Norman and Transitional work with exceptional richness. (1) In the -_Vestibule_ to the Chapter-house, the bays being oblong, pointed arches -were used on the short sides of each bay, so that their crowns might rise -to the same height as those of the semicircular arches on the longer -sides, as the builders thought was demanded by the requirements of -vaulting. In the same way, beneath the central towers of Oxford Cathedral -and Bolton Priory, pointed arches were built over the narrow transepts; -while over the broader nave and choir the semicircular arch was -employed. (2) The _Chapter-house_, as in most monastic establishments, -_e.g._, Gloucester, Canterbury, Oxford, Chester, was oblong; the more -beautiful polygonal form being more in favour in cathedrals served by -Secular Canons. It was originally 71 by 25 feet. The vast scale of these -conventual arrangements, here and elsewhere, is exceedingly striking. The -monks of St. Albans thought that their church required a nave 300 feet -long; the six canons of Bristol must have been lost in a Chapter-house -71 feet long. The recessed arcades round the walls here and at Worcester -are interesting; simple as they are, they are the germs of the beautiful -arcades of canopied niches round the Chapter-houses of York and Wells -and the Lady Chapel of Ely. Here is preserved a fine piece of archaic -sculpture (see CHICHESTER). (3) Exceedingly rich, too, is the lower part -of the _Great Gateway_ in College Green; “its courses, however, are -nearly double the height of Norman masonry; the hood-moulds of all the -arches are perpendicular, and at the crown of each arch are mitred into a -perpendicular string-course; which, with the high finish of the ornament, -points to the gateway having been wholly rebuilt in Perpendicular times”; -in which case, like the eastern bay of the triforium of Rochester, it is -an early example of “architectural forgery.” Fitzhardinge’s nave and -aisles seem to have been pulled down in the sixteenth century with a view -to rebuilding; which, however, was not carried out till 1877. - -[Illustration: ELDER LADY CHAPEL.] - -III. LANCET.—Early in the thirteenth century a beautiful Lady chapel -was built, projecting eastward from the north transept, and separated -by a few feet from the north wall of the choir. The same position was -adopted later for the Lady chapels of Peterborough and Ely. This chapel -is the artistic gem of the cathedral; it is surrounded by arcades of -the greatest beauty, with sculptured grotesques interspersed among the -foliage that remind one of the rich sculptured work in the retro-choir of -Worcester, which is possibly a few years earlier. Later on it received -the name of the elder Lady chapel; another Lady chapel having been built -in the more normal position at the extreme east of the choir. - -IV. Fitzhardinge’s cathedral, supplemented by the Lady chapel, seems to -have satisfied the Canons very well for the first half of the thirteenth -century. But in the EARLY GEOMETRICAL period (1245-1280), preparations -were made to improve the lighting of the _north transept_ by the -insertion of a big window in its north wall. The tracery of the present -window is later; but its inner jambs, mouldings and shafts, and the -external sill and string, as well as a great part of the buttresses, -seem to have been executed _c._ 1250. About this date is the fine -_doorway_, with a cleverly-contrived lintel, at the south end of the east -walk of the _Cloister_. - -V. In the MIDDLE of the GEOMETRICAL period, _c._ 1280, the east end -of the Lady chapel was rebuilt, and a window with Geometrical tracery -inserted; the tracery is of early character, containing nothing but -foliated circles. At the same time it received a simple quadripartite -vault; and to resist the thrust of this vault, the northern buttresses -were reconstructed and weighted with pinnacles. Of these pinnacles only -one, at the north-east corner, remains; the others seem to have been -reconstructed at the time when the pinnacles of the choir were built. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -VI. CURVILINEAR.—But the great building period at Bristol was between -1315 and 1349—that short but brilliant period when English mediæval -design was at its best—which culminated in the Octagon and Lady chapel of -Ely, the choir-screens of Southwell and Lincoln, and the Percy monument -at Beverley. Everything east of the nave was pulled down and rebuilt -_de novo_. And a very remarkable design it is; in fact, quite unique -among our cathedrals. All other cathedral authorities had agreed long -ago that the cardinal fault in all Romanesque design was its bad system -of lighting, but that the remedy was to be found mainly in improving -the top-lighting—_i.e._, in increasing the dimensions of the clerestory. -Beverley clerestory had taller windows than Durham; Salisbury clerestory -had three windows for every one of Beverley; Exeter spread out its -windows in increasing breadth till they touched the buttresses on either -side; the clerestories of the choir of Gloucester, now in course of -erection, were a vast, lofty, continuous sheet of glass. But there was -an alternative system of improving the lighting, which in many large -churches, such as Grantham, Ledbury, and Leominster, was the result of -fortuitous growth, but which in the choir of the Temple Church, London, -and in Patrington Church now in course of erection, was the result of -deliberate design. It was to magnify the aisles at the expense of the -nave, to lift them up so high that windows of vast height could be -placed in their walls, to dispense with a clerestory altogether, and to -give to the pier-arcade of the nave the additional height gained by the -suppression of the clerestory. It was to substitute side-lighting for -top-lighting; to rely exclusively on the flood of light passing from -vast, lofty aisle windows into the nave through its elevated arches. -Hence the big windows of Bristol choir, each representing a pair of -windows; the lower half the usual small window of an aisle, the upper -half the larger window stolen from the clerestory. - -[Illustration: BERKELEY CHAPEL.] - -But the new design had another merit, which probably weighed still more -with the Bristol builders. The cardinal difficulty of the mediæval -builders was how to keep up on the top of lofty clerestory walls a -heavy stone vault which was always striving to push them asunder. They -succeeded at length in keeping the clerestory walls from being thrust out -by propping them up with flying-buttresses, perilously exposed, however, -to all the vicissitudes of English weather. But there was another -solution of the problem, which had been worked out in the thirteenth -century in the Temple Church, and in the twelfth century in many a church -in central and southern France, such as the old cathedral of Carcassonne. -It was to stop the outward thrusts of the nave vault not by the inert -resistance of buttress, pinnacle, and flying-buttress, but by bringing -into play opposing thrusts—_i.e._, the inward thrusts of vaults built -over the aisles. But to make these outward and inward thrusts balance and -neutralise one another, the aisle vaults must be of pretty much the same -height and span as those of the nave. The nave must be lowered or the -aisles must be raised, or both. At Bristol the architect has preferred to -raise the aisles. Then, the stability of the nave vault being secured, -all the builder has to do is to stop the outward thrusts of the vaults of -the aisles. This it is easy enough to do by a row of buttresses weighted -with pinnacles. So Bristol Cathedral, to eyes accustomed to contemporary -cathedrals, presents the strange solecism of having neither clerestory -nor flying-buttresses. The whole design may well have been based on that -of the English cathedral at Poitiers. - -[Illustration: VAULT OF AISLE.] - -The Bristol architect was an architectural Radical. When it came, -however, to the question of vaulting the aisles he had not the courage -of his convictions. Having constructed aisles unusually lofty and -impressive, he immediately sets to work to make them look low and -ordinary by a complicated, costly and unnecessary system of skeleton -vaulting. He seems to have thought that without some method of reducing -the apparent height of the aisles, the church would look like no other -church; it would look not as if it had the ordinary aisled nave, but as -if it had three naves side by side. He ought to have been thankful to -have the means of making it look unlike other churches; and, as a matter -of fact, a design of parallel naves has a most noble effect, as may well -be seen in the nave of Warwick Church, built in the most debased Gothic -of the seventeenth century, but one of the most impressive designs in the -country, full of light and atmosphere. - -A little later, but still in the Curvilinear period, the Berkeley chapel -was built, projecting southward from the easternmost bay of the south -aisle of the choir, and a sacristy by which it is approached. Here is -more skeleton-vault and much elaborate carving. The Newton chapel was -also built, projecting eastward from the south transept; and perhaps at -the same time the simple vault of the adjacent bay of the choir aisle was -put up. A curious and by no means pleasing characteristic of the Bristol -fourteenth-century architecture is the series of sepulchral recesses in -the walls; they remind one of the cloister doorway at Norwich. - -VII. PERPENDICULAR.—Early in the fifteenth century a central tower was -added. Here again one is struck by the originality of the Bristol people; -it is as beautiful as it is original. Fifteenth-century tower design -rather runs in grooves. Gloucester, Evesham, Wrexham, Taunton, and the -Somerset towers are cast very much in a mould. It is not so with the -Bristol tower. The designer had noticed how beautiful is the effect of a -close-packed range of tall clerestory windows, such as those of Leighton -Buzzard Church. So, instead of restricting himself on each side of the -tower to one or two windows, he inserts no less than three. The range of -clerestory windows which the fourteenth-century builder refused to the -choir becomes the special ornament and glory of the tower. - -VIII. In 1888 the new nave and western towers were completed by Mr. -Street. He can hardly be said to have made the most of his opportunities. -The new work is copied closely from the old, and so is somewhat -uninteresting. He had but to remedy some of the faults of the original -design: to omit the ugly skeleton vaulting of the aisles, to simplify the -vaulting of the choir, to discard the sepulchral recesses, to improve -on the design of the windows of the choir—in which, as at Ely, flowing -tracery is not seen at its best; and we should have had something -original and interesting. The new nave might have been a criticism of the -choir. - - - - -The Cathedral of Christ Church, Canterbury. - - -[Illustration: ST. MARTIN’S CHURCH.] - -The metropolitan cathedral of Canterbury owes its enthralling interest to -its vastness of scale, its wealth of monuments, its treasures of early -glass, the great historical scenes that have been enacted within its -walls—above all, to that greatest of all historical tragedies to the mind -of the mediæval Englishman, the murder of Becket. It does not owe its -distinction to its architecture. Whole building periods are almost wholly -unrepresented; for the century and a half when English design was at its -best, the Canterbury authorities slumbered and slept. What we have is the -result of two periods only, with some scraps incorporated from earlier -Norman work. What is there is not of the best: the Perpendicular work can -be bettered at Gloucester, Winchester, and York; the work in the choir, -a foreign importation, is not equal to that of its prototype, the French -cathedral of Sens. We have many heterogeneous cathedrals in England. In -the rest there is ever an attempt, usually a successful attempt, as at -Hereford, and Gloucester, and Wells, to weld the conflicting elements of -the design into symmetry and harmony. Canterbury scornfully declines any -attempt at composition. Transepts and turrets and pinnacles are plumped -down anyhow and anywhere; to the east it finishes abruptly in the -ruined crags of a vast round tower; to the west the towers of its façade -were, till lately, as incongruous in character as in date. Externally, -the lofty central tower alone gives some unity to the scattered masses; -internally it is an assemblage of distinct and discordant buildings. - -I. NORMAN.—Of the pre-Conquest cathedrals of Canterbury nothing remains, -unless it be fragments of rude masonry in crypt and cloister. Of -Lanfranc’s cathedral, built, together with the Benedictine monastery, -between 1070 and 1077, there remains the plinth of the walls of nave and -transept. In the north transept some of his small square blocks of Caen -stone are well seen just above the site of the martyrdom, as well as -his turret in the north-west corner. His nave was allowed to stand till -the fifteenth century. The present nave and central transept are built -on Lanfranc’s foundations. The Norman work has had a most deleterious -effect on the later design. To preserve the Norman north-west tower of -the façade, the fifteenth century nave was built too short; to preserve -the lines of his transept, it was rebuilt with a projection of only -one bay to north and south, and without aisles, and appears woefully -shrunken when compared with the vast transept of York, or even with the -twelfth century transepts of Winchester and Ely. Lanfranc’s cathedral -was an unambitious building, built in a hurry; closely copied, to save -time probably, both in plan and dimensions, from William the Conqueror’s -abbey-church at Caen, from which Lanfranc came to rule at Canterbury. - -[Illustration: SOUTH CHOIR AISLE.] - -His choir consisted of but two bays and an apse. This was altogether -inadequate for the church of a big monastery, and the seat of the Primate -of all England. In 1096 it was pulled down and replaced by an enormous -apsidal choir, some ten bays long, with a square Saint’s chapel to the -east as at Rochester, with northern and southern towers flanking the main -eastern apse, and crossed midway by a big eastern transept, from each arm -of which two apsidal chapels projected to the east. What was the object -of this vast eastward extension? It was probably due to the increasing -tendency towards sacerdotalism, to the increase of veneration for the -sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, and to the increase of Saint-worship. (1) -In the monastic churches the monks were accustomed to sit in the crossing -and in the western bays of the nave, where their stalls still remain at -Norwich, Gloucester, and St. Albans. They wanted to be segregated and -screened off from the laity, the sheep from the goats; the very stones -of the church must preach the dignity of the priestly function. So they -removed to the east, and shut themselves up in a choir of their own. (2) -Secondly, they wanted a clear space for the high altar, a sanctuary for -it. (3) They wanted space for many chapels and altars; not only those -of the greater saints of the church, St. Mary, St. Peter, and the rest, -but those saints—and they were very numerous at Canterbury—whose bodies -or relics of whom were among the treasures of the cathedral—such as St. -Dunstan, the destroyer of Secular Canons, and the martyred Archbishop -Alphege. Crowds of pilgrims flocked to Canterbury to these shrines; room -had to be found for them to pass round, to gaze for a moment at the holy -relics, to say one prayer. Whatever the object of the extension, it set -a precedent which was followed in the great majority of the cathedrals -of England. In the latter days of the twelfth century Hereford and -Chichester extended their choirs; in the thirteenth century the choirs -of Lincoln, Lichfield, Worcester, Ely, and Exeter were rebuilt, and those -of Winchester, Durham, and Lincoln were enlarged. In the fourteenth -century those of Lichfield and Wells were enlarged, and that of York was -rebuilt on a magnificent scale. Old St. Paul’s had a choir twelve bays -long. Thus, till the end of the fourteenth century, the history of the -English cathedrals was largely a history of the rebuilding or enlarging, -or, as at Gloucester and Norwich, of the remodelling of choirs. - -[Illustration: CAPITAL IN CRYPT.] - -Of “Conrad’s glorious choir” (it was commenced by Prior Ernulph _c._ 1096 -and finished _c._ 1115 by Prior Conrad) a considerable amount remains. -The round-arched work in the crypt is nearly all of this date, except -the carving of many of the capitals, which was executed later; and from -the extent of his crypt one can plot out the exact shape and dimensions -of the Norman choir. Much of it is seen outside, especially in and near -the south-east transept with its intersecting semicircular arcades, and -the most charming little Norman tower imaginable. In the interior many -Norman stones, “cross-hatched,” may be seen in the aisle-wall immediately -after entering the choir-aisle by the flight of steps; the lower part -of the vaulting-shaft in this wall, built of several stones and not of -solid drums, as it is higher up, is also Norman. In the eastern transept -the triforium occurs twice over; the upper of the two was Conrad’s -clerestory. Much of Conrad’s semicircular arcade also remains on the -aisle-walls. - -Conrad’s choir was not only far longer than Lanfranc’s, but it had the -curious peculiarity (preserved in the French choir) that it was broader -than the nave, and moreover widened out as it proceeded to the east. -The double apses of each of his transepts were copied by St. Hugh at -Lincoln a century later. A very noble feature of Canterbury choir is -its elevation, necessitated by the construction of the crypt below it. -The raising of the floor adds great dignity to the choir (one misses -it painfully at Bristol); and was still further added to by the French -architect, so that now at Canterbury one goes eastward from height to -height. We climb from the nave to the choir, from the choir to the -sanctuary, from the sanctuary to the eastern chapels. One gets a bathos -at Durham and Worcester, where at the east one plunges into a hole. - -II. TRANSITIONAL.—But Conrad’s glorious choir was destroyed by a -great fire in the year 1174, amid much mediæval cursing and swearing, -and the tears of all the people of Canterbury. Then the monks did an -abominable thing. Instead of being satisfied with our home-bred English -architecture, of which such a beautiful example was just being completed -at Ripon, they sent for a foreigner. The present choir of Canterbury, -like that of Westminster, was “made in France.” The only consolation -one has is the fact—which is a fact—that with that stolid insularity -which from the twelfth century has insisted on working out its own -salvation in its own way—English architects ignored them both. The new -French choir was to be a rock on which the main current of English -art struck and parted asunder only to meet again on the other side. -English design passed on, as if Canterbury choir had never existed, from -Ripon and Chichester and Abbey Dore and Wells to Lincoln Minster. The -coupled columns, the French arch-moulds, the Corinthianesque capitals of -Canterbury were un-English; no one would have anything to do with them -anywhere. - -[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST TRANSEPT.] - -The choir, as rebuilt, was even longer than Conrad’s long choir. It has -an elongated aisled apse beyond, and a curious circular chapel east -of that. The former goes by the name of Trinity chapel, the latter of -Becket’s corona. Becket’s first mass had been said in an older Trinity -chapel; his body lay from 1170 to 1220 in the crypt below it; in 1220 he -was translated to a magnificent shrine in the present Trinity chapel. The -corona may perhaps have been erected to cover another shrine placed here -and containing a fragment of Becket’s scalp. Sens seems to have had a -similar corona. - -The design of the choir is a close copy of the work at Sens, Noyon, -Senlis, and the neighbouring cathedrals. Columns almost classical in -proportion replace the heavy English cylinder. The coupled columns -and Corinthianesque capitals of Sens are faithfully reproduced in the -Trinity chapel. The choir, as at Sens, is arranged in coupled bays with -sexpartite vaulting; while principal and intermediate piers, single and -compound vaulting-shafts occur alternately in either choir. In unstable -French fashion the vaulting-shaft is perched on the abacus. The abacus -is square, except in the eastern part of the crypt. The capitals of -the choir are foliated; the English moulded capital occurs only in the -crypt. Each bay of the triforium in both cathedrals contains a couple -of arches, each arch subdivided by a central shaft. Both cathedrals have -round transverse arches in the vaulting of the aisles. The windows are -not the tall slender lancets of England, but the broad squat lancets -of France. The pointed arches of the apse of Trinity chapel on their -tall stilts have a thoroughly French look. French, too, is the wish to -dispense with a hood-mould round the pier-arches. And, as at Noyon, -flying-buttresses emerge from the gloom of the triforium into the open -air. - -But there is another factor besides the personality of William of Sens. -Having engaged a foreigner to do the work, the next step of the monks -probably was to distrust him. The choir, as it appears now, bears -unmistakable marks that not only William of Sens was at work, but also -a British building committee. Being a Frenchman, William of Sens must -have been an iconoclast, and would have liked to clear away the ruins -and start _de novo_. His British employers, here, as in nearly all our -cathedrals, parsimonious in the extreme, insisted on retaining every inch -of old wall or pillar that could be utilised. The towers of St. Anselm -and St. Andrew still stood, more or less stable, to the east. William -therefore had to constrict his choir to pass between them. The result -is the awkward twisting of the arcade and clerestory of the choir. The -choir starts with becoming wider as it advances from the east; then it -suddenly contracts to pass between St. Anselm’s and St. Andrew’s chapels; -then it expands once more into the Trinity chapel. No Frenchman, if he -had had his way, would have permitted his cathedral to be so distorted. -Again, the building committee insisted on utilising the piers of Conrad’s -crypt as far as possible as supports to the arcade of the choir above. -The result is that the piers of the choir are not equally spaced; and -the narrow arches are pointed, while the broad ones are semicircular -and stilted. William must have been ashamed, too, of all the zigzag -and billet ornament. But the building committee had probably a large -stock of it collected from the debris after the fire, and wanted to -work it off. One beautiful feature, however, is to be placed to English -credit—viz., the profuse use of Purbeck marble shafts. On the whole we -may take it that what we have is not William’s design as he would have -wished it, but his design criticised, fettered, altered and ignored by a -clerical building committee. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -[Illustration: BLACK PRINCE’S TOMB.] - -At the beginning of the fifth year of his work, William of Sens was -seriously injured by a fall from the scaffold, and soon after returned -to France. An English William was appointed to succeed him. He completed -Trinity chapel, Becket’s corona, and the crypt beneath the two. It is -usual to attribute to the English William an important part in the design -of the eastern chapels and crypt. The facts point the other way. These -eastern portions are less English and more French than the western work. -There is not a single trace of English influence in the design, except -solely the rounding of the abacus and the moulding of the capitals in -the crypt. With these two minor exceptions, everything was completed in -strict conformity with the French design. - -More important even than the architecture is the ancient glass. -Canterbury and York are the great treasure-houses of stained-glass: -Canterbury for early thirteenth-century glass, York for -fourteenth-century glass. The student should take with him to Canterbury -Mr. Lewis Day’s work on Stained Glass. Three of the windows in the -Trinity chapel illustrate the miracles of St. Thomas. On the north side, -in the lower group of the eastern window, is the story of a child (1) -who falls into the Medway, (2) the other boys tell his parents, (3) the -body is drawn out of the water, _cætera desunt_. In the next group is the -story of a boy who was brought to life by a draught of water mixed with -the saint’s blood. But the father omitted to pay the offerings promised -to the saint. In the central medallion another son lies dead, struck by -the sword of St. Thomas, who is seen through the ceiling. In another -group a woman is being flagellated by way of penance. Two other windows -describe miracles of healing: in a medallion in the lower part of the -western window a madman comes up, “_amens accedit_,” beaten with sticks -and bound; in the next he is cured, “_sanus recedit_.” In one is the -only representation extant of the later shrine; the martyr, in a mauve -vestment, appears in a vision to Benedict below. On the shrine is the -box, as described by Erasmus, which contained the archbishop’s sudary. -In the east window of the corona is portrayed Christ’s Passion; in the -two windows of the north aisle are types and antitypes from the Old and -New Testaments; among them the three Magi, all asleep in one bed. The -circular window in the north-east transept also contains the original -glass; and many fragments are seen elsewhere. - -[Illustration: SOUTH OF CHOIR] - -III. LANCET.—For this period (1190-1245) there is nothing to show except -the north wall of the Cloister, and a lovely doorway in the south-east -corner of the Cloister, cruelly hacked about by the vandals who built the -cloister-vault. - -IV. To the GEOMETRICAL period (1245-1315) belongs the Chapter-house up to -the sills of the windows, and the screens north and south of the choir. -A fine window with Kentish tracery was inserted in St. Anselm’s chapel. - -V. Of CURVILINEAR work (1315-1360) there is no trace except some -diaper-work in the choir, which may have adorned the shrine of St. -Dunstan, who was buried at the south end of the high altar. - -[Illustration: EAST TRANSEPT.] - -VI. PERPENDICULAR (1360-1485).—At length Canterbury woke up, and removed -Lanfranc’s nave and transept, which must have looked shockingly low and -mean for the last two hundred years in juxtaposition with the stately -choir. The new nave, built between 1379 and 1400, is very fine, but -somehow no one seems to be a very ardent admirer of it. Its proportions -are not good: Winchester nave is about the same height, but is 70 feet -longer; York choir is loftier, and is 25 feet longer. But the gravest -fault is in the internal elevation. The architect has recognised the -value of tallness of pier-arch; but to get this exceptional height of -pier and arch, he has sacrificed not only triforium, but clerestory as -well. It is fatal to a Gothic design to minimise the clerestory. The -choirs of Gloucester, Norwich, Cirencester, are the types to be followed; -not the naves of Southwell or Lichfield. - -To this period belong also the Black Prince’s chantry, and the screens -and reredos of the Lady chapel, all in the crypt; the upper part of the -chapter-house, from which all aspect of antiquity has recently been -removed; the cloisters; St. Michael’s, or the Warrior’s chapel, which -replaced the eastern apse of Lanfranc’s southern transept, and which has -a complicated lierne vault similar in character to that of the north -transept of Gloucester cathedral; the tomb and chantry of Henry IV., with -fan-vaulting, 1433; the western screen at the entrance of the choir; the -south-west tower; Deans’ chapel (Lady chapel), which replaced the eastern -apse of Lanfranc’s northern transept (1450), and which has fan-vaulting. - -[Illustration: CRYPT.] - -VII. To the TUDOR period belongs the Angel or Bell Harry Tower -(1495-1503), and the buttressing and arches inserted between its piers. -Also the Christ Church gateway. The great tower is remarkable for the -unbroken verticality of its buttresses; it is as exceptional as it is -successful in design. - -The _Chapter-house_ is rectangular, for a rectangular building fitted -more easily into the east walk of a monastic cloister. Nearly all the -monastic chapter-houses are therefore rectangular, but sometimes had -apses; the exceptions being the Benedictine chapter-houses of Worcester, -Westminster, Evesham, and Belvoir (which last was exceptional also in -position, being placed in the very centre of the cloister), and the -Cistercian chapter-houses of Morgam and Abbey Dore, sister designs. While -the Secular Canons, having as a rule no cloister, preferred a polygonal -chapter-house, as at Lincoln, Beverley, Lichfield, Salisbury, Wells, -Elgin, Southwell, York, Old St. Paul’s, Hereford, Howden, Manchester, -Warwick. So did the Regular Canons at Alnwick, Cockersand, Thornton, -Carlisle, Bridlington, and Bolton. This beautiful polygonal form seems -not to occur in France. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-WEST.] - -At the north-west corner of the cloister is the doorway through which -Becket passed to the north-west transept, with his murderers in pursuit -of him. Near here is a hole in the wall, the Buttery hatch. In the -fifteenth century the south walk of the cloister was divided into -“studies” for the monks by wooden partitions (at Gloucester they are of -stone), and its windows were glazed. - -From the cloister we pass to the _West Front_, and commence the tour of -the exterior. The south-west tower (with the Deans’ chapel) was completed -by Prior Goldstone (1449-1468); the copy of it was put up in 1834: -“it was an eyesore that the two towers did not match.” Very bad modern -statues adorn the niches. - -Later still (1517) is _Christ Church Gateway_, through which one first -approaches the cathedral, with doors inserted in 1662. Originally it had -two turrets. Outside it is a monument to the dramatist Marlowe. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -On the south side is seen the porch; the nave, a beautiful design; and -the charming pinnacle of the south-west transept. East of the Warrior’s -chapel is the projecting end of Stephen Langton’s tomb. East of this, -the two lower rows of windows are those of Conrad’s choir; the upper row -that of William of Sens. The middle windows in the S.E. transept were -the clerestory windows of Conrad; the windows above them are those of -William of Sens. The three upper stages of the tower on the south of this -transept are late Norman work; one of the prettiest bits in Canterbury. -Farther east we have French design, pure and simple; here, for the first -time in English architecture, the flying-buttresses are openly displayed; -notice how flat and plain they are; it had not yet occurred to architects -to make them decorative. The grand sweep of apse and ambulatory seems to -send one straight back to France. Then comes the broken, rocky outline of -the _corona_—the great puzzle of Canterbury. North-east of the corona -are two groups of ruined Norman pillars and arches discoloured by fire; -once they were continuous, forming one very long building, the _Monks’ -Infirmary_, of which the west end was originally an open dormitory, -open to the roof, and the east end, separated off by a screen, the -Chapel; which has a late Geometrical window. A mediæval infirmary of -this type is still in use at Chichester. The Canterbury infirmary had -a north transept, called the Table Hall or Refectory (now part of the -house of the Archdeacon of Maidstone), in which the inmates dined. On -the north side of Trinity chapel is seen the _Chantry of Henry IV._; -then _St. Andrew’s Tower_ and the barred _Treasury_; the lower part of -the latter is late Norman work, largely rebuilt. The south alley of the -_Infirmary Cloister_ was built about 1236. Along this one passes to the -_Baptistery_, which was originally nothing but a mediæval water-tower; -late Norman below, Perpendicular above. Returning towards the Infirmary, -we turn to the north up the east alley of the Infirmary Cloister, now -called the “_Dark Entry_,” at the north end of which is the _Prior’s -Gateway_. On the left are some Norman shafts and arches of beautiful -design. It was the Dark Entry that was haunted by Nell Cook of the -Ingoldsby Legends. West of the Prior’s gateway are the two columns from -the Romano-British church at Reculvers. On the north side of the Prior’s -or Green Court are the Brewery and Bakehouse; to the N.W. is the famous -Norman staircase, which originally led to a great North Hall; perhaps a -Casual Ward—for tramps too found accommodation at the monasteries. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Carlisle. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-WEST.] - -Carlisle Cathedral, though but a torso, is of exceptional interest, both -archæologically and artistically. It dates from the early years of the -twelfth century. It was originally the church of the Austin or Black -Canons, and also the seat of a bishopric. The Augustinian Cathedral was -dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary; and it was re-dedicated to the Holy -and undivided Trinity when placed on the New Foundation. - -I. LATE NORMAN.—The Augustinian house was founded by Henry I. in 1101, -at the instigation of Queen Matilda. The Norman church consisted of -an aisled nave of seven bays, a transept with eastern apses, and an -aisled choir. The stones show the marks of the hatchet; the masonry is -well-bonded—too good to be eleventh-century work. The corbel-tables of -aisle and clerestory are particularly strong and vigorous. Norman aisles -were usually vaulted; but the aisle-walls of Carlisle are so thin that -they can never have supported a vault. - -II. LANCET.—The lower parts of the northern and southern faces of the -piers of the tower are flat: their shafts being stopped by corbels -instead of descending to the ground. This was to allow the stalls of the -Canons to be placed close up to the piers. Hence it is clear that in the -Norman church the Canons sat, as at Norwich, in the crossing and the -western bays of the nave. Like the Benedictine monks of Canterbury, they -wanted to get into the choir. And so the Norman choir, being altogether -inadequate to contain stalls and sanctuary, as at Canterbury, was pulled -down; and a beautiful early Gothic choir of seven bays was built. Of -this the vaulted aisles and the pier-arches still remain. The work is -late in the Lancet period (1190-1245); for in the south aisle the Lancet -windows are developing into plate-tracery, and the charming arcade on -the wall is cinquefoiled. The new choir was not only far in advance of -its Norman predecessor in length and height; but it was also 12 feet -broader. The church could not be broadened to the south, because the -cloister would prevent any removal of the wall of the south aisle, when -the nave was rebuilt. So the south wall of the choir was rebuilt on the -old foundations: the southern row of piers probably also rest on the -foundations of the Norman piers. The central aisle of the choir was made -much broader than that of the nave, with which, therefore, it is out of -line; the same is the case with the north aisle of the choir. - -At the same time the eastern apse of the south transept was rebuilt in -the style of the day, with the crisply carved foliage of the later years -of the Lancet period. The northern transept was to have been rebuilt on -a more extensive scale, not being cramped as the south transept was, -by monastic buildings adjacent. It was to have had an eastern aisle; -but when one pier of the aisle had been built, and part of its eastern -wall (a fragment of which, with string-course, survives), the work was -suddenly stopped. - -[Illustration: EAST END.] - -III. CURVILINEAR.—But hardly was the new choir completed when, together -with belfry and bells, it was destroyed by a great fire, with the -exception of the aisles, which were protected by their stone vaults. -The Canons, not a whit disheartened, resolved to rebuild the choir, and -to rebuild it even longer and loftier than before. To its length they -added an eastern bay, just wide enough to provide a processional path at -the back of the high altar. They increased its height to 72 feet. But -the piers and walls were too thin to bear the additional weight. They -increased the thickness of the aisle-walls to 5 feet; the piers they -rebuilt. The thirteenth-century arches, however, which were apparently -not much damaged by the fire, they managed in some inexplicable way -to retain. A modern contractor would take the arches down, and then -rebuild them with the old stones. A mediæval builder would be more -likely to underpin the arches, take the piers away and then rebuild them -without disturbing the arches at all. The old builders revelled in such -engineering feats. At Exeter they retained the clerestory wall while -constructing new piers and arches below it; at York they transplanted two -arches in the transept. The capitals of the new piers are exceedingly -rich and interesting; they contain the best mediæval representation we -possess of the Seasons; six capitals on the south side from east to -west, six on the north side from west to east. The corbels also of the -vaulting-shafts have rich naturalistic foliage. With that respect for -good earlier work that is characteristic of the Curvilinear period, and -so rare at any other time, they carried the cinquefoiled arcading of the -aisles round the east wall, introducing, however, the characteristic -detail of the period, not to bewilder unfortunate antiquaries of later -days. - -Their _chef-d’œuvre_, however, was the east front. On this they lavished -all their wealth and all their art. It is a very poem in stone. Its only -rival is the contemporary east front of Selby. “The great window,” says -Professor Freeman, “is the grandest of its kind in England.” It certainly -has no rival, unless it be that of York. The four lateral lights on -either side of the Carlisle windows are gathered up into two pointed -arches; at York these two arches are ogees; the free swing of the ogee -arches contrasting most effectively with the pointed arch which embraces -them both. The glass in the tracery represents our Lord sitting in -Judgment; the procession of the Blessed to the Palace of Heaven, shown in -two silvery quatrefoils; and very realistic representations of Hell and -of the General Resurrection. It contains a portrait of John of Gaunt; the -window was probably glazed when he was Governor of Carlisle, 1380-84. - -So far the Canons spared no expense; everything was of the best. But -their resources were taxed too heavily; it was impossible to finish -the choir with the magnificence with which it was commenced. Triforium -and clerestory are thin and poor; the inner arcade of the latter of -the barest character. The piers had been rebuilt and strengthened, -apparently to support a vault; but a vault was found too expensive, and -was abandoned. Then hammerbeams were constructed for a roof of the type -of the magnificent roofs of March Church and Westminster Hall. This in -its turn was abandoned, and the present wagon-roof of wood was put up. -For similar economical reasons the south transept was rebuilt without the -aisle commenced in the thirteenth century. - -IV. PERPENDICULAR (1360-1485).—But the misfortunes of the Canons were -not over yet. Another fire destroyed the new north transept. This -was rebuilt between 1400 and 1419 by Bishop Strickland, who built the -forty-six stalls of the choir. Then came the question of the central -tower and the nave. The original plan had been that, when the choir -was finished, a new central tower and a new nave should be built, both -of the same width as the choir. But their troubles had been too much -for them. The courage of the Canons gave way. They saw no prospect of -ever being able to rebuild the Norman nave; so instead of pulling down -the Norman tower and building one as broad as the choir, they left it -standing merely adding a new upper story to it. It is, of course, far -too small for its position; and while ranging with the nave, is quite -lop-sided when seen in connection with the roof of the choir; though the -awkwardness is lessened, and even made picturesque, by the addition of a -staircase-turret on the north side of the tower. This was about 1401. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -V. TUDOR.—Things seem to have improved towards the end of the fifteenth -century. Prior Gondebour painted the ceiling of the choir and the backs -of the stalls; and to him are due the beautiful screens in the south -transept chapel. He also built a grand barn with a magnificent roof of -beams nearly two feet thick: much of it is still standing. The refectory -also is due to him; it has a pretty pulpit for the reader, as at Beaulieu -and Chester. The Gate Tower or Abbey Gate House was rebuilt in 1528. - -VI. RENAISSANCE.—Launcelot Salkeld, the last Prior and the first Dean of -Carlisle, added the charming Renaissance screen on the north side of the -tower. - -VII. In the seventeenth century the western bays of the Norman nave were -pulled down, during the Civil War, to provide materials for the repair of -the city walls and guardhouses. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin, Chester. - - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -The cathedral of Chester had originally an establishment of Secular -Canons (see Southwell and Wells.) Its patron saint was St. Werburgh, -a kinswoman of St. Ethelreda of Ely. In the eleventh century it was -refounded as a Benedictine monastery by that great noble Hugh Lupus, -Earl of Chester, who ruled the Welsh Marshes with almost regal sway. -Henry VIII. made it the seat of a bishopric, which, though but a part -of the ancient Mercian diocese of Lichfield, extended northwards into -Yorkshire and Westmorland. Nowadays the diocese and county of Chester are -coextensive. - -If we proceed to the west doors, we have before us a vista of exceptional -beauty. The apparent length of the interior is greatly increased by the -screen thrown across it, which, however, is not so solid and lofty as to -block up the vista entirely, as at Canterbury and York, nor so exiguous -as the metal screens at Lichfield and Ely. - -Passing under the new organ screen, we come to the most ancient work to -be found in the cathedral—viz., genuine early Norman work of the eleventh -century. It is to be compared with that of the south transepts of St. -Albans and Hereford. Below, in the east wall, is an arch, which once led -into an apse. Above is a balustraded arcade, quite of the St. Albans and -Hereford type. Above, there must have been small clerestory windows, such -as those built up in the opposite wall. The whole transept must have been -low and humble, and is invaluable as showing us what eleventh-century -work was really like, and of enabling us to realise the vast progress -that had taken place in design, in masonry, and in carving by the time -that Durham, Romsey, and Peterborough were built. This early transept was -of one bay only. Notice how small the stones are, the gaping joints, and -the irregularity of the courses. - -_North-West Tower._—Bearing in mind the character of this masonry, pass -out into the north aisle of the nave, and proceed to the Norman tower -at the end of it. The work here is clumsy and massive, but far superior -to that of the north transept, _c._ 1120. The north wall of the nave -(now covered with mosaics) is also Norman. Other traces of the Norman -cathedral will be found in the north aisle of the choir, to which we -retrace our steps. On the right will be seen a great circular capital -upside down, which has been used as a foundation for the north-east pier -of the tower. A few feet farther is one of the original circular bases, -proving that the Norman choir had vast circular piers like those of -Gloucester, Durham, and St. John’s, Chester. Two bays farther east will -be found in the pavement a semicircular band of dark marble. This marks -foundations that have been found of the apsidal ending of this aisle; -one of the stones of this Norman apse remains in the pavement. Moreover, -it has been found that the central aisle of the choir, at the end of the -second bay from the tower, ended in a semicircular range of columns, -like St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield. From these indications we can -restore the plan of the original Norman cathedral with some certainty. -It had a nave and aisles of the same dimensions as the present ones; -unaisled transepts, each of a single bay, and an eastern apse to each -transept; perhaps a low central tower; a choir of two bays, ending in -a semicircular range of columns and arches, and surrounded to the east -by a semicircular ambulatory or processional path. On either side were -aisles, three and a half bays long, each terminating in an eastern apse. -So that the Norman cathedral had five eastern apses, and resembled in -plan Gloucester and Norwich, except that the chapels of the choir-aisles -of Chester point, not north-east and south-east, but due east. - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT.] - -_Norman Cloisters._—Returning to the north aisle of the nave we pass -through the doorway at the east end of the aisle into the cloister. This -doorway, as seen from the cloister, is, from its ornamentation, of later -date than the north transept, and may also be about 1120. The south wall -of the cloister is now seen to be Norman; Norman abbots are buried in the -recesses. Passing along the cloister westwards, we have in front another -Norman door, and a very late Norman passage. Passing along the west -walk of the cloister, a doorway on the left leads into a large Norman -undercroft, with two aisles roofed with massive unribbed vaulting. Above, -as the division in the vaulting shows, were a large and a small hall. -These buildings on the west of the cloisters may have been originally the -cellars, refectory and dormitory of the lay brethren, as at Fountains and -Kirkstall; and afterwards the cellar and halls of the Abbot’s house. To -the south, above the late Norman passage, is the Episcopal chapel, also -Norman, with good Jacobean work. - -_Vestry._—We now return through the north transept to the north aisle -of the choir. The next work done in the cathedral is to be found in the -vestry to the left. The Norman apse of the north transept was pulled -down; the arch in the west wall is nearly all that is left of it; and a -new chapel was built here in the Transitional period, between 1145 and -1190, to which period the vaulting belongs. Later on, the east end of it -was remodelled, and the western arch built up. Part of the foundation of -the original Norman apse may be seen in the pavement near the door. - -_Vestibule._—Now we come to the Lancet or Early Gothic work (1190-1245), -including vestibule, chapter-house, fratery, refectory, Lady chapel, and -the eastern bays of the choir. Passing through the north transept again, -and out through its north door, we enter the vestibule, the architectural -gem of the cathedral. The piers have bases, but no capitals—a feature -common enough in late Gothic, but very unusual in such early work. Pass -into the cloister to see the lovely trefoiled doorway of the vestibule. -Then return to the _Chapter-house_, which is of the same date as the -vestibule. It is rectangular, as were most of the monastic Chapter-houses -originally: _e.g._, Exeter, Durham, Oxford, and Bristol. The windows -have an inner arcade. Here is a bust of Canon Kingsley, by Mr. Belt. -Returning to the vestibule, and passing out of it by the modern north -doorway, we cross the Slype with its elaborate vault, and pass into a -vaulted building of two aisles, each of four bays, laboriously restored -at considerable expense, and then allowed to relapse into a coal-cellar: -this is the so-called fratery. Rooms in similar positions occur at -Fountains and Kirkstall; their use is not known. Notice the day-stairs -which led to the Monks’ dormitory, which was overhead, on the east side -of the cloister, also the curious cusped windows adjacent. Along the -whole of the north side of the cloister extended the _Refectory_, the -Monks’ dining-hall; now the west end has been lopped off, and a passage -driven through the east of it. Towards the west end will be found a fine -doorway by which it was originally entered. To the right of the doorway -is a recess marking the site of the lavatory. Inside, in the south wall, -is the original staircase and pulpit of the refectory. Table talk was -forbidden in all monasteries; a good book was read aloud to the monks -during meals. Another equally fine pulpit remains in the refectory of -Beaulieu, Hampshire; another, in the open air, opposite Shrewsbury Abbey. -The upper part of the refectory has Perpendicular tracery inserted in the -original windows. - -[Illustration: VESTIBULE OF CHAPTER-HOUSE.] - -Now we return to the cathedral, to the _Lady chapel_: much restored, -of similar date and character to those of Hereford and Bristol. It -was a remarkable specimen of mediæval “jerry-building,” built without -foundations of any sort or kind. One of the bosses, figured in Dean -Howson’s book on “The Dee,” depicts the murder of Thomas Becket. -Originally the Lady chapel had three windows, each triplets, on either -side. - -_Eastern choir._—To the same period belongs the east wall of the choir, -and the two eastern bays. The east wall is pierced by but one arch, as -at Hereford and Chichester; an inferior ending to the triple eastern -arches of the choirs of Wells and Salisbury. The mouldings of the -southern arches are a cheap imitation of the better work on the north. - -_Western choir._—The remaining bays to the west have piers of altogether -different section, and are Early Geometrical in character (1245-1280); -and should be compared with Westminster choir and the Angel choir -of Lincoln. In digging, the foundations of the east ends of the -thirteenth-century aisles have been found. They turn out to have been -polygonal. Sir G. G. Scott has been allowed to rebuild this aisle in -apsidal form, and to crown his work with a hideous “extinguisher” roof. -To put up this sham Gothic, he pulled down the Perpendicular choir-aisle, -and expelled the monuments of three ancient county families in favour of -an eminent contractor. This is what is called “restoration.” - -All the above work stops at the top of the beautiful triforium, a -trefoiled arcade. The clerestory is late Geometrical work; the tracery -of the windows is thin and uninteresting (1280-1315). The proportions -of the choir as thus completed are not at all satisfactory; the tall -clerestory, with its big broad windows, is ruinous to the effect of the -low pier-arcade and the diminutive triforium: it looks top-heavy. Compare -the choir of Lichfield. - -We have seen that by the end of the thirteenth century the monks had -rebuilt all the work to the east and north of the cloister, as well as -the Lady chapel and the whole of the choir. In the fourteenth century -they set to work to rebuild the whole of the south transept, the central -tower, and the nave. None of the upper parts of these, however, were -finished till the following century. The _South Transept_ is so vast -that the old church of St. Oswald may have still remained in use while -the transept was building around it. It has western as well as eastern -aisles: which it is rare to find except in cathedrals of the first rank, -such as Ely and York. Some of the aisle windows retain very beautiful -Curvilinear tracery. The springers of vaults remain, but no vaulting -was executed, except one bay at the south end of the east aisle, till -recently, when the remainder of this aisle was vaulted. The vast size of -this transept—it is as large as the choir, and nearly as large as the -nave—is in striking contrast to the diminutive North Transept, and is the -most remarkable feature in the ground plan of the cathedral. Originally -there stood here an independent church, belonging to the parish of St. -Oswald. But in the fourteenth century, when the abbey was in possession -of great wealth, the monks desired to enlarge their church. They could -not enlarge it to the north, for on the north were their cloisters, -chapter-house, refectory, and dormitory; on the south was the parish -church of St. Oswald. They therefore came to terms with the parishioners, -in accordance with which they built a new parish church for them, where -now stands the Music Hall. But in the fifteenth century the parishioners -were able to evade their bargain, and vindicated their claim to the whole -of the new south transept, which the monks by this time had completed. -“Sic vos non vobis.” And to get into it they cut the fifteenth-century -doorway, which is still to be seen through the lower part of the window -at the south end of the west aisle of the new transept. And here they -remained in possession till the present century, using the transept as -their parish church. In 1824 the transept was actually blocked from the -cathedral by a solid wall. But in 1874 a new church, St. Thomas, was once -more built for the parishioners, and they were again ejected from the -site of the old church of St. Oswald. The dividing wall was pulled down, -and the transept has been again thrown into the cathedral. Unfortunately, -the congregation being gone, there is no one to fill it, and it remains a -squalid and desolate solitude. Why not have replaced the dividing-wall by -an open screen and have left the parishioners in peace? - -_Central Tower._—This was probably commenced in the fourteenth and -finished in the fifteenth century. It has been found that the north-west -pier rests upon some floriated gravestones of the thirteenth century, -which disposes of the idea that the piers of the tower have a Norman -core. Notice the variation in the treatment of the tower-arches. - -_Nave._—Here also there is Curvilinear tracery in the windows of -the south aisle. The piers and arches, also, on the south side are -of fourteenth-century work, of simple but good design. The northern -pier-arcade differs in some features; it may be a little later. On the -other hand the initials of Abbot Simon Ripley (1485-1492) are found on -the first pier from the west; and so this arcade may be really later -work, assimilated in character to the earlier work on the south side. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -_South Transept._—The next thing seems to have been to complete the -south transept in the Perpendicular style; and also the easternmost bay -of the nave, which was needed to give abutment to the rising tower. To -this period, perhaps the fifteenth century, may be assigned all those -Perpendicular windows which are cusped, in the transepts, the nave, the -refectory, and elsewhere. - -_Nave._—The final operations comprised all those windows which are -without cusps—_e.g._, the clerestory windows and the north aisle windows -of the nave; also the south porch and west front and the commencement -of a south-west tower, and the fine wooden roof of the north transept. -All this was done early in the sixteenth century. Perhaps piety had -waxed cold, and pilgrims’ offertories were less productive. At any -rate, all the upper part of the interior of the nave is bare, bald, and -poverty-stricken. For the beautiful triforium of the choir we have here -a blank wall; unhappy, too, in proportions, the nave of Chester is one -of the least satisfactory designs of the Middle Ages. In the south-west -tower is the Consistory Court, with good Jacobean woodwork. - -One other alteration had to be made. There was no access to the Lady -chapel except through the one arch at the east end of the choir. When -St. Werburgh’s shrine was placed at the entrance of the Lady chapel in -the fourteenth century, it was awkward to have but a single approach -to the Lady chapel; so the eastern apses of the two choir aisles were -pulled down, and two Perpendicular aisles added, one on each side of the -Lady chapel. (The one on the north is still allowed to exist; the one -on the south was pulled down by Scott). Thus the west window on either -side of the Lady chapel was converted into a doorway, and a convenient -processional path was provided round St. Werburgh’s shrine. - -To the late Perpendicular or Tudor period belong the eastern, northern, -and western walks of the cloister, which should be visited next. In -part of the west walk, and in the new south walk, there is a double -arcade; dividing the walks into a series of separate compartments or -studies for the monks. An analogous arrangement occurs in the cloisters -of Gloucester. Notice, also, the _insouciance_ with which these Tudor -builders dropped the ribs of their vaults down on earlier doors and -arches. Similar reckless disregard of the good work of preceding builders -occurs at Canterbury, where the most beautiful doorway in the Cathedral -is cut into by later vaulting. - -_North Aisle of Nave._—This has been recased, and provided with rich -vaulting. It was to provide abutment for this new vault that the south -walk of the cloister was rebuilt. The nave and choir have been vaulted in -wood; following the precedents of York Minster and Selby Abbey. - -The exterior is, to all intents and purposes, nineteenth-century work. -The original design had almost wholly disappeared through the decay -of the soft sandstone. It is, however, very handsome and effective; -especially in contrast with the exterior, equally new, of Worcester. - -[Illustration: NAVE, NORTH SIDE.] - -Of minor work the chief objects of interest are the Byzantine font, -perhaps of the eighth century; the remains of the fourteenth-century -shrine of St. Werburgh and the contemporary sedilia; the fine misereres -and stalls (Perpendicular); the Renaissance gates of Spanish ironwork, -and the Renaissance candelabra (Italian); the epitaphs of John Lowe, -tobacconist, John Paul, publican, and John Phillips, merchant, in the -south transept; those of Mayor Green, and an American loyalist, on the -south-west pier of the tower; the tablet of Randolph Caldecott and the -pretentious monument of Bishop Pearson in the north transept; the tablet -of Dean Arderne in the south aisle of the choir; and in the north aisle -those of Subdean Bispham and Bishop Jacobson, and the epitaph on the -gravestone of E. P. Gastrell. The new organ rests on five Renaissance -columns brought from Italy; the communion table is of wood from the Holy -Land. On the wall near the west door is a tablet to Bishop Hall, and -another - - To the Memory of - - JOHN MOORE NAPIER - - Captain in Her Majesty’s 62nd Regiment - Who died of Asiatic Cholera - in Scinde - on the 7th of July, 1846, - Aged 29 years. - - The tomb is no record of high lineage; - His may be traced by his name; - His race was one of soldiers. - Among soldiers he lived; among them he died; - A soldier falling, where numbers fell with him, - In a barbarous land. - Yet there was none died more generous, - More daring, more gifted, or more religious. - On his early grave - Fell the tears of stern and hardy men, - As his had fallen on the graves of others. - -Surely one hears the trumpet on the dusty field of Meeanee, and the word -of command of the stern old general. The inscription can be by none other -but Sir Charles Napier. There is not much in verse that rings like these -few lines of prose. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Chichester. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-EAST.] - -Chichester cathedral, though one of the smallest, is to the student -of mediæval architecture one of the most interesting and important of -our Cathedrals. At Salisbury one or two styles of architectures are -represented; at Canterbury two or three; at Chichester every single -style is to be seen without a break from the eleventh to the sixteenth -century. It is an epitome of English architectural history for 500 years. -Early Norman, late Norman, late Transitional, early Lancet, late Lancet, -early Geometrical, late Geometrical, Curvilinear, Perpendicular and -Tudor work all appear in the structure side by side. We have many other -heterogeneous and composite cathedrals, but nowhere, except perhaps at -Hereford, can the whole sequence of the mediæval styles be read so well -as at Chichester. - -The last kingdom, says Canon Bright, that remained outside the Church, -was that of the South Saxons, hemmed in by a thick line of well-nigh -impenetrable forest, and so barbarous as to be at once ignorant of one -of the simplest arts, and furious against the incoming of foreigners. It -was reserved for the great Wilfrid, of Hexham, Ripon and York, in one of -his exiles (611)—caused originally by the high-handed partition of his -overlarge diocese of York—to do what no one as yet had done for these -poor rude heathen—what some Irish monks had tried to do and had failed. -They were desperate with famine; he taught them to fish in the sea; for -he was as ready in homely crafts of this kind as in adorning churches or -educating young nobles; and as Bede says, “by this kind act he turned -their hearts to love him; and they began the more willingly to hope for -heavenly blessings under his preaching, when by his assistance they had -received earthly good.” - -The first seat of the diocese was on the coast at Selsea; it was -transferred to Chichester by Stigand in 1082, when other Norman prelates -removed to fortified towns such as Lincoln, Exeter, and Norwich. In the -south aisle of the choir are two Saxon slabs representing the meeting -of Christ with Mary and Martha and the raising of Lazarus. The figures -are the tall, emaciated, but dignified figures of archaic Byzantine art; -their stature carefully proportionate to their importance; the slabs -may well have come from Selsea. Stigand was followed by Gosfried, who -for some unknown sin sought and obtained absolution from the Pope. The -original document in lead may be seen in the library. “We, representing -St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, to whom God gave the power of -binding and loosing, absolve thee, Bishop Godfrey, so far as thy -accusation requests and the right of remission belongs to us. God the -Redeemer be thy salvation and graciously forgive thee all thy sins. Amen. -On the seventh of the Calends of April, on the festival of St. Firmin, -bishop and martyr, died Godfrey, bishop of Chichester; it was then the -fifth day of the moon.” - -I. NORMAN.—Godfrey was succeeded in 1091 by Ralph, whose stone coffin, -marked “Radulphus” may be seen in the Lady chapel. Godfrey built the -present Norman cathedral, or at any rate enough of it to allow a -consecration in 1108. Before his death in 1123, or soon after, the whole -cathedral must have been complete except the west front, where only the -two lower stories of the south-west tower are Norman. The voluted capital -of eleventh-century Norman work—an attempt at Ionic—which appears also -on the east side of Ely transept—occurs in the triforium of the choir. -The work in the four eastern bays of the nave is a little later; the -four western bays, in which the triforium is treated differently, were -possibly not built till after the fire in 1114. The Norman Church had the -same ground-plan as that of Norwich, commenced _c._ 1096, and Gloucester, -commenced _c._ 1089. It had an aisled nave, aisleless transept with -eastern apses, aisled choir, apse and ambulatory, and a chevet of -three radiating chapels, of which the side chapels were semicircular, -the central or eastern chapel oblong, as at Canterbury and Rochester. -Externally, on the south wall of the choir, in the second bay from the -east, may be seen traces of the curve of the wall of the ancient apse, -and also a triforium window which originally was in the centre of one of -the narrowed bays of the apse, but has now ceased to be central. In the -chamber above the library the curve of the wall of the apse of the north -transept is well seen. The piers, as in most eleventh-century work, are -monstrously and unnecessarily heavy, and the arches constricted. It is -rather a monotonous interior, with the same design from choir to west -end. It is a pity that they did not give us a different and improved -design in the nave, as was done at Tewkesbury and Gloucester. Matters -have been made worse by the removal of a superb Perpendicular stone -rood-screen, crowned, as at Exeter, by a Renaissance organ. The removal -of this has impaired the general effect of the interior, much lessening -the apparent length of the cathedral. As usual, only the aisles and apses -of the Norman cathedral were vaulted; the aisles here, as at Southwell, -are vaulted in oblong compartments. It was dedicated to St. Peter, and -served by secular Canons, of whom in 1520 there were thirty-one. In the -triforium of the choir were semicircular transverse arches, precisely as -in the choir of Durham. - -[Illustration: PRESBYTERY.] - -II. LATE TRANSITIONAL AND EARLY LANCET, from the fire of 1186 to the -consecration of 1199, when the cathedral was re-dedicated to the Holy -Trinity. About 1180 some work was going on in the western part of the -Lady chapel, but in a great fire in 1186 the roofs and fittings of the -whole cathedral were burnt, and the clerestories were no doubt damaged by -falling timbers. The destruction, however, was by no means so great as at -Canterbury in the fire of 1182, and no such drastic process of rebuilding -was necessary. Bishop Siegfried confined himself to four objects: (1) To -fireproof the cathedral by covering it with a stone vault, provided with -the necessary buttresses and flying-buttresses. And as the clerestory -which had to support the vault was much damaged, its inner arcade had -to be rebuilt. (2) To replace the apse and ambulatory and chevet by a -rectangular retro-choir with square eastern chapels. (3) To replace the -transeptal apses by similar chapels. (4) To get rid of some of the rough -and heavy appearance of the ground-story of the whole church. He did not -touch the triforium. - -Siegfried probably commenced with the choir, which was most wanted. -The masonry of the ground-story had probably been calcined by the -roof-timbers blazing on the floor; the inner face of this was cased with -good Caen stone. As at Canterbury, great use was made of Purbeck marble, -in which were built angle-shafts and capitals to the piers, hood-moulds -for the pier-arches, string-courses below and above the triforium, and -arcading to the clerestory. In front of each pier a triple vaulting-shaft -was run up, with a marble capital, supporting the new quadripartite -vault. Externally, the clerestory wall was supported by flying-buttresses -of heavy archaic type, similar to those of the choirs of Canterbury and -Boxgrove. Later on, the same treatment was extended by Siegfried and his -successors to the nave and transepts. - -His next step was to remove the Norman apse and to build an aisled -retro-choir of two bays. This is the architectural gem of the cathedral. -The idea of it probably came from Hereford, where the retro-choir is -a few years earlier. At Hereford, however, the retro-choir projects -picturesquely, and forms an eastern transept. The central piers of the -Chichester retro-choir are remarkably beautiful. They consist of a -central column surrounded by four shafts very widely detached; column -and shafts are of Purbeck marble. The capitals are Corinthianesque; -their height is proportioned to the diameters of the column and -shafts. This beautiful capital was reproduced a few years later by St. -Hugh at Lincoln, and the pier at Boxgrove. The triforium is of quite -exceptional beauty, as indeed is the whole design. Semicircular arches -occur in the pier-arcade and triforium, and some of the abaci are -square; otherwise the design is pure Gothic. Here, as at Abbey Dore, St. -Thomas’, Portsmouth, Boxgrove, and Wells, we see the transition from -the Transition to the “pure and undefiled Gothic” of St. Hugh’s choir -at Lincoln. In these beautiful churches the ancient Romanesque style -breathed its last. - -The aisles of the new retro-choir were continued on either side of the -first bay of the Norman Lady chapel, whose three bays had probably -been remodelled before the fire in Transitional fashion. The capitals -of the Lady chapel are of exceptional interest and importance, as -showing experimental foliation which had not yet settled down into the -conventional leafage of early Gothic. The apse also of the south transept -was replaced by a square chapel; and that of the north transept by a -double chapel, now used as a library, in the vaulting of which the Norman -zigzag occurs. - -III. A little later in the LANCET period was built (1199-1245) the -lovely south porch, with small, exquisite mouldings, and charming -foliated capitals and corbels. The difference between early Transitional, -late Transitional, and Lancet foliation may be well seen by examining -successively the capitals of the Lady chapel, the triforium of the -retro-choir, and the south porch. The north porch is almost equally -fine. The vaulting-ribs, square in section, show that the two porches -both belong to the very first years of the thirteenth century. Rather -later, the sacristy was built on to the south porch, with a massive vault -supported by foliated corbels. - -IV. In the EARLY GEOMETRICAL period (1245-1280) building still went on -unremittently. The south-west tower was raised to its present height; the -low Norman central tower was replaced by a higher one: it is curious that -this tower is oblong on plan; the transept, contrary to custom, being -wider than nave or choir. A pretty circular window, with cusped circles -and tooth ornament, was inserted in the eastern gable of the retro-choir, -and a fine Galilee porch was added to the west front, as at Ely. - -But the great change that was destined to alter the whole character of -the nave was the addition of chapels. In our parish churches it is common -enough to find that pious and wealthy parishioners have been allowed -to tack family chapels on to the aisles or nave. In Dorchester Priory -Church there is a south aisle running the whole length of the church, -made up of nothing but a series of chantry-chapels. This was common -enough, too, in the French cathedrals—_e.g._, Paris and Amiens. But the -naves of the English cathedrals were not as a rule tampered with in this -way. At Chichester, however, there were built, one after another, four -sets of chapels—of St. George and St. Clement on the south of the south -aisle, and of St. Thomas, St. Anne, and St. Edmund on the north of the -north aisle. The windows should be studied in the above order; they form -quite an excellent object-lesson of the evolution of bar-tracery from -plate-tracery, itself a derivative from such designs as that of the east -window of the south transept chapel. When the chapels were completed, the -Norman aisle-walls were pierced, and arches were inserted where Norman -windows had been; and the Lancet buttresses, which had been added when -the nave-vault was erected, now found themselves inside the church, -buttressing piers instead of walls. The new windows on the south side -were built so high that the vaulting of the chapels had to be tilted up -to allow room for their heads; externally they were originally crowned -with gables, the weatherings of which may be seen outside. In St. Thomas’ -chapel is a charming example of a simple thirteenth-century reredos. - -[Illustration: PRESBYTERY.] - -The addition of these outer aisles makes Chichester unique among the -English cathedrals, though it may be paralleled in Elgin cathedral and -many a parish church. Artistically, the contrast of the gloomy and heavy -Norman nave with the lightness and brightness of the chapels behind is -most delightful; the nave looks infinitely larger and more spacious than -it is; it is never all seen at a glance like the empty nave of York, and -is full of changing vistas and delightful perspectives. Accidentally, the -thirteenth-century builders had hit on a new source of picturesqueness. - -V. LATE GEOMETRICAL.—Between 1288 and 1304 the Lady chapel was lengthened -by two bays, and the end bay of the former chapel was re-vaulted. So that -what we see is a Norman chapel transmogrified into a Transitional one, -and that once more altered and extended. The new work was done just when -people had tired of conventional foliage, and hurried into naturalism. -The capitals are another object-lesson in Gothic foliation. The -window-tracery, with long-lobed trefoils, occurs also in the beautiful -chapel of the mediæval hospital, which should by all means be visited. - -It may be asked, where did the Chichester people get the money for all -these great works? It was from pilgrims. They had had the great luck to -get a saint of their own, Bishop Richard. He was consecrated in 1245, -died in 1253, was canonised in 1261. - -VI. CURVILINEAR (1315-1360).—Next the Canons set themselves to work to -improve the lighting of the cathedral, which was bad; all the windows, -except those in the new chapels, being small single lights. A fine window -of flowing tracery was inserted in the eastern chapel of the south choir -aisle (now filled with admirable glass by Mr. Kempe). And the south wall -of the transept was taken down altogether and rebuilt. Here is another -fine circular window. Bishop Langton, who gave the money for this work, -is buried below. The drainage, too, of the roofs was improved; gutters -and parapets being substituted for dripping eaves. To this period, -also, belong the stalls with ogee arches and compound cusping, and good -misereres. - -VII. In the PERPENDICULAR period (1360-1485) the improvements in -lighting were continued, the north wall of the transept being treated -in similar fashion to that opposite. But settlements were the result, -and a flying-buttress had to be added to steady the north wall. And -at length the tower was crowned with a beautiful spire, not quite so -slender and graceful as those of Salisbury and Louth; more on the lines -of the Lichfield spires. An upper story and buttresses were added to the -sacristy, and the Canons’ Gateway was built. - -VIII. In the TUDOR period an irregular three-sided cloister was built in -a quite abnormal position encircling the south transept. The object of -it was to provide a covered way to the cathedral for the Canons, as well -as for the Vicars, whose Close is hard by. The central tower seems to -have shown signs of weakness under the weight of the new spire; and so -a detached Campanile was built, as at Salisbury. Bishop Sherborne built -a grand stone screen (1508-1536) occupying the whole of the crossing, -and containing chantries; much of it exists, in fragments, under the -Campanile. To the time of Henry VII. belongs the Poultry Cross. - -IX. In 1859 the central tower was found to be in danger, owing, it is -said, to the removal of the Arundel screen. Underpinning was resorted to, -but matters got worse. “At noon, on February 21st, 1861, the workmen were -ordered out of the building, and the people living in the neighbouring -houses were warned of their danger; about an hour and a half later the -spire was seen to incline slightly to the south-west and then to sink -perpendicularly through the roof. Thus was fulfilled literally the old -Sussex saying: - - “If Chichester Church Steeple fall, - In England there’s no king at all.” - -In 1866 the tower and spire were rebuilt; the tower raised slightly so -that the belfry windows might clear the roofs. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Cuthbert and St. Mary, Durham. - - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -The bishopric of Durham has a long history, though the cathedral was not -at Durham till 1018. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, north -of the Thames, had been brought about by the missionaries of the Irish -and Scottish church. Augustine’s mission in Kent, and that of Paulinus -in the north—both sent from Rome—had for their object, not so much the -conversion of England, as to induce the English Christians to transfer -their allegiance from the Celtic to the Roman Church. The success of -Augustine’s mission had been but short-lived. He landed in England A.D. -597; his death occurred in 605; and in 616 the Kentish kingdom relapsed -into paganism. Paulinus landed in 601; proceeded to Northumbria in 625, -but left it in 633, when, like Kent, most of Northumbria relapsed into -paganism. The real “apostle of the north” was not Paulinus, but Aidan, -who was sent at the request of King Oswald from Iona, and in the year 635 -became the first bishop of the north of England. - -(1) For thirty years the see was at Lindisfarne (Holy Island), but -the jurisdiction of the bishop extended over all England north of the -Humber, and over the south of Scotland (635-665). (2) In 678, Archbishop -Theodore of Canterbury split up the vast Northumbrian diocese into the -four bishoprics of York, Lindisfarne, Hexham, and Whitherne in Galloway. -Twelve bishops ruled the now curtailed see from 678 to 900, the cathedral -still remaining at Lindisfarne. The second of these was the famous St. -Cuthbert (685-688). (3) In fear of the Danes, the body of St. Cuthbert -was removed to Chester-le-Street, seven miles north of Durham, and eight -bishops had their cathedral at Chester-le-Street (900-995). (4) Once -more, in fear of the Northmen, the see was removed—this for the last -time—to Durham. Including Aldhun, the last bishop of Chester-le-Street -and the first bishop of Durham, there have been, up to 1898, sixty-one -bishops of Durham. - -In the earliest days, we always read of monks as carrying about the -relics of St. Cuthbert and serving the cathedral. Later on, but still in -Anglo-Saxon days, the monks gave way to Secular Canons. These in turn -were replaced by Benedictine monks by the Norman bishop, William of St. -Carilef (1081-1096). In 1540 the monastic establishment was suppressed, -and the cathedral was placed on the New Foundation, like the Benedictine -cathedrals of Canterbury, Winchester, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, and -Worcester, with an establishment once more of Secular Canons. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -In Anglo-Saxon days England was divided into provinces, whose earls -exercised quite as much power as the Viceroy of the Empress exercises -nowadays in India. These powerful and dangerous viceroyalties the Norman -sovereigns abolished, with two exceptions. To guard the Marches against -the Welsh, they left the old Earldom or Viceroyalty of Chester, putting -it in the hands of a layman. To guard the Scottish border, they united -with the Bishopric of Durham the Earldom of Northumberland. Between -Tees and Tyne, and in some external districts, the Bishop of Durham had -palatine jurisdiction. Here the King’s writ did not run; but the writs -were drawn in the name of the bishop. As feudal lord, his seat was Durham -Castle; as bishop, Durham Cathedral. Hence that wonderful group, castle -and cathedral, which one sees from the Wear bridge towering overhead; -unique in England, but not rare in the cities of the Prince-Bishops of -the Holy Roman Empire: Lausanne, Chur, or Sitten. With the Bishop of -Durham rested the power of life and death in case of murder, or even of -treason itself. The most magnificent of all these powerful prelates was -Anthony Bek (1283-1310). His own personal followers, when he marched -with Edward I. against the Scots, included 26 standard-bearers, 140 -knights, 1000 foot, and 500 horse. “Surrounded by his officers of state, -or marching at the head of his troops, in peace or in war, he appeared -as the military chief of a powerful and independent franchise. The court -of Durham exhibited all the appendages of royalty; nobles addressed -the palatine sovereign kneeling; and instead of menial servants, -knights waited in his presence-chamber and at his table, bareheaded and -standing.” But in 1536, Henry VIII. swept away the most important of the -powers of the Counts Palatine. The ancient form of indictment “contra -pacem Episcopi” was altered to “against the King’s peace,” and the King’s -writ ran in Durham see. Still, the palatinate county of Durham was not -fully an integral part of the realm, and up to 1675 did not send members -to Parliament. It was not till 1836 that the privileges of the County -Palatine were fully and finally vested in the Crown. Even now, the towers -of Durham have a stern military air, such as no other English cathedral -possesses; for a parallel to which we must go to the fortress-cathedrals -of Albi and the south-west of France. Durham cathedral is “half House of -God, half castle ’gainst the Scot.” - -Of the Anglo-Saxon cathedrals in wood or stone nothing remains. The -architectural history of the present cathedral commences with the -accession of the second Norman prelate, William of St. Carilef, or St. -Calais on the southern border of Maine, who was bishop from 1081 to 1095, -and is said to have laid the foundations of the Norman cathedral in 1093 -on August 11th. The building operations of the Norman cathedral admit -of a threefold division: (1) The choir and choir aisles; the arcade and -triforium of the eastern aisles of both transepts; the crossing; the -first bay of the nave and the first arch of the nave-triforium; and the -whole of the outer walls of the nave up to the top of the aisle-arcade of -intersecting arches. All this is supposed to have been built by William -of St. Carilef between August 11th, 1093, and January 6th, 1096; _i.e._, -in two and a half years; which seems impossible. (2) In the interval -of three years between Carilef’s death and the appointment of Ralph -Flambard, the monks are said to have finished the transepts. (3) Between -1099 and his death in 1128, Ralph Flambard finished the nave. These three -divisions are architecturally correct; they are borne out by differences -of detail; and they follow the same order of building which was observed -elsewhere. But it does not follow that the exact dates given above, on -mediæval authority, are correct. - -The most important matter is the date of the high vaults. From -architectural evidence it is pretty clear that the vaulting was executed -in the following order: (1) the vaults of the aisles of the choir and -transepts, said to be not later than 1099; (2) the high vault of the -choir, now destroyed, said to be not later than 1104; (3) the vaults of -the aisles of the nave, said to be not later than 1128; (4) the high -vaults of the transepts and nave, said to be not later than 1133. The -chronology of the high vaults is a very important question in the history -of mediæval architecture, especially as affecting the reputation of -English architects. If the above dates are correct, it was the Durham -architect, and not a Frenchman, who was the first to solve the great -problem of mediæval architecture: how to construct and keep up a ribbed -vault, oblong in plan, over a central aisle. With it goes the question -of priority in the use of flying-buttresses to take the thrust of a high -vault. If the dates given above are correct, Durham was a generation -ahead of the whole world in the construction of a high vault and in the -use of flying-buttresses. - -[Illustration: WEST TOWERS.] - -But the transverse arches of the vault of the nave are pointed; a feature -which occurs nowhere else in England at so early a date. Besides, it -seems impossible that if the Durham people had solved the problem of -problems of mediæval architecture—the construction of a high oblong -vault—nobody else should have copied it in England for more than fifty -years. - -Another theory is that the high vaults were constructed by Bishop -Farnham in 1242, making them contemporary with the Chapel of the Nine -Altars—which is impossible. It seems to me that they belong to the -episcopate of Hugh Pudsey, _c._ 1160. - -The bays of Durham are coupled, Lombard-fashion—_i.e._, large and small -piers alternate: with what object, is uncertain. There were three -parallel eastern apses. The central apse had no ambulatory. The lateral -apses were square externally, as at Romsey and Cerisy-la-Forêt, and S. -Maria in Cosmedin, Rome (_c._ 780). The central was separated from the -lateral apses by solid walls, as at Cerisy-la-Forêt, whose clerestory -also seems to have been copied in the original western clerestory of the -south transept. - -Durham anticipates Gothic not only in vaulting its central aisles -in oblongs—for the high oblong vaults of Durham, if not so early -as 1133, are still the earliest in England—but in the employment -of flying-buttresses. These, I think, were built long before the -vaults, their object originally not being to withstand the thrust -of vaults. In the triforium of the choir they appear in the form of -semicircular arches, with a wall on them, which provided a support -for the longitudinal timbers of the aisle-roof. In the choir these -flying-buttresses are semicircular arches, and therefore, strictly -speaking, are not flying-buttresses at all. But in the triforium of the -nave they consist of segments of circles tilted up on end. Here they -are genuine flying-buttresses, which oppose resistance to any outward -inclination of the clerestory wall. The only constructional difference -between those of the nave and Gothic flying-buttresses is that the former -are placed underneath the roof of the triforium, sheltered from the -weather, while the latter are placed outside and above the aisle-roof, -and are thus liable to disintegration by wind, rain and frost. But -even in Gothic, flying-buttresses are not always displayed; they still -remained concealed under the triforium in the early work at Salisbury; -and even in the fourteenth-century work of Winchester nave. - -At the west end the towers project beyond the line of the nave, but only -slightly. Still we may well see in this the germ of the grand western -transepts of Ely, Wells and Peterborough. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -Internally, the one fault of Durham is its shortness in proportion to its -great breadth. The nave ought to be two or three bays longer. Ely nave -has twelve bays, Peterborough ten, Norwich fourteen, Durham only eight. -But the architect could not build much further to the west, for close at -hand is the precipice rising above the river; nor did he like to build -further to the east, for the ground there is bad. - -The internal elevation, however, is unsurpassed by that of any Romanesque -church in Europe. At Winchester, Norwich, Peterborough, Ely, Malvern, -Leominster, Chepstow, the three stories—pier-arcade, triforium, and -clerestory—are about equal in height: a very unsatisfactory proportion. -The architects of Gloucester and Tewkesbury saw this: unfortunately -they rushed into the opposite extreme, and carried up their piers to -such a vast height that the triforium and clerestory were dwarfed out -of all proportion. But at Durham the proportions are absolutely right. -The vault, too, is not so much later in date as to interrupt the solid -monumental effect of the interior. It is as much preferable to the florid -vaults of Gloucester, Tewkesbury, and Oxford as it is to the unworthy -wooden ceilings of Peterborough, Selby, Waltham, and Ely. Durham gives -one still the impression which it gave Dr. Johnson—one of “rocky solidity -and indeterminate duration”: the very reverse of the unsubstantial -tenuity of Salisbury and Beauvais. - -The doorway of the Chapter-house is recorded to have been built by Bishop -Galfrid Rufus (1133-1140). The north and south doorways of the nave -(facing one another) are so similar to that of the Chapter-house that -they must also be his work. - -To Bishop Pudsey, to whom we have attributed the high vaults, belongs -also the Galilee, _c._ 1175. He commenced to erect a Lady chapel in -the usual position to the east of the choir. But St. Cuthbert, who had -an ultra-monastic hatred of womankind, and would not brook to have the -chapel even of Our Lady in the neighbourhood of his shrine, showed his -displeasure openly by the fissures and cracks and settlements which -kept constantly occurring. In despair the bishop had to build in the -cramped space between the west end and the precipice, thus blocking up -the west end of the church. From the first this Lady chapel seems to -have been called the Galilee; nobody knows why. In details it is not -unlike the chapel in the keep of Newcastle. Built in the last years of -the TRANSITIONAL period (1145-1190), it is remarkable for the paucity of -Gothic detail: the arches are all semicircular; they are not moulded, but -ornamented with bands of the old-fashioned zigzag. The bases, indeed, -are Transitional in character; and so is the flat voluted leaf of the -capitals. But, spite of semicircular arch and Norman ornament, the spirit -of the whole—its lightness, grace, and elegance—is Gothic. A building -may have every arch pointed and moulded, and yet in its heaviness be -Romanesque at heart: _e.g._, the Cistercian churches of Fountains and -Kirkstall, the Augustinian church of Llanthony. In Durham Galilee, on -the other hand, one feels that one is in a Gothic building, as truly as -one does in presence of the semicircular arcades of Pisa or Lucca. Still -more Gothic must have been the effect of the coupled shafts of Purbeck -marble before Cardinal Langley added two more shafts of stone. The -cardinal is buried in front of the west door of the nave. Here also was -the shrine of the remains of the Venerable Bede, stolen from the monks -of Jarrow by the sacrist Elfred, one of the most successful of mediæval -“body-snatchers.” Pudsey’s work is to be seen also in the external part -of the Prior’s doorway opening from the cloister into the east end of the -south aisle of the nave. - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH.] - -To the LANCET period (1190-1245) belong the western towers, carried up -in the early years of the thirteenth century. At one time they had tall -wooden spires. The present battlements were added about 1780. - -To the early part of the GEOMETRICAL period belongs the noble eastern -transept. Its position repeats that of Fountains Abbey, which was -finished in 1247, and which also is known as the “Chapel of the Nine -Altars.” The object of the eastern extension at Durham was partly to -provide nine more chapels, partly to provide a clear space all round -the shrine of St. Cuthbert, which, like those of St. Swithun and St. -Birinus at Winchester, and that of St. Alban at St. Albans, stood to -the east of the high altar, and contained the body of St. Cuthbert and -the head of St. Oswald. The idea of the eastern transept seems to come -from Hereford and Abbey Dore. It is curious that the floor of the Durham -transept is lower than that of the choir. It has been suggested that -the height of the vault being fixed by that of the vault of the choir, -sufficient height could be gained only by lowering the floor. But I doubt -if mediæval architects were in the habit of designing merely for effect -in this way: probably some humble practical reason is at the bottom of -it. The fact that the ground falls away to the east, or that it is bad -ground, and that much of it had to be excavated and carted away, would be -quite sufficient for this objectionable drop in level (cf. “Worcester”). -The vaulting is, perhaps unavoidably, awkward and clumsy. - -The work was not commenced till 1242 (Bishop Farnham), and not completed -till about 1280. When it was begun, Lancet windows were still in fashion; -when it was completed, they had given way to traceried windows with -cusped circles in their heads. Later on, Perpendicular tracery was -inserted in the lancets: it is surprising that it has not been hacked -out, as in Ripon façade, by architectural “purists.” The circular window, -90 feet across, was rebuilt by Wyatt. The architect was a layman, Richard -Farnham, “architector novæ fabricæ Dunelm”; the master-mason “Thomas -Moises posuit hanc petram.” The foliated capitals, both here and in the -eastern bay of the choir, are of unrivalled beauty. No less remarkable -is the perfection of the masonry. The walls are nearly eight feet -thick, with huge piers at the angles forming buttresses and weighted -by pinnacles; they rise straight from the ground unaided by aisles or -flying-buttresses, “yet they have borne the lofty vault (80 feet high) -for more than three centuries without the slightest sign of settlement or -flaw.” Such was the reverence for St. Cuthbert that not a single person -was buried in the cathedral till 1311, when that magnificent prelate -Anthony Bek was brought into the Chapel of Nine Altars for interment, -through a door on the north of the chapel (now blocked up), not through -the cathedral; and even he was not allowed a monument. One sees why there -is such a paucity of monuments in this cathedral. - -[Illustration: CHAPEL OF NINE ALTARS.] - -The next thing was to pull down the old Norman apse; to join the transept -on to the choir; and to break the transition from Romanesque choir to -Gothic transept by remodelling the eastern bays of the choir in the -fashion of the day. Also a new Gothic vault was put over the choir; its -eastern bay is sexpartite. Here also the details are of exceptional -beauty. - -For a long time little was done at Durham; the cathedral was structurally -complete. In the CURVILINEAR PERIOD (1315-1360) several large windows -with flowing tracery were inserted: _e.g._, the west window of the nave -and the north window of the north transept; and four windows (restored) -in the south aisle of the choir. The three westernmost windows in the -north aisle of the choir were copied in 1848 from the fourteenth-century -windows at Sleaford, Holbeach and Boughton Aluph. To this period belongs -the tomb of Bishop Hatfield, built in his lifetime (1345-1381), one of -the best bits of design in England. The episcopal throne above it looks a -little later, and seems to have been designed for some other position, as -it does not fit the space between the piers. - -In the PERPENDICULAR period the great work was the central tower, which -replaced a thirteenth-century tower, _c._ 1470. It is 218 feet high; -in spite of its vast weight, the Norman piers which support it show no -signs of strain. There are massive squinches at the angles, showing -that it was intended to be finished by a spire, as the western towers -actually were finished. What an astounding spectacle Durham would have -presented, capped with three spires! Imagine Lichfield cathedral set on a -hill 200 feet high! The Neville screen, built, like that at St. Albans, -of clunch, is rather thin and spiky. It is continued to right and left, -forming sedilia on _both_ sides of the sanctuary (1372-1380). In the -nave is a series of Neville monuments. In the third bay from the west is -the Women’s Boundary Cross. The great window of the south transept was -inserted about 1400. - -Between 1660 and 1672 Bishop Cousin did much to repair the damage done by -the Scottish prisoners who had been confined in the cathedral after the -battle of Dunbar in 1650. His stalls and font cover are of exceptional -interest, as specimens of what is rare—seventeenth-century Gothic. It -should be compared with the woodwork of St. John’s Church, Leeds. The -bishop’s fine oak choir-screen has been destroyed, by way of restoration; -the new open screen, and the loss of the organ, give the “unbroken vista” -for which so many of our interiors have been ruined. - -_Exterior._—On the north doorway of the nave is the famous sanctuary -knocker. Durham and Beverley, owing to the high reputation of the relics -of St. Cuthbert and St. John of Beverley, both had large privileges of -sanctuary. Beverley retains the Sanctuary chair, the Frithstool; Durham -the knocker. It is thirteenth-century work. “Upon knocking at the ring -affixed to the north door of Durham the culprit was admitted without -delay; and after full confession, reduced to writing before witnesses, -a bell in the Galilee tower ringing all the time to give notice to the -town that some one had taken refuge in the church, there was put on him -a black gown with a yellow cross on its right shoulder, as the badge of -St. Cuthbert, whose peace he had claimed. When thirty-seven days had -elapsed, if a pardon could not be obtained, the malefactor, after certain -ceremonies before the shrine, solemnly abjured his native land for ever; -and was straightway, by the agency of the intervening parish constables, -conveyed to the coast, bearing in his hand a white wooden cross, and -was sent out of the kingdom by the first ship which sailed after his -arrival.” During their stay in the church the culprits lived on the lower -floors of the western towers. The atrocious setting of the doorway is -modern; as also the pinnacles of the Chapel of the Nine Altars, where the -famous Dun Cow is to be seen in a niche in the north-west turret. All the -design of this side of the cathedral has been utterly ruined; having been -pared away to the depth of three or four inches. Originally each bay of -the aisle had a transverse roof ending in a gable, as originally on the -south side of Chichester nave. - -The monastic buildings are numerous and important; the library contains -precious MSS., touching relics of St. Cuthbert, and a wonderful -collection of Pre-conquest crosses and “hogbacks.” For all these the -visitor should consult Canon Greenwell’s admirable handbook. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Ethelreda, Ely. - - -[Illustration: ELY, SOUTH-WEST.] - -“The vast and magnificent cathedral of Ely,” says Mrs. Van Rensselaer, -“looms up on the horizon, as we come westward from Norwich, like a -great solitary ship at sea. As we draw nearer it preserves its isolated -clearness of outline, lifted visibly above the plain, yet so little -lifted that its bulk seems all the greater from being nearer the eye. -As we enter the little town from the south-west we realise its enormous -length, the grace of its octagon, and the stern majesty of the tall -tower, which rises like a great cliff in a land where men might well -build cliffs, since Nature had built none. But there is in truth no spot -whence the great monarch of the fenlands may not be admirably seen, until -we get so far off that it drops behind the horizon’s rim. Wherever it may -reveal itself it is always immense, imposing, majestic: only upon the -plains of Egypt or Mesopotamia has Nature assisted the effect of man’s -work by such entire suppression of herself.” - -Ely, like Peterborough, Ramsey, Thorney, and Crowland, and like -Glastonbury, the greatest of all the English monasteries, goes back -to early Anglo-Saxon days, when communities of monks and nuns sought -solitude and safety in the recesses of far-spreading marshes and fens. -In the beginning the monastery was founded as a nunnery, in 673, by -Ethelreda, who became the first abbess and Ely’s patron saint. From the -nuns it passed to secular canons, and in Dunstan’s time to Benedictine -monks. In 1109 the abbot gave way to a bishop, and the Benedictine church -became a Benedictine cathedral. - -The Bishop of Ely in his island, like the Bishop of Durham in his -hill-fortress, possessed powers which no other English ecclesiastic was -allowed to share. His territorial possessions included the whole Isle -of Ely: and this, “the Liberty of the Bishops of Ely,” was subject to -the exclusive jurisdiction of the bishop. It is in these two facts—the -possession of a local saint, St. Ethelreda or St. Audrey, of high repute -through all England; and in the enormous revenues derived from the -Isle of Ely—that the explanation lies of the vast scale on which the -abbey-church was planned in the eleventh century, of the unparalleled -richness of its thirteenth-century presbytery, and of the enormous works -undertaken and rapidly carried out in the fourteenth century. - -[Illustration: CHOIR] - -I. NORMAN.—The present cathedral was commenced in 1083 by Abbot Simeon, -brother of Bishop Walkelin of Winchester, where Simeon himself had been -a monk. Earlier still he had been a monk at St. Ouen, Rouen; so that he -would be well acquainted with the contemporary architecture of Normandy. -As was to be expected from the relationship of the founders of the two -cathedrals, Ely and Winchester have many points of resemblance. Both -are vast in scale, far surpassing the Abbaye-aux-hommes at Caen, or -Lanfranc’s copy of it at Canterbury. Both indulge in the luxury of aisles -to the west as well as to the east of their transepts. Both had return -aisles in the transepts—a feature borrowed from the Abbaye-aux-hommes. -Those of Winchester remain; those of Ely have been pushed back to the -walls. The nave of Ely had no less than thirteen bays, its transepts -three, its choir five. The choir-aisles had square ends; the choir ended -in a semicircular apse. The stalls were placed in the crossing and in -the two eastern bays of the nave up to 1770, when Essex removed them to -the presbytery; Scott placed them in their present position in 1847. -There was a central tower; and, instead of two western towers, there -was one tower with four flanking turrets. From the lower stories of -these turrets, of which only the southern one is left, apses projected -eastward. Externally the western transept gave the church great breadth -and dignity; and the plan of Bury and Ely was speedily copied at -Peterborough, Lincoln, and Wells. Internally it is the most picturesque -bit of Norman work in the country. The two towers “riding tandem” may be -paralleled at Wymondham and Wimborne, and formerly at Bury and Hereford. -Of Abbot Simeon’s eleventh-century work little is left now except the -vaulting-shafts in front of his apse, to the east of the organ; the -exterior of the west windows of the south transept, which alone have -the nail-head moulding; and the lower part of the eastern walls of the -transepts, which have the Ionic capital. “The masonry is rude and tooled -with a large cross-stroke: the abaci and the soffits of the arches are -square and unmoulded.” The choir and the lower part of the transepts are -said to have been completed in 1106. - -[Illustration: EAST END.] - -All the rest of the work as far as the west end was designed towards the -end of the Norman period: _c._ 1130. The lateness of the work is seen -in the tall, slender, graceful shafts of the triforium and clerestory, -and in the substitution of mouldings for carved ornament in the orders -of all the arches. It is much nearer Gothic than the contemporary work -at Peterborough and Norwich. The proportions are unusually good, both -the pier-arches and clerestory being taller than usual in proportion to -such a lofty triforium. Accordingly, the proportions of the Norman choir, -then standing, were copied in the presbytery added to the choir in the -thirteenth century; and the proportions of the presbytery were reproduced -in the fourteenth-century choir. It is this, doubtless, which gives such -a feeling of unity in Ely, as at Worcester, in spite of the fact that -the present cathedral consists of three blocks built in three different -centuries in entirely different styles. At Canterbury, Rochester, Ripon, -Chester, nave and choir quarrel; at Winchester and York, nave and -transept; Ely has evolved harmony out of discord. The work seems to have -been done in four sections: first, the completion of the transepts and -the crossing and the eastern bays of the nave; second, the western bays; -third, the three lower stories of the west transept; fourth, the monks’ -and prior’s doorways. - -II. TRANSITIONAL.—The upper stories of the western transept, the western -turrets, and the upper arches of the crossing, were not completed -till about 1170. About the same date are the Infirmary chapel and the -Refectory; the former east, the latter south of the cloisters. - -III. LANCET (1190-1245).—Early in the thirteenth century the Galilee -porch was added, in the same position as at Durham. Externally the design -is commonplace; internally, “with its rich outer and inner portals, its -capitals carved with delicate curling leafage, its side arcades in double -rows of trefoiled arches, and the profuse dog-tooth enrichment of its -mouldings, it is one of the loveliest things ever built, and one of the -most English in its loveliness.” The early date of 1200 is assigned to -this and to the equally beautiful western porches of St. Alban’s. If so, -Gothic must have advanced with lightning speed from the jejune work of -Lincoln choir and Winchester retro-choir. - -Next, about 1234, the Norman apse was pulled down—partly, perhaps, -because it had become unsafe, its foundations not having been carried -down to the solid rock, but, much more from the need to provide more -accommodation for the crowds of pilgrims to St. Audrey’s shrine. The apse -was replaced by a presbytery of six bays: a presbytery of inexpressible -loveliness. “Nowhere,” says Mr. Freeman, “can we better study the boldly -clustered marble pier with its detached shafts, the richly floriated -capitals, the yet richer corbels which bear up the marble vaulting -shafts, the bold and deftly cut mouldings of every arch, great and -small. Lovelier detail was surely never wrought by the hand of man.” The -piers are closely spaced; and the arches, therefore, as at Beverley, are -sharply pointed—in beautiful harmony with the Lancet windows. On the -other hand, the trefoiling of the triforium arches contrasts delightfully -with the pointed arches of pier-arcade and clerestory. Only at Beverley -can the beauty of Ely presbytery be paralleled; but at Beverley the -design owes everything to the architect; at Ely the sculptor may claim -half the credit. Worcester choir may be placed next in order; its -proportions, indeed, are very similar to those of the Ely work. The -presbytery was completed in thirteen years, and cost what is equivalent -to £120,000 of our money—£20,000 per bay. - -[Illustration: OCTAGON AND CHOIR.] - -IV. GEOMETRICAL.—With this superb eastern extension the monks remained -satisfied for some seventy years. Nothing was done in the cathedral -except the insertion of large Geometrical windows to give more light to -the chapels in the eastern aisle of the south transept. - -V. CURVILINEAR (1315-1360).—But in the fourteenth century a most -wonderful series of great works was carried out in Ely; the noblest works -of that or perhaps of any period of mediæval building in England. First -of all, it was resolved to give the Blessed Virgin the honour so long -withheld from her at Ely. At Ely her rightful position in the presbytery -had been usurped by St. Ethelreda, as at Durham by St. Cuthbert. -Following the precedent of Bristol and Peterborough, a vast Lady chapel -was now built for her on the north side of the choir between 1321 and -1349. Later on, Ely Lady chapel in turn gave birth to King’s College -chapel at Cambridge. It is a wonderful piece of mediæval engineering; -the vault—a very flat one—being upheld by the mathematical minimum of -wall and buttress. But it was more than engineering. It was the product -of a time when “Catholic purity in the best natures was still allied to -the tenderness of chivalry”— - - “When in reverence of the Heavene’s Queene - They came to worship alle women that beene.” - -It is said that when Pugin saw the ruins of its arcade, once so glorious -in its beauty—wherein are carved, in the spandrils above each canopy, -incidents in the scriptural and legendary history of the Blessed -Virgin—he burst into tears. He estimated the cost of the restoration of -the Lady chapel at £100,000, but said that no workmen could be found -competent to do the work. - -The year after the Lady chapel was commenced, the central tower fell; and -falling eastward, ruined the three western bays of the Norman choir which -still remained. Nevertheless, though the monks had suddenly cast on them -the vast task of rebuilding both tower and choir, they did not abandon or -intermit their work in the Lady chapel. Side by side the different sets -of works went on: the Lady chapel, the central tower, and the choir. The -tower was finished in 1342, the Lady chapel _c._ 1349, the choir probably -not much later. How vast the resources of Ely must have been! - -In 1322 Alan of Walsingham, then sacrist at Ely and afterwards Prior, -set to work to clear away the _débris_ of the piers of the tower. We -may believe that when he saw the great open space in the centre of the -cathedral, it may well have occurred to him what a pity it would be ever -to close it up again to construct the usual circumscribed square central -tower, the width only of the nave, under which one feels as if looking -up from the bottom of a well. What was left, when he had cleared away -the four tower-piers, was an area three times as large as that of the -original crossing. This area was an octagon, with four long and four -short sides: four long sides opening into nave, choir, and transepts; -four short sides opening diagonally into the aisles. Why not throw -four wide and four narrow arches over the piers of the octagon, and -on these arches erect, not a small square tower, but a vast octagonal -tower? Octagonal central towers were unknown in the English cathedrals; -but there are plenty abroad—_e.g._, magnificent examples at Coutances -and Siena. The difficulty was how to roof a tower so vast. The noblest -course would have been to cover it with a vault of stone. But no English -architect ever dared a vault 77 ft. wide. In Spain they might have done -it: the vault of the nave of Gerona is 73 ft. in span. In England not so; -the York people did not even venture to vault a nave 45 ft. broad. - -[Illustration: LADY CHAPEL.] - -Some sort of wooden roof, therefore, had to be adopted. That roof could -not be a flat wooden ceiling; no beams of the length of 77 ft. could be -had; and if put up they would have been unsafe. Instead, then, of a flat -ceiling, Alan determined on a conical vault of wood like that of York -Chapter-house. But what he wanted was not merely a roof, but a lantern. -A roof like the York one would have darkened the whole central area, -besides being ugly in appearance and difficult to construct. Instead, -therefore, of taking the whole of the York cone, he cut the top off, -replacing its sharp spike with an octagonal lantern. In this, or in some -such way, Alan got at his design: one of the most original and poetic -conceptions of the middle ages; but arising, like all the best things -in Gothic architecture, out of nothing but the exigencies of building -construction. - -The problem was solved on paper, but it proved immensely difficult in -execution. Alan finished the stone piers and arches in six years, but -the timber-work occupied twelve years more. He had to search all over -England before he could find oaks big and straight and sound enough for -the eight vertical angle-posts of his lantern. They are 63 feet long, -with a sapless scantling of 3 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 8 in. Oaks like those do -not grow now in England. The eight angle-posts are tied together at top -and bottom by collars of horizontal beams, and the whole skeleton lantern -rests on the tips of inclined beams, whose lower ends rest on corbels -behind the capitals of the great piers below. - -And as the inclined beams spread to right and left from the great piers -below, it follows that the eight sides of the lantern are not placed -above the eight arches below. This engineering necessity, also, is -wrought into a new source of beauty. For advantage is taken of it to -pierce the wall-space above the narrow low arches with four tall windows, -so that the central area, so gloomy at Winchester, Lincoln, and Wells, -is irradiated with a flood of light from twelve vast windows; four -below, eight above. There is not such a lantern church in the world, and -certainly there is no such interior as Ely in England. To the west, dark -nave; to the east, darker choir; the centre all light and atmosphere. The -views from the aisles across the octagon into the choir are veritable -glimpses into fairyland. Externally, too, the octagonal lantern groups -marvellously with the great western tower; in height, in bulk, in shape -they are in perfect ratio. - -Side by side with the octagon went up the choir, as was necessary, that -the octagon might have abutment to the east. The choir is “a little -over-developed and attenuated in detail”; the windows are squat and -ungraceful in proportion, and their flowing tracery wiry and unlovely. -Window tracery is the one weak point in the Curvilinear work at Ely. -Nevertheless, this choir is one of those works whose delicate loveliness -disarms criticism. It even disarmed Mr. Fergusson, who says that the -proportions of the presbytery are reproduced in the choir, “with such -exquisite taste that there is perhaps no single portion of any Gothic -building in the world which can vie with it in poetry of design or beauty -of detail.” - -[Illustration: ALCOCK’S CHAPEL.] - -But the monks had not finished even now. They were dissatisfied with -the lighting of the older part of the cathedral. So they took out the -thirteenth-century lancets, not only those of the aisles but those of -the outer wall of the triforium of the presbytery, and replaced them by -broad windows of flowing tracery. Even this was insufficient, and so they -substituted a flat roof for the steep sloping roof of the two western -bays of the presbytery aisles, and glazed the openings of these two -bays of the triforium. Thus more light was obtained for St. Ethelreda’s -shrine, which then stood between these two bays; its exact position is -marked by the elaborate boss in the vault of the choir. Externally, the -result is hideous, a big hole being left in the choir aisles, where the -lean-to roof formerly extended continuously. All this piercing of the -walls with bigger windows weakened the supports of the vaults, and the -builders therefore took the precaution to weight the buttresses with -heavy pinnacles, and to add flying-buttresses. - -Beautiful stalls were then put up under the octagon—the panels are -modern—and above the ancient white marble tomb of St. Ethelreda a stone -canopy and watching-loft were erected. It now stands between the south -piers of the presbytery, in the fourth bay from the west. On this was -placed the Norman silver reliquary, “embossed with many figures, with a -golden majesty blazing in its centre, with countless jewels of crystal -and pearl, onyx and beryl, and amethyst and chalcedony.” - -Nor was this all. Alan designed for his friend Prior Crauden a little -chapel which would be the cynosure of any other cathedral, but which -passes almost unnoticed amid the glories of Ely. - -VI. PERPENDICULAR (1360-1485).—In this period the monks continued their -improvements in the lighting of the cathedral, treating the Norman nave -very much as they had treated the Lancet choir—_i.e._, putting bigger -windows in the aisles, and also raising the aisle-walls so as to get -space for an upper range of windows, in the hope that some light might -filter through across the triforium into the nave. - -Moreover, they added another storey to the great west tower, making it -octagonal, in order to bring it more into harmony with Alan’s lantern. -The additional storey threw more weight on the Norman arches below, under -which new strengthening arches had to be built. This saved the tower; but -the northern half of the western transept collapsed, and has never been -rebuilt. - -The great east and west windows of the new Lady chapel also soon showed -signs of weakness, and Perpendicular was substituted for flowing tracery. - -To this period also belong the hammer-beam roofs of the transepts, the -cloisters, and the Ely Porta or Walpole Gate. - -VII. TUDOR.—In 1488 was erected the chantry of Bishop Alcock at the east -end of the north aisle of the choir; and in 1534 that of Bishop West in a -similar position in the south aisle. They are perhaps the two most superb -chantries in England, of marvellous richness and delicacy and vigour. -That of Bishop West is of exceptional interest for its Renaissance -vaulting and scroll-work. One so rarely sees in an English cathedral the -delicate art of the early Italian Renaissance. - -VIII. In 1539 the monks were expelled; secular canons took their place. -In 1699 Sir Christopher Wren contributed a classical doorway to the north -transept. The roofs of the nave and the lantern were painted _c._ 1862 -by Mr. Le Strange and Mr. Gambier Parry. To Sir Gilbert Scott is due the -gorgeous reredos. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Exeter. - - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -In the days of the so-called Heptarchy, the divisions of the Church -followed those of the State. The diocese of Lichfield was conterminous -with the kingdom of Mercia. In the same way the diocese of Winchester was -coextensive with the kingdom of Wessex. Thus Devonshire, so far as it had -been colonised by Anglo-Saxons before the eighth century, formed part of -the diocese of Winchester. But these vast dioceses were too cumbrous to -work. They had to be subdivided. So a western diocese was lopped off from -Winchester, and a Bishop of Sherborne was appointed as its head. Then, as -the far west grew in population and importance, two more bishoprics were -created—those of Crediton and Cornwall. These two, however, were soon -amalgamated; and Cornwall has had no bishop of its own from the Conquest -till the recent formation of the Bishopric of Truro. - -Just before the Norman Conquest Bishop Leofric removed the see from -the open town of Crediton to the walled city of Exeter, largely in -consequence of attacks of Scandinavian pirates. At Exeter Leofric -found a Benedictine monastery, dedicated to St. Mary and St. Peter. -This conventual church he made his cathedral. “He was installed in the -episcopal chair by Edward the Confessor, who supported his right arm, and -Queen Eadgytha his left”; representations of which were inserted in the -fourteenth-century sedilia. The Benedictine monks were removed by the -Confessor to his new abbey at Westminster, and Leofric supplied their -place by a body of secular canons, who lived together, however, and to -some extent observed monastic discipline. Leofric was left undisturbed in -his bishopric till his death, 1072. His successor, also, though a Norman, -was English and conservative by training; the venerable Anglo-Saxon -church was good enough for him. But William Warelwast (1107-1128) was -a great building prelate, and it was he who commenced the existing -cathedral. Exeter Cathedral, therefore, was commenced much later than -most of the Norman cathedrals. This Norman cathedral of Warelwast seems -to have been partly remodelled in the early years of the Lancet period -(1194-1206) by Bishop Marshall. Later, but still in the Lancet period, -Bishop Bruere (1224-1244) settled the cathedral establishment, and -provided for his dignitaries a chapter-house, as well as stalls in the -cathedral. In the Geometrical period Bishop Bronescombe (1257-1280) -seems to have made a few changes at the east end of the choir. Then -came the great builder of all, Bishop Quivil, who formed the bold idea -of remodelling the whole cathedral, as left by Bishop Marshall. The -work which Bishop Quivil commenced was carried out, and precisely in -accordance with the original plans, by Bishops Bitton, Stapledon, and -Grandisson, who completed the transformation of the cathedral about -1350. Other great prelates did good work later—especially Brantyngham, -Stafford, Lacy, Bothe, Courtenay, Fox, King, and Oldham. The Bishops of -Exeter were in nearly all cases men of the highest ability, rank, and -importance. - -Up to 1551 Exeter was one of the greatest prizes in the Church of -England. It possessed thirty-two manors, fourteen palaces—two in -Cornwall, nine in Devonshire, one in Surrey, one in London, of which -Essex Street, Strand, is a reminder. The present value of the income -of the see would be at least £100,000. The first of the Protestant -bishops was Miles Coverdale, who with Tyndale translated the Bible. -Seth Ward (1662-1667) “cast out the buyers and sellers who had usurped -the cathedral, and therein kept distinct shops to vend their wares.” -In the evil days of the Puritans the cathedral had been divided into -two churches by a vast whitewashed wall, built on the choir-screen and -separating choir from nave. The Independents worshipped in the nave, -the Presbyterians in the choir. Here they had what they called “great -quiet and comfort,” till Seth Ward pulled the wall down. Seth Ward’s -restoration of the cathedral cost him £25,000—representing a far greater -sum nowadays. He put the cathedral in substantial repair; and the -restoration by Sir G. G. Scott, in 1870, did little damage. - - -BISHOP WARELWAST. - -Nothing remains of the church of the Anglo-Saxon monastery; nor is there -any Early Norman work, for, as we have seen, that church was allowed to -remain standing till the year 1107. But in the first half of the twelfth -century a Norman cathedral was commenced, and possibly finished, by -William Warelwast and his successors. That cathedral included both the -existing towers; it also included an aisled nave of the same dimensions -as the present one. The narrowed span of the westernmost arches of -the pier arcade is to be accounted for only on the supposition of the -existence, to the west, of the wall of a pre-existing west front (cf. -Lincoln nave). Also traces of Norman buttresses and pilasters, and one -base, have been found in the walls of the north and south aisles of the -nave. And traces of an apse have been found at the end of the third bay -of the choir. So it is plain that the twelfth-century cathedral had west -front, nave and aisles, transeptal towers, a choir of three bays, an -apse at the end of the choir, and probably some minor apses. - - -BISHOP MARSHALL. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -Great works were commenced between 1194 and 1206; they extend over a -large part of the cathedral. First, there is the doorway, early Lancet, -leading from the south aisle of the nave to the cloister, near the -north-west corner of the south tower; and near here, on the south wall -of the nave, are several consecration crosses of Marshall’s date. Then, -passing round or through the cathedral to the north side, there will be -found buttresses of very early character, heavy, low, and of few stages: -(1) at St. Edmund’s chapel, to the north-west of the nave; (2) to the -north porch; (3) on the north side of the nave. We may conclude then, -that the works included the addition to the nave of a south-east doorway, -St. Edmund’s chapel, and a north porch, and possibly the remodelling of -the clerestory of the whole nave. But what is more important, the choir, -instead of being three bays long plus an apse, was now made eight bays -long. The Norman apse was pulled down, the three bays of the Norman choir -seem to have been allowed to remain. This work, especially the eastward -extension of the choir, represented a great amount of building. The -new eastern bays of the choir were finished, at any rate as far as the -springers of the vault; for it has been found that the present vault of -the choir incorporates the lower part of the ribs of Marshall’s vault; -this, of course, would be of simpler character, and was designed to be -four or five feet lower than the present one. Similar great eastward -extensions were going on all over England in the thirteenth century; -especially the building of Lady chapels: there seems to have been quite -an outburst of Mariolatry at this time. - - -BISHOP BRUERE (1224-1244). - -Proceeding to the chapter-house, it will be found that the lower part -was built in the later years of the Lancet period. To the same date -belong the misereres of the choir. This bishop gave the cathedral body -its present constitution: dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, and -canons; it is natural that he should have constructed for them their -chapter-house, with its fine arcade; and their stalls. The misereres, -with their stiff trefoiled foliage, are the earliest set in the kingdom, -and of exceptional interest. Bishop Bruere had travelled in the East, and -designs in tapestry brought back by him may have been copied: _e.g._, -there is the earliest representation of an elephant; a later one occurs -at Boston; there are mermen and mermaids, and an illustration of the -Romaunt of the _Chevalier au Cygne_; also Nebuchadnezzar saddled—unless -this is the favourite subject of the weakness of philosophers before the -charms of women, as exemplified in the temptation and fall of Aristotle. - - -BISHOP BRONESCOMBE (1257-1280). - -The windows north and south of the retro-choir probably belong to this -period. The roll-moulding appears on the principal curves only of the -tracery; ever after it spreads over the whole of the tracery. The lower -lights of these windows are lancets; the circles in the head are cusped. -The chapels of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gabriel, on either side of the -Lady chapel, seem also to have been remodelled at this time; for the side -windows of these two chapels have geometrical tracery earlier than that -of the Lady chapel. - - -BISHOP QUIVIL (1280-1292). - -And now we come to the rebuilding of the whole cathedral. In spite of -the great changes that took place in Gothic architecture during the next -seventy years, the original design—that of Quivil—was adhered to almost -to the very last. With the exception of a few Curvilinear windows in -the western bays of the nave, all the main features of the building are -as they were designed in the closing years of the thirteenth century. -It is, of course, this exceptional unity and harmony of design that -makes Exeter what it is—one of the most satisfactory mediæval interiors -in this country. In cathedrals such as Rochester and Ely a Norman nave -jars on a Gothic choir; or, as at Lincoln and York, two styles of Gothic -mingle and conflict. But at Exeter, looking forward from west to east, -hardly anything obtrudes on the original design. In no other cathedral, -except Salisbury, do we find similar unity of design; but in the design -of Salisbury simplicity becomes bareness and poverty. It cannot be -compared for one moment with the richness of the lovely decorated work -of Exeter. Yet greater unity and harmony is gained by the way in which -the battlements and pinnacles, flying-buttresses, and cresting weld -together the exterior; and the high vaults the interior, as at Norwich. -The adherence, too, for so long a time to Bishop Quivil’s design is -interesting, because it shows that in the early years of the fourteenth -century there was at Exeter, as at Beverley, Westminster, Ely, and -St. Albans, a strong current in the direction of conservation of good -design. Piers and vaulting and bosses and corbels and triforium and -windows of the nave, built long after he was dead and gone, are all but -reproductions of Quivil’s early work. Most remarkable of all, perhaps, -is the adherence to Quivil’s window tracery—the rose, the lily, and the -wheel. Even the great west window, one of the last works, is but Quivil’s -straight-spoked wheel translated into flowing lines. - -[Illustration: CHOIR AND TRANSEPT.] - -Quivil commenced his work in the two Norman towers, in which he inserted -tall arches, thus making them an integral part of the church. He also -built the arches of the crossing, and provided abutment to the west -by building one new bay on either side of the nave. All that one sees -here—the first bay of the nave, and the alterations in the transepts, -the window tracery, the piers and arches, the pierced balconies hung up -on the walls of the towers, the substitution of Purbeck marble for stone -shafts—is Quivil’s work. As to the easternmost bay of the nave on either -side, it differs from the rest of the nave in having a wider arch; while -its clerestory windows have the same straight-spoked wheel as Quivil’s -windows in the transept; the mouldings of the capitals of the first two -piers correspond with those of the transeptal arches; the bases are lower -than those elsewhere in the nave; the bosses of the aisles are flatter; -even the flying-buttresses differ. - -Now that he had remodelled the centre of the church, Quivil set to work -to recast the eastern parts of the church, commencing at the far east -end, so as to interfere with the services as little as possible. He -first transformed the Lady chapel; to him are due the shafts, sedilia, -double piscina, and the vaulting, the rib-mouldings of which are of -earlier character than those of the choir; and the windows, which closely -resemble those of Merton College, Oxford, which we know was commenced in -1277. In the centre of the Lady chapel Bishop Quivil is buried; he died -in 1291. The chapels on either side may have been remodelled or partly -remodelled by Bronescombe; but the east windows are later in style, and -are Quivil’s. - -The piers hereabout are very interesting. Those of the Lady chapel -looking into the side chapels are composed of four columns. The -north-east and south-east piers of the choir have clusters of eight -shafts instead of four; while in the pier between them the cluster of -eight is developed into a cluster of sixteen columns. Finally, notice -that these piers are set diamond-wise, with four flat faces, and the -angles to the north, west, south, and east. - - -BISHOP BITTON (1292-1307). - -Bishop Quivil had only touched the fringe of the choir, but he must -have collected much material for its transformation; for his successor -completed it, even the vaulting, in fifteen years—the last fifteen -years of Edward I. It seems to have been done in two sections; first, -the four eastern bays of Bishop Marshall’s work, then the older bays to -the west. It is clear that the builders took away both piers and arches -from underneath Bishop Marshall’s clerestory wall, and put in new ones, -without bringing the wall down—a kind of engineering feat which the -mediæval builders undertook with a light heart. The new piers all consist -of “vast horizontal slices of Purbeck marble, from nine to fifteen inches -thick”; the arches of native sandstone. These immense marble piers -give the interior of Exeter a magnificence rare in England, only to be -paralleled by the marble churches of Italy. The colour-contrast, too, -between the blue-grey marble of the piers, the yellow sandstone of the -arches, and the white Caen stone above, is delightful. The mouldings -of Bitton’s work are clearly distinguishable from those of Quivil, and -were retained, with little variation, to the west end of the cathedral. -Bitton got himself into some curious difficulties by retaining instead -of pulling down the twelfth and thirteenth-century clerestory walls. The -first of the two, the western, was the thicker wall. Hence the piers to -support it had to be thicker: they exceed the eastern piers in diameter -by nine inches. But by bringing both eastern and western piers to the -same line facing the central aisle of the choir the difference of nine -inches appears only in the side-aisles, where it is less noticeable. -Again, the length of the western bays was 2½ feet greater than that of -the four eastern ones. When, therefore, Bitton set out the seven eastern -pier-arches there remained an awkward gap of 2½ feet between the last -arch and the great pier of the crossing. This he bridged over by the tiny -arch which appears at the extreme west of each arcade of the choir, the -incongruity of which was largely masked later by the great choir-screen. -He seems to have worked to the middle of the choir—first from the east, -then from the crossing. When, however, the two sets of arches met, they -did not fit, and the clumsy junction had to be botched over by the aid of -a stilt. - - -BISHOP STAPLEDON (1308-1327). - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-EAST.] - -But though the remodelling was complete, even to the vaulted roof above, -the choir was all naked and bare; and the next bishop set himself, -not to carry the work into the nave, but to complete the equipment of -the choir. In one respect Bitton’s choir was weak in design: it had a -triforium in the choir bays (the four to the west) but not in the bays -of the sanctuary. Bitton’s eastern clerestory windows were splayed down -till they rested on the summits of the new pier-arches; to the same -line were continued downward the shafts in the jambs of his windows. -This diversity of treatment of the two halves of the choir must have -had a most discordant effect; and Stapledon corrected it very cleverly -by adding a triforium to the east in such a way that though the eastern -arcading is not so deep as the western, yet in perspective the difference -is hardly noticed. Probably the next thing was to glaze the remainder -of the sixty choir windows, only eighteen of which were filled with -stained glass at Stapledon’s accession. It seems likely that nearly all -the stained glass for the choir and the transepts came from abroad—from -Rouen. For the nave, later on, the place of the laity, English glass, -cheaper and not so good, was thought sufficient. The glass was inserted -by Walter le Verrouer (he has descendants still living in Exeter), at -the moderate price of 6_s._ for a fortnight’s work, of himself and “two -boys,” for one pair of clerestory windows. Hitherto the clergy had -sat in the transept and the western bays of the nave; now, as in many -other cathedrals, the stalls were moved into the western bays of the -choir. (The present canopies of these stalls are modern.) Next came the -Bishop’s throne (A.D. 1316), intended for his Lordship with a chaplain -on either side; “a magnificent sheaf of carved oak, put together without -a single nail, and rising to a height of 57 feet. The lightness of its -ascending stages almost rivals the famous ‘sheaf of fountains’ of the -Nuremberg tabernacle. The cost of this vast and exquisitely carved -canopy (about twelve guineas) is surprisingly small, even for those -days. The carved work consists chiefly of foliage, with finials of great -beauty, surmounting tabernacled niches, with a sadly untenanted look, -however, for lack of their statuettes. The pinnacle corners are enriched -with heads of oxen, sheep, dogs, pigs, and monkeys.” Next came what is -perhaps the most exquisite work in stone in England, as the throne is -unparalleled in woodwork—the sedilia; the seats of the priest to the -east, and to the west of him, those of the Gospeller and Epistoler. -These sedilia have been preferred even to the shrine of Beverley and the -Lady chapel of Ely. “The canopy of the seat nearest the altar,” says Mr. -Garland, “deserves particular attention. It is adorned with a wreath -of vine leaves on each side, which meet at the point and there form a -finial; and never did Greek sculptor, of the best age, trace a more exact -portrait of the leaf of the vine, nor design a more graceful wreath, -nor execute his design with a more masterly finish.” It is regrettable -that the carving of the sedilia is attributed to a Frenchman. Then came -the great work of all—the high altar, with its reredos, perhaps the -most magnificent in Europe; the cost of it would amount now to £7,500. -Of this not a fragment remains. Finally, the choir was closed in with a -great screen to the west, from which was read the Epistle and Gospel, -as in the two ambos of the early Christian basilicas. And on it was -placed an organ; the ancient and best position for a cathedral organ. -The accounts show that 500 lbs. of iron bars were used to hold the -screen together. This concluded Bishop Stapledon’s work, except that he -built a cloistered walk as far as the doorway of the chapter-house. “The -cathedral of Exeter,” as Stapledon’s successor wrote to the Pope, “now -finished up to the nave, is marvellous in beauty, and when completed, -will surpass every Gothic church in England or in France.” Stapledon died -in 1327. The completed choir was consecrated by Bishop Grandisson in 1328. - - -BISHOP GRANDISSON (1328-1369). - -Grandisson was “the most magnificent prelate who ever filled the see -of Exeter.” He had been nuncio to the Pope at the courts of all the -noblest princes of Christendom. He was even strong enough to bar the way -to Archbishop Meopham, of Canterbury, when he attempted to enforce a -Visitation of the cathedral. Great as were his riches and magnificence, -he was a strict economist. He lived forty years Bishop of Exeter; -finished his cathedral, did many great works elsewhere, and yet died -wealthy. Quivil, we have seen, had built one bay of the nave. It remained -for Grandisson to complete the remaining seven bays. The piers of the -nave were erected by 1334; the whole work was complete in 1350. Stapledon -had commenced the Cloister; Grandisson built the north walk, running, in -curious fashion, under a second and outer range of flying-buttresses, as -does the cloister of Westminster. The west front (except the west screen) -was now built, but not the fan-vaulting of the north porch, which is -later. And the curious Chapel of St. Radegunde in the thickness of the -west wall he remodelled, to form his mortuary chapel, expecting there -ever to lie, looking towards the nave where his great work had been done. -But his tomb was destroyed by Elizabeth’s Visitors, and his ashes were -scattered to the winds. - -As we stand near his empty grave, we see before us the whole of the -great mediæval design, that was due in inception to Quivil, and was -realised and consummated by Bitton, Stapledon, and Grandisson, in the -seventy years between 1280 and 1350. What strikes one, first, is that -with revenues so immense, the bishops should have been satisfied with -a cathedral so small—its area is less than half that of York. On the -other hand, at York, owing to the vast dimensions of the new cathedral, -commenced simultaneously with the new work at Exeter, the builders were -unable to roof it in stone. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Secondly, one wonders that they allowed their hands to be fettered, their -design to be cramped, by the preservation not only of the aisle walls, -but of the clerestories of Warelwast and Marshall’s cathedral. But it is -just in the subjugation of these limitations, in converting them into the -special glory and distinction of the Exeter design, that the genius of -Quivil’s architect shines forth most vividly. He was limited by the area -of the old cathedral, east to west, north to south: not even the tiny -transepts might be enlarged. But what was more serious, he was limited -as to height. He was unable to raise the vaulting or the pier-arches -more than five feet. His internal elevation, then, for a Gothic church -of 1280, had to be exceptionally low. He determined, therefore—it was -an intuition of genius—to see what could be done in architecture with -lowness and breadth. Everything should be broad and low, outside as well -as inside. Look at the east end of the choir—its two arches broad and -low; above it, the great window—broad and low. Nowhere but at Exeter -do you find these squat windows with their truncated jambs; here they -are everywhere—in the aisles, in the clerestory, in choir, chapels, -transepts, and nave; even in the great window of the western front: broad -and low windows everywhere. - -Still more original is the external realisation of the design; -central tower and spire, western towers and spires, alike are absent. -Long and low, massive and stable, stretches out uninterruptedly the -long horizontal line of nave and choir. Breadth gives in itself the -satisfactory feeling of massiveness, steadfastness and solidity; and -this is just what is wanting in the all-too aerial work of Salisbury -and Beauvais; vaulted roofs at a dizzy height resting on unsubstantial -supports and sheets of glass. But the Exeter architect has emphasised -this satisfactory feeling of stability still further. The window tracery -is heavy and strong; the vault is barred all over with massive ribs; in -the piers there are no pretty, fragile, detached shafts; the massive -clustered columns look as if they were designed, as they were, to carry -the weight of a Norman wall. - -But an interior may easily be made too massive; if it is not to be -a Salisbury cathedral, it need not be a Newgate Gaol. How was the -prison-like appearance of an interior but 68 feet high, with a stone -vault of exceptionally heavy appearance weighing it down, to be avoided? -How was oppressive heaviness to be counteracted? Triumphantly, by -transparency. By stretching out the windows from buttress to buttress, -aisle and clerestory became practically one continuous sheet of glass; -the church was flooded with light and atmosphere; the heavy vault seemed -to float in the air, borne up but by the lilies and roses and wheels of -the window tracery, and rows of painted saints in tabernacles of silver -or of gold. There is no heaviness even now in the interior of Exeter; -though the silvery panes of the choir, the golden glass of the nave, have -perished long ago. - -Another distinctive feature in Exeter, as in Salisbury, is that the -architect produces his effect mainly by architectural means—is not -driven to rely on sculpture. All the principal capitals have mouldings, -not foliage. Only in the great corbels of the vaulting-shafts and in -the bosses of the vault, does he permit himself foliage and sculpture. -Wonderful carving it is; the finest work of the best period, when the -naturalistic treatment of foliage was fresh and young. Very remarkable -these corbels are, with their lifelike treatment of vine and grape, oak -and acorn, hazel leaf and nut. Unfortunately the corbels, and still more -the bosses, are so high up that their lovely detail is thrown away; and -they are out of scale. - -And the patterns of the window tracery are wonderfully diverse. It is -not, as in Lichfield nave or King’s College Chapel, where every window -is like its neighbour; when you have seen one, you have seen all. Here, -all down each side of the church, every window differs. In dimensions, -in general character, they agree; in details they differ; each window -is a fresh delight; we have what even in Gothic architecture we rarely -get—diversity within similarity. - -Another striking feature of the design is its perfect bilateral symmetry. -Gothic churches are, as a rule, most irregular, most unsymmetrical in -outline; as a consequence, very picturesque. It is a mistake, however, -to believe that they are intentionally unsymmetrical and picturesque. A -Gothic architect no more aimed at irregularity than did the architect -of the Parthenon. Only he was not a purist on the subject. If practical -requirements—_e.g._, the needs of ritual—made it necessary to break in -on the lines of a symmetrical design, he broke in on them without the -slightest hesitation; the building had to conform to its destination. -But where a single design was carried through from end to end, it was -as symmetrical as a Classical temple. So it is at Salisbury; so it is -at Exeter. Every window has its exact counterpart on the other side of -nave and choir. Transept answers to transept, screen to screen, St. John -the Baptist’s chapel to St. Paul’s, St. Andrew’s chapel to St. James’, -St. George’s chapel to St. Saviour’s, St. Mary Magdalene’s chapel to -St. Gabriel’s. But the architect was not so infatuated with the idea of -symmetry as to place a porch on the south side because there was one -on the north, or a chapter-house on the north because there was one -on the south; which is just what the academic professors of Classical -architecture would have done. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -We have seen how the design gained special distinction from the very -limitations imposed by the lowness of the early cathedral, the upper -parts of which it was desired to preserve. It was again to the early -design that Exeter owes another distinction among English interiors. In -the early design the towers were just those which we still see; there was -no central tower. The very fact that Quivil’s architect did not rush off -at once to build a central tower, and be like everybody else, shows what -backbone and insight the man had. Cathedrals without central towers were -as rare in mediæval England as cathedrals with central towers are rare -in the Île de France. Yet he advised his employers—or was it they who -instructed him?—not to build a central tower. Central towers, standing -as they do on four thin legs, are dangerous: many have fallen; others are -always threatening to fall—_e.g._, Salisbury. But they are objectionable -on another ground. The great piers on which they stand are an enormous -block in the lengthened vista, which is the one great charm of an English -cathedral, as compared with the lofty but short cathedrals of France. -The fact that there is no tower over the crossing, and no tower-piers in -the way, produces the most open, uninterrupted, and impressive vista of -any cathedral in England. The screen being low, one sees the whole noble -design in one glance from far west to far east. We have nothing like it: -though it finds its counterpart in the great French cathedral of Bourges. - -Another point should be noticed. Although the nave is in nearly all -important respects of late Geometrical design—the exception being some -Curvilinear windows with flowing tracery in the westernmost bays of the -nave—yet the architects were not such purists as to carry out their minor -work in anything but the style of their own day. Even in the choir, the -architecture of which is Geometrical both in character and in date, all -the minor work is developed Curvilinear—_e.g._, the great screen with its -depressed ogee arches, the throne of the bishop, the sedilia. - -PERPENDICULAR WORK (1360-1485).—Much minor work remained to do. In the -remaining years of the fourteenth century the west front, which seems to -have been heeling over, was buttressed by the erection of the western -screen. The west and south walks of the cloisters were added. The great -east window was substituted for an earlier Geometrical one which seems -to have fallen into decay. In the fifteenth century the towers were -crowned with battlements and turrets, as we see them now. The upper part -of the chapter-house was rebuilt. Bishop Stafford erected canopies over -monuments in the Lady chapel. - -TUDOR WORK (1485-1519).—The Tudor work is exceptional in importance. -It includes the north entrance and other late portions of the western -screen, two exquisite chapels, both built by Bishop Oldham—his own -chantry (St. Saviour’s) on the south side of the retro-choir, the Speke -chantry (St. George’s) on the north—and in addition, Prior Sylke’s -chantry in the north transept. All this work is admirable in design and -execution. In Oldham’s chantry is a charming series of owls, with the -scroll DAM, a rebus on his name, proceeding from the beak of each little -owl. To Bishop Oldham also (1504-1519) is due the grand set of stone -screens—one of the glories of the cathedral—no less than ten, which veil -all the nine chapels and Prior Sylke’s chantry, and add fresh beauty to -the beautiful choir. - -Whatever else, then, the student and lover of Gothic architecture omits, -he must not omit to visit Exeter. He will find it fresh and different -from anything he has seen before. Its unique plan, without central or -western towers, the absence of obstructive piers at the crossing, the -consequently uninterrupted vista, the singleness and unity of the whole -design, the remarkable system of proportions, based on breadth rather -than height, the satisfying massiveness and solidity of the building, -inside and outside, and at the same time the airiness and lightness of -the interior, the magnificence of its piers of marble, the delightful -colour-contrast of marble column and sandstone arch, the amazing -diversity of the window tracery, the exquisite carving of the corbels and -bosses, the abundant and admirable Tudor work, the wealth of chantries -and monuments, the superb sedilia, screen, and throne, the misereres, -the vaults, the extraordinary engineering feats from which its present -form results, the originality of the west front and of the whole interior -and exterior, place Exeter in the very forefront of the triumphs of the -mediæval architecture of our country. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Gloucester. - - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -The foundation of Gloucester, like that of Ely, has gone through many -changes. In 681 it was founded as a nunnery, and remained so till 767. -About 821 it was refounded for secular priests; who, in the time of -Canute, through the influence of Dunstan, were replaced by Benedictine -monks. It remained a Benedictine monastery till 1541, when it was placed -on the New Foundation, thus reverting to secular priests once more. The -abbey-church then became a cathedral, with a diocese carved out of that -of Worcester. - -The present cathedral is recorded to have been commenced by Abbot Serlo -in 1088, and to have been completed and consecrated in 1100. This -statement seems to be generally accepted; but the chief evidence for -it, as for the architectural history of the cathedral generally, is the -chronicle of Abbot Froucester. Froucester, however, lived two hundred -years after the foundation of the Norman cathedral, and his authority on -this point can hardly be considered decisive. The plain architectural -facts tell a very different tale. In the first place, the design of the -nave and presbytery is totally different; the presbytery is archaic -and rude, the nave highly advanced in design and elaborate and rich in -ornament. The former may well belong to the last decade of the eleventh -century; the latter is a whole generation later. In the presbytery the -piers are low and of enormous bulk—such vast wasteful blocks of masonry -as are to be seen in the nave of St. Alban’s, the choirs of Hereford and -Chichester and Norwich: all of them commenced in the eleventh century. -In the nave of Gloucester the piers rise to the exceptional height of 30 -feet; for a parallel one must go to Tewkesbury, which was not consecrated -till 1121; and even that consecration does not necessarily include the -nave, where alone these towering cylinders are found. Again, in the -presbytery of Gloucester the pier-arcade and triforium are about equal -in height. So they are also in the eleventh-century work of Winchester, -Norwich, and elsewhere. The diminutive triforiums of the naves of -Gloucester and Tewkesbury are without a parallel in English work, though -the Abbaye-aux-dames at Caen may be quoted on the other side. Again, the -pier-arches of the presbytery are in two square orders, and the vault -of the aisle is unribbed. In the nave the orders of the pier-arches are -enriched with pairs of rolls and zigzag; the vault of the north aisle -has diagonal ribs of late Norman character; and the string-course of the -clerestory is a twisted cable elaborately enriched. The aisles, too, are -very broad and very lofty. - -Indeed, everything in the presbytery has an early look, except its plan -and the shape of its apses. The plan is exceedingly complicated; with -apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. But all three features appear in -the ancient church of Vignory, which cannot well be later than the middle -of the eleventh century. The radiating chapels, indeed, go back to the -very earliest days of Christian architecture; for they formed part of the -Basilican church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, as built, A.D. 326, -by the Emperor Constantine; and have survived all the transformations -which that church has undergone. That the apses, indeed, should not -be semicircular—as they are even in St. Hugh’s choir of Lincoln—but -polygonal, is certainly startling; though here also there are precedents -as far back as the sixth century, in such Byzantine churches as that of -S. Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna. In the nave, on the other hand, -everything points to a date well advanced—certainly not earlier than -1122. Not only the loftiness of the columns, but the fact that they are -columns, is a mark of twelfth-century work. The column does not occur in -Normandy, the mother of our Romanesque; but everywhere the compound pier. -Capital and abacus, too, are circular on plan; this is usually a sign of -late Norman work. The nave of Southwell, which also has circular capitals -and abaci, was not built before 1120. But the ornamentation of the nave -is decisive: the zigzag and the cables could not have been executed in -the days of Prior Conrad of Canterbury, before the chisel had come into -use. - -[Illustration: TRIFORIUM OF APSE.] - -Something, however, was consecrated at Gloucester in 1100; and that was -probably the eastern arm of the church—not necessarily the chapels—and as -much of the rest of the church as was necessary to complete the enclosure -of the monastery: viz., part of the north transept and the wall of the -north aisle of the nave as high as the sills of the windows. Then the -monks probably turned their attention to the domestic buildings of the -monastery, which till now may have been temporary buildings of wood, and -only some twenty years later resumed work in the church, which they then -completely finished. - -Perhaps the first thing to do would be to add the top storey to the -presbytery; for a church seems not unfrequently to have been consecrated -before its clerestory was built, a temporary roof being erected at the -level of the triforium. The presbytery being at last really completed, -the monks would then proceed to complete the transepts and the crossing, -to build the lower stage of the tower, and the nave and west front. -When they did reach the nave, they altered the design altogether; as -did the Tewkesbury monks also. They put up naves of the worst possible -proportions; with piers so lofty that triforium and clerestory were -almost squeezed out of existence. - -Both have, of course, been credited with some artistic motive. To me -it seems that they had found the choir, with its squat pier-arches, -intolerably dark; and when they reached the nave, they saw that if they -adhered to the early design, the nave would be even darker than the -choir. For on the north side the cloister abutted on the aisle-wall, -whose windows therefore had to be placed very high up in the wall: giving -hardly any light to aisle and nave. To remedy this, therefore, regardless -of appearances—for mediæval architects were practical builders first, -artists only afterwards—they put up these colossal columns 30 feet high, -raising the arches nearly 40 feet above the pavement. In that way the -light from the high windows of the north aisle was enabled to penetrate -into the church. - -Another very remarkable feature in the design of the eastern limb is -the utilisation of the triforium. In many churches—_e.g._, in Beverley -and Lincoln minsters—the triforium seems not to have been intended to -be used. At Beverley it is walled off from the nave; at Lincoln it has -no floor. But in the earlier churches some ritualistic use must have -been made of it. At Winchester, Ely, and the Abbaye-aux-hommes at Caen, -return-aisles were constructed at the ends of the transepts to provide a -broad path by which processions might pass along the triforium from the -choir, round the transept, to the nave. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -At Gloucester one step further is taken. All the five apses are built two -stories high, the upper story of each opening into the triforium: so that -five additional chapels are gained for the church. Moreover, since the -crypt passes beneath all five apses, another set of five apsidal chapels -is obtained underground; so that, without taking into account chapels -otherwise arranged for, Gloucester possesses in the minor apses alone no -less than fifteen chapels. In fact, leaving out of account the central -aisle, Gloucester presbytery is really three churches—an upper, middle, -and lower church. The amount of accommodation gained by this ingenious -planning is immense. - -One wonders that the plan of radiating chapels and practicable triforium -was not adopted more frequently. It occurred at Tewkesbury and at -Leominster; but in the end it was superseded by the eastern transept -thrown across the choir centrally, as at Lincoln, or at its eastern -termination, as at Fountains. In Lincoln choir, St. Hugh’s architect, -hesitating between two opinions, built eastern transepts as well as -return-aisles and apsidal chapels. - -For nearly a century the architectural history is a blank. Early in -the thirteenth century the wooden ceiling of the nave was replaced by -the present quadripartite vault. This involved the demolition of the -Norman clerestory, except the jambs of its outer arches, which may still -be seen, enriched with zigzag. The north chapel of the crypt also was -vaulted, and two windows were inserted in the eastern chapel of the -crypt. About the middle of the century were built the north doorways of -the cloister, and the vaulted passage in its north-east corner; also -part of the west front of the nave was reconstructed. A little later -was built, now moved to the north transept, the reliquary (or perhaps -it is a gateway), one of the most lovely designs of the thirteenth -century, worthy to be put in comparison with the Beverley staircase and -the western porches of Ely and St. Albans. Of the time of Henry III. is -the oak effigy of Robert Courthose, Duke of Normandy, eldest son of the -Conqueror (_d._ 1135), which lies on a wheeled chest of the fifteenth -century, and was formerly placed in the centre of the choir. On the -whole, there was not much to show at Gloucester, with the exception of -the nave-vault, for the long period 1150 to 1318. - -But about the latter year the Norman south aisle of the nave had got -into a very dangerous condition. The north aisle was safe, its wall -being propped up by the cloister roof. But the vault of the south aisle -had thrust the wall eleven inches out of the perpendicular. To save -the vault, Abbot Thokey built on to the Norman pilasters the present -beautiful buttresses. But the new buttresses also swung over four -inches, and the Norman vaulting had to be taken out; the aisle received -a new vault, and its eastern bays were enriched with ball-flower. The -beautiful windows are of late Geometrical character, and are smothered -in ball-flower. The profuse employment of ball-flower is quite a -characteristic of the fourteenth-century Gothic of the West country; -it is equally remarkable in the grand windows of Leominster, and at -Ledbury and Hereford. “A horizontal line drawn just below the spring of -the arch of each window at Gloucester cuts through thirty-two bands of -ball-flower.” There are no less than 1400 ball-flowers in each window. - -[Illustration: RELIQUARY.] - -In 1327 Abbot Thokey made the fortune of Gloucester abbey. On September -21st Edward II. had been murdered at Berkeley castle. Bristol, Kingswood, -and Malmesbury monasteries were appealed to, but none dared receive his -body for interment, fearing the anger of the Queen and her party. Abbot -Thokey brought the body to Gloucester in his own carriage, and caused it -to be solemnly buried in the presbytery. Soon miracles were wrought at -the tomb, pilgrimages set in, immense sums were contributed in offerings; -Gloucester, like Hereford, had got a saint, and, like Hereford, used the -vast income that accrued—enough, it is said, to have erected a brand-new -cathedral—in improvements in their abbey-church. The tomb of the murdered -king, erected by his son, Edward III., still exists, and the leaden -coffin below, in which, when opened in 1855, the body was found “in a -wonderful state of preservation.” (We wonder what would be said if our -antiquaries exhumed the bodies of George III. and Archbishop Benson, -and stole their rings and vestments to put them in a show-case in the -vestry.) On one side of the monument, facing the aisle, is the bracket -on which offerings were laid; above is one of the loveliest Curvilinear -canopies in existence, but much restored. To the same period belong -various windows inserted in the aisles and chapels and triforium of the -presbytery. - -The monks, no doubt, with the rich revenues now at their disposal, would -have liked to rebuild the presbytery _de novo_. But it was crowded every -day and all day with the pilgrims from whom the money came. They had -therefore to confine themselves to such improvements as could be effected -without interfering with the flow of pilgrims and of cash. The first -thing needful was to provide more light: above all, in the presbytery, -where the centre of attraction was; and in the crossing, where their -daily services were held. Secondly, the church had suffered severely -from fire in 1088, 1102, 1122, 1179, and 1190. The nave had already been -safeguarded against fire by vaulting; it was desirable to extend the -same protection to the transepts and presbytery by covering these also -with stone vaults. Thirdly, if the money held out, it might be spent in -prettinesses. - -[Illustration: TRANSEPT.] - -First, there was the lighting problem. Abbot Thokey had done a good deal -in improving the lighting of the south aisle of the nave, and the aisles -and chapels and triforium of the presbytery. Abbot Wygmore commenced -operations in the south transept. The north transept was in daily use, -as the cloister was on the north side of the nave, and the monks passed -through the north transept to their daily services in the crossing. The -improvements in the presbytery were postponed for a time, so as not to -interfere with the pilgrims. In six years, before 1337, Wygmore is -recorded by Froucester (who was himself Abbot from 1381 to 1412) to have -cased, lighted and vaulted the south transept. - -If Froucester is correct—and his evidence is almost that of a -contemporary—we have in the south transept of Gloucester one of the -greatest puzzles in the history of mediæval architecture. The whole of -this work in the south transept is in the Perpendicular style—early -Perpendicular, but still Perpendicular in principle. Yet we have to -believe that it is contemporaneous with the utterly different Curvilinear -work that was being done everywhere else in England; that it was -contemporaneous with the Curvilinear monument of Edward II. in Gloucester -itself; with the Percy shrine at Beverley, with the Lady chapel, octagon, -and choir of Ely. It seems incredible. But Gloucester presbytery was -not taken in hand till after the south transept, and it was finished -not later than 1350, if that be the true date of the glass of the great -east window. No other Perpendicular work occurs in the kingdom till that -of Edingdon church (1352-1361), and the work done by Bishop Edingdon in -the western part of Winchester nave. So that, if we accept Froucester’s -statement, we have to believe that while the rest of the world was -executing Curvilinear designs, the Gloucester masons, not later than -1330, had worked out the Perpendicular style. - -We have to believe, also, that though this style ultimately became -universally popular in England, overspread the whole country, and -maintained its hold on English architecture for three centuries, at the -outset it smouldered at Gloucester, unnoticed, unappreciated by anybody, -till Edingdon took it up twenty years later in rebuilding the church -of his native village. All the other improvements in mediæval building -were caught up instantaneously—passing from one end of the kingdom to -the other with the rapidity of the fashion of a Paris bonnet or mantle. -England hesitated long before it could consent to exchange the richness -of Curvilinear for the baldness of Perpendicular design. However, the -new design of Gloucester, blazoned abroad everywhere as it was by -admiring pilgrims, showed the capacities of the new style. It was seen to -be sound and strong from a building point of view—and cheap. That turned -the scale. Perpendicular came in with a rush. So, - - “Si parva licet componere magnis,” - -the Royal and Ancient game of golf smouldered on for centuries at -Blackheath, till the psychological moment came, and it passed on to -Westward Ho, and then swept like wildfire over all England. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -The first question the monks had to decide was that of lighting. Their -answer was a momentous one. They decided to get additional light by -raising the walls of transept and presbytery, and inserting immense -clerestory windows. The nave was internally 67½ feet high. To get a -big clerestory, they raised the south transept and presbytery to the -height of 86 feet. Similar tall clerestory windows were being built, -but in the Curvilinear style, in the choirs of Lichfield and Wells. But -as yet clerestory windows were, as a rule, rather small; and some big -churches of the Curvilinear period, such as Grantham and Patrington, -had no clerestory at all. For what was to be the glory of the closing -days of English Gothic architecture—the Lantern type of church—we must -give the credit to the masons of Gloucester. And also for the new type -of window. The new big window, occupying the whole breadth and nearly -the whole height of the end wall of the south transept, had to be -strengthened by cross-bars or transoms; and the tracery of the head -had to be strengthened by the substitution of vertical straight lines, -as far as possible, for curves. Here, then, we have the genesis of the -Perpendicular or Rectilinear window. - -Then there was the question of the vault. If we can believe Abbot -Froucester, so early as 1337 the monks put over the south transept -not only one of the earliest lierne vaults in the kingdom, but one so -accurately worked that the junctions of the ribs did not require to be -masked by bosses: they mortised the ribs together with as much precision -as if they were dealing with joints in cabinet work. And over the choir -and under the tower they put up the most amazingly complicated lierne -vault that was ever constructed: this, too, not later than 1351. - -Thirdly, they appear to have intended to separate the presbytery from -its aisles by the usual stone screens—designed to correspond with the -tracery of the clerestory windows. This would have left an ugly cavernous -arch—that of the eleventh-century triforium—in each bay, between the -screen below and the clerestory above. The pattern of the tracery of the -clerestory window had been repeated once in the screen below: what more -natural than to repeat it a second time in the shape of a screen set in -front of the open arch of the triforium? It remained merely to join up -the mullions of all three—lower screen, triforium screen, and clerestory -window—and the three members were welded together into one composition; -harmony and unity reigned from pavement to vault. Here again we have at -Gloucester not only the commencement, but the full development of what -became the leading principle in later English Gothic—the desire to impose -unity on the elevations of their churches by repeats of window tracery. -It is but a short step from Gloucester choir to St. George’s, Windsor. -The only improvement that was made on the design of the Gloucester choir -was that in the next century, when fan-vaulting came into vogue, this -also was covered all over with the patterns of the window tracery. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -One question still remained unsolved: how to treat the east end of the -church. At Norwich, where the Gloucester precedent was largely followed -a century later, the apse and ambulatory and chevet of chapels were all -retained—with most beautiful effect. At Gloucester—unfortunately, as -it seems to me—they pulled down the apse; and on the wall of the three -eastern bays of the ambulatory they erected three gigantic windows, so -welded together as to compose one window. And, to bring the whole into -view, they made the new easternmost bays of the presbytery, which had now -to be built, wider to the east than the west. Thus they got one of the -biggest windows in the world, and one of the ugliest. However, no one -looks at the tracery of the window, but at the painted glass which it -still retains. This glass is decidedly Perpendicular in character, but -the armorial bearings in it show that it was completed before 1350. All -the characteristics of late Gothic glass are there. Thus the canopies and -the figures alike are silvery white, and yellow stain is introduced here -and there. The drawing, however, is shockingly bad; and the colour is got -in a very artless way by inserting backgrounds of vertical stripes of red -and blue. - -At the same time—between 1337 and 1377—the monks were provided with new -choir-stalls. But while stone-work and glass alike are Perpendicular -in character, the stalls have bowing ogee canopies, and are quite -Curvilinear. - -Next the north transept was remodelled (1368-1373). It is very much like -its brother, but is eight feet higher, and the vault has bosses. - -The next work was the rebuilding of the cloister. This was built between -1351 and 1412. It is covered with a fan-vault, supposed to be the -earliest example of the kind. But the supports look as if designed for a -lierne vault. It is possible, therefore, that the earliest fan-vaults are -those of two monuments in the neighbouring Abbey-Church of Tewkesbury. -In the south walk are twenty “carols” or “studies” for the monks; in the -north walk a lavatory and a recess for towels. - -Between 1421 and 1437 Abbot Morment was guilty of the west front and the -two western bays of the nave. He intended to rebuild the whole nave, -but could not make up his mind how to do it. The two bays he did build -are quite different in height and span and general design. With his big -west window, and with the insertion of Perpendicular windows in the -north aisle and in the clerestories of the nave, the improvement of the -lighting of the church may be said to have been effectually completed. - -[Illustration: CLOISTER.] - -Instead of going on with Abbot Morment’s rebuilding of the nave, the -monks now turned their attention to the central tower. The tower was of -no use as a lantern, for the lierne vault of the choir had been carried -beneath it. So it long remained unaltered. But in the days of Abbot -Seabrooke (1460-1482) it was rebuilt under the superintendence of a -monk named Sully, to be in character with the new exterior of choir and -transepts. A very imposing tower it is; fully able, from its massiveness -as well as from its height, to gather together the masses of the -building—all the more so because the transepts are so short. It succeeds -where the central towers of Worcester and Hereford fail; in fact, it is -as effective in its way as Salisbury spire. The pinnacles, again, bear -witness to the love of these later artists for harmony and unity: each -pinnacle, with its two ranges of windows, is a repeat of the two stages -of the tower below. - -Then—after the tower had been erected—it was decided to rebuild the Lady -chapel. So an immense detached building was constructed to the east of -the great window of the presbytery; without aisles, but with little -transepts; almost one continuous sheet of glass, and with a superb -vault. This Lady chapel had to be joined up to the presbytery, but the -great east window was in the way. However, the difficulty was got over -by a series of ingenious shifts and dodges, which must be seen to be -appreciated (1457-1499). - -And so ended this great building-period at Gloucester (1330-1499), which -turned the course of English architecture; so that the Curvilinear style -of 1315 to 1360 did not find its natural development in Flamboyant, as on -the Continent, but was switched off to Perpendicular and Tudor design. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Mary and St. Ethelbert, Hereford. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-EAST.] - -Hereford boasts a cathedral which, though one of the smallest, is, both -externally and internally, one of the most picturesque in the country. -To the archæologist and the architectural student, its _mélange_ of -styles makes it a perfect treasure-house of mediæval design: early and -late Norman, Transitional, Lancet, early, middle, and late Geometrical, -Curvilinear, Perpendicular and Tudor work are all well represented in the -structure, to say nothing of the Gothic of Wyatt, Cottingham and Scott. - -Hereford is one of the oldest of all the sees, going back, at any rate, -to the year 601, when St. Augustine had a conference with the Welsh -bishops. It owed its riches and reputation mainly to two saints, King -Ethelbert and Bishop Thomas Cantilupe. In the year 792 the great King -of Mercia, Offa, inveigled Ethelbert, King of East Anglia, to the west -of England, where he was treacherously murdered. “On the night of his -burial, a column of light, brighter than the sun, rose to heaven;” three -days later his ghost appeared and gave directions for the removal of his -body. He was interred at Hereford; and in 825 “a noble church of stone” -was erected over his remains. Of this or any subsequent Anglo-Saxon -cathedral nothing survives. - -I. EARLY NORMAN.—In 1079 the present cathedral was commenced by Robert -de Losinga. Like the founder of Norwich cathedral, he was probably from -Lorraine. He held the see till 1091. It is asserted by Sir Gilbert Scott -that none of his work remains. It seems certain that the east wall of the -south transept, the pier-arcade of the choir, and perhaps the triforium -also, are eleventh-century work. The design of the transept is curiously -artless and archaic. The tall arches of its wall arcade are reminiscences -of many a church in Lombardy; the squat little balustraded triforium is -just what one finds in the eleventh-century transepts of St. Albans and -Chester and Pershore. Proceeding into the choir aisles, probability rises -into certainty. The masonry is of the roughest, and coursed in the most -casual way; the strings and the bases have the rudest caricatures of -mouldings. The piers, too, are just the heavy masses of wall which one -finds at St. Albans and Chichester: it is impossible that these piers and -the light cylinders of the nave can both have been erected in the twelfth -century. What has deceived archæologists is that, though the skeleton of -the choir is of the eleventh century, it was smartened up immensely in -the following century. In fact, it has gone through a similar process to -that which took place in Romsey choir, where the early Norman caps have -been recarved by a late Norman sculptor; only at Hereford the renovation -has been much more drastic. Looking at the east wall of the south -transept, it is impossible to believe that the noble bay of the triforium -above the arch of the aisle is of the same date as the balustraded -triforium to the right. The Norman choir and its aisles originally ended -in three parallel eastern apses, after the fashion of the ninth-century -choir of St. Ambrogio, Milan, with probably a rectangular chapel east -of the central apse, such as is found at Aix-la-Chapelle. From the south -transept projected eastward a rectangular sacristy, with crude, unribbed -vault, which still remains, but was enlarged to the east in the fifteenth -century. - -[Illustration: SOUTH TRANSEPT.] - -II. LATE NORMAN, 1100-1145.—To this period belong the nave and the -renovation of the choir. The capitals of the nave, near which the stalls -of the canons stood, are richly carved, and, like all pre-Gothic carving, -are full of classical survivals, acanthus, honeysuckle, etc. The Norman -work is far richer than that of Ely, Peterborough, Durham, Gloucester or -Tewkesbury; these capitals and those of Southwell nave and Romsey lead -up to the rich transitional capitals of Oxford Cathedral. The design -of the nave, and still more the choir, was probably the most solid and -satisfactory in the country, not even excepting Durham. The triforium -is especially magnificent; a copy of it was executed in the transept -of Romsey. The bays of the choir are separated by broad pilasters, -apparently to carry broad transverse arches. But whether these arches -were intended to carry some form of wooden roof (their spandrils being -built up), or a vault, cannot be determined. - -III. TRANSITIONAL.—Then, _c._ 1186, following the precedent of Romsey, -the three Norman apses were pulled down in order to provide (1) a -processional aisle, of four bays, connecting together the side-aisles -of the Norman choir; (2) a double chapel, a prolongation of the Norman -eastern chapel. The new processional aisle had probably two eastern -chapels, two to the north, two to the south. The processional aisle with -the double chapel was altogether six bays in length, and therefore formed -an eastern transept—one of the earliest eastern transepts in England. The -side walls of the old Norman eastern chapel were pierced with windows, -unglazed, to improve the lighting of the new aisle-chapel on either -side. In the jambs of these windows are shafts with conventional stalky -foliage; while the arch of the window-head is enriched with the Norman -diamond ornament. The vaulting-ribs are enriched with zigzag. The central -piers have, one conventional foliage, the other a scalloped capital. In -the south-east transept there are remains of the doorway, and a plinth -which seems to have supported a pier between the two eastern chapels. -Some five or six years later a similar processional aisle with five -eastern chapels was built at Abbey Dore, where, however, it does not form -an eastern transept. The piers of the processional aisle are so arranged -that two of them are in a line with the centre of the semicircular -arch which led from the choir into the former Norman central apse. The -intention of the builder evidently was to reconstruct the east end of -the choir, or perhaps to rebuild the whole choir, substituting for the -single semicircular arch a pair of pointed arches, as at Exeter. This was -never done, however; and so, quite fortuitously, Hereford gets the most -charming vistas from the choir across to the eastern transept and the -Lady chapel. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -IV. LANCET.—About 1220 the upper and eastern parts of the Lady chapel -were completed. It is a work of great beauty, especially in the rich -clustering of shafts in the window-jambs and in the fine composition -of the east end, with its quintet of lancets. The chapel is curiously -low internally. The builder was an exceptionally cautious person. He -not only provided for the thrusts of the vault by heavy buttresses and -pinnacles, but, to get the thrusts as low down as possible, he made the -vault spring below the window-heads. Moreover, down below he constructed -a lofty crypt, thus raising considerably the floor of the Lady chapel. -Thus encroached on from below and from above, the interior of the Lady -chapel contrasts remarkably with its lofty and imposing exterior. -Externally, moreover, as the window-heads could not rise high, owing to -the low spring of the vault, a large amount of wall-surface was left, -and had to be decorated. This was done in a remarkable way; the arcade -which runs round it being the old-fashioned Norman arcade of intersecting -semicircular arches—probably the last appearance of this design on the -stage. Another puzzle is that the external doorway leading to this crypt -contains Transitional details. Probably the whole of the lower part of -the Lady chapel was built in the Transitional period. The crypt-worship -of the eleventh century had gone out of fashion; and the Hereford crypt, -like that at Norwich, was probably built as a golgotha or charnel-house. - -[Illustration: LADY CHAPEL.] - -V. EARLY GEOMETRICAL.—The history of the cathedral now resolved itself -for the next hundred years into a series of attempts to get rid of the -“dim, religious light,” so dear to the modern, so abhorrent to the -mediæval ecclesiastic. Hereford choir was even worse lighted than Norman -churches generally, being blocked to east and west by transepts, and -having enormously bulky piers. So the Norman clerestory was taken down, -and a Gothic clerestory with an inner arcade—an early and interesting -example of plate-tracery—was substituted. Moreover, the choir was made -fireproof by being vaulted in stone, _c._ 1250. - -VI. MIDDLE GEOMETRICAL.—About 1260 more drastic measures were taken with -the Norman north transept. It was pulled down bodily, and rebuilt on a -design which is perhaps the most original, as it certainly is one of -the most beautiful, in the history of English Gothic architecture. To -the north and west were built enormous windows, with tracery of cusped -circles, quite exceptional in their elongation, more like late German -than English work. On the east side was built an aisle of exquisite -beauty. Its arches, almost straight-sided—its triforium windows, a ring -of cusped circles set under a semicircular arch—its clerestory windows, -spherical triangles enclosing a cusped circular window—the composition of -the triforium—the north and west windows—are quite unique, except so far -as they were copied in later work in the city and neighbourhood. At the -south end of the aisle is the exquisite tomb of Bishop Peter Aquablanca -(_d._ 1268); no doubt built in his lifetime. The tomb is as unique as -the transept, and closely resembles it in design. The inference is that -Bishop Aquablanca built the transept. The credit of it, however, is -constantly given to his successors, apparently on account of his private -vices. But sinners as well as saints have liked to leave memorials behind -them in stone; and, moreover, Aquablanca had his good points. To this day -four thousand loaves are distributed every year out of funds which he -bequeathed. It is recorded, too, that, of a fine which was imposed on the -citizens for encroachments on his episcopal rights, he remitted one half, -and handed over the other for works on the cathedral. Moreover, he was a -foreigner, from Chambery; and has probably received no more favourable -judgment from the English chroniclers than they were wont to give to -foreign favourites of the king who swallowed up the best things in the -English Church. - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT] - -VII. LATE GEOMETRICAL.—Then came a turning-point in the history of -Hereford. The reputation of King Ethelbert as a miracle-worker may well -by this time have worn a little thin. In 1287 Hereford found that it -had obtained a new saint. This was Bishop Thomas Cantilupe, a man of -saintly life, and one of the greatest churchmen of the day. “He was -a pluralist of the first dimension—Chancellor of England and of the -University of Oxford, Provincial Grand Master of the Knights Templars in -England, Canon of York, Archdeacon and Canon of Lichfield and Coventry, -Archdeacon of Stafford, Canon and Bishop of Hereford.” In 1282, with -his chaplain, Swinfield, he visited Rome, and died on the journey home. -Swinfield, following a not uncommon mediæval practice, had the flesh of -the body separated from the bones by boiling. The flesh was buried in -the church of St. Severus, near Orvieto; the heart and bones he conveyed -to England. The heart was interred at Ashridge, the bones in Hereford -cathedral. Five years afterwards miracles commenced: “There were raised -from death to life threescore several persons, one-and-twenty lepers -healed, and three-and-twenty blind and dumb men received their sight and -speech. Twice King Edward I. sent sick falcons to be cured at his tomb.” -In 1320, by the expenditure of vast sums of money, Swinfield procured -his canonisation. Ever since, the see of Hereford has borne the arms of -Cantilupe. He was the last English saint; and, being the newest, was for -a considerable time the most fashionable. The fame of St. Wulfstan of -Worcester and St. Swithin of Winchester paled before that of St. Thomas -of Hereford. Till Gloucester secured in 1327 still fresher relics in the -murdered body of King Edward II., Hereford held the greatest attraction -for pilgrims in all the West-country. For forty years—from 1287 to -1327—the pilgrims resorted to the new shrine in vast numbers. Swinfield’s -foresight was justified by the huge sums which poured into the cathedral -treasury. - -Swinfield succeeded Cantilupe as bishop in 1283, and occupied the see -till 1316. With the vast resources now at his disposal he set about a -series of great works. His first pious act was to construct for his -benefactor and predecessor a noble shrine, the pedestal of which now -stands once more, after many vicissitudes, in the aisle of the north -transept. It is a work of the rarest beauty, executed just at the time -when, tired of conventional foliage, the mediæval carver, with ever fresh -delight, was making the most exquisite transcripts in stone of the leaves -of the trees and the flowers of the field. - -Secondly, he constructed a north porch—the present inner porch—the design -of which is plainly taken from the shrine. - -Thirdly, he rebuilt the central tower on the Norman piers and arches. -To lessen the weight as much as possible it was built in two skins, the -inner skin consisting of a framework of upright stone girders, as in the -towers of Wells and Lincoln. Externally it is smothered in ball-flower. -Originally it carried a tall timber spire; the loss of which greatly -injures the external elevation of the cathedral. - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT AISLE.] - -Fourthly, he went on with the improvement of the lighting of the -cathedral. Beginning probably at the north-east transept, which was -rebuilt, together with its eastern aisle, and working along the choir -and nave to the west end, and then _vice versa_ on the south side of the -cathedral, he took down all but the lower part of the walls of the Norman -aisles, rebuilt the upper part higher, and inserted very large windows. -This lighted the nave, at any rate, very satisfactorily. The design of -these windows is unusual and effective, owing to the largeness of the -trefoils employed in the tracery. - -VIII. CURVILINEAR (1315-1360).—By the time of Swinfield’s death it may -be conjectured that the pilgrim-revenue had begun to fall off; for the -rebuilding of the south-east transept, together with its eastern aisle, -in completion of the reconstructions commenced by Swinfield, was executed -in a cheap and inferior way, even the clumsy Transitional plinth being -retained for the new central column of the transept. The windows have -flowing tracery. - -To the same period belong the stalls and the beautiful chapter-house, now -in ruins. The lead of its roof was cast into bullets in the Civil War; -sacrilegious bishops used its stones as a quarry for their palace. - -There are monuments of Bishop Swinfield (_d._ 1316) and Bishop Charleton -(_d._ 1343). - -It is probable that all this work was done before 1349, when the Black -Death made its appearance at Hereford, and again in 1360. - -IX. PERPENDICULAR (1360-1485).—The lighting improvements were now -completed by the insertion of two huge windows in the south transept, the -southern of which has recently been filled with magnificent glass by Mr. -Kempe. On the north side of the choir Bishop Stanbury (1455-1474) built -for himself a pretty little chantry-chapel, like those at Lincoln. It has -fan-vaulting. - -X. TUDOR.—Bishop Audley (1492-1502) built himself a pentagonal -chantry-chapel, two stories high, projecting from the south side of the -Lady chapel. But, as he was translated to Salisbury, he had the trouble -of building another chantry-chapel there. To this period belong the -Bishop’s cloister—three-sided, as at Chichester—and probably the Vicars’ -cloister, with picturesque timber roof, and a fan-vault over the entrance -to the Vicars’ college. Bishop Booth (1516-1535) built the outer north -porch—an admirable specimen of late Gothic design. - -XI.—In 1786 the western tower collapsed, and Wyatt pulled down the -westernmost bay of the nave and the whole of the triforium and -clerestory, whether damaged or sound, and rebuilt both, together with -the west front, in the Gothic of his day. About 1843 Cottingham did much -work; rebuilding the east end of the Lady chapel and the upper part of -that of the choir, and also securing the central tower. He found that -the Norman piers which support it consisted of a thin ashlar casing, -the interior of which was filled with a rubble core, composed of broken -stones, loam and lime grouting. The ashlar facing and the engaged -columns on the face of the pier, not being well bonded and deeply headed -into the rubble cores, had split and bulged, and the cores, for want of -a proper proportion of lime, had diminished and crushed to pieces. The -gaudy choir-screen and coronal were designed by Sir Gilbert Scott, and -executed by Skidmore of Coventry. - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-WEST] - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Chad and St. Mary, Lichfield. - - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -This is how Lichfield presented itself to Mrs. Van Rensselaer. -“Approaching it from one street or another, we see it suddenly across the -silver stretches of its Pool, and it is hard to determine whether the -shining water at Lichfield or the green lake of turf at Salisbury makes -the lovelier foreground. Standing on the causeway which leads towards the -western entrance of the Close, it is not merely a fine view that we have -before us; it is a picture so perfect that no artist would ask a change -in one detail. Perhaps accident has had more to do than design with the -planting of the trees and shrubs which border the lake, and above which -spring the daring spires. But a landscape-gardener might study this -planting to his profit; and when we see or think of Lichfield from this -point of view, we wish that the tall poplar may be as long-lived as the -tree Yggdrasil—so pretty a measure does it give of the loftiness of the -spires, so exquisite is the completing accent which it brings into the -scene. If we come from the south-east, we cross another causeway, on -either side of which the lake spreads out widely; and we see not only -the spires, but the apse and the long stretch of the southern side. -Enormously long it looks—longer almost, owing to its peculiar lowness, -than those cathedrals which are actually greater. To the north of the -church the ground rises quickly into a broad, terrace-like walk flanked -by rows of large and ancient, yet graceful lindens; and beyond the -trees, behind low walls and verdurous gardens, lies a range of canons’ -dwellings. And in any and every aspect, but more especially when foliage -comes near it, Lichfield’s colour assists its other beauties. Red stone -is warm and mellow in itself; and Lichfield is red with a beautiful soft -ruddiness that could hardly be matched by any sandstone of any land.” - -The ancient kingdom of Mercia was converted to Christianity, like the -rest of England north of the Thames, by missionaries of the Irish Church -from Lindisfarne, _c._ 653; and the first two Mercian bishops were -Irishmen. Of the early bishops, by far the most famous was St. Chad -(669-672). St. Chad, or Ceadda, was a good and saintly man. He is first -heard of as Abbot of Lastingham, a sequestered abbey hidden away in a -fold of the Cleveland moors. Then Abbot Chad became Bishop of York; -and he set to work on a visitation of his vast, wild diocese—not in a -carriage and pair, but on foot. Plainly these early bishops were what -we should now call Missionary Bishops, such as that Missionary of the -South Seas who lies in Lichfield’s Lady chapel, his face irradiated -by the southern light. Archbishop Chad visited town and country, -village and hamlet, cottage and castle; and preached everywhere. It was -another Progress of St. Paul. But in 669 the famous Greek Archbishop of -Canterbury, Theodore, pronounced his consecration faulty, and deposed him -from York. Soon afterwards, however, finding him a saintly man and an -excellent preacher, he appointed him to the bishopric of Mercia, to the -see of Lichfield. What was York’s loss was Lichfield’s gain. At Lichfield -he lived, tradition says, in a cell with his missioners, at the upper end -of the Pool, where now stands St. Chad’s Church. It behoves all who come -to Lichfield to visit St. Chad’s Church and to drink the water of St. -Chad’s Well—water which still retains somewhat of efficacy and repute, -for a line of pipes has been laid from the Stowe Pool to Burton, and an -immense volume of Lichfield’s hallowed water is annually converted into -beer. Two years and a half only Bishop Chad had left of life; but that -was enough for him to win the reverence of his own and many successive -generations. Beautiful stories are told of him by Bede. One of the eight -monks who lived with him declared that he one day heard a joyful melody -of some persons sweetly singing, which descended from heaven into the -Bishop’s oratory, and filled the same for about half an hour, and then -rose again to heaven; and that on the seventh day thereafter, having -received the Body and Blood of our Lord, he departed unto Bliss, to which -he was invited by the happy soul of his brother, St. Cedd, and a company -of angels with heavenly music. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Thus the diocese of Lichfield preserves the memory of the by-gone kingdom -of Mercia; and its cathedral is largely built of the offerings at St. -Chad’s shrine. How big the ancient diocese was is seen from the fact that -the present dioceses of Hereford and Worcester, as well as the suppressed -ones of Sidnacester, Lindsey, and Leicester, were all carved out of it -by Archbishop Theodore, the great organiser of the early English Church, -A.D. 673. For a time even greater honour came to Lichfield. From 755 to -794 a great and mighty king reigned in Mercia: this was Offa. In one -direction he defeated Kent; in the other he drove back the Welsh. It -was Offa who settled once for all the Welsh frontier: Shrewsbury became -an English town. Offa’s Dyke, which still exists, from the mouth of the -Wye to the mouth of the Dee, became the effectual bulwark of England to -the West. A king so mighty disdained to owe allegiance to an archbishop -of defeated Kentishmen, and got from the Pope of the day an archbishop -of his own, to be head-bishop of all Mercia and East Anglia. But Offa -died, and the pope died; and this was the first and only archbishop that -Lichfield ever had. Lichfield was never so important again. Indeed, she -had a narrow escape of losing her bishop altogether, just after the -Norman conquest. The new Norman prelates did not feel safe, and probably -were not safe, in open towns amidst an alien and disaffected population. -The Bishop of Dorchester set up his pastoral staff under the shadow of -the new Norman castle at Lincoln; Exeter castle attracted the Bishop of -Crediton; in similar fashion the Norman Bishop of Lichfield transferred -himself to Chester, where also was a castle of strength. The next -bishop migrated again—this time to Coventry, which possessed a famous -monastery, founded by famous people, Earl Leofric and Lady Godiva, the -church whereof was so wealthy that “its walls were all too strait for -the treasures that were therein.” Finally the bishops returned once more -to Lichfield, retaining, however, their hold on Coventry; and till the -Reformation they styled themselves “Bishops of Lichfield and Coventry.” -Lichfield, however, was and is a cathedral of the old foundation; it had -no monks, but secular canons. It may well be imagined, therefore, that -there was not much peace and good will between the canons of Lichfield -and the monks of Coventry. They quarrelled scandalously; above all -when they had to meet for joint election of a bishop. There was even a -desperate free fight in Coventry cathedral in 1190, when Bishop Hugh -ejected the monks. The holy bishop himself was wounded at the altar. - -In the thirteenth century there must have been a series of great building -bishops; but little is known of them. Bishop Langton, however, was a very -great personage, Keeper of the Great Seal, Treasurer of England, and -executor to Edward I. He built a new episcopal palace at Lichfield, and -other castles and manor-houses elsewhere, also a magnificent new shrine -for the relics of St. Chad; and he surrounded the cathedral with a wall -and foss, thus making of it a moated fortress, such as one sees to this -day at Wells. Robert Stretton (1360-1385) had the distinction of not -being able to read. Then we pass on to the great Civil War, when Bishop -Langton’s fortifications proved a heritage of woe. Being fortified, and -being Loyalist, Lichfield Cathedral was besieged by the Parliamentary -forces under Lord Brooke, who prayed aloud that God would by some special -token manifest unto them His approbation. The special token came on St. -Chad’s Day, March 2nd, and is commemorated by a tablet on a house in -Dam Street, which the visitor should look for: “March 2nd, 1643.—Lord -Brooke, a general of the Parliament forces, preparing to besiege the -Close of Lichfield, then garrisoned for King Charles the First, received -his death-wound on the spot beneath this inscription, by a shot in the -forehead, from Mr. Dyott,” a deaf and dumb man, “who had placed himself -on the battlements of the great steeple to _annoy_ the besiegers.” It -may interest some to know that the distance of the shot was 185 yards 1 -foot 3 inches. In the end the garrison was starved out. Six weeks later -Lichfield Close was recaptured by Prince Rupert. In 1646 it was retaken -by the Parliamentarians. In the first siege the Parliamentary cannon -brought down the central tower and most of the vault of the choir. This -was not all. The Puritans smashed the stained windows, battered down -the statues, stripped the lead from the roof and the brasses from the -tombs, burned the registers, and broke up the bells and organs. They -are said to have each day hunted a cat down the aisles, and to have -draped a calf and given it a mock baptism at the font. “I confess,” -says an apologist for her Puritan ancestors, “there were moments in my -English journey when I hated the Puritan with a godly hatred, and wished -that he had never shown his surly face to the world: a rude destroyer -of things ancient, and therefore to be respected; a vandal devastator -of things rare and beautiful, and too precious ever to be replaced; a -brutal scoffer, drinking at the altar, firing his musket at the figure of -Christ, parading in priest’s vestments through the market-place, stabling -his horses in the house of God.” Then came the Restoration, and with the -Restoration Bishop Hacket, best of good bishops. The very next morning -after his arrival he set his coach horses to work at clearing away the -ruins of the fallen spire and roof. For nine years he gave himself -and his substance to the work; his contributions in money amounted to -£10,000; the King gave “one hundred fair timber trees”; the prebendaries -and canons subscribed half their income; every town, every village in -the diocese aided the good work; the central tower was re-erected; most -of the clerestory of the choir was rebuilt; his last task was to put in -a peal of bells. “He went out of his bedchamber to hear it, and blessed -God who had favoured him with life to hear it, but that it was his own -passing-bell; whereupon he retired to his chamber and never left it -till he was carried to his grave.” Next to St. Chad, one likes to think -of good Bishop Hacket in connexion with Lichfield. In 1788 James Wyatt -arrived, but did less mischief than at Salisbury, Hereford and Durham. -Even more terrible vandals followed Wyatt, with a mania for Roman cement, -in which beautiful material they reconstructed the statuary of the west -front. All this is now swept away, and this fairest of façades is seen in -its pristine beauty. - -At Lichfield there was as usual a Norman cathedral; and as usual the -authorities set to work to improve it. Elsewhere the improvements were -of a very conservative character. At Lichfield and at Wells they were -drastic: the Norman cathedral was improved by being swept off the face -of the earth, not a scrap of it being left above ground. Beginning at -the east end, it was pulled down and rebuilt, the work occupying a -century. The most astounding thing about Lichfield is that when the -new thirteenth-century cathedral was finished, they set to work once -more at rebuilding, and in the first half of the fourteenth century -reconstructed the whole of the eastern limb of the cathedral. But though -for convenience we divide the work into two great periods, that of the -thirteenth and that of the fourteenth century, and each of these into -shorter building-periods, it is not to be understood that there were any -breaks or cessations in the works: the cathedral was never out of the -builders’ hands from 1190 to 1350. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -I. First, the Norman choir, of three bays with apse and ambulatory, was -pulled down, a broader and longer rectangular choir taking its place. The -outer wall of the new choir was built outside that of the old one, so -that the latter probably was retained in use for some time, as in Selby -choir, while the new works were going on around it. This is borne out by -the fact that, contrary to custom, the new work was not commenced at -the east, but at the west, for the detail is earlier to the west than -to the east. The date 1200 is usually assigned to it. But the entrance -arch of the north choir aisle has the Norman diamond pattern; the square -alternates with the rounded abacus; the piers are heavy, the arches low, -the mouldings large and vigorous, and the foliated capitals at the east -end of both aisles are so archaic in character that it seems decidedly -to have been commenced in the latter years of the Transitional period, -_c._ 1080: it compares with the work at Wells, Chichester Lady chapel, -Boxgrove Priory, St. Thomas’, Portsmouth, and Abbey Dore. Of this work -only the piers and arches of the three western bays, and the sacristy and -treasury, survive. - -II. Some twenty or thirty years later the south transept was commenced, -and a little later the north transept. The builders of the choir had -planned it for an aisleless transept. When, therefore, the transepts were -built with eastern aisles, the easternmost windows of the choir aisles -looked into the transept aisles, and no longer into the open air. As the -transepts have no triforium above their aisles, we may conjecture that -neither had the choir. - -III. About the same date as the north transept, a chapter-house and -vestibule were built on the north side of the choir, as at Beverley, -Lincoln, and York. This had not been contemplated by the builders of the -choir; consequently the doorway of the vestibule had to be placed where -before was a Lancet window. The vestibule is a bold and vigorous piece -of design, with a good vault and a remarkable range of thirteen arcaded -seats on its western side. The chapter-house is unique in plan, being an -octagon with two long and six short sides: this plan was transplanted to -the Lady chapel of Wells. The doorway has bold tooth-ornament; the wall -is surrounded by a trefoiled arcade. There is much beautiful glass by -Kempe. - -IV. About 1250, soon after Westminster choir, the nave was commenced. -Its remarkable clerestory windows—spherical triangles enclosing cusped -circles—occur in the Westminster triforium, and, rather later, in the -clerestory of Hereford north transept. The spherical triangles fit -perfectly into the wall-arches of the vaulting, and, as Mr. Fergusson -says, “give a stability and propriety to the whole arrangement which has -never been surpassed.” The result, however, is to diminish the height of -the clerestory, with the inevitable result that the aspiringness that -one expects in an Early Gothic elevation is lost; the nave, instead of -looking taller, looks lower than it really is. As at Westminster and -Beverley, the ground-story occupies one-half of the total height; but -in these the triforium occupies about one-sixth only, the clerestory -one-third. At Lichfield the triforium and clerestory occupy each -one-fourth. Mr. Fergusson makes the striking suggestion that the defect -might have been remedied to some extent by glazing the triforium, as -in Amiens choir, thus practically bringing the clerestory down to the -pier-arches. The vault, too, is most satisfactory—not simple to bareness, -like that of Amiens and so many French cathedrals, nor over-elaborated, -like those of Winchester and Norwich. The whole design, indeed, of -the nave is one of the loveliest in Christendom. It derives great -impressiveness, too, from the fact that the vault ranges the whole length -of the cathedral in almost undiminished height; and from the fact that -the church is not cut up, as at Canterbury, into two distinct buildings. -Indeed, small as the cathedral is, the vista from west to east is one -of the longest of all the English cathedrals. And its termination in -the beautiful polygon of the Lady chapel, so unusual to English eyes, -and so beautiful, glimmering in the distance “like some great casket of -jewels at the end of the long dusk perspective,” makes an impression -never forgotten. By this one remembers the interior of Lichfield, as its -exterior by that glorious triple coronal of spires. Nave, transept, and -choir are all of the same length. The same scheme of proportions was -adopted a little later at York. The axis of the choir is not in a line -with that of the nave, but swings to the north five feet. - -V. Next the west front was built, _c._ 1275, except the central gable -and the spires. It is a sort of open-air reredos; but marks a great -improvement in design on those of Lincoln, Wells, and Salisbury. - -[Illustration: LADY CHAPEL.] - -VI. Then at the very end of the Geometrical period the Lady chapel was -built; at first detached from the east end of the choir, so as not -to interfere with the services. Being exceedingly lofty and without -aisles, it was possible to have exceptionally lofty windows of the type -of those of the north transept of Hereford. These elongated windows, -the absence of aisles, and the polygonal plan, give the exterior a -curiously German appearance. The window tracery is Geometrical, being -composed of groups of trefoils. But the ogee-dripstones of the windows -show that the work overlaps into the Curvilinear period; indeed, it was -not finished at Bishop Langton’s death in 1321. Under the three eastern -windows are chapels, the central of which contains the monument of Bishop -Selwyn, of New Zealand and Lichfield. But the glory of the Lady chapel -and the cathedral is the magnificent painted glass of the sixteenth -century—similar in character to the beautiful glass of Margaret of -Austria’s church at Brou-en-Bresse, Burgundy. The first window on each -side was inserted recently. The remaining seven windows are also Flemish -glass, of the date 1530 to 1540, bought by Sir Brooke Boothby, in 1803, -from the Cistercian nunnery of Herckenrode, near Liége, for £200. The -second window on the north is particularly interesting, as it contains -portraits of patrons and benefactors of Herckenrode, kneeling at altars, -with their patron saints behind them. The third window also has portraits -of great nobles of the Netherlands. The remaining five windows contain -Scriptural subjects. - -VII. The next step, _c._ 1325, was to build another bay to the choir, -thus joining it up to the Lady chapel. In this bay was placed a new -shrine of St. Chad. But even this was not enough for the canons. They -were seized with the mania for floods of light and acres of stained glass -which raged like an epidemic through the fourteenth and fifteenth and -sixteenth centuries. They pulled down all the choir except the piers -and arches of the three westernmost bays—they would have removed these -also but for fear of bringing down the central tower—built new piers and -arches in the eastern bays, and a new clerestory along the whole length -of the choir with huge windows of flowing tracery, two only of which are -left. At the same time they replaced all the lancets of the aisles by big -Curvilinear windows. The jambs of the clerestory windows they enriched -with bands of quatrefoils; one of the windows of the south aisle of the -choir, opposite to which the tomb of Bishop Langton formerly stood, and -beneath which good Bishop Hacket’s tomb is now placed, has big crumpled -leaves running up the jambs. The junction of the early Lancet piers -and capitals with those of the fourteenth century is well seen in the -vaulting and in the third pier from the central tower. Between the bays -were placed statued niches, as in the contemporary church of St. Mary’s, -Beverley, from which rose the vaulting-shaft. The whole design should be -compared with the presbyteries of Wells and Chester, which were in course -of “restoration” at the same time and in the same ruthless fashion. In -the choir aisles is a delightful arcade of bowing ogee arches. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -About the same time, or a little later, were built the central gable of -the west front and the south-western spire. - -VIII. PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.—The equipment of the presbytery was -completed, _c._ 1390, by the erection of a magnificent altar-screen after -the fashion of those at Winchester and St. Albans. Six of its canopies -are used up in the present sedilia. The northern spire also was copied -from the southern one. More big windows were inserted in the transepts -and the west end of the nave. The latter has been replaced by a modern -geometrical window; that of the north transept by a fine quintet of -lancets, largely composed of fragments of the original thirteenth-century -window. Finally, the whole cathedral was rendered fireproof by the -erection of vaults under both transepts and the central tower. The south -transept, however, would seem to have had a vault before—but it may have -been of wood—for a little lower than the Perpendicular abacus of the -vaulting-shaft is one of the thirteenth century. To this period belongs -the gallery of St. Chad’s chapel. - -IX. In the two sieges the clerestory and aisle windows and the vault -of the choir suffered greatly, and the central spire was destroyed. -The latter was rebuilt under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren; -and Perpendicular windows replaced those which had been injured here -and in the Lady chapel. So that the choir now is a curious hybrid: the -most eastern bay is Curvilinear from top to bottom; the next bays -are Curvilinear with Perpendicular tracery in the clerestory windows; -the three westernmost bays are Transitional or early Lancet below, -Curvilinear above, but with Perpendicular tracery in the windows. The -present vault of the choir is chiefly of lath and plaster, by Wyatt. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Lincoln. - - “Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth.” - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-EAST.] - -The cathedrals of Lincoln, York, and Southwell were ever served by -secular canons and not by monks; but each cathedral has been styled a -minster from time immemorial, as if it were or had been a monastic church -(_monasterium_). - -I. The history of the cathedral only commences in 1074, when the first -Norman bishop, Remi or Remigius, made Lincoln the seat of the see instead -of Dorchester on the Thames. As Canon Venables puts it: “He refused the -tabernacle of Birinus, and chose not the tribe of the South Angles; but -chose the tribe of Lindsey, even the hill of Lindum which he loved; and -there he built his temple on high, and laid the foundation of it like the -ground which hath been established for ever.” The blank wall which forms -the centre of the west front is Remi’s work. So are the Ionic capitals, -square-edged arches, and wide-jointed masonry in the ground story of the -south-west tower, _c._ 1075. The curious apsidal recesses in the west -front may be paralleled in the façades of many of the early Romanesque -churches of Lombardy. - -[Illustration: WESTERN DOORWAY.] - -II. LATE NORMAN.—This archaic façade was improved _c._ 1140 by the -insertion of a more ornamental central doorway, and by the arcade, high -up, of intersecting semicircular arches. Also curious plaques, in rather -high relief, were stuck along the wall, as at St. Michael, Pavia. They -are not in chronological sequence, and so may have been transferred from -some other church. Moreover, two low western towers were carried up, with -rich and beautiful gables; of which those to the north and south survive. -The south-western tower should be ascended to see Remi’s eleventh-century -work, the twelfth-century gables, the “elastic beam,” and especially the -superb view of the interior of nave, choir, and presbytery. The font, -too, like that of Winchester, probably belongs to this period. - -III. TRANSITIONAL.—The north and south doorways of the west front, -clumsily restored, were probably inserted _c._ 1150. Their capitals are -reminiscences of Byzantine design. They may be compared with the large -capitals of St. Hugh’s choir and Canterbury choir. - -[Illustration: ST. HUGH’S CHOIR.] - -IV. In 1190 a Carthusian monk, Hugh of Avalon, near Grenoble, became -bishop. Like Fitz-Jocelyn of Wells, and like the Lichfield builders, he -determined not to try to improve the Norman cathedral, but to sweep -it away and build an entirely new one. The Wells and Lichfield people -succeeded in getting rid altogether of the older building; but Remi’s -successors had to leave a considerable amount of Norman work in the -western façade and towers. Bishop Hugh commenced work in 1192: first -building probably his central apse and eastern transept, and then the -walls of his choir, before taking down the short Norman aisleless choir -of two bays, outside which in all probability, as at Lichfield, the new -walls were erected. It will be noticed that the foliated capitals of -the aisle-walls of the choir are earlier in character than those of the -pier-arcade. Then he pulled down the old choir, erected the pier-arcade, -triforium, and clerestory of the new one, and built the south-east corner -of the north transept and the north-east corner of the south transept, -where it will be seen that his double arcade along the aisle-wall -abruptly ceases. The whole of this work (1192-1200) is very advanced -for its date, and is full of originality and eccentricity; the work of -an architect (Geoffrey de Noyers) who was more of an artist than an -engineer. Externally the design is one characterised by great elegance of -proportions. It is remarkable, too, to find the windows grouped at this -early date, even in the clerestory. The intermediate buttresses of the -aisles are later additions, to resist the thrusts of the quinquepartite -vault of the aisles. Internally, it is disappointing. Its proportions -are bad, owing to the exceptional lowness of the vault; the vault itself -is contorted and ugly; the trefoils and quatrefoils are of all shapes -and sizes; the obtuse pier-arches are out of harmony with the acute -Lancet windows. Unfortunately, also, the effect of all the piers, except -the third piers from the west, has been injured by cutting away the -vaulting-shafts, which formerly descended to the floor, but which were -stopped by corbels when the stalls were erected. - -The north-east transept is quite exceptional. Its northern bay forms -an internal tower, formerly divided into stories by wooden floors. The -lowest story may have been designed as a return-aisle for processions, -as at Winchester, if the triforiums also had floors—there are none now. -The upper stories were described in 1641 as “watching chambers”; used, -no doubt, by those who remained all night in the cathedral to watch the -shrines and treasures, and to guard against fire. It is quite possible -that these towers—there was originally a similar tower in the south -transept—were intended to be carried up externally; in which case Lincoln -would have had a glorious coronal of five towers. - -The westward march of the twin towers of the mediæval cathedrals is -curious. In the tenth-century churches, such as S. Ambrogio, Milan, and -the later cathedral of S. Abbondio, Como, they flanked the choir; so they -did at Canterbury, and in the twelfth-century choir of York; so they may -have been meant to do at Lincoln. At Exeter they have marched on, and -there occupy the ends of the transepts. Finally, they become the twin -western towers which form such a characteristic feature of the façades of -the mediæval churches of Northern Europe, but not of Lombardy. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-WEST.] - -On the west side of the north-east transept is a unique example of -a cathedral dispensary, with triangular recesses in the walls for -the drugs. Afterwards a floor was inserted dimway; and to light the -darkened lower chambers, windows were cut through the west wall. The -shutters of these windows are original, as also the ironwork of the -dispensary doorway. The choir ended to the east in a remarkable fashion -in a three-sided aisled apse with radiating chapels. This may be due -to Hugh’s foreign extraction, or it may be regarded as the legitimate -development of such east ends as Gloucester and Tewkesbury. The apsidal -termination is shown by incised lines in the pavement of the retro-choir -and the south choir aisle. Across the openings of the eastern transepts -beams were left from pier to pier, because the fosse of the Roman wall -here crossed the choir. The whole choir is full of freaks; the apsidal -termination of the choir, the double apses of the eastern transepts, the -transeptal towers, the ribbing of the vault, the extraordinary crocketed -piers at the entrance of the eastern transepts, the fluted hexagonal -shafts, and in the clerestory the miniature arcades and pigeon-holes. -The whole design has been claimed as French by M. Corroyer, but M. -Viollet-le-Duc’s opinion is decisive on that point: “it is English in -its method of construction, in its mouldings, in its ornament, and in -execution.” But though English, it is going too far to call it “pure -and undefiled Gothic.” The semicircular apses of the eastern transepts -are not Gothic; and in Romanesque fashion, the triforium is spanned by -transverse stone arches, regardless of the fact that the work they were -supposed to do was done in reality by flying-buttresses outside. - -[Illustration: ST. HUGH’S ARCADE.] - -V. The works were probably suspended but for a short time by the death -of St. Hugh. He had planned, if not commenced, the apses of the eastern -transepts, and left directions that he was to be buried in the north apse -of the north-east transept—the chapel of St. John the Baptist. Probably -work would be resumed at this point first. This chapel has a curious -history. Soon afterwards pilgrims came in crowds to St. Hugh’s tomb, and -a larger oblong chapel was built in place of the apse, to accommodate -them. In later days this fell into ruin, and in 1769 Essex rebuilt the -chapel in its original apsidal form. The work is contemporary with that -of the great transept, which also has a string continuing the abaci. -After the apsidal chapels were completed there followed the completion -of the great transept, the erection of a central tower, and of so much -of the western part of the nave as was necessary to give abutment to the -tower on the west. It will be noticed that the arcading at the east end -of the north aisle of the nave belongs to this period. All this may well -have been designed by Geoffrey de Noyers, for the tower was badly built -and collapsed in 1239; the west wall of the transept is full of blunders, -and the vault of the north transept cuts off the head of the circular -window, the Dean’s Eye. But externally the design of this north end is -superb. The vaulting, as in the eastern transepts, is sexpartite, with -the addition of a new longitudinal rib, which wobbles up and down in a -distressing manner. The vault is copied—wobbling included—in Southwell -choir. Magnificent contemporary glass remains in the Dean’s Eye and the -lancets below it. - -VI. The next work was the completion of the first five eastern bays of -the nave. Whoever the architect was, or the architects—for there may have -been two of them, the arcading of the aisles and the height of the bases -differing widely on the north and south sides of the nave—it was not -Geoffrey de Noyers, but some one who was both a good artist and a good -engineer—so good an engineer that in the interior he sacrificed art to -engineering. The piers he set as far apart as possible, and made them as -thin as possible; but they are beautifully built, and rest on foundations -which are continuous underground from pier to pier. These obtuse arches, -however, and attenuated piers are most unsatisfactory to the eye. The -nave is practically an improved version of the choir—improved in the -vaulting, the buttresses and pinnacles, and in height. To the vault he -added intermediate ribs—an early example of their use. The northern -exterior of the nave, with its knife-edge buttresses and tall gablets -and strong base-courses, is one of the best designs in all Gothic; it is -of almost Greek severity. The height of the nave he raised from 74 to 82 -feet. A Frenchman would have given a nave so broad (42 feet) a height of -120 feet. However, he was thinking—as all the Lincoln architects were -always thinking—of how it would look outside, how it would affect the -sky-line of the cathedral to have a nave far higher than the choir. Never -was an English cathedral built so much for external effect as Lincoln; in -every part of it the exterior is finer than the interior. - -[Illustration: SOUTH TRANSEPT.] - -VII. From 1235 to 1253 the see was occupied by a man of the highest -vigour and ability—Bishop Grosstête—who signalised his rule by many great -works. Luckily St. Hugh had been canonised in 1220, and money, no doubt, -flowed in abundantly from the pilgrims. But in 1239 the central tower -fell. It seems to have fallen to the south-east, and to have damaged -seriously the adjacent parts of the transept and choir, and in particular -the south side of the choir and the south-east transept. Everything else -had to be laid aside to get the mischief repaired. The repairs seem to -have been executed with the greatest haste and carelessness. The new -mouldings on the western side of the westernmost arches of the choir -did not fit the old, and a ring of stone was worked to hide the awkward -junction. Every arch in the south triforium is out of centre, and the -trefoils and quatrefoils are cut most clumsily. In the end bays of the -triforium of the choir and transept the central stalks “were replaced by -ugly moulded blocks resembling nothing so much as a pound of candles.” -The reconstructed arches may be recognised by having hood-moulds. The -canons wanted to get back into their choir as soon as possible, and may -well have regarded the whole affair as merely a makeshift till the nave -should be finished, and they could transfer their services to it, and -then pull down and rebuild St. Hugh’s choir more stably and in greater -height. In the south-east transept the inner wall of the tower was taken -down, and the upper part of the end wall was rebuilt. This work was done -more carefully, there being no need to hurry over it, as it did not -interfere with the use of the choir. - -[Illustration: ANGEL TRIFORIUM.] - -The canons could now resume their work in the nave. But their resources -had been heavily taxed by the unexpected demands made on them by the fall -of the central tower. They took counsel, unfortunately, with economy. The -original design had been, probably, to make the nave very much longer -than it is now, and then to build a brand-new west front, as at Wells and -Lichfield. The nave needs much greater length, being of the exceptional -breadth of forty-two feet. Now it was decided not to sweep away, but to -utilise the Norman west front and western towers as far as possible, and -to curtail the nave accordingly. Unfortunately, the new cathedral had not -been built at right angles to the Norman façade. The axis, therefore, of -the remaining bays of the nave had to deviate so as to strike the façade -as centrally as possible. Moreover, the western vault of the nave was too -lofty for the façade, so it was suddenly dropped two feet at the end of -the five eastern bays; and the distance between the completed bays and -the façade being insufficient for two arches of the span of the eastern -ones, the two western bays had to be built narrower than the rest. A -different vault, too, was built in the aisles of these two bays. - -All this is regrettable; but though Lincoln minster is shorter than it -should be, its vast spaces, dimly lighted with scanty beams filtering -through narrow lancets, are wonderfully impressive; the distances, yet -further enhanced by the interposition of organ and screen, seem really -infinite. It is not, like Ely, a study in contrasts, but in harmonies. -The design of the nave leads without a break to that of the transepts; -the design of the transepts to that of the choir; the design of the -choir, aided by the rich stalls and screens, to the splendour of the -presbytery, where the light breaks forth at length to irradiate the -loveliness of moulding and foliage and sculptured imagery. - -Though the length of the nave was now curtailed in the altered design, -some compensation was found in throwing out a flanking chapel on either -side of the two westernmost bays. The position of these chapels may be -founded on those of Ely; it was repeated by Wren in St. Paul’s. In all -three cathedrals it gives a noble air of spaciousness on entering by the -western doors. The vault of the northern chapel is supported, as if it -were a chapter-house, by a beautiful central pier. This pier consists -of eight shafts of Purbeck marble, very acutely pointed, once so highly -polished, like the rest of the Purbeck shafts, says a mediæval versifier, -that they positively dazzled the eyes. - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-WEST.] - -Then came the west front. We may not like it; but given the -conditions—the retention of an enormous oblong area of Norman wall with -two Norman towers behind—it is not easy to see how anything better could -have been done. Its vast height and breadth are astonishingly impressive -from the little narrow courtyard which coops it in. - -To the same bishop, Grosstête, are to be attributed the beautiful Galilee -porch, attached to the south transept as a state-entrance for the bishop -from his palace over the way; the sacristy; and the chapter-house—the -first polygonal chapter-house after that of Abbey Dore. “The strong -flying-buttresses, like colossal arms stretched out to bear up the huge -fabric,” were added later. - -VIII. The cathedral was now completed from east to west. But the canons -had at once to start again. St. John the Baptist’s chapel, though -enlarged, was all too small for the pilgrims who crowded to Lincoln, -attracted by the miracles wrought at St. Hugh’s shrine. The apse of his -choir was therefore pulled down, and in its stead was built an eastern -presbytery of five bays (1256-1280). This is the famous Angel choir, -really the memorial chapel and tomb-house of St. Hugh. His shrine was -solemnly translated to it in 1280. A little too crowded with ornament, it -is yet the most lovely work of the age—one of the masterpieces of English -Gothic. To the same period, probably, belong the superb arches inserted -at the west end of the choir aisles with the idea of buttressing the -eastern piers of the new tower; also the north, south and east screens of -the choir, parts of which are old, the rest built by Essex in 1769. - -IX. About 1290 were built the Easter Sepulchre and so-called tomb of -Remigius, on the north side of the choir, with naturalistic foliage of -oak, fig, and vine. Here the consecrated Host was watched from Maundy -Thursday to Easter Sunday. Still finer Easter sepulchres may be seen at -Hawton and Heckington. The upper stage of the central tower was erected -in 1307. The tower is 271 feet high; and anxious, as usual, for external -effect, the canons actually added a timber spire, raising it to the vast -height of 525 feet, a height which exceeds even that of the new spires -of Cologne cathedral. The effective cut battlements are by Essex. The -tower is not built solid, but, to save weight, is “constructed of two -thin walls, tied at intervals, with a vacuum between them” (cf. Hereford -and Wells). It is gathered in 2½ inches near the top, so as not to look -top-heavy. The remains of the shrine of Little St. Hugh (in the south -choir aisle) seem to be _c._ 1310. In the cloisters, built _c._ 1296, is -a great curiosity—an incised slab with a portrait of a Gothic architect, -Richard of Gainsborough, the builder of the Angel choir. A replica has -been made of it. - -X. CURVILINEAR.—In 1320 died good Bishop Dalderby. He was worshipped as -a saint, though Rome refused his canonisation. His remains were placed -in a silver shrine on the west side of the south transept: some of the -pedestals of it may be seen there still. Miracles were wrought at his -shrine; and from the offerings the gable of this transept was in all -probability reconstructed, including the “Bishop’s Eye,” which is as -strong constructionally as it is beautiful. The lovely pierced parapet of -this transept should be noticed, and the fine window in the gable. The -parapet was carried westward all along the south side of the nave and -across the west front; and handsome pinnacles were erected, with niches -once peopled with statues. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -Now also was erected the choir-screen, of charming design, very similar -to that of the west side of Southwell screen. - -A little later are the screen of the choir boys’ vestry in the south -choir aisle, diapered with lilies; and in the north-east of the Angel -choir, St. Catharine’s shrine, and the Burghersh monuments. The period -closes with the charming ogee doorways and arcading at the west end of -the nave. - -XI. The PERPENDICULAR period commences with the choir-stalls, so much -eulogised by Pugin; and, but little later, the miserable statues of -English kings over the west door, and the west windows of the nave and -its aisles. The western towers were also raised to their present height, -and all three towers were vaulted. All this work belongs to the last -forty years of the fourteenth century. - -The west front now consists of an oblong area of Early Norman work, which -is decorated above by a Late Norman arcade of semicircular intersecting -arches, and midway by a row of Late Norman sculptured plaques, and by the -Perpendicular niches with the kings: the windows are also Perpendicular; -but the central doorway is Late Norman and the side doorways -Transitional. The central arch of the Early Norman work has been replaced -by a pointed one; and the whole of the Early Norman work is surrounded -by Lancet work, which in turn is crested with a Curvilinear parapet. -The lower stages of the towers are Late Norman; the upper stages Early -Perpendicular. The west front has been constantly censured for hiding the -western towers, “like prisoners looking over the bars of their cage.” -But any one who has seen the western towers of St. Stephen’s, Caen, will -recognise that, but for the west front, the Lincoln towers would look -top-heavy. - -[Illustration: FROM THE SOUTH.] - -XII. To the fifteenth century belong the battlemented parapet of the -Galilee porch; Bishop Fleming’s chantry; the screens of the chapels in -the north and south transept; and Bishop Russell’s chantry. - -XIII. In TUDOR days was built Bishop Longland’s chantry (1521-1547), the -niches of which have Renaissance detail. The three chantries are so low -that they do not interfere with the main lines of the cathedral; and, -being low, give scale to it. - -XIV. The date of the brass Eagle is 1667. In 1674 Wren built the Library -in the Cloister. The brass chandelier is of 1698. The supporting arches -of the western towers were inserted in 1727. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Paul, London. - - -[Illustration: FROM THE SOUTH.] - -From Lincoln and Lichfield to St. Paul’s, the transition is vast and -abrupt. It is a transition from the archaic, mediæval, feudal world to -modern England. Mediæval religion, mediæval art is dead—killed by the -printed book. Mediæval architecture also succumbs before the printed -book. The master-masons of the old cathedrals, whose very names for the -most part are unknown, give place to architects of European fame—men who -read books, write books, and work to book. The mediæval architect was a -builder and nothing else. The Renaissance architect was first of all a -scholar, and secondly an artist; and only incidentally an architect. He -learnt the art of architectural design, not in the builder’s yard, but -by preference at the goldsmith’s bench. From jewellery he turned with -equal facility to painting and sculpture, to civil engineering or to the -art of fortification, to water-colours, to stage mechanism, to landscape -gardening, to poetry, politics or diplomacy. Among the men of this -versatile genius Christopher Wren holds a worthy place. He proceeded to -Oxford at the early age of fourteen; and obtained a fellowship at All -Souls’. Physical science and astronomy were his first love. At the age -of twenty-five “he was known in scientific circles all over Europe,” -and was Professor of Astronomy. He wrote on comets, and gnomonicks, and -diplographic pens. In his twenty-ninth year he was honoured with the -degrees of D.C.L. and LL.D. at Oxford and Cambridge. He helped to found -the Royal Society, and was twice its President. He was even a Member of -the House of Commons in two Parliaments. In his thirty-first year he -turned his attention to architecture—attracted, no doubt, largely by -the physical and mathematical problems involved. Two years later he set -out to the Continent to see for himself the great works of the Revival -of Classical Architecture. Unfortunately he went no farther than Paris: -those masterpieces of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi’s dome at Florence, -Michael Angelo’s dome at Rome, he was fated never to see. For the rest -of a life unusually prolonged he was to be occupied in imitating models -which he had never seen. The result is perhaps not to be regretted. He -left behind him not the close copy of Italian Renaissance work which -we might have had, under more favourable circumstances, from Inigo -Jones, but an English Renaissance style of marked individuality and -originality, and therefore of great interest. He had to think out all his -problems—problems of construction and problems of planning—for himself. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -Wren, like his employers, the citizens of the City of London was a sound -Protestant; and when he was commissioned to rebuild St. Paul’s after -the Great Fire, his intention was to give London a Protestant cathedral. -He was less concerned to provide processional aisles and altared chapels -than a vast unencumbered central area for preaching. The new cathedral -was to be a gigantic preaching-house. To provide the vast central area -demanded, the narrow crossing beneath the central tower of a Gothic -cathedral was abandoned. Instead of a central tower he resolved to employ -a dome—the only form of roof which would cover so vast a span. One -mediæval cathedral in England, and one only, had such a crossing. It was -the superb cathedral of Ely, where Wren’s uncle was Bishop. But it was -no doubt of St. Peter’s, Rome, that Wren was thinking, rather than of -Ely. Just as St. Peter’s, Rome, had been built to rival and surpass the -Florence Duomo, so Wren designed that his own new cathedral should be an -improvement on St. Peter’s, Rome. In the supports of his dome he chose to -follow the unhappy precedents of Florence and Ely rather than the nobler -type of St. Peter’s and Santa Sophia; he blocked up his central area with -eight piers, instead of poising his dome on four supports, as in the -metropolitan cathedrals of the East and West. - -[Illustration: AS FIRST PROJECTED.] - -In Wren’s favourite design, as shown in the model still preserved in -the cathedral, the dome was to be abutted to the west by an aisleless -vestibule or nave, itself crowned by a minor dome; while to the north, -east, and south, it was intended to give it the support of a surrounding -ring of domical chapels, opening into the central area by a series of -fairy-like vistas and ever-changing contrasts of light and shadow. But -the Anglican clergy rose in revolt at the position assigned to them -in the cathedral—a position contrary to any precedent of the Anglican -Church; and refused to sit in a ring all round the central area beneath -the dome. On the other hand, the Court party, almost openly expecting, -and with good reason, the restoration of the old religion, wanted an -aisled nave with room for the pageantry of processions and with provision -of chapels for the saint-worship soon to be restored. Romanisers and -Anglicans alike united to condemn a plan which failed to provide for the -ritualistic needs of either. Wren had to start again; and London had to -put up with a Renaissance cathedral which in plan is as mediæval as that -of Ely, with aisled nave, aisled choir, aisled transepts, and even with -a western transept, as again at Ely. St. Paul’s then, is primarily, an -aisled (_i.e._ a basilican) church, with, incidentally, a dome thrown -in. And therein lies the fault of the design. Internally, the church -predominates over the dome. Unless you stand beneath or almost beneath -the dome, you can hardly see that a dome is there at all. Narrow nave, -narrower aisles, the multiplied obstructive masses of the various piers, -hide the dome away from view. Rightly designed, a great central dome -ought to be all in all; everything should lead up to it; everything -should be suppressed that does not lend it strength or grace. Its thrusts -are great, and cannot be resisted by the piers of aisles, unless the -piers are positive mountains of masonry; aisles, then, should be omitted. -The dome should rest on four arches, and their thrusts should be resisted -by the solid walls of the unaisled nave and choir and the two transepts. -And these four great limbs of the church should be kept short, to give -the dome full value. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Again, just as the central dome dictates the plan of the church, so it -should dictate the form of the vaulted roof. There were three types -of vault at Wren’s disposal. One was the intersecting vault, a second -the domical vault, a third the waggon or tunnel vault. The first is -altogether out of harmony with a central dome, though Wren has employed -it in some of his City churches. What he adopted was the second: he -vaulted the nave with a row of four domes, the choir with a row of three. -Thus, it might be thought, with seven domes leading up to a central dome, -Wren had secured harmony and success. It is not so. Nothing can be more -distressing to the eye than to follow the up and down line of the little -domes till it suddenly plunges into the central abyss. The only tolerable -form of vault in connection with a central dome is the tunnel vault, as -it is employed in St. Peter’s, Rome; or, still better, in S. Annunziata, -Genoa. Such a tunnel vault, however, should start direct from the -cornice, and not, as at St. Paul’s, from a meaningless attic interposed -between cornice and vault. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -As it stands, in the internal elevation of the cathedral Wren has given -us a hybrid design. It reminds one of Gothic, for there is a travesty of -a clerestory; it is Classic, for beneath is a gigantic Order. Wren has -hesitated between two opinions. He might have given us a three-storied -interior—pier-arcade, triforium and clerestory—of course with Classical -detail, as is done with charming effect in the noble cathedral at Pavia; -or a one-storied interior, as at St. Peter’s. As his patrons insisted on -having aisles, he might well have adopted the former alternative, and -have presented us with what might have been very beautiful—a Classical -triforium. If he wanted the majesty of the single gigantic Order of St. -Peter’s, he should have omitted the attic, run up the Order twenty feet -higher, and lighted the nave by lunettes cut through a tunnel vault. As -it is, the miserable attic is of no value in itself, and at the same -time diminishes the importance of the pier arcade. However, as we have -seen, Wren is not responsible at all for the plan, and only partially -for the proportions of the interior of St. Paul’s. He has not given us -of his best, because the world of his day would not have it. Most of -the defects that one laments are absent from his earlier and favourite -design: _e.g._, the ugly subsidiary arches under the oblique arches of -the octagon of the dome, and the bad lighting of the dome itself. - -[Illustration: LOOKING WEST.] - -Externally everything is different. No ritual, Anglican or other, -interfered. Wren had free play: all his success and any faults are his -own. What it fails to do internally the great dome does externally -with colossal success: it dominates everything—not only the church, -but London. Every part of the vast building gathers up into the -all-compelling unity of the central dome. Inside, St. Paul’s is all -church; outside, it is all dome. Into this exterior has grown in concrete -embodiment all Wren’s aspirations: his aspirations for grandeur, -massiveness, and power; for monumental stability, for unity, for harmony, -for symmetry and proportion, for beauty of curve and line. St. Paul’s -has none of the airy lightness of Salisbury and Lincoln; it possesses in -compensation the rock-hewn solidity and majesty of Durham. In Lincoln and -Salisbury, and in Exeter and York, the windows are counted by hundreds; -along the flanks of St. Paul’s windows are few and far apart, and they -are confined to the aisles; the great screen-wall above rises sheer like -a precipice, almost unbroken by an opening. Simple and grand, too, is -the handling of the masses. At the re-entering angles of the transepts -square masses project to form a stable platform for the mighty dome; -towers project to the flanks of the western bays of the nave, giving -breadth and dignity to the main façade. Otherwise the design is symmetry -itself. Everything is in the “grand manner.” Perhaps the side-elevation -is a little monotonous, and the western chapels block off the towers at -their spring, but they were forced on Wren against his better judgment: -internally the nave gains greatly; externally they are a mistake. One -would perhaps have liked also that the screen-wall of the side aisles of -the choir and transepts, instead of ending square, should have circled -round in one vast majestic sweep, in harmony with the curving dome above, -after the fashion of the fine cathedral of Como. The flatness, moreover, -of the side-elevations gives but little room for play of light and shade. -There are none of the pits of darkness that lurk between the buttresses -and transepts of Beverley or Lincoln. Only in the recessed west front and -behind the colonnade of the dome the shadows brood. Nature, however, or -rather London smoke, has given St. Paul’s a chiaroscuro of its own—not to -be washed off, as has been foolishly proposed, by Vandal fire-engines. -Where the rain lashes the building, especially its angles and -projections, the good Portland stone is white and clean; where sheltered -by projecting cornices it is black as Erebus. - -[Illustration: FLYING-BUTTRESSES AND SCREEN-WALL.] - -Externally, it is a building of two stories. Wren designed it originally -for one story, but was unable to get big enough blocks of stone to carry -a single gigantic Order, as at St. Peter’s, up to the cornice; for which -we may be thankful. The façade also is composed of two Orders of columns, -and they are necessarily comparatively small columns. But all appearance -of weakness is admirably removed by arranging them in couples; indeed, -one would be sorry to have instead of this noble design Wren’s own -one-story façade as shown in his model,—still more to have that of Inigo -Jones. - -The harmony, too, of the noble design is delightful. The two stories -of the columns of the façade become two stories of pilasters on the -flanks of the nave; at the ends of the transepts they sweep round into -lovely semicircular colonnades; colonnades form the central stages of -the western steeples; the drum of the dome is encircled by a superb -colonnade; the dome itself culminates in a colonnaded lantern. See, -too, how the lantern, domical above and colonnaded below, sums up the -composition of the dome beneath; and how the western steeples prepare -the eye for the transition from the rectilinear colonnades of the great -façade to the swelling curve of the dome,—itself reproduced in the north -and south circular porches and in the apsidal choir. St. Paul’s is “a -house at one with itself.” - -It is true that the dead wall from aisle windows to cornice is perhaps -the “most unmitigated building sham upon the face of the earth.” -It has absolutely nothing to do at all except to hide away some -flying-buttresses—the very ugliest eye ever saw—which Sir Christopher -might well be reluctant to expose to the jeers of the man in the street. -It is true, too, that there is built up in this dead wall enough good -stone to construct half a dozen parish churches. It has been urged that -it was built to weight the foot of each flying-buttress after the manner -of a Gothic pinnacle. But not even a Gothic baby would have provided -continuous abutment for intermittent thrusts. The dead wall may perhaps -be defended on artistic, but certainly not on constructional grounds. - -[Illustration: INNER DOME, CONE, AND OUTER DOME.] - -In the dome, Wren had three conflicting ideals to realise: (1) to make -the dome so lofty that it should be visible externally from base to -summit; (2) to make it so low internally that it should range with the -vaulting of nave, choir, and transepts; (3) to finish it with a stone -lantern as lofty and heavy as an ordinary church spire. At St. Peter’s -the dome externally squats down so low that from most directions one must -walk a mile away to get a complete view of it; the internal dome is so -lofty as to be invisible from most parts of the church; the lantern is -much smaller and lighter than is required by so mighty a dome; and is in -a condition of very unstable equilibrium, badly supported, cracked, and -tied together in all directions. All these difficulties Wren triumphantly -disposed of; nevertheless, for his triumph he has received little but -censure and abuse. He made two domes; and brought the inner dome, which -is of brick (see diagram), far lower than the outer one—though not low -enough. Secondly, he mounted the outer dome, which is of wood covered -with lead, on a lofty colonnaded drum, visible of all men even from the -narrow street below. Thirdly, between the two domes (see diagram) he -built a cone of brick, and on this cone he poised the lantern—which is -as heavy as an ordinary church-spire—in perfect security. If the outer -dome were removed—_e.g._, if it were burnt, as it may some day, being of -wood—the lantern would still stand perfectly safe on its conical support. -In the dome of St. Paul’s Wren’s engineering capacities culminate. But -it is more than a piece of engineering. No tower, no spire, no group of -towers or spires, impresses itself on the imagination like the dome of -St. Paul’s. Lincoln and Salisbury, Lichfield and Durham, retire before -the claims of this overwhelming younger pile, - - “whose sky-like dome - Hath typified by reach of daring art - Infinity’s embrace.” - - - - -The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Norwich. - - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -The ancient kingdom of East Anglia was converted to Christianity by a -Burgundian monk, Felix, who became the first bishop of East Anglia—the -diocese, as usual, being coextensive with the kingdom—and fixed his see -at Dunwich in 630. The see was subdivided by the Archbishop Theodore, the -great organiser of the English Church, in 669. It was again reunited, -and the cathedral was at Elmham, till the bishop migrated in 1070 to -Thetford, and in 1094 to Norwich. - -The present cathedral was commenced in 1096 by Herbert de Losinga, who -is usually described as a Lorrainer. He is recorded to have finished the -whole cathedral before his death in 1119 as far as the altar of the Holy -Cross, which would stand in front of the choir-screen. His successor -finished the nave and west front, and carried up the central tower -(1121-1145). The plan is that of Gloucester and Leominster; the rudiments -of it appear in the ancient church at Bethlehem and in St. Sepulchre at -Jerusalem. There was an enormously long aisled nave of fourteen bays, -aisleless transepts of three bays, an aisled presbytery of five bays, -a semicircular apse, a processional aisle or ambulatory encircling the -apse, and three segmental chapels radiating from the ambulatory; also -eastern apses to the transepts. All this remains, except the easternmost -apsidal chapel, which was replaced in the thirteenth century by an oblong -Lady chapel, itself pulled down in the sixteenth century; and the apse -of the south transept, which was replaced by an oblong chapel in the -thirteenth century. - -The history of Norwich cathedral, therefore, differs _toto cœlo_ from -that of every other English cathedral, except that of Gloucester. With -the exception that both Gloucester and Norwich ultimately increased the -dimensions of their eastern Lady chapels, no eastward extensions of any -moment took place. This was not because the Norfolk people were more -conservative than other people, or, in a remote corner of England, were -behind the times; but because the plan of the Norwich cathedral was -convenient for mediæval ritual, and the plan of the other cathedrals was -not. Other cathedrals had to build a processional aisle at the back of -the High Altar; at Norwich it was there already. Other cathedrals had -to throw out eastern transepts to provide chapels for the great saints -of the Church, St. James, St. John, St. Peter and the rest; Norwich -cathedral from the first had five apsidal chapels. Other cathedrals had -a local saint of the first water, and had to build a special saint’s -chapel or feretory for his shrine: Canterbury for St. Thomas, Chester -for St. Werburgh, Durham for St. Cuthbert, Ely for St. Audrey, Hereford -for St. Ethelbert, Lichfield for St. Chad, Lincoln for St. Hugh, Oxford -for St. Frideswide, Rochester for St. William, St. Albans for St. Alban, -Winchester for St. Swithin, Worcester for St. Wolfstan. Norwich had no -local saint of any great repute, except a poor little boy who was alleged -to have been crucified by the Jews. Nor, again, did sacerdotalism much -affect the growth of Norwich cathedral. The nave was so vast that, even -when the monks had appropriated five bays of it for their ritual choir, -as they did at first, there still remained nine bays for processions, and -for the laity to worship at the nave-altar of the Holy Cross. There was -no need to crowd the stalls into the eastern limb of the church as the -Canterbury monks had to do because of the shortness of their Norman nave. -It is true that, later on, the Norwich monks moved eastward a little, -placing their sixty stalls under the tower and in the two easternmost -bays of the nave, where they are at present; but this was probably done -merely to get better light, partly from the lantern-tower above, partly -from the enlarged windows of the transepts. The original position of the -choir is marked by the cylindrical piers, the fifth from the tower; by -a hole in the vault, inside a boss, from which hung down a light or a -censer; and by the corbelling of the eastern vaulting-shafts to leave -room for the stalls. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -With these exceptions, the history of the cathedral mainly reduces itself -to three sets of building operations: first, repairs necessitated by fire -or storm; secondly, attempts to improve the lighting of the building; -and, thirdly, to make it fireproof. - -Taking these works in the above order, we first have to note the -mischief done by fire and storm. In 1297 the tower seems to have had -a wooden spire. This was blown down in 1361; and, falling eastward, -damaged the clerestory of the Norman presbytery. Both the spire and -clerestory had to be rebuilt; and in rebuilding the clerestory the monks -took the opportunity to remedy what was the gravest defect in all the -Norman cathedrals—viz., their extreme darkness. Now, it happened that, -only some ten years before, the magnificent clerestory of Gloucester -presbytery had been built; and the report of the brilliant illumination -and gorgeous glass of this grand work was bruited, no doubt, all over -England by pilgrims returning from the shrine of the murdered Edward -II. at Gloucester. Therefore, just as at Gloucester, they determined -to raise the new presbytery higher than the nave—they raised it ten -feet—and to make the clerestory practically a continuous sheet of glass. -In one thing, fortunately, they did not copy Gloucester, as Edington did -in Winchester nave—which is of the same date as the Norwich work—they -did not think it necessary to discard altogether the beautiful flowing -tracery of the Curvilinear period; and so here, as in many Norfolk -churches, we find inserted, side by side, at the same time, Curvilinear -and Perpendicular windows. Another charming feature of Curvilinear work -was the ogee niche, such as those of the arcade of Ely Lady chapel. -These niches, too, were utilised at Norwich cleverly and beautifully, -being used instead of corbels to support the ribs of the roof. This -fourteenth-century roof seems to have been one of wood. - -But, earlier than this, a determined attempt had been made to get rid -of the darkness of the nave by inserting (1315-1360) a range of windows -with flowing tracery all along the north aisle of the nave. In the -Perpendicular period (1360-1485) the monks took the same course as at -Ely: they raised the triforium walls, closed the external windows of -the triforium, flattened the roof of the triforium, and thus managed -to get in a range of tall windows, each of four lights, in the hope -that the light from them might find its way into the nave across the -triforium; and that the more easily as the openings of the inner arcade -of the triforium were not obstructed by central shafts. The result is -extraordinary, as seen from the garth. The south side of the cathedral, -instead of the usual three or four stories, seems six stories high. -First there are the openings of the cloister; then the upper story of -the cloister; then the blind arcade of the triforium; then the Norman -triforium windows; then the Perpendicular ditto; then the Norman -clerestory. - -[Illustration: CENTRAL TOWER.] - -Even this was insufficient. The eastern bays of the nave, where the -stalls were placed, and where, most of all, light was needed, were the -darkest of all, being obstructed by the stalls and by the cloister -roof. So in the exterior of the two easternmost bays of the nave the -Perpendicular triforium windows and the Norman clerestory windows were -thrown into one, to give as much light as possible to the stalls below. -For the same reason large Perpendicular windows were inserted in the -transepts. Several of these, however, have recently been replaced by -Norman windows: “genuine Perpendicular by sham Norman.” In the middle -of the south aisle of the nave Bishop Nix (1501-1536) built himself a -gorgeous chantry, to light which he inserted two large windows, high -up so as to clear the cloister roof. Large square-headed windows were -inserted in the triforium of the presbytery also; and an enormous -Perpendicular window was inserted in the west front, still further to -light the nave. These measures were fairly successful in nave and -transept; but, fortunately for us, less successful than in the presbytery. - -[Illustration: SOUTH-EAST APSE.] - -Now we come to the measures taken to make the building fireproof. -These took the form of costly stone vaults, and they seem to have been -undertaken by the monks most reluctantly. All the high vaults are the -direct outcome of some great fire, and but for the fire they would not -have been undertaken. There were conflagrations in 1170 and 1271, and in -the fearful riots of 1272 the cathedral was set on fire by the citizens. -Still, when the presbytery was repaired in 1362, it seems to have been -roofed again in wood. In 1463 the wooden spire was struck by lightning, -and set fire to the roofs both of nave and presbytery. At last the -monks had to bestir themselves. To secure the spire against fire they -rebuilt it in stone instead of wood; and, to make the nave and presbytery -fireproof, they made up their minds to vault both in stone. Between 1463 -and 1472 Bishop Lyhart put up over the nave the present magnificent -lierne vault, and at his death bequeathed two thousand marks to his -successor to continue the work. Bishop Goldwell vaulted the presbytery -between 1472 and 1499. It seems to have been very difficult to get the -funds for this costly work. Bishop Goldwell, however, was a personal -friend of the Pope, who had consecrated him with his own hands; and he -had not much difficulty in persuading the Pope to grant a perpetual -indulgence in the terms that “all who came to the cathedral on Trinity -Sunday and Lady Day, and made an offering towards the fabric, should be -entitled to an indulgence of twelve years and forty days.” The transepts -had still wooden roofs. It required another fire—in 1509—in which these -roofs were consumed, to compel the monks to complete the vaulting of the -cathedral. This was done in the time of Bishop Nix. At the end of four -hundred years Norwich cathedral was at length fireproof. - -And did they do nothing merely for prettiness’ sake? Well, here, as -at Gloucester, they set to work to do what was quite unnecessary—to -harmonise the Norman ground-story of the presbytery with the clerestory -of 1631. By one of those marvellous pieces of engineering, of which -the mediæval architects were so fond—we saw a conspicuous example at -Carlisle—while retaining the Norman triforium and the Perpendicular -clerestory above, they managed to remodel the Norman piers on either -side of the presbytery, and to take out the semicircular arches bodily -and replace them by the fashionable arch of the period—a depressed -four-centered arch. This was done by Bishop Goldwell—no doubt before he -put up the vault above (_c._ 1475). - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -The only other great work was the rebuilding of the cloisters, also -forced on the monks by a great fire—that of 1272. This work was executed -exceedingly slowly, the window tracery ranging from Geometrical, through -Curvilinear, to Perpendicular work. - -One word more about the superb interior. It is hardly too much to -say that the interior of this cathedral—but second-rate in point of -dimensions—is unequalled in all England. One reason is that it is vaulted -throughout. Ely, Peterborough St. Albans, Rochester, Romsey, Waltham, -Southwell—with their paltry wooden ceilings—are not to be compared for a -moment with Norwich. Gloucester and Chichester naves are vaulted, but the -vaults are too slight and flimsy for the stern and massive work below. -Durham vault is strong and satisfactory. But the lierne vault of Norwich -is a far more glorious crown and finish than the rude work of Durham. It -might be thought that the richness and magnificence of the lierne vault -of Norwich would be out of harmony with the simplicity and heaviness -of Norman piers and triforium and clerestory. It is not so. A tower, -like that of Magdalen College, Oxford, may be ever so plain below, and -yet terminate fitly with a glorious coronal of battlements, parapet and -pinnacles. So it is with this interior. - -Its rivals are to be found in Winchester and Tewkesbury. But at -Winchester the vaults of nave and presbytery are cut in two by the -unvaulted transept. Norwich and Tewkesbury are vaulted everywhere—from -east to west and from north to south. And in both, the vaults being -uniform in character, and not changing character half-way as at -Gloucester, weld together the spreading limbs of the church into a -marvellous unity. - -But there is another fine feature about the interior of Norwich, as in -that of Gloucester: it is the striking contrast of light and shade, of -shadowy nave and brilliant choir. Hereford presents us with the reverse -effect—bright nave and gloomy choir. Both effects are dramatic; both, -doubtless, are unintentional. If they had known how, or could have -afforded it, the Hereford people would have flooded their choir with -sunshine, Norwich and Gloucester their naves. The mediæval builders -wanted none of these dramatic contrasts of light and shade; they were -always working to get rid of the dim religious light that nowadays we -venerate; they would have liked their churches lighted thoroughly well -throughout. What they wanted was the light, uniformly good, of Lichfield -and Exeter: or Salisbury, bright and gay as a ball-room. - -[Illustration: APSE OF CHOIR.] - -But the most subtle and most important element in the beauty of the -interior of Norwich is to be found in its proportions. The nave is of -an immense length, but it is very narrow. York, Canterbury, Lincoln, -Durham, all have naves far too short for their breadth. And what is -more important still is the ratio of the height of Norwich nave to its -span. In most English cathedrals it is 2 to 1; but in Norwich nave the -ratio rises to 2⁴⁄₇, and in the presbytery it is 3 to 1. In Norwich -presbytery, then, we have just those proportions which we find in the -great Gothic cathedrals of France, but in England hardly anywhere except -in Westminster Abbey. People admire Norwich presbytery and Westminster -presbytery for the same reason, and, no doubt, in most cases, without -knowing what the reason is. - -One thing more remains to be said in praise of Norwich, as of Gloucester. -It is that all the glory of the church is concentrated at one spot, and -that the most important spot in the church. It is in approaching the -high altar that vaults and clerestory soar aloft, that loveliest vistas -open out into ambulatory and chapels, while the noble windows above fill -all with light and atmosphere. “I would back it,” says Dean Goulburn, -“against any similar effect in almost any cathedral in Christendom.” - - - - -The Cathedral Church of Christ, Oxford. - - -[Illustration: FROM THE FIELDS.] - -“About the year of our Lord 727, there lived in Oxford a Saxon prince -named Didan, who had an only child, Frideswide (‘bond of peace’). Seeing -that he had large possessions and inheritances, and that she was likely -to enjoy most of them after his decease, Frideswide told her father -that he could not do better than bestow them upon some religious fabric -where she and her spiritual sisters might spend their days in prayers -and in singing psalms and hymns to God. Wherefore the good old man built -a church, and committed it wholly to the use of his daughter, purposely -to exercise her devotion therein; and other edifices adjoining to the -church, to serve as lodging-rooms for Frideswide and twelve virgins of -noble extraction. There she became famous for her piety and for those -excellent parts that nature had endowed her withal; and Algar, King -of Leicester, became her adorer by way of marriage. Finding that he -could not prevail with her by all the entreaties and gifts imaginable, -he departed home, but sent to her ambassadors with this special -and sovereign caution, that if she did not concede, to watch their -opportunity and carry her away by force. Frideswide was inexorable. -Wherefore at the dawning of the day the ambassadors clambered the fences -of the house, and by degrees approaching her private lodging, promised to -themselves nothing but surety of their prize. But she, awakening suddenly -and discovering them, and finding it vain to make an escape, being so -closely besieged, fervently prayed to the Almighty that He would preserve -her from the violence of those wicked persons, and that He would show -some special token of revenge upon them for this their bold attempt. -Wherefore the ambassadors were miraculously struck blind, and like madmen -ran headlong yelling about the city. But Algar was filled with rage, and -intended for Oxford, breathing out nothing but fire and sword. Which -thing being told to Frideswide in a dream, with her sisters the nuns -Katherine and Cicely, she fled to the riverside, where there awaited -her a young man with a beautiful countenance and clothed in white, who, -mitigating their fear with pleasant speech, rowed them up the river to -a wood ten miles distant. There the nuns sheltered in a hut, which ivy -and other sprouts quickly overgrew, hiding them from sight of man. Three -years Frideswide lived in Benton wood, when she came back to Binsey and -afterwards to Oxford, in which place this maiden, having gained the -triumph of her virginity, worked many miracles; and when her days were -over and her Spouse called her, she there died.” Such is the account of -her which Anthony-a-Wood drew from William of Malmesbury and Prior Philip -of Oxford, both of whom unfortunately lived long after the events which -they narrate. - -I. In the east walls of the north choir-aisle and the Lady chapel three -small rude arches have recently been found, and outside, in the gardens, -the foundations of the walls of three apses. Hence it has been concluded -that we have here the eastern termination of Frideswide’s eighth-century -church. It may be so, but the central arch seems very small for the -chancel-arch of an aisled church. It is indeed a foot wider than the -chancel-arch of the Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, but that tiny -church has no aisles. Moreover, if the side-arches led into aisles, they -would be likely to be of the same height, whereas the southern arch is -considerably the higher of the two. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -II. At some later period—perhaps in the eighth or ninth century—the -foundation was converted into one of secular canons, married priests -taking the place of the nuns (cf. Ely). The secular canons themselves -in turn gave way to monks, and these in 1111 to regular canons—_i.e._, -canons living in monastic fashion under the rule (_regula_) of St. -Augustine, as at Bristol, Ripon, and Carlisle. - -The first business, probably, of the secular canons was to house -themselves—_i.e._, to build themselves the usual cloister, with -its appanages of chapter-house, refectory, dormitory, etc. Of the -chapter-house which they built, _c._ 1125, the doorway still remains. - -In 1004 King Ethelred had rebuilt the Saxon church; and probably it was -found possible to put this church into such repair as would allow the -services to be held in it for the time being. At any rate, it was not -till 1158 that they commenced the present cathedral, which they finished -in 1180, leaving not a stone standing of Ethelred’s cathedral. Of the -theory that the present cathedral is in the main the one built in 1004, I -would prefer to say nothing, had it not been adopted in a recent history -of the cathedral; suffice to say that, like the sister theory that -Waltham Abbey was built in 1060, it is an absolute impossibility. The -hands of the archæological clock cannot be turned 160 years back in this -preposterous fashion. - -The twelfth-century church was very remarkable in plan. Not only had it -an aisled nave and an aisled choir, but it had the architectural luxury, -unparalleled in our Norman architecture except in the vast churches of -Winchester and Ely, of eastern and western aisles to its transepts. The -site, however, was cramped to the south, and so the southern transept -was shorter than the northern one; moreover, this short transept later -on lost its west aisle, which was lopped off to allow the cloister to be -extended. For the same reason—lack of room—the slype, or vaulted passage, -which in all monastic institutions connected the cloister with the -cemetery, instead of being built between the transept and the cloister, -was built inside the church, as at Hexham, curtailing still further the -floor area of the north transept. It was therefore because the church -was so cramped to the south, that the other transept was given aisles on -both sides. Instead of an eastern aisle, the south transept had merely a -square chapel projecting eastward. - -But the canons wanted also a Lady chapel, for the church seems to -have been dedicated originally to the Holy Trinity, St. Mary and St. -Frideswide. The normal position of a Lady chapel was to the east of the -sanctuary. But here also the canons were cramped; for quite close to -the east end of the church ran the city wall. To get in a Lady chapel, -therefore, they had to build an additional aisle north of the north -aisle of the choir. This was three bays long. It was probably walled off -from the transept, but opened into the north choir-aisle by three Norman -arches, reconstructed later on. The same arrangement is found at Ripon. -There was also a short chapel projecting eastward from the northernmost -bay of the east aisle of the north transept. - -The east end, as at Rochester and Ripon, was square. The present east -end is a fine composition by Scott, more or less conjectural. The work -commenced, as usual, at the east, as is shown by the gradual improvement -westward in the design of the capitals. The evidence of the vaulting, -too, points in the same direction. In the choir-aisle the ribs are -massive and heavy; in the western aisle of the north transept they are -lighter; in the south aisle of the nave they are pointed and filleted. - -The transepts are narrower than the nave and choir; the tower, therefore, -is oblong, and, as at Bolton Priory, its narrow sides have pointed -arches: semicircular arches would have been too low. The faces of the -piers of the towers are flat, because the stalls of the canons were -placed against them and in the eastern bays of the nave, leaving the -whole eastern limb as sanctuary. - -The clerestory walls are only 41½ feet high; therefore, to have adopted -the usual Norman design—viz., triforium on the top of pier-arcade—would -have made the interior look very squat: so, instead of building the -triforium above the pier-arcade, it was built beneath it. The lofty -pier-arches, thus gained, add greatly to the apparent height and dignity -of the interior. The lower arches, however, which carry the vault of -the aisle behind, are corbelled into the piers in very clumsy fashion. -The design is not original; it was worked out at Romsey in a single -bay of the nave, but, being thought ugly, was promptly abandoned. -It is worked out more successfully in Dunstable Priory church and -Jedburgh Abbey. The clerestory windows of the nave would be built -not much before 1180; naturally, therefore, they are pointed. The -capitals of all the twelfth-century work are full of interest. Indeed, -Transitional capitals—each an experiment, and all differing—partly -conventional, partly naturalistic, with a dash of Classic—are to me much -more interesting than any of the Gothic capitals, except perhaps the -naturalistic capitals of the later Geometrical period. There is a great -sameness about the foliated capitals of the Early English, Curvilinear, -and Perpendicular periods. I need hardly say that no one of these -capitals came from Ethelred’s church. - -The whole church is exceedingly interesting. It fills a niche in the -history of English architecture all by itself. It is not the plain and -austere Transitional work of the Cistercians. On the other hand, it -has not yet the lightness and grace of Ripon; still less the charm of -Canterbury choir, Chichester presbytery, Wells and Abbey Dore—Gothic in -all but name. In spite of its foliated capitals, in spite of a pointed -arch here and there, it is a Romanesque design; yet not so Romanesque as -Fountains, Kirkstall, Furness. - -III. In the LANCET period (1190-1245) the works went on apace. An upper -stage was added to the tower, and on that the spire was built—the first -large stone spire in England. It is a Broach spire: _i.e._, the cardinal -sides of the spire are built right out to the eaves, so that there is no -parapet. On the other hand, instead of having broaches at the angle, it -has pinnacles. Moreover, to bring down the thrusts more vertically, heavy -dormer-windows are inserted at the foot of each of the cardinal sides of -the spire: altogether a very logical and scientific piece of engineering, -much more common in the early spires of Northern France than in England. - -The chapter-house also was rebuilt (_c._ 1240); rectangular, to fit the -cloister. Also, the canons rebuilt both the Lady chapel and the adjoining -transeptal chapel. Lancet work will be seen in all the piers on the south -side of the Lady chapel, and in the second and third piers from the west, -on its north side. The cult of the Virgin, much fostered by the Pope, -Innocent III., was at its height in the thirteenth century. The Lady -chapels of Bristol, Hereford, Salisbury, Winchester and Norwich were -contemporaries of that of Oxford. - -IV. To the latter half of the GEOMETRICAL period belong the fragments of -the pedestal of St. Frideswide’s shrine, which has beautiful naturalistic -foliage like that of the contemporary pedestal of St. Thomas of Hereford, -A.D. 1289. Some twenty years later is the fine canopied tomb of Prior -Sutton. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -V. In the CURVILINEAR period (1315-1360) the eastern chapel of the -north transept was pulled down, and in its place was built a chapel of -four bays, with four side windows of singularly beautiful tracery, and -all different. They contain fourteenth-century glass, which should be -compared with that in St. Lucy’s chapel and in Merton College chapel. -The bosses are very beautiful: one of them has a representation of the -water-lilies of the adjacent Cherwell. Hard by is the tomb of Lady -Montacute, who gave the canons about half the Christ Church meadows -to found a chantry. The chapel goes by various names: St. Katharine’s -chapel, the Latin chapel, and the Divinity chapel. It contains good -poppy-heads of Cardinal Wolsey’s time. - -About the same time the eastern chapel of the south transept—St. Lucy’s -chapel—was enlarged. The tracery of its east window starts in an unusual -fashion below the spring of the arch. - -Also the Norman windows were replaced here and there by large windows -with flowing tracery, to improve the lighting of the church. - -VI. There is little to show for the long Perpendicular period -(1360-1485), except the insertion of a few large Perpendicular windows, -and the so-called “Watching-chamber,” the lower part of which is the -tomb of a merchant and his wife, the upper part probably, the chantry -belonging to it, _c._ 1480. - -VII. In the Tudor period, however, the canons were exceedingly busy. -They set to work to make the whole church fireproof by covering choir, -transepts, and nave with stone vaults. The choir vault is rather overdone -with prettinesses. It is a copy—and an inferior one—of the massive vault -of the Divinity School, which was completed _c._ 1478. Canon Zouch, who -died in 1503, left money to proceed with the vault of the north transept, -beneath which is his tomb. Only a small portion of this was completed. In -the clerestory of the nave also corbels were inserted to support a stone -vault; but the resources of the canons seem to have failed, and the rest -of the church received roofs of wood. Another considerable work was the -rebuilding of the cloisters. - -VIII. Finally, the whole establishment was granted in 1524 to Cardinal -Wolsey, who pulled down the three western bays of the nave, as -obstructing his new quadrangle: one bay has been recently rebuilt. - -IX. In 1542 Henry VIII. founded the new diocese of Oxford. Till 1546 the -seat of the bishopric was at Osney Abbey. On the suppression of the abbey -it was transferred to Wolsey’s confiscated foundation; and the ancient -Priory church became a cathedral, while at the same time it is the chapel -of the college of Christ Church. There is an interesting contemporary -window in the south choir aisle, showing the first bishop of Oxford, -King, with Osney Abbey on one side. The “merry Christ Church bells” came -from the tower shown in this window. - -X. At the entrance to the Great Hall is the last bit of good Gothic done -in England, a sort of chapter-house in fan-tracery. - -XI. The cathedral possesses a charming Jacobean pulpit, and a large -amount of fine Flemish glass of the seventeenth century—all of it taken -out and stowed away in some lumber-room at a recent restoration, except -one window at the west end of the north aisle of the nave, in order to -insert some sham mediæval windows. - -XII. There are also five windows from designs by Sir Edward -Burne-Jones—three of them of great beauty; good windows by Clayton and -Bell in the end walls of the transepts; and a charming reredos by Mr. -Bodley, who also has the credit of the bell tower. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Peterborough. - - -[Illustration: FROM THE SOUTH.] - -St. Augustine landed in Kent A.D. 597. In the next year Peada -and Wolfhere, successive kings of Mercia, founded a monastery at -Peterborough, then called Medeshamstead (“the homestead in the meadow”), -and consecrated the church in the names of St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. -Andrew. Then said King Wulfhere with a loud voice: “This day do I freely -give to St. Peter and to the abbot and to the monks of this monastery -these lands and waters and meres and fens and weirs; neither shall -tribute or tax be taken therefrom. Moreover I do make this monastery -free, that it be subject to Rome alone; and I will that all who may not -be able to journey to Rome should repair hither to St. Peter.” This -consecration took place in 664. In 870 this, the first church, was -destroyed by the Danes. It was not fully rebuilt till 972. Abbot Elsinus -(1006-1055) collected many curios: pieces of the swaddling clothes, -of the manger of the cross, and of the sepulchre of Christ; of the -garments of the Virgin, of Aaron’s rod, a bone of one of the Innocents, -bits of St. John the Baptist, St. Peter, and St. Paul, the body of St. -Florentinus, for which he gave 100 lbs. of silver, and, most precious of -all, the incorruptible arm of the Northumbrian king, Oswald, believed -by half the population of England to be an effectual cure for diseases -which defied the material power of drugs. Here is Bede’s account of -it: “When Oswald was once sitting at dinner with Bishop Aidan, on the -holy day of Easter, and a silver dish of dainties was before him, the -servant, whom he had appointed to relieve the poor, came in on a sudden, -and told the king that a great multitude of needy persons were sitting -in the streets begging alms of the king. He immediately ordered the meat -set before him to be carried to the poor, and the dish also to be cut -in pieces and divided among them. At which sight the Bishop laid hold -of the King’s right hand, and said, ‘May this hand never perish,’ which -fell out according to his prayer; for his arm and hand being cut off from -his body, when he was slain in battle, remain entire and incorrupted to -this day, and are kept in a silver case as revered relics in St. Peter’s -church in the royal city.” Even King Stephen came to see it; and, what is -more, remitted to the monks forty marks which they owed him. Benedict was -a monk at Canterbury when Becket was murdered; and when he became Abbot -of Peterborough in 1177, he brought with him the slabs of the pavement -which were stained with the blood of the martyr, fragments of his shirt -and surplice, and two vases of his blood. So that the monastery was -called “Peterborough the Proud,” and waxed rich and mighty, and church -and close were holy ground, and all pilgrims, even though of royal blood, -put off their shoes before passing through the western gateway of the -close. - -I. The second Saxon church of 972 seems to have lasted till 1116, when it -was destroyed by fire, and the present church, the third, was commenced. -The foundations of part of this Saxon cathedral have been recently -disinterred beneath the present south transept. It was cruciform, with a -square east end. The east limb was 23 feet each way; the transept was 88 -feet long. Its walls were under three feet thick, so that it cannot have -been intended for a vault. There is no proof that the nave was ever built. - -II. In 1116 the Saxon cathedral was seriously injured by a great fire, -and next year Abbot John of Sais (Seez) commenced the present Norman -cathedral. In 1140 the monks entered on the new choir, which was now -complete, together with the eastern aisles and eastern wall of the -transepts. It is possible that the monks patched up the damaged Saxon -church sufficiently to allow service to be held in it from 1116 to 1140. - -When they entered into their new Norman choir, the first thing they did, -probably, was to pull down the choir and transept of the Saxon church, -and on the site to erect the rest of the present south transept. - -[Illustration: CHOIR AND TRANSEPT.] - -Then they built the rest of the north transept. It will be noticed that -it is superior in design to the south transept, its windows are splayed, -and their ornamentation of later character. This north transept is -illustrated by M. Viollet-le-Duc as a specially fine example of English -Romanesque. - -Next would be built the remaining piers and arches of the crossing, and -a low lantern tower of one story only. But the western piers would not -stand without abutment, and so a certain amount of the eastern bays -of the nave must have been built at the same time. This comprised two -bays of the triforium, for the tympana of the two eastern bays of the -triforium have rude ornaments not found elsewhere in the nave. Below, it -probably comprised four piers and four arches, for the four eastern piers -on the north side have different bases from those to the west. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Hitherto the north wall of the Saxon nave, if built, may have been -retained to shut in the cloister on the north. Now it would be pulled -down and replaced by the wall of the present south aisle of the nave. -Then would come the wall of the north aisle, and finally the pier-arcade -and triforium, but not yet the clerestory of the nave. The nave was to -be in plan precisely like that of Durham: it was to be a short nave; the -central aisle to have eight bays; the side aisles were to have only seven -bays, the end of each aisle being occupied by a tower, as at Durham. The -ground stories of these towers now form the third bays from the west on -either side of the nave. It will be noticed that the third piers from -the west are exceptionally massive and strong, and that in this bay the -aisle-walls are thickened. The wide arches of these bays were intended to -open up the towers into the nave. - -[Illustration: VAULTING UNDER SOUTH-WEST TOWER.] - -But the towers were not built. The Ely monks over the way were building -a nave with no less than twelve bays, and with a western transept as -well. The Peterborough monks would not like to be outdone by Ely; so -they determined also to have a long nave and a western transept as well. -They built only ten bays to the twelve of Ely; on the other hand, their -nave, excluding western transept, was 211 feet long, while that of Ely -was only 208 feet. About the same time, or probably a little earlier, -the clerestory of the nave—in which pointed arches occur—was built. -All this work may be assigned to Abbot Benedict (1175-1193), who is -said by Swapham and John to have built the whole nave as far as—but not -including—the present west front. The statements of Swapham, however, -must be wrong here. He was still living _c._ 1240; so that he was only -a boy when the nave was finished. He may possibly in his boyhood have -seen the clerestory of the nave built, and, in writing half a century -after, have thought that Benedict who built the clerestory, had built -the triforium and ground-story also. But the documentary evidence at -Peterborough must be received with the utmost scepticism. All that we -know for certain is that the choir and the eastern portions of the -central transepts were built between 1118 and 1140; and that the central -transept, central tower, nave and western transept were built between -1140 and 1190. - -III. LANCET (1190-1245).—The east end of the church consisted of three -parallel apses. The apses of the aisles were now replaced by narrow -oblong bays: those next to the New Building. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -In the middle of the Lancet period was erected the grand façade in -front of the Transitional western transept. It is not so much a façade, -however, as an open portico or piazza. Several interesting engineering -problems were involved. One was, how to keep up the three gigantic -arches. If they had spread to north or south, the whole façade would have -collapsed. To prevent their spreading, therefore, flanking towers were -built to north and south; which in later days were weighted with spires. -But there was a more serious danger. The two great isolated piers might -be pushed outwards by the western thrust of the arches of the nave. -These thrusts the builders stopped by building two towers; one over the -westernmost bay of each aisle of the nave. The northern of these towers -was soon after heightened; the other—the Bell Tower—remains low. The -central gable had to be narrow, because it is the termination of the nave -roof. The side-arches and side-gables had to be wide, to span the space -from the nave to the sides of the Transitional façade behind. Though -much narrower, however, the central gable rises as high as the lateral -gables, being made to spring at a higher level; and it is made to look -as important as the broad side-gables by being given the company of two -powerful pinnacles. Thus the main features of this magnificent design -are due to difficulties of planning and construction. The design is said -to be drawn from Lincoln; it is more likely that it is an amplification -of John de Cella’s lovely design for the west front of St. Albans. Abbot -Acharius, who may well have commenced the work (1200-1210) had been Prior -of St. Albans under John de Cella. Judging from the billet and nebula -ornament on the gables, and from the arcading, in which semicircular -arches and round-headed trefoils occur, the façade was designed in the -very beginning of the thirteenth century. - -[Illustration: GABLE.] - -The west front of Peterborough has been severely criticised, especially -by Mr. Pugin. To many it will ever seem the highest effort of English -art, and to be at once the most original and most successful façade -either in English or in Continental Gothic. Yet, magnificent and poetic -as it is, we have not the full effect contemplated by the mediæval -builders. They meant to have four towers, not three. The north-west -tower was once crowned by a wooden spire; we may be sure that there -would have been a spire also on the south-west tower. Add, too, in the -background, the tall spire which was to be added to the central tower, -and you have a group before which even Lichfield and Lincoln would pale -into insignificance. But, even curtailed as it is, the design attains -the sublime. When first its Titanic arches rose into the blue sky, its -builders may well have repeated the psalmist’s words: “Lift up your -heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift up, ye everlasting doors; and the King -of Glory shall come in.” They had built a worthy portal to the House of -the Almighty. - -IV. GEOMETRICAL (1245-1315).—In this period the bell tower was carried -up; and a magnificent Lady chapel was built (_c._ 1290), like that at -Bristol, to the north of the choir, but detached from it. It could not be -built east of the choir, as a high road passed close to the apse. This -Lady chapel was pulled down in the seventeenth century for the sake of -its materials. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -V. CURVILINEAR.—In this period the weight of the Norman tower, which -had of course very thick walls, and was three or four stories high, was -found to be too much for the exceptionally weak piers on which it stood. -Warned, perhaps, by the fate of the central towers of Ely and Wells, both -of which collapsed about this time, they took down the Norman tower, and -built a new one (which has recently been rebuilt), much lighter and much -lower. And they strengthened its eastern and western semicircular arches -by inserting pointed arches beneath them. The south-west spire was also -built—a design of exquisite beauty. - -VI. PERPENDICULAR.—The monks wanted to have a Galilee porch, and -they inserted one between the piers of the west front, where it was -constructionally useful by keeping the piers from bulging in. The wooden -screens were now inserted in the central transept. - -Peterborough, after 1116, seems to have had a singular immunity from -fire; so, very unlike Norwich, the monks did not take the slightest -trouble to make their church fireproof. The whole of the high roofs are -of wood. That of the nave may possibly be the original twelfth-century -ceiling. A twelfth-century wooden roof still covers the Bishop’s Palace -at Hereford. The choir has a wooden vault of the fifteenth century. - -VIII. In another respect the history of the church is uneventful. The -eastern limb must have been exceedingly inconvenient, for there was -no processional aisle or ambulatory round the apse. Every other large -church pulled down or altered its eastern limb to suit the ritual: the -Peterborough monks, always conservative and always behind the times, -did not provide a processional aisle till the latter days of Gothic. -And even then they took a very long time about it. The works seems to -have been suspended in 1471, and not resumed till 1496. Even then, good -conservatives that they were, they did not pull down the apse, but -erected the New Building round it. It is a rich specimen of TUDOR work, -with a fan vault. - -IX. In the matter, too, of the roof-drainage the Peterborough monks were -slow to move. Instead of dripping eaves they constructed gutters and -parapets to the aisles in the early years of the thirteenth century, and -to the apse a little later. It was not till _c._ 1330 that they provided -the high roofs of nave and choir with gutters and parapets; and, with -their wonted conservatism, they retained the Norman corbel-table. - -[Illustration: RETRO-CHOIR] - -X. What the monks cared most about was the lighting of the church. This -they were always trying to improve. In the thirteenth century they -inserted large geometrical windows in the western transept, and _c._ -1290 others in the aisles of the central transepts to light the altars -placed there. Moreover, the Norman windows in the aisles of the nave -were replaced by wide windows of five lights. In the Curvilinear period -the triforium windows were transformed, and charming flowing tracery, -with rear-arches, was inserted in the windows of the apse, which then -looked into the open air, but now look into the New Building. In the -Perpendicular period some seventy-five windows were either enlarged or -filled with rectilinear tracery. The builders certainly achieved their -object. The cathedral is well lighted. We may be thankful that they -did not stick a great Perpendicular window in each end of the central -transept. - -XI. In 1541 the church was made a cathedral on the new foundation. Henry -VIII. is said to have preserved it as a mausoleum to his first wife, -Catharine of Arragon, who is buried in the choir. It is wretchedly -built—the west front and the New Building as badly as the Norman work—and -practically without foundations. Much underpinning has been done, and -more is required. The west front has been saved for the present by -judicious treatment. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Peter and St. Wilfrid, Ripon. - - -[Illustration] - -Ripon minster has passed through strange vicissitudes. It was founded -_c._ 660 as a monasterium or minster for Scottish monks attached to the -Celtic church. Soon afterwards it was taken away from them and granted -to the famous St. Wilfrid. In 678 the church became a cathedral, but -only during the lifetime of Bishop Eadhed. Ultimately it passed into the -hands of regular canons of the Augustinian Order. It was dissolved with -the other collegiate churches by Edward VI. It was made collegiate once -more by James I., but with dean and prebendaries instead of Augustinian -canons. In 1836, for the second time, it became a cathedral. - -I. Both the minsters built by St. Wilfrid—Ripon and Hexham—retain -their crypts. He was a Romaniser in architecture as in ritual, and -well acquainted with Italy. So his seventh-century church at Ripon -was modelled after the early Christian basilicas which he had seen at -Rome. Like them, it had a confessionary or crypt, which still exists, -beneath the central tower; like them, it was orientated to the west. He -seems even to have brought over Italian masons to direct or to execute -the work, for the crypt is vaulted, and the vaulting is of excellent -construction; the masonry is smooth, and is covered “with a fine and very -hard plaster which takes a polish.” At its west end was the altar, at its -east end an aperture through which a glimpse of the interior might be -obtained from the Saxon nave. Round the walls are little niches in which -lights were placed. “St. Wilfrid’s Needle” is merely a niche with the -back knocked through. Similar Saxon crypts remain at Hexham and Wing, and -a Norman crypt at St. Peter-in-the-East, Oxford. They usually consisted -of a small central chamber, with a passage all round it. There were two -staircases descending from either side of the nave; pilgrims went down -one flight of steps, proceeded along the passage, getting a glimpse of -the relics through openings in the wall of the central chamber, and then -returned up the other flight of steps into the nave. - -IV. NORMAN.—Early in the twelfth century a Norman cathedral seems to -have been built, wholly or in part, by Archbishop Thurstan. Of this -there remains only an apsidal building, with crypt beneath, on the south -side of the south aisle of the present choir. An eleventh-century chapel -formerly existed, with crypt beneath it, in precisely the same situation -at Worcester; there is a twelfth-century chapel in the same position in -Oxford cathedral. In Oxford this chapel was the Lady chapel. It may be -that the Ripon chapel also may have been a Lady chapel. For if the Norman -choir was of the same length eastward as at present, it would have been -impossible to build a Lady chapel of the type of that, the crypt of which -still exists at Winchester, to the east of the choir; the ground falls -far too steeply eastward. Moreover, the so-called Lady loft now existing -would seem, from its name, to be merely an upper story added to a Lady -chapel. This Norman chapel formerly opened into the Norman church; traces -of the arches may be seen in the walls. In the buttress is a curious room -which may have been a sacristy, a lavatory, a prison, or an anchorite’s -cell, like the one in the east end of Ludlow church. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -V. TRANSITIONAL.—From 1154 to 1181 there ruled at York a man of the -greatest energy and power—Archbishop Roger. He condemned his two Norman -churches at York and Ripon; made no attempt, as at Peterborough and Ely, -to improve them; simply pulled them down, and started again _de novo_. -The two new minsters seem to have been somewhat similar: both had square -east ends, both had exceptionally broad naves. But Ripon minster was -merely the church of Augustinian canons, therefore it was not planned -in cathedral fashion. Our ancient collegiate and parish churches seem -to have followed some other model than the early Christian basilicas -which furnished the plans of the cathedrals. Most of our parish churches -originally were without aisles; and even large churches of the regular -canons frequently had no aisles to the nave. This was the case in Roger’s -new church at Ripon, and at Bolton Priory (also Augustinian). Later on, -indeed, the Ripon canons added north and south aisles to their nave, and -the Bolton canons a north aisle to their nave—they could not add a south -aisle also, as they had a cloister to the south. But originally both -churches had aisleless naves. That of Ripon was 40 feet broad—broader -than any nave in England, except York, which is of the breadth of 45 -feet. The combination of unaisled nave and aisled choir must have -produced a very remarkable interior; quite unlike anything now existing -in England, but to be paralleled by the Spanish cathedral at Gerona -(illustrated in Street’s “Gothic Architecture of Spain”). - -Of this Transitional nave nothing is now left except two fragments, -one at the east, and one at the west end on either side. All the rest -has been replaced by sixteenth-century piers, arches, and clerestory. -But if in imagination the two ends of the Transitional nave are joined -together—it is well to do so in an actual drawing—the design of the whole -of the original nave can be recovered with exactitude. A very remarkable -design it was. It consisted of three stories; the lower story was simply -a blank wall. The second, the triforium, was merely a passage in the -thickness of the wall, ornamented in front by a tall pointed arcade. The -clerestory had three tall slender lancet windows in each bay, all of the -same height, separated by two detached piers. The strangest feature of -the nave was that neither in the ground-story nor in the triforium were -there any windows. Everywhere else people were trying to get all the -windows possible into their churches; here alone a “dim, religious light” -was preferred. And filtering in, as it did, through small lancet windows -at a great height, as in Pugin’s cathedral at Killarney, the effect must -have been most dramatic. The destruction of this unique nave is one of -the heaviest losses that English architecture has sustained. - -Of the central tower, the south-east pier has been rebuilt; the -north-east and south-west piers have been cased. The north and west -arches of the tower survive; the south and east arches have been rebuilt. -The nave was considerably wider than the central aisle of the choir; -the tower was therefore not built square; the northern arch being set -obliquely, and not parallel to the southern one. Outside, however, the -north side of the tower is corbelled out till the tower becomes square. - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT.] - -The design of the choir is best seen in the east side of the north -transept, which retains the original round-headed windows. In the choir -the western windows of the north aisle were converted into lancets in -the thirteenth century. The design of transept and choir is almost Greek -in its severity. Very effective is the contrast of broad wall-surface -and plain splayed window with the light and slender shafted arcades -of triforium and clerestory. In proportions, too, it is superior to -nearly all later designs. The pier-arches are tall and narrow, and the -triforium thoroughly subordinated to the tall clerestory; the proportions -approximate closely to those of Westminster Abbey and Beverley Minster. -It is remarkable, too, for the studied absence of foliated ornament. -Not that the builders could not design a foliated capital; they have -left one or two, in unnoticed corners of the north transept, to show -their powers. All the capitals of the choir are moulded capitals, as at -Roche Abbey—perhaps occurring here for the first time. Being a first -attempt, they can hardly be considered a success; they were soon to be -improved upon in the French crypt of Canterbury. The designer relied on -architectural effects pure and simple, and was followed in his ascetic -self-restraint sixty years later in the eastern transept of Fountains and -at Salisbury. Even more remarkable is the complete abolition of Norman -ornament. The billet, the zigzag, the whole barbaric congeries of Norman -ornament is contemptuously cast aside. In this respect, indeed, Ripon -is much more advanced than Canterbury choir, which was not commenced -till 1174. The clerestory, however, is of a familiar Norman type, being -an adaptation of that of Romsey and Waltham Abbey, and Peterborough and -Oxford cathedrals; it was reproduced a little later in Hexham choir. - -The vaulting-shafts rest on the abaci, French fashion. In the choir there -are five vaulting-shafts, which in the clerestory diminish to one. The -effect is not satisfactory, and a different treatment is adopted in the -transept. It is noteworthy that the vaulting of the north transept aisle -contains an exceptionally early example of ridge-ribs, both longitudinal -and transverse. - -In spite of round-headed windows and round-headed arches here and there, -the whole design of the interior is light and graceful, thoroughly -Gothic. Externally it is just the reverse; but for a pointed arcade in -the clerestory one might imagine one was back again in the early days -of the twelfth century. But when one compares the interior with that -of Oxford Cathedral, which is precisely contemporary, and in which the -spirit of Gothic is wholly absent, suspicion rises to certainty: Ripon -Minster must have been designed under French influence. The tall, acute, -pointed pier-arches of Notre Dame, Chalons-sur-Marne, and Sens (commenced -_c._ 1140) reappear in Ripon choir, and the undoubtedly French choir of -Canterbury. The Chalons triforium reappears in the north wall of Ripon -transept; the Chalons clerestory in that of Ripon nave. The clerestory of -Ripon choir is practically that of the French choir of Canterbury, itself -probably suggested by that of Sens. French too, are the vaulting-shafts -of the choir, insecurely balancing on the abaci; and the broadness and -plain splays of the windows. - -IV. LANCET.—To this period belong the vaulting and piers of the present -chapter-house; and the west front, which, like York transept and -Southwell choir, is attributed to Archbishop Gray (_ob._ 1255). The west -front is too flat; deficient in play of light and shade; correct and -uninteresting. It is ruined by the loss of its wooden spires, removed in -1664; and by the miserable little pinnacles put up in 1797. Before the -aisles were built, these towers projected clear of the nave, their inner -walls are Transitional; but the Transitional arch has been taken out and -replaced by one of the Lancet period. - -V. GEOMETRICAL.—The lower row of lancets in the west front once had -charming tracery, inserted early in the Geometrical period. This was -destroyed by Scott. - -[Illustration: CHOIR, LOOKING EAST.] - -About 1280 the east end of the choir seems to have collapsed—partly, -perhaps, in consequence of the steep fall of the ground eastwards. It -was rebuilt, with the damaged portions of the choir, with exceptional -strength in consequence. The east end is a vigorous, massive design, -something like that of Guisborough or Selby. Only the eastern portion of -the choir has flying buttresses. The clerestory windows have an inner -arcade. Ripon choir alone, of English cathedrals, possesses a glazed -triforium, the lean-to roof of the aisles having been replaced by a flat -roof (see ELY). - -VI. To the CURVILINEAR period (1315-1360) belong the Lady loft and the -sedilia. The latter originally stood one bay more to the west. In the -Tudor period the arches of the sedilia seem to have received the present -clumsy shafts. - -VII. PERPENDICULAR (1360-1485).—In 1458 the southern and eastern sides -of the central tower collapsed, greatly damaging the adjacent parts of -the choir and transept, as well as the stalls. The eastern aisle of the -south transept and much of the south side of the choir, as well as part -of the tower, had to be rebuilt; and about 1490 the present choir-stalls -were put up. In the choir the builders, with a conservatism which does -them credit, both in the work of 1280 and in that of 1458, preserved all -they could of the twelfth-century work, and both in the Geometrical and -the Perpendicular bays of the triforium retained the semicircular arch -of the older design. The result is a curious blend of styles. Starting -from the east, the first pier on the north side is Geometrical, the rest -Transitional. On the south side the first pier is Geometrical, the second -Transitional, the third and fourth Perpendicular. To give more support to -the tower, the north-east and south-west piers were cased; the south-east -pier was rebuilt, and the southern and eastern arches were rebuilt. To -strengthen the eastern piers of the tower, the two western bays of the -arcade of the choir were blocked up, and a massive choir-screen was -inserted _c._ 1480. - -[Illustration: CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.] - -VIII. TUDOR.—Early in the sixteenth century the canons unhappily -determined to give their unique church more of the look of a cathedral -by adding aisles to the nave. It is pleasant to add that they were -unsuccessful. The nave is exceedingly low in proportion to its -exceptional span, and being, moreover, unprovided with a triforium, does -not look in the least like a cathedral, but like a very inferior parish -church. Externally, the buttresses are of fine composition, and if the -pinnacles were completed, the nave would be very handsome externally. - -In 1593 the central spire—of timber and lead—was struck by lightning, -and in 1660 it was removed. It was 120 feet high. In 1664, for fear of a -similar catastrophe, the western spires also were removed. The result is -that, seen from a distance, _minus_ spires and _minus_ pinnacles, Ripon -Minster is stunted and squat. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew, Rochester. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-EAST.] - -Rochester and London, next to Canterbury, are the oldest of all the -English bishoprics, unless, indeed, we are prepared to accept a -pre-Augustine bishopric of Hereford. St. Augustine, soon after his -landing in 597, came to preach at Rochester. His reception was not -encouraging; the rude people hung fish-tails to his coat. Wherefore in -anger the saint prayed “that the Lord would smite them _in posteriora_ to -their everlasting ignominy. So that not only on their own but on their -successors’ persons similar tails grew ever after.” The worst of it was -that the story spread, and not only Rochester people but all English folk -were believed on the Continent to be _caudati_ (tailed). So that even -in the sixteenth century “an Englishman now cannot travel in another -land by way of merchandise or any other honest occupying, but it is most -contumeliously thrown in his teeth that all Englishmen have tails.” - -Among St. Augustine’s Italian missioners were St. Justus and St. -Paulinus. St. Justus became first bishop of Rochester in 604. St. -Paulinus, after eight years of mission work in Northumbria, became bishop -of Rochester in 633. The first English bishop was St. Ythamar (644-655). -These three were the chief local saints of Rochester in early days. - -St. Augustine and his missioners had come from the monastery of St. -Andrew, Rome. To St. Andrew, therefore, they dedicated the first Saxon -cathedral. In 1542 the cathedral was re-dedicated to Christ and the -Blessed Virgin Mary of Rochester. Till 1077 the cathedral was served by -secular canons; Gundulph replaced them by Benedictine monks. - -I. In 1888 the foundations of an early church were found. It had an apse, -but neither aisles nor transepts; walls only 2 feet 4 inches thick; 42 -feet long, 28 feet broad. From the resemblance of its plan to that of St. -Pancras, Canterbury, and the presence of Roman brick in the walls, it -seems as likely to be a Romano-British as an Anglo Saxon church. - -II. Between 1080 and 1089 Bishop Gundulph completed a Norman cathedral, -except the western part of the nave. In plan it was entirely different -from any Norman cathedral of the day: one can hardly help believing that -it must have been designed by an Englishman. The plan of it is given -in the _Builder_. It was a long oblong aisled cathedral, with nave and -aisles running on without a break from the west end of the nave to the -east end of the choir. But in the choir the side-aisles were cut off from -the central aisle by a solid wall, as in the contemporary choir of St. -Albans and in the Premonstratensian abbey of St. Radigund, near Dover. -There was probably no crossing, and therefore no central tower. There -were no transepts proper; but, as in such Anglo-Saxon churches as Worth, -low porch-like transepts projected north and south, with a breadth of -only 14 feet. The east end, as in most Anglo-Saxon churches, was square; -and there projected from it eastward a small square chapel. Beneath was -a crypt, the western part of which remains. There were two towers, both -abnormal in position. The southern tower was set in the angle of the -choir and the south transept, and may have been the belfry. The other -tower, fragments of which still remain, was set in a similar position, -but entirely detached. Being detached, and having walls six feet thick, -it was no doubt a military keep. Gundulph was fond of building keeps; -those of the Tower of London and Malling still exist. Rochester was -exposed to and had suffered from attacks of the Danes, sailing up the -Medway, in 840, 884, and 999. There was a striking memento of them on the -great west doors of the cathedral, which Pepys, as late as 1661, found -“covered with the skins of Danes.” We may conjecture that it was as a -refuge against similar attacks that Gundulph built the northern keep. - -All this work of Gundulph’s is now gone except portions of the crypt, -the keep, and the nave. The original monastery was built in the normal -position, south of the nave. To enclose the cloister, therefore, on the -north, the south side of the nave was proceeded with next. The south -aisle-wall is very thin—as was customary in Anglo-Saxon architecture—and -we may conjecture that English influence stopped at this point; for the -piers and arches of the nave are quite Norman in character. Of Gundulph’s -nave there remain on the south side five arches, together with the lower -parts of the walls of both aisles. It is very doubtful whether he built -any part of the triforium or clerestory. At present his work can only -be seen in its original condition from the side of the aisles. The pier -arches had originally two square orders, which remain unaltered on the -side of the aisle (cf. Winchester transept). Gundulph’s masonry was in -rough tufa. - -III. LATE NORMAN.—The works on the church were now probably suspended -for a considerable time, while the monks, as at Gloucester, replaced the -temporary buildings of the monastery by permanent ones. These temporary -wooden buildings seem to have been situated in the usual position—viz., -south of the nave. It was probably not to interfere with these that -the permanent monastic buildings were placed in an abnormal position, -south of the choir. Much of this work was done by Bishop Ernulph -(1115-1124), who had been a great builder at Canterbury, while prior, -and at Peterborough, as abbot. Parts of the cloister, refectory, and -chapter-house remain. - -[Illustration: NAVE, NORTH SIDE.] - -When at length the builders returned to the nave of the cathedral -(_c._ 1120), fashions had changed. Gundulph’s eleventh-century design -and his rough tufa masonry seemed archaic and barbaric. His tufa was -therefore cased with good Caen stone, as was done later in the century -at Chichester; his piers and capitals were remodelled, and on the side -of the nave the outer square order of the pier-arch was covered with -zigzag ornament. The aisles, as at Hereford, where a precisely similar -transformation of eleventh-into twelfth-century work was taking place at -the same time, were left unaltered. Gundulph had placed pilasters along -the inner face of the aisle-walls, evidently intending that the aisles -should be vaulted; but his successors apparently thought the walls too -thin, as at Carlisle, to support a vault; so, instead of vaulting the -aisles and obtaining thus a continuous passage the whole length of the -church, they constructed a passage in the thickness of the wall of -the triforium. Thus Rochester, like Vignory, has the distinction of -possessing a sham triforium. Waltham Abbey also has a triforium arcade, -but no triforium floor; but that is because the vaults which originally -covered the aisles had subsequently to be taken down. - -Still later—about the middle of the twelfth century—is the west front, -with its magnificent doorway, and the diaper of the triforium. - -IV. In 1179 the cathedral was greatly damaged by fire. Either because -of this, or because the eastern half of the cathedral had been planned -so inconveniently, or because the plan was not the fashionable one of -Norman times, the monks set to work to rebuild the whole cathedral. As -usual, they arranged their building operations so as to avoid interfering -with the services in the choir as long as possible. First, they rebuilt -the north aisle of the choir, but not so high as it is at present. The -aisle remained narrow, because Gundulph’s tower was in the way. But the -south aisle of the choir they doubled in width. Next, they set to work -at the east end, planning it, as at Hereford, as an eastern transept -with an eastern aisle, and projecting eastward an oblong sanctuary -(cf. Southwell). The new transept was lofty and broad; and it is quite -possible that it was built over the top of Gundulph’s east end without -disturbing daily services within it. Then, when all was finished, -Gundulph’s east end was pulled down. Unlike the Worcester monks they -preserved the level of the eleventh-century choir, and consequently had -to continue Gundulph’s crypt eastward. In the new presbytery is seen the -same curious mixture of quadripartite and sexpartite vaulting as in St. -Hugh’s eastern transept at Lincoln. All this work was finished in 1227. - -Next they pulled down Gundulph’s narrow north transept and rebuilt it as -broad as the central aisle of the nave. The new transept has a sexpartite -vault with a longitudinal ridge rib, as in the great transept of Lincoln -(_c._ 1245). - -Then came the rebuilding of the south transept (_c._ 1280). They resolved -also to have a central tower and to rebuild the nave. Of the nave they -rebuilt the two easternmost bays, and then completed the piers and arches -of the crossing; but not yet the tower. - -Up to this point the works had gone on continuously for a century. What -enabled the monks to undertake such a great work as the rebuilding of the -whole cathedral, and why, after doing so much, they suddenly stopped, -has now to be explained. The secret of the flush of money at Rochester -was that in 1201 the monks acquired a new saint, St. William. “He was -by birth a Scot, of Perth; by trade, a baker; in charity so abundant -that he gave to the poor the tenth loaf of his workmanship; in zeal so -fervent that in vow he promised, and in deed attempted, to visit the -places where Christ was conversant on earth; in which journey, he made -Rochester his way, where, after that he had rested two or three days, he -departed toward Canterbury. But ere he had gone far from the city, his -servant—a foundling who had been brought up by him out of charity—led -him of purpose out of the highway, and spoiled him both of his money -and his life. The servant escaped, but his master (because he died in -so holy a purpose of mind) was by the monks conveyed to St. Andrew’s -and laid in the choir. And soon he wrought miracles plentifully.” It -was, then, from offerings at the shrine of St. Thomas of Perth, left by -countless pilgrims on their way to the shrine of a yet greater Thomas -at Canterbury, that the expenses of the new choir were paid. And it was -simply because in the course of eighty years the repute of the murdered -baker had paled and waned before the ever-growing fame of the murdered -archbishop, that the monks had to renounce, once for all, their ambitious -project of rebuilding the whole of the nave. It seems, however, that -they were for a considerable time unwilling to give up hope; for one bay -of the Norman triforium was pulled down, leaving a gap, which was not -filled up till the fourteenth century; when, oddly enough, it was rebuilt -in the same Norman style as before, but in greensand—a rare mediæval -example of “architectural forgery” (cf. Durham Galilee). - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -V. But though the rebuilding of the nave was definitely abandoned, a good -deal of work was done in the Curvilinear period (1315-1360). The central -tower was at length erected; it was removed in 1749. A solid stone -screen was built between the piers, as at Ripon; the south aisle of the -choir was brought into its present form by the absorption of Gundulph’s -southern tower; a grand doorway to the chapter-house was built, and -monuments were erected to Bishop Hamo de Hythe (d. 1352), and Bishop John -de Sheppey (d. 1360). - -The monks now also provided a Lady chapel. This they got in a very -inexpensive way—a proof that their resources had greatly fallen off—by -appropriating for the purpose the southern transept, the two eastern bays -of which they threw into one to form a recess for the altar of the Virgin. - -VI. After this little was done at Rochester, except to build out a -chapel of three bays westward from the south transept, giving a sort of -nave to the Lady chapel. - -VII. The windows, however, were, as usual, in the builders’ hands -throughout the whole of the fourteenth century—especially those of the -dark Norman nave. - -In the Curvilinear period flowing tracery was inserted in the lower range -of lights in the sanctuary, and improvements were made in the clerestory -of the south transept, now that it was to be used as a Lady chapel. - -In the Perpendicular period the narrow north aisle of the choir, darkened -by Gundulph’s tower on one side and on the other by the solid wall of the -choir, was raised, lighted, and vaulted. Then the nave was taken in hand; -Perpendicular windows were inserted in the aisles, and a great window in -the west end; the whole of the Norman clerestory was taken off, a new -clerestory and a new wooden roof were put up. Thus the nave got plenty of -light. - -VIII. In 1664 the south aisle of the nave was recased; and in 1670 the -third, fourth and fifth bays, counting from the west, in the north aisle -of the choir, were rebuilt. - -IX. In 1830 Cottingham put up the present central tower. In 1871 the -cathedral was restored by Scott. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Alban. - - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-WEST.] - -Of all our cathedrals none is so composite and heterogeneous as the -ancient church of the Benedictine abbey of St. Alban. It is mainly -built—even the fourteenth-century Lady chapel—of Roman tiles. Saxon -balusters appear in the triforium of the transepts. In the nave and -transepts and tower is Early Norman work, unequalled in extent and -grandeur; in the south transept are built up the fragments of a Late -Norman doorway, to which period, or to the first days of the Transitional -period (1145-1190), belongs the interlacing arcade now placed above it. -In the west front and the western bays of the nave is Lancet work of two -periods (1190-1245). In the sanctuary is seen Early Geometrical work -(1245-1280); the ante-chapel, commenced in the Early, was finished in -the Late Geometrical period (1280-1315). The Lady chapel (1291-1326) is -a most interesting example of the transition from the Late Geometrical -to the Curvilinear style. The latter is represented by the five eastern -bays on the south side of the nave, by the remains of the cloisters, -by the shrines of St. Alban and St. Amphibalus, and by the Holy Rood -screen (1315-1360). Perpendicular work is represented by the alterations -to the cloisters, by the abbey gatehouse, by the triforium windows on -the north side of the nave and choir, inserted when the aisle roofs -were lowered, by the watching-loft, by the chantries of the Duke of -Gloucester and Abbot Wheathampstead, and by the reredos and painted -ceiling. Tudor work appears in the chapel of the Transfiguration, and -in the admirable chantry of Abbot Ramryge; while the “Gothic revival” -is stamped on every feature of Lord Grimthorpe’s façades to the west, -north and south. There is not a single hiatus in the series. St. Alban’s -is a veritable architectural handbook, written in brick and stone. The -student should remember, however, that at St. Alban’s there is a good -deal of what is called assimilation. The Lancet bays and the Curvilinear -bays in the nave are not typical and characteristic of their respective -periods. The architects of these bays had not a free hand. They were not -able to compose the design simply to suit the fashion of the day. Their -bays were to be Lancet and Curvilinear only so far as might be without -ruining the general design and proportions of the nave as a whole. With -these reservations, the tyro in architecture is recommended to select St. -Alban’s as his “Introduction to Mediæval Architecture.” If he comes from -London, he should choose the longer route, by the London & North-Western -Railway: he will have less distance to walk on arriving, and will see the -cathedral from the most picturesque point of view. If time permits, he -should proceed direct from the railway station to Verulamium, and see the -Roman walls and fosse, and the interesting church of St. Michael’s, with -the famous monument of Lord Bacon, before visiting the cathedral. - -[Illustration: NAVE, NORTH SIDE.] - -In Roman times the town was on the other side of the little river, the -Ver, a tributary of the Colne, and hence was called Verulamium. In the -revolt of Boadicea it was burnt, but was soon rebuilt. In the year 303, -“there was gret persecution of Christen pepell by the tyrant Diocletian”; -and Alban, a citizen of Verulamium, who had given shelter to a Welsh -priest, Amphibalus, was scourged, and then dragged along the ancient -British causeway, which still exists, across the Ver, and up the lane to -the top of the hill afterwards called Holmhurst, and there put to death. -Amphibalus suffered the same fate. On the west wall of the north transept -of the cathedral, just under a round-headed window, is a small black -cross cut in stone. “This marks the traditional site of the martyrdom -of St. Alban, when there was neither town nor abbey in this place, but -only a flowery slope planted with trees.” In the fifth century the -English conquered the district. They abandoned Verulamium, and built -the present town on the hill of Holmhurst, calling it Watlingceaster, as -Watling Street ran through it. In the year 793, Offa, king of Mercia, -treacherously murdered Ethelbert, king of East Anglia (see HEREFORD). It -was revealed to him in a vision that, by way of penance, he should seek -out the body of St. Alban, and there erect a monastery. King, archbishop, -bishops, priests, and a great multitude of common people, searched the -hill of Holmhurst, and found the relics of the martyr. A church was -built, and richly endowed, and was entrusted to Benedictine monks. It -remained a Benedictine abbey-church till the Dissolution, in 1539. Then -it became a parish church, and in 1875 a cathedral. - -[Illustration: TRIFORIUM OF TRANSEPT.] - -The relics of St. Alban had an eventful history. First they were carried -off by pirates to Denmark, but were afterwards restored. Then, in -expectation of another Danish raid, they were sent for safety to Ely. -When the Danes had gone, the monks of Ely, being desirous to keep the -precious bones in their possession, palmed on the monks of St. Alban’s -some suppositious relics. Whereupon the monks of St. Alban’s asserted -that neither had they sent to Ely the genuine relics, but only sham ones, -to draw attention away from the fact that they had hidden the authentic -bones of the martyr in a hole in the wall of their own church! “_Credat -Judæus Apelles._” - -Towards the end of the eleventh century Nicholas Breakspear was born at -Abbots Langley, in Hertfordshire. He applied to the abbey of St. Alban -to be admitted a monk, but was scornfully rejected, and rebuked for his -impudence, being, as he was, son of one of the menials of the convent. -This same man became Pope in 1154—the only Englishman who ever became -Pope. And when he became Pope, under the title of Adrian IV., he forgot -not the monks of St. Alban’s, but forgave them, and made their monastery -free of episcopal jurisdiction for ever, and subject only to the see of -Rome. And to the abbot he gave precedence over all other English abbots; -which precedency, after much dispute with Westminster, St. Alban’s -retained till the Dissolution. - -In 1455 was fought the first battle of St. Albans, when Henry VI. was -wounded in the neck by an arrow, and made prisoner by the Yorkists under -the Earl of Warwick. The forces met in Holywell Street (where we entered -the town), between the Key and the Chequer. In the second battle, 1461, -the Earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen Margaret. - -St. Alban’s was an exceedingly wealthy abbey; it had estates in almost -every county in England, and at the present value of money its income -would amount to at least a million. Its conventual buildings must -have been immense. One of the guest-halls, in addition to parlours -and bedrooms, had stables for three hundred horses. Of all these vast -structures nothing remains but one of the gatehouses, built in 1380. In -it were detained the French prisoners in the Napoleonic wars; afterwards -it became a common gaol, now it houses the Grammar School. - -[Illustration: NAVE, NORTH SIDE.] - -Internally, the church is divided from west to east, in ancient monastic -fashion, into (1) nave, (2) choir, (3) sanctuary, (4) Saints’ chapel, (5) -retro-choir or ante-chapel, (6) Lady chapel. (1) The ritual nave occupies -the ten western bays only of the architectural nave, and terminates at -the Holy Rood screen. (2) The ritual choir is not placed in the eastern -limb; but, following a far more ancient precedent, in the three eastern -bays of the architectural nave, and in the crossing (that part of the -transept which is beneath the central tower). This was the place of the -choir in the primitive basilicas, and in the early monastic churches. The -“Coro” of the Spanish cathedrals is still placed in the nave. The same -arrangement survives in this country in Westminster Abbey and Norwich, -and has lately been restored at Peterborough. (3) The sanctuary extends -from the tower to the great reredos, and provided a free and unencumbered -space in front of the high altar, which “dwelt apart.” (4) The Saint’s -chapel was occupied, like the feretory at Winchester, by magnificent -shrines which towered behind and above the high altar, visible far -down the nave, at least before the great reredos was erected. (5) The -retro-choir or ante-chapel provided a processional path, or ambulatory, -or eastern choir aisle at the back of the shrines. Romsey and Hereford -possess the earliest of these processional paths, Winchester the largest. -(6) The Lady chapel occupies its normal position, to the extreme east. -But where there was no room for farther eastward extension of the -cathedral, the Lady chapel may be found on the north or south side of the -choir, as at Bristol and Oxford. Here, as at Salisbury and Winchester, -the high roofs do not extend over retro-choir and Lady chapel, which are -only one story high; at York and Lincoln and Ely, the church retains -its full height uninterruptedly to the extreme east end; the ritualistic -divisions of the church being marked by screens only. - -[Illustration: LADY-CHAPEL LOOKING EAST.] - -In Norman times the church did not extend so far eastward. The sanctuary -ended in three semicircular apses, of which those of the aisles were -semicircular inside but square outside, as at Romsey. And, in lieu of -eastern aisles, the transepts had each a pair of little semicircular -chapels, the arches leading into which may still be seen in their eastern -walls. - -“In 1077, Paul, a monk of St. Stephen’s, Caen (the Abbaye-aux-hommes), -was elected Abbot, through the influence of Archbishop Lanfranc, whose -kinsman he was.” In these words we have the origin of St. Alban’s -Cathedral; and not of St. Alban’s only, but of all the mediæval -architecture of our land, whether Romanesque or Gothic. Before the -Norman conquest we had a native style of our own; a kind of primitive -Romanesque, of which remains survive at Jarrow, Wing, Worth, Deerhurst, -and elsewhere, as well as in the crypts of Ripon, Hexham, and Repton. But -the invasion of the Normans changed all this. The primitive indigenous -Romanesque of England was thrown aside in favour of the far more advanced -Romanesque of Normandy. From the great monastery of St. Stephen, Caen, -came Lanfranc, the first, and Anselm, the second Norman Archbishop of -Canterbury. When Lanfranc set to work to rebuild Canterbury Cathedral, -he made it in length and breadth and height an exact copy of the church -of St. Stephen, Caen. What Lanfranc did at Canterbury, the Walkelins did -at Winchester and Ely, and Abbot Paul at St. Alban’s. They set to work to -rebuild their churches on the vast scale, and with all the improvements, -of the Romanesque architecture of Caen and Normandy. St. Stephen’s, Caen, -is therefore the link between the architecture of Normandy and that of -England; it is the mother-church of all the cathedrals of our land. More -than this: Lanfranc and Anselm were by birth, not Normans, but Italians; -Lanfranc was born at Pavia, Anselm at Aosta. Paul was a kinsman of -Lanfranc. All three, then, came from the great plain of Lombardy; and it -was through such scholars and theologians as these that the architecture -of Lombardy found its way into Normandy. For the architecture of Normandy -is in character mainly Lombardic. Therefore, just as Canterbury and -Winchester and St. Alban’s are the offspring of St. Stephen’s, Caen; so -St. Stephen’s itself is the child of S. Ambrogio and S. Eustorgio, Milan; -S. Stephen, Verona; S. Sophia, Padua; and other ninth- and tenth-century -churches of Lombardy and the neighbourhood. - -[Illustration: RAMRYGE’S CHANTRY.] - -But though in origin Winchester, Ely, and St. Alban’s hail from Caen, -they all far surpass their model in vastness of scale. Winchester and -Ely even committed the magnificent extravagance of having a western as -well as an eastern aisle to the transepts; and though St. Alban’s, like -Canterbury, had an aisleless transept, yet it surpassed them all in the -stupendous length of its nave. Still more does it surpass the Caen -church and Lanfranc’s Canterbury. Caen and Canterbury had nine bays in -the nave, two in the choir, and two in each transept; St. Alban’s had -thirteen in the nave, five in the choir, and three in each transept. Caen -and Canterbury had naves 193 feet long, transepts 145 feet long, and a -total length of 290 feet; St. Alban’s a nave 292 feet long (as long as -the whole churches at Caen and Canterbury), transepts 177 feet long, and -a total length of about 430 feet. In the fourteenth century, owing to the -eastward extensions, St. Alban’s became longer still—520 feet inside, 550 -feet outside. Winchester is even longer still: 2 yards longer than St. -Alban’s; 3 yards longer than Ely; 4 yards longer than Canterbury. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -I. EARLY NORMAN.—Of the work of Paul of Caen (1077-1093), we have the -central tower and transept practically complete, and large portions -of the nave and sanctuary. The design is strictly conditioned by the -material, Roman brick; in consequence of the employment of which the -architect was driven to rely for his effects, not on ornament or detail, -but on what is nobler far, vastness of scale. It is worth while to -compare the brick transept of St. Alban’s with the contemporary transept -of Winchester, where the design is conditioned by the use of stone. - -II. LATE NORMAN.—A fine arcade and doorway have been removed from the -slype to the south wall of the south transept by Lord Grimthorpe. He is -good enough to tell us that the new work which he has interpolated is so -artful that no archæologist in future shall be able to ascertain which -portions are old and which are new. - -III. LANCET.—The vast and imposing church completed in the twelfth -century found little favour in Gothic eyes. It was apparently regarded -not only as ugly, but as incapable of being improved into something -better. The only thing was to pull it down. In the end the monks did pull -down and rebuild a large part of it, occupying at least a hundred years -in the work. Fortunately for us, they wearied of their self-imposed task. - -They began at the west end of the nave, so as not to interfere with the -monastic services. First, John de Celia (1195-1214) proceeded to rebuild -the west front on a lovely design, and with a wealth of costly marble and -carving. Of this work there remain portions in the north-west and central -porches of the façade. - -His successor, William de Trumpington, was more economical, and produced -more work. He completed the porches, and built in the western end of the -nave four bays on the north and five bays on the south side. It can still -be seen how he economised, not only on John de Celia’s design, in the -arch that was to have led into a south-western tower, but on the design -of his own bases, piers and vaulting-shafts; he even renounced the idea -of vaulting his work at all—a very ungothic procedure. - -IV. GEOMETRICAL.—His successors went further still; they abandoned all -hope of rebuilding the rest of the nave, and turned their attention to -the eastern limb. Retaining their stalls, as at present, in the crossing -and the three western bays of the nave, they were able to go on with -works to the east without any interruption to the services. The works -dragged on very slowly. For some reason or other this wealthy abbey—with -estates in almost every county of England—never had money to spend on its -church. - -[Illustration: THE REREDOS.] - -First, the Norman sanctuary and apses were demolished, except that a -length of Norman wall was retained on either side of the sanctuary. If -this had been removed the tower might have collapsed. The chief feature -of the new sanctuary is the clerestory windows, with tracery of early -type, _c._ 1250. - -Soon after, the lower parts of the Saint’s chapel and the ante-chapel -were built; these were not completely finished till _c._ 1315. -There, too, “vaulting ambition had o’erleapt itself”: the monks made -preparations for vaults both within and without the ante-chapel, but in -the end put up an unworthy flat ceiling. - -About 1295 they commenced a new Lady chapel. This was not finished till -about 1326. Thus it was built in the last years of the Geometrical -and the early years of the Curvilinear style, and, like Selby choir, -illustrates charmingly the transition from the one to the other. - -V. CURVILINEAR.—The monks had now done all they meant to do. The eastern -limb was rebuilt. They meant to do no more in the nave. But their hands -were forced. Five Norman bays collapsed on the south side of the nave in -1323, and the monks had perforce to rebuild them. The design is closely -assimilated to that of the Lancet bays to the west; the clerestory -actually having lancet windows without tracery. To this period belong the -shrines of St. Alban and St. Amphibalus, the Rood-screen, the doorway and -arcade of the cloister. - -[Illustration: THE SHRINE.] - -VI. PERPENDICULAR.—The great gateway was built _c._ 1380. The nave and -choir were better lighted on the north side by the insertion of windows -in the triforium. The watching-loft was constructed _c._ 1420; the choir -was ceiled, and the great reredos was erected _c._ 1480. To the same -period belong the brass of Abbot de la Mare, _c._ 1390; and the grand -chantries of Abbot Wheathampstead and Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, _c._ -1440. - -VII. TUDOR.—The grandest chantry of all is that of Abbot Ramryge, _c._ -1520. - -VIII. In recent times vast sums have been spent in underpinning and -securing the walls and tower: and we have had the amazing west front and -transept-ends designed by Lord Grimthorpe. - -The “Annals of an Abbey,” in Froude’s “Short Studies,” should be read. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Salisbury. - - -[Illustration] - -Two English cathedrals surpass all others in external effect: Lincoln and -Salisbury; each of them being at its best as seen from the north-east. -But Lincoln lacks “the quiet tranquillity of the close of Salisbury, -the half-hidden houses, covered with vines and creepers, that nestle -among the trees, the sense of being shut off from the work-a-day world. -If Durham seems the petrified interpretation of the Church militant, -Salisbury is the very type and picture of the Church of the Prince of -Peace. Unworldliness and peace brood over church and close.” - -The ancient Norman cathedral stood within the fortifications of Old -Sarum. The site was cramped, and extension was impossible; there was -far too much wind and far too little water; moreover the soldiers -who garrisoned the castle were most objectionable neighbours. So, by -permission of the Pope, Bishop Richard Poore in 1220 commenced a new -cathedral on the present site. - -It was a virgin site; and from this fact resulted a cathedral different -from any other that we possess, and as a study in design more important -than any other we possess. In other cathedrals we study the mediæval -architect designing under difficulties; what we see in such a composite -cathedral as Hereford or Chichester or Rochester is not one design, -but a dozen designs trying to blend into one design; sometimes, as -at Canterbury and Rochester, rather ineffectually, sometimes, as at -Hereford, with remarkable success. At Salisbury it is not so: the design -is one design, all sprang from a single brain, except the west front and -possibly the upper part of tower and spire. We have no such homogeneous -design in our mediæval cathedrals. The French were less conservative, -perhaps less penurious; their Gothic architects were iconoclasts; no -French architect could have allowed such frightful solecisms to remain as -disfigure our cathedrals to the purist eye, and endear them to the artist. - -Bishop Poore’s architect, Elias de Dereham, one of the canons of the -cathedral, who a little later designed the eastern transept of Durham, -had—what no other of our Gothic architects had—a free hand. Salisbury, -then, tells us what no other cathedral does—what an English architect -thought a cathedral ought to be like, when not hampered by having to -preserve or assimilate pre-existing work or to build on pre-existing -foundations. Canterbury nave is not the best the architect could do: it -is the best he could do subject to the restriction that his nave must be -neither longer nor broader than Lanfranc’s ancient nave. Elias de Dereham -had no such restrictions; the cathedral was to be built in the green -pastures, he could take as much space as he liked. - -Begun in 1220, the whole cathedral, except west front, tower and spire, -was complete in 1266, having cost, it is said, what is equivalent to half -a million of our money. It has, therefore, the distinction among our -cathedrals of having a design which is practically uniform. It is said, -indeed, and with perfect truth, that the homogeneity and uniformity -of the design of Salisbury makes it less interesting than the usual -composite cathedral of England, with its design changing, as in Selby -nave, almost in every bay. When we have seen one bay of Salisbury nave, -we have seen the other nine, and we know that we shall find practically -the same design in the choir. Yet we can afford very well, in England, to -have one great design, the product not of a dozen minds, but of one mind; -a work completed in less than half a century, and not spread out, like -Canterbury, over four centuries, or like Hereford, over seven. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Again, building on a virgin site, Elias de Dereham did what all great -builders have always wished to do—he made his building symmetrical. It is -the fashion to contrast the symmetry of Greek with the picturesqueness -of Gothic architecture. The comparison may be carried too far. The -Erechtheium is as unsymmetrical and picturesque as any Gothic building. -The great cathedrals of northern France, and Salisbury and Exeter, -are quite classical in their symmetry. But they are not pedantic in -their symmetry. Because nave balances choir, the north transept the -south transept, and the north-east transept the south-east transept, -the builder was not so foolish as to construct on the south a big -porch to balance that on the north side of the nave. Instead of that, -he built to the south an octagonal chapter-house, and this he placed -unsymmetrically—_i.e._, picturesquely—because, so placed, it was more -to the convenience of those who would have to use it. In other words, he -did not purposefully aim at the picturesque and the irregular. Gothic -cathedrals are picturesque, either of accident, as at Canterbury, owing -to the casual collocation of work of different design in the course of -several centuries, or because the different parts of the cathedral, being -intended for different functions, have been designed different in plan, -in dimensions, and in details. The latter is the case with Salisbury. - -Two chief types of cathedral plan were at the architect’s disposal: -what we may call the York type, and the Wells type. In the latter, -the cathedral continues at its fullest height from the western doors -to the far east of the sanctuary, then the retro-choir or ante-chapel -(sometimes divided into Saint’s chapel and processional path or -ambulatory) is roofed at a far lower height, and east of them is a Lady -chapel, similarly on a low level. And, of course, as the upper wall of -the east end of the sanctuary requires to be supported, arches have to -be built beneath it opening from the sanctuary into the retro-choir. -The plan is a beautiful one—it is our English equivalent for the French -‘chevet.’ Externally, the different portions of the eastern limb tell -distinctly the purposes for which they are built: standing to the east -of Winchester, or Wells, or Hereford, you say at once, “This building is -the Lady chapel; there is the processional path and probably the shrine -of the local saint, there is the east end of the sanctuary, and the -light from that east window at the early morning services streams down -on the high altar below.” Internally, too, the effect is delightful; the -upper story of the cathedral is of course really greatly curtailed in -length, but the cathedral is not shortened to the eye: the mysterious -vistas through the east arches of the cathedral more than restore the -height lost above; the glimpses of Lady chapel behind ambulatory, and -ambulatory behind Saints’ chapel, as seen from far west in the nave, -make the termination of the Lady chapel, invisible from many points of -view, seem infinitely distant. Of these mysterious distances, shadowy -recesses and changing vistas, there is nothing in Lincoln and York; the -whole eastern limb is seen at a single glance, and, unfortunately, is -foreshortened by the eye. Wells and Salisbury internally look longer -than they are, Lincoln and York much shorter. In mediæval days, however, -the ritualistic divisions of the church were marked off by a series of -screens, each adding apparent length to the interior. So many of these -screens, however, have been swept away by Wyatt, Scott and the like, -or replaced by paltry open-work, as at Lichfield and Durham, that many -of the cathedrals of this type are now mere open barns; all sense of -mystery, all sense of magnitude gone. Externally, York and Lincoln and -Beverley have the best of it. The sweep of a sky-line, five hundred feet -in length, at a height so vast, is sublimely impressive. The cost of an -exterior kept at an unbroken height for such a distance is very great, -but it is worth the cost. - -[Illustration: TRANSEPT] - -Cathedrals of the latter type, such as Ely, York, and Southwell, are -quite presentable with a central tower of moderate height, provided that -it is reinforced by more important towers to the west. An exterior of -the former type, that of Wells and Salisbury, demands a very important -central tower. Accordingly, every cathedral of this type has a big -central tower—viz., St. Alban’s, Hereford, Wells; or a spire as well as a -tower—viz., Chichester. (Winchester alone is an exception, an exception -which proves how very much a central tower is needed in such elevations.) -In such exteriors, looked at from the east, hills rise beyond hills, alps -beyond alps, and the eye instinctively looks up to see the highest ranges -aspire into the pyramidal outline of a Matterhorn. And this is what is -given us at Salisbury. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -It is not, however, what Elias de Dereham, the original architect, meant. -No spire, or even upper tower, says Sir Christopher Wren, was originally -contemplated. The unique slenderness of the piers of the crossing is -certain evidence of that. The diameter of the piers on which the central -tower of Canterbury rests is twelve feet; those at York and Winchester -have a diameter of ten feet; those at Worcester nine feet; those of -Peterborough tower (which collapsed) and of Salisbury, seven feet only. -It is almost terrible to stand between these four thin piers of Salisbury -and think how many hundred tons of stone in tower and spire above they -have been made to bear. They were never meant to bear any such weight, -especially planted as they are, like the whole cathedral, on the insecure -foundation of a spongy bog. Indeed, not merely the tower and spire, -but the whole cathedral, ought never to have been built where they are. -Recklessness is by no means a strong enough word to use of the mediæval -builders’ wanton carelessness about foundations. Peterborough cathedral -was built practically without foundations on waterlogged peat; beneath -the central tower of Carlisle cathedral were two running springs; Wells -is reared on the boggy shores of a ring of pools. At Salisbury continuous -bases had to be built from pier to pier. - -[Illustration: RETRO-CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.] - -Elias de Dereham’s design, no doubt, was to give us an exterior something -like that of Beverley Minster or Westminster Abbey. The whole elevation -of the cathedral, however, clamoured for a tall tower and spire. The -original design was abandoned, and the foolhardy enterprise was taken in -hand (_c._ 1330) of adding to the existing tower, which only just rose -above the roofs, two more stages, and on these a spire, and that not of -wood, but of stone. To abut this perilous steeple as much as possible, -great flying-buttresses were added, both externally and running through -the clerestory and triforium of the interior of the church. Moreover, -to lessen the weight, the tower-walls were built in thin shells, while -the spire is but nine inches thick. That the builders left their -timber scaffolding in the spire, where it still is, to give its sides -a little additional support, shows that they were alive themselves to -the fragility and insecurity of their work. Later on, in the fifteenth -century, stone girders were put across the piers of the central and -eastern transepts, as at Canterbury and Wells, by way of struts, to keep -the piers from bulging inwardly, though, as a matter of fact, what was -wanted was rather ties to keep them from bulging outwardly. - -Externally, however, the madness of this engineering feat does not -trouble one. The addition of the tower and spire gives to the whole -composition that pyramidal outline which always presents such a -satisfactory appearance of stability to the eye—and in architectural -design it is the eye that has to be reckoned with. In Wren’s masterpiece, -St. Paul’s, one has the same central pyramidal outline of all the masses, -but in a still higher degree. - -[Illustration: NAVE AND WEST FRONT.] - -In both cases, in St. Paul’s and in Salisbury, unity is secured. -Salisbury spire is tall enough, St. Paul’s dome is tall and broad enough, -to impose unity on all the diverging masses of the building. The low -towers of Worcester and Hereford have no such supreme dominance. - -Next to the abiding presence of the spire, unity is secured by scoring -strong, horizontal lines round the building, welding its masses into one -composition. Most cathedrals are contented, like Wells, with one strong -horizontal line—a broad parapet. But at Salisbury there is not only a -horizontal parapet, but a horizontal corbel-table as well; and there are -no less than three horizontal strings—one running round the base of the -walls, a second running along beneath the windows, and a third running -round the buttresses; moreover, each of these horizontal lines is scored -far more heavily than anywhere else. Especially remarkable is it to find -the upper flow of the buttresses stopped by a heavy string. Usually, in -Gothic, if a horizontal meets a vertical line, the former gives way; -here, as in Greek architecture, the vertical gives way to the horizontal -line. This architect saw, what few others of his day saw, that you may -make too much of the “aspiring principle” of Gothic; that if you suppress -the horizontal lines, you weaken the unity of the building, by failing to -tie all its parts together. - -As we have seen, the appearance of stability was enhanced by the -pyramidal outline which the whole building ultimately assumed. But the -eye instinctively looks downwards also to see that the pyramidal outline -is continued there, it instinctively demands an emphatic spreading base. -It likes to see a rock-like foundation. At Salisbury all below is but -greensward. All the more carefully, therefore, has the builder spread -out and broadened and emphasised his base-courses, till art gives the -appearance of stability which nature has denied. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT] - -Stable, therefore, below and above, the exterior of Salisbury has much -of that “monumental appearance”—of what Dr. Johnson called “stability -and indeterminate duration”—which is the noble attribute of a great -architecture, which one desiderates in a building “built not for time, -but for eternity, whose walls will long be washed by the passing waves -of humanity.” Such a building gravity and simplicity befit; its design -should be solid and monumental, sober and restrained; it is not a field -for the frippery of ornament, its best decoration is the stain of time. -Built for eternity, it should suggest infinity—an infinite length which -the eye cannot measure, an infinite height which the eye cannot estimate, -a vastness of area that overpowers the imagination. Bigness counts for -much in the painter’s work and the sculptor’s; it counts for yet more -in architecture. A building in the grand style has to be big, and if it -is a Gothic building it has to look bigger still. Salisbury is really -big: it is 473 feet long, its spire is 404 feet high, its vaulted roof, -81 feet high, is the highest of any English cathedral. But the eye does -not measure in feet. Salisbury spire and Louth spire, acute and slender, -look hundreds of feet above their real height; Oxford and Chichester -spires look lower than they really are. As for length, follow the wall -of Salisbury from east to west. As you pass round cape and headland and -promontory, you forget the point from which you started, or the goal for -which you are bound. How foreshortened in comparison is the long façade -of a Pitti Palace! As for area, in all honesty Mr. Whittington gravely -declared that Salisbury was “a much larger church altogether than -Amiens.” The error was natural. Amiens has fewer parts than Salisbury, -and necessarily seems less. Going round Salisbury we pass no less than -seven façades, at Amiens only three. There are thirty-nine bays in -Amiens; in Salisbury there are sixty. As usual, multiplicity of parts has -produced apparent increase of magnitude. - -Much of the impressiveness of this exterior is due, not only to its -grandeur of scale, both real and apparent, but to the lovely hue of -the stone of which it is built, and the astonishing perfection of the -masonry. At first sight, indeed, the appearance of the masonry of -Salisbury is almost uncanny. Salisbury is not mouldered or corroded -with age. “Time prints no wrinkles on its brow.” Its antiquity is that -of a goddess ever young. The masonry, too, is that of a Greek temple; -the precision that of the builders of the Parthenon; the joints fine, -almost invisible; the blocks squared with mathematical precision; pass -round the building from south transept eastward to north transept, and -you will find that the stones in each course preserve their height with -utmost exactness all these hundreds of feet. And so the building has the -feeling of Greece in it. Gothic is a “small-stone” style, with joints -openly displayed. Here, as in a Parthenon, the joints are invisible; the -whole building seems one solid block—a monumental effect indeed. The -crumbling masonry of Ely might belong to the ancient days of Saturn; -Salisbury seems the work of a younger race of gods. Only when we scan its -colour—the lovely colour of the Salisbury stone, that is seen nowhere -else—“a pale, ashy grey, stained below with broad patches of red and -yellow lichens,”—do we realise that this is no temple of yesterday, but -one that has faced the stress of storm for more than six centuries. Her -perpetual juvenility is at once the charm and the disappointment of -Salisbury. - -Very noteworthy, also, are the sobriety and restraint and repose of the -whole design: very ungothic, too. At first it passes unnoticed; after -a time it is noticed—and noticed with astonishment—that the beauty of -a design of consummate loveliness is gained in some mysterious way -without the use of ornament. One realises at Salisbury—perhaps for the -first time—that ornament is non-essential even in Gothic design. What -ornament there is is of the slightest—a floriated finial to a buttress, a -trefoiled corbel-table; the design would be little the worse if even this -trifling amount of decoration were omitted. - -[Illustration: CLOISTER.] - -The success of the exterior of Salisbury depends, not on the littlenesses -of architectural design, but on the great leading factors of any really -great style—vastness of scale, yet further enhanced to the eye by -multiplicity of parts; bold handling of the masses, combined nevertheless -into a symmetrical whole: unity, harmony, proportion, shadow-effects. -Beside these elemental factors, sculptured ornament is but “mint and -cummin.” - -Straighten out Salisbury cathedral, in imagination, till Lady chapel -and retro-choir and eastern transept and choir and central transept -and nave are all in one long straight line. Then let it resume its -shape, and you will see what is meant by “bold handling of the masses,” -and the difference it makes. Nevertheless, don’t go away with the -idea that the lines of Salisbury cathedral were pulled about in this -way for picturesqueness’ sake—for the sake of effect. The Gothic -architects—_pace_ Peterborough west front—did not design for effect. All -the parts of the building are there either for some constructional or -for some ritualistic reason. A big central tower will not stand without -abutment to the north and south; therefore there has to be a central -transept. The long stretch of clerestory wall—at Salisbury unbuttressed -externally—will be all the better for the support of two transepts and a -lofty porch: they are added. Transepts, moreover, are useful in providing -chapel-room for various great saints of Christendom, as well as for the -local saints of the cathedral. The porch is useful as providing neutral -ground for various functions—half religious, half secular; the porch is -added. And so with the chapter-house. Every one of the appanages which -make a Gothic exterior so picturesque was built, not because it would be -picturesque, but because it would be useful. - -And see what pits and abysses of shadow lurk behind each projecting -buttress, and still more in each deep sound that runs inland, like some -Norwegian fiord, between towering precipices on either side. But these -grand shadow-effects—varying from minute to minute as the sun moves -round—varying from day to day as summer treads on spring, autumn on -summer—were not in the designer’s first intent. The projecting masses -had to be there; the play of light and shadow which ensued, he did not -plan; he only welcomed it. He had little control over it; in the windows, -indeed, which were within his control, he made the jambs so shallow that -the windows are externally almost shadowless; almost the whole depth of -the window he gave to the interior, preferring to enrich the interior -of each window with an inner arcade—feeling, doubtless, that he need -do nothing externally to add to the shadow-effects of the projecting -buttresses. - -But the life-blood of an architectural design is proportion. -Unfortunately one never notices its presence. Only when a building is -out of proportion does one recognise that such a thing as proportion -exists. And as it is the most subtle, so it is the most important factor -in design—design small or large—Salisbury cathedral, the Pandolphini -Palace, a Chippendale chair, or a Wedgewood vase. Alter the shape of the -vase, and see the difference. In the same way, see if you can lengthen -or shorten Salisbury nave for the better, or the transepts, or the -porch, or the Lady chapel; or if you could heighten the Lady chapel or -retro-choir to advantage; or if you could make the roofs an inch more -acute or more flat. The proportions of this, as of every really great -building, are subtle in the extreme; they interlock in all directions. -Each part—_e.g._, the Lady chapel—is in proportion to the cathedral taken -as a whole; each part is in proportion to contiguous parts; and each -individual bit of each part is in proportion to the rest of it: _e.g._, -in the Lady chapel the length, breadth and height of the walls, the slope -of the roof, the dimensions of the windows, etc., are all in proportion -to the Lady chapel taken as a whole. More than that—the proportions of -the nave, choir, transepts, etc., are those which are suitable to a -church 473 feet long and 404 feet high. If you built a church with a -nave, choir and transepts exactly twice as large as those of Salisbury, -it would not be in proportion, but out of proportion. The same lack of -proportion would ensue if you copied the design of Salisbury in a parish -church of exactly half its dimensions. Salisbury cathedral, like the -Parthenon, cannot be copied with impunity, unless you preserve every -dimension unaltered. Modern designers, not recognising this, have too -often wrought themselves disappointment by unintelligent imitations of -ancient work. - -[Illustration: CHAPTER HOUSE.] - -To the north and south another charming effect is seen in the gradual -growth of the ornament upward. This, again, is to the credit of Time, -and not of Elias de Dereham. From 1220 to 1330 window-tracery was -ever growing richer day by day, and Salisbury cathedral was ever -growing upward. And so the ornament culminates most rightly, yet most -accidentally, in the higher stories of the transepts, in the tower and -spire. - -Only one criticism suggests itself before we leave Salisbury cathedral -as seen from the north-east. Are not the voids in excess—two windows in -the aisles and three in the clerestory, where one would produce a much -more monumental and solid effect? Such single windows, filled with the -opaque grisaille glass of the period, would have subdued the glare of the -interior. But I have not the slightest doubt that the critics of the day -infinitely preferred the uniform good lighting of Salisbury to the “dim, -religious light” of Lincoln and its darksome corners and recesses. In -Salisbury there is not a quiet spot anywhere where you can pray in peace; -the blinding light pursues you everywhere. But good people in those days -liked a cheerful church—full of light, sparkling with stained glass, -brilliant with gilding and paint: religious gloom had not yet become -fashionable; it did not come in till the time of the Puritans. In every -respect except the fenestration, in Salisbury, as in Lincoln Minster, -internal seems to have been subordinated to external effect. - -The interior is, indeed, very fine. It could hardly help being fine; a -nave so spacious and so proportioned could under no circumstances be a -failure. It is immensely high, and is long in proportion. The proportion -of height to span (2½ to 1) is better than in most English churches. The -harmony of the design—practically the same from east to west, and from -north to south—is unique in England, and is most impressive. The charming -way, too, in which the architect has contrived that we should have a -vista of another miniature church in the Lady chapel—a cathedral within -a cathedral—is worthy of all commendation. But, as in Lincoln nave, to -the eye every support is alarmingly insufficient for the work it has to -do; the piers are too tall and slender, the walls too thin, and pierced -with too many openings. The triforium is a most unfortunate design: in -harmony neither with the arcade below, nor with the clerestory above; -its outer arches ugly in themselves and discordant with every other arch -in the church; nor could it be expected that its dark marble shafts would -tell against a dark background—black on black. Add to this the dreadfully -new look of everything—partly due to the very perfection of the masonry, -partly because Scott has been here—and the overpowering glare: one almost -feels as if one were in the Crystal Palace. Of the west front it is as -well to say nothing; it would take pages to contain the unkind things -that have been said about it. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Southwell. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-WEST.] - -Southwell Minster, as it is usually but incorrectly styled, was -originally what is called a collegiate church. It is as if, in any parish -church of unusual importance or with an exceptionally large population, -there should be not one rector, as nowadays, but a dozen or so, this -dozen being formed into a corporation, with a dean, precentor, chancellor -and treasurer (the two first officials did not exist at Southwell). All -the cathedrals of the old foundation had from the earliest time such a -collegiate constitution as the above: viz., Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, -Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Salisbury, Wells, and the four Welsh -cathedrals. But all these were also cathedrals: _i.e._, they possessed a -bishop’s chair (_cathedra_); Southwell did not become a cathedral—there -was no bishop of Southwell—till the present reign. - -Like the other ecclesiastical colleges—those of cathedrals excepted—that -of Southwell was suppressed by Edward VI.; but under Queen Mary it had -the good fortune to be reconstituted and re-endowed. Its sister church, -Beverley minster, also a college of secular canons—_i.e._, priests not -living under a monastic rule—became and has remained a parish church. -The only collegiate churches remaining with their original constitution -are Windsor, Westminster, Heytesbury, Middleham, and St. Katherine’s -Hospital, London—omitting, of course, the cathedrals of the old -foundation. - -Though, however, there was till recently no bishop of Southwell, yet the -church up to the Reformation was practically a cathedral. Just as the -Bishop of Wells had at different times other cathedrals besides that -of Wells—at one time at Bath, at another time at Glastonbury; and as -the bishop of the Mercian diocese had at one time three chairs—viz., at -Lichfield, Chester and Coventry—so the Archbishop of the immense northern -kingdom of Northumbria required and possessed four cathedrals: viz., -at York, Ripon, Beverley and Southwell. The latter was especially the -cathedral of Nottinghamshire, as it has become once more. The archbishops -had a palace at Southwell, of which the fine hall remains; Archbishop -Sandys is buried in the minster. - -I. In the seventh century St. Paulinus is said to have founded a -church at Southwell. But long before his time—in the third century, or -thereabouts—the Romans were at Southwell. There actually survives a -tesselated pavement in the south transept which may well have belonged to -a Romano-British basilica. - -II. Two fragments have been carefully preserved and re-used from an -early Norman church—it may even have been of Pre-Conquest date. One is a -fragment of a lintel over a doorway in the north transept, depicting St. -Michael and the Dragon and David throttling the lion. The other is a set -of capitals on the eastern piers of the tower, now unfortunately covered -up to make room for more organ pipes. (A mania for big organs is raging -in our cathedrals: nothing short of the roar and rumble of an earthquake -will bring people nowadays into a devotional frame of mind.) - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -III. Between 1109 and 1114 a new Norman church was begun. Of this the -choir has disappeared. As the choir would be built first, 1120 is given -as an approximate date for the transept and 1130 for the nave. The -cable-mouldings, however, of the crossing and transepts, and the carving -of the nave-capitals, are so rich and effective that the work is probably -somewhat later. Indeed, the whole of the ornamentation is far ahead of -that at Ely, Norwich and Peterborough, Tewkesbury or Gloucester. The -carved capitals may be compared with those of the nave of Hereford. The -interior of the nave is low and squat, but has been vastly improved by -Mr. Christian’s semicircular ceiling. The piers are stumpy cylinders; -the elevation is that of Malvern, or St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield. Here -there are none of the tall compound piers of Peterborough or Ely, still -less the Brobdingnagian cylinders of Tewkesbury or Gloucester. Each bay -of the triforium was to have been filled with the same kind of arcade as -that of Romsey choir: viz., two small arches, with a small shaft rising -from their point of intersection. (Projecting stones, intended for the -arches and the shaft, may be seen in each bay.) The Romsey design was -not a success even in the eyes of the Romsey people, for they tried -five other designs in the triforium of their transept; and the Southwell -canons very sensibly omitted this inner arcade. The clerestory, with its -circular windows, is remarkable; the same design was worked out very -beautifully, later on, in the north transept of Hereford. - -[Illustration: SOUTH TRANSEPT DOOR.] - -From each transept projected eastward a two-storied apse (cf. -Gloucester), the arches into which remain, and also the very noble arcade -which opened into the upper chapel of the apse. It is noteworthy that -the aisles are vaulted, as at Kirkstall, in oblong compartments—another -mark of late date. The square broach spires of the west front—which, -as well as the conical roof of the chapter-house, were restored by -Mr. Christian on the authority of old prints—give the church quite a -Rhenish appearance. The two big west windows of the towers are modern -shams; originally these stages of the towers were, no doubt, solid. The -north-west tower has a pointed arcade, and is therefore a little later -than its neighbour, which has an intersecting arcade of semicircular -arches. Originally the façade was just such a one as that which remains -in St. Stephen’s, Caen. - -A magnificent string-course of zigzag ornament runs along the nave and -round the transepts. In places it has been taken out, reinserted in a -different place or copied, when the Perpendicular windows were inserted -in the aisle of the nave. In the south transept it takes the unusual -form of a segmental arch over the Archbishop’s doorway. The great -emphasis given to the horizontal lines of the Norman building is as -remarkable here as at Salisbury. There are good examples of the “nebule” -corbel-table with a later parapet, and of Norman pinnacles; one of these, -over the porch, is hollow, and served as a chimney for the sacristan or -sexton, who, it was enacted, “should lie within the church, to be at -hand to ring the bells at the right time.” The gables of the transept -have very effective zigzag, with interesting differences of treatment; -the pinnacles of the transepts seem to have been removed at some time or -other to the central tower, for which they are too small. There is a fine -view of the whole exterior from the fields and gardens to the south-east. - -[Illustration: NORTH PORCH.] - -IV. This fine Norman church only existed in its entirety for a century. -Its eastern limb was less than half the length of the present choir, -which was commenced _c._ 1230 by Archbishop Gray, who built the great -transept of York and the west front of Ripon. The plan is practically -that of Worcester, (the eastern portion of which was finished _c._ 1218), -but on a humbler scale: viz., an aisled choir for the canons, a tiny -eastern transept (such a one was still in existence in the Transitional -choir of York), and a long presbytery, the two eastern bays of which -were without aisles. Externally this gives a beautiful composition even -now. Before its mutilation, the Southwell choir must have been one of -the best mediæval designs in Europe. Unfortunately the roofs have been -lowered, and in the flattened battlemented eastern gable a most misshapen -window now appears. Originally there were no external flying-buttresses -(cf. Salisbury); the clerestory wall began to bulge out; the high roofs -of the eastern transepts were taken down, and external flying-buttresses -were erected (_c._ 1355). Take these away, in imagination, raise roofs -and gables to as sharp a pitch as those of Beverley and Lincoln, and -you have a design as noble as it is simple. The alternation of aisled -choir and unaisled presbytery with the fine projecting masses of the -eastern transepts provides charming contrasts of light and shadow; -the base-courses are almost as strong and emphatic as at Salisbury; -the sharply chamfered buttresses, with their acute pyramidal caps—a -reminiscence of Lincoln nave—are particularly effective. Contrary to -Salisbury fashion, the windows are deeply recessed externally. The whole -design is vigorous and original. - -[Illustration: CHOIR, NORTH SIDE.] - -The interior of the choir is equally original and interesting. The -architect seems to have thought that the vaults of the choir must rise no -higher than the eastern arch of the tower. If so, he was mistaken; as may -be seen at Norwich, where the choir rises much higher than the nave. His -problem then was how to get the appearance without the reality of height -in the triforium. The same problem had troubled the Norman builders -at Dunstable, Jedburgh, and Oxford; they had solved it by constructing -a lofty pier-arcade, and then building the triforium _beneath_ it. The -Norman builders at Steyning, and the architects of Southwell and Pershore -choirs—which were going up together—solved the difficulty in a different -and more effective manner: viz., by inserting the triforium inside the -clerestory. This saved the elevation. The pier-arcade was tall, the -clerestory was tall, and the whole interior looked tall and not squat. - -To interfere with the services as little as possible, the eastern half -was built first, as at Rochester and Worcester. When this was finished, -the western half was built. If the foliage of the beautiful capitals -and corbels and bosses be examined carefully, it will be found to be -somewhat stiff and formal in the eastern bays, and to be worked with much -more crispness and freedom towards the west (cf. Worcester). The next -thing was to pull down the Norman choir, the material of which is found -to be largely built up in the western, but not in the eastern bays. In -rebuilding the western bays, the first consideration was not to bring -down the Norman tower. So the work was not continued from the east, but -was started afresh from the tower. The two portions met in the fourth -bay; when it was found that, owing to inaccurate setting-out, the arch -on the south side of the choir and the string-course on the north side -were at a different level to that of the older work to the east. The -awkward junction of the arches was masked by a curious medallion. The -whole of the work was done late in the Lancet period; as is shown by the -frequent use of the triple roll in the bases, and by the fact that the -tooth-ornament is worked on a projecting fillet, as in the north transept -of Hereford, instead of being set in a hollow. The vault of the aisles -and transept is quinquepartite, as in St. Hugh’s aisles and transept -at Lincoln; the high vault is quadripartite; and both vaults have the -wobbling longitudinal rib of the great transept of Lincoln. At the east -end this rib drops down somewhat fortuitously into the middle of a group -of lancets. A special local note of this Southwell work is fondness for -fillets; they abound everywhere. - -V. A little later, the eastern apse of the north transept was replaced by -a double chapel (_c._ 1260). The shafts have the “keel-moulding,” both -here and in the chapter-house. - -[Illustration: NAVE, LOOKING EAST.] - -VI. Next was built the cloister—_i.e._, the southern part of the -Vestibule leading to the chapter-house. Notice the lovely doorway in the -north choir-aisle. In this and the arcade is early naturalistic foliage, -which fixes the date as _c._ 1280. Before the upper story was built, and -when the eastern arcade was open, it must have been singularly beautiful. -From the little courtyard between the cloister and the eastern transept -the views are most picturesque. - -VII. Then was built the vestibule and the chapter-house. If in window -tracery and leafage it be compared with the chapter-house of York, it -will be plain that the Southwell example is the earlier. Southwell -chapter-house may be 1290, York 1300. York chapter-house is then but a -copy of that of Southwell—and an inferior copy; both dispense with a -central pier; but Southwell has a magnificent vault of stone, whereas -York is vaulted in wood. The chapter-house of Southwell, not that of -York, is “among chapter-houses, as the rose among flowers.” “What Cologne -cathedral is to Germany, Amiens to France,” says Mr. Street, “is -Southwell chapter-house to England.” Here English stone-carvers produced -their best work; nowhere will you find such capitals or crockets or -spandrels, nor such portraits—all, no doubt, here and in the cloister, -representing people living at Southwell 1280-1300. Photographs of this -wonderful detail have been inserted in the Introduction, pages v-xiii. - -[Illustration: CHOIR SCREEN.] - -VIII. But the wonders of Southwell do not end yet. In the Curvilinear -period (1315-1360) was erected quite the loveliest choir screen in -England; next comes that of Lincoln, evidently by the same hand. Eastern -and western sides are entirely different in design: on the western side -the artist parts reluctantly with the beautiful geometrical design of -the thirteenth century; on the eastern side he accepts unreservedly the -reign of the ogee arch. Magnificent sedilia and stone stalls of similar -character were erected, which only survive in part. Very beautiful, too, -is the cusping of the reticulated windows inserted in the north transept -chapel. - -The upper parts of the chapter-house and the north transept chapel also -were remodelled in the Curvilinear period. - -For two hundred years or more, the highest and best of mediæval art found -cultivated and wealthy patrons in the canons of Southwell. Norman, -Lancet, Geometrical, Curvilinear work are all seen here at their best. -Few of our cathedrals, from the point of view either of architectural -design or sculptured detail, can be mentioned in the same breath with -Southwell. Nowhere will the architectural student find such a treasure -of the best work of the best periods as in the sister churches of the -canons of Beverley and Southwell. It is one of the greatest delights of -Southwell that this lovely minster is little known and almost unvisited: -one feels as if one were “the first that ever burst into this silent sea.” - -[Illustration: SEDILIA.] - -IX. PERPENDICULAR.—Large windows were inserted in the aisles (_c._ 1390) -and the west end (fifteenth century) to light the nave; and a doorway -from the choir to the Archbishop’s palace on the south. - -X. There is an alabaster monument of Archbishop Sandys (_d._ 1588), of -unusually good design. To the same century belongs the fine Renaissance -glass (French) in the east of the choir. - -XI. There were originally sixteen canons or priests at Southwell in -charge of the services. But as they mostly resided in their country -parishes, they were allowed to appoint sixteen vicars or deputies, to do -their work for them. These vicars, like the canons, formed a college or -corporation. The vicars also found the work hard, and were aided by paid -lay-clerks and choir-boys. Besides these there was a college of thirteen -chantry-priests. In later days there used to be in residence at Southwell -only one canon out of the sixteen; he came into residence only once in -four years, and only stayed three months. The handsome block of brick -houses to the east of the minster was built in 1780: the eastern house -for the canon in residence; the two houses on each side for four of the -vicars (the number of whom had dwindled to six). - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew, Wells. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH-WEST.] - -“The traveller who comes down the hill from Shepton Mallet,” says -Professor Freeman, “looks down on a group of buildings without a rival -either in our own island or beyond the seas.” “From a distance,” says -Mr. Peabody, “the towers and lantern of the cathedral rise above rounded -masses of green foliage. When we reach its walls, we find them springing -from the azure depths of crystalline pools, from emerald lawns and -arching trees, the home of cawing rooks and soaring pigeons. Close to the -very walls of the ancient cathedral rises one of the noblest springs in -the world, to which city and cathedral owe their name; an ever-abounding -and magnificent outburst of waters at the side of the Lady chapel, -surging up in a boiling heap in the midst of the unfathomed depths of -a translucent pool; then bounding over in an impetuous cascade, which -carries it into the Bishop’s moat, to encircle palace and rampart and -towers, till it rests in glassy clearness over many-coloured forests of -branching or feathery or star-like water-weeds. Never did a Frenchman -form such harmonies of church and scenery as one sees at Lichfield, at -Salisbury, and at Wells, in their setting of close and cloister and lake, -of brilliant garden and clipped green lawn and immemorial elms. Above -rise three gray, time worn towers; the music of the chimes vibrates and -dies away: - - “‘Lord, through this hour - Be Thou our guide, - That by Thy power - No foot may slide.’ - -So from hour to hour chant the bells over the peaceful beauty of the -bishop’s gardens and terraces and the ancient ivy-clad palace; while -within the lonely nave, as the fading sunlight shines through the western -window, and casts its coloured glories on sculptured tomb and carved boss -and gray stone wall, the organ notes pulsate through the stony fabric: - - “‘Through long-drawn aisle and fretted vault - The pealing anthem swells the note of praise.’ - -The great solemn place is filled with the thrilling sweetness of boyish -voices, and we heartily join in their tuneful, long ‘Amen,’ as it rings -and resounds down the empty nave, and echoes again and again from distant -chapel and far-receding vaults. - -“The Bishop’s palace is romance made tangible, even to ‘spell-bound -princes oaring their way as swans among the lilies of the moat.’ In -this home of peace good Bishop Ken led his simple, happy life, awaking -with the sun and joining with the birds in their morning hymn, and each -eventide singing to his lute— - - “‘Glory to thee, my God, this night, - For all the blessings of the light.’ - -Beyond the gardens and the moat run avenues of stately elms; hard by, -to the north, are the cathedral’s triple towers, and, for background, -the mighty range of the Mendips; all round is meadow-grass; to the -west nestles the little town, with the stately tower of St. Cuthbert’s -church; and, five miles away, conical tors rise on either side of the -isle of Avalon, the storied land of Glastonbury, where twice each year -bloomed the sacred thorn struck by Joseph of Arimathea from a thorn in -the Saviour’s crown; where, too, lies King Arthur, borne thither after -the fatal battle of Camelot, and buried in an unknown grave with the -inscription, ‘Hic jacet Arturus rex quondam rexque futurus.’ This land of -Somerset to the Englishman should be holy ground.” - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT.] - -The peculiar charm of Wells lies, as Professor Freeman remarks, in the -union and harmonious grouping of the cathedral with its surroundings. It -does not stand alone. On the other hand, it is not crowded by incongruous -buildings, like the great cathedrals of France, rising in precipices -from narrow lanes or stone paved _place_. Nor, again, is it isolated -from those buildings which are its natural and necessary complement—the -palace of the Bishop, the deanery, the residence of the Archdeacon, the -Cathedral school, the Vicar’s Close, the homes of precentor, organist -and architect. Nearly all the officials still live in the houses which -Bishop Beckington built four centuries ago. And with the most perfect and -picturesque of all these, “a double row of little ancient houses,” the -Vicar’s Close, the north transept of the cathedral is connected by a -delightful mediæval bridge. - -[Illustration: SUGAR’S CHANTRY IN NAVE.] - -The diocese of Wells is an offshoot of that of Winchester. When Wessex -grew populous, the bishopric of Sherborne was split off from that of -Winchester; and in 909 the shire of the Sumorsaetas was split off from -Sherborne, and the men of Somerset got a bishop of their own. The diocese -long had two cathedrals: one at Wells, served, as at this day, by secular -canons; the other at Bath, served by the monks of the Benedictine abbey. -The latter was suppressed by Henry VIII., and ever since the bishop has -been but in name Bishop of Bath. - -Of the earlier cathedrals not a trace remains. The oldest part of the -present cathedral consists of the nave, transepts, and the piers and -arches of the three western bays of the choir. All this was designed, -and much of it built in the time of Fitz-Bohun, who became bishop -in 1171. The design is what is called Transitional. It is not early -Transitional; for there is none of the heaviness and massiveness of the -early Transitional work of Malmesbury, Kirkstall, or Fountains. It is -not middle Transitional; for the semicircular arch, which still appears -here and thereat Ripon, is conspicuously absent. It is late, very late, -Transitional work, done at the very end of the Transitional period -(1145-1190), and therefore contemporaneous with the famous French choir -of Canterbury (1175-1184) and the beautiful presbytery of Chichester -(built after the fire of 1187). But it is more Gothic than either -Canterbury or Chichester. In fact, Wells is the most advanced of all the -cathedral designs of the Transitional period. There is indeed little of -the Romanesque or Norman about it; still it is there. Among the survivals -of Romanesque feeling may be noticed the zigzag ornament in the doorways -of the north porch, the classical character of several foliage-capitals, -the retention of man-headed birds and other Romanesque monsters in -the capitals, and, above all, the universal square abacus. All these, -however, except the square abacus, find parallels in advanced Gothic -work of the thirteenth century elsewhere. And as we find precisely the -same stiff foliage-capitals in Chichester presbytery subsequent to 1187, -and in St. Joseph’s chapel, Glastonbury (1180-1190), we may be certain -that the design belongs to Fitz-Bohun’s episcopate, before whose death -in 1191 the church was rising fast, and its style an object of universal -admiration. - -[Illustration: TRIFORIUM OF NAVE.] - -Now this is a very important matter, at any rate to Englishmen. In -the first place, we are provided with another example of first-rate -importance, of what architects were doing in this country just before the -final plunge into Gothic, _i.e._, just before St. Hugh commenced his work -at Lincoln. Hitherto we have had to rely on what we see in Canterbury -choir; now we have Wells also. To these we may add the little-known Abbey -of Dore, in the Black Mountains. In its lovely choir we go one step -farther. Even the square abacus, universal at Wells, alternates there -with the round form, and is more and more infrequent as one proceeds -to the retro-choir, where indeed the work, to all intents and purposes, -is pure Gothic. And thus we get what we never had before, a bridge or -series of stepping-stones to Gothic architecture. Formerly one passed at -a bound, an impossible bound, from Canterbury choir to Lincoln Minster. -Now we can leave out the French work of Canterbury choir altogether, -and accomplish the passage from Norman to Gothic through Malmesbury, -Kirkstall, Ripon, Wells, Abbey Dore. Before, it was inconceivable how -Lincoln came into existence; it was an architectural Melchisedek, without -father or mother; and those who did not believe in spontaneous generation -in architecture were driven, in spite of their wishes, to seek out an -ancestor for St. Hugh’s choir in France. Now the whole difficulty is -removed, the missing link has been found, Lincoln is but the logical -development of Wells and Abbey Dore. The architectural chain is complete. -Lincoln is no Melchisedek we have found its parents; and, what is -profoundly satisfactory, they are true-born Englishmen, not Frenchmen. -Wells, therefore, deserves all the attention that the architectural -student can give to it, as evidence that the Gothic architecture of -England did not originate with the French choir at Canterbury of William -of Sens, but is native and indigenous to the soil. - -The design of the nave of Wells, however, has more than archæological -interest; it has a decided artistic distinction of its own. In the first -place, the interior looks taller than it is—_i.e._ it is the very reverse -of Lichfield. It is but 67 feet high, and is thus one of the lowest of -our cathedrals; but so just are its proportions, so well adjusted the -tall clerestory to the stages below, that to the eye the ratio of height -to breadth is entirely satisfactory. Equally remarkable is the way in -which the impression of great length is produced. This is due to the -obliteration of vertical divisions in the triforium and ground-story, -which are not separated off, as usual, into bays by vaulting-shafts. -The vaulting-shafts are stopped just below the sill of the clerestory, -and the triforium runs in an uninterrupted arcade, the whole distance -from west to east. Such a treatment of the triforium is unusual in -England, but is found also at Glastonbury and Llandaff: perhaps it -hails originally from Matilda’s church, the Abbaye aux Dames, at Caen. -And the free flow, east and west, of the broad horizontal band of the -triforium is aided still further by designing it void of shafts, bases, -and capitals alike. The central tower seems to have collapsed in 1248, -and many of the capitals seem to be of this or of a still later date. The -capitals, corbels and the carving generally of this part of the cathedral -are most spirited and interesting; there is hardly any mediæval work in -the country to excel it in spirit, variety and execution; it should be -examined with the utmost care. When you have seen the carving in Wells -cathedral, you will not be so much surprised at the excellence of that in -the choirs of Lincoln and the west front of St. Albans. The plan of the -piers should also be noted. - -[Illustration: WEST FRONT.] - -LANCET PERIOD. _West Front._—Looking westward, we see to the south (on -the left) the chapel of St. Edmund, and to the north the chapel of the -Holy Cross, now the Consistory Court. The west front, including these -chapels, is Bishop Jocelyn’s work; it is in the purest early English -Gothic, probably built after his return from exile in 1213, and finished -by him before 1239. There has been, however, some rebuilding here, and a -parapet added, in the fifteenth century. Passing out, we can now survey -the famous façade, and its immense collection of sculpture—by far the -best mediæval figure-sculpture in England, and only surpassed by the yet -finer and earlier sculpture of Chartres and Rheims. The visitor will do -well to study it in detail in the admirable series of photographs, taken -when the scaffolding was up for the restoration of the façade. Professor -Cockerell suggests that the façade is to be regarded as a Te Deum in -stone. - -[Illustration: CHAPTER HOUSE] - -As for the composition of the west front, it has been severely -criticised, but two things must be borne in mind. The first is, that -the towers were probably designed for spires. Add the spires, and as -Notre Dame, Paris, the squatness of the façade disappears. Secondly, -it was designed for the sculpture—a sort of open-air reredos—and not -the sculpture for the façade. Nevertheless, it is not good, even as a -reredos. The windows are mere slits in the wall, the doorways mere “holes -for frogs and mice.” It lacks variety: the six big buttresses project, -but have all the same amount of projection. The arcading below the west -window is confused and muddled, and cut into anyhow by the central -doorway. Nevertheless, its great breadth makes this façade of Wells more -impressive than any other in the country, except that of Peterborough. -What would it be with the spires added! - -[Illustration: LADY CHAPEL.] - -GEOMETRICAL PERIOD. _Undercroft, Staircase, Chapter house._—When the -west front had been peopled with statuary, the undercroft of the -chapter-house was built. A similar chapter-house, two stories high, -once existed in precisely the same situation _i.e._—east of the north -transept—at Beverley minster, the exquisite staircase to which still -survives. Westminster chapter-house and that of Old St. Paul’s also -had undercrofts. These undercrofts probably served as sacristies. The -staircase or vestibule to the chapter-house, with simple tracery of -cusped circles in its windows, is also of the early Geometrical period: -its date is 1286-1320. The work here deserves the closest inspection; -it is the best work in Wells cathedral, and unsurpassed by anything in -Great Britain. The naturalistic foliage of the capitals and corbels is -superb: especially notice the first corbels, representing a monk and a -nun treading on serpents. The staircase leads by the chain bridge to the -vicars’ close, as well as to the chapter-house. The chapter-house is one -of the noblest in England. The long-lobed trefoils in the window tracery -indicate that it is a work of the latter half of the Geometrical period -(1280-1320); the profusion of ball-flower round and beneath the windows, -and the ogee dripstones outside the windows, would seem to indicate that -it was not completed till the very end of the period. Canon Church has -ascertained that it was not finished before 1320. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-EAST.] - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -CURVILINEAR PERIOD. _Lady Chapel_, _Choir_, _Central Tower_.—But a -much more important work remained, which had hitherto been postponed, -owing perhaps to the great expense involved in the completion of the -west front and the chapter-house. It was to extend the choir eastwards. -Many of the great cathedrals had finished their eastward extensions -long before. Canterbury choir had been prolonged at the beginning of -the twelfth century, and again about 1180. Hereford also was lengthened -about 1180. The Angel Choir of Lincoln had been built about 1280. But -at Wells, Lichfield and Chester, the extension of the choir was not -effected till the Curvilinear period (1315-1360). As at Lichfield, -the Wells architect seems first to have built the Lady chapel as a -detached building, afterwards joining it up to the Transitional bays -of Fitz-Jocelyn’s choir. As every one knows, it is the most beautiful -east end we have in England. It may be worth while to try to see how -this design was arrived at—a design as exceptional as it is effective. -The simplest form of east end in English Gothic is seen at York and -Lincoln: it consists merely of a low wall with a big window above it. -The next improvement is to build an aisle or processional path behind -the east end; at the same time piercing the east wall with one, two, or -three arches. This was done at Hereford about 1180; and on a magnificent -scale in the Chapels of Nine Altars at Durham and Fountains early in -the thirteenth century. But the French apsidal cathedrals—of which we -have an example in Westminster—have not only an encircling processional -aisle, but also a chevet of chapels radiating out from it; thus providing -ever-changing vistas of entrancing beauty. The next step in England also -was to provide our rectangular choirs with a chevet as well as with a -processional aisle. An early example of this plan is to be seen at Abbey -Dore, in Herefordshire, about 1190. It occurs early in the thirteenth -century, on a still grander scale, at Salisbury; where one finds not one, -but two processional aisles, as well as chapels to the east of them; -and, in addition, a Lady chapel projecting still farther to the east, -thus producing a design of great complexity and beauty. Nevertheless, at -Salisbury, since the chief supporting piers of the retro-choir and the -chevet are in a line with those of the choir, there is by no means the -same changeful intricacy of vista that affords one ever fresh delight -in an apsidal church. At Wells, however, the architect attained all the -success of the Continental builder, simply because he built his Lady -chapel not rectangular but octagonal. For, to get this octagon, of -which only five sides were supported by walls, he had to plant in the -retro-choir two piers to support the remaining three sides; and these -piers are necessarily out of line with the piers of the choir. He had -got the Continental vista. He saw it; but he saw also that it could be -improved upon. And he did improve it, by putting up an outer ring of four -more piers round the western part of the octagon of the Lady chapel. It -was an intuition of genius: it makes the vistas into the retro-choir and -Lady chapel a veritable glimpse into fairyland; and provides, here alone -in England, a rival to the glorious eastern terminations of Amiens and Le -Mans. And that is not all. We saw in the chapter-house the grand effect -of the central stalk branching upward and outward in all directions, -like some palm tree transmuted into stone. This beautiful effect he -transfers to the retro-choir, but multiplied—four palm trees in place -of one; for each of the four external piers of the octagon emulates the -chapter-house’s central stalk. “It is difficult to determine whether the -effect is more striking in the early morning, when the ancient splendours -of the stained glass, are reflected on the slender shafts of Purbeck -marble and the clustered vault; or at the late winter services, when the -darkened figures of saints and prophets in the clerestory combine with -the few lights burning in the choristers’ stalls to add something of -mystery and solemn gloom to the maze of aisles and chapels, half hidden, -half revealed” (Murray). And where did the idea of having an octagonal -Lady chapel come from? Possibly it came from Lichfield. If one follows -the outline formed by the five walls of Wells Lady chapel and the four -_outer_ piers, which complete the octagon, it will be seen that the -Wells octagon is of precisely the same elongated form—two long sides -and six short ones—as the chapter-house of Lichfield. We may fairly -suppose, then, that the Wells architect got the design for his east end -by tacking on the elongated octagon of Lichfield chapter-house to the -rectangular retro-choir of Salisbury. This Lady chapel is an early work -of the Curvilinear period; for it seems to have been complete in 1324. -The windows have beautiful reticulated tracery of early type. There is -lovely carving in the capitals, bosses, reredos, sedilia and piscina. The -Curvilinear foliated capitals here and in the choir should be compared -with the somewhat earlier capitals of the chapter-house, with the early -Geometrical capitals of the staircase, the Lancet capitals of the west -front, and the still earlier ones of porch, nave, and transepts. The -ancient glass here and in the Jesse window of the choir is superb in -colour. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -CHOIR.—The works in the choir consist of three parts. (1) The -construction of three new eastern bays, to join up the Lady chapel to -the western bays, as at Lichfield and Chester. (2) The transformation of -the three western bays, except the piers and arches, and of the aisles. -(3) The vaulting. All the lower work is of great beauty, especially the -tabernacle work which replaces the triforium. The foliage of the capitals -is naturalistic, and curiously diminutive. The vault, however, is unusual -and objectionable in character. It is really a reproduction in stone -of a kind of vault—the wagon or barrel vault—which, executed in wood, -is a special peculiarity of Somerset. This type of stone tunnel, with -ill-arranged liernes, sham ribs carved on its surface, and holes cut into -it to admit the heads of the clerestory windows, is fortunately confined -to Wells. It is, moreover, a gross blunder in design. The pattern of the -ribs would be excellent in a flat ceiling; but in perspective it comes -out all wrong, because the architect has omitted to take account of the -curves of the vault. The stalls, with their stone canopies, are modern, -with ancient misereres. The Transitional windows of the aisles were also -replaced by Curvilinear ones. - -Finally, the church assumed a more dignified appearance externally, for -the _Central Tower_ was carried up to its present height between 1318 -and 1321; but as yet there were no western towers. As was so often the -case, the raising of the central tower “caused the four great piers, on -which it rested, to sink into the ground. This, of course, tore away -the masonry of the four limbs of the church from the piers, and yawning -gaps began to appear between the tower arches and the main walls of the -church.” The piers had to be strengthened and the gaps filled up. This -was done about 1338. At Canterbury and Salisbury the central piers were -strengthened by running across a horizontal stone girder; at Wells the -exceedingly strong and exceedingly ugly form of an arch carrying an -inverted arch was adopted. This stone framework thus assumes something -of the shape of St. Andrew’s Cross, by which name it is generally known. -The eastern arch is not strengthened in this fashion, but by a massive -screen, which is practically a solid wall, as at Canterbury, York and -Ripon. What makes the St. Andrew’s crosses more objectionable still is -the hugeness of their mouldings, whose vast scale dwarfs everything in -the cathedral into insignificance: in this respect they compare very -unfavourably with the horizontal girders at Canterbury. Probably one of -the last works of the Curvilinear period was to crown the whole exterior -of the cathedral with a fine pierced parapet. - -PERPENDICULAR PERIOD.—The central tower being saved, the next thing was -to carry up western towers. Of these the southern was built after the -year 1386; the northern tower is later than 1424. Moreover, Perpendicular -tracery was inserted in many of the Transitional windows—_e.g._, by -Bishop Beckington in the clerestory and aisles of the nave (1443-1464). -The same prelate built the three gatehouses, all of which display his -rebus, a beacon in flames issuing from a barrel: viz. the Chain Gate, -the Penniless Porch (opening to the Market Place), and Browne’s Gate (at -the end of Sadler Street). The Early English Cloister was also rebuilt -between 1407 and 1470. Of the earlier cloister the outer walls and two -lovely doorways survive. As Wells was not a monastic cathedral, the -cloister was a mere _objet de luxe_, except so far as it provided an -enclosure for the cemetery and a covered way to the Bishop’s Palace. -Accordingly, it is incomplete; the northern walk is wanting; and the -chapter-house is on the other side of the cathedral. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of the Holy and Indivisible Trinity at Winchester. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH WEST.] - -The present legal designation of Winchester cathedral dates only from -the time of Henry VIII. It was originally the church of the abbey of St. -Swithun; and, next to St. Swithun, its greatest patron was St. Birinus. -Later on, an alternative dedication was to St. Peter and St. Paul. - -It is the longest mediæval cathedral in Europe. Once it was surpassed -by old St. Paul’s, London; now its only rival is St. Alban’s. But -Winchester has an internal length of 526 feet 6 inches; exceeding that -of St. Alban’s by 5 feet 4 inches. Vast as it is, no cathedral shows up -so little. It has but one tower, and that barely overtops the roof; in -outline it is depressed and monotonous; there are none of the double -transepts, and lofty side-porches, which so picturesquely break up the -lines of Salisbury, Lincoln, and Hereford. It has no conspicuous façade -to give it grandeur to the west; it lacks the wide reach of open square -and verdant close that delights at Salisbury and Wells. So far from -dominating the city, like Lincoln or York, it hides out of sight. You -walk all the length of the High Street and never get a glimpse of it. -Never was such a retiring cathedral. Generally, it is approached from the -High Street through a hole in the wall; up a narrow passage, and down an -avenue of obscuring elms. Slowly its huge mass uprears itself, sprawling -over the ground like some stranded prehistoric monster. And, externally, -it is as plain as it is huge: mainly an enormous bulk of blank wall. -Once it presented a better appearance; for though the Lady chapel to the -east was rather shorter, to the west the nave was 40 feet longer, and -was flanked, like Southwell, by two Norman towers, forming a western -transept, after the manner of Ely and of Peterborough. The present west -front does anything but prepare us for an interior so vast; it seems -rather the approach to some parish church of the second rank. All the -more, perhaps, is one struck with the glorious interior. - -The arrangement of the cathedral should be compared with that of St. -Alban’s. It consists of (1) nave, (2) choir, (3) presbytery or sanctuary, -(4) feretory or saints’ chapel, (5) retro-choir, (6) Lady chapel. - -In the NORTH TRANSEPT we are in presence of the earliest work in the -cathedral. Much of it is the work of Bishop Walkelin (1070 to 1097); -and, with the exception of some traceried windows inserted early in the -fourteenth century to give more light to the eastern altars, it remains -much as he left it. As his work is in the transepts, so once was the -whole cathedral. As finished before the close of the eleventh century, -Winchester, in vastness of scale and stern power, must have been one of -the most impressive cathedrals of England: more overwhelming than Ely -or Peterborough; not inferior even to Durham. I am not sure that every -change and transformation that took place at Winchester between the -eleventh and the sixteenth century was not a change for the worse. For -of the earliest temples of our race, torn as it were out of the solid -rock, Walkelin’s cathedral was the most awful and the most religious. -As it is one of the earliest, so it was, artistically, the grandest of -our Romanesque cathedrals. The south transept of Hereford and the north -transept of Chester are, in comparison, humble indeed. In colossal scale -it finds one rival only—the mighty church of St. Alban. Artistically, -they are miles apart: as far apart as two designs can be, one conditioned -by the use of stone, the other of brick. - -[Illustration: NORTH TRANSEPT.] - -But not all the work of the Winchester transepts is by Walkelin; it is -Norman, but part of it is a rebuilding rendered necessary by the fall of -the central tower in 1107. The original work is readily distinguished. -Those parts of the transept which are the nearest to the central tower -have fine-jointed masonry; the vaulting of the aisles has ribs; the -piers are larger. The further and earlier part of the masonry is much -ruder, and the joints wider; the vaulting is without ribs, and the piers -are smaller. In both parts the arches are square-edged, greatly adding -to the peculiar severity of the aspect of this part of the church. The -pier-arches are raised on stilts in order to get their crowns on a level -with the intersection of the diagonal groins or ribs; for the earlier -vault-builders imagined that all the arches of a vault must rise to -the same level. The cushion or cubical capitals are of a simple type, -little subdivided. Both transepts have double aisles. Lanfranc, in his -metropolitan cathedral at Canterbury, was content with an aisleless -transept; but Winchester cathedral was built on a scale befitting the -capital of the Norman realms. At either end, too, of the transepts is -an aisle—_i.e._ to the north and south; this unusual feature enabled -processions to pass uninterruptedly round the triforium. We hear that in -1111, the bishop having sorely taxed the monastery to provide funds for -the rebuilding of the central tower, “the monks reversed their crosses, -head down, feet up, and made procession barefoot against the sun, -contrary to ecclesiastical use,” round the broad triforium. Ely once had -similar end-aisles, and still has both eastern and western aisles to the -transepts. - -[Illustration: FONT.] - -THE CRYPT.—From the north transept one descends to the crypt, which is -well worth a visit, when not under water. The level of the river seems to -have risen since the eleventh century, causing the crypt to be frequently -flooded. It extends to the extreme east end of the present cathedral, -and is in three parts. The first part, the western, consists of the -substructure of the original choir, showing that it consisted of four -aisled bays and an apse with ambulatory. Secondly comes a very remarkable -feature, of the same date—viz., a long aisleless chapel of three bays, -also apsidal, beneath the present retro-choir. Whether the chapel above -it was a Lady chapel is a matter of uncertainty; for Lady chapels do not -seem to have come into fashion till the thirteenth century. Thirdly, to -the extreme east, comes the substructure of Courtenay’s Lady chapel, -built between 1486 and 1492. Most interesting of all is the sacred -well, immediately beneath the high altar; far older than Norman crypt or -Norman cathedral; the holy central spot of by-gone Saxon and even British -minsters. - -SOUTH TRANSEPT.—Crossing the choir, we pass down a flight of steps to -the south transept. At the top of these steps are the bolt-holes of the -iron gates, which are now placed in the north-west corner of the nave, -but which once stood here as a barrier to the pilgrims, who were allowed -access to the north transept and choir aisles, but not to the choir -itself, or to the south transept. They entered the cathedral by a doorway -which may still be seen from the outside at the south-east corner of the -north transept. In the south transept the same two periods of Norman work -are recognisable which we saw in the north transept; but the three aisles -have been shut off by walls and screens, forming chapels on the east -side, and a chapter-room and treasury on the west. - -[Illustration: LADY-CHAPEL.] - -THE CENTRAL TOWER fell in 1107. Its fall was regarded as a judgment; -William Rufus having been buried under it in 1100. The piers, as -strengthened, are “most unwieldy and intrusive from their excessive size -and squareness of form; the largest tower-piers in England in proportion -to the span of the arches that rest upon them.” The tower-windows could -formerly be seen from below, as well as a grand specimen of late Norman -arcading: now hidden from view by the wooden fan-vault erected in 1634. -The eastern and western arches of the tower are left wide, so as not -to interfere with the principal vista of the cathedral; the northern -and southern arches are contracted to gain strength. The northern and -southern sides of the piers were designed nearly flat, so as not to -interfere with the stall-work of the monks. This is one of the cathedrals -where the choir occupies, in part, its original position, and has not -been moved eastward into the sanctuary. But originally the monastic choir -of Winchester extended still farther to the west, occupying not one, -but three bays of the nave; and was separated from the western bays of -the nave by a great rood-screen. The old arrangement has been preserved -at Norwich and Gloucester, and has been restored at Peterborough. -Before leaving the south transept, the northern bay of the western -triforium should be noticed. It has been only partially transformed into -Perpendicular after the style of the nave; for the semicircular upper -arch of the triforium can still be seen. This helps us to restore in -imagination the original triforium of the whole Norman nave. - -[Illustration: STALLS.] - -Of the Transitional period of our architecture, 1145 to 1190, only -two traces seem to remain at Winchester. One is the doorway below -the triforium-bay mentioned above. Its zigzag ornament is of Norman -character, but the obtusely pointed arch shows that it is subsequent, -yet not much subsequent to 1145. This doorway, with its queer fluted -pilasters, may have been built by Henry de Blois (1129-1171) when he -walled off this western aisle to serve as a treasury. If so, it is the -only trace in the structure of this, the greatest of all Winchester’s -bishops. The other is the font. - -CHAPEL OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE.—Now we return to the north transept, which -is cut off from the choir by a massive stone wall, the object being to -keep the pilgrims out of the choir, and, perhaps, to support organs. At -the end of the twelfth century a curious chapel was built on to this -wall: it contains frescoes representing the Passion of our Lord. - -RETRO-CHOIR.—Traversing the north choir-aisle, we reach the largest -retro-choir in England; it consists of three bays, with an east end -originally consisting of three chapels all of the same length. The -central chapel was elongated in the fifteenth century. This retro-choir -was built by Bishop Godfrey de Lucy, between 1189 and 1204, and -therefore, with the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre, is the earliest Gothic -work in the cathedral, and but few years later than St. Hugh’s work -at Lincoln. De Lucy’s work is not very ambitious, nor very rich, nor -artistically on a plane with the early English work at Lincoln, Beverley, -and Ely. The great defect is that, in relation to its area, it is so -miserably low. To get it high, the architect would have had to sacrifice -the east windows of the clerestory of the choir; and this he was not -allowed to do. The retro-choir was serviceable in providing room for -processions round the high altar, and space for shrines, and in giving -additional chapels and altars. Probably, also, the reversion to the -favourite square east-end of English church architecture was popular in -itself. Almost every Norman cathedral ended in an apse; and in the apse, -high raised behind the high altar, sat the Norman bishop, facing the -congregation; the hateful symbol of Norman domination. The destruction -of the Norman apse may well, then, have been popular. The best part of -the design is seen in the southern wall of the Lady chapel, and in the -charming vaulted staircases which lead out of the side chapels to the -roofs of the retro-choir and choir, and to the clerestory of the choir, -from which a good view of the interior and of the interesting vault -and glass of the choir is obtained. At the north-east corner of the -retro-choir is an effigy in a vesica: it commemorates Bishop Ethelmar or -Aymer, whose heart was buried at Winchester in 1261. - -THE STALLS.—These are in the Geometrical style (1245-1315), and were -executed about the middle of the period. “The beauty and variety of -the carvings are wonderful. There is no repetition; and the grace and -elegance, as well as the fidelity, with which the foliage is represented, -are nowhere to be surpassed. The human heads are full of expression; and -the monkeys and other animals sporting among the branches have all the -same exquisite finish. Here are also interesting misereres” (Murray). - -[Illustration: FERETORY.] - -THE PRESBYTERY.—The space between the central tower and retro-choir was -occupied by the Norman choir, less its apse, up to about 1320, when -this choir was pulled down and the present pier-arcade was built, with -the clerestory; which latter, however, received new window-tracery -in the sixteenth century. To the same period, the Curvilinear, but a -little later, belongs the exquisite series of nine tabernacles in the -retro-choir, on the wall at the back of the feretory; the naturalistic -foliage of which is perhaps the best work in the cathedral. Below is an -original entrance to the crypt, now called the “Holy Hole.” Above it -accordingly is the inscription: - - “Corpora sanctorum sunt hic in pace sepulta - Ex meritis quorum fulgent miracula multa.” - -THE NAVE.—We now pass into the south aisle of the nave. The nave is of -exceptional interest, for three reasons. In the first place, for its vast -length of 12 bays of 250 feet. Norwich has 14 bays of 230 feet. Secondly, -because, after the work at Gloucester, it is the earliest work we possess -in the Perpendicular style. Thirdly, because its Perpendicular vesture -is little more than skin deep, the solid core of every pier and every -wall, from pavement to roof, being Norman. It is just this combination of -the massive solidity of Romanesque with the grace and elegance of Gothic -which makes it what it is, the finest nave in the country. The walls are -Norman; built, in Norman fashion, of rather small and square blocks; they -are thick, nearly 10 feet thick at the top; outside the south aisle may -still be seen the flat Norman buttresses; hidden behind the balustrade of -the clerestory are the upper arches of the Norman triforium, one of which -we saw in the south transept. The vault rests on the original Norman -vaulting-shafts, though they are stopped by Perpendicular capitals. They -are not really stopped, however; for when we mount up to the back of the -vault we find the vaulting-shaft, piercing _through_ the vault, rising to -the very top of the wall, to support, as they once supported, a wooden -ceiling like that of Peterborough. Near the eastern end of the south -aisle the lower part of a Norman shaft has been left; probably because it -was covered up by some later shrine or altar. Crossing the nave, still -clearer evidence of the character of the early work is to be seen in the -second and third piers from the east of the north arcade. These were -covered up by a great rood-screen, now destroyed. - -[Illustration: NAVE.] - -Putting this evidence together, it is plain that we have here a Norman -nave transmogrified—Norman in core, but with a Perpendicular casing. This -casing, however, is not merely skin-deep, as in Gloucester choir, where -the Norman work can be seen at the back of the Perpendicular screens and -panelling. The casing at Winchester goes at least one stone deep into the -piers. But it was not executed all in the same way. Bishop William of -Wykeham’s work, in the seven western piers of the southern arcade, has -the new mouldings cut in the original Norman stones. But in the rest of -the piers it was found simpler and cheaper to withdraw the Norman stones -one by one, and replace them with new stones with Perpendicular mouldings -cut on them. The small Norman windows, of course, were destroyed -altogether, and replaced by short and broad windows by Bishop Edingdon, -probably about 1360, perhaps under the superintendence of William of -Wykeham, who was his secretary, in the extreme west of the nave; and by -taller and more graceful windows in the later work of William of Wykeham -and his successors. The mouldings of all this Perpendicular work are -rather large and coarse; but we must remember that the architect was -restricted at first to such mouldings as could be developed out of the -Norman detail, and in any case they had to be in harmony with the big -and heavy Norman vaulting-shafts which were retained unaltered in the -Perpendicular design. About the same time forty feet of the western -bays was pulled down. Edingdon’s work in the nave may be distinguished -by the broad windows, two in the north and one in the south aisle; and -by the cusps in the panelling, which in Edingdon’s work are foliated, -and in the later work are left plain. In the new design the internal -elevation consists of two parts—a tall pier-arcade, and a clerestory with -a balustrade in front of the lower part of it. - -How low the original Norman pier-arcade was, is shown by the Norman -capitals which are left in the eastern piers of the northern arcade. -The Norman triforium was exceptionally large. Its floor was on a level -with the capitals of the new arches, and it reached up to the sill of -the present clerestory windows. A glance round the corner into the -transepts will make this clear. Again, the Norman nave had a flat wooden -ceiling like that of Peterborough; this was replaced by a magnificent -lierne vault of stone, completed by Wykeham’s successors, as is shown -by the arms of Cardinal Beaufort and Bishop William of Waynflete on -the bosses of the vault and in the string-course under the triforium. -Magnificent as this vault is, it was no improvement to break the free -flow of the diagonal and ridge-ribs by the insertion of these little -liernes or tie-ribs. The earlier vault of Exeter is massive enough and -quite sufficiently complicated without them. In the aisles the liernes -are grouped into simple hexagonal or “stellar” patterns. The vault of -the nave is often said to be unsupported by flying buttresses. They are -there, however, between the vault and the outer roof of the aisles, -sheltered from the weather, as are the Norman flying-buttresses of Durham -and Gloucester. - -Such are the chief features of this, the finest cathedral-nave we -possess, the work of Edingdon, Wykeham, Beaufort and Waynflete. We shall -hardly be wrong in attributing the inception of this great transformation -to Wykeham, whether as Edingdon’s secretary or as his successor to the -bishopric. - -[Illustration: REREDOS.] - -We must not, however, overrate, as is often done, the novelty of the -proceeding. For an even greater transformation had been wrought at -Exeter before this, between 1280 and 1307, by Bishops Quivil and Bitton, -who transformed the Transitional Norman choir of Bishop Marshall into -the style of their day. From Exeter Wykeham borrowed the idea of the -transformation, from Gloucester the style in which the transformation was -effected. - -From the west door there is a superb view eastwards. The grandeur of the -interior of the cathedral is much enhanced by the raising of the choir. -This raising of the choir is due, however, to no æsthetic preferences on -the part of the architects, nor to any wish to emphasise the importance -of the clergy, but simply to the fact that there is a substructure below -the choir. Here, as at Canterbury and York, it is a crypt. At Wimborne -minster, Hythe church, and Hereford cathedral, it seems to be no more -than a processional path, or else a charnel-house. Imposing, however, -as this vista is, it is not so long as it might be, and it appears -shorter than it really is. In the first place, out of the whole internal -length of 526 feet, only 338 feet come into the vista. This is because -De Lucy kept his retro-choir so low. Far nobler would have been the -interior of Winchester, if, as at Ely, York, and Lincoln, retro-choir and -eastern chapels had been kept as high as presbytery and nave. Indeed, -the Winchester vista of 338 feet is surpassed even by that of the small -cathedral of Lichfield, 371 feet. Secondly, owing to the destruction of -screens, the apparent length has been greatly diminished. Formerly there -were two solid screens: a rood-screen in the nave, three bays east of -the tower; and a choir-screen. Thirdly, as at St. Paul’s, the great wall -of the reredos is far too lofty, and is placed much too close to the -east end of the presbytery, shearing off another 20 feet of the apparent -length of the interior. This reredos, indeed, beautiful as its detail -must have been, is a vast mediæval blunder—_i.e._ from an artistic point -of view; which point of view, to tell the truth, the mediæval architects -cared little about in comparison with the religious purposes which they -wished their architecture to subserve. Still here, as at St. Saviour’s, -Southwark, one cannot help wishing the reredos away; one would like to -see once more behind and above the high altar, on their lofty platform, -the shrines of St. Swithun and St. Birinus, and on either side of them -such delightful peeps as one has at Wells into retro-choir and eastern -chapels. Beaufort’s reredos has much to answer for. - -In the south arcade of the nave are the two earliest of the magnificent -series of chantries which are the especial glory of Winchester. They -should be examined in chronological order. They are those of the -following bishops: Edingdon, died 1366; Wykeham, died 1404; Beaufort, -died 1447; Waynflete, died 1486; Fox, died 1528; Gardiner, died 1555. -Thus they form a continuous record of the growth and development of -Perpendicular and Tudor architecture from 1366 to 1555. - -IX. LATER PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR WORK.—As we have seen, the great -transformation of the nave was not completed till the episcopate of -Waynflete (1447-1486), having occupied not less than a century. After a -short breathing-space, Bishop Fox (1500-1528) set to work to transform -the presbytery; and I have little doubt that every trace of early work -would have been swept away from the transepts as well, had not building -operations at Winchester been brought to a stop by the Reformation. As -we saw above the piers, arches and clerestory of the presbytery had been -rebuilt early in the fourteenth century. These Curvilinear windows having -probably got out of repair, he replaced the tracery of the clerestory -windows on each side of the presbytery, and also the great clerestory -window to the east, by Perpendicular tracery. Five of these windows -have original glass. A second task was to rebuild the aisles of the -presbytery, which, till now, had remained Norman. A third was to ceil -the presbytery with a lierne vault. This is a paltry makeshift in wood. -The emblems of the Passion, however, carved on the bosses, are of much -interest, and should be inspected from the gallery. Fourthly, Fox built -his own chantry. Indeed, most of the chantries were built during the -bishops’ lifetimes. Fifthly, he erected Tudor screens of stone between -the presbytery and his new aisles. These Gothic screens were plainly -wrought by English workmen. Just as plainly, the pretty Renaissance -frieze which surmounts them was wrought by workmen imported from Italy. -Sixthly, he constructed the Renaissance chests which stand on the -screen. Bishop Henry de Blois (1129-1171) had collected from the crypt, -perhaps now damp, the bones of saints and kings buried there, and had -transferred them, cased in lead, to the presbytery. These sacred relics -Fox placed in the present six chests. To this period also belongs the -Renaissance woodwork now placed in the south transept. - -One more structural change had taken place previously. Bishop Courtenay -(1486-1492) had lengthened the Lady chapel and the crypt. - -To the early years of the sixteenth century belongs the rich work in -Bishop Langton’s chapel, and in the chapels of the south transept, and -the pulpit in the choir. - -[Illustration: FOX’S CHANTRY.] - - - - -The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the Virgin of -Worcester. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH.] - -As is indicated by the form of dedication of 1218, “The cathedral church -of the Blessed Virgin and Saint Peter and of the Holy Confessors Oswald -and Wulfstan,” Worcester, is one of the pre-Conquest cathedrals. With -Hereford, Leicester, and Lindsey, it was carved out of the immense see -of Lichfield, which was coextensive with the kingdom of Mercia, by -Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury towards the end of the seventh century. -Through the influence of Dunstan, who was Bishop of Worcester from 957 -to 961, its secular canons were replaced by Benedictine monks by his -successor, St. Oswald; and the cathedral was served by monks till the -time of Henry VIII., when it was put upon the new foundation and reverted -to secular canons. In 1062 St. Wulfstan became bishop. From his “great -piety and dovelike simplicity” of character, he had great influence -in the English Church, and was allowed by the Conqueror to retain his -bishopric. He repaid William by beating off Robert Courthose, Duke of -Normandy, when he attacked Worcester, and retained the see till his -death, at a great age, in 1095. In the year 1201 miracles commenced at -his tomb, “from fifteen to sixteen per diem being cured from every kind -of sickness.” In 1203 he was canonised. The shrines of St. Wulfstan and -St. Oswald stood on either side of the high altar, like those of St. -Dunstan and St. Elfege at Canterbury,—in front of it, not at the back, as -at Winchester, St. Albans, and elsewhere. - -St. Oswald, late in the tenth century, had rebuilt the cathedral in the -style of his day. Of this Anglo-Saxon cathedral nothing is left, unless -it be the balusters in the arcade of the slype. This work of the holy -Oswald Wulfstan now pulled down, with many searchings of heart. Almost he -repented of his purpose. Long he stood silent in the churchyard, deeply -groaning. At last he burst into a flood of tears. “We wretches,” said he, -“pompously imagining that we do better work, destroy what the saints have -wrought.” Many centuries have passed since Wulfstan’s day, and there have -been many “restorations” of Worcester cathedral, but there is no record -that any one but Wulfstan commenced his work with tears and groans. Our -modern “restorers” enter on their work with light hearts. Rather one -would venture to suggest that when a restoration is resolved on, dean and -chapter and eminent architect should betake themselves in sad procession -to the cathedral, intoning penitential psalms with humble and contrite -hearts, observing the day as a day of humiliation. - -Wulfstan commenced the new cathedral in the new Anglo-Norman style in -1084, and the monks entered four years later. This, of course, does not -imply that the whole cathedral was finished; but only so much of the -eastern limb as was sufficient for the daily services; and even this -probably not carried higher than the triforium, and provided merely with -a temporary roof Many fragments of the lower part of the walls and piers -of Wulfstan’s church remain above ground, showing that it was coextensive -with the present nave and transepts. - -[Illustration: NAVE, NORTH SIDE.] - -Wulfstan’s crypt is almost wholly intact, and enables us to restore the -plan of the eastern limb. This consisted of an apse surrounded by an -ambulatory, and extended as far as the centre of the present eastern -transept. On either side of the choir-aisles apsidal chapels projected -eastward from the Norman transept. It is possible that this may explain -the curious Norman building on the north side of the choir of Ripon. To -simplify the vaulting problem, by making the compartments as small as -possible, the crypt was divided into more than a hundred compartments. -Owing to the curve of the apse many of the compartments are not square; -yet the difficulty of vaulting triangles and trapeziums was successfully -overcome, even at this early date. When nearly all the other traditions -of Roman methods of construction had been lost, the architects of -mediæval Christendom still retained in their crypts the traditions of -Roman vaulting. Even the Anglo-Saxon crypt of the village church of -Wing has stone vaulting. In the ante-room of the library are preserved -the north doors of the cathedral (fourteenth century), under one of the -hinges of which are authentic fragments of the skin of some poor wretch -flayed alive for sacrilege. The slype, the undercroft of the refectory, -and the south-east entrance near it, also belong to Wulfstan’s work. - -To the early part of the twelfth century belongs the circular -chapter-house. Most monastic chapter-houses were constructed in a -rectangular form, which best fitted on to the side of a cloister. But -the cathedrals of secular canons, when they had chapter-houses, followed -the Worcester precedent, except that they were built polygonal instead -of circular. Such was the beauty, however, of the new form, that the -monastic houses also, in later times, themselves frequently adopted the -polygonal form, as at Westminster, Evesham, Belvoir (Benedictine); Margam -and Abbey Dore (Cistercian); Alnwick, Cockersand, Thornton, Carlisle, -Bridlington, Bolton (Canons Regular). Usually the polygonal chapter-house -had a central pier; but it was dispensed with at York and Southwell. The -polygonal chapter-house never appears in France; it is one of the most -beautiful features in English Gothic. - -In the twelfth century, about 1160, some weakness seems to have shown -itself in or near the west front, and the two western bays of the -nave were rebuilt in the style of the day. In the importance given to -the triforium, in the semicircular arches which occur in triforium -and clerestory, and in the use of the chevron ornament, the work is -still Romanesque. But pointed arches also occur both in triforium and -clerestory; while the ground-story, with the exception of the square -abacus, is purely Gothic. The clustered piers, the rich vaulting-shafts, -and well-moulded arches, together with the square abacus, all remind one -of the work at Wells (1171-1191); the foliage of the capitals, however, -is less advanced. - -At length the turning-point was reached in the fortunes of Worcester. -The body of St. Wulfstan, after lying dormant for more than a century, -began to work miracles. Pilgrims came in crowds. It was the age of -pilgrimages. Even King John came with offerings; and his body was brought -here for burial. With the pilgrims came the need for more accommodation -in the eastern limb of the church, and from the pilgrims came the money -to provide it. Winchester choir was not long enough to provide for the -crowds who resorted to the shrine of St. Swithun, the Healer; Rochester -had turned a Scotch baker into St. William of Perth, and had to provide -eastward extensions; Ely had to rebuild its presbytery to give room to -the votaries who came from all East Anglia to venerate St. Ethelreda; -Durham erected the Chapel of the Nine Altars to accommodate those -who flocked from all northern England to the shrine of St. Cuthbert; -Canterbury crypt—spacious as it was—was too strait for the pilgrims who -came from all over Christendom to worship the relics of its murdered -archbishop; both Lincoln and St. Alban’s were crowded out, and later in -the century were to build eastward in honour of St. Hugh and St. Alban. -St. Wulfstan, being the newest saint, was for a time exceedingly popular. - -[Illustration: CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.] - -Miracles had commenced at Worcester in 1201; about 1204 the -reconstruction of the eastern limb had commenced; and within the next -forty years the old Norman choir had disappeared, and the present eastern -arm was finished. In plan it is a sort of combination of the earlier -eastern extensions at Hereford and Winchester. As at Hereford, a small -eastern transept was provided, and a shallow Lady chapel; but the space -between the eastern transept and the Lady chapel was three bays each -way, as in De Lucy’s work at Winchester. The apsidal chapels of the -Norman transept were also pulled down, that of the south transept being -replaced by an early Gothic chapel. The efficacy of the saint and the -liberality of the pilgrims are shown not only in the scale of the new -work, but in the wealth of detail. Especially beautiful was the arcading -round the walls. Perhaps the only work to compare with the choir of -Worcester is the presbytery of Ely; but in the proportions of its members -the Ely elevation has the best of it. The Worcester architect followed -the proportions of the two Transitional bays at the far end of the nave; -and thus, as compared with Ely, the pier-arcade is too stumpy and the -triforium too large. The crypt of Wulfstan’s church, as we have seen, -only extended as far as the new eastern transept. To get the work east -of the new transept on the same level as the rest, the builders would -have had to extend the crypt eastward. Crypts, however, had gone out of -fashion with the ritualistic need of them; therefore the builder very -sensibly built the eastern part of the choir on the level, not of the -western bays of the choir, but of the nave. But he has been credited with -æsthetic reasons for the course he adopted. A fine effigy of William de -Blois, who commenced this thirteenth-century choir, lies on his tomb in -front of the Lady chapel. - -What happened to the nave between 1245 and 1317 is not known. There is -no work in the cathedral of that date. But between 1317 and 1327 Bishop -Cobham commenced the reconstruction of the north side of the nave. It -is therefore Curvilinear work. It is not, however, typical work of the -period. With that tenderness for older design which one sees at Ely, -St. Alban’s, Beverley and Westminster, the architect has suppressed -his individual preferences, and designed his work so as to be a nice -transition from the twelfth-century bays near the west front to the -thirteenth-century bays of the choir; so his piers and his clerestory -are a Curvilinear version of the work immediately to the west of him, -while his triforium is a repeat of that of the choir. But before the new -work on the north side was joined up to the Transitional bays of the -nave money seems to have become scarce at Worcester. Pilgrims had begun -to desert St. Wulfstan for newer if not holier saints. Hitherto St. -Wulfstan had had a monopoly in the West-country. There was not another -saint of equal efficacy till you reached Winchester. But in 1287 Bishop -Cantilupe began to bring the dead to life at Hereford; and in 1327 Edward -II. was buried at Gloucester, and miracles soon followed there also. So -Worcester now had rival miracle-workers on either side. The result was -that it was found impossible to finish the Curvilinear work, although the -pier-arcade was complete all along the north side of the nave, and there -only remained to build two bays of the triforium and clerestory. - -[Illustration: NAVE, LOOKING EAST.] - -Building operations seem to have halted for some thirty years; and when -they were resumed, _c._ 1360, the completion of the north side and the -rebuilding of the south side of the nave were carried out in a balder -and more economical way. All this Perpendicular work, including the -completion of the new tower, seems to have been completed before the end -of the fourteenth century. About the same time the great transept was -vaulted and panelled, somewhat after the fashion of the Gloucester work. -The transept is a tangle of early Norman, late Norman, Transitional, -Curvilinear, and Perpendicular work. Evidently there are breaks and -lacunæ in the architectural record of Worcester which we have no -materials for filling up. In the fifteenth century the monks seem to have -rebuilt their cloister. - -A late and interesting bit of design is to be seen in the chantry of -Prince Arthur, elder brother of Henry VIII., who died in Ludlow castle -in 1486. The flat roof, with its fan-vault, skeleton ribs and pendant, -is an anticipation of the vaulting of his father’s chapel in Westminster -Abbey. - -Externally the cathedral is wholly nineteenth-century work: decay of the -stone had rendered recasing unavoidable. Within, much of what pretends to -be thirteenth-century detail is really work of the nineteenth century, -commonplace in design, coarse in execution; some of it by Perkins, some -by Scott; everything is shiny and new; nothing has ever been done so bad -as the “restoration” of Worcester choir and presbytery. - - - - -The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, York. - - -[Illustration: FROM NORTH.] - -I. York Minster has had many predecessors—Romano-British, Saxon, Norman -and Transitional cathedrals. From the two first periods nothing survives, -unless it be two walls in herring-bone masonry in the crypt. Little -remains of Norman work except in the western portion of the crypt. In -the centre of the crypt are fine fragments of the Transitional choir of -Archbishop Roger, whose work is seen at Ripon. The present cathedral is -mainly of three periods. The great transept was designed in the Lancet -period; the nave, chapter-house and vestibule were built in the latter -part of the Geometrical period; the retro-choir, choir and towers are -Perpendicular. But though the work is of three periods, it is practically -of only two designs, the choir and retro-choir being only a Perpendicular -version of the design of the nave. - -II. As at Lichfield and Wells, the canons of York in the end left not -a fragment of the earlier work visible above ground. They must have had -vast resources at their disposal, in addition to what they received in -offerings at the shrine of the local saint, St. William of York. He died -in 1154; he was canonised in 1227. It was about this latter date that -the rebuilding of the cathedral commenced; and it is not unreasonable to -believe that the offerings from his shrine had something to do with the -vastness of scale on which the new work was planned; the new transept -being not only exceptional both in height and breadth, but also in having -aisles on the western as well as on the eastern side—an extravagance -unknown in our Gothic cathedrals, except at Wells. It is amusing to find -the double-aisled transept in the sub-cathedral of Beverley Minster. -There seems to have been an internecine rivalry between the canons of -Beverley and York. Both churches have double aisles to the central -transepts; both continue in full height to the east end; both have -western towers; and though Beverley has no central tower, it has by -compensation an aisled eastern transept, where York has but transeptal -bays. Moreover, the high vaults of Beverley are of stone. In beauty of -proportions and of detail—in everything but scale—Beverley has much the -best of it. - -[Illustration: SOUTH TRANSEPT.] - -The south transept was built 1230-1241, the north transept 1241-1260. -The façade of the south transept is confused and commonplace, overloaded -with ornament, and cut up too much with windows; that of the north -transept—with the Five Sisters—is of noble simplicity. In the south -transept is the beautiful monument of Archbishop Gray (1215-1255), the -builder also of Ripon west front and Southwell choir. “The view which is -presented to the visitor on entering this transept is without doubt the -finest in the cathedral. The magnificent spaciousness of the transept, -the majesty of the lofty lancets which nearly fill the north gable, -the solemn light struggling through their ancient diapered glass, the -great central tower with its unrivalled lantern, combine to produce an -impression fully sustaining the great reputation of the minster.” In -proportions the design of the transept is not a success; the elevation -dwindles away upward, the triforium being made far too large at the -expense of the clerestory. In itself the triforium is a very fine -composition, only there is not room for it, nor is it in harmony either -with the pier-arcade below or the clerestory above. It is the largest and -most complex triforium in the country; consisting of two pairs of acute -lancets below, set under two acute lancet arches, which again are set -under an outer arch almost semicircular. This was the last big triforium -built in England (save the exceptional one in Ely choir). There had -always been a feeling in favour of the diminution of the triforium. Even -in the twelfth-century naves of Tewkesbury and Gloucester the triforium -had been cut down to very small proportions; in Beverley choir the -triforium is greatly attenuated; and very soon afterwards the triforium -was to be seen nearing extinction in Exeter choir and in the nave of -York itself. - -[Illustration: SOUTH TRANSEPT.] - -III. At this period (_c._ 1260) we must think of York Minster as -possessing the present spacious transept, a Transitional choir of -the character of that of Ripon, and a Norman nave. When the work of -rebuilding was resumed, the Transitional choir—which must have been -spacious and convenient—was spared once more, and the canons proceeded -to take down and rebuild the Norman nave, laying the foundation stone in -1291, and beginning at the south-east. The new nave is so exceedingly -broad and lofty that it is probable that it was built round and over the -top of the old Norman nave. The money came from “indulgences, penances, -briefs, bequests, and offerings at the shrine of St. William.” The nave, -like the whole minster, is exceedingly impressive in the vastness of -its spaces: no building of such dimensions could fail to be impressive. -Its proportions, however, are not good. The broadest cathedral nave in -England (its span is 45 feet), and the loftiest (it is nearly 100 feet -high), it ought to be one of the longest, which it is not: it is even -shorter than the transept. Matters are made worse, as in Lincoln nave, by -the wide spacing of the piers, the result of which is greatly to reduce -the apparent length of the nave. It contains only eight bays. Had it been -divided into ten or more bays, it would have looked far longer. It was -designed not so much on architectural lines as a glass-house. The canons -wanted the greatest possible breadths of stained glass in aisles and -clerestory. The error was seen and corrected in the choir, which, though -no longer than the nave, has nine bays instead of eight. It is possible -that nothing but want of funds prevented the canons from continuing the -nave farther westward. The exceptional height and breadth of the nave -made it very costly; and the funds plainly ran short, for, though begun -in 1291, it was not roofed till 1360. To make matters worse, the canons -were building a new chapter-house and vestibule at the same time as the -nave: so that funds may well have failed. Nevertheless, at Ely, equally -large works were completed before 1360, though they were not commenced -till 1321, and were executed with much greater richness of detail than in -York. - -[Illustration: CHAPTER-HOUSE] - -Another feature which shows that the York canons had started their -work without considering whether they would be able to finish it is -the omission of a stone vault, which was plainly contemplated at the -outset; the pinnacles built for the purpose of weighting the buttresses -against the thrusts of a stone vault still existing on the south side. -When the north side was built, the canons had abandoned hope of vaulting -the nave in stone, and so did not put up big pinnacles. It is well to -remember, however, that the exterior of the nave was designed originally -to have flying-buttresses and big pinnacles on both sides. In the end, -as in Selby choir, a sham vault of wood was put up. One cannot help -regretting these shams. It would have been Gothic to recognise honestly -that the ceiling was wood, and to design it in wood and not in lithic -fashion. Then we might have seen an English Gothic cathedral with such a -hammer-beam roof as that of Westminster Hall: very magnificent it would -have been. - -Side by side with the nave went up the chapter-house. It belongs to the -middle of the Geometrical period, _c._ 1300; later in character than -its sister at Southwell, and but little earlier than the chapter-house -of Wells. Externally, it is provided with buttresses and pinnacles and -flying-buttresses and flying bridges to resist the thrusts of a stone -vault. Yet no stone vault is there, but another sham vault of wood. The -detail of the chapter-house, inside and outside, is of exquisite beauty. - -At first the chapter-house was a detached building, but a vestibule was -soon added. Parapet-mouldings of the chapter-house may now be seen inside -the vestibule. - -A very curious and bold specimen of mediæval engineering may now be -mentioned. If the western bays of the great transept next to the -central tower be examined, it will be seen that in the clerestory and -in the triforium these bays are exceedingly narrow, but that in the -ground-story the narrow arch corresponding to the narrow bays of the -triforium and clerestory has been moved, and a wider arch substituted. -The fact is, when the transept was completed, the Norman nave, which -was still standing, had a very narrow aisle. Consequently the builders -of the transept built a pair of narrow arches, on either side of the -central tower, leading from the transept into the Norman aisle. Later on, -as we have seen, the Norman nave and aisles were pulled down, and the -present nave was built. Its aisles are exceptionally broad. The result -was that the piers of the two narrow arches found themselves in the very -middle of the new broad aisles of the nave—a most awkward obstruction -to processions passing from aisle to transept, or _vice-versa_. So the -triforium and clerestory was underpinned, the Lancet piers next to the -tower were taken down and then put up again clear of the aisles, and the -two arches also on either side of the tower were taken down and rebuilt -with the same stones, each in the place of the other. The result is -that, counting from the end-walls of the transepts, in the triforium and -clerestory there are three of the bays wide and one narrow, while in the -ground-story there are two wide, one narrow, and one wide bay. Similar -changes took place on the eastern side of the transept when the choir was -built. - -Later on, when the central tower was built, its great weight sank the -piers on which it rests eight inches into the ground, and the adjoining -masonry was dislocated. The result was that it was found necessary to -rebuild the third piers on both sides of both transepts (counting from -the end-walls) as well as the first pier on the western side of the north -transept, and at the same time to block up all the four narrow arches -with solid masonry (cf. CARLISLE, and EXETER). - -IV. The west front of the nave was not finished till the very end of -the Curvilinear period, to which period belong also the treasury and -sacristy, and also Archbishop Zouch’s chapel, unless the latter was -rebuilt _c._ 1396. - -[Illustration: CHAPTER-HOUSE ARCADE.] - -V. Immediately that the nave was roofed in, the canons commenced to -rebuild the eastern limb. Meanwhile architectural fashions had changed. -While the York people were lingering over their Geometrical nave, a whole -architectural period had passed away, leaving behind few traces at York -except in the west front. When the new choir was commenced in 1361, the -Curvilinear style had disappeared before the new Perpendicular style, -invented at Gloucester and taken up by Bishop Edingdon at Winchester. -The style, however, was still new, and though the Winchester work is -purely Perpendicular, the York design still retains in the window tracery -reminiscences of the flow of curve that Edingdon and Wykeham had replaced -by grilles of horizontal and vertical bars. - -Only the eastern part of Archbishop Roger’s Transitional work was at -first pulled down, the services going on without interruption in the -western bays. The four new eastern bays—designed as a retro-choir, the -altar standing originally one bay more to the west than at present—may -be distinguished at once externally by the unusual feature of having an -external instead of an internal arcade to the clerestory; this gives a -fine play of light and shadow. - -Then the five western bays were built, two bays as sanctuary, three as -choir. Owing to the continuation of the high roofs to the extreme east -end of the cathedral, there is little of the picturesqueness of the -eastern terminations of Wells and Salisbury, but there is spaciousness, -dignity and majesty. Here also the canons had not the money—perhaps -not the courage—to put up a high vault of stone. Nave, eastern limb, -and transept (the vault of which is of the fifteenth century) were all -vaulted in wood. The punishment was long in coming, but it came at last. -The wooden vault of the choir, the stalls and the organ, were burnt -down by a lunatic in 1829; and that of the nave by a plumber in 1840. -The finest feature in the choir is the tall transeptal bays, suggested -by and built on the foundations of Archbishop Roger’s flanking towers. -The whole eastern limb was finished _c._ 1420. Then came the central -tower, 1410-1433; the south-west tower, 1433-1447; the north-west tower, -1465-1474; the organ screen, 1475-1505. - -[Illustration: FROM SOUTH-WEST.] - -In 1472 the completion of the great works commenced _c._ 1230 was near at -hand, and a solemn consecration of the rebuilt cathedral was held. The -Norman and Transitional cathedral had disappeared; its successor occupied -a century and a half in building. - -[Illustration: SOUTH CHOIR.] - -Externally, York Minster, from its vast dimensions and the fine -composition of the towers, is exceedingly impressive. One realises -its immensity best from the city walls, where it is seen “reflecting -every change in the sky, and rising like a mountain above the parochial -churches and houses of the city.” The treatment of the north side of the -nave and transept is particularly grave and impressive—largely because -of the absence of pinnacles. The west front, in spite of overloaded and -confused ornament, is of its type the finest in the country; and to -my mind the great west window, in the free and fanciful flow of its -intersecting ogee arches, surpasses its only rival, the east window of -Carlisle. The central tower relies for effect on mass more than height, -and thus contrasts strongly with the central towers of Canterbury and -Lincoln. Gloucester tower alone seems to be impressive equally from -height and bulk. Shorn of its pinnacles, however, York central tower -has not fair play. Very beautiful, too, is the play of light and shade -in the double plane of tracery in the eastern clerestory. And very -characteristic is the east façade; it may be all wrong, with its strong -emphasis of horizontal lines and concealment of the gable, but it has -distinction; one never confuses the east end of York with that of any -other cathedral—one never forgets it. The weakest point in York is what -ought to be the source of the greatest beauty, the window-tracery. Much -of it, especially in the choir, is ugly in itself; even that of the great -east window and of the windows in the transeptal bays is meagre and thin. -But what is worse, this poor tracery is repeated with most wearisome -iteration all over the flanks of the cathedral. Window after window of -the nave, window after window of the choir, are monotonously alike. The -imagination of the York people was singularly limited. What a contrast to -the glorious series of windows of Exeter, contemporary with those of York -nave! - -[Illustration: CHOIR, LOOKING EAST.] - -But it is not from its architecture that York holds its paramount place -as an exponent of mediæval art, but because its ancient glass is almost -all intact. For a detailed account of it the reader should refer to Mr. -Benson’s handbook and to that of Dean Purey-Cust. I will conclude by -describing it in Mrs. Van Rensselaer’s words, which are as true as they -are eloquent. “Most English cathedrals have been entirely reduced to -architectural bone and sinew; they lack decorative warmth and glow, life -and colour, and the charm that lies in those myriad accessory things -which the lingering faith of Rome has preserved in other lands. All the -varied tools and trappings, altars, shrines, and symbolic trophies of -the rich Catholic ritual have been banished; much of the furniture is -gone, the walls are bare of paint, scores of monuments and chantries have -been shattered to bits, thousands of sculptured ornaments and figures -have been swept away in dust; a painful cleanliness has replaced the -time-stains which give tone to many Continental churches even when no -actual colouring exists, and a glare of white light or hideous discord -of modern hues fills the enormous windows. Columns and walls and floors -are as barren at York as elsewhere; and although many tombs remain, -without its glass it would seem even colder and emptier than most of -its sisters, for it was built at a time when walls of glass had nearly -replaced walls of stone. But it has its glass, and this means much more -than that it has a richness of decorative effect which no other English -church displays. It means that here alone we can really apprehend the -effect of a late Gothic church, even from the architectural point of -view. At York we can follow the development of the art of glass-painting -through a period of fully four centuries. More delicate, clear and -exquisite fields of simple colour can never have been wrought than -those which fill the Five Sisters with their sea-green purity. The west -window, glazed a century later (1338), is a gorgeous mosaic of ruddy and -purple hues, shining in the intricate stone pattern which shows black -against the light, like a million amethysts and rubies set in ebony -lace. The multicoloured eastern window, and its two mates in the minor -transept, seem vast and fair enough for the walls of the New Jerusalem. -And wherever we look in the lightly constructed eastern limb, it seems, -not as though walls had been pierced for windows, but as though radiant -translucent screens—fragile, yet vital and well equal to their task—had -been used to build a church, and merely bound together with a network -of solid stone. For the moment we feel that nothing is so beautiful as -glass. After we have seen the glass of York, we never think again that -stained glass was merely an adornment of Gothic architecture. The early -Gothic architect demanded for his enlarged windows some filling which, as -decoration, would take the place of the wide frescoes of former times, -and which, from the constructional point of view, would justify to the -eye that partial suppression of walls which he knew to be scientifically -right. This filling the early glass-painter gave him; and it was so -satisfying from the architectural standpoint, and so beautiful from the -decorative, that he was ready and eager to carry on his architectural -evolution to the farthest possible extreme. He felt that he could -attenuate his constructional framework as far as the laws of gravity -would permit, since the glazier stood ready to replace really solid -wall-spaces by those which looked solid enough, and were more beautiful -than any expanses of stone had ever been. No architect could have built -as late Gothic architects did, if only white glass had been at his -command. None would have made walls which are literally windows, unless -strength of colour had come forward to simulate strength of substance. -A Perpendicular church was actually meant to look as the choir of York -does look—like a great translucent tabernacle merely ribbed and braced -with stone.” The very best glass, however, is of later date than that of -the cathedral, and the visitor should round off his education in mediæval -glass by inspecting the late Perpendicular glass in which the parish -churches of York abound. There is a fine collection of fifteenth-century -glass in St. Martin’s church, in Coney Street, near the interesting old -Guildhall. Indeed, nowhere in England can stained glass be studied to -such advantage as at York. - -[Illustration: EAST END.] - - - - -Victorian Cathedrals. - - -The following new dioceses have been formed during the present reign: -Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Ripon, St. Alban’s, Southwell, Truro, -Wakefield. Of these Ripon Minster, St. Alban’s Abbey, and Southwell -Minster have been described already. In only one diocese, Truro, has -a new cathedral been commenced. The bishops of Liverpool, Manchester, -Newcastle, and Wakefield, are housed in parish churches. - - -Liverpool Cathedral. - -The see was founded in 1880. A fine design for a domical cathedral was -prepared by Mr. Emerson in 1885, but the church of St. Peter remains the -“provisional cathedral.” - - -Manchester Cathedral. - -[Illustration: CHOIR, MANCHESTER CATHEDRAL.] - -The see was founded in 1847. Externally and internally the cathedral is -but a magnified parish church. The single western tower, the absence of -a central tower, the extraordinary breadth of the interior, the absence -of a triforium, the wooden roofs, all stamp it with parochialism. Indeed, -the nave and aisles are still the parish church of Manchester, the -cathedral proper being confined to the choir and its aisles. Looked at -as a parish church and a collegiate church—for from 1426 it was both—it -is a magnificent specimen of late English Gothic, dating from 1426 to -1520, when the ambition of architects was to make of their churches -“stone-lanterns.” In the same accidental way as Chichester cathedral it -has become possessed of picturesque double aisles, by the incorporation -on either side of sets of chantries. The south aisle of Dorchester priory -church had a similar origin. It has been so thoroughly “renovated” that -it is practically a modern church. But it is very impressive. There is -no jarring of styles. And the colour effects, externally and internally, -are superb. Its woodwork, too—rood-screen, choir-screens, tabernacled -stalls, misereres, and roofs—is of great richness and fine design. The -whole church in its fortuitous picturesqueness appeals to one much more -than the icy regularity of such churches as St. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, -or Bath Abbey. - - -Newcastle Cathedral. - -The see was founded in 1882. The church is Curvilinear work of the -fourteenth century, to which a Perpendicular tower and spire, east window -and font were added about 1450. The spire, with its pinnacle supported -on converging flying buttresses, is a bold and effective composition. -Spires of similar construction occur in the Cross Steeple, Glasgow, -and King’s College, Aberdeen, and formerly existed at Linlithgow and -Haddington. London has a fine example by Sir Christopher Wren in St. -Dunstan’s-in-the-East. There is a fine Jacobean monument, pulpit-shaped, -to Henry Maddison, and another to William Hall. - - -Truro Cathedral. - -[Illustration: CHOIR.] - -Truro cathedral, consecrated in 1887, is the first entirely new cathedral -designed in England since St. Paul’s. The nave, towers, spires, -chapter-house, and cloister are still to build. In dimensions it ranks -with Norwich and Wells; in plan it is as complex as any of the greater of -our cathedrals. It is intended to have three towers and spires, a south -porch, western porches, an aisled nave of nine bays, a central transept -with eastern and western aisles and baptistery, a choir, sanctuary, and -eastern processional aisle, a square east end, and an unaisled eastern -transept, projecting slightly beyond the aisles. Below the choir is a -crypt, appropriated to vestries. The crypt is supposed to be in the -massive style of the latter years of the twelfth century. The choir is -supposed to have been commenced in the early years of the thirteenth -century; but since, as in the transepts of Salisbury, the aisle windows -are lancets, while those of the clerestory have early plate-tracery, the -upper part of the choir is supposed not to have been finished before -the middle of the century. So again, in the half-century or so which -is supposed to elapse between the commencement and the completion of -the cathedral, the design is supposed to have been altered here and -there as it passed through different hands; hence the rose-windows, -which are unusually plentiful, are all different; the transept ends -are differently treated; the arches of the choir are narrow, those of -the nave are wide; the latter has coupled bays, the choir has not; the -quadripartite vault of the choir becomes more complex in the nave, -just as it does at Lincoln. And just as the Lincoln architect dropped -down fortuitous chapels at the west end of the nave, so Mr. Pearson -purposely forgot to leave room for a baptistery, and tacked it on, in -a carefully casual manner, to the south transept. The cloister, too, -is to be three-sided and lop-sided, as at Chichester. Internally, the -cathedral is picturesquely beautiful, and admirably adapted for the -ritual of the Church of England as it was in the thirteenth century. -The south side of the choir has the remarkable peculiarity of having -three aisles; so has that of Oxford cathedral. But it got its three -aisles in a different way from Oxford. Mr. Pearson was instructed to -leave standing a piece of genuine mediæval work, late and good—viz., the -south aisle of the old church of St. Mary’s. The cathedral was placed -to the north of it, just so far off as to barely admit the buttresses -supporting the flying-buttresses of the choir vault. These buttresses Mr. -Pearson pierced with arches, and, roofing over the space from buttress -to buttress, got a narrow intermediate aisle between the choir-aisle to -the north and St. Mary’s aisle to the south. Thus on the south side of -the choir there are three ranges of piers and three ranges of arches, -and the changing vistas and perspectives and mysterious distances are -delightful. In this instance the architect was mediæval in spirit as well -as in the letter. - - -Wakefield Cathedral. - -The see was founded in 1888. Like Manchester cathedral, the church -is thoroughly parochial in appearance, inside and outside. But, -archæologically, it is of exceptional interest. It is one of those -numerous churches, every stone of the exterior of which is of late -Gothic date, but which internally in their arcades reveal the existence -of much earlier building epochs. Like many others, though now a vast -parallelogram, it was once a cruciform church in plan; and though now it -has a western tower, its tower once stood above the crossing. Once its -nave was aisleless; then it had narrow aisles; later on, these narrow -aisles were replaced by broad ones. The piers and arches of the first -aisles were low; afterwards they were heightened or rebuilt. Originally -it had no clerestory; this was not added till the fifteenth century. When -the central tower fell, the new tower was built ten feet west of the -nave, so as not to interfere with the services. When it was finished, it -was joined up to the nave by the addition of a new westernmost bay. The -Norman chancel and its successor were short, and had neither aisles nor -clerestory; the present chancel, the third, is long, having absorbed the -space originally covered by the central tower; and it has a clerestory -and aisles, and these have absorbed the transepts. Finally, the font, -choir-screen, and sounding-board are Jacobean. Wakefield cathedral is -a typical embodiment of the history of the Church of England, with a -personal identity undestroyed by its many transformations, like the boy’s -knife which had a new blade and a new handle, but was still the same old -knife. - - - - -The Welsh Cathedrals. - - -Bangor. - -[Illustration: BANGOR, FROM SOUTH.] - -The work at Bangor falls into four periods. - -I. Originally the cathedral was a small Norman church, probably without -aisles, with nave, transept, choir of one bay, and apse. Of this building -nothing is visible except a buttress and window on the south side of the -choir. It seems to have received great damage in 1247. - -II. Between 1267 and 1305 the cathedral was practically rebuilt by Bishop -Anian. The Norman apse was demolished, and the choir was extended two -bays farther to the east, and ended square. The transepts also were -lengthened half a bay each. A chapel was added to the north of the choir; -and aisles, either now or not much later, to the nave. - -III. In 1402 the cathedral was burnt by Owen Glendower. Between 1500 -and 1532 Bishops Dene and Skevynton rebuilt the eastern part of the -presbytery, the nave arcade and the clerestory above it, the two windows -on the south side of the choir—set high because the lower part of the -wall was blocked with the stall-work—the western tower, and the stump of -a central tower. - -IV. In the restoration of 1866 many fragments of Anian’s cathedral were -found in the walls, and were used up by Sir G. G. Scott in rebuilding the -transept after what he imagined to be Anian’s design. The choir-chapel -was also rebuilt as organ-chamber, library and chapter-house. The aisles -also, and the central tower, were almost wholly rebuilt. - - -Llandaff. - -Llandaff, though practically but a suburb of the busy town of Cardiff, -still remains picturesquely environed by woods and meadows and hills and -the Taff. Externally it adds one more to the endless varieties of English -cathedral architecture. No central tower is here, and the position of -transepts is inadequately occupied by the chapter-house on the southern -side. One unbroken roof, as at Dorchester abbey church, extends for the -whole length of the cathedral, the Lady chapel excepted. Its west front, -indeed, is cathedral-like, now that a south-west tower and spire, in -French Gothic, has been added. Internally, the absence of a triforium -gives it a parochial appearance. Indeed, both externally and internally, -it has the appearance rather of a magnified parish church than the seat -of one of the most ancient bishoprics in the country. Nevertheless, as at -Wakefield, and Dorchester, it is quite possible that, though now it is a -vast oblong, 200 feet by 70 feet, it was originally a Norman cruciform -church. But whether it had originally a central tower, or towers flanking -the choir, somewhat after the fashion of those of the old cathedral of -Como or those of Exeter, it is impossible to ascertain. The architectural -record of Llandaff is incomplete, and the evolution of the ground-plan -is a puzzle not to be disentangled. Of Norman work there are two sets. -One is to be found in the presbytery: it consists of the east wall and -its arch, and of fragments of an arch and window in the south wall. This -seems to be the work of Bishop Urban, _c._ 1120. The nave was probably -not completed till late in the twelfth century; the only visible remains -are the north and south doorways (Transitional). - -It would seem that it was determined subsequently to rebuild not the -whole eight bays of the nave and choir, but only the interior of them. -The walls of the low Norman aisles, with their doorways and windows, were -left untouched. But a new set of piers and arches carrying a clerestory -were put up in place of the Norman work. It is possible that the nave was -not given a triforium, because there still survived low unvaulted Norman -aisles on either side of it. All this is excellent Lancet work, done -between 1193 and 1229. To this period also belongs the fine west front -and the vaulted vestibule to the chapter-house. - -Between 1244 and 1265 a little southern transept was built to serve as a -chapter-house. Below, it is square, but nevertheless has a central stalk -like the octagonal chapter-houses at Salisbury and Westminster. The upper -story is octagonal, and has a steep octagonal roof. - -Then it was determined to have a large eastern Lady chapel. Not to -interfere with the services, this was probably built completely detached -from the cathedral, as at Lichfield and elsewhere. When it was finished -the Norman apse would be pulled down, and the Lady chapel joined on to -the presbytery. Two chapels also were built, one on each side of the -westernmost bay of the new Lady chapel. This work was probably done _c._ -1280. - -The next step was to continue the northern of these chapels eastward, -so as to provide the presbytery with a northern aisle of two bays, and -to pierce the north wall of the presbytery with a couple of arches. No -doubt they would have liked a couple of arches in the southern wall; -but unfortunately the bay of the aisle on the other side of it had been -vaulted, and so only one arch was inserted, leaving as much wall as -possible to support the vault. Under this arch the sedilia were placed. - -Soon afterwards the outer wall of the south aisle of the presbytery was -rebuilt. But the presbytery was very dark, having no windows to the east, -and being much blocked on the south side by the sedilia and by the mass -of Norman walling which it had been necessary to retain. So it received a -clerestory and very large aisle-windows. Nor were the nave and choir well -lighted. In the clerestory and west front they had only lancet windows; -and, if the low Norman aisles still remained, they could contain but very -diminutive windows. There was nothing for it but to rebuild the whole of -the eight bays of each aisle. This rebuilding probably went on between -1315 and 1360, for the windows have ogee dripstones and ogee patterns -in the tracery. When the aisles had been rebuilt the whole cathedral -had been reconstructed, with the exception of two Norman doorways and -two or three Norman arches in the presbytery. To us it may seem a -topsy-turvy mode of procedure to first rebuild the inside—the pier-arcade -and clerestory—of a church, and the outside walls afterwards; but it is -the mode of procedure adopted in scores of parish churches, even the -humblest. One constantly finds the aisles, as at Wakefield, of later date -than the pier-arcade, and that pier-arcade a rebuilding of something -older. - -After this great reconstruction, first of the interior, then of the -exterior, there remained only to complete the west front. The south-west -tower seems to have become ruinous or to have collapsed, and the -materials of it helped to build a new north-west tower erected at the -cost of Jasper Tudor, uncle of Henry VII. Then came the Reformation; and -the south-west tower was not rebuilt till the present century. Since 1843 -nave, choir, and presbytery have been almost wholly rebuilt. - - -St. Asaph. - -[Illustration: NAVE, LOOKING EAST.] - -This is the smallest of the Welsh cathedrals, and consists of an aisled -nave of five bays, an aisleless transept, a central tower, and a chancel. -The chancel was built by Sir G. G. Scott in 1868; the rest between -1284 and 1352. The arcade and clerestory of the nave are exceptional -in character. The piers have no capitals; so that the mouldings run -uninterruptedly round the arch; they consist simply of chamfers with -a wave moulding. These continuous mouldings are not uncommon in late -work—_e.g._, in Antwerp cathedral; but are seldom found in early Gothic, -though a thirteenth-century example occurs in the vestibule of Chester -chapter house. The clerestory windows are square, but cusped. The central -tower is massive and effective. The cathedral is finely situated, on -elevated ground, above the beautiful valley of the Clwyd; and may be seen -from the London and Holyhead railway. There are good stalls (1471-1495), -and an interesting effigy of a bishop (_c._ 1300). - - -St. David’s. - -Far away in the extreme west of Pembrokeshire, sixteen miles from the -nearest railway station, Haverfordwest, is one of the most interesting -cathedrals in the British Isles. Dedicated to the great patron saint -of Wales, it is as complex in plan as Winchester or St. Alban’s, and -abounds in lovely detail of the Transitional and Curvilinear periods. - -The earliest work belongs to the episcopate of Peter de Leia (1176-1198), -and comprises parts of the presbytery, the western walls of the transept, -the western piers of the tower, and the whole of the nave except the -outer portion of the west front (Sir G. G. Scott), and the south porch -and the exterior of the south aisle (1328-1347). Though built quite late -in the twelfth century, when Gothic architecture had got good hold in -Ripon, Canterbury, and Wells, St. David’s—partly perhaps from its remote -situation—is still sternly Romanesque. The pier-arcade is low, the piers -massive and squat; their arches are semicircular, as also the windows of -the clerestory; there is a profusion of Norman zigzag ornament. On the -other hand, pointed arches appear in the triforium, the bases have the -water-holding hollow, and there are all sorts of beautiful varieties of -Transitional capitals—from the early cushion-capitals, much subdivided, -in the pier-arcade of the choir, to the later foliated capitals, of great -beauty and diversity of design, which abound in the nave. The triforium -and clerestory, formed into a single member by a containing-arch of -zigzag, are a charming anticipation of the design of Southwell choir. - -Early in the thirteenth century, _c._ 1220, the central tower collapsed, -as at Winchester, Ely, Lincoln, etc. It fell towards the east, and seems -to have broken down the arches of the presbytery. The Transitional piers -were retained, more or less altered; but new pointed arches were built, -and lancet windows were inserted in the new clerestory and east wall. -In the aisles may be seen the low shafts of a Norman vault, and the -corbels of a higher Lancet vault; it is uncertain whether either was -ever executed. To this period belongs the very remarkable shrine of St. -David: a very plain structure, designed for use—for very strange uses. -Down below in each side are three openings, allowing three sick people -at a time to lie beneath. (Perhaps they lay there all night, waiting for -the Saint to come and touch them, as was the case in some shrines of -Pagan Greece.) On the side next to the aisle are two large and shallow -upright openings, and three small circular openings—the latter, perhaps, -as in St. Alban’s shrine, to allow the patient to insert a diseased arm. -A parallel to the lower openings may be found in the remains of the -shrine now inserted under the effigy of Lord Stourton at Salisbury. When -the restoration of the choir was completed (_c._ 1248), the next task -seems to have been to build a processional aisle. The eastern walk of -this was built fifteen feet east of the eastern wall of the cathedral, -thus leaving a little open courtyard between the back of the east wall -and the east walk of the new processional aisle. In the east wall -there was a lower range of three tall lancets, which gave much light -to the high altar beneath them. The authorities may then have left the -little open courtyard to preserve the light of these three windows. But -at Winchester and elsewhere the lower lights were sacrificed without -demur; and the space between the east wall of the presbytery and the -processional aisle, instead of being wasted, was utilised as a saint’s -chapel or feretory, where—in the most honoured position in the church, -close to the high altar—the shrine of the patron saint of the church -was placed: shrines of St. Swithun and St. Birinus at Winchester, that -of St. Werburgh at Chester, of St. Ethelreda at Ely, of St. Wulfstan at -Worcester, of St. Cuthbert at Durham, of St. Chad at Lichfield. Now the -shrine of St. David is artistically rude and uncouth, and occupies a -by no means specially honourable position. May one conjecture that the -original intention was to open arches in the east wall of the presbytery, -and to build a new shrine for St. David, placing it above and behind the -high altar, where it would be conspicuous to the very farthest end of the -nave,—and that Welsh conservatism refused either to have a new shrine or -to change the position of the old one? Before commencing the south walk -of the processional aisle, the Lady chapel was erected (1290-1328). Its -buttresses are late Gothic. - -Then came the great building-prelate of St. David’s, Bishop Gower -(1328-1347). (1) He completed the processional aisle, building the whole -of the south walk and completing the north walk. (2) Like Abbot Thokey, -at Gloucester, he transformed the Norman south aisle of the nave into -the style of his day (Curvilinear), and built a south porch. (3) East of -the north transept he built a three-storied building, the lower part as -a chapel to St. Thomas of Canterbury, the upper part as a chapter-house. -(4) He raised the tower one stage above the roofs. (5) He raised the -walls of the aisles, and inserted Curvilinear windows. (6) He separated -the presbytery from the choir, which as at Gloucester is beneath the -central tower, by a parclose screen—a very rare feature. (7) He built the -wood throne of the bishop; it seems, however, to have been reconstructed -in the fifteenth century. (8) He built for himself the magnificent -palace, and another at Lamphey, besides Swansea castle and church. (9) -His most beautiful work is the magnificent choir-screen, one of the -grandest examples of mediæval art. It consists of three compartments of -stone, surmounted by a coved cornice of wood. The southern compartment -has two pointed arches, with compound cusping and rich crockets; and -within, the tomb and effigy of the bishop. The central compartment is -occupied by the doorway and vaulted vestibule leading from the nave to -the choir; on either side of the vestibule are effigies of priests. The -northern compartment seems to consist of thirteenth century arcading, -which has been worked up to serve as a reredos to an altar. - -To the Perpendicular period belong the stalls, which have good misereres -(1460-1480); the elaborate wooden roof of the nave (1472-1509) and that -of the presbytery, which is a little earlier. - -Early in the Tudor period Bishop Vaughan (1509) added another story to -the tower, and built himself a chapel in the empty space between the -east wall of the presbytery and the east walk of the processional aisle, -vaulting it with fan-tracery. - -Externally, the cathedral is simple and plain, in harmony with its bleak -and wild surroundings. Internally, like Canterbury and Winchester, it -gains dignity from the greater height of the choir. The whole floor of -the nave slopes upwards from west to east, and the choir is elevated -eight steps above the level of the nave. - - - - -GLOSSARY. - - - _Abacus_ The flat slab on the top of a capital. - - _Ambulatory_ The processional aisle at the back of the - high altar. - - _Apse_ The eastern termination—semicircular - or polygonal—of a choir or its aisles, - or of a transept. - - _Arcade_ A series of arches. - - _Pier-arcade_ The piers and arches separating the side-aisles - from the central aisle or nave. - - _Battlement_ A notched or indented parapet. - - _Bay_ The space between two piers from the floor to - the roof. - - _Bosses_ The ornamented keystones of a vault. - - _Buttress_ A projecting support to a wall. - - _Cathedral_ Any church, large or small, which contains the - seat (_cathedra_) of a bishop. - - _Chantry-chapels_ Private chapels; in which were chanted masses for - the repose of the soul of the founder of the - chapel. - - _Chevet_ The ring of chapels round the east end of a choir - or its aisles: _e.g._ Westminster. - - _Choir_ (1) That part of the church where the clergy or - monks sat. (2) The whole eastern limb of the - church. - - _Clerestory_ The upper story of a church. Also the row of - windows in the upper story. - - _Corbel_ A bracket of stone or wood. - - _Corbel-table_ A row of corbels supporting a parapet or a - projecting roof. - - _Crockets_ Tufts of leaves arranged in bands. - - _Crossing_ The space where nave and transepts intersect. - Above it is often a central tower. - - _Crypt_ The underground portion of a church. - - _Cusps_ Spikes in the tracery of a window. - - _Dripstone_ A projection running round the head of a window - to throw off the rain. - - _Eaves_ That part of a roof which overhangs the wall. - - _Elevation_ (1) A geometrical drawing (_i.e._ not in - perspective) of a vertical portion of a - building. (2) The portion so drawn. - - _Façade_ The principal external elevation of a building. - - _Feretory_ (1) A portable shrine. (2) That part of the - church which contained the pedestal of the - shrine: _e.g._ Winchester; also called Saint’s - Chapel. - - _Fillet_ A narrow projecting stone band, like a piece of - tape; square in section. - - _Flying buttresses_ Tilted arches rising from the buttresses of the - aisles to the clerestory wall to resist the - thrusts of the high vault. - - _Gargoyle_ A projecting water-spout. - - _Groined vault_ A vault which, instead of ribs, has sharp edges - or arrises. - - _Hood-moulding_ An ornamental dripstone employed in interiors; - especially over pier-arches. - - _Jambs_ The sides of a window or doorway. - - _Label_ A dripstone over the exterior of a doorway. - - _Lancets_ Sharp, pointed windows; in the shape of a - surgeon’s lancet. - - _Lierne-vault_ Any vault which contains liernes: _i.e._, tie-ribs - on the surface, which do not spring from an - abacus, nor rise to the central boss. - - _Miserere_ A carved bracket beneath the movable seat of a - stall. - - _Moulding_ Any architectural member is said to be moulded when - its edge or surface presents continuous lines - of alternate projections and recesses. - - _Mullions_ Vertical bars in a window. - - _Nave_ The western limb of a church, (1) including or (2) - excluding its aisles. - - _Ogee arch_ An arch, each side of which has a double curve; - the upper part concave, the lower part convex. - - _Order_ A compound arch is one which is built up of two or - more Orders, or sub-arches, usually recessed. - - _Parapet_ A low wall, not embattled, but with a horizontal - upper surface, at the foot of a roof. - - _Piers_ The supports of arches; sometimes cylindrical, - sometimes polygonal; sometimes clusters of - columns; sometimes masses of masonry - ornamented with shafts. - - _Pilaster_ A flattened column. - - _Pinnacles_ Small spires employed to weight buttresses, etc. - - _Plinth_ The pedestal of the base of a pier or shaft or wall. - - _Piscina_ A water-drain, appertaining to the high altar. - (1) A niche. (2) A shaft. (3) An opening in - the pavement. - - _Presbytery_ (1) The sanctuary only. (2) The whole of the space - between the ritual choir and the east end: _e.g._, - York and Lincoln and Ely—_i.e._, sanctuary plus - retro-choir. - - _Quadripartite One in which each compartment is divided into four - vault_ cells by diagonal ribs. - - _Quatrefoil_ An ornament with four lobes. - - _Refectory_ The dining-hall or frater of a monastery. - - _Reredos_ The screen at the back of a high altar: _e.g._, - Winchester. - - _Ribs_ The arcs which intersect to support the filling-in - of a vault. - - _Romanesque_ The style of Northern architecture intermediate - between that of the Early Christian Basilican - churches and that of the Gothic cathedrals. - Anglo-Norman or Norman is one of its - geographical subdivisions. - - _Roll_ A rounded projecting moulding. - - _Rood_ The crucifix. - - _Rood-loft_ A beam, carrying the rood, placed above the - rood-screen. The place of the rood-screen - was at the west end of the ritual choir. - - _Sanctuary_ The space between the ritual choir and the high - altar. - - _Sedilia_ Seats for the priest and his assistants on the - south side of the sanctuary. - - _Sexpartite vault_ One in which each compartment is divided into six - cells by four diagonal and two intermediate ribs. - - _Shaft_ A slender column. VAULTING-SHAFTS supported a vault - or ceiling. - - _Spandrils_ The triangular spaces on either side of an arch. - - _Splay_ A window-jamb which slants outwardly or inwardly - from the glass. - - _Springers_ The lower stones of the ribs of a vault. - - _Stilted arch_ An arch elevated above the abacus by vertical - masonry. - - _String-course A projecting moulding, usually horizontal, running - or String_ along a wall. - - _Thrust_ The pressure exerted laterally and downward by an - arch or vault. - - _Tracery_ The straight or curved bars of stone which separate - the lights in the arched part of a window. - - _Transept_ A cross-arm of a church. - - _Transoms_ Horizontal cross-bars of stone in a window. - - _Trefoil_ An ornament with three lobes. - - _Triforium_ (1) The space between the vault and the lean-to - roof of an aisle. (2) The arcade in front of it. - The triforium-space often forms a BLIND STORY. - - _Tympanum_ (1) The space between the lintel and arch of a - doorway. (2) The space enclosed by the triangular - outline of a gable. - - _Vault_ An inner roof of stone. - - _Voussoir_ Each stone in an arch or rib is a voussoir. The - principal voussoir is the keystone, which may be - enlarged so as to form a boss, or still further - enlarged so as to form a pendant. - -[Illustration: PEEL, ST. GERMAIN, INTERIOR.] - -Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury. - - - - -PRESS NOTICES OF FIRST EDITION. - - -“A short introduction sets out the plan followed in describing the -churches. This plan is quite the most valuable feature of the book, the -several structures being examined as architectural organisms which were -slowly built up during centuries of developing ritual and strenuous -constructive effort. We are first given the principal historic facts -as to foundation and early history, and are then taken to the vestiges -of the earliest church of which any part survives. The constructive -evolution is then briefly followed through the centuries—in some -cases, one thousand years and more—during which each great church was -developed into its state of greatest glory and passed into the era of -decline, mutilation, and—worst of all—modern restoration.”—W. R. LETHABY -(_University Extension Journal_). - -“A practical, sensible, and well-informed book, beautifully illustrated. -Its method is clear, rational, and helpful.”—_Bookman._ - -“It is an easily portable conspectus of the whole subject. Furnished with -this we may go over England and Wales and gain a fair working knowledge -of all the cathedral churches.”—_Spectator._ - -“He writes with knowledge, clearness, and vivacity, and the result is -a fascinating book on a subject which has engrossed many learned but -tedious pens.”—_The Speaker._ - -“Should be found helpful and illuminating both to the stay-at-home reader -and to those who carry the book with them on pilgrimage to the famous -English minsters.”—_Scotsman._ - -“A clear, emphatic, and vigorous statement of the ordinary facts -illustrating the architectural history of every building that is at the -present day of cathedral rank in England and Wales. It is copiously -and usefully illustrated. The style is always direct and forcible, and -Mr. Bond steers so carefully clear of fads that his general views can, -as a rule, be trusted as well as his particular details.”—_Manchester -Guardian._ - -“It is an extremely interesting book about a familiar though still -unexhausted subject. The illustrations are many and good.”—_Record._ - - - - -The Library of Useful Stories. - -PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH. - - -=THE STORY OF BIRD LIFE.= By W. P. PYCRAFT. With Illustrations. - -=THE STORY OF THE ALPHABET.= By EDWARD CLODD. With nearly 100 -Illustrations. - -=THE STORY OF LIFE’S MECHANISM.= By H. W. CONN. With 50 Illustrations. - -=THE STORY OF THE WANDERINGS OF ATOMS.= By M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A. - -=THE STORY OF ICE IN THE PRESENT AND PAST.= By W. A. BREND. With 37 -Illustrations. - -=THE STORY OF ECLIPSES.= By G. F. CHAMBERS, F.R.A.S. With 19 -Illustrations. - -=THE STORY OF THE BRITISH RACE.= By JOHN MUNRO. With 4 Maps. - -=THE STORY OF THE MIND.= By Prof. J. M. 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} - h2.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 135%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - page-break-before: avoid; - line-height: 1; } - h3.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 110%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - h4.pgx { text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-weight: bold; - font-size: 100%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - word-spacing: 0em; - letter-spacing: 0em; - line-height: 1; } - hr.pgx { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pgx" title="">The Project Gutenberg eBook, English Cathedrals Illustrated, by Francis -Bond</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: English Cathedrals Illustrated</p> -<p> Second and Revised Edition</p> -<p>Author: Francis Bond</p> -<p>Release Date: November 14, 2020 [eBook #63739]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH CATHEDRALS ILLUSTRATED***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pgx" title="">E-text prepared by Sonya Schermann<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (https://www.pgdp.net)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (https://archive.org)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff; max-width: 80%; margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/gri_33125014518423 - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="pgx" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus1.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ELY: NORTH AISLE OF CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="max40"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<h1 class="dropcap">ENGLISH<br /> -CATHEDRALS<br /> -<span class="fts">ILLUSTRATED</span></h1> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -FRANCIS BOND<br /> -<span class="smcap">M.A., F.G.S., Hon. A.R.I.B.A.</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage">SECOND AND REVISED EDITION</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><i>ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS</i></p> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="gothic">London</span><br /> -GEORGE NEWNES, LIMITED<br /> -<span class="smaller">SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND<br /> -1900</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage">PRINTED BY<br /> -HAZELL, WATSON, AND VINEY, LD.,<br /> -LONDON AND AYLESBURY.</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic">Introduction.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus2.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHOIR SCREEN.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The following -pages are an -attempt to make -the study of the -English cathedrals -more interesting. -Every ancient -building has a life-history -of its own, -and should be -studied biographically. -But open a -guide-book, or visit the different portions of a cathedral -(Winchester, for example,) in the regulation order, and what -you read of or see will probably be, first, what was done in the -nave in the latter part of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth -century; then the work done in the crossing in the twelfth -century; then work done in the transepts in the eleventh -century; then the work in the choir in the first half of the -fourteenth century; then the work done in the retro-choir early -in the thirteenth century; finally, sixteenth-century work in -the Lady chapel. To the reader this hop, skip, and jump -method—if it deserves to be called a method—is simply -maddening. For the visitor it has one merit, and one merit -only: it saves his legs. I do not propose to save the visitor’s -legs; I must candidly confess that the biographical method<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span> -of studying a cathedral involves a certain amount of marching -and countermarching. But I venture to hope that there -are some visitors who will -not be deterred by a little -additional bodily fatigue -from studying the cathedrals -aright. With what horror a -reader would study a biography -of the Great Duke -which commenced with the -Peninsular War, then described -his school-days at -Eton, followed these up by -the battle of Waterloo, digressed -into a description of -his childhood and ancestry, -described his career as a -Tory Prime Minister, and -wound up with his campaigns -in India! Yet that is how the English cathedrals are -studied.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus3.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>But it is not sufficient to study the different parts of a -cathedral in chronological order. It would be a dull biography -of a man, and a dull history of a people, which put -events correctly in chronological order, but did not point -out the causal connection between them. It is just when -we reach this point that the real interest begins. It does -not interest one much to hear that an acquaintance whom -we saw in London in the spring is now in the Australian -bush: it does interest one when one hears that he had -to leave the country because three months ago he was -detected cheating at cards. So, in a cathedral, it is -not enough to know that such a vault was put up or such -a row of windows inserted in the fifteenth century. We -want to know why the cathedral people constructed the -vault or the windows just then; also, why they were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span> -not satisfied with what was there before; also, what was -there before. And with the latter query comes in a fine -field of action for what I believe is called the “constructive -imagination.”</p> - -<p>On the motives which influenced mediæval builders I -have laid considerable stress throughout the book, simply -because, if it has occurred at all to writers to ask -why such and such a change was made, the answer -usually has been—I quote from an article on one of the -cathedrals—“simply a desire for what was thought a -far superior kind of beauty led to the alteration of this -work”: <i>i.e.</i>, the Gothic builders were æsthetic dilettanti, -striving after prettiness for prettiness’ sake; on a level -with painters and poets and musicians. Now, some -changes were due, I admit, to æsthetic considerations -simply: <i>e.g.</i>, the substitution of the present choir for the -former Transitional choir at York; so also one of every -pair of towers at the west end of a cathedral; and every -spire in the country.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus4.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>But the more the history of the cathedrals is studied, -the more clearly -it will be seen -that the great -majority of the -alterations in the -structure were -forced on the -ecclesiastical authorities -of the -day by practical -considerations.</p> - -<p>The monastery -was large, as at -Canterbury, and the church the seat of an archbishop; -Lanfranc’s short choir had to be replaced by a longer one.</p> - -<p>Saint-worship increased; pilgrimages increased; pilgrims<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span> -came in thousands and tens of thousands. They could not -be accommodated in the crypts as before: room had to be -found on the floor of the choir for shrines transferred from -the crypt; and aisles had to be constructed round the -shrines, that there might be a free passage, and no dangerous -block in the stream of pilgrims. For the local -Saint—the St. Thomas of Canterbury, the St. Hugh of -Lincoln—accommodation on a vast scale had to be provided. -But beside the local saints, there were the great -saints of the Church; for them special chapels, with altars, -had to be provided, either in a new eastern transept or in -aisles added to the central transept. There was, moreover, -especially in the first half of the thirteenth century, a great -outburst of Mariolatry. For these reasons, then—what we -may call ritualistic reasons—vast eastern extensions were -made in nearly every cathedral.</p> - -<p>But the original Norman cathedrals were not only small -and inconvenient to the east, but they were throughout very -badly lighted; a very large amount of history, as I have -tried to point out in speaking of Gloucester, Hereford, and -Norwich, consists of attempts to improve the lighting of the -cathedral. Sometimes, indeed, the improvement took the -shape of total destruction of the old gloomy church, and -its replacement by a brilliantly illuminated successor, as at -York. Connected with this was the mania for an increased -acreage of stained glass—an æsthetic motive which, however, -had its practical side; the stained glass justifying itself to -the monks and canons as providing a series of lessons in -Scripture history or Church history.</p> - -<p>Many changes were due to damage from fire or storm, -or to jerry-building. The clerestory of Norwich had to be -rebuilt because it had been crushed by the fall of the spire. -The Norwich monks were driven to fireproof the whole -church, because fires in 1463 and 1509 showed them the -necessity of it, by burning down successively the wooden -roofs, first of the nave and choir, then of the transept. I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span> -am sure that if our documentary evidence were not so -deplorably incomplete, we should find that very many other -alterations were due to the effect of fire and tempest: -in which case the list of æsthetic changes would be yet -further cut down—<i>e.g.</i>, we might find after all that York -choir had to be rebuilt for some purely matter-of-fact -reason.</p> - -<p>Add to these causes the frequent collapses due to mediæval -jerry-building, both Norman and Gothic. Many central -towers collapsed—<i>e.g.</i>, at Winchester, Ripon, Wells, Ely, -Peterborough, Lincoln; and doubtless there were collapses -of many others, of which we have no record. Hence, for -example, the fourteenth-century choir of Ely. Whole sections -of a cathedral tumbled down—<i>e.g.</i>, in St. Alban’s nave. -The early masonry was but skin-deep; inside the thin casing -of masonry the core of piers and walls alike had crumbled -into powder; foundations were insufficient, or were simply -omitted. The object was, but too often, not to build soundly, -but to build a bigger church than the rival over the way, -and to hurry it up as quickly as possible. Hence the -shocking building done by the Peterborough people in their -rivalry with Ely.</p> - -<p>A considerable amount of space has been devoted to what is -called the ichnography of the cathedrals—their ground-plans. -It has not been possible to insert plans in the book; it -seemed hardly desirable to do so. The <i>Builder</i> has published -valuable plans, on a large scale, of all the cathedrals; -they can be obtained separately, with the accompanying -letterpress and illustrations. The student should never visit -a cathedral without one of these plans. (I may add that -he should always have a binocular to study the detail, much -of which—<i>e.g.</i>, the bosses—is quite out of the reach of the -unaided eye.)</p> - -<p>As regards the nomenclature of the parts of a cathedral, -it may be useful to mention that the high altar is to the -east; and that, facing the east, the visitor has the south<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span> -transept and south aisles -on his right, and the -north transept and north -aisles on his left hand. -Standing at the altar -or the choir-screen, and -looking down the nave -to the great doors, he -has the north transept -and north aisle of the -nave on his right, and -the south transept and -south aisle of the nave -on his left.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus5.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The western limb of -the cathedral is called -the nave. The term “choir” is sometimes loosely applied -to the whole of the eastern limb. Strictly it applies just to -that part of the church where the stalls are; and that part, -as in St. Alban’s and Norwich, need not necessarily be in -the eastern limb at all, but in the crossing and in the -easternmost bays of the nave.</p> - -<p>In a cathedral with a fully-developed plan,—<i>e.g.</i>, St. Alban’s -or Winchester—the following ritualistic divisions will be met -with in passing from west to east:—(1) The nave; (2) the -choir; (3) the sanctuary; (4) the retro-choir, containing -(<i>a</i>) processional aisle, (<i>b</i>) Saint’s chapel, (<i>c</i>) ante-chapel or -vestibule to the Lady chapel; (5) Lady chapel. Sometimes -these ritualistic divisions correspond with the architectural -divisions of the church; sometimes they do not: <i>e.g.</i>, the -ritualistic divisions of the eastern limbs of York and Lincoln -were not shown in the structure, but merely marked off by -screens, most of which have been destroyed.</p> - -<p>Much time and trouble have been spent in the endeavour -to correct the current chronology of the cathedrals. The -subject is a difficult one; suffice it to say that I have relied<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span> -rather on architectural than on documentary evidence. “In -the earlier days of archæological study the tendency was to -discredit the former and to accept the latter; in these days -the results of strict analytical investigation and comparison -of the minor details of the buildings of the Middle Ages -dispose us to place much more reliance upon this species of -internal evidence than on even the most unequivocal assertions -of ecclesiastical historians.” The inductive reasoning -based on the former is safer than the possibly hearsay or -downright mendacious testimony of the latter. In all cases, -however, where I have departed from an accepted chronology, -I have given my reasons: <i>e.g.</i>, in the chapters on Hereford -and Wells.</p> - -<p>As a rule, I have refrained from describing architectural -detail. The visitor to the cathedral does not need the -description; the reader does not need it, if he has an illustration -before him; if he has not, no amount of verbiage -will make clear to him what, for instance, a bay of the -Angel triforium of Lincoln is like.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus6.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>On the other hand, I have ventured on perilous ground in -attempting to criticise -design. Where the old -builders seem to me to -have done bad design, -I have not scrupled to -say so. Indiscriminate -admiration of old work is -as bad as indiscriminate -censure of new work: -both are fatal to the training -of a right perceptive -faculty. The student of -design must compare and -weigh and judge; he -must not be misled by -local enthusiasm to put<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span> -St. Hugh’s choir at Lincoln on the level of Ely presbytery, -or York nave on the level of that of Exeter. I may add -that I have laid more stress than, perhaps, is usual, on -proportion, as a leading factor in architectural effect.</p> - -<p>I have followed the convenient custom of ascribing the -design of different parts of the cathedrals to various bishops -and abbots and priors. Such names, however, are merely -convenient chronological fixtures, not intended to signify -that the dignitaries of the church personally designed and -erected them, but simply that they were in office when the -work was done.</p> - -<p>On the vexed question of architect <i>v.</i> master-mason, I -may say that, just as I find it easier to believe in one Homer -than in many Homers, so, in contemplating such a poem -in stone as the west front of Peterborough or the retro-choir -of Wells, I find it easier to believe in one inspired architect -than in a crowd of inspired clerks of the works.</p> - -<p>I have gratefully to acknowledge my obligations to the -“Cathedral Handbooks” of Mr. John Murray, and to the -<i>Builder</i> series of cathedrals; and to the brilliant word-painting -of Mrs. Van Rensselaer in her “Handbook of -Twelve English Cathedrals.”</p> - -<p>All the English cathedrals have been studied on the spot; -but I had the misfortune to lose the whole of my notes and -the greater part of the completed MS., so that the work -must be less accurate than I had hoped. Complete accuracy, -however, is impossible in dealing with a subject so vast. It -is impossible even to know a single cathedral. As has been -finely said by Mr. Fergusson: “Not only is there built into a -mediæval cathedral the accumulated thought of all the men -who had occupied themselves with building during the preceding -centuries, but you have the dream and aspiration of -the bishop, abbot, or clergy for whom it was designed; the -master-mason’s skilled construction; the work of the carver, -the painter, the glazier, the host of men who, each in his -own craft, knew all that had been done before them, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[xiii]</span> -had spent their lives in -struggling to surpass the -works of their forefathers. -It is more than this: there -is not one shaft, one moulding, -one carving, not one -chisel-mark in such a -building, that was not -designed specially for the -place where it is found, -and which was not the -best that the experience -of the age could invent -for the purposes to which -it is applied; nothing -was borrowed; and -nothing that was designed for one purpose was used for -another. A thought or a motive peeps out through every -joint; you may wander in such a building for weeks or for -months together, and never know it all.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus7.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTHWELL CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>I trust that this attempt to open the way to understand -and enjoy more fully the highest achievement of the English -race in any branch of art—our mediæval architecture—may -be helpful not only to English students, but to our American -cousins also, who—so the vergers assure me—are the best-informed -and most appreciative visitors to our cathedrals.</p> - -<p class="hanging mt6"><i>The initials which appear at the foot of the various illustrations indicate -the names of the photographers whose negatives have been used. Thus:—B. -and S.B. = S. B. Bolas & Co.; B. & Co. = J. Bulbeck & Co.; -P. = The Photochrom Co.; W. = F. Wetherman & Co., Ltd.; -R. = Rock Bros., Ltd.; A.F. = Mr. Arnold Fairbairns.</i></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[xiv]</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[xv]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CLASSIFICATION OF THE CATHEDRALS.</h2> - -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thirteen Cathedrals of the Old Foundation</span> (Pre-Conquest).—Bangor, -Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, -Lincoln, Llandaff, London, St. Asaph, St. David’s, Salisbury, -Wells, York. These were served by secular canons. Not -being served by monks, they required none of the monastic -buildings, except the chapter-house. Some, however, have -cloisters. The establishments of these cathedrals were not -suppressed, as were other ecclesiastic colleges, at the -Reformation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thirteen Cathedrals of the New Foundation.</span>—</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Pre-Reformation Sees.</i> Seven cathedrals attached -to Benedictine monasteries—viz., Canterbury, Durham, Ely, -Norwich, Rochester, Winchester, Worcester; one, Carlisle, -attached to a house of Augustinian canons.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Sees founded by Henry VIII.</i>, who converted into -cathedrals three Benedictine churches—viz., Chester, Gloucester, -and Peterborough; and two Augustinian churches—viz., -Bristol and Oxford.</p> - -<p>All the above thirteen churches ceased at the Reformation -to be served by monks or regular canons, and received a -new foundation of dean and secular canons.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eight Victorian Cathedrals.</span>—Liverpool, Manchester, -Newcastle, Ripon, St. Albans, Southwell, Truro, Wakefield.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eleven Churches of Benedictine Monks.</span>—Canterbury, -Chester, Durham, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, Peterborough, -Rochester, Winchester, Worcester, St. Albans.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Four Churches of Regular Canons of the -Augustinian Order.</span>—Bristol, Carlisle, Oxford, Ripon.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Two Collegiate Churches of Secular Canons.</span>—Manchester, -Southwell.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Four Parochial Churches.</span>—Liverpool, Newcastle, -Truro, Wakefield.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[xvi]</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvii"></a>[xvii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic">Contents.</h2> - -</div> - -<table summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Bristol</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Bristol">1</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Canterbury</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Canterbury">10</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral of Christ Church.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Carlisle</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Carlisle">25</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Chester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Chester">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Chichester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Chichester">42</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Durham</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Durham">51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Cuthbert and St. Mary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Ely</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Ely">64</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Ethelreda.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Exeter</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Exeter">76</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Gloucester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Gloucester">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xviii"></a>[xviii]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Hereford</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Hereford">109</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary and St. Ethelbert.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Lichfield</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Lichfield">120</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Chad and St. Mary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Lincoln</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Lincoln">133</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">London</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#London">148</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Paul.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Norwich</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Norwich">159</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Oxford</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Oxford">160</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of Christ.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Peterborough</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Peterborough">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Ripon</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Ripon">189</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter and St. Wilfrid.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Rochester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Rochester">198</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">St. Albans</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#St_Alban">206</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Alban.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Salisbury</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Salisbury">218</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Southwell</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Southwell">234</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xix"></a>[xix]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Wells</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Wells">245</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Winchester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Winchester">260</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of the Holy and Indivisible Trinity.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Worcester</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Worcester">275</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the Virgin of Worcester.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">York</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#York">283</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Victorian Cathedrals: Liverpool—Manchester—Newcastle—Truro—Wakefield</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Victorian_Cathedrals">296</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">The Welsh Cathedrals: Bangor—Llandaff—St. Asaph’s—St. David’s</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#The_Welsh_Cathedrals">301</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><span class="smcap">Glossary</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#GLOSSARY">310</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xx"></a>[xx]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PERIODS OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.</h2> - -</div> - -<table summary="Periods of English Ecclesiastical architecture"> - <tr> - <td class="right">1.</td> - <td>Anglo-Saxon, 680-1100</td> - <td>⎞</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Primitive Romanesque.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">2.</td> - <td>Early Norman, 1060-1100</td> - <td>⎠</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">3.</td> - <td>Late Norman, 1100-1145</td> - <td>⎞</td> - <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Romanesque.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">4.</td> - <td>Transitional, 1145-1190</td> - <td>⎠</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">5.</td> - <td>Lancet, 1190-1245</td> - <td>⎞</td> - <td rowspan="3" class="valign">Early</td> - <td>⎞</td> - <td rowspan="6" class="valign">Gothic.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">6.</td> - <td>Early Geometrical, 1245-1280</td> - <td>⎟</td> - <td>⎟</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">7.</td> - <td>Late Geometrical, 1280-1315</td> - <td>⎠</td> - <td>⎟</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">8.</td> - <td>Curvilinear, 1315-1360</td> - <td>⎞</td> - <td rowspan="3" class="valign">Late</td> - <td>⎟</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">9.</td> - <td>Perpendicular, 1360-1485</td> - <td>⎟</td> - <td>⎟</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="right">10.</td> - <td>Tudor, 1485-1660</td> - <td>⎠</td> - <td>⎠</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<p>The above classification is, in the main, that of Mr. Sharpe’s “Seven -Periods of English Architecture.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Bristol">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Bristol.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus8.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Bristol -Cathedral was -originally a -church of the Regular Canons of the Augustinian Order, -who settled at Bristol in 1142. In 1542, like the Augustinian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -churches of Carlisle and Oxford, it became a cathedral. In -1836 the see was united to that of Gloucester: it has recently -resumed its independent status.</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Late Norman.</span>—The choir and transepts of the cathedral -were almost wholly rebuilt in the fourteenth century; but here -and there the original work of the founder, Robert Fitzhardinge, -survives. This includes (1) the end wall of the south transept, -which contains a doorway, afterwards blocked up, when the -south aisle of the Norman nave was constructed with a doorway -into it from the north-east corner of the cloister. Inside -the transept is a Norman cushion-corbel, supporting a later -Perpendicular capital. (2) Outside the south transept are -flat pilaster buttresses at the angles; the set-off of the ancient -parapet; and a plain gable window, set in a rough wall, -on which may be seen the weathering of the original steep -roof. (3) The coursed masonry below the big window of the -north transept. (4) The lower part of the tower-piers; for -their Perpendicular mouldings, as in the earlier remodelling -of Winchester nave, are such as could be developed out of -a Norman compound pier. (5) The corbels in the staircase -on the north side of the choir. (6) The gatehouse to the -Abbot’s lodgings.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus9.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—About 1145 innovations began to -be made in Anglo-Norman Romanesque. Among other -things the pointed arch was introduced; at first chiefly in -arches supporting central towers or vaults. In 1155 the -founder received a grant of the forfeited estates of Roger -de Berkeley; and, owing to this vast accession of wealth, -was able to finish his Norman and Transitional work with -exceptional richness. (1) In the <i>Vestibule</i> to the Chapter-house, -the bays being oblong, pointed arches were used on -the short sides of each bay, so that their crowns might rise -to the same height as those of the semicircular arches on -the longer sides, as the builders thought was demanded by -the requirements of vaulting. In the same way, beneath the -central towers of Oxford Cathedral and Bolton Priory, pointed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> -arches were built over the narrow transepts; while over the -broader nave and choir the semicircular arch was employed. -(2) The <i>Chapter-house</i>, as in most monastic establishments, -<i>e.g.</i>, Gloucester, Canterbury, Oxford, Chester, was oblong; -the more beautiful polygonal form being more in favour in -cathedrals served by Secular Canons. It was originally -71 by 25 feet. The vast scale of these conventual arrangements, -here and elsewhere, is exceedingly striking. The -monks of St. Albans thought that their church required a -nave 300 feet long; -the six canons of -Bristol must have -been lost in a Chapter-house -71 feet -long. The recessed -arcades round the -walls here and at -Worcester are interesting; -simple as -they are, they are -the germs of the -beautiful arcades of -canopied niches -round the Chapter-houses -of York and -Wells and the Lady -Chapel of Ely. Here is preserved a fine piece of archaic -sculpture (see <span class="smcap">Chichester</span>). (3) Exceedingly rich, too, -is the lower part of the <i>Great Gateway</i> in College Green; -“its courses, however, are nearly double the height of -Norman masonry; the hood-moulds of all the arches are -perpendicular, and at the crown of each arch are mitred into -a perpendicular string-course; which, with the high finish -of the ornament, points to the gateway having been -wholly rebuilt in Perpendicular times”; in which case, like -the eastern bay of the triforium of Rochester, it is an early<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -example of “architectural -forgery.” -Fitzhardinge’s nave -and aisles seem to -have been pulled -down in the sixteenth -century with a view -to rebuilding; which, -however, was not carried -out till 1877.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus10.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ELDER LADY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—Early -in the thirteenth -century a beautiful -Lady chapel was -built, projecting eastward -from the north -transept, and separated -by a few feet -from the north wall of the choir. The same position was -adopted later for the Lady chapels of Peterborough and Ely. -This chapel is the artistic gem of the cathedral; it is -surrounded by arcades of the greatest beauty, with sculptured -grotesques interspersed among the foliage that remind one -of the rich sculptured work in the retro-choir of Worcester, -which is possibly a few years earlier. Later on it received -the name of the elder Lady chapel; another Lady chapel -having been built in the more normal position at the extreme -east of the choir.</p> - -<p>IV. Fitzhardinge’s cathedral, supplemented by the Lady -chapel, seems to have satisfied the Canons very well for the first -half of the thirteenth century. But in the <span class="smcap">Early Geometrical</span> -period (1245-1280), preparations were made to improve -the lighting of the <i>north transept</i> by the insertion of a big -window in its north wall. The tracery of the present window -is later; but its inner jambs, mouldings and shafts, and the -external sill and string, as well as a great part of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -buttresses, seem to have been executed <i>c.</i> 1250. About this -date is the fine <i>doorway</i>, with a cleverly-contrived lintel, at -the south end of the east walk of the <i>Cloister</i>.</p> - -<p>V. In the <span class="smcap">Middle</span> of the <span class="smcap">Geometrical</span> period, <i>c.</i> 1280, -the east end of the Lady chapel was rebuilt, and a window -with Geometrical tracery inserted; the tracery is of early -character, containing nothing but foliated circles. At the -same time it received a simple quadripartite vault; and to -resist the thrust of this vault, the northern buttresses were -reconstructed and weighted with pinnacles. Of these pinnacles -only one, at the north-east corner, remains; the others seem -to have been reconstructed at the time when the pinnacles -of the choir were built.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus11.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear.</span>—But the great building period at -Bristol was between 1315 and 1349—that short but brilliant -period when English mediæval design was at its best—which -culminated in the Octagon and Lady chapel of Ely, the -choir-screens of Southwell and Lincoln, and the Percy monument -at Beverley. -Everything east of -the nave was pulled -down and rebuilt <i>de -novo</i>. And a very -remarkable design it -is; in fact, quite -unique among our -cathedrals. All other -cathedral authorities -had agreed long ago -that the cardinal fault -in all Romanesque -design was its bad -system of lighting, -but that the remedy -was to be found -mainly in improving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -the top-lighting—<i>i.e.</i>, -in increasing the -dimensions of the -clerestory. Beverley -clerestory had taller -windows than Durham; -Salisbury clerestory -had three -windows for every one -of Beverley; Exeter -spread out its windows -in increasing breadth -till they touched the -buttresses on either -side; the clerestories -of the choir of Gloucester, -now in course -of erection, were a -vast, lofty, continuous sheet of glass. But there was an -alternative system of improving the lighting, which in many -large churches, such as Grantham, Ledbury, and Leominster, -was the result of fortuitous growth, but which in the choir -of the Temple Church, London, and in Patrington Church now -in course of erection, was the result of deliberate design. It -was to magnify the aisles at the expense of the nave, to lift -them up so high that windows of vast height could be placed -in their walls, to dispense with a clerestory altogether, and to -give to the pier-arcade of the nave the additional height -gained by the suppression of the clerestory. It was to -substitute side-lighting for top-lighting; to rely exclusively on -the flood of light passing from vast, lofty aisle windows into -the nave through its elevated arches. Hence the big -windows of Bristol choir, each representing a pair of -windows; the lower half the usual small window of -an aisle, the upper half the larger window stolen from the -clerestory.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus12.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BERKELEY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p>But the new design had another merit, which probably -weighed still more with the Bristol builders. The cardinal -difficulty of the mediæval builders was how to keep up -on the top of lofty clerestory walls a heavy stone vault which -was always striving to push them asunder. They succeeded -at length in keeping the clerestory walls from being thrust -out by propping them up with flying-buttresses, perilously -exposed, however, to all the vicissitudes of English weather. -But there was another solution of the problem, which had been -worked out in the thirteenth century in the Temple Church, -and in the twelfth century in many a church in central and -southern France, such as the old cathedral of Carcassonne. -It was to stop the outward thrusts of the nave vault not by the -inert resistance of buttress, pinnacle, and flying-buttress, but -by bringing into play opposing thrusts—<i>i.e.</i>, the inward thrusts -of vaults built over the aisles. But to make these outward -and inward thrusts balance and neutralise one another, the -aisle vaults must be of pretty much the same height and span -as those of the nave. The nave must be lowered or the aisles -must be raised, or -both. At Bristol the -architect has preferred -to raise the -aisles. Then, the -stability of the nave -vault being secured, -all the builder has to -do is to stop the -outward thrusts of the -vaults of the aisles. -This it is easy enough -to do by a row of -buttresses weighted -with pinnacles. So -Bristol Cathedral, to -eyes accustomed to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -contemporary cathedrals, presents the strange solecism of -having neither clerestory nor flying-buttresses. The whole -design may well have been based on that of the English -cathedral at Poitiers.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus13.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">VAULT OF AISLE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Bristol architect was an architectural Radical. When -it came, however, to the question of vaulting the aisles he had -not the courage of his convictions. Having constructed aisles -unusually lofty and impressive, he immediately sets to work -to make them look low and ordinary by a complicated, costly -and unnecessary system of skeleton vaulting. He seems to -have thought that without some method of reducing the -apparent height of the aisles, the church would look like -no other church; it would look not as if it had the ordinary -aisled nave, but as if it had three naves side by side. He -ought to have been thankful to have the means of making -it look unlike other churches; and, as a matter of fact, a -design of parallel naves has a most noble effect, as may well -be seen in the nave of Warwick Church, built in the most -debased Gothic of the seventeenth century, but one of the -most impressive designs in the country, full of light and -atmosphere.</p> - -<p>A little later, but still in the Curvilinear period, the Berkeley -chapel was built, projecting southward from the easternmost -bay of the south aisle of the choir, and a sacristy by which it -is approached. Here is more skeleton-vault and much -elaborate carving. The Newton chapel was also built, -projecting eastward from the south transept; and perhaps at -the same time the simple vault of the adjacent bay of the -choir aisle was put up. A curious and by no means pleasing -characteristic of the Bristol fourteenth-century architecture -is the series of sepulchral recesses in the walls; they remind -one of the cloister doorway at Norwich.</p> - -<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular.</span>—Early in the fifteenth century a -central tower was added. Here again one is struck by the -originality of the Bristol people; it is as beautiful as it -is original. Fifteenth-century tower design rather runs in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -grooves. Gloucester, Evesham, Wrexham, Taunton, and the -Somerset towers are cast very much in a mould. It is not -so with the Bristol tower. The designer had noticed how -beautiful is the effect of a close-packed range of tall clerestory -windows, such as those of Leighton Buzzard Church. So, -instead of restricting himself on each side of the tower to one -or two windows, he inserts no less than three. The range -of clerestory windows which the fourteenth-century builder -refused to the choir becomes the special ornament and glory -of the tower.</p> - -<p>VIII. In 1888 the new nave and western towers were completed -by Mr. Street. He can hardly be said to have made -the most of his opportunities. The new work is copied -closely from the old, and so is somewhat uninteresting. He -had but to remedy some of the faults of the original design: -to omit the ugly skeleton vaulting of the aisles, to simplify -the vaulting of the choir, to discard the sepulchral recesses, -to improve on the design of the windows of the choir—in -which, as at Ely, flowing tracery is not seen at its best; and -we should have had something original and interesting. The -new nave might have been a criticism of the choir.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Canterbury">The Cathedral of Christ Church, Canterbury.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus14.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ST. MARTIN’S CHURCH.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The metropolitan cathedral of Canterbury owes its enthralling -interest to its vastness of scale, its wealth of -monuments, its treasures of early glass, the great historical -scenes that have been enacted within its walls—above all, to -that greatest of all historical tragedies to the mind of the -mediæval Englishman, the murder of Becket. It does not -owe its distinction to its architecture. Whole building periods -are almost wholly unrepresented; for the century and a half -when English design was at its best, the Canterbury authorities -slumbered and slept. What we have is the result of -two periods only, with some scraps incorporated from earlier -Norman work. What is there is not of the best: the -Perpendicular work can be bettered at Gloucester, Winchester, -and York; the work in the choir, a foreign importation, is not -equal to that of its prototype, the French cathedral of Sens. -We have many heterogeneous cathedrals in England. In the -rest there is ever an attempt, usually a successful attempt, as -at Hereford, and Gloucester, and Wells, to weld the conflicting -elements of the design into symmetry and harmony. Canterbury -scornfully declines any attempt at composition. Transepts -and turrets and pinnacles are plumped down anyhow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -and anywhere; to the east it finishes abruptly in the ruined -crags of a vast round tower; to the west the towers of its -façade were, till lately, as incongruous in character as in -date. Externally, the lofty central tower alone gives some -unity to the scattered masses; internally it is an assemblage -of distinct and discordant buildings.</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Norman.</span>—Of the pre-Conquest cathedrals of Canterbury -nothing remains, unless it be fragments of rude masonry in -crypt and cloister. Of Lanfranc’s cathedral, built, together -with the Benedictine monastery, between 1070 and 1077, there -remains the plinth of the walls of nave and transept. In the -north transept some of his small square blocks of Caen stone -are well seen just above the site of the martyrdom, as well as -his turret in the north-west corner. His nave was allowed to -stand till the fifteenth century. The present nave and central -transept are built on Lanfranc’s foundations. The Norman -work has had a most deleterious effect on the later design. -To preserve the Norman north-west tower of the façade, the -fifteenth century nave was built too short; to preserve the -lines of his transept, it was rebuilt with a projection of only -one bay to north and south, and without aisles, and appears -woefully shrunken when compared with the vast transept of -York, or even with the twelfth century transepts of Winchester -and Ely. Lanfranc’s cathedral was an unambitious building, -built in a hurry; closely copied, to save time probably, both -in plan and dimensions, from William the Conqueror’s abbey-church -at Caen, from which Lanfranc came to rule at -Canterbury.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH CHOIR AISLE.</p> -</div> - -<p>His choir consisted of but two bays and an apse. This was -altogether inadequate for the church of a big monastery, and -the seat of the Primate of all England. In 1096 it was pulled -down and replaced by an enormous apsidal choir, some ten -bays long, with a square Saint’s chapel to the east as at -Rochester, with northern and southern towers flanking the -main eastern apse, and crossed midway by a big eastern -transept, from each arm of which two apsidal chapels projected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -to the east. What was the object of this vast eastward -extension? It was probably due to the increasing tendency -towards sacerdotalism, to the increase of veneration for the -sacrament of the -Lord’s Supper, -and to the increase -of Saint-worship. -(1) In -the monastic -churches the -monks were accustomed -to sit -in the crossing -and in the western -bays of the -nave, where their -stalls still remain -at Norwich, Gloucester, and St. Albans. They wanted to be -segregated and screened off from the laity, the sheep from -the goats; the very stones of the church must preach the -dignity of the priestly function. So they removed to the -east, and shut themselves up in a choir of their own. -(2) Secondly, they wanted a clear space for the high altar, -a sanctuary for it. (3) They wanted space for many chapels -and altars; not only those of the greater saints of the -church, St. Mary, St. Peter, and the rest, but those saints—and -they were very numerous at Canterbury—whose -bodies or relics of whom were among the treasures of the -cathedral—such as St. Dunstan, the destroyer of Secular -Canons, and the martyred Archbishop Alphege. Crowds of -pilgrims flocked to Canterbury to these shrines; room had to -be found for them to pass round, to gaze for a moment at the -holy relics, to say one prayer. Whatever the object of the -extension, it set a precedent which was followed in the great -majority of the cathedrals of England. In the latter days of -the twelfth century Hereford and Chichester extended their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -choirs; in the thirteenth century the choirs of Lincoln, -Lichfield, Worcester, Ely, and Exeter were rebuilt, and those -of Winchester, Durham, and Lincoln were enlarged. In the -fourteenth century those of Lichfield and Wells were enlarged, -and that of York was rebuilt on a magnificent scale. Old -St. Paul’s had a choir twelve bays long. Thus, till the end of -the fourteenth century, the history of the English cathedrals -was largely a history of the rebuilding or enlarging, or, as at -Gloucester and Norwich, of the remodelling of choirs.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus16.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CAPITAL IN CRYPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of “Conrad’s glorious choir” (it was commenced by Prior -Ernulph <i>c.</i> 1096 and finished <i>c.</i> 1115 by Prior Conrad) a considerable -amount remains. The round-arched work in the -crypt is nearly all of this date, except the carving of many of -the capitals, which was executed later; and from the extent of -his crypt one can plot -out the exact shape -and dimensions of the -Norman choir. Much -of it is seen outside, -especially in and near -the south-east transept -with its intersecting -semicircular -arcades, and the -most charming little -Norman tower imaginable. -In the -interior many Norman -stones, “cross-hatched,” -may be -seen in the aisle-wall -immediately after entering -the choir-aisle by the flight of steps; the lower part of -the vaulting-shaft in this wall, built of several stones and not -of solid drums, as it is higher up, is also Norman. In the -eastern transept the triforium occurs twice over; the upper<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -of the two was Conrad’s clerestory. Much of Conrad’s -semicircular arcade also remains on the aisle-walls.</p> - -<p>Conrad’s choir was not only far longer than Lanfranc’s, -but it had the curious peculiarity (preserved in the French -choir) that it was broader than the nave, and moreover -widened out as it proceeded to the east. The double apses -of each of his transepts were copied by St. Hugh at Lincoln -a century later. A very noble feature of Canterbury choir is -its elevation, necessitated by the construction of the crypt -below it. The raising of the floor adds great dignity to the -choir (one misses it painfully at Bristol); and was still -further added to by the French architect, so that now at -Canterbury one goes eastward from height to height. We -climb from the nave to the choir, from the choir to the -sanctuary, from the sanctuary to the eastern chapels. One -gets a bathos at Durham and Worcester, where at the east -one plunges into a hole.</p> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—But Conrad’s glorious choir was -destroyed by a great fire in the year 1174, amid much mediæval -cursing and swearing, and the tears of all the people of -Canterbury. Then the monks did an abominable thing. -Instead of being satisfied with our home-bred English -architecture, of which such a beautiful example was just -being completed at Ripon, they sent for a foreigner. The -present choir of Canterbury, like that of Westminster, was -“made in France.” The only consolation one has is the -fact—which is a fact—that with that stolid insularity which -from the twelfth century has insisted on working out its -own salvation in its own way—English architects ignored -them both. The new French choir was to be a rock on -which the main current of English art struck and parted -asunder only to meet again on the other side. English -design passed on, as if Canterbury choir had never existed, -from Ripon and Chichester and Abbey Dore and Wells to -Lincoln Minster. The coupled columns, the French arch-moulds, -the Corinthianesque capitals of Canterbury were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -un-English; no one would have anything to do with them -anywhere.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus17.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH-EAST TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>The choir, as rebuilt, was even longer than Conrad’s long -choir. It has an elongated aisled apse beyond, and a curious -circular chapel east of that. The former goes by the name -of Trinity chapel, the latter of Becket’s corona. Becket’s -first mass had been said in an older Trinity chapel; his body -lay from 1170 to 1220 in the crypt below it; in 1220 he was -translated to a magnificent -shrine in the -present Trinity chapel. -The corona may perhaps -have been erected -to cover another -shrine placed here -and containing a fragment -of Becket’s -scalp. Sens seems -to have had a similar -corona.</p> - -<p>The design of the -choir is a close copy -of the work at Sens, -Noyon, Senlis, and -the neighbouring -cathedrals. Columns -almost classical in proportion replace the heavy English -cylinder. The coupled columns and Corinthianesque capitals -of Sens are faithfully reproduced in the Trinity chapel. The -choir, as at Sens, is arranged in coupled bays with sexpartite -vaulting; while principal and intermediate piers, single and -compound vaulting-shafts occur alternately in either choir. -In unstable French fashion the vaulting-shaft is perched -on the abacus. The abacus is square, except in the eastern -part of the crypt. The capitals of the choir are foliated; the -English moulded capital occurs only in the crypt. Each bay<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -of the triforium in both cathedrals contains a couple of arches, -each arch subdivided by a central shaft. Both cathedrals -have round transverse arches in the vaulting of the aisles. -The windows are not the tall slender lancets of England, but -the broad squat lancets of France. The pointed arches of -the apse of Trinity chapel on their tall stilts have a thoroughly -French look. French, too, is the wish to dispense with a -hood-mould round the pier-arches. And, as at Noyon, flying-buttresses -emerge from the gloom of the triforium into the -open air.</p> - -<p>But there is another factor besides the personality of William -of Sens. Having engaged a foreigner to do the work, the next -step of the monks probably was to distrust him. The choir, -as it appears now, bears unmistakable marks that not only -William of Sens was at work, but also a British building -committee. Being a Frenchman, William of Sens must have -been an iconoclast, and would have liked to clear away the -ruins and start <i>de novo</i>. His British employers, here, as in -nearly all our cathedrals, parsimonious in the extreme, insisted -on retaining every inch of old wall or pillar that could be -utilised. The towers of St. Anselm and St. Andrew still stood, -more or less stable, to the east. William therefore had to -constrict his choir to pass between them. The result is the -awkward twisting of the arcade and clerestory of the choir. -The choir starts with becoming wider as it advances from the -east; then it suddenly contracts to pass between St. Anselm’s -and St. Andrew’s chapels; then it expands once more into -the Trinity chapel. No Frenchman, if he had had his way, -would have permitted his cathedral to be so distorted. -Again, the building committee insisted on utilising the piers -of Conrad’s crypt as far as possible as supports to the arcade -of the choir above. The result is that the piers of the choir -are not equally spaced; and the narrow arches are pointed, -while the broad ones are semicircular and stilted. William -must have been ashamed, too, of all the zigzag and billet -ornament. But the building committee had probably a large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -stock of it collected from the debris after the fire, and wanted -to work it off. One beautiful feature, however, is to be placed -to English credit—viz., the profuse use of Purbeck marble -shafts. On the whole we may take it that what we have is -not William’s design as he would have wished it, but his -design criticised, fettered, altered and ignored by a clerical -building committee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus18.jpg" width="500" height="625" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus19.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BLACK PRINCE’S TOMB.</p> -</div> - -<p>At the beginning of the fifth year of his work, William of -Sens was seriously injured by a fall from the scaffold, and -soon after returned -to France. An English -William was appointed -to succeed -him. He completed -Trinity chapel, Becket’s -corona, and the -crypt beneath the -two. It is usual to -attribute to the English -William an important -part in the -design of the eastern -chapels and crypt. -The facts point the -other way. These -eastern portions are -less English and more -French than the western work. There is not a single trace -of English influence in the design, except solely the rounding -of the abacus and the moulding of the capitals in the crypt. -With these two minor exceptions, everything was completed -in strict conformity with the French design.</p> - -<p>More important even than the architecture is the ancient -glass. Canterbury and York are the great treasure-houses -of stained-glass: Canterbury for early thirteenth-century -glass, York for fourteenth-century glass. The student should -take with him to Canterbury Mr. Lewis Day’s work on Stained -Glass. Three of the windows in the Trinity chapel illustrate -the miracles of St. Thomas. On the north side, in the lower -group of the eastern window, is the story of a child (1) who -falls into the Medway, (2) the other boys tell his parents, -(3) the body is drawn out of the water, <i>cætera desunt</i>. In -the next group is the story of a boy who was brought to life<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -by a draught of water mixed with the saint’s blood. But the -father omitted to pay the offerings promised to the saint. In -the central medallion another son lies dead, struck by the -sword of St. Thomas, who is seen through the ceiling. In -another group a woman is being flagellated by way of penance. -Two other windows describe miracles of healing: in a medallion -in the lower part of the western window a madman comes -up, “<i>amens accedit</i>,” beaten with sticks and bound; in the -next he is cured, “<i>sanus recedit</i>.” In one is the only representation -extant of the later shrine; the martyr, in a mauve -vestment, appears in a vision to Benedict below. On the -shrine is the box, as described by Erasmus, which contained -the archbishop’s sudary. In the east window of the corona is -portrayed Christ’s Passion; in the two windows of the north -aisle are types and antitypes from the Old and New Testaments; -among them the three Magi, all asleep in one bed. -The circular window in -the north-east transept -also contains the original -glass; and many -fragments are seen -elsewhere.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus20.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH OF CHOIR</p> -</div> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—For -this period (1190-1245) -there is nothing to show -except the north wall -of the Cloister, and a -lovely doorway in the -south-east corner of -the Cloister, cruelly -hacked about by the -vandals who built the -cloister-vault.</p> - -<p>IV. To the <span class="smcap">Geometrical</span> -period (1245-1315) belongs the Chapter-house up -to the sills of the windows, and the screens north and south<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -of the choir. A fine window with Kentish tracery was -inserted in St. Anselm’s chapel.</p> - -<p>V. Of <span class="smcap">Curvilinear</span> work (1315-1360) there is no trace -except some diaper-work in the choir, which may have adorned -the shrine of St. Dunstan, who was buried at the south end of -the high altar.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus21.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">EAST TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> (1360-1485).—At length Canterbury -woke up, and removed Lanfranc’s nave and transept, which -must have looked shockingly low and mean for the last two -hundred years in juxtaposition -with the -stately choir. The -new nave, built between -1379 and 1400, -is very fine, but somehow -no one seems -to be a very ardent -admirer of it. Its -proportions are not -good: Winchester -nave is about the -same height, but is -70 feet longer; York -choir is loftier, and -is 25 feet longer. -But the gravest fault -is in the internal elevation. The architect has recognised -the value of tallness of pier-arch; but to get this exceptional -height of pier and arch, he has sacrificed not only triforium, -but clerestory as well. It is fatal to a Gothic design to -minimise the clerestory. The choirs of Gloucester, Norwich, -Cirencester, are the types to be followed; not the naves of -Southwell or Lichfield.</p> - -<p>To this period belong also the Black Prince’s chantry, and -the screens and reredos of the Lady chapel, all in the crypt; -the upper part of the chapter-house, from which all aspect of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -antiquity has recently been removed; the cloisters; St. -Michael’s, or the Warrior’s chapel, which replaced the -eastern apse of Lanfranc’s southern transept, and which has -a complicated lierne vault similar in character to that of the -north transept of Gloucester cathedral; the tomb and chantry -of Henry IV., with fan-vaulting, 1433; the western screen at -the entrance of the choir; the south-west tower; Deans’ -chapel (Lady chapel), -which replaced the -eastern apse of -Lanfranc’s northern -transept (1450), and -which has fan-vaulting.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus22.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CRYPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>VII. To the <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> -period belongs the -Angel or Bell Harry -Tower (1495-1503), -and the buttressing -and arches inserted -between its piers. -Also the Christ -Church gateway. The -great tower is remarkable -for the unbroken -verticality of its buttresses; it is as exceptional as it is -successful in design.</p> - -<p>The <i>Chapter-house</i> is rectangular, for a rectangular building -fitted more easily into the east walk of a monastic cloister. -Nearly all the monastic chapter-houses are therefore rectangular, -but sometimes had apses; the exceptions being -the Benedictine chapter-houses of Worcester, Westminster, -Evesham, and Belvoir (which last was exceptional also in -position, being placed in the very centre of the cloister), and -the Cistercian chapter-houses of Morgam and Abbey Dore, -sister designs. While the Secular Canons, having as a rule<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -no cloister, preferred a polygonal chapter-house, as at Lincoln, -Beverley, Lichfield, Salisbury, Wells, Elgin, Southwell, York, -Old St. Paul’s, Hereford, Howden, Manchester, Warwick. -So did the Regular Canons at Alnwick, Cockersand, Thornton, -Carlisle, Bridlington, and Bolton. This beautiful polygonal -form seems not to occur in France.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus23.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>At the north-west corner of the cloister is the doorway -through which Becket passed to the north-west transept, -with his murderers in pursuit of him. Near here is a hole in -the wall, the Buttery hatch. In the fifteenth century the south -walk of the cloister was divided into “studies” for the monks -by wooden partitions (at Gloucester they are of stone), and its -windows were glazed.</p> - -<p>From the cloister we pass to the <i>West Front</i>, and commence -the tour of the exterior. The south-west tower (with -the Deans’ chapel) was completed by Prior Goldstone (1449-1468);<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -the copy of it was put up in 1834: “it was an eyesore -that the two towers did not match.” Very bad modern -statues adorn the niches.</p> - -<p>Later still (1517) is <i>Christ Church Gateway</i>, through which -one first approaches the cathedral, with doors inserted in -1662. Originally it had two turrets. Outside it is a -monument to the dramatist Marlowe.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus24.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>On the south side is seen the porch; the nave, a beautiful -design; and the -charming pinnacle of -the south-west transept. -East of the -Warrior’s chapel is -the projecting end of -Stephen Langton’s -tomb. East of this, -the two lower rows -of windows are those -of Conrad’s choir; -the upper row that -of William of Sens. -The middle windows -in the S.E. transept -were the clerestory -windows of Conrad; -the windows above -them are those of William of Sens. The three upper stages -of the tower on the south of this transept are late Norman -work; one of the prettiest bits in Canterbury. Farther east -we have French design, pure and simple; here, for the first -time in English architecture, the flying-buttresses are openly -displayed; notice how flat and plain they are; it had not yet -occurred to architects to make them decorative. The grand -sweep of apse and ambulatory seems to send one straight -back to France. Then comes the broken, rocky outline of -the <i>corona</i>—the great puzzle of Canterbury. North-east of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -the corona are two groups of ruined Norman pillars and arches -discoloured by fire; once they were continuous, forming one -very long building, the <i>Monks’ Infirmary</i>, of which the -west end was originally an open dormitory, open to the -roof, and the east end, separated off by a screen, the -Chapel; which has a late Geometrical window. A mediæval -infirmary of this type is still in use at Chichester. The -Canterbury infirmary had a north transept, called the Table -Hall or Refectory (now part of the house of the Archdeacon -of Maidstone), in which the inmates dined. On the north -side of Trinity chapel is seen the <i>Chantry of Henry IV.</i>; -then <i>St. Andrew’s Tower</i> and the barred <i>Treasury</i>; the -lower part of the latter is late Norman work, largely rebuilt. -The south alley of the <i>Infirmary Cloister</i> was built about -1236. Along this one passes to the <i>Baptistery</i>, which was -originally nothing but a mediæval water-tower; late Norman -below, Perpendicular above. Returning towards the Infirmary, -we turn to the north up the east alley of the Infirmary Cloister, -now called the “<i>Dark Entry</i>,” at the north end of which -is the <i>Prior’s Gateway</i>. On the left are some Norman shafts -and arches of beautiful design. It was the Dark Entry that -was haunted by Nell Cook of the Ingoldsby Legends. West -of the Prior’s gateway are the two columns from the Romano-British -church at Reculvers. On the north side of the Prior’s -or Green Court are the Brewery and Bakehouse; to the N.W. -is the famous Norman staircase, which originally led to a -great North Hall; perhaps a Casual Ward—for tramps too -found accommodation at the monasteries.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Carlisle">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Carlisle.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus25.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Carlisle Cathedral, though but a torso, is of -exceptional interest, both archæologically and artistically. -It dates from the early years of the twelfth century. -It was originally the church of the Austin or Black Canons, -and also the seat of a bishopric. The Augustinian Cathedral -was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary; and it was re-dedicated -to the Holy and undivided Trinity when placed on -the New Foundation.</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Late Norman.</span>—The Augustinian house was founded -by Henry I. in 1101, at the instigation of Queen Matilda. -The Norman church consisted of an aisled nave of seven -bays, a transept with eastern apses, and an aisled choir. -The stones show the marks of the hatchet; the masonry is -well-bonded—too good to be eleventh-century work. The -corbel-tables of aisle and clerestory are particularly strong -and vigorous. Norman aisles were usually vaulted; but the -aisle-walls of Carlisle are so thin that they can never have -supported a vault.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span></p> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—The lower parts of the northern and southern -faces of the piers of the tower are flat: their shafts being -stopped by corbels instead of descending to the ground. -This was to allow the stalls of the Canons to be placed close -up to the piers. Hence it is clear that in the Norman -church the Canons sat, as at Norwich, in the crossing -and the western bays of the nave. Like the Benedictine -monks of Canterbury, they wanted to get into the choir. -And so the Norman choir, being altogether inadequate to -contain stalls and sanctuary, as at Canterbury, was pulled -down; and a beautiful early Gothic choir of seven bays was -built. Of this the vaulted aisles and the pier-arches still -remain. The work is late in the Lancet period (1190-1245); -for in the south aisle the Lancet windows are developing into -plate-tracery, and the charming arcade on the wall is cinquefoiled. -The new choir was not only far in advance of its -Norman predecessor in length and height; but it was also -12 feet broader. The church could not be broadened to the -south, because the cloister would prevent any removal of the -wall of the south aisle, when the nave was rebuilt. So the -south wall of the choir was rebuilt on the old foundations: the -southern row of piers probably also rest on the foundations of the -Norman piers. The central aisle of the choir was made much -broader than that of the nave, with which, therefore, it is out -of line; the same is the case with the north aisle of the choir.</p> - -<p>At the same time the eastern apse of the south transept -was rebuilt in the style of the day, with the crisply carved -foliage of the later years of the Lancet period. The northern -transept was to have been rebuilt on a more extensive scale, -not being cramped as the south transept was, by monastic -buildings adjacent. It was to have had an eastern aisle; -but when one pier of the aisle had been built, and part of its -eastern wall (a fragment of which, with string-course, survives), -the work was suddenly stopped.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">EAST END.</p> -</div> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear.</span>—But hardly was the new choir completed -when, together with belfry and bells, it was destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -by a great fire, with the exception of the aisles, which were -protected by their stone vaults. The Canons, not a whit -disheartened, resolved to rebuild the choir, and to rebuild it -even longer and loftier than before. To its length they added -an eastern bay, just wide enough to provide a processional -path at the back of the high altar. They increased its -height to 72 feet. But the piers and walls were too thin to -bear the additional -weight. They increased -the thickness of the -aisle-walls to 5 feet; -the piers they rebuilt. -The thirteenth-century -arches, however, which -were apparently not -much damaged by the -fire, they managed in -some inexplicable way -to retain. A modern -contractor would take -the arches down, and -then rebuild them with -the old stones. A mediæval -builder would be -more likely to underpin the arches, take the piers away -and then rebuild them without disturbing the arches at -all. The old builders revelled in such engineering feats. -At Exeter they retained the clerestory wall while constructing -new piers and arches below it; at York they -transplanted two arches in the transept. The capitals of -the new piers are exceedingly rich and interesting; they -contain the best mediæval representation we possess of the -Seasons; six capitals on the south side from east to west, -six on the north side from west to east. The corbels also -of the vaulting-shafts have rich naturalistic foliage. With -that respect for good earlier work that is characteristic of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -the Curvilinear period, and so rare at any other time, they -carried the cinquefoiled arcading of the aisles round the east -wall, introducing, however, the characteristic detail of the -period, not to bewilder unfortunate antiquaries of later days.</p> - -<p>Their <i>chef-d’œuvre</i>, however, was the east front. On this -they lavished all their wealth and all their art. It is a very -poem in stone. Its only rival is the contemporary east front -of Selby. “The great window,” says Professor Freeman, “is -the grandest of its kind in England.” It certainly has no -rival, unless it be that of York. The four lateral lights on -either side of the Carlisle windows are gathered up into two -pointed arches; at York these two arches are ogees; the -free swing of the ogee arches contrasting most effectively -with the pointed arch which embraces them both. The glass -in the tracery represents our Lord sitting in Judgment; the -procession of the Blessed to the Palace of Heaven, shown -in two silvery quatrefoils; and very realistic representations -of Hell and of the General Resurrection. It contains a portrait -of John of Gaunt; the window was probably glazed when -he was Governor of Carlisle, 1380-84.</p> - -<p>So far the Canons spared no expense; everything was of -the best. But their resources were taxed too heavily; it was -impossible to finish the choir with the magnificence with -which it was commenced. Triforium and clerestory are thin -and poor; the inner arcade of the latter of the barest -character. The piers had been rebuilt and strengthened, -apparently to support a vault; but a vault was found too -expensive, and was abandoned. Then hammerbeams were -constructed for a roof of the type of the magnificent roofs -of March Church and Westminster Hall. This in its turn -was abandoned, and the present wagon-roof of wood was -put up. For similar economical reasons the south transept -was rebuilt without the aisle commenced in the thirteenth -century.</p> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> (1360-1485).—But the misfortunes -of the Canons were not over yet. Another fire destroyed the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> -new north transept. This was rebuilt between 1400 and 1419 -by Bishop Strickland, who built the forty-six stalls of the -choir. Then came the question of the central tower and the -nave. The original plan had been that, when the choir was -finished, a new central tower and a new nave should be built, -both of the same width as the choir. But their troubles had -been too much for them. The courage of the Canons gave -way. They saw no prospect of ever being able to rebuild the -Norman nave; so instead of pulling down the Norman tower -and building one as -broad as the choir, -they left it standing -merely adding a new -upper story to it. It -is, of course, far too -small for its position; -and while ranging -with the nave, is quite -lop-sided when seen -in connection with -the roof of the choir; -though the awkwardness -is lessened, and -even made picturesque, -by the addition -of a staircase-turret on the north side of the tower. -This was about 1401.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus27.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—Things seem to have improved towards the -end of the fifteenth century. Prior Gondebour painted the -ceiling of the choir and the backs of the stalls; and to him -are due the beautiful screens in the south transept chapel. -He also built a grand barn with a magnificent roof of beams -nearly two feet thick: much of it is still standing. The -refectory also is due to him; it has a pretty pulpit for the -reader, as at Beaulieu and Chester. The Gate Tower or -Abbey Gate House was rebuilt in 1528.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span></p> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Renaissance.</span>—Launcelot Salkeld, the last Prior and -the first Dean of Carlisle, added the charming Renaissance -screen on the north side of the tower.</p> - -<p>VII. In the seventeenth century the western bays of the -Norman nave were pulled down, during the Civil War, to -provide materials for the repair of the city walls and guardhouses.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Chester">The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Virgin, Chester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus28.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The cathedral of Chester had originally an establishment -of Secular Canons (see Southwell and Wells.) Its patron -saint was St. Werburgh, a kinswoman of St. Ethelreda -of Ely. In the eleventh century it was refounded as a -Benedictine monastery by that great noble Hugh Lupus, Earl -of Chester, who ruled the Welsh Marshes with almost regal -sway. Henry VIII. made it the seat of a bishopric, which, -though but a part of the ancient Mercian diocese of Lichfield, -extended northwards into Yorkshire and Westmorland. -Nowadays the diocese and county of Chester are coextensive.</p> - -<p>If we proceed to the west doors, we have before us a vista -of exceptional beauty. The apparent length of the interior is -greatly increased by the screen thrown across it, which, however, -is not so solid and lofty as to block up the vista entirely, -as at Canterbury and York, nor so exiguous as the metal -screens at Lichfield and Ely.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<p>Passing under the new organ screen, we come to the most -ancient work to be found in the cathedral—viz., genuine early -Norman work of the eleventh century. It is to be compared -with that of the south transepts of St. Albans and Hereford. -Below, in the east wall, is an arch, which once led into an -apse. Above is a balustraded arcade, quite of the St. Albans -and Hereford type. Above, there must have been small -clerestory windows, such as those built up in the opposite wall. -The whole transept must have been low and humble, and is -invaluable as showing us what eleventh-century work was -really like, and of enabling us to realise the vast progress -that had taken place in design, in masonry, and in carving -by the time that Durham, Romsey, and Peterborough were -built. This early transept was of one bay only. Notice how -small the stones are, the gaping joints, and the irregularity -of the courses.</p> - -<p><i>North-West Tower.</i>—Bearing in mind the character of -this masonry, pass out into the north aisle of the nave, and -proceed to the Norman tower at the end of it. The work here -is clumsy and massive, but far superior to that of the north -transept, <i>c.</i> 1120. The north wall of the nave (now covered -with mosaics) is also Norman. Other traces of the Norman -cathedral will be found in the north aisle of the choir, to -which we retrace our steps. On the right will be seen a great -circular capital upside down, which has been used as a -foundation for the north-east pier of the tower. A few feet -farther is one of the original circular bases, proving that the -Norman choir had vast circular piers like those of Gloucester, -Durham, and St. John’s, Chester. Two bays farther east will -be found in the pavement a semicircular band of dark marble. -This marks foundations that have been found of the apsidal -ending of this aisle; one of the stones of this Norman apse -remains in the pavement. Moreover, it has been found that -the central aisle of the choir, at the end of the second bay -from the tower, ended in a semicircular range of columns, -like St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield. From these indications<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -we can restore the plan of the original Norman cathedral -with some certainty. It had a nave and aisles of the same -dimensions as the present ones; unaisled transepts, each of -a single bay, and an eastern apse to each transept; perhaps -a low central tower; a choir of two bays, ending in a semicircular -range of columns and arches, and surrounded to the -east by a semicircular ambulatory or processional path. On -either side were aisles, -three and a half bays long, -each terminating in an -eastern apse. So that the -Norman cathedral had -five eastern apses, and -resembled in plan -Gloucester and Norwich, -except that the chapels of -the choir-aisles of Chester -point, not north-east and -south-east, but due east.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus29.jpg" width="250" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Norman Cloisters.</i>—Returning -to the north -aisle of the nave we pass -through the doorway at -the east end of the aisle -into the cloister. This -doorway, as seen from the -cloister, is, from its ornamentation, -of later date than the north transept, and may -also be about 1120. The south wall of the cloister is now -seen to be Norman; Norman abbots are buried in the -recesses. Passing along the cloister westwards, we have in -front another Norman door, and a very late Norman passage. -Passing along the west walk of the cloister, a doorway on the -left leads into a large Norman undercroft, with two aisles -roofed with massive unribbed vaulting. Above, as the division -in the vaulting shows, were a large and a small hall.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -These buildings on the west of the cloisters may have been -originally the cellars, refectory and dormitory of the lay -brethren, as at Fountains and Kirkstall; and afterwards the -cellar and halls of the Abbot’s house. To the south, above -the late Norman passage, is the Episcopal chapel, also -Norman, with good Jacobean work.</p> - -<p><i>Vestry.</i>—We now return through the north transept to the -north aisle of the choir. The next work done in the cathedral -is to be found in the vestry to the left. The Norman apse -of the north transept was pulled down; the arch in the west -wall is nearly all that is left of it; and a new chapel was -built here in the Transitional period, between 1145 and 1190, -to which period the vaulting belongs. Later on, the east end -of it was remodelled, and the western arch built up. Part of -the foundation of the original Norman apse may be seen in -the pavement near the door.</p> - -<p><i>Vestibule.</i>—Now we come to the Lancet or Early Gothic -work (1190-1245), including vestibule, chapter-house, fratery, -refectory, Lady chapel, and the eastern bays of the choir. -Passing through the north transept again, and out through -its north door, we enter the vestibule, the architectural gem -of the cathedral. The piers have bases, but no capitals—a -feature common enough in late Gothic, but very unusual -in such early work. Pass into the cloister to see the lovely -trefoiled doorway of the vestibule. Then return to the -<i>Chapter-house</i>, which is of the same date as the vestibule. -It is rectangular, as were most of the monastic Chapter-houses -originally: <i>e.g.</i>, Exeter, Durham, Oxford, and Bristol. -The windows have an inner arcade. Here is a bust of -Canon Kingsley, by Mr. Belt. Returning to the vestibule, -and passing out of it by the modern north doorway, we cross -the Slype with its elaborate vault, and pass into a vaulted -building of two aisles, each of four bays, laboriously restored -at considerable expense, and then allowed to relapse into a -coal-cellar: this is the so-called fratery. Rooms in similar -positions occur at Fountains and Kirkstall; their use is not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -known. Notice the day-stairs which led to the Monks’ dormitory, -which was overhead, on the east side of the cloister, -also the curious cusped windows adjacent. Along the whole -of the north side of the cloister extended the <i>Refectory</i>, -the Monks’ dining-hall; now the west end has been lopped -off, and a passage driven through the east of it. Towards -the west end will be found a fine doorway by which it was -originally entered. To the right of the doorway is a recess -marking the site of the lavatory. Inside, in the south wall, -is the original staircase -and pulpit of -the refectory. Table -talk was forbidden in -all monasteries; a -good book was read -aloud to the monks -during meals. Another -equally fine pulpit remains -in the refectory -of Beaulieu, Hampshire; -another, in -the open air, opposite -Shrewsbury Abbey. -The upper part of -the refectory has -Perpendicular tracery inserted in the original windows.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus30.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">VESTIBULE OF CHAPTER-HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Now we return to the cathedral, to the <i>Lady chapel</i>: -much restored, of similar date and character to those of -Hereford and Bristol. It was a remarkable specimen of -mediæval “jerry-building,” built without foundations of any -sort or kind. One of the bosses, figured in Dean Howson’s -book on “The Dee,” depicts the murder of Thomas Becket. -Originally the Lady chapel had three windows, each triplets, -on either side.</p> - -<p><i>Eastern choir.</i>—To the same period belongs the east -wall of the choir, and the two eastern bays. The east wall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -is pierced by but one arch, as at Hereford and Chichester; -an inferior ending to the triple eastern arches of the choirs -of Wells and Salisbury. The mouldings of the southern -arches are a cheap imitation of the better work on the north.</p> - -<p><i>Western choir.</i>—The remaining bays to the west have -piers of altogether different section, and are Early Geometrical -in character (1245-1280); and should be compared with -Westminster choir and the Angel choir of Lincoln. In digging, -the foundations of the east ends of the thirteenth-century -aisles have been found. They turn out to have been polygonal. -Sir G. G. Scott has been allowed to rebuild this aisle -in apsidal form, and to crown his work with a hideous -“extinguisher” roof. To put up this sham Gothic, he pulled -down the Perpendicular choir-aisle, and expelled the monuments -of three ancient county families in favour of an eminent -contractor. This is what is called “restoration.”</p> - -<p>All the above work stops at the top of the beautiful triforium, -a trefoiled arcade. The clerestory is late Geometrical -work; the tracery of the windows is thin and uninteresting -(1280-1315). The proportions of the choir as thus completed -are not at all satisfactory; the tall clerestory, with its big -broad windows, is ruinous to the effect of the low pier-arcade -and the diminutive triforium: it looks top-heavy. Compare -the choir of Lichfield.</p> - -<p>We have seen that by the end of the thirteenth century the -monks had rebuilt all the work to the east and north of the -cloister, as well as the Lady chapel and the whole of the choir. -In the fourteenth century they set to work to rebuild the whole -of the south transept, the central tower, and the nave. None -of the upper parts of these, however, were finished till the -following century. The <i>South Transept</i> is so vast that the -old church of St. Oswald may have still remained in use -while the transept was building around it. It has western -as well as eastern aisles: which it is rare to find except in -cathedrals of the first rank, such as Ely and York. Some of -the aisle windows retain very beautiful Curvilinear tracery.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -The springers of vaults remain, but no vaulting was executed, -except one bay at the south end of the east aisle, till recently, -when the remainder of this aisle was vaulted. The vast size -of this transept—it is as large as the choir, and nearly as large -as the nave—is in striking contrast to the diminutive North -Transept, and is the most remarkable feature in the ground -plan of the cathedral. Originally there stood here an independent -church, belonging to the parish of St. Oswald. But -in the fourteenth century, when the abbey was in possession -of great wealth, the monks desired to enlarge their church. -They could not enlarge it to the north, for on the north were -their cloisters, chapter-house, refectory, and dormitory; on -the south was the parish church of St. Oswald. They therefore -came to terms with the parishioners, in accordance with which -they built a new parish church for them, where now stands -the Music Hall. But in the fifteenth century the parishioners -were able to evade their bargain, and vindicated their claim -to the whole of the new south transept, which the monks by -this time had completed. “Sic vos non vobis.” And to get -into it they cut the fifteenth-century doorway, which is still to -be seen through the lower part of the window at the south end -of the west aisle of the new transept. And here they remained -in possession till the present century, using the transept as -their parish church. In 1824 the transept was actually -blocked from the cathedral by a solid wall. But in 1874 -a new church, St. Thomas, was once more built for the -parishioners, and they were again ejected from the site of the -old church of St. Oswald. The dividing wall was pulled -down, and the transept has been again thrown into the -cathedral. Unfortunately, the congregation being gone, -there is no one to fill it, and it remains a squalid and desolate -solitude. Why not have replaced the dividing-wall by an -open screen and have left the parishioners in peace?</p> - -<p><i>Central Tower.</i>—This was probably commenced in the -fourteenth and finished in the fifteenth century. It has been -found that the north-west pier rests upon some floriated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -gravestones of the thirteenth century, which disposes of the -idea that the piers of the tower have a Norman core. Notice -the variation in the treatment of the tower-arches.</p> - -<p><i>Nave.</i>—Here also there is Curvilinear tracery in the -windows of the south aisle. The piers and arches, also, on -the south side are of fourteenth-century work, of simple but -good design. The northern pier-arcade differs in some -features; it may be a little later. On the other hand the -initials of Abbot -Simon Ripley (1485-1492) -are found on -the first pier from the -west; and so this -arcade may be really -later work, assimilated -in character to -the earlier work on -the south side.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus31.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p><i>South Transept.</i>—The -next thing seems -to have been to complete -the south transept -in the Perpendicular -style; and also -the easternmost bay -of the nave, which -was needed to give abutment to the rising tower. To this -period, perhaps the fifteenth century, may be assigned all -those Perpendicular windows which are cusped, in the transepts, -the nave, the refectory, and elsewhere.</p> - -<p><i>Nave.</i>—The final operations comprised all those windows -which are without cusps—<i>e.g.</i>, the clerestory windows and the -north aisle windows of the nave; also the south porch and west -front and the commencement of a south-west tower, and the -fine wooden roof of the north transept. All this was done -early in the sixteenth century. Perhaps piety had waxed cold,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -and pilgrims’ offertories were less productive. At any rate, all -the upper part of the interior of the nave is bare, bald, and -poverty-stricken. For the beautiful triforium of the choir we -have here a blank wall; unhappy, too, in proportions, the -nave of Chester is one of the least satisfactory designs of the -Middle Ages. In the south-west tower is the Consistory Court, -with good Jacobean woodwork.</p> - -<p>One other alteration had to be made. There was no access -to the Lady chapel except through the one arch at the east -end of the choir. When St. Werburgh’s shrine was placed at -the entrance of the Lady chapel in the fourteenth century, it -was awkward to have but a single approach to the Lady -chapel; so the eastern apses of the two choir aisles were -pulled down, and two Perpendicular aisles added, one on each -side of the Lady chapel. (The one on the north is still -allowed to exist; the one on the south was pulled down by -Scott). Thus the west window on either side of the Lady -chapel was converted into a doorway, and a convenient processional -path was provided round St. Werburgh’s shrine.</p> - -<p>To the late Perpendicular or Tudor period belong the -eastern, northern, and western walks of the cloister, which -should be visited next. In part of the west walk, and in the -new south walk, there is a double arcade; dividing the walks -into a series of separate compartments or studies for the -monks. An analogous arrangement occurs in the cloisters -of Gloucester. Notice, also, the <i>insouciance</i> with which -these Tudor builders dropped the ribs of their vaults down on -earlier doors and arches. Similar reckless disregard of the -good work of preceding builders occurs at Canterbury, where -the most beautiful doorway in the Cathedral is cut into by -later vaulting.</p> - -<p><i>North Aisle of Nave.</i>—This has been recased, and provided -with rich vaulting. It was to provide abutment for -this new vault that the south walk of the cloister was rebuilt. -The nave and choir have been vaulted in wood; following the -precedents of York Minster and Selby Abbey.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> - -<p>The exterior is, to all intents and purposes, nineteenth-century -work. The original design had almost wholly disappeared -through the decay of the soft sandstone. It is, -however, very handsome and effective; especially in contrast -with the exterior, equally new, of Worcester.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus32.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of minor work the chief objects of interest are the Byzantine -font, perhaps of the eighth century; the remains of the -fourteenth-century shrine of St. Werburgh and the contemporary -sedilia; the fine misereres and stalls (Perpendicular); -the Renaissance gates of Spanish ironwork, and the Renaissance -candelabra (Italian); the epitaphs of John Lowe, -tobacconist, John Paul, publican, and John Phillips, merchant, -in the south transept; those of Mayor Green, and an American -loyalist, on the south-west pier of the tower; the tablet of -Randolph Caldecott and the pretentious monument of Bishop -Pearson in the north transept; the tablet of Dean Arderne in -the south aisle of the choir; and in the north aisle those of -Subdean Bispham and Bishop Jacobson, and the epitaph on -the gravestone of E. P. Gastrell. The new organ rests on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -five Renaissance columns brought from Italy; the communion -table is of wood from the Holy Land. On the wall near the -west door is a tablet to Bishop Hall, and another</p> - -<p class="center" style="clear: both;">To the Memory of<br /> -<span class="larger">JOHN MOORE NAPIER</span><br /> -Captain in Her Majesty’s 62nd Regiment<br /> -Who died of Asiatic Cholera<br /> -in Scinde<br /> -on the 7th of July, 1846,<br /> -Aged 29 years.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">The tomb is no record of high lineage;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">His may be traced by his name;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">His race was one of soldiers.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Among soldiers he lived; among them he died;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A soldier falling, where numbers fell with him,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">In a barbarous land.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Yet there was none died more generous,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">More daring, more gifted, or more religious.</div> - <div class="verse indent2">On his early grave</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fell the tears of stern and hardy men,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">As his had fallen on the graves of others.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Surely one hears the trumpet on the dusty field of Meeanee, -and the word of command of the stern old general. The -inscription can be by none other but Sir Charles Napier. -There is not much in verse that rings like these few lines of -prose.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Chichester">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Chichester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus33.jpg" width="500" height="425" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Chichester cathedral, though one of the smallest, -is to the student of mediæval architecture one of the most -interesting and important of our Cathedrals. At Salisbury one -or two styles of architectures are represented; at Canterbury -two or three; at Chichester every single style is to be seen -without a break from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. -It is an epitome of English architectural history for 500 -years. Early Norman, late Norman, late Transitional, early -Lancet, late Lancet, early Geometrical, late Geometrical, -Curvilinear, Perpendicular and Tudor work all appear in the -structure side by side. We have many other heterogeneous -and composite cathedrals, but nowhere, except perhaps at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -Hereford, can the whole sequence of the mediæval styles -be read so well as at Chichester.</p> - -<p>The last kingdom, says Canon Bright, that remained -outside the Church, was that of the South Saxons, hemmed -in by a thick line of well-nigh impenetrable forest, and so -barbarous as to be at once ignorant of one of the simplest -arts, and furious against the incoming of foreigners. It was -reserved for the great Wilfrid, of Hexham, Ripon and York, -in one of his exiles (611)—caused originally by the high-handed -partition of his overlarge diocese of York—to do -what no one as yet had done for these poor rude heathen—what -some Irish monks had tried to do and had failed. They -were desperate with famine; he taught them to fish in the -sea; for he was as ready in homely crafts of this kind as in -adorning churches or educating young nobles; and as Bede -says, “by this kind act he turned their hearts to love him; -and they began the more willingly to hope for heavenly -blessings under his preaching, when by his assistance they -had received earthly good.”</p> - -<p>The first seat of the diocese was on the coast at Selsea; it -was transferred to Chichester by Stigand in 1082, when other -Norman prelates removed to fortified towns such as Lincoln, -Exeter, and Norwich. In the south aisle of the choir are two -Saxon slabs representing the meeting of Christ with Mary -and Martha and the raising of Lazarus. The figures are the -tall, emaciated, but dignified figures of archaic Byzantine -art; their stature carefully proportionate to their importance; -the slabs may well have come from Selsea. Stigand was -followed by Gosfried, who for some unknown sin sought and -obtained absolution from the Pope. The original document -in lead may be seen in the library. “We, representing -St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, to whom God gave the -power of binding and loosing, absolve thee, Bishop Godfrey, -so far as thy accusation requests and the right of remission -belongs to us. God the Redeemer be thy salvation and -graciously forgive thee all thy sins. Amen. On the seventh<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -of the Calends of April, on the festival of St. Firmin, bishop -and martyr, died Godfrey, bishop of Chichester; it was then -the fifth day of the moon.”</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Norman.</span>—Godfrey was succeeded in 1091 by Ralph, -whose stone coffin, marked “Radulphus” may be seen in the -Lady chapel. Godfrey built the present Norman cathedral, -or at any rate enough of it to allow a consecration in 1108. -Before his death in 1123, or soon after, the whole cathedral -must have been complete except the west front, where only -the two lower stories of the south-west tower are Norman. -The voluted capital of eleventh-century Norman work—an -attempt at Ionic—which appears also on the east side of Ely -transept—occurs in the triforium of the choir. The work in -the four eastern bays of the nave is a little later; the four -western bays, in which the triforium is treated differently, -were possibly not built till after the fire in 1114. The Norman -Church had the same ground-plan as that of Norwich, -commenced <i>c.</i> 1096, and Gloucester, commenced <i>c.</i> 1089. -It had an aisled nave, aisleless transept with eastern apses, -aisled choir, apse and ambulatory, and a chevet of three -radiating chapels, of which the side chapels were semicircular, -the central or eastern chapel oblong, as at Canterbury and -Rochester. Externally, on the south wall of the choir, in -the second bay from the east, may be seen traces of -the curve of the wall of the ancient apse, and also a triforium -window which originally was in the centre of one of the -narrowed bays of the apse, but has now ceased to be central. -In the chamber above the library the curve of the wall of the -apse of the north transept is well seen. The piers, as in most -eleventh-century work, are monstrously and unnecessarily -heavy, and the arches constricted. It is rather a monotonous -interior, with the same design from choir to west end. It is -a pity that they did not give us a different and improved -design in the nave, as was done at Tewkesbury and Gloucester. -Matters have been made worse by the removal of a superb -Perpendicular stone rood-screen, crowned, as at Exeter, by a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -Renaissance organ. The removal of this has impaired the -general effect of the interior, much lessening the apparent -length of the cathedral. As usual, only the aisles and apses -of the Norman cathedral were vaulted; the aisles here, as -at Southwell, are vaulted in oblong compartments. It was -dedicated to St. Peter, and served by secular Canons, of whom -in 1520 there were thirty-one. In the triforium of the choir -were semicircular transverse arches, precisely as in the choir -of Durham.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus34.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PRESBYTERY.</p> -</div> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Late Transitional -and Early -Lancet</span>, from the fire of -1186 to the consecration -of 1199, when the cathedral -was re-dedicated to -the Holy Trinity. About -1180 some work was going -on in the western part of -the Lady chapel, but in a -great fire in 1186 the roofs -and fittings of the whole -cathedral were burnt, and -the clerestories were no -doubt damaged by falling -timbers. The destruction, -however, was by no means so great as at Canterbury in the -fire of 1182, and no such drastic process of rebuilding was -necessary. Bishop Siegfried confined himself to four objects: -(1) To fireproof the cathedral by covering it with a stone vault, -provided with the necessary buttresses and flying-buttresses. -And as the clerestory which had to support the vault was -much damaged, its inner arcade had to be rebuilt. (2) To -replace the apse and ambulatory and chevet by a rectangular -retro-choir with square eastern chapels. (3) To replace -the transeptal apses by similar chapels. (4) To get -rid of some of the rough and heavy appearance of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -ground-story of the whole church. He did not touch the -triforium.</p> - -<p>Siegfried probably commenced with the choir, which was -most wanted. The masonry of the ground-story had probably -been calcined by the roof-timbers blazing on the floor; the -inner face of this was cased with good Caen stone. As at -Canterbury, great use was made of Purbeck marble, in which -were built angle-shafts and capitals to the piers, hood-moulds -for the pier-arches, string-courses below and above the -triforium, and arcading to the clerestory. In front of each -pier a triple vaulting-shaft was run up, with a marble capital, -supporting the new quadripartite vault. Externally, the -clerestory wall was supported by flying-buttresses of heavy -archaic type, similar to those of the choirs of Canterbury and -Boxgrove. Later on, the same treatment was extended by -Siegfried and his successors to the nave and transepts.</p> - -<p>His next step was to remove the Norman apse and to build -an aisled retro-choir of two bays. This is the architectural -gem of the cathedral. The idea of it probably came from -Hereford, where the retro-choir is a few years earlier. At -Hereford, however, the retro-choir projects picturesquely, and -forms an eastern transept. The central piers of the Chichester -retro-choir are remarkably beautiful. They consist of a -central column surrounded by four shafts very widely detached; -column and shafts are of Purbeck marble. The capitals are -Corinthianesque; their height is proportioned to the diameters -of the column and shafts. This beautiful capital was reproduced -a few years later by St. Hugh at Lincoln, and the pier -at Boxgrove. The triforium is of quite exceptional beauty, as -indeed is the whole design. Semicircular arches occur in the -pier-arcade and triforium, and some of the abaci are square; -otherwise the design is pure Gothic. Here, as at Abbey Dore, -St. Thomas’, Portsmouth, Boxgrove, and Wells, we see the -transition from the Transition to the “pure and undefiled -Gothic” of St. Hugh’s choir at Lincoln. In these beautiful -churches the ancient Romanesque style breathed its last.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p> - -<p>The aisles of the new retro-choir were continued on either -side of the first bay of the Norman Lady chapel, whose three -bays had probably been remodelled before the fire in Transitional -fashion. The capitals of the Lady chapel are of -exceptional interest and importance, as showing experimental -foliation which had not yet settled down into the conventional -leafage of early Gothic. The apse also of the south transept -was replaced by a square chapel; and that of the north -transept by a double chapel, now used as a library, in the -vaulting of which the Norman zigzag occurs.</p> - -<p>III. A little later in the <span class="smcap">Lancet</span> period was built (1199-1245) -the lovely south porch, with small, exquisite mouldings, -and charming foliated capitals and corbels. The difference -between early Transitional, late Transitional, and Lancet -foliation may be well seen by examining successively the -capitals of the Lady chapel, the triforium of the retro-choir, -and the south porch. The north porch is almost equally fine. -The vaulting-ribs, square in section, show that the two porches -both belong to the very first years of the thirteenth century. -Rather later, the sacristy was built on to the south porch, -with a massive vault supported by foliated corbels.</p> - -<p>IV. In the <span class="smcap">Early Geometrical</span> period (1245-1280) -building still went on unremittently. The south-west tower -was raised to its present height; the low Norman central -tower was replaced by a higher one: it is curious that this -tower is oblong on plan; the transept, contrary to custom, -being wider than nave or choir. A pretty circular window, -with cusped circles and tooth ornament, was inserted in the -eastern gable of the retro-choir, and a fine Galilee porch was -added to the west front, as at Ely.</p> - -<p>But the great change that was destined to alter the whole -character of the nave was the addition of chapels. In our -parish churches it is common enough to find that pious and -wealthy parishioners have been allowed to tack family chapels -on to the aisles or nave. In Dorchester Priory Church there -is a south aisle running the whole length of the church, made<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -up of nothing but a series of chantry-chapels. This was -common enough, too, in the French cathedrals—<i>e.g.</i>, Paris and -Amiens. But the naves of the English cathedrals were not -as a rule tampered with in this way. At Chichester, however, -there were built, one after another, four sets of chapels—of -St. George and St. Clement on the south of the south aisle, -and of St. Thomas, St. Anne, and St. Edmund on the north of -the north aisle. The windows should be studied in the above -order; they form quite an excellent object-lesson of the evolution -of bar-tracery -from plate-tracery, -itself a derivative -from such designs -as that of the east -window of the -south transept -chapel. When the -chapels were completed, -the Norman -aisle-walls -were pierced, and -arches were inserted -where Norman -windows had -been; and the -Lancet buttresses, -which had been added when the nave-vault was erected, now -found themselves inside the church, buttressing piers instead -of walls. The new windows on the south side were built so high -that the vaulting of the chapels had to be tilted up to allow -room for their heads; externally they were originally crowned -with gables, the weatherings of which may be seen outside. -In St. Thomas’ chapel is a charming example of a simple -thirteenth-century reredos.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus35.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PRESBYTERY.</p> -</div> - -<p>The addition of these outer aisles makes Chichester unique -among the English cathedrals, though it may be paralleled in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -Elgin cathedral and many a parish church. Artistically, the -contrast of the gloomy and heavy Norman nave with the -lightness and brightness of the chapels behind is most -delightful; the nave looks infinitely larger and more spacious -than it is; it is never all seen at a glance like the empty -nave of York, and is full of changing vistas and delightful -perspectives. Accidentally, the thirteenth-century builders -had hit on a new source of picturesqueness.</p> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Late Geometrical.</span>—Between 1288 and 1304 the Lady -chapel was lengthened by two bays, and the end bay of the -former chapel was re-vaulted. So that what we see is a -Norman chapel transmogrified into a Transitional one, and -that once more altered and extended. The new work was -done just when people had tired of conventional foliage, and -hurried into naturalism. The capitals are another object-lesson -in Gothic foliation. The window-tracery, with long-lobed -trefoils, occurs also in the beautiful chapel of the -mediæval hospital, which should by all means be visited.</p> - -<p>It may be asked, where did the Chichester people get the -money for all these great works? It was from pilgrims. -They had had the great luck to get a saint of their own, -Bishop Richard. He was consecrated in 1245, died in 1253, -was canonised in 1261.</p> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear (1315-1360).</span>—Next the Canons set -themselves to work to improve the lighting of the cathedral, -which was bad; all the windows, except those in the new -chapels, being small single lights. A fine window of -flowing tracery was inserted in the eastern chapel of the -south choir aisle (now filled with admirable glass by Mr. -Kempe). And the south wall of the transept was taken down -altogether and rebuilt. Here is another fine circular window. -Bishop Langton, who gave the money for this work, is buried -below. The drainage, too, of the roofs was improved; gutters -and parapets being substituted for dripping eaves. To this -period, also, belong the stalls with ogee arches and compound -cusping, and good misereres.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<p>VII. In the <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> period (1360-1485) the improvements -in lighting were continued, the north wall of the -transept being treated in similar fashion to that opposite. -But settlements were the result, and a flying-buttress had to -be added to steady the north wall. And at length the tower -was crowned with a beautiful spire, not quite so slender and -graceful as those of Salisbury and Louth; more on the lines -of the Lichfield spires. An upper story and buttresses were -added to the sacristy, and the Canons’ Gateway was built.</p> - -<p>VIII. In the <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> period an irregular three-sided cloister -was built in a quite abnormal position encircling the south -transept. The object of it was to provide a covered way to -the cathedral for the Canons, as well as for the Vicars, whose -Close is hard by. The central tower seems to have shown -signs of weakness under the weight of the new spire; and so -a detached Campanile was built, as at Salisbury. Bishop -Sherborne built a grand stone screen (1508-1536) occupying -the whole of the crossing, and containing chantries; much of -it exists, in fragments, under the Campanile. To the time of -Henry VII. belongs the Poultry Cross.</p> - -<p>IX. In 1859 the central tower was found to be in danger, -owing, it is said, to the removal of the Arundel screen. -Underpinning was resorted to, but matters got worse. “At -noon, on February 21st, 1861, the workmen were ordered out -of the building, and the people living in the neighbouring -houses were warned of their danger; about an hour and a -half later the spire was seen to incline slightly to the south-west -and then to sink perpendicularly through the roof. Thus -was fulfilled literally the old Sussex saying:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“If Chichester Church Steeple fall,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In England there’s no king at all.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>In 1866 the tower and spire were rebuilt; the tower raised -slightly so that the belfry windows might clear the roofs.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Durham">The Cathedral Church of St. Cuthbert and St. Mary, Durham.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus36.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The bishopric of Durham has a long history, though the -cathedral was not at Durham till 1018. The conversion -of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, north of the Thames, had been -brought about by the missionaries of the Irish and Scottish -church. Augustine’s mission in Kent, and that of Paulinus -in the north—both sent from Rome—had for their object, not -so much the conversion of England, as to induce the English -Christians to transfer their allegiance from the Celtic to the -Roman Church. The success of Augustine’s mission had -been but short-lived. He landed in England <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 597; his -death occurred in 605; and in 616 the Kentish kingdom -relapsed into paganism. Paulinus landed in 601; proceeded -to Northumbria in 625, but left it in 633, when, like Kent, most<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -of Northumbria relapsed into paganism. The real “apostle -of the north” was not Paulinus, but Aidan, who was sent at -the request of King Oswald from Iona, and in the year 635 -became the first bishop of the north of England.</p> - -<p>(1) For thirty years the see was at Lindisfarne (Holy Island), -but the jurisdiction of the bishop extended over all England -north of the Humber, and over the south of Scotland (635-665). -(2) In 678, Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury split -up the vast Northumbrian diocese into the four bishoprics of -York, Lindisfarne, Hexham, and Whitherne in Galloway. -Twelve bishops ruled the now curtailed see from 678 to 900, -the cathedral still remaining at Lindisfarne. The second of -these was the famous St. Cuthbert (685-688). (3) In fear of -the Danes, the body of St. Cuthbert was removed to Chester-le-Street, -seven miles north of Durham, and eight bishops -had their cathedral at Chester-le-Street (900-995). (4) Once -more, in fear of the Northmen, the see was removed—this for -the last time—to Durham. Including Aldhun, the last bishop -of Chester-le-Street and the first bishop of Durham, there -have been, up to 1898, sixty-one bishops of Durham.</p> - -<p>In the earliest days, we always read of monks as carrying -about the relics of St. Cuthbert and serving the cathedral. -Later on, but still in Anglo-Saxon days, the monks gave way -to Secular Canons. These in turn were replaced by Benedictine -monks by the Norman bishop, William of St. Carilef -(1081-1096). In 1540 the monastic establishment was suppressed, -and the cathedral was placed on the New Foundation, -like the Benedictine cathedrals of Canterbury, Winchester, -Ely, Norwich, Rochester, and Worcester, with an establishment -once more of Secular Canons.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus37.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Anglo-Saxon days England was divided into provinces, -whose earls exercised quite as much power as the Viceroy -of the Empress exercises nowadays in India. These powerful -and dangerous viceroyalties the Norman sovereigns abolished, -with two exceptions. To guard the Marches against the -Welsh, they left the old Earldom or Viceroyalty of Chester,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -putting it in the hands of a layman. To guard the Scottish -border, they united with the Bishopric of Durham the Earldom -of Northumberland. Between Tees and Tyne, and in -some external districts, the Bishop of Durham had palatine -jurisdiction. Here the King’s writ did not run; but the -writs were drawn in the name of the bishop. As feudal -lord, his seat was Durham Castle; as bishop, Durham -Cathedral. Hence that wonderful group, castle and cathedral, -which one sees from the Wear bridge towering overhead; -unique in England, but -not rare in the cities of -the Prince-Bishops of the -Holy Roman Empire: -Lausanne, Chur, or Sitten. -With the Bishop of -Durham rested the power -of life and death in case -of murder, or even of -treason itself. The most -magnificent of all these -powerful prelates was -Anthony Bek (1283-1310). -His own personal -followers, when he -marched with Edward I. -against the Scots, included -26 standard-bearers, 140 knights, 1000 foot, and 500 -horse. “Surrounded by his officers of state, or marching at -the head of his troops, in peace or in war, he appeared as the -military chief of a powerful and independent franchise. The -court of Durham exhibited all the appendages of royalty; -nobles addressed the palatine sovereign kneeling; and instead -of menial servants, knights waited in his presence-chamber -and at his table, bareheaded and standing.” But in 1536, -Henry VIII. swept away the most important of the powers of -the Counts Palatine. The ancient form of indictment “contra<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -pacem Episcopi” was altered to “against the King’s peace,” -and the King’s writ ran in Durham see. Still, the palatinate -county of Durham was not fully an integral part of the realm, -and up to 1675 did not send members to Parliament. It was -not till 1836 that the privileges of the County Palatine were -fully and finally vested in the Crown. Even now, the towers -of Durham have a stern military air, such as no other English -cathedral possesses; for a parallel to which we must go to -the fortress-cathedrals of Albi and the south-west of France. -Durham cathedral is “half House of God, half castle ’gainst -the Scot.”</p> - -<p>Of the Anglo-Saxon cathedrals in wood or stone nothing -remains. The architectural history of the present cathedral -commences with the accession of the second Norman prelate, -William of St. Carilef, or St. Calais on the southern border -of Maine, who was bishop from 1081 to 1095, and is said to -have laid the foundations of the Norman cathedral in 1093 -on August 11th. The building operations of the Norman -cathedral admit of a threefold division: (1) The choir and -choir aisles; the arcade and triforium of the eastern aisles -of both transepts; the crossing; the first bay of the nave and -the first arch of the nave-triforium; and the whole of the -outer walls of the nave up to the top of the aisle-arcade of -intersecting arches. All this is supposed to have been built -by William of St. Carilef between August 11th, 1093, and -January 6th, 1096; <i>i.e.</i>, in two and a half years; which seems -impossible. (2) In the interval of three years between Carilef’s -death and the appointment of Ralph Flambard, the monks -are said to have finished the transepts. (3) Between 1099 -and his death in 1128, Ralph Flambard finished the nave. -These three divisions are architecturally correct; they are -borne out by differences of detail; and they follow the same -order of building which was observed elsewhere. But it does -not follow that the exact dates given above, on mediæval -authority, are correct.</p> - -<p>The most important matter is the date of the high vaults.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> -From architectural evidence it is pretty clear that the vaulting -was executed in the following order: (1) the vaults of the -aisles of the choir and transepts, said to be not later than -1099; (2) the high vault of the choir, now destroyed, said to -be not later than 1104; (3) the vaults of the aisles of the nave, -said to be not later than 1128; (4) the high vaults of the -transepts and nave, said to be not later than 1133. The -chronology of the high vaults is a very important question in -the history of mediæval architecture, -especially as affecting -the reputation of English architects. -If the above dates are -correct, it was the Durham -architect, and not a Frenchman, -who was the first to solve -the great problem of mediæval -architecture: how to construct -and keep up a ribbed vault, -oblong in plan, over a central -aisle. With it goes the question -of priority in the use of -flying-buttresses to take the -thrust of a high vault. If the -dates given above are correct, -Durham was a generation -ahead of the whole world in the construction of a high vault -and in the use of flying-buttresses.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus38.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST TOWERS.</p> -</div> - -<p>But the transverse arches of the vault of the nave are -pointed; a feature which occurs nowhere else in England at so -early a date. Besides, it seems impossible that if the Durham -people had solved the problem of problems of mediæval -architecture—the construction of a high oblong vault—nobody -else should have copied it in England for more than fifty years.</p> - -<p>Another theory is that the high vaults were constructed -by Bishop Farnham in 1242, making them contemporary -with the Chapel of the Nine Altars—which is impossible.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -It seems to me that they belong to the episcopate of Hugh -Pudsey, <i>c.</i> 1160.</p> - -<p>The bays of Durham are coupled, Lombard-fashion—<i>i.e.</i>, -large and small piers alternate: with what object, is uncertain. -There were three parallel eastern apses. The -central apse had no ambulatory. The lateral apses were -square externally, as at Romsey and Cerisy-la-Forêt, and -S. Maria in Cosmedin, Rome (<i>c.</i> 780). The central was -separated from the lateral apses by solid walls, as at Cerisy-la-Forêt, -whose clerestory also seems to have been copied in -the original western clerestory of the south transept.</p> - -<p>Durham anticipates Gothic not only in vaulting its central -aisles in oblongs—for the high oblong vaults of Durham, if -not so early as 1133, are still the earliest in England—but in -the employment of flying-buttresses. These, I think, were -built long before the vaults, their object originally not being -to withstand the thrust of vaults. In the triforium of the -choir they appear in the form of semicircular arches, with a -wall on them, which provided a support for the longitudinal -timbers of the aisle-roof. In the choir these flying-buttresses -are semicircular arches, and therefore, strictly speaking, are -not flying-buttresses at all. But in the triforium of the nave -they consist of segments of circles tilted up on end. Here -they are genuine flying-buttresses, which oppose resistance -to any outward inclination of the clerestory wall. The only -constructional difference between those of the nave and -Gothic flying-buttresses is that the former are placed underneath -the roof of the triforium, sheltered from the weather, -while the latter are placed outside and above the aisle-roof, -and are thus liable to disintegration by wind, rain and frost. -But even in Gothic, flying-buttresses are not always displayed; -they still remained concealed under the triforium in the early -work at Salisbury; and even in the fourteenth-century work -of Winchester nave.</p> - -<p>At the west end the towers project beyond the line of the -nave, but only slightly. Still we may well see in this the germ<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -of the grand western transepts of Ely, Wells and Peterborough.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus39.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>Internally, the one fault of Durham is its shortness in -proportion to its great breadth. The nave ought to be two or -three bays longer. Ely nave has twelve bays, Peterborough -ten, Norwich fourteen, Durham only eight. But the architect -could not build much further to the west, for close at hand is -the precipice rising above the river; nor did he like to build -further to the east, for the ground there is bad.</p> - -<p>The internal elevation, however, is unsurpassed by that of -any Romanesque church in Europe. At Winchester, Norwich, -Peterborough, Ely, Malvern, Leominster, Chepstow, the three -stories—pier-arcade, triforium, and clerestory—are about -equal in height: a very unsatisfactory proportion. The architects -of Gloucester and Tewkesbury saw this: unfortunately -they rushed into the opposite extreme, and carried up their -piers to such a vast height that the triforium and clerestory -were dwarfed out of all proportion. But at Durham the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -proportions are absolutely right. The vault, too, is not so -much later in date as to interrupt the solid monumental effect -of the interior. It is as much preferable to the florid vaults of -Gloucester, Tewkesbury, and Oxford as it is to the unworthy -wooden ceilings of Peterborough, Selby, Waltham, and Ely. -Durham gives one still the impression which it gave Dr. -Johnson—one of “rocky solidity and indeterminate duration”: -the very reverse of the unsubstantial tenuity of Salisbury and -Beauvais.</p> - -<p>The doorway of the Chapter-house is recorded to have been -built by Bishop Galfrid Rufus (1133-1140). The north and -south doorways of the nave (facing one another) are so similar -to that of the Chapter-house that they must also be his work.</p> - -<p>To Bishop Pudsey, to whom we have attributed the high -vaults, belongs also the Galilee, <i>c.</i> 1175. He commenced to -erect a Lady chapel in the usual position to the east of the -choir. But St. Cuthbert, who had an ultra-monastic hatred of -womankind, and would not brook to have the chapel even of -Our Lady in the neighbourhood of his shrine, showed his displeasure -openly by the fissures and cracks and settlements -which kept constantly occurring. In despair the bishop had -to build in the cramped space between the west end and the -precipice, thus blocking up the west end of the church. -From the first this Lady chapel seems to have been called the -Galilee; nobody knows why. In details it is not unlike the -chapel in the keep of Newcastle. Built in the last years of -the <span class="smcap">Transitional</span> period (1145-1190), it is remarkable for -the paucity of Gothic detail: the arches are all semicircular; -they are not moulded, but ornamented with bands of the old-fashioned -zigzag. The bases, indeed, are Transitional in -character; and so is the flat voluted leaf of the capitals. But, -spite of semicircular arch and Norman ornament, the spirit of -the whole—its lightness, grace, and elegance—is Gothic. A -building may have every arch pointed and moulded, and yet -in its heaviness be Romanesque at heart: <i>e.g.</i>, the Cistercian -churches of Fountains and Kirkstall, the Augustinian church<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -of Llanthony. In Durham Galilee, on the other hand, one -feels that one is in a Gothic building, as truly as one does in -presence of the semicircular arcades of Pisa or Lucca. Still -more Gothic must have been the effect of the coupled shafts -of Purbeck marble before Cardinal Langley added two more -shafts of stone. The cardinal is buried in front of the west -door of the nave. Here also was the shrine of the remains of -the Venerable Bede, stolen from the monks of Jarrow by the -sacrist Elfred, one of the most successful of mediæval “body-snatchers.” -Pudsey’s work is to be seen also in the external -part of the Prior’s doorway opening from the cloister into the -east end of the south aisle of the nave.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus40.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH.</p> -</div> - -<p>To the <span class="smcap">Lancet</span> period (1190-1245) belong the western -towers, carried up in the early years of the thirteenth century. -At one time they had tall wooden spires. The present battlements -were added about 1780.</p> - -<p>To the early part of the <span class="smcap">Geometrical</span> period belongs the -noble eastern transept. Its position repeats that of Fountains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -Abbey, which was finished in 1247, and which also is known -as the “Chapel of the Nine Altars.” The object of the eastern -extension at Durham was partly to provide nine more -chapels, partly to provide a clear space all round the shrine -of St. Cuthbert, which, like those of St. Swithun and St. Birinus -at Winchester, and that of St. Alban at St. Albans, stood -to the east of the high altar, and contained the body of -St. Cuthbert and the head of St. Oswald. The idea of the -eastern transept seems to come from Hereford and Abbey -Dore. It is curious that the floor of the Durham transept -is lower than that of the choir. It has been suggested -that the height of the vault being fixed by that of the vault -of the choir, sufficient height could be gained only by lowering -the floor. But I doubt if mediæval architects were in the -habit of designing merely for effect in this way: probably -some humble practical reason is at the bottom of it. The -fact that the ground falls away to the east, or that it is -bad ground, and that much of it had to be excavated and -carted away, would be quite sufficient for this objectionable -drop in level (cf. “Worcester”). The vaulting is, perhaps -unavoidably, awkward and clumsy.</p> - -<p>The work was not commenced till 1242 (Bishop Farnham), -and not completed till about 1280. When it was begun, Lancet -windows were still in fashion; when it was completed, they -had given way to traceried windows with cusped circles in -their heads. Later on, Perpendicular tracery was inserted in -the lancets: it is surprising that it has not been hacked out, -as in Ripon façade, by architectural “purists.” The circular -window, 90 feet across, was rebuilt by Wyatt. The architect -was a layman, Richard Farnham, “architector novæ fabricæ -Dunelm”; the master-mason “Thomas Moises posuit hanc -petram.” The foliated capitals, both here and in the eastern -bay of the choir, are of unrivalled beauty. No less remarkable -is the perfection of the masonry. The walls are nearly eight feet -thick, with huge piers at the angles forming buttresses and -weighted by pinnacles; they rise straight from the ground<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -unaided by aisles or flying-buttresses, “yet they have borne -the lofty vault (80 feet high) for more than three centuries -without the slightest sign of settlement or flaw.” Such was -the reverence for St. Cuthbert that not a single person was -buried in the cathedral till 1311, when that magnificent prelate -Anthony Bek was brought into the Chapel of Nine Altars -for interment, through a door on the north of the chapel -(now blocked up), not through the cathedral; and even he -was not allowed a -monument. One sees -why there is such a -paucity of monuments -in this cathedral.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus41.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHAPEL OF NINE ALTARS.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next thing was -to pull down the old -Norman apse; to join -the transept on to the -choir; and to break -the transition from -Romanesque choir to -Gothic transept by remodelling -the eastern -bays of the choir in -the fashion of the -day. Also a new -Gothic vault was put -over the choir; its eastern bay is sexpartite. Here also the -details are of exceptional beauty.</p> - -<p>For a long time little was done at Durham; the cathedral -was structurally complete. In the <span class="smcap">Curvilinear period</span> -(1315-1360) several large windows with flowing tracery were -inserted: <i>e.g.</i>, the west window of the nave and the north -window of the north transept; and four windows (restored) in -the south aisle of the choir. The three westernmost windows -in the north aisle of the choir were copied in 1848 from the -fourteenth-century windows at Sleaford, Holbeach and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -Boughton Aluph. To this period belongs the tomb of Bishop -Hatfield, built in his lifetime (1345-1381), one of the best bits -of design in England. The episcopal throne above it looks a -little later, and seems to have been designed for some other -position, as it does not fit the space between the piers.</p> - -<p>In the <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> period the great work was the -central tower, which replaced a thirteenth-century tower, -<i>c.</i> 1470. It is 218 feet high; in spite of its vast weight, the -Norman piers which support it show no signs of strain. -There are massive squinches at the angles, showing that it -was intended to be finished by a spire, as the western towers -actually were finished. What an astounding spectacle -Durham would have presented, capped with three spires! -Imagine Lichfield cathedral set on a hill 200 feet high! The -Neville screen, built, like that at St. Albans, of clunch, -is rather thin and spiky. It is continued to right and left, -forming sedilia on <i>both</i> sides of the sanctuary (1372-1380). -In the nave is a series of Neville monuments. In the third -bay from the west is the Women’s Boundary Cross. The great -window of the south transept was inserted about 1400.</p> - -<p>Between 1660 and 1672 Bishop Cousin did much to repair the -damage done by the Scottish prisoners who had been confined -in the cathedral after the battle of Dunbar in 1650. His stalls -and font cover are of exceptional interest, as specimens of -what is rare—seventeenth-century Gothic. It should be compared -with the woodwork of St. John’s Church, Leeds. The -bishop’s fine oak choir-screen has been destroyed, by way of -restoration; the new open screen, and the loss of the organ, -give the “unbroken vista” for which so many of our interiors -have been ruined.</p> - -<p><i>Exterior.</i>—On the north doorway of the nave is the -famous sanctuary knocker. Durham and Beverley, owing -to the high reputation of the relics of St. Cuthbert and St. -John of Beverley, both had large privileges of sanctuary. -Beverley retains the Sanctuary chair, the Frithstool; Durham -the knocker. It is thirteenth-century work. “Upon knocking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -at the ring affixed to the north door of Durham the culprit -was admitted without delay; and after full confession, reduced -to writing before witnesses, a bell in the Galilee tower ringing -all the time to give notice to the town that some one had -taken refuge in the church, there was put on him a black -gown with a yellow cross on its right shoulder, as the badge -of St. Cuthbert, whose peace he had claimed. When thirty-seven -days had elapsed, if a pardon could not be obtained, -the malefactor, after certain ceremonies before the shrine, -solemnly abjured his native land for ever; and was straightway, -by the agency of the intervening parish constables, conveyed -to the coast, bearing in his hand a white wooden cross, and -was sent out of the kingdom by the first ship which sailed -after his arrival.” During their stay in the church the culprits -lived on the lower floors of the western towers. The -atrocious setting of the doorway is modern; as also the -pinnacles of the Chapel of the Nine Altars, where the famous -Dun Cow is to be seen in a niche in the north-west turret. -All the design of this side of the cathedral has been -utterly ruined; having been pared away to the depth of three -or four inches. Originally each bay of the aisle had a transverse -roof ending in a gable, as originally on the south side of -Chichester nave.</p> - -<p>The monastic buildings are numerous and important; the -library contains precious MSS., touching relics of St. -Cuthbert, and a wonderful collection of Pre-conquest crosses -and “hogbacks.” For all these the visitor should consult -Canon Greenwell’s admirable handbook.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Ely">The Cathedral Church of St. Ethelreda, Ely.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus42.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ELY, SOUTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">“The vast and magnificent cathedral of Ely,” says Mrs. -Van Rensselaer, “looms up on the horizon, as we come -westward from Norwich, like a great solitary ship at sea. As -we draw nearer it preserves its isolated clearness of outline, -lifted visibly above the plain, yet so little lifted that its bulk -seems all the greater from being nearer the eye. As we enter -the little town from the south-west we realise its enormous -length, the grace of its octagon, and the stern majesty of the -tall tower, which rises like a great cliff in a land where men -might well build cliffs, since Nature had built none. But there -is in truth no spot whence the great monarch of the fenlands -may not be admirably seen, until we get so far off that it -drops behind the horizon’s rim. Wherever it may reveal itself -it is always immense, imposing, majestic: only upon the -plains of Egypt or Mesopotamia has Nature assisted the effect -of man’s work by such entire suppression of herself.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span></p> - -<p>Ely, like Peterborough, Ramsey, Thorney, and Crowland, -and like Glastonbury, the greatest of all the English monasteries, -goes back to early Anglo-Saxon days, when communities -of monks and nuns sought solitude and safety in the -recesses of far-spreading marshes and fens. In the beginning -the monastery was founded as a nunnery, in 673, by Ethelreda, -who became the first abbess and Ely’s patron saint. From -the nuns it passed to secular canons, and in Dunstan’s time -to Benedictine monks. In 1109 the abbot gave way to a -bishop, and the Benedictine church became a Benedictine -cathedral.</p> - -<p>The Bishop of Ely in his island, like the Bishop of Durham -in his hill-fortress, possessed powers which no other English -ecclesiastic was allowed to share. His territorial possessions -included the whole Isle of Ely: and this, “the Liberty of the -Bishops of Ely,” was subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of -the bishop. It is in these two facts—the possession of a local -saint, St. Ethelreda or St. Audrey, of high repute through all -England; and in the enormous revenues derived from the -Isle of Ely—that the explanation lies of the vast scale on -which the abbey-church was planned in the eleventh century, -of the unparalleled richness of its thirteenth-century presbytery, -and of the enormous works undertaken and rapidly -carried out in the fourteenth century.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus43.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR</p> -</div> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Norman.</span>—The present cathedral was commenced in -1083 by Abbot Simeon, brother of Bishop Walkelin of Winchester, -where Simeon himself had been a monk. Earlier -still he had been a monk at St. Ouen, Rouen; so that he -would be well acquainted with the contemporary architecture -of Normandy. As was to be expected from the relationship -of the founders of the two cathedrals, Ely and Winchester -have many points of resemblance. Both are vast in scale, -far surpassing the Abbaye-aux-hommes at Caen, or Lanfranc’s -copy of it at Canterbury. Both indulge in the luxury of aisles -to the west as well as to the east of their transepts. Both -had return aisles in the transepts—a feature borrowed from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -the Abbaye-aux-hommes. Those of Winchester remain; -those of Ely have been pushed back to the walls. The nave -of Ely had no less than -thirteen bays, its transepts -three, its choir -five. The choir-aisles -had square ends; the -choir ended in a semicircular -apse. The -stalls were placed in -the crossing and in the -two eastern bays of the -nave up to 1770, when -Essex removed them to -the presbytery; Scott -placed them in their -present position in 1847. -There was a central -tower; and, instead of -two western towers, -there was one tower with four flanking turrets. From the -lower stories of these turrets, of which only the southern -one is left, apses projected eastward. Externally the -western transept gave the church great breadth and dignity; -and the plan of Bury and Ely was speedily copied at Peterborough, -Lincoln, and Wells. Internally it is the most -picturesque bit of Norman work in the country. The two -towers “riding tandem” may be paralleled at Wymondham -and Wimborne, and formerly at Bury and Hereford. Of -Abbot Simeon’s eleventh-century work little is left now except -the vaulting-shafts in front of his apse, to the east of the -organ; the exterior of the west windows of the south transept, -which alone have the nail-head moulding; and the lower part -of the eastern walls of the transepts, which have the Ionic -capital. “The masonry is rude and tooled with a large cross-stroke: -the abaci and the soffits of the arches are square and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -unmoulded.” The choir and the lower part of the transepts -are said to have been completed in 1106.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus44.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">EAST END.</p> -</div> - -<p>All the rest of the work as far as the west end was designed -towards the end of the Norman period: <i>c.</i> 1130. The lateness -of the work is seen in the tall, slender, graceful shafts of the -triforium and clerestory, and in the substitution of mouldings -for carved ornament in the orders of all the arches. It is -much nearer Gothic than the contemporary work at Peterborough -and Norwich. The proportions are unusually good, -both the pier-arches and clerestory being taller than usual in -proportion to such a lofty triforium. Accordingly, the proportions -of the Norman choir, then standing, were copied in the -presbytery added to the choir in the thirteenth century; and -the proportions of the presbytery were reproduced in the -fourteenth-century choir. It is this, doubtless, which gives -such a feeling of unity -in Ely, as at Worcester, -in spite of the fact that -the present cathedral -consists of three blocks -built in three different -centuries in entirely -different styles. At -Canterbury, Rochester, -Ripon, Chester, nave -and choir quarrel; at -Winchester and York, -nave and transept; Ely -has evolved harmony out -of discord. The work -seems to have been -done in four sections: -first, the completion of -the transepts and the crossing and the eastern bays of the -nave; second, the western bays; third, the three lower stories -of the west transept; fourth, the monks’ and prior’s doorways.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span></p> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—The upper stories of the western -transept, the western turrets, and the upper arches of the -crossing, were not completed till about 1170. About the same -date are the Infirmary chapel and the Refectory; the former -east, the latter south of the cloisters.</p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Lancet (1190-1245).</span>—Early in the thirteenth century -the Galilee porch was added, in the same position as at -Durham. Externally the design is commonplace; internally, -“with its rich outer and inner portals, its capitals carved -with delicate curling leafage, its side arcades in double rows -of trefoiled arches, and the profuse dog-tooth enrichment of -its mouldings, it is one of the loveliest things ever built, and -one of the most English in its loveliness.” The early date of -1200 is assigned to this and to the equally beautiful western -porches of St. Alban’s. If so, Gothic must have advanced -with lightning speed from the jejune work of Lincoln choir -and Winchester retro-choir.</p> - -<p>Next, about 1234, the Norman apse was pulled down—partly, -perhaps, because it had become unsafe, its foundations -not having been carried down to the solid rock, but, -much more from the need to provide more accommodation -for the crowds of pilgrims to St. Audrey’s shrine. The apse -was replaced by a presbytery of six bays: a presbytery of -inexpressible loveliness. “Nowhere,” says Mr. Freeman, -“can we better study the boldly clustered marble pier with -its detached shafts, the richly floriated capitals, the yet -richer corbels which bear up the marble vaulting shafts, the -bold and deftly cut mouldings of every arch, great and small. -Lovelier detail was surely never wrought by the hand of -man.” The piers are closely spaced; and the arches, therefore, -as at Beverley, are sharply pointed—in beautiful harmony -with the Lancet windows. On the other hand, the trefoiling -of the triforium arches contrasts delightfully with the pointed -arches of pier-arcade and clerestory. Only at Beverley can -the beauty of Ely presbytery be paralleled; but at Beverley -the design owes everything to the architect; at Ely the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -sculptor may claim half the credit. Worcester choir may be -placed next in order; its proportions, indeed, are very similar -to those of the Ely work. The presbytery was completed in -thirteen years, and cost what is equivalent to £120,000 of our -money—£20,000 per bay.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus45.jpg" width="250" height="375" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OCTAGON AND CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Geometrical.</span>—With this superb eastern extension the -monks remained -satisfied for some -seventy years. Nothing -was done in -the cathedral except -the insertion of large -Geometrical windows -to give more light to -the chapels in the -eastern aisle of the -south transept.</p> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear -(1315-1360).</span>—But in -the fourteenth century -a most wonderful -series of great works -was carried out in -Ely; the noblest -works of that or perhaps -of any period of -mediæval building in -England. First of all, -it was resolved to give the Blessed Virgin the honour so -long withheld from her at Ely. At Ely her rightful position -in the presbytery had been usurped by St. Ethelreda, as -at Durham by St. Cuthbert. Following the precedent of -Bristol and Peterborough, a vast Lady chapel was now built -for her on the north side of the choir between 1321 and -1349. Later on, Ely Lady chapel in turn gave birth to -King’s College chapel at Cambridge. It is a wonderful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -piece of mediæval engineering; the vault—a very flat one—being -upheld by the mathematical minimum of wall and -buttress. But it was more than engineering. It was the -product of a time when “Catholic purity in the best natures -was still allied to the tenderness of chivalry”—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“When in reverence of the Heavene’s Queene</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They came to worship alle women that beene.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>It is said that when Pugin saw the ruins of its arcade, once -so glorious in its beauty—wherein are carved, in the spandrils -above each canopy, incidents in the scriptural and legendary -history of the Blessed Virgin—he burst into tears. He estimated -the cost of the restoration of the Lady chapel at -£100,000, but said that no workmen could be found competent -to do the work.</p> - -<p>The year after the Lady chapel was commenced, the central -tower fell; and falling eastward, ruined the three western -bays of the Norman choir which still remained. Nevertheless, -though the monks had suddenly cast on them the vast task -of rebuilding both tower and choir, they did not abandon or -intermit their work in the Lady chapel. Side by side the -different sets of works went on: the Lady chapel, the central -tower, and the choir. The tower was finished in 1342, the -Lady chapel <i>c.</i> 1349, the choir probably not much later. How -vast the resources of Ely must have been!</p> - -<p>In 1322 Alan of Walsingham, then sacrist at Ely and -afterwards Prior, set to work to clear away the <i>débris</i> of the -piers of the tower. We may believe that when he saw the -great open space in the centre of the cathedral, it may well -have occurred to him what a pity it would be ever to close -it up again to construct the usual circumscribed square -central tower, the width only of the nave, under which one -feels as if looking up from the bottom of a well. What was -left, when he had cleared away the four tower-piers, was an -area three times as large as that of the original crossing. -This area was an octagon, with four long and four short<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -sides: four long sides opening into nave, choir, and transepts; -four short sides opening diagonally into the aisles. Why not -throw four wide and four narrow arches over the piers of the -octagon, and on these arches erect, not a small square tower, -but a vast octagonal tower? Octagonal central towers were -unknown in the English cathedrals; but there are plenty -abroad—<i>e.g.</i>, magnificent examples at Coutances and Siena. -The difficulty was how to roof a tower so vast. The noblest -course would have -been to cover it with -a vault of stone. But -no English architect -ever dared a vault 77 -ft. wide. In Spain -they might have done -it: the vault of the -nave of Gerona is -73 ft. in span. In -England not so; the -York people did not -even venture to vault -a nave 45 ft. broad.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus46.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some sort of wooden -roof, therefore, had -to be adopted. That -roof could not be a -flat wooden ceiling; -no beams of the length of 77 ft. could be had; and if put -up they would have been unsafe. Instead, then, of a flat -ceiling, Alan determined on a conical vault of wood like -that of York Chapter-house. But what he wanted was not -merely a roof, but a lantern. A roof like the York one would -have darkened the whole central area, besides being ugly -in appearance and difficult to construct. Instead, therefore, -of taking the whole of the York cone, he cut the top off, -replacing its sharp spike with an octagonal lantern. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -this, or in some such way, Alan got at his design: one of -the most original and poetic conceptions of the middle ages; -but arising, like all the best things in Gothic architecture, -out of nothing but the exigencies of building construction.</p> - -<p>The problem was solved on paper, but it proved immensely -difficult in execution. Alan finished the stone piers and -arches in six years, but the timber-work occupied twelve years -more. He had to search all over England before he could -find oaks big and straight and sound enough for the eight -vertical angle-posts of his lantern. They are 63 feet long, -with a sapless scantling of 3 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 8 in. Oaks -like those do not grow now in England. The eight angle-posts -are tied together at top and bottom by collars of horizontal -beams, and the whole skeleton lantern rests on the tips -of inclined beams, whose lower ends rest on corbels behind -the capitals of the great piers below.</p> - -<p>And as the inclined beams spread to right and left from the -great piers below, it follows that the eight sides of the lantern -are not placed above the eight arches below. This engineering -necessity, also, is wrought into a new source of beauty. For -advantage is taken of it to pierce the wall-space above the -narrow low arches with four tall windows, so that the central -area, so gloomy at Winchester, Lincoln, and Wells, is -irradiated with a flood of light from twelve vast windows; -four below, eight above. There is not such a lantern church -in the world, and certainly there is no such interior as Ely in -England. To the west, dark nave; to the east, darker choir; -the centre all light and atmosphere. The views from the -aisles across the octagon into the choir are veritable glimpses -into fairyland. Externally, too, the octagonal lantern groups -marvellously with the great western tower; in height, in -bulk, in shape they are in perfect ratio.</p> - -<p>Side by side with the octagon went up the choir, as was -necessary, that the octagon might have abutment to the east. -The choir is “a little over-developed and attenuated in -detail”; the windows are squat and ungraceful in proportion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -and their flowing tracery wiry and unlovely. Window tracery -is the one weak point in the Curvilinear work at Ely. Nevertheless, -this choir is one of those works whose delicate -loveliness disarms criticism. It even disarmed Mr. Fergusson, -who says that the proportions of the presbytery are -reproduced in the choir, “with such exquisite taste that there -is perhaps no single portion of any Gothic building in the -world which can vie with it in poetry of design or beauty of -detail.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus47.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ALCOCK’S CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p>But the monks had not -finished even now. They -were dissatisfied with the -lighting of the older part of -the cathedral. So they took -out the thirteenth-century -lancets, not only those of -the aisles but those of the -outer wall of the triforium -of the presbytery, and replaced -them by broad windows -of flowing tracery. -Even this was insufficient, -and so they substituted -a flat roof for the steep sloping -roof of the two western -bays of the presbytery -aisles, and glazed the openings of these two bays of the -triforium. Thus more light was obtained for St. Ethelreda’s -shrine, which then stood between these two bays; its exact -position is marked by the elaborate boss in the vault of the -choir. Externally, the result is hideous, a big hole being -left in the choir aisles, where the lean-to roof formerly -extended continuously. All this piercing of the walls with -bigger windows weakened the supports of the vaults, and the -builders therefore took the precaution to weight the buttresses -with heavy pinnacles, and to add flying-buttresses.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span></p> - -<p>Beautiful stalls were then put up under the octagon—the -panels are modern—and above the ancient white -marble tomb of St. Ethelreda a stone canopy and watching-loft -were erected. It now stands between the south piers of -the presbytery, in the fourth bay from the west. On this was -placed the Norman silver reliquary, “embossed with many -figures, with a golden majesty blazing in its centre, with -countless jewels of crystal and pearl, onyx and beryl, and -amethyst and chalcedony.”</p> - -<p>Nor was this all. Alan designed for his friend Prior -Crauden a little chapel which would be the cynosure of any -other cathedral, but which passes almost unnoticed amid the -glories of Ely.</p> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular (1360-1485).</span>—In this period the -monks continued their improvements in the lighting of the -cathedral, treating the Norman nave very much as they had -treated the Lancet choir—<i>i.e.</i>, putting bigger windows in the -aisles, and also raising the aisle-walls so as to get space for -an upper range of windows, in the hope that some light might -filter through across the triforium into the nave.</p> - -<p>Moreover, they added another storey to the great west -tower, making it octagonal, in order to bring it more into -harmony with Alan’s lantern. The additional storey threw -more weight on the Norman arches below, under which new -strengthening arches had to be built. This saved the tower; -but the northern half of the western transept collapsed, and -has never been rebuilt.</p> - -<p>The great east and west windows of the new Lady chapel -also soon showed signs of weakness, and Perpendicular was -substituted for flowing tracery.</p> - -<p>To this period also belong the hammer-beam roofs of the -transepts, the cloisters, and the Ely Porta or Walpole Gate.</p> - -<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—In 1488 was erected the chantry of Bishop -Alcock at the east end of the north aisle of the choir; and in -1534 that of Bishop West in a similar position in the south -aisle. They are perhaps the two most superb chantries in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -England, of marvellous richness and delicacy and vigour. -That of Bishop West is of exceptional interest for its Renaissance -vaulting and scroll-work. One so rarely sees in an -English cathedral the delicate art of the early Italian -Renaissance.</p> - -<p>VIII. In 1539 the monks were expelled; secular canons -took their place. In 1699 Sir Christopher Wren contributed -a classical doorway to the north transept. The roofs of the -nave and the lantern were painted <i>c.</i> 1862 by Mr. Le Strange -and Mr. Gambier Parry. To Sir Gilbert Scott is due the -gorgeous reredos.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Exeter">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Exeter.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus48.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">In the days of the so-called Heptarchy, the divisions of the -Church followed those of the State. The diocese of -Lichfield was conterminous with the kingdom of Mercia. In -the same way the diocese of Winchester was coextensive -with the kingdom of Wessex. Thus Devonshire, so far as it -had been colonised by Anglo-Saxons before the eighth -century, formed part of the diocese of Winchester. But these -vast dioceses were too cumbrous to work. They had to be -subdivided. So a western diocese was lopped off from -Winchester, and a Bishop of Sherborne was appointed as its -head. Then, as the far west grew in population and importance, -two more bishoprics were created—those of Crediton -and Cornwall. These two, however, were soon amalgamated; -and Cornwall has had no bishop of its own from the Conquest -till the recent formation of the Bishopric of Truro.</p> - -<p>Just before the Norman Conquest Bishop Leofric removed -the see from the open town of Crediton to the walled city of -Exeter, largely in consequence of attacks of Scandinavian -pirates. At Exeter Leofric found a Benedictine monastery,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -dedicated to St. Mary and St. Peter. This conventual -church he made his cathedral. “He was installed in the -episcopal chair by Edward the Confessor, who supported his -right arm, and Queen Eadgytha his left”; representations -of which were inserted in the fourteenth-century sedilia. The -Benedictine monks were removed by the Confessor to his new -abbey at Westminster, and Leofric supplied their place by a -body of secular canons, who lived together, however, and -to some extent observed monastic discipline. Leofric was left -undisturbed in his bishopric till his death, 1072. His successor, -also, though a Norman, was English and conservative -by training; the venerable Anglo-Saxon church was good -enough for him. But William Warelwast (1107-1128) was a -great building prelate, and it was he who commenced the -existing cathedral. Exeter Cathedral, therefore, was commenced -much later than most of the Norman cathedrals. -This Norman cathedral of Warelwast seems to have been -partly remodelled in the early years of the Lancet period -(1194-1206) by Bishop Marshall. Later, but still in the -Lancet period, Bishop Bruere (1224-1244) settled the -cathedral establishment, and provided for his dignitaries a -chapter-house, as well as stalls in the cathedral. In the -Geometrical period Bishop Bronescombe (1257-1280) seems -to have made a few changes at the east end of the choir. -Then came the great builder of all, Bishop Quivil, who formed -the bold idea of remodelling the whole cathedral, as left by -Bishop Marshall. The work which Bishop Quivil commenced -was carried out, and precisely in accordance with the original -plans, by Bishops Bitton, Stapledon, and Grandisson, who -completed the transformation of the cathedral about 1350. -Other great prelates did good work later—especially Brantyngham, -Stafford, Lacy, Bothe, Courtenay, Fox, King, and -Oldham. The Bishops of Exeter were in nearly all cases men -of the highest ability, rank, and importance.</p> - -<p>Up to 1551 Exeter was one of the greatest prizes in the -Church of England. It possessed thirty-two manors, fourteen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -palaces—two in Cornwall, nine in Devonshire, one in Surrey, -one in London, of which Essex Street, Strand, is a reminder. -The present value of the income of the see would be at least -£100,000. The first of the Protestant bishops was Miles -Coverdale, who with Tyndale translated the Bible. Seth Ward -(1662-1667) “cast out the buyers and sellers who had usurped -the cathedral, and therein kept distinct shops to vend their -wares.” In the evil days of the Puritans the cathedral had -been divided into two churches by a vast whitewashed wall, -built on the choir-screen and separating choir from nave. -The Independents worshipped in the nave, the Presbyterians -in the choir. Here they had what they called “great quiet -and comfort,” till Seth Ward pulled the wall down. Seth -Ward’s restoration of the cathedral cost him £25,000—representing -a far greater sum nowadays. He put the cathedral -in substantial repair; and the restoration by Sir G. G. Scott, -in 1870, did little damage.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Warelwast.</span></h3> - -<p>Nothing remains of the church of the Anglo-Saxon monastery; -nor is there any Early Norman work, for, as we have -seen, that church was allowed to remain standing till the year -1107. But in the first half of the twelfth century a Norman -cathedral was commenced, and possibly finished, by William -Warelwast and his successors. That cathedral included both -the existing towers; it also included an aisled nave of the -same dimensions as the present one. The narrowed span of -the westernmost arches of the pier arcade is to be accounted -for only on the supposition of the existence, to the west, -of the wall of a pre-existing west front (cf. Lincoln nave). -Also traces of Norman buttresses and pilasters, and one -base, have been found in the walls of the north and south -aisles of the nave. And traces of an apse have been found at -the end of the third bay of the choir. So it is plain that the -twelfth-century cathedral had west front, nave and aisles,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -transeptal towers, a choir of three bays, an apse at the end of -the choir, and probably some minor apses.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Marshall.</span></h3> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus49.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>Great works were commenced between 1194 and 1206; they -extend over a large part of the cathedral. First, there is the -doorway, early Lancet, leading from the south aisle of the -nave to the cloister, -near the north-west -corner of the south -tower; and near here, -on the south wall of -the nave, are several -consecration crosses -of Marshall’s date. -Then, passing round -or through the cathedral -to the north side, -there will be found -buttresses of very -early character, -heavy, low, and of -few stages: (1) at St. -Edmund’s chapel, to -the north-west of the -nave; (2) to the north -porch; (3) on the north side of the nave. We may conclude -then, that the works included the addition to the nave of a -south-east doorway, St. Edmund’s chapel, and a north porch, -and possibly the remodelling of the clerestory of the whole -nave. But what is more important, the choir, instead of -being three bays long plus an apse, was now made eight -bays long. The Norman apse was pulled down, the three -bays of the Norman choir seem to have been allowed to -remain. This work, especially the eastward extension of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -the choir, represented a great amount of building. The new -eastern bays of the choir were finished, at any rate as far -as the springers of the vault; for it has been found that the -present vault of the choir incorporates the lower part of -the ribs of Marshall’s vault; this, of course, would be of -simpler character, and was designed to be four or five feet lower -than the present one. Similar great eastward extensions were -going on all over England in the thirteenth century; especially -the building of Lady chapels: there seems to have been quite -an outburst of Mariolatry at this time.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Bruere (1224-1244).</span></h3> - -<p>Proceeding to the chapter-house, it will be found that the -lower part was built in the later years of the Lancet period. -To the same date belong the misereres of the choir. This -bishop gave the cathedral body its present constitution: dean, -precentor, chancellor, treasurer, and canons; it is natural that -he should have constructed for them their chapter-house, -with its fine arcade; and their stalls. The misereres, with -their stiff trefoiled foliage, are the earliest set in the kingdom, -and of exceptional interest. Bishop Bruere had travelled in -the East, and designs in tapestry brought back by him may -have been copied: <i>e.g.</i>, there is the earliest representation of -an elephant; a later one occurs at Boston; there are mermen -and mermaids, and an illustration of the Romaunt of the -<i>Chevalier au Cygne</i>; also Nebuchadnezzar saddled—unless -this is the favourite subject of the weakness of philosophers -before the charms of women, as exemplified in the temptation -and fall of Aristotle.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Bronescombe (1257-1280).</span></h3> - -<p>The windows north and south of the retro-choir probably -belong to this period. The roll-moulding appears on the -principal curves only of the tracery; ever after it spreads over<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -the whole of the tracery. The lower lights of these windows are -lancets; the circles in the head are cusped. The chapels of -St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gabriel, on either side of the -Lady chapel, seem also to have been remodelled at this time; -for the side windows of these two chapels have geometrical -tracery earlier than that of the Lady chapel.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Quivil (1280-1292).</span></h3> - -<p>And now we come to the rebuilding of the whole cathedral. -In spite of the great changes that took place in Gothic architecture -during the next seventy years, the original design—that -of Quivil—was adhered to almost to the very last. With -the exception of a few Curvilinear windows in the western -bays of the nave, all the main features of the building are as -they were designed in the closing years of the thirteenth -century. It is, of course, this exceptional unity and harmony -of design that makes Exeter what it is—one of the most satisfactory -mediæval interiors in this country. In cathedrals -such as Rochester and Ely a Norman nave jars on a Gothic -choir; or, as at Lincoln and York, two styles of Gothic mingle -and conflict. But at Exeter, looking forward from west to -east, hardly anything obtrudes on the original design. In no -other cathedral, except Salisbury, do we find similar unity of -design; but in the design of Salisbury simplicity becomes -bareness and poverty. It cannot be compared for one moment -with the richness of the lovely decorated work of Exeter. Yet -greater unity and harmony is gained by the way in which the -battlements and pinnacles, flying-buttresses, and cresting -weld together the exterior; and the high vaults the interior, -as at Norwich. The adherence, too, for so long a time to -Bishop Quivil’s design is interesting, because it shows that -in the early years of the fourteenth century there was at -Exeter, as at Beverley, Westminster, Ely, and St. Albans, -a strong current in the direction of conservation of good -design. Piers and vaulting and bosses and corbels and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -triforium and windows of the nave, built long after he was -dead and gone, are all but reproductions of Quivil’s early -work. Most remarkable of all, perhaps, is the adherence to -Quivil’s window tracery—the rose, the lily, and the wheel. -Even the great west window, one of the last works, is but -Quivil’s straight-spoked wheel translated into flowing lines.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus50.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR AND TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>Quivil commenced his work in the two Norman towers, in -which he inserted tall arches, thus making them an integral -part of the church. He also built the arches of the crossing, -and provided -abutment to the -west by building -one new bay on -either side of the -nave. All that -one sees here—the -first bay of -the nave, and the -alterations in the -transepts, the -window tracery, -the piers and -arches, the -pierced balconies -hung up on the -walls of the towers, -the substitution of Purbeck marble for stone shafts—is -Quivil’s work. As to the easternmost bay of the nave on -either side, it differs from the rest of the nave in having -a wider arch; while its clerestory windows have the same -straight-spoked wheel as Quivil’s windows in the transept; -the mouldings of the capitals of the first two piers correspond -with those of the transeptal arches; the bases are -lower than those elsewhere in the nave; the bosses of the -aisles are flatter; even the flying-buttresses differ.</p> - -<p>Now that he had remodelled the centre of the church,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -Quivil set to work to recast the eastern parts of the church, -commencing at the far east end, so as to interfere with the -services as little as possible. He first transformed the Lady -chapel; to him are due the shafts, sedilia, double piscina, -and the vaulting, the rib-mouldings of which are of earlier -character than those of the choir; and the windows, which -closely resemble those of Merton College, Oxford, which we -know was commenced in 1277. In the centre of the Lady -chapel Bishop Quivil is buried; he died in 1291. The chapels -on either side may have been remodelled or partly remodelled -by Bronescombe; but the east windows are later in style, -and are Quivil’s.</p> - -<p>The piers hereabout are very interesting. Those of the -Lady chapel looking into the side chapels are composed of -four columns. The north-east and south-east piers of the -choir have clusters of eight shafts instead of four; while in -the pier between them the cluster of eight is developed into a -cluster of sixteen columns. Finally, notice that these piers are -set diamond-wise, with four flat faces, and the angles to the -north, west, south, and east.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Bitton (1292-1307).</span></h3> - -<p>Bishop Quivil had only touched the fringe of the choir, but -he must have collected much material for its transformation; -for his successor completed it, even the vaulting, in fifteen -years—the last fifteen years of Edward I. It seems to have -been done in two sections; first, the four eastern bays of -Bishop Marshall’s work, then the older bays to the west. It -is clear that the builders took away both piers and arches -from underneath Bishop Marshall’s clerestory wall, and put -in new ones, without bringing the wall down—a kind of -engineering feat which the mediæval builders undertook with -a light heart. The new piers all consist of “vast horizontal -slices of Purbeck marble, from nine to fifteen inches thick”; -the arches of native sandstone. These immense marble piers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> -give the interior of Exeter a magnificence rare in England, -only to be paralleled by the marble churches of Italy. The -colour-contrast, too, between the blue-grey marble of the -piers, the yellow sandstone of the arches, and the white -Caen stone above, is delightful. The mouldings of Bitton’s -work are clearly distinguishable from those of Quivil, and -were retained, with little variation, to the west end of the -cathedral. Bitton got himself into some curious difficulties -by retaining instead of pulling down the twelfth and thirteenth-century -clerestory walls. The first of the two, the western, -was the thicker wall. Hence the piers to support it had to -be thicker: they exceed the eastern piers in diameter by -nine inches. But by bringing both eastern and western piers -to the same line facing the central aisle of the choir the -difference of nine inches appears only in the side-aisles, where -it is less noticeable. Again, the length of the western bays -was 2½ feet greater than that of the four eastern ones. When, -therefore, Bitton set out the seven eastern pier-arches there -remained an awkward gap of 2½ feet between the last arch -and the great pier of the crossing. This he bridged over by -the tiny arch which appears at the extreme west of each -arcade of the choir, the incongruity of which was largely -masked later by the great choir-screen. He seems to have -worked to the middle of the choir—first from the east, then -from the crossing. When, however, the two sets of arches -met, they did not fit, and the clumsy junction had to be botched -over by the aid of a stilt.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Stapledon (1308-1327).</span></h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus51.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>But though the remodelling was complete, even to the -vaulted roof above, the choir was all naked and bare; and -the next bishop set himself, not to carry the work into the -nave, but to complete the equipment of the choir. In one -respect Bitton’s choir was weak in design: it had a triforium -in the choir bays (the four to the west) but not in the bays of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -the sanctuary. Bitton’s eastern clerestory windows were -splayed down till they rested on the summits of the new pier-arches; -to the same line were continued downward the shafts -in the jambs of his windows. This diversity of treatment of the -two halves of the choir must have had a most discordant -effect; and Stapledon corrected it very cleverly by adding a -triforium to the east in such a way that though the eastern -arcading is not so deep as the western, yet in perspective the -difference is hardly noticed. Probably the next thing was to -glaze the remainder of the sixty choir windows, only eighteen -of which were filled with stained glass at Stapledon’s accession. -It seems likely that nearly all the stained glass for the choir -and the transepts came from abroad—from Rouen. For the -nave, later on, the place of the laity, English glass, cheaper -and not so good, was thought sufficient. The glass was -inserted by Walter le Verrouer (he has descendants still -living in Exeter), at the moderate price of 6<i>s.</i> for a fortnight’s -work, of himself and “two boys,” for one pair of clerestory -windows. Hitherto the clergy had sat in the transept and the -western bays of the nave; now, as in many other cathedrals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -the stalls were moved into the western bays of the choir. -(The present canopies of these stalls are modern.) Next came -the Bishop’s throne (<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1316), intended for his Lordship with -a chaplain on either side; “a magnificent sheaf of carved -oak, put together without a single nail, and rising to a height -of 57 feet. The lightness of its ascending stages almost rivals -the famous ‘sheaf of fountains’ of the Nuremberg tabernacle. -The cost of this vast and exquisitely carved canopy (about -twelve guineas) is surprisingly small, even for those days. -The carved work consists chiefly of foliage, with finials of -great beauty, surmounting tabernacled niches, with a sadly -untenanted look, however, for lack of their statuettes. The -pinnacle corners are enriched with heads of oxen, sheep, dogs, -pigs, and monkeys.” Next came what is perhaps the most exquisite -work in stone in England, as the throne is unparalleled -in woodwork—the sedilia; the seats of the priest to the east, -and to the west of him, those of the Gospeller and Epistoler. -These sedilia have been preferred even to the shrine of Beverley -and the Lady chapel of Ely. “The canopy of the seat -nearest the altar,” says Mr. Garland, “deserves particular -attention. It is adorned with a wreath of vine leaves on each -side, which meet at the point and there form a finial; and -never did Greek sculptor, of the best age, trace a more exact -portrait of the leaf of the vine, nor design a more graceful -wreath, nor execute his design with a more masterly finish.” -It is regrettable that the carving of the sedilia is attributed to -a Frenchman. Then came the great work of all—the high -altar, with its reredos, perhaps the most magnificent in -Europe; the cost of it would amount now to £7,500. Of this not -a fragment remains. Finally, the choir was closed in with -a great screen to the west, from which was read the Epistle -and Gospel, as in the two ambos of the early Christian -basilicas. And on it was placed an organ; the ancient and -best position for a cathedral organ. The accounts show that -500 lbs. of iron bars were used to hold the screen together. -This concluded Bishop Stapledon’s work, except that he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -built a cloistered walk as far as the doorway of the chapter-house. -“The cathedral of Exeter,” as Stapledon’s successor -wrote to the Pope, “now finished up to the nave, is marvellous -in beauty, and when completed, will surpass every Gothic -church in England or in France.” Stapledon died in 1327. -The completed choir was consecrated by Bishop Grandisson -in 1328.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Bishop Grandisson (1328-1369).</span></h3> - -<p>Grandisson was “the most magnificent prelate who ever -filled the see of Exeter.” He had been nuncio to the Pope at -the courts of all the noblest princes of Christendom. He was -even strong enough to bar the way to Archbishop Meopham, of -Canterbury, when he attempted to enforce a Visitation of the -cathedral. Great as were his riches and magnificence, he was -a strict economist. He lived forty years Bishop of Exeter; -finished his cathedral, did many great works elsewhere, and -yet died wealthy. Quivil, we have seen, had built one bay -of the nave. It remained for Grandisson to complete the -remaining seven bays. The piers of the nave were erected -by 1334; the whole work was complete in 1350. Stapledon -had commenced the Cloister; Grandisson built the north -walk, running, in curious fashion, under a second and outer -range of flying-buttresses, as does the cloister of Westminster. -The west front (except the west screen) was now built, but -not the fan-vaulting of the north porch, which is later. And -the curious Chapel of St. Radegunde in the thickness of the -west wall he remodelled, to form his mortuary chapel, expecting -there ever to lie, looking towards the nave where his great -work had been done. But his tomb was destroyed by Elizabeth’s -Visitors, and his ashes were scattered to the winds.</p> - -<p>As we stand near his empty grave, we see before us the -whole of the great mediæval design, that was due in inception -to Quivil, and was realised and consummated by Bitton, -Stapledon, and Grandisson, in the seventy years between -1280 and 1350. What strikes one, first, is that with revenues<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -so immense, the bishops should have been satisfied with a -cathedral so small—its area is less than half that of York. -On the other hand, at York, owing to the vast dimensions of -the new cathedral, commenced simultaneously with the new -work at Exeter, the builders were unable to roof it in stone.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus52.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Secondly, one wonders that they allowed their hands to be -fettered, their design to be cramped, by the preservation not -only of the aisle walls, but of the clerestories of Warelwast -and Marshall’s cathedral. -But it is just in -the subjugation of -these limitations, in -converting them into -the special glory and -distinction of the -Exeter design, that -the genius of Quivil’s -architect shines forth -most vividly. He was -limited by the area of -the old cathedral, east -to west, north to south: -not even the tiny transepts -might be enlarged. -But what was -more serious, he was -limited as to height. -He was unable to raise the vaulting or the pier-arches more -than five feet. His internal elevation, then, for a Gothic -church of 1280, had to be exceptionally low. He determined, -therefore—it was an intuition of genius—to see what could -be done in architecture with lowness and breadth. Everything -should be broad and low, outside as well as inside. -Look at the east end of the choir—its two arches broad and -low; above it, the great window—broad and low. Nowhere -but at Exeter do you find these squat windows with their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> -truncated jambs; here they are everywhere—in the aisles, in -the clerestory, in choir, chapels, transepts, and nave; even -in the great window of the western front: broad and low -windows everywhere.</p> - -<p>Still more original is the external realisation of the design; -central tower and spire, western towers and spires, alike are -absent. Long and low, massive and stable, stretches out -uninterruptedly the long horizontal line of nave and choir. -Breadth gives in itself the satisfactory feeling of massiveness, -steadfastness and solidity; and this is just what is wanting in -the all-too aerial work of Salisbury and Beauvais; vaulted -roofs at a dizzy height resting on unsubstantial supports and -sheets of glass. But the Exeter architect has emphasised -this satisfactory feeling of stability still further. The window -tracery is heavy and strong; the vault is barred all over with -massive ribs; in the piers there are no pretty, fragile, detached -shafts; the massive clustered columns look as if they were -designed, as they were, to carry the weight of a Norman -wall.</p> - -<p>But an interior may easily be made too massive; if it is -not to be a Salisbury cathedral, it need not be a Newgate -Gaol. How was the prison-like appearance of an interior -but 68 feet high, with a stone vault of exceptionally heavy -appearance weighing it down, to be avoided? How was -oppressive heaviness to be counteracted? Triumphantly, by -transparency. By stretching out the windows from buttress -to buttress, aisle and clerestory became practically one -continuous sheet of glass; the church was flooded with light -and atmosphere; the heavy vault seemed to float in the air, -borne up but by the lilies and roses and wheels of the window -tracery, and rows of painted saints in tabernacles of silver or -of gold. There is no heaviness even now in the interior of -Exeter; though the silvery panes of the choir, the golden -glass of the nave, have perished long ago.</p> - -<p>Another distinctive feature in Exeter, as in Salisbury, is -that the architect produces his effect mainly by architectural<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> -means—is not driven to rely on sculpture. All the principal -capitals have mouldings, not foliage. Only in the great -corbels of the vaulting-shafts and in the bosses of the vault, -does he permit himself foliage and sculpture. Wonderful -carving it is; the finest work of the best period, when the -naturalistic treatment of foliage was fresh and young. Very -remarkable these corbels are, with their lifelike treatment of -vine and grape, oak and acorn, hazel leaf and nut. Unfortunately -the corbels, and still more the bosses, are so high -up that their lovely detail is thrown away; and they are out -of scale.</p> - -<p>And the patterns of the window tracery are wonderfully -diverse. It is not, as in Lichfield nave or King’s College -Chapel, where every window is like its neighbour; when you -have seen one, you have seen all. Here, all down each -side of the church, every window differs. In dimensions, in -general character, they agree; in details they differ; each -window is a fresh delight; we have what even in Gothic -architecture we rarely get—diversity within similarity.</p> - -<p>Another striking feature of the design is its perfect bilateral -symmetry. Gothic churches are, as a rule, most irregular, -most unsymmetrical in outline; as a consequence, very -picturesque. It is a mistake, however, to believe that they -are intentionally unsymmetrical and picturesque. A Gothic -architect no more aimed at irregularity than did the architect -of the Parthenon. Only he was not a purist on the subject. -If practical requirements—<i>e.g.</i>, the needs of ritual—made it -necessary to break in on the lines of a symmetrical design, -he broke in on them without the slightest hesitation; the -building had to conform to its destination. But where a -single design was carried through from end to end, it was as -symmetrical as a Classical temple. So it is at Salisbury; so -it is at Exeter. Every window has its exact counterpart on -the other side of nave and choir. Transept answers to -transept, screen to screen, St. John the Baptist’s chapel to -St. Paul’s, St. Andrew’s chapel to St. James’, St. George’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -chapel to St. Saviour’s, St. Mary Magdalene’s chapel to -St. Gabriel’s. But the architect was not so infatuated with -the idea of symmetry as to place a porch on the south side -because there was one on the north, or a chapter-house on -the north because there was one on the south; which is just -what the academic professors of Classical architecture would -have done.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus53.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p>We have seen how the design gained special distinction -from the very limitations imposed by the lowness of the early -cathedral, the upper parts of which it was desired to preserve. -It was again to the early design that Exeter owes another -distinction among English interiors. In the early design -the towers were just those which we still see; there was no -central tower. The very fact that Quivil’s architect did not -rush off at once to build a central tower, and be like everybody -else, shows what backbone and insight the man had. -Cathedrals without central towers were as rare in mediæval -England as cathedrals with central towers are rare in the -Île de France. Yet he advised his employers—or was it they -who instructed him?—not to build a central tower. Central<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -towers, standing as they do on four thin legs, are dangerous: -many have fallen; others are always threatening to fall—<i>e.g.</i>, -Salisbury. But they are objectionable on another ground. -The great piers on which they stand are an enormous block -in the lengthened vista, which is the one great charm of an -English cathedral, as compared with the lofty but short -cathedrals of France. The fact that there is no tower over -the crossing, and no tower-piers in the way, produces the -most open, uninterrupted, and impressive vista of any -cathedral in England. The screen being low, one sees the -whole noble design in one glance from far west to far east. -We have nothing like it: though it finds its counterpart in -the great French cathedral of Bourges.</p> - -<p>Another point should be noticed. Although the nave is in -nearly all important respects of late Geometrical design—the -exception being some Curvilinear windows with flowing tracery -in the westernmost bays of the nave—yet the architects were -not such purists as to carry out their minor work in anything -but the style of their own day. Even in the choir, the -architecture of which is Geometrical both in character and in -date, all the minor work is developed Curvilinear—<i>e.g.</i>, the -great screen with its depressed ogee arches, the throne of -the bishop, the sedilia.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perpendicular Work (1360-1485).</span>—Much minor work -remained to do. In the remaining years of the fourteenth -century the west front, which seems to have been heeling -over, was buttressed by the erection of the western screen. -The west and south walks of the cloisters were added. The -great east window was substituted for an earlier Geometrical -one which seems to have fallen into decay. In the fifteenth -century the towers were crowned with battlements and turrets, -as we see them now. The upper part of the chapter-house -was rebuilt. Bishop Stafford erected canopies over monuments -in the Lady chapel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tudor Work (1485-1519).</span>—The Tudor work is exceptional -in importance. It includes the north entrance and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -other late portions of the western screen, two exquisite -chapels, both built by Bishop Oldham—his own chantry -(St. Saviour’s) on the south side of the retro-choir, the Speke -chantry (St. George’s) on the north—and in addition, Prior -Sylke’s chantry in the north transept. All this work is -admirable in design and execution. In Oldham’s chantry is -a charming series of owls, with the scroll DAM, a rebus on -his name, proceeding from the beak of each little owl. To -Bishop Oldham also (1504-1519) is due the grand set of -stone screens—one of the glories of the cathedral—no less -than ten, which veil all the nine chapels and Prior Sylke’s -chantry, and add fresh beauty to the beautiful choir.</p> - -<p>Whatever else, then, the student and lover of Gothic -architecture omits, he must not omit to visit Exeter. He will -find it fresh and different from anything he has seen before. -Its unique plan, without central or western towers, the -absence of obstructive piers at the crossing, the consequently -uninterrupted vista, the singleness and unity of the whole -design, the remarkable system of proportions, based on -breadth rather than height, the satisfying massiveness and -solidity of the building, inside and outside, and at the same -time the airiness and lightness of the interior, the magnificence -of its piers of marble, the delightful colour-contrast -of marble column and sandstone arch, the amazing diversity -of the window tracery, the exquisite carving of the corbels -and bosses, the abundant and admirable Tudor work, the -wealth of chantries and monuments, the superb sedilia, -screen, and throne, the misereres, the vaults, the extraordinary -engineering feats from which its present form -results, the originality of the west front and of the whole -interior and exterior, place Exeter in the very forefront of the -triumphs of the mediæval architecture of our country.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Gloucester">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Gloucester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus54.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The foundation of Gloucester, like that of Ely, has gone -through many changes. In 681 it was founded as a -nunnery, and remained so till 767. About 821 it was refounded -for secular priests; who, in the time of Canute, -through the influence of Dunstan, were replaced by Benedictine -monks. It remained a Benedictine monastery till 1541, -when it was placed on the New Foundation, thus reverting -to secular priests once more. The abbey-church then became -a cathedral, with a diocese carved out of that of Worcester.</p> - -<p>The present cathedral is recorded to have been commenced -by Abbot Serlo in 1088, and to have been completed and -consecrated in 1100. This statement seems to be generally -accepted; but the chief evidence for it, as for the architectural -history of the cathedral generally, is the chronicle of Abbot<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -Froucester. Froucester, however, lived two hundred years -after the foundation of the Norman cathedral, and his authority -on this point can hardly be considered decisive. The plain -architectural facts tell a very different tale. In the first place, -the design of the nave and presbytery is totally different; the -presbytery is archaic and rude, the nave highly advanced in -design and elaborate and rich in ornament. The former may -well belong to the last decade of the eleventh century; the -latter is a whole generation later. In the presbytery the piers -are low and of enormous bulk—such vast wasteful blocks of -masonry as are to be seen in the nave of St. Alban’s, the -choirs of Hereford and Chichester and Norwich: all of them -commenced in the eleventh century. In the nave of Gloucester -the piers rise to the exceptional height of 30 feet; for a -parallel one must go to Tewkesbury, which was not consecrated -till 1121; and even that consecration does not -necessarily include the nave, where alone these towering -cylinders are found. Again, in the presbytery of Gloucester -the pier-arcade and triforium are about equal in height. So -they are also in the eleventh-century work of Winchester, -Norwich, and elsewhere. The diminutive triforiums of the -naves of Gloucester and Tewkesbury are without a parallel in -English work, though the Abbaye-aux-dames at Caen may -be quoted on the other side. Again, the pier-arches of the -presbytery are in two square orders, and the vault of the aisle -is unribbed. In the nave the orders of the pier-arches are -enriched with pairs of rolls and zigzag; the vault of the north -aisle has diagonal ribs of late Norman character; and the -string-course of the clerestory is a twisted cable elaborately -enriched. The aisles, too, are very broad and very lofty.</p> - -<p>Indeed, everything in the presbytery has an early look, -except its plan and the shape of its apses. The plan is -exceedingly complicated; with apse, ambulatory, and radiating -chapels. But all three features appear in the ancient -church of Vignory, which cannot well be later than the middle -of the eleventh century. The radiating chapels, indeed, go<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -back to the very earliest days of Christian architecture; for -they formed part of the Basilican church of the Holy Sepulchre -at Jerusalem, as built, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 326, by the Emperor Constantine; -and have survived all the transformations which that church -has undergone. That the apses, indeed, should not be semicircular—as -they are even in St. Hugh’s choir of Lincoln—but -polygonal, is certainly startling; though here also there -are precedents as far back as the sixth century, in such -Byzantine churches as that of S. Apollinare in Classe, near -Ravenna. In the nave, on the other hand, everything points -to a date well advanced—certainly not earlier than 1122. -Not only the loftiness of the columns, but the fact that they -are columns, is a mark of twelfth-century work. The column -does not occur in Normandy, the mother of our Romanesque; -but everywhere the compound pier. Capital and abacus, too, -are circular on plan; this is usually a sign of late Norman -work. The nave of Southwell, which also has circular -capitals and abaci, was not built before 1120. But the -ornamentation of the nave is decisive: the zigzag and the -cables could not have been executed in the days of Prior -Conrad of Canterbury, before the chisel had come into use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus55.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRIFORIUM OF APSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Something, however, was consecrated at Gloucester in 1100;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> -and that was probably the eastern arm of the church—not -necessarily the chapels—and as much of the rest of the church -as was necessary to complete the enclosure of the monastery: -viz., part of the north transept and the wall of the north aisle -of the nave as high as the sills of the windows. Then the -monks probably turned their attention to the domestic buildings -of the monastery, which till now may have been temporary -buildings of wood, and only some twenty years later resumed -work in the church, which they then completely finished.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the first thing to do would be to add the top storey -to the presbytery; for a church seems not unfrequently to -have been consecrated before its clerestory was built, a temporary -roof being erected at the level of the triforium. The -presbytery being at last really completed, the monks would -then proceed to complete the transepts and the crossing, to -build the lower stage of the tower, and the nave and west -front. When they did reach the nave, they altered the design -altogether; as did the Tewkesbury monks also. They put up -naves of the worst possible proportions; with piers so lofty -that triforium and clerestory were almost squeezed out of -existence.</p> - -<p>Both have, of course, been credited with some artistic -motive. To me it seems that they had found the choir, with -its squat pier-arches, intolerably dark; and when they reached -the nave, they saw that if they adhered to the early design, -the nave would be even darker than the choir. For on the -north side the cloister abutted on the aisle-wall, whose -windows therefore had to be placed very high up in the wall: -giving hardly any light to aisle and nave. To remedy this, -therefore, regardless of appearances—for mediæval architects -were practical builders first, artists only afterwards—they put -up these colossal columns 30 feet high, raising the arches -nearly 40 feet above the pavement. In that way the light -from the high windows of the north aisle was enabled to -penetrate into the church.</p> - -<p>Another very remarkable feature in the design of the eastern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -limb is the utilisation of the triforium. In many churches—<i>e.g.</i>, -in Beverley and Lincoln minsters—the triforium seems not to -have been intended to be used. At Beverley it is walled off -from the nave; at Lincoln it has no floor. But in the earlier -churches some ritualistic use must have been made of it. At -Winchester, Ely, and the Abbaye-aux-hommes at Caen, return-aisles -were constructed at the ends of the transepts to provide -a broad path by which processions might pass along the -triforium from the -choir, round the transept, -to the nave.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus56.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>At Gloucester one -step further is taken. -All the five apses are -built two stories high, -the upper story of -each opening into the -triforium: so that five -additional chapels are -gained for the church. -Moreover, since the -crypt passes beneath -all five apses, another -set of five apsidal -chapels is obtained -underground; so that, -without taking into account chapels otherwise arranged for, -Gloucester possesses in the minor apses alone no less than -fifteen chapels. In fact, leaving out of account the central -aisle, Gloucester presbytery is really three churches—an -upper, middle, and lower church. The amount of accommodation -gained by this ingenious planning is immense.</p> - -<p>One wonders that the plan of radiating chapels and practicable -triforium was not adopted more frequently. It occurred -at Tewkesbury and at Leominster; but in the end it was superseded -by the eastern transept thrown across the choir centrally,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> -as at Lincoln, or at its eastern termination, as at Fountains. -In Lincoln choir, St. Hugh’s architect, hesitating between two -opinions, built eastern transepts as well as return-aisles and -apsidal chapels.</p> - -<p>For nearly a century the architectural history is a blank. -Early in the thirteenth century the wooden ceiling of the -nave was replaced by the present quadripartite vault. This -involved the demolition of the Norman clerestory, except -the jambs of its outer arches, which may still be seen, enriched -with zigzag. The north chapel of the crypt also was vaulted, -and two windows were inserted in the eastern chapel of the -crypt. About the middle of the century were built the north -doorways of the cloister, and the vaulted passage in its north-east -corner; also part of the west front of the nave was reconstructed. -A little later was built, now moved to the north -transept, the reliquary (or perhaps it is a gateway), one of the -most lovely designs of the thirteenth century, worthy to be put -in comparison with the Beverley staircase and the western -porches of Ely and St. Albans. Of the time of Henry III. is -the oak effigy of Robert Courthose, Duke of Normandy, eldest -son of the Conqueror (<i>d.</i> 1135), which lies on a wheeled chest -of the fifteenth century, and was formerly placed in the centre -of the choir. On the whole, there was not much to show at -Gloucester, with the exception of the nave-vault, for the long -period 1150 to 1318.</p> - -<p>But about the latter year the Norman south aisle of the nave -had got into a very dangerous condition. The north aisle was -safe, its wall being propped up by the cloister roof. But the -vault of the south aisle had thrust the wall eleven inches out -of the perpendicular. To save the vault, Abbot Thokey built -on to the Norman pilasters the present beautiful buttresses. -But the new buttresses also swung over four inches, and the -Norman vaulting had to be taken out; the aisle received a -new vault, and its eastern bays were enriched with ball-flower. -The beautiful windows are of late Geometrical character, and -are smothered in ball-flower. The profuse employment of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -ball-flower is quite a characteristic of the fourteenth-century -Gothic of the West country; it is equally remarkable in the -grand windows of Leominster, and at Ledbury and Hereford. -“A horizontal -line drawn just below -the spring of the arch -of each window at -Gloucester cuts -through thirty-two -bands of ball-flower.” -There are no less -than 1400 ball-flowers -in each window.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus57.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RELIQUARY.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1327 Abbot -Thokey made the fortune of Gloucester abbey. On -September 21st Edward II. had been murdered at Berkeley -castle. Bristol, Kingswood, and Malmesbury monasteries -were appealed to, but none dared receive his body for -interment, fearing the anger of the Queen and her party. -Abbot Thokey brought the body to Gloucester in his -own carriage, and caused it to be solemnly buried in the -presbytery. Soon miracles were wrought at the tomb, pilgrimages -set in, immense sums were contributed in offerings; -Gloucester, like Hereford, had got a saint, and, like Hereford, -used the vast income that accrued—enough, it is said, to -have erected a brand-new cathedral—in improvements -in their abbey-church. The tomb of the murdered king, -erected by his son, Edward III., still exists, and the leaden -coffin below, in which, when opened in 1855, the body was -found “in a wonderful state of preservation.” (We wonder -what would be said if our antiquaries exhumed the bodies of -George III. and Archbishop Benson, and stole their rings and -vestments to put them in a show-case in the vestry.) On one -side of the monument, facing the aisle, is the bracket on -which offerings were laid; above is one of the loveliest -Curvilinear canopies in existence, but much restored. To the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -same period belong various windows inserted in the aisles and -chapels and triforium of the presbytery.</p> - -<p>The monks, no doubt, with the rich revenues now at their -disposal, would have liked to rebuild the presbytery <i>de -novo</i>. But it was crowded every day and all day with the -pilgrims from whom the money came. They had therefore -to confine themselves to such improvements as could be -effected without interfering with the flow of pilgrims and of -cash. The first thing needful was to provide more light: -above all, in the presbytery, where the centre of attraction -was; and in the crossing, where their daily services were -held. Secondly, the church had suffered severely from fire in -1088, 1102, 1122, 1179, and 1190. The nave had already been -safeguarded against fire by vaulting; it was desirable to extend -the same protection to the transepts and presbytery by covering -these also with stone vaults. Thirdly, if the money held -out, it might be spent in prettinesses.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus58.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>First, there was the lighting problem. Abbot Thokey had -done a good deal in -improving the lighting -of the south aisle -of the nave, and the -aisles and chapels -and triforium of the -presbytery. Abbot -Wygmore commenced -operations in -the south transept. -The north transept -was in daily use, as -the cloister was on -the north side of the -nave, and the monks passed through the north transept to -their daily services in the crossing. The improvements in -the presbytery were postponed for a time, so as not to -interfere with the pilgrims. In six years, before 1337,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> -Wygmore is recorded by Froucester (who was himself Abbot -from 1381 to 1412) to have cased, lighted and vaulted the -south transept.</p> - -<p>If Froucester is correct—and his evidence is almost that of -a contemporary—we have in the south transept of Gloucester -one of the greatest puzzles in the history of mediæval -architecture. The whole of this work in the south transept -is in the Perpendicular style—early Perpendicular, but still -Perpendicular in principle. Yet we have to believe that it is -contemporaneous with the utterly different Curvilinear work -that was being done everywhere else in England; that it was -contemporaneous with the Curvilinear monument of Edward II. -in Gloucester itself; with the Percy shrine at Beverley, with the -Lady chapel, octagon, and choir of Ely. It seems incredible. -But Gloucester presbytery was not taken in hand till after the -south transept, and it was finished not later than 1350, if that -be the true date of the glass of the great east window. No -other Perpendicular work occurs in the kingdom till that of -Edingdon church (1352-1361), and the work done by Bishop -Edingdon in the western part of Winchester nave. So that, if -we accept Froucester’s statement, we have to believe that -while the rest of the world was executing Curvilinear designs, -the Gloucester masons, not later than 1330, had worked out -the Perpendicular style.</p> - -<p>We have to believe, also, that though this style ultimately -became universally popular in England, overspread the whole -country, and maintained its hold on English architecture for -three centuries, at the outset it smouldered at Gloucester, -unnoticed, unappreciated by anybody, till Edingdon took it -up twenty years later in rebuilding the church of his -native village. All the other improvements in mediæval -building were caught up instantaneously—passing from one -end of the kingdom to the other with the rapidity of the fashion -of a Paris bonnet or mantle. England hesitated long before -it could consent to exchange the richness of Curvilinear for -the baldness of Perpendicular design. However, the new<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -design of Gloucester, blazoned abroad everywhere as it was -by admiring pilgrims, showed the capacities of the new style. -It was seen to be sound and strong from a building point of -view—and cheap. That turned the scale. Perpendicular -came in with a rush. So,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Si parva licet componere magnis,”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">the Royal and Ancient game of golf smouldered on for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -centuries at Blackheath, till the psychological moment came, -and it passed on to Westward Ho, and then swept like wildfire -over all England.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus59.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first question the monks had to decide was that of -lighting. Their answer was a momentous one. They decided -to get additional light by raising the walls of transept and -presbytery, and inserting immense clerestory windows. The -nave was internally 67½ feet high. To get a big clerestory, -they raised the south transept and presbytery to the height of -86 feet. Similar tall clerestory windows were being built, but -in the Curvilinear style, in the choirs of Lichfield and Wells. -But as yet clerestory windows were, as a rule, rather small; -and some big churches of the Curvilinear period, such as -Grantham and Patrington, had no clerestory at all. For what -was to be the glory of the closing days of English Gothic -architecture—the Lantern type of church—we must give the -credit to the masons of Gloucester. And also for the new -type of window. The new big window, occupying the whole -breadth and nearly the whole height of the end wall of the -south transept, had to be strengthened by cross-bars or -transoms; and the tracery of the head had to be strengthened -by the substitution of vertical straight lines, as far as possible, -for curves. Here, then, we have the genesis of the Perpendicular -or Rectilinear window.</p> - -<p>Then there was the question of the vault. If we can believe -Abbot Froucester, so early as 1337 the monks put over the -south transept not only one of the earliest lierne vaults in the -kingdom, but one so accurately worked that the junctions of -the ribs did not require to be masked by bosses: they mortised -the ribs together with as much precision as if they were -dealing with joints in cabinet work. And over the choir and -under the tower they put up the most amazingly complicated -lierne vault that was ever constructed: this, too, not later -than 1351.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, they appear to have intended to separate the -presbytery from its aisles by the usual stone screens—designed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -to correspond with the tracery of the clerestory windows. -This would have left an ugly cavernous arch—that of the -eleventh-century triforium—in each bay, between the screen -below and the clerestory above. The pattern of the tracery -of the clerestory window had been repeated once in the screen -below: what more natural than to repeat it a second time in -the shape of a screen set in front of the open arch of the -triforium? It remained merely to join up the mullions of all -three—lower screen, -triforium screen, and -clerestory window—and -the three members -were welded together -into one composition; -harmony -and unity reigned from -pavement to vault. -Here again we have -at Gloucester not -only the commencement, -but the full -development of what -became the leading -principle in later -English Gothic—the -desire to impose unity -on the elevations of -their churches by repeats of window tracery. It is but a -short step from Gloucester choir to St. George’s, Windsor. -The only improvement that was made on the design of -the Gloucester choir was that in the next century, when -fan-vaulting came into vogue, this also was covered all -over with the patterns of the window tracery.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus60.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>One question still remained unsolved: how to treat the east -end of the church. At Norwich, where the Gloucester precedent -was largely followed a century later, the apse and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -ambulatory and chevet of chapels were all retained—with -most beautiful effect. At Gloucester—unfortunately, as it -seems to me—they pulled down the apse; and on the wall of -the three eastern bays of the ambulatory they erected three -gigantic windows, so welded together as to compose one -window. And, to bring the whole into view, they made the -new easternmost bays of the presbytery, which had now to be -built, wider to the east than the west. Thus they got one -of the biggest windows in the world, and one of the ugliest. -However, no one looks at the tracery of the window, but at -the painted glass which it still retains. This glass is decidedly -Perpendicular in character, but the armorial bearings in it -show that it was completed before 1350. All the characteristics -of late Gothic glass are there. Thus the canopies -and the figures alike are silvery white, and yellow stain is -introduced here and there. The drawing, however, is shockingly -bad; and the colour is got in a very artless way by -inserting backgrounds of vertical stripes of red and blue.</p> - -<p>At the same time—between 1337 and 1377—the monks were -provided with new choir-stalls. But while stone-work and -glass alike are Perpendicular in character, the stalls have -bowing ogee canopies, and are quite Curvilinear.</p> - -<p>Next the north transept was remodelled (1368-1373). It is -very much like its brother, but is eight feet higher, and the -vault has bosses.</p> - -<p>The next work was the rebuilding of the cloister. This was -built between 1351 and 1412. It is covered with a fan-vault, -supposed to be the earliest example of the kind. But the -supports look as if designed for a lierne vault. It is possible, -therefore, that the earliest fan-vaults are those of two monuments -in the neighbouring Abbey-Church of Tewkesbury. In -the south walk are twenty “carols” or “studies” for the -monks; in the north walk a lavatory and a recess for towels.</p> - -<p>Between 1421 and 1437 Abbot Morment was guilty of the -west front and the two western bays of the nave. He intended -to rebuild the whole nave, but could not make up his mind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -how to do it. The two bays he did build are quite different -in height and span and general design. With his big west -window, and with the insertion of Perpendicular windows in -the north aisle and in the clerestories of the nave, the improvement -of the lighting of the church may be said to have been -effectually completed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus61.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CLOISTER.</p> -</div> - -<p>Instead of going on with Abbot Morment’s rebuilding of -the nave, the monks now turned their attention to the central -tower. The tower was of no use as a lantern, for the lierne -vault of the choir had been carried beneath it. So it long -remained unaltered. But in the days of Abbot Seabrooke -(1460-1482) it was rebuilt under the superintendence of a -monk named Sully, to be in character with the new exterior -of choir and transepts. A very imposing tower it is; fully -able, from its massiveness as well as from its height, to gather -together the masses of the building—all the more so because -the transepts are so short. It succeeds where the central -towers of Worcester and Hereford fail; in fact, it is as effective -in its way as Salisbury spire. The pinnacles, again, bear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -witness to the love of these later artists for harmony and -unity: each pinnacle, with its two ranges of windows, is a -repeat of the two stages of the tower below.</p> - -<p>Then—after the tower had been erected—it was decided to -rebuild the Lady chapel. So an immense detached building -was constructed to the east of the great window of the presbytery; -without aisles, but with little transepts; almost one -continuous sheet of glass, and with a superb vault. This -Lady chapel had to be joined up to the presbytery, but the -great east window was in the way. However, the difficulty -was got over by a series of ingenious shifts and dodges, which -must be seen to be appreciated (1457-1499).</p> - -<p>And so ended this great building-period at Gloucester -(1330-1499), which turned the course of English architecture; -so that the Curvilinear style of 1315 to 1360 did not find its -natural development in Flamboyant, as on the Continent, but -was switched off to Perpendicular and Tudor design.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Hereford">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary and St. Ethelbert, Hereford.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus62.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Hereford boasts a cathedral which, though one of the -smallest, is, both externally and internally, one of the -most picturesque in the country. To the archæologist and -the architectural student, its <i>mélange</i> of styles makes it a -perfect treasure-house of mediæval design: early and late -Norman, Transitional, Lancet, early, middle, and late Geometrical, -Curvilinear, Perpendicular and Tudor work are all -well represented in the structure, to say nothing of the Gothic -of Wyatt, Cottingham and Scott.</p> - -<p>Hereford is one of the oldest of all the sees, going back, at -any rate, to the year 601, when St. Augustine had a conference -with the Welsh bishops. It owed its riches and -reputation mainly to two saints, King Ethelbert and Bishop -Thomas Cantilupe. In the year 792 the great King of Mercia, -Offa, inveigled Ethelbert, King of East Anglia, to the west -of England, where he was treacherously murdered. “On the -night of his burial, a column of light, brighter than the sun, -rose to heaven;” three days later his ghost appeared and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -gave directions for the removal of his body. He was interred -at Hereford; and in 825 “a noble church of stone” was -erected over his remains. Of this or any subsequent Anglo-Saxon -cathedral nothing survives.</p> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Early Norman.</span>—In 1079 the present cathedral was -commenced by Robert de Losinga. Like the founder of -Norwich cathedral, he was probably from Lorraine. He held -the see till 1091. It is asserted by Sir Gilbert Scott that none -of his work remains. It seems certain that the east wall of the -south transept, the pier-arcade of the choir, and perhaps the -triforium also, are eleventh-century work. The design of -the transept is curiously artless and archaic. The tall -arches of its wall arcade are reminiscences of many a church -in Lombardy; the squat little balustraded triforium is just -what one finds in the eleventh-century transepts of St. Albans -and Chester and Pershore. Proceeding into the choir aisles, -probability rises into certainty. The masonry is of the -roughest, and coursed in the most casual way; the strings -and the bases have the rudest caricatures of mouldings. The -piers, too, are just the heavy masses of wall which one finds -at St. Albans and Chichester: it is impossible that these -piers and the light cylinders of the nave can both have been -erected in the twelfth century. What has deceived archæologists -is that, though the skeleton of the choir is of the -eleventh century, it was smartened up immensely in the -following century. In fact, it has gone through a similar -process to that which took place in Romsey choir, where the -early Norman caps have been recarved by a late Norman -sculptor; only at Hereford the renovation has been much -more drastic. Looking at the east wall of the south transept, -it is impossible to believe that the noble bay of the triforium -above the arch of the aisle is of the same date as the balustraded -triforium to the right. The Norman choir and its aisles -originally ended in three parallel eastern apses, after the -fashion of the ninth-century choir of St. Ambrogio, Milan,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -with probably a rectangular chapel east of the central apse, -such as is found at Aix-la-Chapelle. From the south transept -projected eastward a rectangular sacristy, with crude, unribbed -vault, which still remains, but was enlarged to the -east in the fifteenth century.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus63.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Late Norman</span>, 1100-1145.—To this period belong -the nave and the renovation of the choir. The capitals of the -nave, near which the stalls of the canons stood, are richly -carved, and, like all pre-Gothic -carving, are full of -classical survivals, acanthus, -honeysuckle, etc. The Norman -work is far richer than -that of Ely, Peterborough, -Durham, Gloucester or -Tewkesbury; these capitals -and those of Southwell nave -and Romsey lead up to the -rich transitional capitals of -Oxford Cathedral. The design -of the nave, and still -more the choir, was probably -the most solid and -satisfactory in the country, -not even excepting Durham. -The triforium is especially magnificent; a copy of it was -executed in the transept of Romsey. The bays of the choir -are separated by broad pilasters, apparently to carry broad -transverse arches. But whether these arches were intended -to carry some form of wooden roof (their spandrils being built -up), or a vault, cannot be determined.</p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—Then, <i>c.</i> 1186, following the precedent -of Romsey, the three Norman apses were pulled down -in order to provide (1) a processional aisle, of four bays,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> -connecting together the side-aisles of the Norman choir; -(2) a double chapel, a prolongation of the Norman eastern -chapel. The new processional aisle had probably two eastern -chapels, two to the north, two to the south. The processional -aisle with the double chapel was altogether six bays in length, -and therefore formed an eastern transept—one of the earliest -eastern transepts in England. The side walls of the old -Norman eastern chapel were pierced with windows, unglazed, -to improve the lighting of the new aisle-chapel on either -side. In the jambs of these windows are shafts with conventional -stalky foliage; while the arch of the window-head -is enriched with the Norman diamond ornament. The -vaulting-ribs are enriched with zigzag. The central piers -have, one conventional foliage, the other a scalloped capital. -In the south-east transept there are remains of the doorway, -and a plinth which seems to have supported a pier between -the two eastern chapels. Some five or six years later a -similar processional aisle with five eastern chapels was built -at Abbey Dore, where, however, it does not form an eastern -transept. The piers of the processional aisle are so arranged -that two of them are in a line with the centre of the semicircular -arch which led from the choir into the former Norman -central apse. The intention of the builder evidently was to -reconstruct the east end of the choir, or perhaps to rebuild -the whole choir, substituting for the single semicircular arch -a pair of pointed arches, as at Exeter. This was never done, -however; and so, quite fortuitously, Hereford gets the most -charming vistas from the choir across to the eastern transept -and the Lady chapel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus64.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—About 1220 the upper and eastern parts -of the Lady chapel were completed. It is a work of -great beauty, especially in the rich clustering of shafts in -the window-jambs and in the fine composition of the east -end, with its quintet of lancets. The chapel is curiously low -internally. The builder was an exceptionally cautious person.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -He not only provided for the thrusts of the vault by heavy -buttresses and pinnacles, but, to get the thrusts as low -down as possible, he made the vault spring below the -window-heads. Moreover, down below he constructed a lofty -crypt, thus raising considerably the floor of the Lady chapel. -Thus encroached on from below and from above, the interior -of the Lady chapel contrasts remarkably with its lofty and -imposing exterior. Externally, moreover, as the window-heads -could not rise high, owing to the low spring of the -vault, a large amount of wall-surface was left, and had -to be decorated. This was done in a remarkable way; -the arcade which runs round it being the old-fashioned -Norman arcade of intersecting semicircular arches—probably -the last appearance of this design on the stage. -Another puzzle is that the external doorway leading to -this crypt contains Transitional details. Probably the whole -of the lower part of the Lady chapel was built in the Transitional -period. The crypt-worship of the eleventh century -had gone out of fashion; and the Hereford crypt, like<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> -that at Norwich, was probably built as a golgotha or charnel-house.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus65.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Early Geometrical.</span>—The history of the cathedral -now resolved itself -for the next hundred -years into a series of -attempts to get rid -of the “dim, religious -light,” so dear to the -modern, so abhorrent -to the mediæval -ecclesiastic. Hereford -choir was even -worse lighted than -Norman churches -generally, being blocked to east and west by transepts, and -having enormously bulky piers. So the Norman clerestory -was taken down, and a Gothic clerestory with an inner -arcade—an early and interesting example of plate-tracery—was -substituted. Moreover, the choir was made fireproof by -being vaulted in stone, <i>c.</i> 1250.</p> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Middle Geometrical.</span>—About 1260 more drastic -measures were taken with the Norman north transept. It was -pulled down bodily, and rebuilt on a design which is perhaps -the most original, as it certainly is one of the most beautiful, -in the history of English Gothic architecture. To the north -and west were built enormous windows, with tracery of cusped -circles, quite exceptional in their elongation, more like late -German than English work. On the east side was built an -aisle of exquisite beauty. Its arches, almost straight-sided—its -triforium windows, a ring of cusped circles set under a -semicircular arch—its clerestory windows, spherical triangles -enclosing a cusped circular window—the composition of the -triforium—the north and west windows—are quite unique, -except so far as they were copied in later work in the city and -neighbourhood. At the south end of the aisle is the exquisite<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -tomb of Bishop Peter Aquablanca (<i>d.</i> 1268); no doubt built -in his lifetime. The tomb is as unique as the transept, and -closely resembles it in design. The inference is that Bishop -Aquablanca built the transept. The credit of it, however, is -constantly given to his successors, apparently on account of -his private vices. But sinners as well as saints have liked -to leave memorials behind them in stone; and, moreover, -Aquablanca had his good points. To this day four thousand -loaves are distributed every year out of funds which he -bequeathed. It is recorded, too, that, of a fine which was -imposed on the citizens for encroachments on his episcopal -rights, he remitted one half, and handed over the other for -works on the cathedral. Moreover, he was a foreigner, from -Chambery; and has probably received no more favourable -judgment from the English chroniclers than they were wont -to give to foreign favourites -of the king who swallowed -up the best things in the -English Church.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus66.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT</p> -</div> - -<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Late Geometrical.</span>—Then -came a turning-point -in the history of Hereford. -The reputation of King -Ethelbert as a miracle-worker -may well by this -time have worn a little thin. -In 1287 Hereford found that -it had obtained a new saint. -This was Bishop Thomas -Cantilupe, a man of saintly -life, and one of the greatest -churchmen of the day. “He -was a pluralist of the first dimension—Chancellor of England -and of the University of Oxford, Provincial Grand Master of -the Knights Templars in England, Canon of York, Archdeacon -and Canon of Lichfield and Coventry, Archdeacon of Stafford,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -Canon and Bishop of Hereford.” In 1282, with his chaplain, -Swinfield, he visited Rome, and died on the journey home. -Swinfield, following a not uncommon mediæval practice, had -the flesh of the body separated from the bones by boiling. -The flesh was buried in the church of St. Severus, near Orvieto; -the heart and bones he conveyed to England. The heart was -interred at Ashridge, the bones in Hereford cathedral. Five -years afterwards miracles commenced: “There were raised -from death to life threescore several persons, one-and-twenty -lepers healed, and three-and-twenty blind and dumb men -received their sight and speech. Twice King Edward I. sent -sick falcons to be cured at his tomb.” In 1320, by the expenditure -of vast sums of money, Swinfield procured his canonisation. -Ever since, the see of Hereford has borne the arms of -Cantilupe. He was the last English saint; and, being the -newest, was for a considerable time the most fashionable. -The fame of St. Wulfstan of Worcester and St. Swithin of -Winchester paled before that of St. Thomas of Hereford. Till -Gloucester secured in 1327 still fresher relics in the murdered -body of King Edward II., Hereford held the greatest attraction -for pilgrims in all the West-country. For forty years—from -1287 to 1327—the pilgrims resorted to the new shrine in -vast numbers. Swinfield’s foresight was justified by the huge -sums which poured into the cathedral treasury.</p> - -<p>Swinfield succeeded Cantilupe as bishop in 1283, and occupied -the see till 1316. With the vast resources now at his -disposal he set about a series of great works. His first pious -act was to construct for his benefactor and predecessor a noble -shrine, the pedestal of which now stands once more, after -many vicissitudes, in the aisle of the north transept. It is a -work of the rarest beauty, executed just at the time when, -tired of conventional foliage, the mediæval carver, with ever -fresh delight, was making the most exquisite transcripts in -stone of the leaves of the trees and the flowers of the field.</p> - -<p>Secondly, he constructed a north porch—the present inner -porch—the design of which is plainly taken from the shrine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span></p> - -<p>Thirdly, he rebuilt the central tower on the Norman piers -and arches. To lessen the weight as much as possible it was -built in two skins, the inner skin consisting of a framework of -upright stone girders, as in the towers of Wells and Lincoln. -Externally it is smothered in ball-flower. Originally it carried -a tall timber spire; the loss of which greatly injures the -external elevation of the cathedral.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus67.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT AISLE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Fourthly, he went on with the improvement of the lighting -of the cathedral. Beginning probably at the north-east -transept, which was -rebuilt, together with -its eastern aisle, and -working along the -choir and nave to -the west end, and -then <i>vice versa</i> on -the south side of the -cathedral, he took -down all but the lower -part of the walls of -the Norman aisles, -rebuilt the upper part -higher, and inserted -very large windows. -This lighted the nave, -at any rate, very satisfactorily. -The design of these windows is unusual and effective, -owing to the largeness of the trefoils employed in the tracery.</p> - -<p>VIII. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear</span> (1315-1360).—By the time of Swinfield’s -death it may be conjectured that the pilgrim-revenue -had begun to fall off; for the rebuilding of the south-east -transept, together with its eastern aisle, in completion of -the reconstructions commenced by Swinfield, was executed -in a cheap and inferior way, even the clumsy Transitional -plinth being retained for the new central column of the -transept. The windows have flowing tracery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span></p> - -<p>To the same period belong the stalls and the beautiful -chapter-house, now in ruins. The lead of its roof was cast -into bullets in the Civil War; sacrilegious bishops used its -stones as a quarry for their palace.</p> - -<p>There are monuments of Bishop Swinfield (<i>d.</i> 1316) and -Bishop Charleton (<i>d.</i> 1343).</p> - -<p>It is probable that all this work was done before 1349, -when the Black Death made its appearance at Hereford, and -again in 1360.</p> - -<p>IX. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> (1360-1485).—The lighting improvements -were now completed by the insertion of two huge -windows in the south transept, the southern of which has -recently been filled with magnificent glass by Mr. Kempe. On -the north side of the choir Bishop Stanbury (1455-1474) built -for himself a pretty little chantry-chapel, like those at Lincoln. -It has fan-vaulting.</p> - -<p>X. <span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—Bishop Audley (1492-1502) built himself a -pentagonal chantry-chapel, two stories high, projecting from -the south side of the Lady chapel. But, as he was translated -to Salisbury, he had the trouble of building another chantry-chapel -there. To this period belong the Bishop’s cloister—three-sided, -as at Chichester—and probably the Vicars’ -cloister, with picturesque timber roof, and a fan-vault over -the entrance to the Vicars’ college. Bishop Booth (1516-1535) -built the outer north porch—an admirable specimen of -late Gothic design.</p> - -<p>XI.—In 1786 the western tower collapsed, and Wyatt pulled -down the westernmost bay of the nave and the whole of the -triforium and clerestory, whether damaged or sound, and -rebuilt both, together with the west front, in the Gothic of his -day. About 1843 Cottingham did much work; rebuilding -the east end of the Lady chapel and the upper part of that -of the choir, and also securing the central tower. He found -that the Norman piers which support it consisted of a thin -ashlar casing, the interior of which was filled with a rubble -core, composed of broken stones, loam and lime grouting.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -The ashlar facing and the engaged columns on the face of -the pier, not being well bonded and deeply headed into the -rubble cores, had split and bulged, and the cores, for want of -a proper proportion of lime, had diminished and crushed to -pieces. The gaudy choir-screen and coronal were designed -by Sir Gilbert Scott, and executed by Skidmore of Coventry.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus68.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-WEST</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Lichfield">The Cathedral Church of St. Chad and St. Mary, Lichfield.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus69.jpg" width="300" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">This is how Lichfield -presented itself -to Mrs. Van Rensselaer. -“Approaching -it from one street or -another, we see it -suddenly across the -silver stretches of its -Pool, and it is hard to -determine whether the -shining water at Lichfield -or the green lake -of turf at Salisbury -makes the lovelier -foreground. Standing -on the causeway which -leads towards the -western entrance of -the Close, it is not -merely a fine view that -we have before us; -it is a picture so perfect -that no artist would ask a change in one detail. Perhaps -accident has had more to do than design with the planting of -the trees and shrubs which border the lake, and above which -spring the daring spires. But a landscape-gardener might -study this planting to his profit; and when we see or think of -Lichfield from this point of view, we wish that the tall poplar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -may be as long-lived as the tree Yggdrasil—so pretty a -measure does it give of the loftiness of the spires, so exquisite -is the completing accent which it brings into the scene. If -we come from the south-east, we cross another causeway, on -either side of which the lake spreads out widely; and we see -not only the spires, but the apse and the long stretch of the -southern side. Enormously long it looks—longer almost, -owing to its peculiar lowness, than those cathedrals which are -actually greater. To the north of the church the ground rises -quickly into a broad, terrace-like walk flanked by rows of -large and ancient, yet graceful lindens; and beyond the trees, -behind low walls and verdurous gardens, lies a range of -canons’ dwellings. And in any and every aspect, but more -especially when foliage comes near it, Lichfield’s colour -assists its other beauties. Red stone is warm and mellow in -itself; and Lichfield is red with a beautiful soft ruddiness that -could hardly be matched by any sandstone of any land.”</p> - -<p>The ancient kingdom of Mercia was converted to Christianity, -like the rest of England north of the Thames, by -missionaries of the Irish Church from Lindisfarne, <i>c.</i> 653; -and the first two Mercian bishops were Irishmen. Of the -early bishops, by far the most famous was St. Chad (669-672). -St. Chad, or Ceadda, was a good and saintly man. He is first -heard of as Abbot of Lastingham, a sequestered abbey hidden -away in a fold of the Cleveland moors. Then Abbot Chad -became Bishop of York; and he set to work on a visitation -of his vast, wild diocese—not in a carriage and pair, but -on foot. Plainly these early bishops were what we should -now call Missionary Bishops, such as that Missionary of the -South Seas who lies in Lichfield’s Lady chapel, his face -irradiated by the southern light. Archbishop Chad visited -town and country, village and hamlet, cottage and castle; -and preached everywhere. It was another Progress of -St. Paul. But in 669 the famous Greek Archbishop of Canterbury, -Theodore, pronounced his consecration faulty, and -deposed him from York. Soon afterwards, however, finding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -him a saintly man and an excellent preacher, he appointed -him to the bishopric of Mercia, to the see of Lichfield. What -was York’s loss was Lichfield’s gain. At Lichfield he lived, -tradition says, in a cell with his missioners, at the upper end -of the Pool, where now stands St. Chad’s Church. It behoves -all who come to Lichfield to visit St. Chad’s Church and to -drink the water of St. Chad’s Well—water which still retains -somewhat of efficacy and repute, for a line of pipes has -been laid from the Stowe Pool to Burton, and an immense -volume of Lichfield’s hallowed water is annually converted -into beer. Two years and a half only Bishop Chad had left -of life; but that was enough for him to win the reverence of -his own and many successive generations. Beautiful stories -are told of him by Bede. One of the eight monks who lived -with him declared that he one day heard a joyful melody of -some persons sweetly singing, which descended from heaven -into the Bishop’s oratory, and filled the same for about half an -hour, and then rose again to heaven; and that on the seventh -day thereafter, having received the Body and Blood of our -Lord, he departed unto Bliss, to which he was invited by the -happy soul of his brother, St. Cedd, and a company of angels -with heavenly music.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus70.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Thus the diocese of Lichfield preserves the memory of -the by-gone kingdom of Mercia; and its cathedral is largely -built of the offerings at St. Chad’s shrine. How big the -ancient diocese was is seen from the fact that the present -dioceses of Hereford and Worcester, as well as the suppressed -ones of Sidnacester, Lindsey, and Leicester, were all carved -out of it by Archbishop Theodore, the great organiser of the -early English Church, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 673. For a time even greater -honour came to Lichfield. From 755 to 794 a great and mighty -king reigned in Mercia: this was Offa. In one direction he -defeated Kent; in the other he drove back the Welsh. It -was Offa who settled once for all the Welsh frontier: Shrewsbury -became an English town. Offa’s Dyke, which still -exists, from the mouth of the Wye to the mouth of the Dee,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -became the effectual bulwark of England to the West. A -king so mighty disdained to owe allegiance to an archbishop -of defeated Kentishmen, and got from the Pope of the day -an archbishop of his own, to be head-bishop of all Mercia -and East Anglia. But Offa died, and the pope died; and -this was the first and only archbishop that Lichfield ever had. -Lichfield was never so important again. Indeed, she had a -narrow escape of losing her bishop altogether, just after the -Norman conquest. The new Norman prelates did not feel -safe, and probably were not safe, in open towns amidst an -alien and disaffected population. The Bishop of Dorchester -set up his pastoral -staff under the -shadow of the new -Norman castle at -Lincoln; Exeter -castle attracted -the Bishop of -Crediton; in similar -fashion the -Norman Bishop of -Lichfield transferred -himself to -Chester, where -also was a castle of strength. The next bishop migrated -again—this time to Coventry, which possessed a famous -monastery, founded by famous people, Earl Leofric and Lady -Godiva, the church whereof was so wealthy that “its walls -were all too strait for the treasures that were therein.” Finally -the bishops returned once more to Lichfield, retaining, however, -their hold on Coventry; and till the Reformation they -styled themselves “Bishops of Lichfield and Coventry.” Lichfield, -however, was and is a cathedral of the old foundation; -it had no monks, but secular canons. It may well be -imagined, therefore, that there was not much peace and -good will between the canons of Lichfield and the monks of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> -Coventry. They quarrelled scandalously; above all when -they had to meet for joint election of a bishop. There was -even a desperate free fight in Coventry cathedral in 1190, -when Bishop Hugh ejected the monks. The holy bishop -himself was wounded at the altar.</p> - -<p>In the thirteenth century there must have been a series of -great building bishops; but little is known of them. Bishop -Langton, however, was a very great personage, Keeper of the -Great Seal, Treasurer of England, and executor to Edward I. -He built a new episcopal palace at Lichfield, and other castles -and manor-houses elsewhere, also a magnificent new shrine -for the relics of St. Chad; and he surrounded the cathedral -with a wall and foss, thus making of it a moated fortress, such -as one sees to this day at Wells. Robert Stretton (1360-1385) -had the distinction of not being able to read. Then we -pass on to the great Civil War, when Bishop Langton’s -fortifications proved a heritage of woe. Being fortified, and -being Loyalist, Lichfield Cathedral was besieged by the -Parliamentary forces under Lord Brooke, who prayed aloud -that God would by some special token manifest unto them -His approbation. The special token came on St. Chad’s Day, -March 2nd, and is commemorated by a tablet on a house -in Dam Street, which the visitor should look for: “March -2nd, 1643.—Lord Brooke, a general of the Parliament forces, -preparing to besiege the Close of Lichfield, then garrisoned -for King Charles the First, received his death-wound on the -spot beneath this inscription, by a shot in the forehead, from -Mr. Dyott,” a deaf and dumb man, “who had placed himself -on the battlements of the great steeple to <i>annoy</i> the besiegers.” -It may interest some to know that the distance -of the shot was 185 yards 1 foot 3 inches. In the end the -garrison was starved out. Six weeks later Lichfield Close -was recaptured by Prince Rupert. In 1646 it was retaken -by the Parliamentarians. In the first siege the Parliamentary -cannon brought down the central tower and most of the vault -of the choir. This was not all. The Puritans smashed the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> -stained windows, battered down the statues, stripped the lead -from the roof and the brasses from the tombs, burned the -registers, and broke up the bells and organs. They are said -to have each day hunted a cat down the aisles, and to have -draped a calf and given it a mock baptism at the font. -“I confess,” says an apologist for her Puritan ancestors, -“there were moments in my English journey when I hated -the Puritan with a godly hatred, and wished that he had -never shown his surly face to the world: a rude destroyer of -things ancient, and therefore to be respected; a vandal -devastator of things rare and beautiful, and too precious ever -to be replaced; a brutal scoffer, drinking at the altar, firing -his musket at the figure of Christ, parading in priest’s vestments -through the market-place, stabling his horses in the -house of God.” Then came the Restoration, and with the -Restoration Bishop Hacket, best of good bishops. The very -next morning after his arrival he set his coach horses to work -at clearing away the ruins of the fallen spire and roof. For -nine years he gave himself and his substance to the work; -his contributions in money amounted to £10,000; the King -gave “one hundred fair timber trees”; the prebendaries and -canons subscribed half their income; every town, every -village in the diocese aided the good work; the central tower -was re-erected; most of the clerestory of the choir was rebuilt; -his last task was to put in a peal of bells. “He went out -of his bedchamber to hear it, and blessed God who had -favoured him with life to hear it, but that it was his own -passing-bell; whereupon he retired to his chamber and never -left it till he was carried to his grave.” Next to St. Chad, -one likes to think of good Bishop Hacket in connexion with -Lichfield. In 1788 James Wyatt arrived, but did less mischief -than at Salisbury, Hereford and Durham. Even more terrible -vandals followed Wyatt, with a mania for Roman cement, in -which beautiful material they reconstructed the statuary of -the west front. All this is now swept away, and this fairest -of façades is seen in its pristine beauty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span></p> - -<p>At Lichfield there was as usual a Norman cathedral; and -as usual the authorities set to work to improve it. Elsewhere -the improvements were of a very conservative character. At -Lichfield and at Wells they were drastic: the Norman -cathedral was improved by being swept off the face of the -earth, not a scrap of it being left above ground. Beginning -at the east end, it was pulled down and rebuilt, the work -occupying a century. The most astounding thing about -Lichfield is that when the new thirteenth-century cathedral -was finished, -they set to work -once more at rebuilding, -and in -the first half of -the fourteenth -century reconstructed -the -whole of the -eastern limb of -the cathedral. -But though for -convenience we -divide the work -into two great -periods, that of -the thirteenth and that of the fourteenth century, and each of -these into shorter building-periods, it is not to be understood -that there were any breaks or cessations in the works: the -cathedral was never out of the builders’ hands from 1190 to -1350.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus71.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>I. First, the Norman choir, of three bays with apse and -ambulatory, was pulled down, a broader and longer rectangular -choir taking its place. The outer wall of the new choir was -built outside that of the old one, so that the latter probably -was retained in use for some time, as in Selby choir, while the -new works were going on around it. This is borne out by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span> -fact that, contrary to custom, the new work was not commenced -at the east, but at the west, for the detail is earlier to -the west than to the east. The date 1200 is usually assigned -to it. But the entrance arch of the north choir aisle has -the Norman diamond pattern; the square alternates with -the rounded abacus; the piers are heavy, the arches low, the -mouldings large and vigorous, and the foliated capitals at the -east end of both aisles are so archaic in character that it -seems decidedly to have been commenced in the latter years -of the Transitional period, <i>c.</i> 1080: it compares with the -work at Wells, Chichester Lady chapel, Boxgrove Priory, -St. Thomas’, Portsmouth, and Abbey Dore. Of this work -only the piers and arches of the three western bays, and the -sacristy and treasury, survive.</p> - -<p>II. Some twenty or thirty years later the south transept was -commenced, and a little later the north transept. The -builders of the choir had planned it for an aisleless transept. -When, therefore, the transepts were built with eastern aisles, -the easternmost windows of the choir aisles looked into the -transept aisles, and no longer into the open air. As the -transepts have no triforium above their aisles, we may conjecture -that neither had the choir.</p> - -<p>III. About the same date as the north transept, a chapter-house -and vestibule were built on the north side of the choir, -as at Beverley, Lincoln, and York. This had not been contemplated -by the builders of the choir; consequently the doorway -of the vestibule had to be placed where before was a -Lancet window. The vestibule is a bold and vigorous piece of -design, with a good vault and a remarkable range of thirteen -arcaded seats on its western side. The chapter-house is -unique in plan, being an octagon with two long and six short -sides: this plan was transplanted to the Lady chapel of -Wells. The doorway has bold tooth-ornament; the wall is -surrounded by a trefoiled arcade. There is much beautiful -glass by Kempe.</p> - -<p>IV. About 1250, soon after Westminster choir, the nave was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -commenced. Its remarkable clerestory windows—spherical -triangles enclosing cusped circles—occur in the Westminster -triforium, and, rather later, in the clerestory of Hereford north -transept. The spherical triangles fit perfectly into the wall-arches -of the vaulting, and, as Mr. Fergusson says, “give a -stability and propriety to the whole arrangement which has -never been surpassed.” The result, however, is to diminish -the height of the clerestory, with the inevitable result that the -aspiringness that one expects in an Early Gothic elevation is -lost; the nave, instead of looking taller, looks lower than -it really is. As at Westminster and Beverley, the ground-story -occupies one-half of the total height; but in these -the triforium occupies about one-sixth only, the clerestory -one-third. At Lichfield the triforium and clerestory occupy -each one-fourth. Mr. Fergusson makes the striking suggestion -that the defect might have been remedied to some extent by -glazing the triforium, as in Amiens choir, thus practically -bringing the clerestory down to the pier-arches. The vault, -too, is most satisfactory—not simple to bareness, like that of -Amiens and so many French cathedrals, nor over-elaborated, -like those of Winchester and Norwich. The whole design, -indeed, of the nave is one of the loveliest in Christendom. -It derives great impressiveness, too, from the fact that the -vault ranges the whole length of the cathedral in almost -undiminished height; and from the fact that the church is not -cut up, as at Canterbury, into two distinct buildings. Indeed, -small as the cathedral is, the vista from west to east is one of -the longest of all the English cathedrals. And its termination -in the beautiful polygon of the Lady chapel, so unusual to -English eyes, and so beautiful, glimmering in the distance -“like some great casket of jewels at the end of the long dusk -perspective,” makes an impression never forgotten. By this -one remembers the interior of Lichfield, as its exterior by that -glorious triple coronal of spires. Nave, transept, and choir -are all of the same length. The same scheme of proportions -was adopted a little later at York. The axis of the choir is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -not in a line with that of the nave, but swings to the north -five feet.</p> - -<p>V. Next the west front was built, <i>c.</i> 1275, except the central -gable and the spires. It is a sort of open-air reredos; but -marks a great improvement in design on those of Lincoln, -Wells, and Salisbury.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus72.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p>VI. Then at the very end of the Geometrical period the -Lady chapel was built; at first detached from the east end -of the choir, so as not to interfere with the services. Being -exceedingly lofty and -without aisles, it was -possible to have exceptionally -lofty -windows of the type -of those of the north -transept of Hereford. -These elongated windows, -the absence of -aisles, and the polygonal -plan, give the -exterior a curiously -German appearance. -The window tracery -is Geometrical, being -composed of groups -of trefoils. But the ogee-dripstones of the windows show -that the work overlaps into the Curvilinear period; indeed, -it was not finished at Bishop Langton’s death in 1321. -Under the three eastern windows are chapels, the central -of which contains the monument of Bishop Selwyn, of New -Zealand and Lichfield. But the glory of the Lady chapel -and the cathedral is the magnificent painted glass of the -sixteenth century—similar in character to the beautiful -glass of Margaret of Austria’s church at Brou-en-Bresse, -Burgundy. The first window on each side was inserted -recently. The remaining seven windows are also Flemish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> -glass, of the date 1530 to 1540, bought by Sir Brooke -Boothby, in 1803, from the Cistercian nunnery of Herckenrode, -near Liége, for £200. The second window on the north -is particularly interesting, as it contains portraits of patrons -and benefactors of Herckenrode, kneeling at altars, with -their patron saints behind them. The third window also has -portraits of great nobles of the Netherlands. The remaining -five windows contain Scriptural subjects.</p> - -<p>VII. The next step, <i>c.</i> 1325, was to build another bay to the -choir, thus joining it up to the Lady chapel. In this bay was -placed a new shrine of St. Chad. But even this was not -enough for the canons. They were seized with the mania for -floods of light and acres of stained glass which raged like an -epidemic through the fourteenth and fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries. They pulled down all the choir except the piers and -arches of the three westernmost bays—they would have removed -these also but for fear of bringing down the central tower—built -new piers and arches in the eastern bays, and a new -clerestory along the whole length of the choir with huge -windows of flowing tracery, two only of which are left. At the -same time they replaced all the lancets of the aisles by big -Curvilinear windows. The jambs of the clerestory windows -they enriched with bands of quatrefoils; one of the windows -of the south aisle of the choir, opposite to which the tomb of -Bishop Langton formerly stood, and beneath which good -Bishop Hacket’s tomb is now placed, has big crumpled leaves -running up the jambs. The junction of the early Lancet piers -and capitals with those of the fourteenth century is well seen -in the vaulting and in the third pier from the central tower. -Between the bays were placed statued niches, as in the contemporary -church of St. Mary’s, Beverley, from which rose the -vaulting-shaft. The whole design should be compared with -the presbyteries of Wells and Chester, which were in course -of “restoration” at the same time and in the same ruthless -fashion. In the choir aisles is a delightful arcade of bowing -ogee arches.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus73.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>About the same time, or a little later, were built the central -gable of the west front and the south-western spire.</p> - -<p>VIII. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular and Tudor.</span>—The equipment of -the presbytery was completed, <i>c.</i> 1390, by the erection of a magnificent -altar-screen after the fashion of those at Winchester -and St. Albans. Six of its canopies are used up in the present -sedilia. The northern spire also was copied from the southern -one. More big windows were inserted in the transepts and -the west end of the nave. The latter has been replaced by a -modern geometrical -window; that of the -north transept by a -fine quintet of lancets, -largely composed of -fragments of the -original thirteenth-century -window. Finally, -the whole cathedral -was rendered -fireproof by the erection -of vaults under -both transepts and -the central tower. -The south transept, -however, would seem -to have had a vault -before—but it may have been of wood—for a little lower -than the Perpendicular abacus of the vaulting-shaft is one -of the thirteenth century. To this period belongs the gallery -of St. Chad’s chapel.</p> - -<p>IX. In the two sieges the clerestory and aisle windows and -the vault of the choir suffered greatly, and the central spire -was destroyed. The latter was rebuilt under the direction of -Sir Christopher Wren; and Perpendicular windows replaced -those which had been injured here and in the Lady chapel. -So that the choir now is a curious hybrid: the most eastern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -bay is Curvilinear from top to bottom; the next bays are -Curvilinear with Perpendicular tracery in the clerestory -windows; the three westernmost bays are Transitional or early -Lancet below, Curvilinear above, but with Perpendicular -tracery in the windows. The present vault of the choir is -chiefly of lath and plaster, by Wyatt.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Lincoln">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Lincoln.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus74.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The cathedrals of Lincoln, York, and Southwell were ever -served by secular canons and not by monks; but each -cathedral has been styled a minster from time immemorial, -as if it were or had been a monastic church (<i>monasterium</i>).</p> - -<p>I. The history of the cathedral only commences in 1074, -when the first Norman bishop, Remi or Remigius, made -Lincoln the seat of the see instead of Dorchester on the -Thames. As Canon Venables puts it: “He refused the -tabernacle of Birinus, and chose not the tribe of the South -Angles; but chose the tribe of Lindsey, even the hill of -Lindum which he loved; and there he built his temple on -high, and laid the foundation of it like the ground which hath -been established for ever.” The blank wall which forms the -centre of the west front is Remi’s work. So are the Ionic -capitals, square-edged arches, and wide-jointed masonry<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -in the ground story of the south-west tower, <i>c.</i> 1075. The -curious apsidal recesses in the west front may be paralleled -in the façades of many of the early Romanesque churches of -Lombardy.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus75.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WESTERN DOORWAY.</p> -</div> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Late Norman.</span>—This archaic façade was improved -<i>c.</i> 1140 by the insertion of a more ornamental central doorway, -and by the arcade, high up, of intersecting semicircular arches. -Also curious plaques, in rather high relief, were stuck along the -wall, as at St. Michael, Pavia. They are not in chronological -sequence, and so may have been transferred from some other -church. Moreover, two low western towers were carried up, with -rich and beautiful gables; of which those to the north and south -survive. The south-western tower should be ascended to see -Remi’s eleventh-century work, the twelfth-century gables, the -“elastic beam,” and especially the superb view of the interior -of nave, choir, and -presbytery. The font, -too, like that of -Winchester, probably -belongs to this period.</p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—The -north and -south doorways of the -west front, clumsily -restored, were probably -inserted <i>c.</i> 1150. -Their capitals are -reminiscences of Byzantine -design. They -may be compared -with the large capitals -of St. Hugh’s choir -and Canterbury choir.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus76.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ST. HUGH’S CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>IV. In 1190 a Carthusian monk, Hugh of Avalon, near -Grenoble, became bishop. Like Fitz-Jocelyn of Wells, and -like the Lichfield builders, he determined not to try to improve<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -the Norman cathedral, but to sweep it away and build an -entirely new one. The Wells and Lichfield people succeeded -in getting rid altogether -of the older -building; but Remi’s -successors had to -leave a considerable -amount of Norman -work in the western -façade and towers. -Bishop Hugh commenced -work in 1192: -first building probably -his central apse and -eastern transept, and -then the walls of his -choir, before taking -down the short Norman -aisleless choir -of two bays, outside -which in all probability, as at Lichfield, the new walls -were erected. It will be noticed that the foliated capitals -of the aisle-walls of the choir are earlier in character than -those of the pier-arcade. Then he pulled down the old choir, -erected the pier-arcade, triforium, and clerestory of the new -one, and built the south-east corner of the north transept -and the north-east corner of the south transept, where it will -be seen that his double arcade along the aisle-wall abruptly -ceases. The whole of this work (1192-1200) is very advanced -for its date, and is full of originality and eccentricity; the -work of an architect (Geoffrey de Noyers) who was more of -an artist than an engineer. Externally the design is one -characterised by great elegance of proportions. It is remarkable, -too, to find the windows grouped at this early -date, even in the clerestory. The intermediate buttresses of -the aisles are later additions, to resist the thrusts of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span> -quinquepartite vault of the aisles. Internally, it is disappointing. -Its proportions are bad, owing to the exceptional -lowness of the vault; the vault itself is contorted and ugly; -the trefoils and quatrefoils are of all shapes and sizes; the -obtuse pier-arches are out of harmony with the acute Lancet -windows. Unfortunately, also, the effect of all the piers, -except the third piers from the west, has been injured by -cutting away the vaulting-shafts, which formerly descended -to the floor, but which were stopped by corbels when the -stalls were erected.</p> - -<p>The north-east transept is quite exceptional. Its northern -bay forms an internal tower, formerly divided into stories by -wooden floors. The lowest story may have been designed -as a return-aisle for processions, as at Winchester, if the -triforiums also had floors—there are none now. The upper -stories were described in 1641 as “watching chambers”; -used, no doubt, by those who remained all night in the cathedral -to watch the shrines and treasures, and to guard against fire. -It is quite possible that these towers—there was originally a -similar tower in the south transept—were intended to be -carried up externally; in which case Lincoln would have had -a glorious coronal of five towers.</p> - -<p>The westward march of the twin towers of the mediæval -cathedrals is curious. In the tenth-century churches, such as -S. Ambrogio, Milan, and the later cathedral of S. Abbondio, -Como, they flanked the choir; so they did at Canterbury, and -in the twelfth-century choir of York; so they may have been -meant to do at Lincoln. At Exeter they have marched on, -and there occupy the ends of the transepts. Finally, they -become the twin western towers which form such a characteristic -feature of the façades of the mediæval churches of -Northern Europe, but not of Lombardy.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus77.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>On the west side of the north-east transept is a unique -example of a cathedral dispensary, with triangular recesses -in the walls for the drugs. Afterwards a floor was inserted -dimway; and to light the darkened lower chambers, windows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -were cut through the west wall. The shutters of these windows -are original, as also the ironwork of the dispensary doorway. -The choir ended to the east in a remarkable fashion in a -three-sided aisled apse with radiating chapels. This may be -due to Hugh’s foreign extraction, or it may be regarded as -the legitimate development of such east ends as Gloucester -and Tewkesbury. The apsidal termination is shown by -incised lines in the pavement of the retro-choir and the south -choir aisle. Across the openings of the eastern transepts -beams were left from pier to pier, because the fosse of the -Roman wall here crossed the choir. The whole choir is full -of freaks; the apsidal termination of the choir, the double -apses of the eastern transepts, the transeptal towers, the -ribbing of the vault, the extraordinary crocketed piers at the -entrance of the eastern transepts, the fluted hexagonal shafts, -and in the clerestory the miniature arcades and pigeon-holes. -The whole design has been claimed as French by M. Corroyer, -but M. Viollet-le-Duc’s opinion is decisive on that point: “it -is English in its method of construction, in its mouldings, in -its ornament, and in execution.” But though English, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -going too far to call it “pure and undefiled Gothic.” The -semicircular apses of the eastern transepts are not Gothic; -and in Romanesque fashion, the triforium is spanned by -transverse stone arches, regardless of the fact that the work -they were supposed to do was done in reality by flying-buttresses -outside.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus78.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ST. HUGH’S ARCADE.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. The works were probably suspended but for a short time -by the death of St. Hugh. He had planned, if not commenced, -the apses of the eastern transepts, and left directions -that he was to be buried in the north apse of the north-east -transept—the chapel of St. John the Baptist. Probably work -would be resumed at -this point first. This -chapel has a curious -history. Soon afterwards -pilgrims came -in crowds to St. -Hugh’s tomb, and a -larger oblong chapel -was built in place of -the apse, to accommodate -them. In -later days this fell -into ruin, and in 1769 -Essex rebuilt the chapel in its original apsidal form. The -work is contemporary with that of the great transept, -which also has a string continuing the abaci. After the -apsidal chapels were completed there followed the completion -of the great transept, the erection of a central tower, -and of so much of the western part of the nave as was -necessary to give abutment to the tower on the west. It will -be noticed that the arcading at the east end of the north aisle -of the nave belongs to this period. All this may well have -been designed by Geoffrey de Noyers, for the tower was badly -built and collapsed in 1239; the west wall of the transept is -full of blunders, and the vault of the north transept cuts off<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -the head of the circular window, the Dean’s Eye. But externally -the design of this north end is superb. The vaulting, -as in the eastern transepts, is sexpartite, with the addition of -a new longitudinal rib, which wobbles up and down in a distressing -manner. The vault is copied—wobbling included—in -Southwell choir. Magnificent contemporary glass remains -in the Dean’s Eye and the lancets below it.</p> - -<p>VI. The next work was the completion of the first five -eastern bays of the nave. Whoever the architect was, or the -architects—for there may have been two of them, the arcading -of the aisles and the height of the bases differing widely on -the north and south sides of the nave—it was not Geoffrey de -Noyers, but some one who was both a good artist and a good -engineer—so good an engineer that in the interior he sacrificed -art to engineering. The piers he set as far apart as -possible, and made them as thin as possible; but they are -beautifully built, and rest on foundations which are continuous -underground from pier to pier. These obtuse arches, however, -and attenuated piers are most unsatisfactory to the eye. The -nave is practically an improved version of the choir—improved -in the vaulting, the buttresses and pinnacles, and in height. -To the vault he added intermediate ribs—an early example of -their use. The northern exterior of the nave, with its knife-edge -buttresses and tall gablets and strong base-courses, is -one of the best designs in all Gothic; it is of almost Greek -severity. The height of the nave he raised from 74 to 82 feet. -A Frenchman would have given a nave so broad (42 feet) a -height of 120 feet. However, he was thinking—as all the -Lincoln architects were always thinking—of how it would look -outside, how it would affect the sky-line of the cathedral to -have a nave far higher than the choir. Never was an English -cathedral built so much for external effect as Lincoln; in -every part of it the exterior is finer than the interior.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus79.jpg" width="500" height="675" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>VII. From 1235 to 1253 the see was occupied by a man of -the highest vigour and ability—Bishop Grosstête—who signalised -his rule by many great works. Luckily St. Hugh had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -been canonised in 1220, and money, no doubt, flowed in -abundantly from the pilgrims. But in 1239 the central tower -fell. It seems to have fallen to the south-east, and to have -damaged seriously the adjacent parts of the transept and -choir, and in particular the south side of the choir and the -south-east transept. Everything else had to be laid aside to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -get the mischief repaired. The repairs seem to have been -executed with the greatest haste and carelessness. The new -mouldings on the western side of the westernmost arches of -the choir did not fit the old, and a ring of stone was worked -to hide the awkward junction. Every arch in the south -triforium is out of centre, and the trefoils and quatrefoils are -cut most clumsily. In the end bays of the triforium of the -choir and transept the central stalks “were replaced by ugly -moulded blocks resembling nothing so much as a pound of -candles.” The reconstructed arches may be recognised by -having hood-moulds. The canons wanted to get back into -their choir as soon as possible, and may well have regarded -the whole affair as merely a makeshift till the nave should be -finished, and they could transfer their services to it, and then -pull down and rebuild St. Hugh’s choir more stably and in -greater height. In the south-east transept the inner wall of -the tower was taken down, and the upper part of the end wall -was rebuilt. This work was done more carefully, there being -no need to hurry over it, as it did not interfere with the use of -the choir.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus80.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ANGEL TRIFORIUM.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span></p> - -<p>The canons could now resume their work in the nave. But -their resources had been heavily taxed by the unexpected -demands made on them by the fall of the central tower. They -took counsel, unfortunately, with economy. The original -design had been, probably, to make the nave very much -longer than it is now, and then to build a brand-new west -front, as at Wells and Lichfield. The nave needs much -greater length, being of the exceptional breadth of forty-two -feet. Now it was decided not to sweep away, but to utilise -the Norman west front and western towers as far as possible, -and to curtail the nave accordingly. Unfortunately, the new -cathedral had not been built at right angles to the Norman -façade. The axis, therefore, of the remaining bays of the -nave had to deviate so as to strike the façade as centrally as -possible. Moreover, the western vault of the nave was too -lofty for the façade, so it was suddenly dropped two feet at -the end of the five eastern bays; and the distance between the -completed bays and the façade being insufficient for two -arches of the span of the eastern ones, the two western bays -had to be built narrower than the rest. A different vault, too, -was built in the aisles of these two bays.</p> - -<p>All this is regrettable; but though Lincoln minster is shorter -than it should be, its vast spaces, dimly lighted with scanty -beams filtering through narrow lancets, are wonderfully -impressive; the distances, yet further enhanced by the interposition -of organ and screen, seem really infinite. It is -not, like Ely, a study in contrasts, but in harmonies. The -design of the nave leads without a break to that of the -transepts; the design of the transepts to that of the choir; the -design of the choir, aided by the rich stalls and screens, to -the splendour of the presbytery, where the light breaks forth -at length to irradiate the loveliness of moulding and foliage -and sculptured imagery.</p> - -<p>Though the length of the nave was now curtailed in the -altered design, some compensation was found in throwing out -a flanking chapel on either side of the two westernmost bays.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -The position of these chapels may be founded on those of Ely; -it was repeated by Wren in St. Paul’s. In all three cathedrals -it gives a noble air of spaciousness on entering by the western -doors. The vault of the northern chapel is supported, as if it -were a chapter-house, by a beautiful central pier. This pier -consists of eight shafts of Purbeck marble, very acutely -pointed, once so highly polished, like the rest of the Purbeck -shafts, says a mediæval versifier, that they positively dazzled -the eyes.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus81.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Then came the west -front. We may not -like it; but given the -conditions—the retention -of an enormous -oblong area of Norman -wall with two -Norman towers behind—it -is not easy -to see how anything -better could have -been done. Its vast -height and breadth -are astonishingly impressive -from the little -narrow courtyard -which coops it in.</p> - -<p>To the same bishop, Grosstête, are to be attributed the -beautiful Galilee porch, attached to the south transept as a -state-entrance for the bishop from his palace over the way; -the sacristy; and the chapter-house—the first polygonal -chapter-house after that of Abbey Dore. “The strong flying-buttresses, -like colossal arms stretched out to bear up the -huge fabric,” were added later.</p> - -<p>VIII. The cathedral was now completed from east to west. -But the canons had at once to start again. St. John the -Baptist’s chapel, though enlarged, was all too small for the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> -pilgrims who crowded to Lincoln, attracted by the miracles -wrought at St. Hugh’s shrine. The apse of his choir was -therefore pulled down, and in its stead was built an eastern -presbytery of five bays (1256-1280). This is the famous -Angel choir, really the memorial chapel and tomb-house of -St. Hugh. His shrine was solemnly translated to it in 1280. -A little too crowded with ornament, it is yet the most lovely -work of the age—one of the masterpieces of English Gothic. -To the same period, probably, belong the superb arches -inserted at the west end of the choir aisles with the idea of -buttressing the eastern piers of the new tower; also the -north, south and east screens of the choir, parts of which are -old, the rest built by Essex in 1769.</p> - -<p>IX. About 1290 were built the Easter Sepulchre and so-called -tomb of Remigius, on the north side of the choir, with -naturalistic foliage of oak, fig, and vine. Here the consecrated -Host was watched from Maundy Thursday to Easter -Sunday. Still finer Easter sepulchres may be seen at Hawton -and Heckington. The upper stage of the central tower was -erected in 1307. The tower is 271 feet high; and anxious, as -usual, for external effect, the canons actually added a timber -spire, raising it to the vast height of 525 feet, a height which -exceeds even that of the new spires of Cologne cathedral. -The effective cut battlements are by Essex. The tower is not -built solid, but, to save weight, is “constructed of two thin -walls, tied at intervals, with a vacuum between them” (cf. -Hereford and Wells). It is gathered in 2½ inches near the -top, so as not to look top-heavy. The remains of the shrine of -Little St. Hugh (in the south choir aisle) seem to be <i>c.</i> 1310. -In the cloisters, built <i>c.</i> 1296, is a great curiosity—an incised -slab with a portrait of a Gothic architect, Richard of Gainsborough, -the builder of the Angel choir. A replica has been -made of it.</p> - -<p>X. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear.</span>—In 1320 died good Bishop Dalderby. -He was worshipped as a saint, though Rome refused his -canonisation. His remains were placed in a silver shrine on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -west side of the south transept: some of the pedestals of it -may be seen there still. Miracles were wrought at his shrine; -and from the offerings the gable of this transept was in all -probability reconstructed, including the “Bishop’s Eye,” -which is as strong constructionally as it is beautiful. The -lovely pierced parapet of this transept should be noticed, and -the fine window in the gable. The parapet was carried -westward all along the south side of the nave and across the -west front; and handsome pinnacles were erected, with niches -once peopled with -statues.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus82.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Now also was -erected the choir-screen, -of charming -design, very similar -to that of the west -side of Southwell -screen.</p> - -<p>A little later are -the screen of the -choir boys’ vestry in -the south choir aisle, -diapered with lilies; -and in the north-east -of the Angel choir, -St. Catharine’s shrine, -and the Burghersh monuments. The period closes with the -charming ogee doorways and arcading at the west end of -the nave.</p> - -<p>XI. The <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> period commences with the -choir-stalls, so much eulogised by Pugin; and, but little later, -the miserable statues of English kings over the west door, -and the west windows of the nave and its aisles. The western -towers were also raised to their present height, and all three -towers were vaulted. All this work belongs to the last forty -years of the fourteenth century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span></p> - -<p>The west front now consists of an oblong area of Early -Norman work, which is decorated above by a Late Norman -arcade of semicircular intersecting arches, and midway by -a row of Late Norman sculptured plaques, and by the Perpendicular -niches with the kings: the windows are also -Perpendicular; but the central doorway is Late Norman and -the side doorways Transitional. The central arch of the Early -Norman work has been replaced by a pointed one; and the -whole of the Early Norman work is surrounded by Lancet -work, which in turn is crested with a Curvilinear parapet. -The lower stages of the towers are Late Norman; the upper -stages Early Perpendicular. The west front has been constantly -censured for hiding the western towers, “like prisoners -looking over the bars of their cage.” But any one who has -seen the western towers of St. Stephen’s, Caen, will recognise -that, but for the west front, the Lincoln towers would look -top-heavy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus83.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM THE SOUTH.</p> -</div> - -<p>XII. To the fifteenth century belong the battlemented -parapet of the Galilee porch; Bishop Fleming’s chantry; the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -screens of the chapels in the north and south transept; and -Bishop Russell’s chantry.</p> - -<p>XIII. In <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> days was built Bishop Longland’s chantry -(1521-1547), the niches of which have Renaissance detail. -The three chantries are so low that they do not interfere with -the main lines of the cathedral; and, being low, give scale -to it.</p> - -<p>XIV. The date of the brass Eagle is 1667. In 1674 Wren -built the Library in the Cloister. The brass chandelier is of -1698. The supporting arches of the western towers were -inserted in 1727.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="London">The Cathedral Church of St. Paul, London.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus84.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM THE SOUTH.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">From Lincoln and Lichfield to St. Paul’s, the transition is -vast and abrupt. It is a transition from the archaic, -mediæval, feudal world to modern England. Mediæval -religion, mediæval art is dead—killed by the printed book. -Mediæval architecture also succumbs before the printed -book. The master-masons of the old cathedrals, whose very -names for the most part are unknown, give place to architects -of European fame—men who read books, write books, and -work to book. The mediæval architect was a builder and -nothing else. The Renaissance architect was first of all -a scholar, and secondly an artist; and only incidentally an -architect. He learnt the art of architectural design, not in -the builder’s yard, but by preference at the goldsmith’s bench. -From jewellery he turned with equal facility to painting and -sculpture, to civil engineering or to the art of fortification, to -water-colours, to stage mechanism, to landscape gardening, -to poetry, politics or diplomacy. Among the men of this -versatile genius Christopher Wren holds a worthy place. He<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -proceeded to Oxford at the early age of fourteen; and obtained -a fellowship at All Souls’. Physical science and astronomy -were his first love. At the age of twenty-five “he was known -in scientific circles all over -Europe,” and was Professor -of Astronomy. He wrote -on comets, and gnomonicks, -and diplographic pens. In -his twenty-ninth year he was -honoured with the degrees of -D.C.L. and LL.D. at Oxford -and Cambridge. He helped -to found the Royal Society, -and was twice its President. -He was even a Member of -the House of Commons in two -Parliaments. In his thirty-first -year he turned his attention -to architecture—attracted, -no doubt, largely by the physical and mathematical problems -involved. Two years later he set out to the Continent to see -for himself the great works of the Revival of Classical Architecture. -Unfortunately he went no farther than Paris: those -masterpieces of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi’s dome at -Florence, Michael Angelo’s dome at Rome, he was fated -never to see. For the rest of a life unusually prolonged he -was to be occupied in imitating models which he had never -seen. The result is perhaps not to be regretted. He left -behind him not the close copy of Italian Renaissance work -which we might have had, under more favourable circumstances, -from Inigo Jones, but an English Renaissance style -of marked individuality and originality, and therefore of great -interest. He had to think out all his problems—problems of -construction and problems of planning—for himself.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus85.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p>Wren, like his employers, the citizens of the City of London -was a sound Protestant; and when he was commissioned to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -rebuild St. Paul’s after the Great Fire, his intention was to -give London a Protestant cathedral. He was less concerned -to provide processional aisles and altared chapels than a vast -unencumbered central area for preaching. The new cathedral -was to be a gigantic preaching-house. To provide the vast -central area demanded, the narrow crossing beneath the -central tower of a Gothic cathedral was abandoned. Instead -of a central tower he resolved to employ a dome—the only -form of roof which would cover so vast a span. One mediæval -cathedral in England, and one only, had such a crossing. It -was the superb cathedral of Ely, where Wren’s uncle was -Bishop. But it was no doubt of St. Peter’s, Rome, that Wren -was thinking, rather than of Ely. Just as St. Peter’s, Rome, -had been built to rival and surpass the Florence Duomo, so -Wren designed that his own new cathedral should be an -improvement on St. Peter’s, Rome. In the supports of his -dome he chose to follow the unhappy precedents of Florence -and Ely rather than the nobler type of St. Peter’s and Santa -Sophia; he blocked -up his central area -with eight piers, instead -of poising his -dome on four supports, -as in the -metropolitan cathedrals -of the East and -West.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus86.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">AS FIRST PROJECTED.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Wren’s favourite -design, as shown in -the model still preserved -in the cathedral, -the dome was -to be abutted to the west by an aisleless vestibule or nave, -itself crowned by a minor dome; while to the north, east, and -south, it was intended to give it the support of a surrounding -ring of domical chapels, opening into the central area<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -by a series of fairy-like vistas and ever-changing contrasts -of light and shadow. But the Anglican clergy rose in revolt -at the position assigned -to them in -the cathedral—a -position contrary to -any precedent of the -Anglican Church; -and refused to sit in -a ring all round the -central area beneath -the dome. On the -other hand, the Court -party, almost openly -expecting, and with -good reason, the restoration -of the old -religion, wanted an -aisled nave with room -for the pageantry of -processions and with provision of chapels for the saint-worship -soon to be restored. Romanisers and Anglicans alike united -to condemn a plan which failed to provide for the ritualistic -needs of either. Wren had to start again; and London -had to put up with a Renaissance cathedral which in -plan is as mediæval as that of Ely, with aisled nave, aisled -choir, aisled transepts, and even with a western transept, -as again at Ely. St. Paul’s then, is primarily, an aisled -(<i>i.e.</i> a basilican) church, with, incidentally, a dome thrown -in. And therein lies the fault of the design. Internally, -the church predominates over the dome. Unless you stand -beneath or almost beneath the dome, you can hardly -see that a dome is there at all. Narrow nave, narrower -aisles, the multiplied obstructive masses of the various piers, -hide the dome away from view. Rightly designed, a great -central dome ought to be all in all; everything should lead up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> -to it; everything should be suppressed that does not lend it -strength or grace. Its thrusts are great, and cannot be -resisted by the piers of aisles, unless the piers are positive -mountains of masonry; aisles, then, should be omitted. The -dome should rest on four arches, and their thrusts should be -resisted by the solid walls of the unaisled nave and choir -and the two transepts. And these four great limbs of the -church should be kept short, to give the dome full value.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus87.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Again, just as the central dome dictates the plan of the -church, so it should dictate the form of the vaulted roof. There -were three types of vault at Wren’s disposal. One was the -intersecting vault, a second the domical vault, a third the -waggon or tunnel vault. The first is altogether out of harmony -with a central dome, though Wren has employed it in some -of his City churches. What he adopted was the second: he -vaulted the nave with a row of four domes, the choir with a -row of three. Thus, it might be thought, with seven domes -leading up to a central dome, Wren had secured harmony -and success. It is not so. Nothing can be more distressing -to the eye than to follow the up and down line of the little -domes till it suddenly plunges into the central abyss. The -only tolerable form of vault in connection with a central dome -is the tunnel vault, as it is employed in St. Peter’s, Rome; or, -still better, in S. Annunziata, Genoa. Such a tunnel vault, -however, should start direct from the cornice, and not, as at -St. Paul’s, from a meaningless attic interposed between cornice -and vault.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus88.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>As it stands, in the internal elevation of the cathedral -Wren has given us a hybrid design. It reminds one of Gothic, -for there is a travesty of a clerestory; it is Classic, for beneath -is a gigantic Order. Wren has hesitated between two opinions. -He might have given us a three-storied interior—pier-arcade, -triforium and clerestory—of course with Classical detail, as is -done with charming effect in the noble cathedral at Pavia; -or a one-storied interior, as at St. Peter’s. As his patrons -insisted on having aisles, he might well have adopted the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -former alternative, and have presented us with what might -have been very beautiful—a Classical triforium. If he wanted -the majesty of the single gigantic Order of St. Peter’s, he -should have omitted the attic, run up the Order twenty feet -higher, and lighted the nave by lunettes cut through a tunnel -vault. As it is, the miserable attic is of no value in itself, and -at the same time diminishes the importance of the pier arcade. -However, as we have seen, Wren is not responsible at all for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -the plan, and only partially for the proportions of the interior -of St. Paul’s. He has not given us of his best, because the -world of his day would not have it. Most of the defects that -one laments are absent from his earlier and favourite design: -<i>e.g.</i>, the ugly subsidiary arches under the oblique arches of -the octagon of the dome, and the bad lighting of the dome -itself.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus89.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LOOKING WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Externally everything is different. No ritual, Anglican or -other, interfered. Wren had free play: all his success and -any faults are his own. What it fails to do internally the -great dome does externally with colossal success: it dominates -everything—not only the church, but London. Every -part of the vast building gathers up into the all-compelling -unity of the central dome. Inside, St. Paul’s is all church; -outside, it is all dome. Into this exterior has grown in -concrete embodiment all Wren’s aspirations: his aspirations -for grandeur, massiveness, and power; for monumental -stability, for unity, for harmony, for symmetry and proportion, -for beauty of curve and line. St. Paul’s has none of the -airy lightness of Salisbury -and Lincoln; -it possesses in compensation -the rock-hewn -solidity and -majesty of Durham. -In Lincoln and Salisbury, -and in Exeter -and York, the windows -are counted by -hundreds; along the -flanks of St. Paul’s -windows are few and -far apart, and they are confined to the aisles; the great -screen-wall above rises sheer like a precipice, almost unbroken -by an opening. Simple and grand, too, is the -handling of the masses. At the re-entering angles of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -transepts square masses project to form a stable platform -for the mighty dome; towers project to the flanks of the -western bays of the -nave, giving breadth -and dignity to the -main façade. Otherwise -the design is -symmetry itself. -Everything is in the -“grand manner.” -Perhaps the side-elevation -is a little -monotonous, and the -western chapels block -off the towers at their -spring, but they -were forced on Wren -against his better -judgment: internally -the nave gains -greatly; externally they are a mistake. One would perhaps -have liked also that the screen-wall of the side aisles of -the choir and transepts, instead of ending square, should -have circled round in one vast majestic sweep, in harmony -with the curving dome above, after the fashion of the fine -cathedral of Como. The flatness, moreover, of the side-elevations -gives but little room for play of light and shade. -There are none of the pits of darkness that lurk between the -buttresses and transepts of Beverley or Lincoln. Only in the -recessed west front and behind the colonnade of the dome the -shadows brood. Nature, however, or rather London smoke, -has given St. Paul’s a chiaroscuro of its own—not to be washed -off, as has been foolishly proposed, by Vandal fire-engines. -Where the rain lashes the building, especially its angles and -projections, the good Portland stone is white and clean; -where sheltered by projecting cornices it is black as Erebus.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus90.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FLYING-BUTTRESSES AND SCREEN-WALL.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span></p> - -<p>Externally, it is a building of two stories. Wren designed -it originally for one story, but was unable to get big enough -blocks of stone to carry a single gigantic Order, as at -St. Peter’s, up to the cornice; for which we may be thankful. -The façade also is composed of two Orders of columns, and -they are necessarily comparatively small columns. But all -appearance of weakness is admirably removed by arranging -them in couples; indeed, one would be sorry to have instead -of this noble design Wren’s own one-story façade as shown -in his model,—still more to have that of Inigo Jones.</p> - -<p>The harmony, too, of the noble design is delightful. The -two stories of the columns of the façade become two stories -of pilasters on the flanks of the nave; at the ends of the -transepts they sweep round into lovely semicircular colonnades; -colonnades form the central stages of the western steeples; -the drum of the dome is encircled by a superb colonnade; -the dome itself culminates in a colonnaded lantern. See, too, -how the lantern, domical above and colonnaded below, sums -up the composition of the dome beneath; and how the western -steeples prepare the eye for the transition from the rectilinear -colonnades of the great façade to the swelling curve of the -dome,—itself reproduced in the north and south circular -porches and in the apsidal choir. St. Paul’s is “a house at -one with itself.”</p> - -<p>It is true that the dead wall from aisle windows to cornice -is perhaps the “most unmitigated building sham upon the -face of the earth.” It has absolutely nothing to do at all -except to hide away some flying-buttresses—the very ugliest -eye ever saw—which Sir Christopher might well be reluctant -to expose to the jeers of the man in the street. It is true, -too, that there is built up in this dead wall enough good stone -to construct half a dozen parish churches. It has been urged -that it was built to weight the foot of each flying-buttress -after the manner of a Gothic pinnacle. But not even a -Gothic baby would have provided continuous abutment -for intermittent thrusts. The dead wall may perhaps be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -defended on artistic, but certainly not on constructional -grounds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus91.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">INNER DOME, CONE, AND OUTER DOME.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the dome, Wren had three conflicting ideals to realise: -(1) to make the dome so lofty that it should be visible externally -from base to summit; (2) to make it so low internally that it -should range with the vaulting of nave, choir, and transepts; -(3) to finish it with a stone lantern as lofty and heavy as an -ordinary church spire. At St. Peter’s the dome externally -squats down so low that from most directions one must walk -a mile away to get a complete view of it; the internal dome<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -is so lofty as to be invisible from most parts of the church; -the lantern is much smaller and lighter than is required by -so mighty a dome; and is in a condition of very unstable -equilibrium, badly supported, cracked, and tied together in -all directions. All these difficulties Wren triumphantly -disposed of; nevertheless, for his triumph he has received -little but censure and abuse. He made two domes; and -brought the inner dome, which is of brick (see diagram), far -lower than the outer one—though not low enough. Secondly, -he mounted the outer dome, which is of wood covered with -lead, on a lofty colonnaded drum, visible of all men even from -the narrow street below. Thirdly, between the two domes -(see diagram) he built a cone of brick, and on this cone he -poised the lantern—which is as heavy as an ordinary church-spire—in -perfect security. If the outer dome were removed—<i>e.g.</i>, -if it were burnt, as it may some day, being of wood—the -lantern would still stand perfectly safe on its conical -support. In the dome of St. Paul’s Wren’s engineering -capacities culminate. But it is more than a piece of -engineering. No tower, no spire, no group of towers or -spires, impresses itself on the imagination like the dome of -St. Paul’s. Lincoln and Salisbury, Lichfield and Durham, -retire before the claims of this overwhelming younger pile,</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent12">“whose sky-like dome</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hath typified by reach of daring art</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Infinity’s embrace.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Norwich">The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, Norwich.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus92.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The ancient kingdom -of East -Anglia was converted -to Christianity by a -Burgundian monk, -Felix, who became the -first bishop of East -Anglia—the diocese, -as usual, being coextensive -with the kingdom—and -fixed his -see at Dunwich in 630. -The see was subdivided -by the Archbishop -Theodore, the -great organiser of the -English Church, in -669. It was again -reunited, and the cathedral was at Elmham, till the bishop -migrated in 1070 to Thetford, and in 1094 to Norwich.</p> - -<p>The present cathedral was commenced in 1096 by Herbert -de Losinga, who is usually described as a Lorrainer. He -is recorded to have finished the whole cathedral before his -death in 1119 as far as the altar of the Holy Cross, which -would stand in front of the choir-screen. His successor -finished the nave and west front, and carried up the central -tower (1121-1145). The plan is that of Gloucester and -Leominster; the rudiments of it appear in the ancient church<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> -at Bethlehem and in St. Sepulchre at Jerusalem. There was -an enormously long aisled nave of fourteen bays, aisleless -transepts of three bays, an aisled presbytery of five bays, a -semicircular apse, a processional aisle or ambulatory encircling -the apse, and three segmental chapels radiating from the -ambulatory; also eastern apses to the transepts. All this -remains, except the easternmost apsidal chapel, which was -replaced in the thirteenth century by an oblong Lady chapel, -itself pulled down in the sixteenth century; and the apse -of the south transept, which was replaced by an oblong -chapel in the thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>The history of Norwich cathedral, therefore, differs <i>toto cœlo</i> -from that of every other English cathedral, except that of -Gloucester. With the exception that both Gloucester and -Norwich ultimately increased the dimensions of their eastern -Lady chapels, no eastward extensions of any moment took -place. This was not because the Norfolk people were more -conservative than other people, or, in a remote corner of -England, were behind the times; but because the plan of -the Norwich cathedral was convenient for mediæval ritual, -and the plan of the other cathedrals was not. Other cathedrals -had to build a processional aisle at the back of the High -Altar; at Norwich it was there already. Other cathedrals had -to throw out eastern transepts to provide chapels for the great -saints of the Church, St. James, St. John, St. Peter and the -rest; Norwich cathedral from the first had five apsidal -chapels. Other cathedrals had a local saint of the first water, -and had to build a special saint’s chapel or feretory for his -shrine: Canterbury for St. Thomas, Chester for St. Werburgh, -Durham for St. Cuthbert, Ely for St. Audrey, Hereford for -St. Ethelbert, Lichfield for St. Chad, Lincoln for St. Hugh, -Oxford for St. Frideswide, Rochester for St. William, St. -Albans for St. Alban, Winchester for St. Swithin, Worcester -for St. Wolfstan. Norwich had no local saint of any great -repute, except a poor little boy who was alleged to have been -crucified by the Jews. Nor, again, did sacerdotalism much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> -affect the growth of Norwich cathedral. The nave was so -vast that, even when the monks had appropriated five bays -of it for their ritual choir, as they did at first, there still -remained nine bays for processions, and for the laity to -worship at the nave-altar of the Holy Cross. There was no -need to crowd the stalls into the eastern limb of the church -as the Canterbury monks had to do because of the shortness -of their Norman nave. It is true that, later on, the Norwich -monks moved eastward -a little, placing -their sixty stalls under -the tower and in the -two easternmost bays -of the nave, where -they are at present; -but this was probably -done merely to get -better light, partly -from the lantern-tower -above, partly from -the enlarged windows -of the transepts. The -original position of -the choir is marked -by the cylindrical -piers, the fifth from -the tower; by a hole in the vault, inside a boss, from which -hung down a light or a censer; and by the corbelling of -the eastern vaulting-shafts to leave room for the stalls.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus93.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>With these exceptions, the history of the cathedral mainly -reduces itself to three sets of building operations: first, -repairs necessitated by fire or storm; secondly, attempts to -improve the lighting of the building; and, thirdly, to make -it fireproof.</p> - -<p>Taking these works in the above order, we first have to -note the mischief done by fire and storm. In 1297 the tower<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -seems to have had a wooden spire. This was blown down -in 1361; and, falling eastward, damaged the clerestory of -the Norman presbytery. Both the spire and clerestory had -to be rebuilt; and in rebuilding the clerestory the monks took -the opportunity to remedy what was the gravest defect in all -the Norman cathedrals—viz., their extreme darkness. Now, -it happened that, only some ten years before, the magnificent -clerestory of Gloucester presbytery had been built; and the -report of the brilliant illumination and gorgeous glass of this -grand work was bruited, no doubt, all over England by -pilgrims returning from the shrine of the murdered Edward II. -at Gloucester. Therefore, just as at Gloucester, they determined -to raise the new presbytery higher than the nave—they -raised it ten feet—and to make the clerestory practically a -continuous sheet of glass. In one thing, fortunately, they did -not copy Gloucester, as Edington did in Winchester nave—which -is of the same date as the Norwich work—they did not -think it necessary to discard altogether the beautiful flowing -tracery of the Curvilinear period; and so here, as in many -Norfolk churches, we find inserted, side by side, at the same -time, Curvilinear and Perpendicular windows. Another -charming feature of Curvilinear work was the ogee niche, -such as those of the arcade of Ely Lady chapel. These -niches, too, were utilised at Norwich cleverly and beautifully, -being used instead of corbels to support the ribs of the roof. -This fourteenth-century roof seems to have been one of wood.</p> - -<p>But, earlier than this, a determined attempt had been made -to get rid of the darkness of the nave by inserting (1315-1360) -a range of windows with flowing tracery all along the -north aisle of the nave. In the Perpendicular period (1360-1485) -the monks took the same course as at Ely: they raised -the triforium walls, closed the external windows of the triforium, -flattened the roof of the triforium, and thus managed to get -in a range of tall windows, each of four lights, in the hope -that the light from them might find its way into the nave -across the triforium; and that the more easily as the openings<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -of the inner arcade of the triforium were not obstructed by -central shafts. The result is extraordinary, as seen from the -garth. The south side of the cathedral, instead of the usual -three or four stories, seems six stories high. First there are -the openings of the cloister; then the upper story of the -cloister; then the blind arcade of the triforium; then the -Norman triforium windows; then the Perpendicular ditto; -then the Norman clerestory.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus94.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CENTRAL TOWER.</p> -</div> - -<p>Even this was insufficient. The eastern bays of the nave, -where the stalls were placed, and where, most of all, light was -needed, were the -darkest of all, -being obstructed -by the stalls and -by the cloister -roof. So in the -exterior of the -two easternmost -bays of the nave -the Perpendicular -triforium -windows and the -Norman clerestory -windows -were thrown into one, to give as much light as possible to -the stalls below. For the same reason large Perpendicular -windows were inserted in the transepts. Several of these, -however, have recently been replaced by Norman windows: -“genuine Perpendicular by sham Norman.” In the middle -of the south aisle of the nave Bishop Nix (1501-1536) built -himself a gorgeous chantry, to light which he inserted two -large windows, high up so as to clear the cloister roof. -Large square-headed windows were inserted in the triforium -of the presbytery also; and an enormous Perpendicular -window was inserted in the west front, still further to light -the nave. These measures were fairly successful in nave and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -transept; but, fortunately -for us, less -successful than in the -presbytery.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus95.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH-EAST APSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Now we come to -the measures taken -to make the building -fireproof. These took -the form of costly -stone vaults, and -they seem to have -been undertaken by -the monks most reluctantly. -All the -high vaults are the -direct outcome of -some great fire, and -but for the fire they would not have been undertaken. -There were conflagrations in 1170 and 1271, and in the -fearful riots of 1272 the cathedral was set on fire by the -citizens. Still, when the presbytery was repaired in 1362, it -seems to have been roofed again in wood. In 1463 the wooden -spire was struck by lightning, and set fire to the roofs both of -nave and presbytery. At last the monks had to bestir themselves. -To secure the spire against fire they rebuilt it in -stone instead of wood; and, to make the nave and presbytery -fireproof, they made up their minds to vault both in stone. -Between 1463 and 1472 Bishop Lyhart put up over the -nave the present magnificent lierne vault, and at his death -bequeathed two thousand marks to his successor to continue -the work. Bishop Goldwell vaulted the presbytery between -1472 and 1499. It seems to have been very difficult to get the -funds for this costly work. Bishop Goldwell, however, was -a personal friend of the Pope, who had consecrated him with -his own hands; and he had not much difficulty in persuading -the Pope to grant a perpetual indulgence in the terms that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -“all who came to the cathedral on Trinity Sunday and Lady -Day, and made an offering towards the fabric, should be -entitled to an indulgence of twelve years and forty days.” -The transepts had still wooden roofs. It required another -fire—in 1509—in which these roofs were consumed, to compel -the monks to complete the vaulting of the cathedral. This -was done in the time of Bishop Nix. At the end of -four hundred years Norwich cathedral was at length -fireproof.</p> - -<p>And did they do nothing merely for prettiness’ sake? Well, -here, as at Gloucester, they set to work to do what was quite -unnecessary—to harmonise the Norman ground-story of the -presbytery with the clerestory of 1631. By one of those -marvellous pieces of engineering, of which the mediæval -architects were so fond—we saw a conspicuous example at -Carlisle—while retaining the Norman triforium and the -Perpendicular clerestory above, they managed to remodel -the Norman piers on either side of the presbytery, and to take -out the semicircular arches bodily and replace them by the -fashionable arch of -the period—a depressed -four-centered -arch. This was done -by Bishop Goldwell—no -doubt before he -put up the vault above -(<i>c.</i> 1475).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus96.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>The only other great -work was the rebuilding -of the cloisters, -also forced on the -monks by a great fire—that -of 1272. This -work was executed -exceedingly slowly, -the window tracery<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -ranging from Geometrical, through Curvilinear, to Perpendicular -work.</p> - -<p>One word more about the superb interior. It is hardly too -much to say that the interior of this cathedral—but second-rate -in point of dimensions—is unequalled in all England. One -reason is that it is vaulted throughout. Ely, Peterborough -St. Albans, Rochester, Romsey, Waltham, Southwell—with -their paltry wooden ceilings—are not to be compared for a -moment with Norwich. Gloucester and Chichester naves are -vaulted, but the vaults are too slight and flimsy for the stern -and massive work below. Durham vault is strong and satisfactory. -But the lierne vault of Norwich is a far more glorious -crown and finish than the rude work of Durham. It might be -thought that the richness and magnificence of the lierne vault -of Norwich would be out of harmony with the simplicity and -heaviness of Norman piers and triforium and clerestory. It is -not so. A tower, like that of Magdalen College, Oxford, may -be ever so plain below, and yet terminate fitly with a glorious -coronal of battlements, parapet and pinnacles. So it is with -this interior.</p> - -<p>Its rivals are to be found in Winchester and Tewkesbury. -But at Winchester the vaults of nave and presbytery are cut -in two by the unvaulted transept. Norwich and Tewkesbury -are vaulted everywhere—from east to west and from north to -south. And in both, the vaults being uniform in character, -and not changing character half-way as at Gloucester, weld -together the spreading limbs of the church into a marvellous -unity.</p> - -<p>But there is another fine feature about the interior of -Norwich, as in that of Gloucester: it is the striking contrast -of light and shade, of shadowy nave and brilliant choir. -Hereford presents us with the reverse effect—bright nave and -gloomy choir. Both effects are dramatic; both, doubtless, -are unintentional. If they had known how, or could have -afforded it, the Hereford people would have flooded their -choir with sunshine, Norwich and Gloucester their naves.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> -The mediæval builders wanted none of these dramatic contrasts -of light and shade; they were always working to get rid -of the dim religious light that nowadays we venerate; they -would have liked their churches lighted thoroughly well -throughout. What they wanted was the light, uniformly good, -of Lichfield and Exeter: or Salisbury, bright and gay as a -ball-room.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus97.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">APSE OF CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>But the most subtle and most important element in the -beauty of the interior of Norwich is to be found in its proportions. -The nave is of an immense length, but it is very -narrow. York, Canterbury, Lincoln, Durham, all have naves -far too short for their breadth. And what is more important -still is the ratio of the height of Norwich nave to its span. In -most English cathedrals it is 2 to 1; but in Norwich nave the -ratio rises to 2⁴⁄₇, and in the presbytery it is 3 to 1. In Norwich -presbytery, then, we have just those proportions which we find -in the great Gothic cathedrals of France, but in England -hardly anywhere except in Westminster Abbey. People<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> -admire Norwich presbytery and Westminster presbytery for -the same reason, and, no doubt, in most cases, without -knowing what the reason is.</p> - -<p>One thing more remains to be said in praise of Norwich, as -of Gloucester. It is that all the glory of the church is concentrated -at one spot, and that the most important spot in the -church. It is in approaching the high altar that vaults and -clerestory soar aloft, that loveliest vistas open out into ambulatory -and chapels, while the noble windows above fill all with -light and atmosphere. “I would back it,” says Dean -Goulburn, “against any similar effect in almost any cathedral -in Christendom.”</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Oxford">The Cathedral Church of Christ, Oxford.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus98.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM THE FIELDS.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">“About the year of our Lord 727, there lived in Oxford -a Saxon prince named Didan, who had an only child, -Frideswide (‘bond of peace’). Seeing that he had large -possessions and inheritances, and that she was likely to enjoy -most of them after his decease, Frideswide told her father -that he could not do better than bestow them upon some -religious fabric where she and her spiritual sisters might -spend their days in prayers and in singing psalms and hymns -to God. Wherefore the good old man built a church, and -committed it wholly to the use of his daughter, purposely -to exercise her devotion therein; and other edifices adjoining -to the church, to serve as lodging-rooms for Frideswide and -twelve virgins of noble extraction. There she became famous -for her piety and for those excellent parts that nature had -endowed her withal; and Algar, King of Leicester, became<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -her adorer by way of marriage. Finding that he could not -prevail with her by all the entreaties and gifts imaginable, -he departed home, but sent to her ambassadors with this -special and sovereign caution, that if she did not concede, -to watch their opportunity and carry her away by force. -Frideswide was inexorable. Wherefore at the dawning of -the day the ambassadors clambered the fences of the house, -and by degrees approaching her private lodging, promised -to themselves nothing but surety of their prize. But she, -awakening suddenly and discovering them, and finding it -vain to make an escape, being so closely besieged, fervently -prayed to the Almighty that He would preserve her from the -violence of those wicked persons, and that He would show -some special token of revenge upon them for this their bold -attempt. Wherefore the ambassadors were miraculously -struck blind, and like madmen ran headlong yelling about -the city. But Algar was filled with rage, and intended for -Oxford, breathing out nothing but fire and sword. Which -thing being told to Frideswide in a dream, with her sisters -the nuns Katherine and Cicely, she fled to the riverside, -where there awaited her a young man with a beautiful -countenance and clothed in white, who, mitigating their fear -with pleasant speech, rowed them up the river to a wood ten -miles distant. There the nuns sheltered in a hut, which ivy -and other sprouts quickly overgrew, hiding them from sight -of man. Three years Frideswide lived in Benton wood, -when she came back to Binsey and afterwards to Oxford, in -which place this maiden, having gained the triumph of her -virginity, worked many miracles; and when her days were -over and her Spouse called her, she there died.” Such is -the account of her which Anthony-a-Wood drew from -William of Malmesbury and Prior Philip of Oxford, both -of whom unfortunately lived long after the events which they -narrate.</p> - -<p>I. In the east walls of the north choir-aisle and the Lady -chapel three small rude arches have recently been found,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -and outside, in the gardens, the foundations of the walls of -three apses. Hence it has been concluded that we have here -the eastern termination of Frideswide’s eighth-century church. -It may be so, but the central arch seems very small for the -chancel-arch of an aisled church. It is indeed a foot wider -than the chancel-arch of the Saxon church at Bradford-on-Avon, -but that tiny church has no aisles. Moreover, if the -side-arches led into aisles, they would be likely to be of -the same height, -whereas the southern -arch is considerably -the higher of the two.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus99.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>II. At some later -period—perhaps in -the eighth or ninth -century—the foundation -was converted -into one of secular -canons, married -priests taking the -place of the nuns -(cf. Ely). The secular -canons themselves in -turn gave way to -monks, and these in -1111 to regular -canons—<i>i.e.</i>, canons living in monastic fashion under the -rule (<i>regula</i>) of St. Augustine, as at Bristol, Ripon, and -Carlisle.</p> - -<p>The first business, probably, of the secular canons was to -house themselves—<i>i.e.</i>, to build themselves the usual cloister, -with its appanages of chapter-house, refectory, dormitory, -etc. Of the chapter-house which they built, <i>c.</i> 1125, the -doorway still remains.</p> - -<p>In 1004 King Ethelred had rebuilt the Saxon church; and -probably it was found possible to put this church into such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -repair as would allow the services to be held in it for the time -being. At any rate, it was not till 1158 that they commenced -the present cathedral, which they finished in 1180, leaving -not a stone standing of Ethelred’s cathedral. Of the theory -that the present cathedral is in the main the one built in 1004, -I would prefer to say nothing, had it not been adopted in a -recent history of the cathedral; suffice to say that, like the -sister theory that Waltham Abbey was built in 1060, it is -an absolute impossibility. The hands of the archæological -clock cannot be turned 160 years back in this preposterous -fashion.</p> - -<p>The twelfth-century church was very remarkable in plan. -Not only had it an aisled nave and an aisled choir, but it had -the architectural luxury, unparalleled in our Norman architecture -except in the vast churches of Winchester and Ely, -of eastern and western aisles to its transepts. The site, -however, was cramped to the south, and so the southern -transept was shorter than the northern one; moreover, this -short transept later on lost its west aisle, which was lopped -off to allow the cloister to be extended. For the same reason—lack -of room—the slype, or vaulted passage, which in all -monastic institutions connected the cloister with the cemetery, -instead of being built between the transept and the cloister, -was built inside the church, as at Hexham, curtailing still -further the floor area of the north transept. It was therefore -because the church was so cramped to the south, that the -other transept was given aisles on both sides. Instead of an -eastern aisle, the south transept had merely a square chapel -projecting eastward.</p> - -<p>But the canons wanted also a Lady chapel, for the church -seems to have been dedicated originally to the Holy Trinity, -St. Mary and St. Frideswide. The normal position of a Lady -chapel was to the east of the sanctuary. But here also the -canons were cramped; for quite close to the east end of the -church ran the city wall. To get in a Lady chapel, therefore, -they had to build an additional aisle north of the north aisle<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -of the choir. This was three bays long. It was probably -walled off from the transept, but opened into the north choir-aisle -by three Norman arches, reconstructed later on. The -same arrangement is found at Ripon. There was also a -short chapel projecting eastward from the northernmost bay -of the east aisle of the north transept.</p> - -<p>The east end, as at Rochester and Ripon, was square. -The present east end is a fine composition by Scott, more or -less conjectural. The work commenced, as usual, at the east, -as is shown by the gradual improvement westward in the -design of the capitals. The evidence of the vaulting, too, -points in the same direction. In the choir-aisle the ribs are -massive and heavy; in the western aisle of the north transept -they are lighter; in the south aisle of the nave they are -pointed and filleted.</p> - -<p>The transepts are narrower than the nave and choir; the -tower, therefore, is oblong, and, as at Bolton Priory, its narrow -sides have pointed arches: semicircular arches would have -been too low. The faces of the piers of the towers are flat, -because the stalls of the canons were placed against them -and in the eastern bays of the nave, leaving the whole eastern -limb as sanctuary.</p> - -<p>The clerestory walls are only 41½ feet high; therefore, to -have adopted the usual Norman design—viz., triforium on the -top of pier-arcade—would have made the interior look very -squat: so, instead of building the triforium above the pier-arcade, -it was built beneath it. The lofty pier-arches, thus -gained, add greatly to the apparent height and dignity of the -interior. The lower arches, however, which carry the vault -of the aisle behind, are corbelled into the piers in very clumsy -fashion. The design is not original; it was worked out at -Romsey in a single bay of the nave, but, being thought ugly, -was promptly abandoned. It is worked out more successfully in -Dunstable Priory church and Jedburgh Abbey. The clerestory -windows of the nave would be built not much before 1180; -naturally, therefore, they are pointed. The capitals of all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -twelfth-century work are full of interest. Indeed, Transitional -capitals—each an experiment, and all differing—partly conventional, -partly naturalistic, with a dash of Classic—are to -me much more interesting than any of the Gothic capitals, -except perhaps the naturalistic capitals of the later Geometrical -period. There is a great sameness about the foliated capitals -of the Early English, Curvilinear, and Perpendicular periods. -I need hardly say that no one of these capitals came from -Ethelred’s church.</p> - -<p>The whole church is exceedingly interesting. It fills a -niche in the history of English architecture all by itself. It is -not the plain and austere Transitional work of the Cistercians. -On the other hand, it has not yet the lightness and grace of -Ripon; still less the charm of Canterbury choir, Chichester -presbytery, Wells and Abbey Dore—Gothic in all but name. -In spite of its foliated capitals, in spite of a pointed arch here -and there, it is a Romanesque design; yet not so Romanesque -as Fountains, Kirkstall, Furness.</p> - -<p>III. In the <span class="smcap">Lancet</span> period (1190-1245) the works went on -apace. An upper stage was added to the tower, and on that -the spire was built—the first large stone spire in England. -It is a Broach spire: <i>i.e.</i>, the cardinal sides of the spire are -built right out to the eaves, so that there is no parapet. On -the other hand, instead of having broaches at the angle, it -has pinnacles. Moreover, to bring down the thrusts more -vertically, heavy dormer-windows are inserted at the foot of -each of the cardinal sides of the spire: altogether a very -logical and scientific piece of engineering, much more common -in the early spires of Northern France than in England.</p> - -<p>The chapter-house also was rebuilt (<i>c.</i> 1240); rectangular, -to fit the cloister. Also, the canons rebuilt both the Lady -chapel and the adjoining transeptal chapel. Lancet work -will be seen in all the piers on the south side of the Lady -chapel, and in the second and third piers from the west, on -its north side. The cult of the Virgin, much fostered by the -Pope, Innocent III., was at its height in the thirteenth century.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> -The Lady chapels of Bristol, Hereford, Salisbury, Winchester -and Norwich were contemporaries of that of Oxford.</p> - -<p>IV. To the latter half of the <span class="smcap">Geometrical</span> period belong -the fragments of the pedestal of St. Frideswide’s shrine, which -has beautiful naturalistic foliage like that of the contemporary -pedestal of St. Thomas of Hereford, <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 1289. Some twenty -years later is the fine canopied tomb of Prior Sutton.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus100.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. In the <span class="smcap">Curvilinear</span> period (1315-1360) the eastern -chapel of the north transept was pulled down, and in its place -was built a chapel of four bays, with four side windows of -singularly beautiful -tracery, and all -different. They contain -fourteenth-century -glass, which -should be compared -with that in St. Lucy’s -chapel and in Merton -College chapel. The -bosses are very beautiful: -one of them -has a representation -of the water-lilies of -the adjacent Cherwell. -Hard by is the -tomb of Lady Montacute, who gave the canons about half the -Christ Church meadows to found a chantry. The chapel -goes by various names: St. Katharine’s chapel, the Latin -chapel, and the Divinity chapel. It contains good poppy-heads -of Cardinal Wolsey’s time.</p> - -<p>About the same time the eastern chapel of the south transept—St. -Lucy’s chapel—was enlarged. The tracery of its east -window starts in an unusual fashion below the spring of the arch.</p> - -<p>Also the Norman windows were replaced here and there by -large windows with flowing tracery, to improve the lighting -of the church.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span></p> - -<p>VI. There is little to show for the long Perpendicular period -(1360-1485), except the insertion of a few large Perpendicular -windows, and the so-called “Watching-chamber,” the lower -part of which is the tomb of a merchant and his wife, the -upper part probably, the chantry belonging to it, <i>c.</i> 1480.</p> - -<p>VII. In the Tudor period, however, the canons were exceedingly -busy. They set to work to make the whole church -fireproof by covering choir, transepts, and nave with stone -vaults. The choir vault is rather overdone with prettinesses. -It is a copy—and an inferior one—of the massive vault of the -Divinity School, which was completed <i>c.</i> 1478. Canon Zouch, -who died in 1503, left money to proceed with the vault of the -north transept, beneath which is his tomb. Only a small -portion of this was completed. In the clerestory of the nave -also corbels were inserted to support a stone vault; but the -resources of the canons seem to have failed, and the rest of -the church received roofs of wood. Another considerable -work was the rebuilding of the cloisters.</p> - -<p>VIII. Finally, the whole establishment was granted in -1524 to Cardinal Wolsey, who pulled down the three western -bays of the nave, as obstructing his new quadrangle: one -bay has been recently rebuilt.</p> - -<p>IX. In 1542 Henry VIII. founded the new diocese of Oxford. -Till 1546 the seat of the bishopric was at Osney Abbey. On -the suppression of the abbey it was transferred to Wolsey’s -confiscated foundation; and the ancient Priory church -became a cathedral, while at the same time it is the chapel -of the college of Christ Church. There is an interesting -contemporary window in the south choir aisle, showing the -first bishop of Oxford, King, with Osney Abbey on one side. -The “merry Christ Church bells” came from the tower -shown in this window.</p> - -<p>X. At the entrance to the Great Hall is the last bit of -good Gothic done in England, a sort of chapter-house in -fan-tracery.</p> - -<p>XI. The cathedral possesses a charming Jacobean pulpit,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -and a large amount of fine Flemish glass of the seventeenth -century—all of it taken out and stowed away in some lumber-room -at a recent restoration, except one window at the west -end of the north aisle of the nave, in order to insert some -sham mediæval windows.</p> - -<p>XII. There are also five windows from designs by Sir -Edward Burne-Jones—three of them of great beauty; good -windows by Clayton and Bell in the end walls of the transepts; -and a charming reredos by Mr. Bodley, who also has the -credit of the bell tower.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Peterborough">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, Peterborough.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus101.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM THE SOUTH.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">St. Augustine landed in Kent <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 597. In the next -year Peada and Wolfhere, successive kings of Mercia, -founded a monastery at Peterborough, then called Medeshamstead -(“the homestead in the meadow”), and consecrated -the church in the names of St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. -Andrew. Then said King Wulfhere with a loud voice: “This -day do I freely give to St. Peter and to the abbot and to the -monks of this monastery these lands and waters and meres -and fens and weirs; neither shall tribute or tax be taken therefrom. -Moreover I do make this monastery free, that it be subject -to Rome alone; and I will that all who may not be able to -journey to Rome should repair hither to St. Peter.” This -consecration took place in 664. In 870 this, the first church, -was destroyed by the Danes. It was not fully rebuilt till 972. -Abbot Elsinus (1006-1055) collected many curios: pieces of -the swaddling clothes, of the manger of the cross, and of the -sepulchre of Christ; of the garments of the Virgin, of Aaron’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> -rod, a bone of one of the Innocents, bits of St. John the Baptist, -St. Peter, and St. Paul, the body of St. Florentinus, for which -he gave 100 lbs. of silver, and, most precious of all, the incorruptible -arm of the Northumbrian king, Oswald, believed -by half the population of England to be an effectual cure for -diseases which defied the material power of drugs. Here is -Bede’s account of it: “When Oswald was once sitting at -dinner with Bishop Aidan, on the holy day of Easter, and a -silver dish of dainties was before him, the servant, whom he -had appointed to relieve the poor, came in on a sudden, and -told the king that a great multitude of needy persons were -sitting in the streets begging alms of the king. He -immediately ordered the meat set before him to be carried to -the poor, and the dish also to be cut in pieces and divided -among them. At which sight the Bishop laid hold of the -King’s right hand, and said, ‘May this hand never perish,’ -which fell out according to his prayer; for his arm and hand -being cut off from his body, when he was slain in battle, -remain entire and incorrupted to this day, and are kept in a -silver case as revered relics in St. Peter’s church in the royal -city.” Even King Stephen came to see it; and, what is more, -remitted to the monks forty marks which they owed him. -Benedict was a monk at Canterbury when Becket was -murdered; and when he became Abbot of Peterborough in -1177, he brought with him the slabs of the pavement which -were stained with the blood of the martyr, fragments of his -shirt and surplice, and two vases of his blood. So that the -monastery was called “Peterborough the Proud,” and waxed -rich and mighty, and church and close were holy ground, and -all pilgrims, even though of royal blood, put off their shoes -before passing through the western gateway of the close.</p> - -<p>I. The second Saxon church of 972 seems to have lasted -till 1116, when it was destroyed by fire, and the present -church, the third, was commenced. The foundations of part -of this Saxon cathedral have been recently disinterred beneath -the present south transept. It was cruciform, with a square<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span> -east end. The east limb was 23 feet each way; the transept -was 88 feet long. Its walls were under three feet thick, so -that it cannot have been intended for a vault. There is no -proof that the nave was ever built.</p> - -<p>II. In 1116 the Saxon cathedral was seriously injured by -a great fire, and next year Abbot John of Sais (Seez) commenced -the present Norman cathedral. In 1140 the monks -entered on the new choir, which was now complete, together -with the eastern aisles and eastern wall of the transepts. It -is possible that the monks patched up the damaged Saxon -church sufficiently to allow service to be held in it from -1116 to 1140.</p> - -<p>When they entered into their new Norman choir, the first -thing they did, probably, was to pull down the choir and -transept of the Saxon church, and on the site to erect the rest -of the present south -transept.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus102.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR AND TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>Then they built the -rest of the north transept. -It will be -noticed that it is -superior in design to -the south transept, -its windows are -splayed, and their -ornamentation of later -character. This north -transept is illustrated -by M. Viollet-le-Duc -as a specially fine -example of English -Romanesque.</p> - -<p>Next would be built -the remaining piers and arches of the crossing, and a low -lantern tower of one story only. But the western piers would -not stand without abutment, and so a certain amount of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -the eastern bays of the nave must have been built at the -same time. This comprised two bays of the triforium, for -the tympana of the -two eastern bays of -the triforium have -rude ornaments not -found elsewhere in -the nave. Below, it -probably comprised -four piers and four -arches, for the four -eastern piers on the -north side have different -bases from those -to the west.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus103.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Hitherto the north -wall of the Saxon nave, -if built, may have -been retained to shut -in the cloister on the -north. Now it would be pulled down and replaced by the wall -of the present south aisle of the nave. Then would come -the wall of the north aisle, and finally the pier-arcade and -triforium, but not yet the clerestory of the nave. The nave -was to be in plan precisely like that of Durham: it was to -be a short nave; the central aisle to have eight bays; the -side aisles were to have only seven bays, the end of each -aisle being occupied by a tower, as at Durham. The ground -stories of these towers now form the third bays from the west -on either side of the nave. It will be noticed that the third -piers from the west are exceptionally massive and strong, -and that in this bay the aisle-walls are thickened. The wide -arches of these bays were intended to open up the towers -into the nave.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus104.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">VAULTING UNDER SOUTH-WEST TOWER.</p> -</div> - -<p>But the towers were not built. The Ely monks over the -way were building a nave with no less than twelve bays, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -with a western transept as well. The Peterborough monks -would not like to be outdone by Ely; so they determined also -to have a long nave and a western transept as well. They -built only ten bays to the twelve of Ely; on the other hand, -their nave, excluding western transept, was 211 feet long, -while that of Ely was only 208 feet. About the same time, or -probably a little earlier, the clerestory of the nave—in which -pointed arches occur—was built. All this work may be -assigned to Abbot -Benedict (1175-1193), -who is said by -Swapham and John -to have built the -whole nave as far as—but -not including—the -present west -front. The statements -of Swapham, however, -must be wrong here. -He was still living -<i>c.</i> 1240; so that he -was only a boy when -the nave was finished. -He may possibly in -his boyhood have -seen the clerestory of -the nave built, and, -in writing half a century after, have thought that Benedict -who built the clerestory, had built the triforium and ground-story -also. But the documentary evidence at Peterborough -must be received with the utmost scepticism. All that we -know for certain is that the choir and the eastern portions -of the central transepts were built between 1118 and 1140; -and that the central transept, central tower, nave and western -transept were built between 1140 and 1190.</p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Lancet</span> (1190-1245).—The east end of the church<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> -consisted of three parallel apses. The apses of the aisles -were now replaced by narrow oblong bays: those next to the -New Building.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus105.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the middle of the Lancet period was erected the grand -façade in front of the Transitional western transept. It is -not so much a façade, however, as an open portico or piazza. -Several interesting engineering problems were involved. One -was, how to keep up the three gigantic arches. If they had -spread to north or south, the whole façade would have -collapsed. To prevent their spreading, therefore, flanking -towers were built to north and south; which in later days -were weighted with spires. But there was a more serious -danger. The two great isolated piers might be pushed outwards -by the western thrust of the arches of the nave. These -thrusts the builders stopped by building two towers; one over -the westernmost bay of each aisle of the nave. The northern -of these towers was soon after heightened; the other—the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -Bell Tower—remains -low. The central gable -had to be narrow, -because it is the termination -of the nave -roof. The side-arches -and side-gables had -to be wide, to span -the space from the -nave to the sides of -the Transitional façade -behind. Though much -narrower, however, the -central gable rises as -high as the lateral -gables, being made to spring at a higher level; and it is -made to look as important as the broad side-gables by being -given the company of two powerful pinnacles. Thus the main -features of this magnificent design are due to difficulties of -planning and construction. The design is said to be drawn -from Lincoln; it is more likely that it is an amplification -of John de Cella’s lovely design for the west front of St. Albans. -Abbot Acharius, who may well have commenced the work -(1200-1210) had been Prior of St. Albans under John de Cella. -Judging from the billet and nebula ornament on the gables, -and from the arcading, in which semicircular arches and -round-headed trefoils occur, the façade was designed in the -very beginning of the thirteenth century.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus106.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">GABLE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The west front of Peterborough has been severely criticised, -especially by Mr. Pugin. To many it will ever seem the -highest effort of English art, and to be at once the most -original and most successful façade either in English or in -Continental Gothic. Yet, magnificent and poetic as it is, we -have not the full effect contemplated by the mediæval -builders. They meant to have four towers, not three. The -north-west tower was once crowned by a wooden spire; we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -may be sure that there would have been a spire also on the -south-west tower. Add, too, in the background, the tall spire -which was to be added to the central tower, and you have -a group before which even Lichfield and Lincoln would pale -into insignificance. But, even curtailed as it is, the design -attains the sublime. When first its Titanic arches rose into -the blue sky, its builders may well have repeated the -psalmist’s words: “Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be -ye lift up, ye everlasting doors; and the King of Glory shall -come in.” They had built a worthy portal to the House of -the Almighty.</p> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Geometrical</span> (1245-1315).—In this period the bell -tower was carried up; and a magnificent Lady chapel was -built (<i>c.</i> 1290), like that at Bristol, to the north of the choir, -but detached from it. It could not be built east of the choir, -as a high road passed close to the apse. This Lady chapel -was pulled down in the seventeenth century for the sake of -its materials.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus107.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear.</span>—In this period the weight of the Norman -tower, which had of -course very thick -walls, and was three -or four stories high, -was found to be too -much for the exceptionally -weak piers -on which it stood. -Warned, perhaps, by -the fate of the central -towers of Ely and -Wells, both of which -collapsed about this -time, they took down -the Norman tower, -and built a new one -(which has recently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> -been rebuilt), much lighter and much lower. And they -strengthened its eastern and western semicircular arches by -inserting pointed arches beneath them. The south-west spire -was also built—a design of exquisite beauty.</p> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular.</span>—The monks wanted to have a -Galilee porch, and they inserted one between the piers of the -west front, where it was constructionally useful by keeping the -piers from bulging in. The wooden screens were now inserted -in the central transept.</p> - -<p>Peterborough, after 1116, seems to have had a singular -immunity from fire; so, very unlike Norwich, the monks did -not take the slightest trouble to make their church fireproof. -The whole of the high roofs are of wood. That of the nave -may possibly be the original twelfth-century ceiling. A -twelfth-century wooden roof still covers the Bishop’s Palace -at Hereford. The choir has a wooden vault of the fifteenth -century.</p> - -<p>VIII. In another respect the history of the church is uneventful. -The eastern limb must have been exceedingly inconvenient, -for there was no processional aisle or ambulatory round -the apse. Every other large church pulled down or -altered its eastern limb to suit the ritual: the Peterborough -monks, always conservative and always behind the times, -did not provide a processional aisle till the latter days of -Gothic. And even then they took a very long time about it. -The works seems to have been suspended in 1471, and not -resumed till 1496. Even then, good conservatives that they -were, they did not pull down the apse, but erected the New -Building round it. It is a rich specimen of <span class="smcap">Tudor</span> work, -with a fan vault.</p> - -<p>IX. In the matter, too, of the roof-drainage the Peterborough -monks were slow to move. Instead of dripping -eaves they constructed gutters and parapets to the aisles in -the early years of the thirteenth century, and to the apse a -little later. It was not till <i>c.</i> 1330 that they provided the -high roofs of nave and choir with gutters and parapets; and,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -with their wonted conservatism, they retained the Norman -corbel-table.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus108.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RETRO-CHOIR</p> -</div> - -<p>X. What the monks cared most about was the lighting of -the church. This they were always trying to improve. In -the thirteenth century they inserted large geometrical windows -in the western transept, and <i>c.</i> 1290 others in the aisles of the -central transepts to light the altars placed there. Moreover, -the Norman windows in the aisles of the nave were replaced -by wide windows of five lights. In the Curvilinear period the -triforium windows were transformed, and charming flowing -tracery, with rear-arches, was inserted in the windows of the -apse, which then looked into the open air, but now look into -the New Building. In the Perpendicular period some seventy-five -windows were either enlarged or filled with rectilinear -tracery. The builders certainly achieved their object. The -cathedral is well lighted. We may be thankful that they did<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -not stick a great Perpendicular window in each end of the -central transept.</p> - -<p>XI. In 1541 the church was made a cathedral on the new -foundation. Henry VIII. is said to have preserved it as a -mausoleum to his first wife, Catharine of Arragon, who is -buried in the choir. It is wretchedly built—the west front -and the New Building as badly as the Norman work—and -practically without foundations. Much underpinning has -been done, and more is required. The west front has been -saved for the present by judicious treatment.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Ripon">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter and St. Wilfrid, Ripon.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus109.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Ripon minster has passed through strange vicissitudes. -It was founded <i>c.</i> 660 as a monasterium or minster for -Scottish monks attached to the Celtic church. Soon afterwards -it was taken away from them and granted to the -famous St. Wilfrid. In 678 the church became a cathedral, -but only during the lifetime of Bishop Eadhed. Ultimately it -passed into the hands of regular canons of the Augustinian -Order. It was dissolved with the other collegiate churches -by Edward VI. It was made collegiate once more by James I., -but with dean and prebendaries instead of Augustinian canons. -In 1836, for the second time, it became a cathedral.</p> - -<p>I. Both the minsters built by St. Wilfrid—Ripon and Hexham—retain -their crypts. He was a Romaniser in architecture -as in ritual, and well acquainted with Italy. So his seventh-century -church at Ripon was modelled after the early Christian -basilicas which he had seen at Rome. Like them, it had a -confessionary or crypt, which still exists, beneath the central -tower; like them, it was orientated to the west. He seems<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> -even to have brought over Italian masons to direct or to -execute the work, for the crypt is vaulted, and the vaulting -is of excellent construction; the masonry is smooth, and is -covered “with a fine and very hard plaster which takes a -polish.” At its west end was the altar, at its east end an -aperture through which a glimpse of the interior might be -obtained from the Saxon nave. Round the walls are little -niches in which lights were placed. “St. Wilfrid’s Needle” is -merely a niche with the back knocked through. Similar Saxon -crypts remain at Hexham and Wing, and a Norman crypt at -St. Peter-in-the-East, Oxford. They usually consisted of a -small central chamber, with a passage all round it. There -were two staircases descending from either side of the nave; -pilgrims went down one flight of steps, proceeded along the -passage, getting a glimpse of the relics through openings in -the wall of the central chamber, and then returned up the -other flight of steps into the nave.</p> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Norman.</span>—Early in the twelfth century a Norman -cathedral seems to have been built, wholly or in part, by -Archbishop Thurstan. Of this there remains only an apsidal -building, with crypt beneath, on the south side of the south -aisle of the present choir. An eleventh-century chapel -formerly existed, with crypt beneath it, in precisely the -same situation at Worcester; there is a twelfth-century -chapel in the same position in Oxford cathedral. In -Oxford this chapel was the Lady chapel. It may be that -the Ripon chapel also may have been a Lady chapel. For if -the Norman choir was of the same length eastward as at -present, it would have been impossible to build a Lady chapel -of the type of that, the crypt of which still exists at Winchester, -to the east of the choir; the ground falls far too steeply eastward. -Moreover, the so-called Lady loft now existing would -seem, from its name, to be merely an upper story added to a -Lady chapel. This Norman chapel formerly opened into the -Norman church; traces of the arches may be seen in the walls. -In the buttress is a curious room which may have been a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> -sacristy, a lavatory, a prison, or an anchorite’s cell, like the -one in the east end of Ludlow church.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus110.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Transitional.</span>—From 1154 to 1181 there ruled at York -a man of the greatest energy and power—Archbishop Roger. -He condemned his two Norman churches at York and Ripon; -made no attempt, as at Peterborough and Ely, to improve them; -simply pulled them down, and started again <i>de novo</i>. The -two new minsters -seem to have been -somewhat similar: -both had -square east ends, -both had exceptionally -broad -naves. But -Ripon minster -was merely the -church of Augustinian -canons, -therefore it was -not planned in -cathedral -fashion. Our -ancient collegiate -and parish -churches seem to -have followed -some other model than the early Christian basilicas which -furnished the plans of the cathedrals. Most of our parish -churches originally were without aisles; and even large -churches of the regular canons frequently had no aisles -to the nave. This was the case in Roger’s new church at -Ripon, and at Bolton Priory (also Augustinian). Later on, -indeed, the Ripon canons added north and south aisles to -their nave, and the Bolton canons a north aisle to their nave—they -could not add a south aisle also, as they had a cloister<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> -to the south. But originally both churches had aisleless -naves. That of Ripon was 40 feet broad—broader than any -nave in England, except York, which is of the breadth of -45 feet. The combination of unaisled nave and aisled choir -must have produced a very remarkable interior; quite unlike -anything now existing in England, but to be paralleled by the -Spanish cathedral at Gerona (illustrated in Street’s “Gothic -Architecture of Spain”).</p> - -<p>Of this Transitional nave nothing is now left except two -fragments, one at the east, and one at the west end on either -side. All the rest has been replaced by sixteenth-century -piers, arches, and clerestory. But if in imagination the two -ends of the Transitional nave are joined together—it is well -to do so in an actual drawing—the design of the whole of the -original nave can be recovered with exactitude. A very remarkable -design it was. It consisted of three stories; the -lower story was simply a blank wall. The second, the triforium, -was merely a passage in the thickness of the wall, ornamented -in front by a tall pointed arcade. The clerestory had three tall -slender lancet windows in each bay, all of the same height, -separated by two detached piers. The strangest feature of -the nave was that neither in the ground-story nor in the triforium -were there any windows. Everywhere else people were -trying to get all the windows possible into their churches; -here alone a “dim, religious light” was preferred. And -filtering in, as it did, through small lancet windows at a great -height, as in Pugin’s cathedral at Killarney, the effect must -have been most dramatic. The destruction of this unique -nave is one of the heaviest losses that English architecture -has sustained.</p> - -<p>Of the central tower, the south-east pier has been rebuilt; -the north-east and south-west piers have been cased. The -north and west arches of the tower survive; the south and -east arches have been rebuilt. The nave was considerably -wider than the central aisle of the choir; the tower was therefore -not built square; the northern arch being set obliquely,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> -and not parallel to the southern one. Outside, however, the -north side of the tower is corbelled out till the tower becomes -square.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus111.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>The design of the choir is best seen in the east side of the -north transept, which retains the original round-headed -windows. In the choir the western windows of the north aisle -were converted into lancets in the thirteenth century. The -design of transept and choir is almost Greek in its severity. -Very effective is the -contrast of broad -wall-surface and plain -splayed window with -the light and slender -shafted arcades of -triforium and clerestory. -In proportions, -too, it is superior -to nearly all later -designs. The pier-arches -are tall and -narrow, and the -triforium thoroughly -subordinated to the -tall clerestory; the -proportions approximate -closely to those -of Westminster Abbey and Beverley Minster. It is remarkable, -too, for the studied absence of foliated ornament. Not -that the builders could not design a foliated capital; they have -left one or two, in unnoticed corners of the north transept, -to show their powers. All the capitals of the choir are -moulded capitals, as at Roche Abbey—perhaps occurring -here for the first time. Being a first attempt, they can hardly -be considered a success; they were soon to be improved upon -in the French crypt of Canterbury. The designer relied on -architectural effects pure and simple, and was followed in his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span> -ascetic self-restraint sixty years later in the eastern transept -of Fountains and at Salisbury. Even more remarkable is the -complete abolition of Norman ornament. The billet, the -zigzag, the whole barbaric congeries of Norman ornament is -contemptuously cast aside. In this respect, indeed, Ripon is -much more advanced than Canterbury choir, which was not -commenced till 1174. The clerestory, however, is of a familiar -Norman type, being an adaptation of that of Romsey and -Waltham Abbey, and Peterborough and Oxford cathedrals; -it was reproduced a little later in Hexham choir.</p> - -<p>The vaulting-shafts rest on the abaci, French fashion. In -the choir there are five vaulting-shafts, which in the clerestory -diminish to one. The effect is not satisfactory, and a different -treatment is adopted in the transept. It is noteworthy that -the vaulting of the north transept aisle contains an exceptionally -early example of ridge-ribs, both longitudinal and -transverse.</p> - -<p>In spite of round-headed windows and round-headed arches -here and there, the whole design of the interior is light and -graceful, thoroughly Gothic. Externally it is just the reverse; -but for a pointed arcade in the clerestory one might imagine -one was back again in the early days of the twelfth century. -But when one compares the interior with that of Oxford -Cathedral, which is precisely contemporary, and in which the -spirit of Gothic is wholly absent, suspicion rises to certainty: -Ripon Minster must have been designed under French influence. -The tall, acute, pointed pier-arches of Notre Dame, -Chalons-sur-Marne, and Sens (commenced <i>c.</i> 1140) reappear -in Ripon choir, and the undoubtedly French choir of Canterbury. -The Chalons triforium reappears in the north wall of -Ripon transept; the Chalons clerestory in that of Ripon -nave. The clerestory of Ripon choir is practically that of the -French choir of Canterbury, itself probably suggested by that -of Sens. French too, are the vaulting-shafts of the choir, -insecurely balancing on the abaci; and the broadness and -plain splays of the windows.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span></p> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—To this period belong the vaulting and piers -of the present chapter-house; and the west front, which, -like York transept and Southwell choir, is attributed to -Archbishop Gray (<i>ob.</i> 1255). The west front is too flat; -deficient in play of light and shade; correct and uninteresting. -It is ruined by the loss of its wooden spires, removed in 1664; -and by the miserable little pinnacles put up in 1797. Before -the aisles were built, these towers projected clear of the nave, -their inner walls are Transitional; but the Transitional arch -has been taken out and replaced by one of the Lancet period.</p> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Geometrical.</span>—The -lower row of -lancets in the west -front once had charming -tracery, inserted -early in the Geometrical -period. This was -destroyed by Scott.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus112.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>About 1280 the east -end of the choir -seems to have collapsed—partly, -perhaps, in consequence -of the steep fall of -the ground eastwards. It was rebuilt, with the damaged -portions of the choir, with exceptional strength in consequence. -The east end is a vigorous, massive design, something like -that of Guisborough or Selby. Only the eastern portion of the -choir has flying buttresses. The clerestory windows have an -inner arcade. Ripon choir alone, of English cathedrals, -possesses a glazed triforium, the lean-to roof of the aisles -having been replaced by a flat roof (see <span class="smcap">Ely</span>).</p> - -<p>VI. To the <span class="smcap">Curvilinear</span> period (1315-1360) belong the -Lady loft and the sedilia. The latter originally stood one -bay more to the west. In the Tudor period the arches of -the sedilia seem to have received the present clumsy shafts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span></p> - -<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular</span> (1360-1485).—In 1458 the southern -and eastern sides of the central tower collapsed, greatly -damaging the adjacent parts of the choir and transept, as -well as the stalls. The eastern aisle of the south transept -and much of the south side of the choir, as well as part of the -tower, had to be rebuilt; and about 1490 the present choir-stalls -were put up. In the choir the builders, with a conservatism -which does them credit, both in the work of 1280 -and in that of 1458, preserved all they could of the twelfth-century -work, and both in the Geometrical and the Perpendicular -bays of the -triforium retained the -semicircular arch of -the older design. The -result is a curious -blend of styles. Starting -from the east, the -first pier on the north -side is Geometrical, -the rest Transitional. -On the south side the -first pier is Geometrical, -the second -Transitional, the third -and fourth Perpendicular. To give more support to the -tower, the north-east and south-west piers were cased; the -south-east pier was rebuilt, and the southern and eastern -arches were rebuilt. To strengthen the eastern piers of the -tower, the two western bays of the arcade of the choir were -blocked up, and a massive choir-screen was inserted <i>c.</i> 1480.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus113.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>VIII. <span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—Early in the sixteenth century the canons -unhappily determined to give their unique church more of -the look of a cathedral by adding aisles to the nave. It is -pleasant to add that they were unsuccessful. The nave is -exceedingly low in proportion to its exceptional span, and -being, moreover, unprovided with a triforium, does not look<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -in the least like a cathedral, but like a very inferior parish -church. Externally, the buttresses are of fine composition, -and if the pinnacles were completed, the nave would be very -handsome externally.</p> - -<p>In 1593 the central spire—of timber and lead—was struck -by lightning, and in 1660 it was removed. It was 120 -feet high. In 1664, for fear of a similar catastrophe, the -western spires also were removed. The result is that, seen -from a distance, <i>minus</i> spires and <i>minus</i> pinnacles, Ripon -Minster is stunted and squat.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Rochester">The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew, Rochester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus114.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Rochester -and -London, next -to Canterbury, -are the -oldest of all -the English -bishoprics, -unless, indeed, -we are -prepared to -accept a pre-Augustine -bishopric of -Hereford. -St. Augustine, -soon -after his -landing in -597, came to -preach at -Rochester. His reception was not encouraging; the rude -people hung fish-tails to his coat. Wherefore in anger the -saint prayed “that the Lord would smite them <i>in posteriora</i> -to their everlasting ignominy. So that not only on their own -but on their successors’ persons similar tails grew ever after.” -The worst of it was that the story spread, and not only -Rochester people but all English folk were believed on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -Continent to be <i>caudati</i> (tailed). So that even in the sixteenth -century “an Englishman now cannot travel in another land -by way of merchandise or any other honest occupying, but it -is most contumeliously thrown in his teeth that all Englishmen -have tails.”</p> - -<p>Among St. Augustine’s Italian missioners were St. Justus -and St. Paulinus. St. Justus became first bishop of Rochester -in 604. St. Paulinus, after eight years of mission work in -Northumbria, became bishop of Rochester in 633. The first -English bishop was St. Ythamar (644-655). These three were -the chief local saints of Rochester in early days.</p> - -<p>St. Augustine and his missioners had come from the -monastery of St. Andrew, Rome. To St. Andrew, therefore, -they dedicated the first Saxon cathedral. In 1542 the -cathedral was re-dedicated to Christ and the Blessed Virgin -Mary of Rochester. Till 1077 the cathedral was served by -secular canons; Gundulph replaced them by Benedictine -monks.</p> - -<p>I. In 1888 the foundations of an early church were found. -It had an apse, but neither aisles nor transepts; walls only -2 feet 4 inches thick; 42 feet long, 28 feet broad. From the -resemblance of its plan to that of St. Pancras, Canterbury, -and the presence of Roman brick in the walls, it seems as -likely to be a Romano-British as an Anglo Saxon church.</p> - -<p>II. Between 1080 and 1089 Bishop Gundulph completed a -Norman cathedral, except the western part of the nave. In -plan it was entirely different from any Norman cathedral of -the day: one can hardly help believing that it must have -been designed by an Englishman. The plan of it is given in -the <i>Builder</i>. It was a long oblong aisled cathedral, with -nave and aisles running on without a break from the west end -of the nave to the east end of the choir. But in the choir the -side-aisles were cut off from the central aisle by a solid wall, -as in the contemporary choir of St. Albans and in the Premonstratensian -abbey of St. Radigund, near Dover. There -was probably no crossing, and therefore no central tower.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -There were no transepts proper; but, as in such Anglo-Saxon -churches as Worth, low porch-like transepts projected north -and south, with a breadth of only 14 feet. The east end, as -in most Anglo-Saxon churches, was square; and there projected -from it eastward a small square chapel. Beneath was -a crypt, the western part of which remains. There were two -towers, both abnormal in position. The southern tower was -set in the angle of the choir and the south transept, and may -have been the belfry. The other tower, fragments of which -still remain, was set in a similar position, but entirely detached. -Being detached, and having walls six feet thick, it was no -doubt a military keep. Gundulph was fond of building -keeps; those of the Tower of London and Malling still exist. -Rochester was exposed to and had suffered from attacks of -the Danes, sailing up the Medway, in 840, 884, and 999. -There was a striking memento of them on the great west -doors of the cathedral, which Pepys, as late as 1661, found -“covered with the skins of Danes.” We may conjecture that -it was as a refuge against similar attacks that Gundulph built -the northern keep.</p> - -<p>All this work of Gundulph’s is now gone except portions of -the crypt, the keep, and the nave. The original monastery -was built in the normal position, south of the nave. To -enclose the cloister, therefore, on the north, the south side of -the nave was proceeded with next. The south aisle-wall is -very thin—as was customary in Anglo-Saxon architecture—and -we may conjecture that English influence stopped at this -point; for the piers and arches of the nave are quite Norman -in character. Of Gundulph’s nave there remain on the south -side five arches, together with the lower parts of the walls of -both aisles. It is very doubtful whether he built any part of -the triforium or clerestory. At present his work can only be -seen in its original condition from the side of the aisles. The -pier arches had originally two square orders, which remain -unaltered on the side of the aisle (cf. Winchester transept). -Gundulph’s masonry was in rough tufa.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span></p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Late Norman.</span>—The works on the church were now -probably suspended for a considerable time, while the monks, -as at Gloucester, replaced the temporary buildings of the -monastery by permanent ones. These temporary wooden -buildings seem to have been situated in the usual position—viz., -south of the nave. It was probably not to interfere with -these that the permanent monastic buildings were placed in -an abnormal position, south of the choir. Much of this work -was done by Bishop -Ernulph (1115-1124), -who had been a great -builder at Canterbury, -while prior, and -at Peterborough, as -abbot. Parts of the -cloister, refectory, and -chapter-house remain.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus115.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>When at length the -builders returned to -the nave of the cathedral -(<i>c.</i> 1120), fashions -had changed. Gundulph’s -eleventh-century -design and his -rough tufa masonry -seemed archaic and -barbaric. His tufa was therefore cased with good Caen -stone, as was done later in the century at Chichester; his -piers and capitals were remodelled, and on the side of the -nave the outer square order of the pier-arch was covered -with zigzag ornament. The aisles, as at Hereford, where a -precisely similar transformation of eleventh-into twelfth-century -work was taking place at the same time, were left -unaltered. Gundulph had placed pilasters along the inner -face of the aisle-walls, evidently intending that the aisles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -should be vaulted; but his successors apparently thought -the walls too thin, as at Carlisle, to support a vault; so, -instead of vaulting the aisles and obtaining thus a continuous -passage the whole length of the church, they constructed a -passage in the thickness of the wall of the triforium. Thus -Rochester, like Vignory, has the distinction of possessing a -sham triforium. Waltham Abbey also has a triforium arcade, -but no triforium floor; but that is because the vaults which -originally covered the aisles had subsequently to be taken -down.</p> - -<p>Still later—about the middle of the twelfth century—is the -west front, with its magnificent doorway, and the diaper of -the triforium.</p> - -<p>IV. In 1179 the cathedral was greatly damaged by fire. -Either because of this, or because the eastern half of the -cathedral had been planned so inconveniently, or because the -plan was not the fashionable one of Norman times, the monks -set to work to rebuild the whole cathedral. As usual, they -arranged their building operations so as to avoid interfering -with the services in the choir as long as possible. First, they -rebuilt the north aisle of the choir, but not so high as it is at -present. The aisle remained narrow, because Gundulph’s -tower was in the way. But the south aisle of the choir they -doubled in width. Next, they set to work at the east end, -planning it, as at Hereford, as an eastern transept with an -eastern aisle, and projecting eastward an oblong sanctuary -(cf. Southwell). The new transept was lofty and broad; -and it is quite possible that it was built over the top of -Gundulph’s east end without disturbing daily services -within it. Then, when all was finished, Gundulph’s east end -was pulled down. Unlike the Worcester monks they preserved -the level of the eleventh-century choir, and consequently -had to continue Gundulph’s crypt eastward. In the -new presbytery is seen the same curious mixture of quadripartite -and sexpartite vaulting as in St. Hugh’s eastern -transept at Lincoln. All this work was finished in 1227.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span></p> - -<p>Next they pulled down Gundulph’s narrow north transept -and rebuilt it as broad as the central aisle of the nave. The -new transept has a sexpartite vault with a longitudinal ridge -rib, as in the great transept of Lincoln (<i>c.</i> 1245).</p> - -<p>Then came the rebuilding of the south transept (<i>c.</i> 1280). -They resolved also to have a central tower and to rebuild the -nave. Of the nave they rebuilt the two easternmost bays, and -then completed the piers and arches of the crossing; but not -yet the tower.</p> - -<p>Up to this point the works had gone on continuously for a -century. What enabled the monks to undertake such a great -work as the rebuilding of the whole cathedral, and why, after -doing so much, they suddenly stopped, has now to be explained. -The secret of the flush of money at Rochester was -that in 1201 the monks acquired a new saint, St. William. -“He was by birth a Scot, of Perth; by trade, a baker; in -charity so abundant that he gave to the poor the tenth loaf -of his workmanship; in zeal so fervent that in vow he -promised, and in deed attempted, to visit the places where -Christ was conversant on earth; in which journey, he made -Rochester his way, where, after that he had rested two or -three days, he departed toward Canterbury. But ere he had -gone far from the city, his servant—a foundling who had been -brought up by him out of charity—led him of purpose out of -the highway, and spoiled him both of his money and his life. -The servant escaped, but his master (because he died in so -holy a purpose of mind) was by the monks conveyed to -St. Andrew’s and laid in the choir. And soon he wrought -miracles plentifully.” It was, then, from offerings at the shrine -of St. Thomas of Perth, left by countless pilgrims on their -way to the shrine of a yet greater Thomas at Canterbury, that -the expenses of the new choir were paid. And it was simply -because in the course of eighty years the repute of the -murdered baker had paled and waned before the ever-growing -fame of the murdered archbishop, that the monks had to -renounce, once for all, their ambitious project of rebuilding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -the whole of the nave. It seems, however, that they were for -a considerable time unwilling to give up hope; for one bay of -the Norman triforium was pulled down, leaving a gap, which -was not filled up till the fourteenth century; when, oddly -enough, it was rebuilt in the same Norman style as before, -but in greensand—a rare mediæval example of “architectural -forgery” (cf. Durham Galilee).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus116.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. But though the rebuilding of the nave was definitely -abandoned, a good -deal of work was -done in the Curvilinear -period (1315-1360). -The central -tower was at length -erected; it was removed -in 1749. A -solid stone screen -was built between the -piers, as at Ripon; -the south aisle of the -choir was brought -into its present form -by the absorption of -Gundulph’s southern -tower; a grand doorway -to the chapter-house -was built, and -monuments were erected to Bishop Hamo de Hythe (d. 1352), -and Bishop John de Sheppey (d. 1360).</p> - -<p>The monks now also provided a Lady chapel. This -they got in a very inexpensive way—a proof that their resources -had greatly fallen off—by appropriating for the purpose -the southern transept, the two eastern bays of which -they threw into one to form a recess for the altar of the -Virgin.</p> - -<p>VI. After this little was done at Rochester, except to build<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -out a chapel of three bays westward from the south transept, -giving a sort of nave to the Lady chapel.</p> - -<p>VII. The windows, however, were, as usual, in the builders’ -hands throughout the whole of the fourteenth century—especially -those of the dark Norman nave.</p> - -<p>In the Curvilinear period flowing tracery was inserted in -the lower range of lights in the sanctuary, and improvements -were made in the clerestory of the south transept, now that it -was to be used as a Lady chapel.</p> - -<p>In the Perpendicular period the narrow north aisle of the -choir, darkened by Gundulph’s tower on one side and on the -other by the solid wall of the choir, was raised, lighted, and -vaulted. Then the nave was taken in hand; Perpendicular -windows were inserted in the aisles, and a great window in -the west end; the whole of the Norman clerestory was taken -off, a new clerestory and a new wooden roof were put up. -Thus the nave got plenty of light.</p> - -<p>VIII. In 1664 the south aisle of the nave was recased; and -in 1670 the third, fourth and fifth bays, counting from the -west, in the north aisle of the choir, were rebuilt.</p> - -<p>IX. In 1830 Cottingham put up the present central tower. -In 1871 the cathedral was restored by Scott.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="St_Alban">The Cathedral Church of St. Alban.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus117.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Of all our cathedrals none is so composite and heterogeneous -as the ancient church of the Benedictine abbey -of St. Alban. It is mainly built—even the fourteenth-century -Lady chapel—of Roman tiles. Saxon balusters appear in the -triforium of the transepts. In the nave and transepts and -tower is Early Norman work, unequalled in extent and -grandeur; in the south transept are built up the fragments<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -of a Late Norman doorway, to which period, or to the first -days of the Transitional period (1145-1190), belongs the -interlacing arcade now placed above it. In the west -front and the western bays of the nave is Lancet work of -two periods (1190-1245). In the sanctuary is seen Early -Geometrical work (1245-1280); the ante-chapel, commenced -in the Early, was finished in the Late Geometrical period -(1280-1315). The Lady chapel (1291-1326) is a most -interesting example of the transition from the Late Geometrical -to the Curvilinear style. The latter is represented by the five -eastern bays on the south side of the nave, by the remains of -the cloisters, by the shrines of St. Alban and St. Amphibalus, -and by the Holy Rood screen (1315-1360). Perpendicular -work is represented by the alterations to the cloisters, by the -abbey gatehouse, by the triforium windows on the north side -of the nave and choir, inserted when the aisle roofs were -lowered, by the watching-loft, by the chantries of the Duke of -Gloucester and Abbot Wheathampstead, and by the reredos -and painted ceiling. Tudor work appears in the chapel of -the Transfiguration, and in the admirable chantry of Abbot -Ramryge; while the “Gothic revival” is stamped on every -feature of Lord Grimthorpe’s façades to the west, north and -south. There is not a single hiatus in the series. St. Alban’s -is a veritable architectural handbook, written in brick and -stone. The student should remember, however, that at -St. Alban’s there is a good deal of what is called assimilation. -The Lancet bays and the Curvilinear bays in the nave -are not typical and characteristic of their respective periods. -The architects of these bays had not a free hand. They were -not able to compose the design simply to suit the fashion of -the day. Their bays were to be Lancet and Curvilinear only -so far as might be without ruining the general design and -proportions of the nave as a whole. With these reservations, -the tyro in architecture is recommended to select St. Alban’s -as his “Introduction to Mediæval Architecture.” If he -comes from London, he should choose the longer route, by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span> -the London & North-Western Railway: he will have less -distance to walk on arriving, and will see the cathedral from -the most picturesque -point of view. If -time permits, he -should proceed direct -from the railway -station to Verulamium, -and see the -Roman walls and -fosse, and the interesting -church of St. -Michael’s, with the -famous monument of -Lord Bacon, before -visiting the cathedral.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus118.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Roman times -the town was on the -other side of the -little river, the Ver, -a tributary of the -Colne, and hence was called Verulamium. In the revolt of -Boadicea it was burnt, but was soon rebuilt. In the year 303, -“there was gret persecution of Christen pepell by the tyrant -Diocletian”; and Alban, a citizen of Verulamium, who had -given shelter to a Welsh priest, Amphibalus, was scourged, -and then dragged along the ancient British causeway, which -still exists, across the Ver, and up the lane to the top of the -hill afterwards called Holmhurst, and there put to death. -Amphibalus suffered the same fate. On the west wall of the -north transept of the cathedral, just under a round-headed -window, is a small black cross cut in stone. “This marks -the traditional site of the martyrdom of St. Alban, when there -was neither town nor abbey in this place, but only a flowery -slope planted with trees.” In the fifth century the English -conquered the district. They abandoned Verulamium, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -built the present town on the hill of Holmhurst, calling it -Watlingceaster, as Watling Street ran through it. In the -year 793, Offa, king of Mercia, treacherously murdered -Ethelbert, king of East Anglia (see <span class="smcap">Hereford</span>). It was -revealed to him in a vision that, by way of penance, he -should seek out the body of St. Alban, and there erect a -monastery. King, archbishop, bishops, priests, and a great -multitude of common people, searched the hill of Holmhurst, -and found the relics of the martyr. A church was built, and -richly endowed, and was entrusted to Benedictine monks. -It remained a Benedictine abbey-church till the Dissolution, -in 1539. Then it became a parish church, and in 1875 a -cathedral.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus119.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRIFORIUM OF TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>The relics of St. Alban had an eventful history. First they -were carried off by pirates -to Denmark, but were -afterwards restored. -Then, in expectation of -another Danish raid, they -were sent for safety to -Ely. When the Danes -had gone, the monks of -Ely, being desirous to -keep the precious bones -in their possession, -palmed on the monks of -St. Alban’s some suppositious -relics. Whereupon -the monks of St. -Alban’s asserted that -neither had they sent to -Ely the genuine relics, -but only sham ones, to -draw attention away from the fact that they had hidden the -authentic bones of the martyr in a hole in the wall of their -own church! “<i>Credat Judæus Apelles.</i>”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span></p> - -<p>Towards the end of the eleventh century Nicholas Breakspear -was born at Abbots Langley, in Hertfordshire. He applied -to the abbey of St. Alban to be admitted a monk, but was -scornfully rejected, and rebuked for his impudence, being, as -he was, son of one of the menials of the convent. This same -man became Pope in 1154—the only Englishman who ever -became Pope. And when he became Pope, under the title -of Adrian IV., he forgot not the monks of St. Alban’s, but -forgave them, and made their monastery free of episcopal -jurisdiction for ever, and subject only to the see of Rome. -And to the abbot he gave precedence over all other English -abbots; which precedency, after much dispute with Westminster, -St. Alban’s retained till the Dissolution.</p> - -<p>In 1455 was fought the first battle of St. Albans, when -Henry VI. was wounded in the neck by an arrow, and made -prisoner by the Yorkists under the Earl of Warwick. The -forces met in Holywell Street (where we entered the town), -between the Key and the Chequer. In the second battle, -1461, the Earl of Warwick was defeated by Queen Margaret.</p> - -<p>St. Alban’s was an exceedingly wealthy abbey; it had -estates in almost every county in England, and at the present -value of money its income would amount to at least a million. -Its conventual buildings must have been immense. One of -the guest-halls, in addition to parlours and bedrooms, had -stables for three hundred horses. Of all these vast structures -nothing remains but one of the gatehouses, built in 1380. In -it were detained the French prisoners in the Napoleonic wars; -afterwards it became a common gaol, now it houses the -Grammar School.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus120.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Internally, the church is divided from west to east, in -ancient monastic fashion, into (1) nave, (2) choir, (3) sanctuary, -(4) Saints’ chapel, (5) retro-choir or ante-chapel, (6) Lady -chapel. (1) The ritual nave occupies the ten western bays -only of the architectural nave, and terminates at the Holy -Rood screen. (2) The ritual choir is not placed in the eastern -limb; but, following a far more ancient precedent, in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -three eastern bays of the architectural nave, and in the -crossing (that part of the transept which is beneath the central -tower). This was the place of the choir in the primitive -basilicas, and in the early monastic churches. The “Coro” -of the Spanish cathedrals is still placed in the nave. The -same arrangement survives in this country in Westminster -Abbey and Norwich, and has lately been restored at Peterborough. -(3) The sanctuary extends from the tower to the -great reredos, and -provided a free and -unencumbered space -in front of the high -altar, which “dwelt -apart.” (4) The -Saint’s chapel was -occupied, like the -feretory at Winchester, -by magnificent -shrines which -towered behind and -above the high altar, -visible far down the -nave, at least before -the great reredos was -erected. (5) The retro-choir -or ante-chapel -provided a processional path, or ambulatory, or eastern choir -aisle at the back of the shrines. Romsey and Hereford -possess the earliest of these processional paths, Winchester -the largest. (6) The Lady chapel occupies its normal -position, to the extreme east. But where there was no -room for farther eastward extension of the cathedral, the -Lady chapel may be found on the north or south side of the -choir, as at Bristol and Oxford. Here, as at Salisbury and -Winchester, the high roofs do not extend over retro-choir -and Lady chapel, which are only one story high; at York<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> -and Lincoln and Ely, -the church retains its -full height uninterruptedly -to the extreme -east end; the -ritualistic divisions of -the church being -marked by screens -only.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus121.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY-CHAPEL LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>In Norman times -the church did not -extend so far eastward. -The sanctuary ended -in three semicircular -apses, of which those -of the aisles were -semicircular inside but -square outside, as at Romsey. And, in lieu of eastern -aisles, the transepts had each a pair of little semicircular -chapels, the arches leading into which may still be seen in -their eastern walls.</p> - -<p>“In 1077, Paul, a monk of St. Stephen’s, Caen (the Abbaye-aux-hommes), -was elected Abbot, through the influence of -Archbishop Lanfranc, whose kinsman he was.” In these -words we have the origin of St. Alban’s Cathedral; and not -of St. Alban’s only, but of all the mediæval architecture of our -land, whether Romanesque or Gothic. Before the Norman -conquest we had a native style of our own; a kind of primitive -Romanesque, of which remains survive at Jarrow, Wing, -Worth, Deerhurst, and elsewhere, as well as in the crypts of -Ripon, Hexham, and Repton. But the invasion of the Normans -changed all this. The primitive indigenous Romanesque -of England was thrown aside in favour of the far more -advanced Romanesque of Normandy. From the great -monastery of St. Stephen, Caen, came Lanfranc, the first, -and Anselm, the second Norman Archbishop of Canterbury.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -When Lanfranc set to work to rebuild Canterbury Cathedral, -he made it in length and breadth and height an exact copy -of the church of St. Stephen, Caen. What Lanfranc did at -Canterbury, the Walkelins did at Winchester and Ely, and -Abbot Paul at St. Alban’s. They set to work to rebuild their -churches on the vast scale, and with all the improvements, of -the Romanesque architecture of Caen and Normandy. St. -Stephen’s, Caen, is therefore the link between the architecture -of Normandy and that of England; it is the mother-church of -all the cathedrals of our land. More than this: Lanfranc and -Anselm were by birth, not Normans, but Italians; Lanfranc -was born at Pavia, Anselm at Aosta. Paul was a kinsman of -Lanfranc. All three, then, came from the great plain of -Lombardy; and it was through such scholars and theologians -as these that the architecture of Lombardy found its way into -Normandy. For the architecture of Normandy is in character -mainly Lombardic. Therefore, just as Canterbury and Winchester -and St. Alban’s are the offspring of St. Stephen’s, Caen; -so St. Stephen’s itself is the child of S. Ambrogio and S. -Eustorgio, Milan; S. Stephen, Verona; S. Sophia, Padua; -and other ninth- and tenth-century churches of Lombardy and -the neighbourhood.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus122.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RAMRYGE’S CHANTRY.</p> -</div> - -<p>But though in origin Winchester, -Ely, and St. Alban’s -hail from Caen, they all far -surpass their model in vastness -of scale. Winchester -and Ely even committed the -magnificent extravagance of -having a western as well as -an eastern aisle to the transepts; -and though St. Alban’s, -like Canterbury, had an aisleless -transept, yet it surpassed -them all in the stupendous -length of its nave. Still more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -does it surpass the Caen church and Lanfranc’s Canterbury. -Caen and Canterbury had nine bays in the nave, two in -the choir, and two in each transept; St. Alban’s had thirteen -in the nave, five in the choir, and three in each transept. -Caen and Canterbury had naves 193 feet long, transepts -145 feet long, and a total length of 290 feet; St. Alban’s a -nave 292 feet long (as long as the whole churches at Caen -and Canterbury), transepts 177 feet long, and a total length -of about 430 feet. In the fourteenth century, owing to the -eastward extensions, St. Alban’s became longer still—520 -feet inside, 550 feet outside. Winchester is even longer still: -2 yards longer than St. Alban’s; 3 yards longer than Ely; -4 yards longer than Canterbury.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus123.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p>I. <span class="smcap">Early Norman.</span>—Of the work of Paul of Caen (1077-1093), -we have the central tower and transept practically -complete, and large portions of the nave and sanctuary. The -design is strictly conditioned by the material, Roman brick; -in consequence of the employment of which the architect was -driven to rely for his effects, not on ornament or detail, but -on what is nobler far, vastness of scale. It is worth while to -compare the brick transept of St. Alban’s with the contemporary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -transept of Winchester, where the design is conditioned -by the use of stone.</p> - -<p>II. <span class="smcap">Late Norman.</span>—A fine arcade and doorway have -been removed from the slype to the south wall of the south -transept by Lord Grimthorpe. He is good enough to tell us -that the new work which he has interpolated is so artful that -no archæologist in future shall be able to ascertain which -portions are old and which are new.</p> - -<p>III. <span class="smcap">Lancet.</span>—The vast and imposing church completed in -the twelfth century found little favour in Gothic eyes. It was -apparently regarded not only as ugly, but as incapable of -being improved into something better. The only thing was -to pull it down. In the end the monks did pull down and -rebuild a large part of it, occupying at least a hundred years -in the work. Fortunately for us, they wearied of their self-imposed -task.</p> - -<p>They began at the west end of the nave, so as not to -interfere with the monastic services. First, John de Celia -(1195-1214) proceeded to rebuild the west front on a lovely -design, and with a wealth of costly marble and carving. Of -this work there remain portions in the north-west and central -porches of the façade.</p> - -<p>His successor, William de Trumpington, was more -economical, and produced more work. He completed the -porches, and built in the western end of the nave four bays -on the north and five bays on the south side. It can still be -seen how he economised, not only on John de Celia’s design, -in the arch that was to have led into a south-western tower, -but on the design of his own bases, piers and vaulting-shafts; -he even renounced the idea of vaulting his work at all—a very -ungothic procedure.</p> - -<p>IV. <span class="smcap">Geometrical.</span>—His successors went further still; -they abandoned all hope of rebuilding the rest of the nave, -and turned their attention to the eastern limb. Retaining -their stalls, as at present, in the crossing and the three -western bays of the nave, they were able to go on with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -works to the east without any interruption to the services. -The works dragged on very slowly. For some reason or other -this wealthy abbey—with estates in almost every county of -England—never had money to spend on its church.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus124.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE REREDOS.</p> -</div> - -<p>First, the Norman sanctuary and apses were demolished, -except that a length of Norman wall was retained on either -side of the sanctuary. -If this had been -removed the tower -might have collapsed. -The chief feature of -the new sanctuary is -the clerestory windows, -with tracery of -early type, <i>c.</i> 1250.</p> - -<p>Soon after, the -lower parts of the -Saint’s chapel and -the ante-chapel were -built; these were not -completely finished -till <i>c.</i> 1315. There, -too, “vaulting ambition -had o’erleapt -itself”: the monks -made preparations for -vaults both within and without the ante-chapel, but in the end -put up an unworthy flat ceiling.</p> - -<p>About 1295 they commenced a new Lady chapel. This -was not finished till about 1326. Thus it was built in the last -years of the Geometrical and the early years of the Curvilinear -style, and, like Selby choir, illustrates charmingly the transition -from the one to the other.</p> - -<p>V. <span class="smcap">Curvilinear.</span>—The monks had now done all they -meant to do. The eastern limb was rebuilt. They meant to -do no more in the nave. But their hands were forced. Five<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -Norman bays collapsed on the south side of the nave in 1323, -and the monks had perforce to rebuild them. The design is -closely assimilated to that of the Lancet bays to the west; -the clerestory actually having lancet windows without tracery. -To this period belong the shrines of St. Alban and St. -Amphibalus, the -Rood-screen, the -doorway and arcade -of the cloister.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus125.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE SHRINE.</p> -</div> - -<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular.</span>—The -great -gateway was built <i>c.</i> -1380. The nave and -choir were better -lighted on the north -side by the insertion -of windows in the -triforium. The watching-loft -was constructed -<i>c.</i> 1420; the -choir was ceiled, and -the great reredos was erected <i>c.</i> 1480. To the same period -belong the brass of Abbot de la Mare, <i>c.</i> 1390; and the -grand chantries of Abbot Wheathampstead and Duke -Humphrey of Gloucester, <i>c.</i> 1440.</p> - -<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—The grandest chantry of all is that of Abbot -Ramryge, <i>c.</i> 1520.</p> - -<p>VIII. In recent times vast sums have been spent in underpinning -and securing the walls and tower: and we have had -the amazing west front and transept-ends designed by Lord -Grimthorpe.</p> - -<p>The “Annals of an Abbey,” in Froude’s “Short Studies,” -should be read.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Salisbury">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Salisbury.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus126.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Two English cathedrals surpass all others in external -effect: Lincoln and Salisbury; each of them being at -its best as seen from the north-east. But Lincoln lacks “the -quiet tranquillity of the close of Salisbury, the half-hidden -houses, covered with vines and creepers, that nestle among the -trees, the sense of being shut off from the work-a-day world. -If Durham seems the petrified interpretation of the Church -militant, Salisbury is the very type and picture of the Church -of the Prince of Peace. Unworldliness and peace brood over -church and close.”</p> - -<p>The ancient Norman cathedral stood within the fortifications -of Old Sarum. The site was cramped, and extension was -impossible; there was far too much wind and far too little -water; moreover the soldiers who garrisoned the castle were -most objectionable neighbours. So, by permission of the -Pope, Bishop Richard Poore in 1220 commenced a new -cathedral on the present site.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span></p> - -<p>It was a virgin site; and from this fact resulted a cathedral -different from any other that we possess, and as a study in -design more important than any other we possess. In other -cathedrals we study the mediæval architect designing under -difficulties; what we see in such a composite cathedral as -Hereford or Chichester or Rochester is not one design, but a -dozen designs trying to blend into one design; sometimes, as -at Canterbury and Rochester, rather ineffectually, sometimes, -as at Hereford, with remarkable success. At Salisbury it -is not so: the design is one design, all sprang from a single -brain, except the west front and possibly the upper part of -tower and spire. We have no such homogeneous design in -our mediæval cathedrals. The French were less conservative, -perhaps less penurious; their Gothic architects were iconoclasts; -no French architect could have allowed such frightful -solecisms to remain as disfigure our cathedrals to the purist -eye, and endear them to the artist.</p> - -<p>Bishop Poore’s architect, Elias de Dereham, one of the -canons of the cathedral, who a little later designed the -eastern transept of Durham, had—what no other of our Gothic -architects had—a free hand. Salisbury, then, tells us what -no other cathedral does—what an English architect thought a -cathedral ought to be like, when not hampered by having to -preserve or assimilate pre-existing work or to build on pre-existing -foundations. Canterbury nave is not the best the -architect could do: it is the best he could do subject to the -restriction that his nave must be neither longer nor broader -than Lanfranc’s ancient nave. Elias de Dereham had no such -restrictions; the cathedral was to be built in the green pastures, -he could take as much space as he liked.</p> - -<p>Begun in 1220, the whole cathedral, except west front, tower -and spire, was complete in 1266, having cost, it is said, -what is equivalent to half a million of our money. It has, -therefore, the distinction among our cathedrals of having -a design which is practically uniform. It is said, indeed, -and with perfect truth, that the homogeneity and uniformity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> -of the design of Salisbury makes it less interesting than -the usual composite cathedral of England, with its design -changing, as in Selby nave, almost in every bay. When we -have seen one bay of Salisbury nave, we have seen the other -nine, and we know that we shall find practically the same -design in the choir. Yet we can afford very well, in England, -to have one great design, the product not of a dozen minds, -but of one mind; a work completed in less than half a century, -and not spread out, -like Canterbury, over -four centuries, or like -Hereford, over seven.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus127.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Again, building on -a virgin site, Elias de -Dereham did what all -great builders have -always wished to do—he -made his building -symmetrical. It -is the fashion to contrast -the symmetry of -Greek with the picturesqueness -of Gothic -architecture. The -comparison may be -carried too far. The -Erechtheium is as unsymmetrical and picturesque as any -Gothic building. The great cathedrals of northern France, -and Salisbury and Exeter, are quite classical in their symmetry. -But they are not pedantic in their symmetry. Because nave -balances choir, the north transept the south transept, and the -north-east transept the south-east transept, the builder was -not so foolish as to construct on the south a big porch to -balance that on the north side of the nave. Instead of that, -he built to the south an octagonal chapter-house, and this -he placed unsymmetrically—<i>i.e.</i>, picturesquely—because, so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -placed, it was more to the convenience of those who would -have to use it. In other words, he did not purposefully aim at -the picturesque and the irregular. Gothic cathedrals are -picturesque, either of accident, as at Canterbury, owing to -the casual collocation of work of different design in the course -of several centuries, or because the different parts of the -cathedral, being intended for different functions, have been -designed different in plan, in dimensions, and in details. The -latter is the case with Salisbury.</p> - -<p>Two chief types of cathedral plan were at the architect’s -disposal: what we may call the York type, and the Wells type. -In the latter, the cathedral continues at its fullest height from -the western doors to the far east of the sanctuary, then the -retro-choir or ante-chapel (sometimes divided into Saint’s -chapel and processional path or ambulatory) is roofed at a -far lower height, and east of them is a Lady chapel, similarly -on a low level. And, of course, as the upper wall of the east -end of the sanctuary requires to be supported, arches have -to be built beneath it opening from the sanctuary into the -retro-choir. The plan is a beautiful one—it is our English -equivalent for the French ‘chevet.’ Externally, the different -portions of the eastern limb tell distinctly the purposes for -which they are built: standing to the east of Winchester, or -Wells, or Hereford, you say at once, “This building is the Lady -chapel; there is the processional path and probably the shrine -of the local saint, there is the east end of the sanctuary, and -the light from that east window at the early morning services -streams down on the high altar below.” Internally, too, the -effect is delightful; the upper story of the cathedral is of -course really greatly curtailed in length, but the cathedral -is not shortened to the eye: the mysterious vistas through the -east arches of the cathedral more than restore the height lost -above; the glimpses of Lady chapel behind ambulatory, and -ambulatory behind Saints’ chapel, as seen from far west in -the nave, make the termination of the Lady chapel, invisible -from many points of view, seem infinitely distant. Of these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> -mysterious distances, shadowy recesses and changing vistas, -there is nothing in Lincoln and York; the whole eastern limb -is seen at a single glance, and, unfortunately, is foreshortened -by the eye. Wells and Salisbury internally look longer than -they are, Lincoln and York much shorter. In mediæval days, -however, the ritualistic divisions of the church were marked -off by a series of -screens, each -adding apparent -length to the interior. -So many -of these screens, -however, have -been swept away -by Wyatt, Scott -and the like, or -replaced by paltry -open-work, as at -Lichfield and -Durham, that -many of the -cathedrals of this -type are now mere -open barns; all -sense of mystery, -all sense of magnitude -gone. -Externally, York -and Lincoln and Beverley have the best of it. The sweep of -a sky-line, five hundred feet in length, at a height so vast, is -sublimely impressive. The cost of an exterior kept at an -unbroken height for such a distance is very great, but it is -worth the cost.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus128.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRANSEPT</p> -</div> - -<p>Cathedrals of the latter type, such as Ely, York, and -Southwell, are quite presentable with a central tower of -moderate height, provided that it is reinforced by more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> -important towers to the west. An exterior of the former type, -that of Wells and Salisbury, demands a very important -central tower. Accordingly, every cathedral of this type -has a big central tower—viz., St. Alban’s, Hereford, Wells; -or a spire as well as a tower—viz., Chichester. (Winchester -alone is an exception, an exception which proves -how very much a central tower is needed in such elevations.) -In such exteriors, looked at from the east, hills rise beyond -hills, alps beyond alps, and the eye instinctively looks up to -see the highest ranges -aspire into the pyramidal -outline of a -Matterhorn. And this -is what is given us at -Salisbury.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus129.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is not, however, -what Elias de Dereham, -the original -architect, meant. No -spire, or even upper -tower, says Sir -Christopher Wren, -was originally contemplated. -The -unique slenderness of -the piers of the crossing is certain evidence of that. The -diameter of the piers on which the central tower of Canterbury -rests is twelve feet; those at York and Winchester have -a diameter of ten feet; those at Worcester nine feet; those -of Peterborough tower (which collapsed) and of Salisbury, -seven feet only. It is almost terrible to stand between these -four thin piers of Salisbury and think how many hundred -tons of stone in tower and spire above they have been made -to bear. They were never meant to bear any such weight, -especially planted as they are, like the whole cathedral, on -the insecure foundation of a spongy bog. Indeed, not merely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -the tower and spire, but the whole cathedral, ought never -to have been built where they are. Recklessness is by no -means a strong -enough word to use -of the mediæval -builders’ wanton carelessness -about foundations. Peterborough -cathedral was built -practically without -foundations on waterlogged -peat; beneath -the central tower of -Carlisle cathedral -were two running -springs; Wells is -reared on the boggy shores of a ring of pools. At Salisbury -continuous bases had to be built from pier to pier.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus130.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RETRO-CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Elias de Dereham’s design, no doubt, was to give us an -exterior something like that of Beverley Minster or Westminster -Abbey. The whole elevation of the cathedral, however, -clamoured for a tall tower and spire. The original -design was abandoned, and the foolhardy enterprise was -taken in hand (<i>c.</i> 1330) of adding to the existing tower, which -only just rose above the roofs, two more stages, and on these -a spire, and that not of wood, but of stone. To abut this -perilous steeple as much as possible, great flying-buttresses -were added, both externally and running through the -clerestory and triforium of the interior of the church. Moreover, -to lessen the weight, the tower-walls were built in thin -shells, while the spire is but nine inches thick. That -the builders left their timber scaffolding in the spire, where -it still is, to give its sides a little additional support, shows -that they were alive themselves to the fragility and insecurity -of their work. Later on, in the fifteenth century, stone girders -were put across the piers of the central and eastern transepts,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> -as at Canterbury and Wells, by way of struts, to keep the -piers from bulging inwardly, though, as a matter of fact, what -was wanted was rather ties to keep them from bulging -outwardly.</p> - -<p>Externally, however, the madness of this engineering feat -does not trouble one. The addition of the tower and spire -gives to the whole composition that pyramidal outline which -always presents such a satisfactory appearance of stability to -the eye—and in architectural design it is the eye that has -to be reckoned with. In Wren’s masterpiece, St. Paul’s, one -has the same central pyramidal outline of all the masses, -but in a still higher degree.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus131.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE AND WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p>In both cases, in St. Paul’s and in Salisbury, unity is -secured. Salisbury spire is tall enough, St. Paul’s dome -is tall and broad -enough, to impose -unity on all the diverging -masses of -the building. The low -towers of Worcester -and Hereford have no -such supreme dominance.</p> - -<p>Next to the abiding -presence of the spire, -unity is secured by -scoring strong, horizontal -lines round the -building, welding its -masses into one composition. -Most cathedrals -are contented, -like Wells, with one strong horizontal line—a broad -parapet. But at Salisbury there is not only a horizontal -parapet, but a horizontal corbel-table as well; and there are -no less than three horizontal strings—one running round the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -base of the walls, a second running along beneath the -windows, and a third running round the buttresses; moreover, -each of these horizontal lines is scored far more heavily than -anywhere else. Especially remarkable is it to find the upper -flow of the buttresses stopped by a heavy string. Usually, -in Gothic, if a horizontal meets a vertical line, the former -gives way; here, as in Greek architecture, the vertical gives -way to the horizontal line. This architect saw, what few -others of his day saw, that you may make too much of the -“aspiring principle” of Gothic; that if you suppress the -horizontal lines, you weaken the unity of the building, by -failing to tie all its parts together.</p> - -<p>As we have seen, the appearance of stability was enhanced -by the pyramidal outline which the whole building ultimately -assumed. But the eye instinctively looks downwards also -to see that the pyramidal outline is continued there, it instinctively -demands an emphatic spreading base. It likes -to see a rock-like foundation. At Salisbury all below is but -greensward. All the more carefully, therefore, has the -builder spread out and broadened and emphasised his base-courses, -till art gives the appearance of stability which nature -has denied.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus132.jpg" width="300" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT</p> -</div> - -<p>Stable, therefore, below and above, the exterior of Salisbury -has much of that “monumental appearance”—of what -Dr. Johnson called “stability and indeterminate duration”—which -is the noble attribute of a great architecture, which -one desiderates in a building “built not for time, but for -eternity, whose walls will long be washed by the passing -waves of humanity.” Such a building gravity and simplicity -befit; its design should be solid and monumental, sober and -restrained; it is not a field for the frippery of ornament, its -best decoration is the stain of time. Built for eternity, it -should suggest infinity—an infinite length which the eye -cannot measure, an infinite height which the eye cannot -estimate, a vastness of area that overpowers the imagination. -Bigness counts for much in the painter’s work and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> -sculptor’s; it -counts for yet -more in architecture. -A -building in -the grand -style has to -be big, and if -it is a Gothic -building it -has to look -bigger still. -Salisbury is -really big: it -is 473 feet -long, its spire -is 404 feet -high, its -vaulted roof, -81 feet high, -is the highest -of any English -cathedral. -But the -eye does not -measure in -feet. Salisbury -spire and Louth spire, acute and slender, look hundreds -of feet above their real height; Oxford and Chichester spires -look lower than they really are. As for length, follow the -wall of Salisbury from east to west. As you pass round -cape and headland and promontory, you forget the point from -which you started, or the goal for which you are bound. How -foreshortened in comparison is the long façade of a Pitti -Palace! As for area, in all honesty Mr. Whittington gravely -declared that Salisbury was “a much larger church altogether<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> -than Amiens.” The error was natural. Amiens has fewer -parts than Salisbury, and necessarily seems less. Going round -Salisbury we pass no less than seven façades, at Amiens -only three. There are thirty-nine bays in Amiens; in -Salisbury there are sixty. As usual, multiplicity of parts has -produced apparent increase of magnitude.</p> - -<p>Much of the impressiveness of this exterior is due, -not only to its grandeur of scale, both real and apparent, but -to the lovely hue of the stone of which it is built, and the -astonishing perfection of the masonry. At first sight, indeed, -the appearance of the masonry of Salisbury is almost uncanny. -Salisbury is not mouldered or corroded with age. “Time -prints no wrinkles on its brow.” Its antiquity is that of a -goddess ever young. The masonry, too, is that of a Greek -temple; the precision that of the builders of the Parthenon; the -joints fine, almost invisible; the blocks squared with mathematical -precision; pass round the building from south transept -eastward to north transept, and you will find that the stones -in each course preserve their height with utmost exactness all -these hundreds of feet. And so the building has the feeling -of Greece in it. Gothic is a “small-stone” style, with joints -openly displayed. Here, as in a Parthenon, the joints are -invisible; the whole building seems one solid block—a monumental -effect indeed. The crumbling masonry of Ely might -belong to the ancient days of Saturn; Salisbury seems the -work of a younger race of gods. Only when we scan its -colour—the lovely colour of the Salisbury stone, that is seen -nowhere else—“a pale, ashy grey, stained below with broad -patches of red and yellow lichens,”—do we realise that this is -no temple of yesterday, but one that has faced the stress of -storm for more than six centuries. Her perpetual juvenility -is at once the charm and the disappointment of Salisbury.</p> - -<p>Very noteworthy, also, are the sobriety and restraint and -repose of the whole design: very ungothic, too. At first it -passes unnoticed; after a time it is noticed—and noticed with -astonishment—that the beauty of a design of consummate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -loveliness is gained in some mysterious way without the use of -ornament. One realises at Salisbury—perhaps for the first -time—that ornament is non-essential even in Gothic design. -What ornament there is is of the slightest—a floriated finial -to a buttress, a trefoiled corbel-table; the design would be -little the worse if even this trifling amount of decoration were -omitted.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus133.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CLOISTER.</p> -</div> - -<p>The success of the exterior of Salisbury depends, not on the -littlenesses of architectural design, but on the great leading -factors of any really great -style—vastness of scale, -yet further enhanced to -the eye by multiplicity -of parts; bold handling -of the masses, combined -nevertheless into a symmetrical -whole: unity, -harmony, proportion, -shadow-effects. Beside -these elemental factors, -sculptured ornament is -but “mint and cummin.”</p> - -<p>Straighten out Salisbury -cathedral, in imagination, -till Lady chapel -and retro-choir and -eastern transept and choir and central transept and nave are -all in one long straight line. Then let it resume its shape, -and you will see what is meant by “bold handling of the -masses,” and the difference it makes. Nevertheless, don’t -go away with the idea that the lines of Salisbury cathedral -were pulled about in this way for picturesqueness’ sake—for -the sake of effect. The Gothic architects—<i>pace</i> Peterborough -west front—did not design for effect. All the parts -of the building are there either for some constructional or for -some ritualistic reason. A big central tower will not stand<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> -without abutment to the north and south; therefore there has -to be a central transept. The long stretch of clerestory wall—at -Salisbury unbuttressed externally—will be all the better -for the support of two transepts and a lofty porch: they are -added. Transepts, moreover, are useful in providing chapel-room -for various great saints of Christendom, as well as for -the local saints of the cathedral. The porch is useful as -providing neutral ground for various functions—half religious, -half secular; the porch is added. And so with the chapter-house. -Every one of the appanages which make a Gothic -exterior so picturesque was built, not because it would be -picturesque, but because it would be useful.</p> - -<p>And see what pits and abysses of shadow lurk behind each -projecting buttress, and still more in each deep sound that -runs inland, like some Norwegian fiord, between towering -precipices on either side. But these grand shadow-effects—varying -from minute to minute as the sun moves round—varying -from day to day as summer treads on spring, autumn -on summer—were not in the designer’s first intent. The -projecting masses had to be there; the play of light and -shadow which ensued, he did not plan; he only welcomed it. -He had little control over it; in the windows, indeed, which -were within his control, he made the jambs so shallow that the -windows are externally almost shadowless; almost the whole -depth of the window he gave to the interior, preferring to -enrich the interior of each window with an inner arcade—feeling, -doubtless, that he need do nothing externally to add -to the shadow-effects of the projecting buttresses.</p> - -<p>But the life-blood of an architectural design is proportion. -Unfortunately one never notices its presence. Only when a -building is out of proportion does one recognise that such a -thing as proportion exists. And as it is the most subtle, so it -is the most important factor in design—design small or large—Salisbury -cathedral, the Pandolphini Palace, a Chippendale -chair, or a Wedgewood vase. Alter the shape of the vase, -and see the difference. In the same way, see if you can<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> -lengthen or shorten Salisbury nave for the better, or the -transepts, or the porch, or the Lady chapel; or if you could -heighten the Lady chapel or retro-choir to advantage; or if -you could make the roofs an inch more acute or more flat. -The proportions of this, as of every really great building, are -subtle in the extreme; they interlock in all directions. Each -part—<i>e.g.</i>, the Lady chapel—is in proportion to the cathedral -taken as a whole; each part is in proportion to contiguous -parts; and each individual bit of each part is in proportion to -the rest of it: <i>e.g.</i>, in the Lady chapel the length, breadth and -height of the walls, the slope of the roof, the dimensions of the -windows, etc., are all -in proportion to the -Lady chapel taken as -a whole. More than -that—the proportions -of the nave, choir, -transepts, etc., are -those which are suitable -to a church 473 -feet long and 404 feet -high. If you built a -church with a nave, -choir and transepts exactly twice as large as those of Salisbury, -it would not be in proportion, but out of proportion. The -same lack of proportion would ensue if you copied the design -of Salisbury in a parish church of exactly half its dimensions. -Salisbury cathedral, like the Parthenon, cannot be copied -with impunity, unless you preserve every dimension unaltered. -Modern designers, not recognising this, have too often wrought -themselves disappointment by unintelligent imitations of -ancient work.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus134.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHAPTER HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>To the north and south another charming effect is seen in -the gradual growth of the ornament upward. This, again, is -to the credit of Time, and not of Elias de Dereham. From -1220 to 1330 window-tracery was ever growing richer day by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span> -day, and Salisbury cathedral was ever growing upward. And -so the ornament culminates most rightly, yet most accidentally, -in the higher stories of the transepts, in the tower and spire.</p> - -<p>Only one criticism suggests itself before we leave Salisbury -cathedral as seen from the north-east. Are not the voids in -excess—two windows in the aisles and three in the clerestory, -where one would produce a much more monumental and solid -effect? Such single windows, filled with the opaque grisaille -glass of the period, would have subdued the glare of the -interior. But I have not the slightest doubt that the critics -of the day infinitely preferred the uniform good lighting of -Salisbury to the “dim, religious light” of Lincoln and its -darksome corners and recesses. In Salisbury there is not a -quiet spot anywhere where you can pray in peace; the blinding -light pursues you everywhere. But good people in those days -liked a cheerful church—full of light, sparkling with stained -glass, brilliant with gilding and paint: religious gloom had -not yet become fashionable; it did not come in till the time -of the Puritans. In every respect except the fenestration, in -Salisbury, as in Lincoln Minster, internal seems to have been -subordinated to external effect.</p> - -<p>The interior is, indeed, very fine. It could hardly help -being fine; a nave so spacious and so proportioned could -under no circumstances be a failure. It is immensely high, -and is long in proportion. The proportion of height to span -(2½ to 1) is better than in most English churches. The -harmony of the design—practically the same from east to -west, and from north to south—is unique in England, and is -most impressive. The charming way, too, in which the architect -has contrived that we should have a vista of another -miniature church in the Lady chapel—a cathedral within a -cathedral—is worthy of all commendation. But, as in Lincoln -nave, to the eye every support is alarmingly insufficient for -the work it has to do; the piers are too tall and slender, the -walls too thin, and pierced with too many openings. The -triforium is a most unfortunate design: in harmony neither<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> -with the arcade below, nor with the clerestory above; its outer -arches ugly in themselves and discordant with every other -arch in the church; nor could it be expected that its dark -marble shafts would tell against a dark background—black -on black. Add to this the dreadfully new look of everything—partly -due to the very perfection of the masonry, partly because -Scott has been here—and the overpowering glare: one almost -feels as if one were in the Crystal Palace. Of the west front -it is as well to say nothing; it would take pages to contain -the unkind things that have been said about it.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Southwell">The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Southwell.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus135.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Southwell Minster, as it is usually but incorrectly -styled, was originally what is called a collegiate church. -It is as if, in any parish church of unusual importance -or with an exceptionally large population, there should be -not one rector, as nowadays, but a dozen or so, this dozen -being formed into a corporation, with a dean, precentor, -chancellor and treasurer (the two first officials did not exist at -Southwell). All the cathedrals of the old foundation had -from the earliest time such a collegiate constitution as the -above: viz., Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, -London, Salisbury, Wells, and the four Welsh cathedrals. -But all these were also cathedrals: <i>i.e.</i>, they possessed a -bishop’s chair (<i>cathedra</i>); Southwell did not become a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> -cathedral—there was no bishop of Southwell—till the present -reign.</p> - -<p>Like the other ecclesiastical colleges—those of cathedrals -excepted—that of Southwell was suppressed by Edward VI.; -but under Queen Mary it had the good fortune to be reconstituted -and re-endowed. Its sister church, Beverley minster, -also a college of secular canons—<i>i.e.</i>, priests not living under -a monastic rule—became and has remained a parish church. -The only collegiate churches remaining with their original -constitution are Windsor, Westminster, Heytesbury, Middleham, -and St. Katherine’s Hospital, London—omitting, of -course, the cathedrals of the old foundation.</p> - -<p>Though, however, there was till recently no bishop of -Southwell, yet the church up to the Reformation was practically -a cathedral. Just as the Bishop of Wells had at -different times other cathedrals besides that of Wells—at one -time at Bath, at another time at Glastonbury; and as the -bishop of the Mercian diocese had at one time three chairs—viz., -at Lichfield, Chester and Coventry—so the Archbishop of -the immense northern kingdom of Northumbria required and -possessed four cathedrals: viz., at York, Ripon, Beverley -and Southwell. The latter was especially the cathedral of -Nottinghamshire, as it has become once more. The archbishops -had a palace at Southwell, of which the fine hall -remains; Archbishop Sandys is buried in the minster.</p> - -<p>I. In the seventh century St. Paulinus is said to have -founded a church at Southwell. But long before his time—in -the third century, or thereabouts—the Romans were at -Southwell. There actually survives a tesselated pavement -in the south transept which may well have belonged to a -Romano-British basilica.</p> - -<p>II. Two fragments have been carefully preserved and -re-used from an early Norman church—it may even have been -of Pre-Conquest date. One is a fragment of a lintel over a -doorway in the north transept, depicting St. Michael and the -Dragon and David throttling the lion. The other is a set of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> -capitals on the eastern piers of the tower, now unfortunately -covered up to make room for more organ pipes. (A mania -for big organs is raging in our cathedrals: nothing short -of the roar and rumble of an earthquake will bring people -nowadays into a devotional frame of mind.)</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus136.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>III. Between 1109 and 1114 a new Norman church was -begun. Of this the choir has disappeared. As the choir -would be built first, 1120 is given as an approximate date for -the transept and 1130 for the nave. The cable-mouldings, -however, of the crossing -and transepts, and the -carving of the nave-capitals, -are so rich and effective -that the work is probably -somewhat later. Indeed, -the whole of the ornamentation -is far ahead of that -at Ely, Norwich and Peterborough, -Tewkesbury or -Gloucester. The carved -capitals may be compared -with those of the nave of -Hereford. The interior of -the nave is low and squat, -but has been vastly improved -by Mr. Christian’s -semicircular ceiling. The piers are stumpy cylinders; the -elevation is that of Malvern, or St. Bartholomew’s, Smithfield. -Here there are none of the tall compound piers of -Peterborough or Ely, still less the Brobdingnagian cylinders -of Tewkesbury or Gloucester. Each bay of the triforium -was to have been filled with the same kind of arcade as -that of Romsey choir: viz., two small arches, with a small -shaft rising from their point of intersection. (Projecting -stones, intended for the arches and the shaft, may be seen in -each bay.) The Romsey design was not a success even in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> -the eyes of the Romsey people, for they tried five other designs -in the triforium of their transept; and the Southwell canons -very sensibly omitted this inner arcade. The clerestory, with -its circular windows, is remarkable; the same design was -worked out very beautifully, later on, in the north transept of -Hereford.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus137.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH TRANSEPT DOOR.</p> -</div> - -<p>From each transept projected eastward a two-storied apse -(cf. Gloucester), the arches into which remain, and also -the very noble arcade -which opened into the -upper chapel of the -apse. It is noteworthy -that the aisles -are vaulted, as at -Kirkstall, in oblong -compartments—another -mark of late -date. The square -broach spires of the -west front—which, as -well as the conical -roof of the chapter-house, -were restored -by Mr. Christian on -the authority of old -prints—give the -church quite a Rhenish appearance. The two big west -windows of the towers are modern shams; originally these -stages of the towers were, no doubt, solid. The north-west -tower has a pointed arcade, and is therefore a little later -than its neighbour, which has an intersecting arcade of -semicircular arches. Originally the façade was just such -a one as that which remains in St. Stephen’s, Caen.</p> - -<p>A magnificent string-course of zigzag ornament runs along -the nave and round the transepts. In places it has been -taken out, reinserted in a different place or copied, when the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> -Perpendicular windows were inserted in the aisle of the nave. -In the south transept it takes the unusual form of a segmental -arch over the Archbishop’s -doorway. -The great emphasis -given to the horizontal -lines of the -Norman building is -as remarkable here -as at Salisbury. -There are good examples -of the “nebule” -corbel-table -with a later parapet, -and of Norman pinnacles; -one of these, -over the porch, is -hollow, and served as -a chimney for the -sacristan or sexton, -who, it was enacted, “should lie within the church, to be at -hand to ring the bells at the right time.” The gables of the -transept have very effective zigzag, with interesting differences -of treatment; the pinnacles of the transepts seem to have -been removed at some time or other to the central tower, -for which they are too small. There is a fine view of the -whole exterior from the fields and gardens to the south-east.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus138.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH PORCH.</p> -</div> - -<p>IV. This fine Norman church only existed in its entirety for -a century. Its eastern limb was less than half the length of -the present choir, which was commenced <i>c.</i> 1230 by Archbishop -Gray, who built the great transept of York and the -west front of Ripon. The plan is practically that of Worcester, -(the eastern portion of which was finished <i>c.</i> 1218), but on a -humbler scale: viz., an aisled choir for the canons, a tiny -eastern transept (such a one was still in existence in the -Transitional choir of York), and a long presbytery, the two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> -eastern bays of which were without aisles. Externally this -gives a beautiful composition even now. Before its mutilation, -the Southwell choir must have been one of the best mediæval -designs in Europe. Unfortunately the roofs have been lowered, -and in the flattened battlemented eastern gable a most misshapen -window now appears. Originally there were no -external flying-buttresses (cf. Salisbury); the clerestory wall -began to bulge out; the high roofs of the eastern transepts -were taken down, and external flying-buttresses were erected -(<i>c.</i> 1355). Take these away, in imagination, raise roofs and -gables to as sharp a pitch as those of Beverley and Lincoln, -and you have a design as noble as it is simple. The alternation -of aisled choir and unaisled presbytery with the fine -projecting masses of the eastern transepts provides charming -contrasts of light and shadow; the base-courses are almost -as strong and emphatic as at Salisbury; the sharply chamfered -buttresses, with their acute pyramidal caps—a reminiscence -of Lincoln nave—are particularly effective. Contrary -to Salisbury fashion, the windows are deeply recessed externally. -The whole -design is vigorous -and original.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus139.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The interior of -the choir is equally -original and interesting. -The architect -seems to have thought -that the vaults of -the choir must rise -no higher than the -eastern arch of the -tower. If so, he was -mistaken; as may be -seen at Norwich, where the choir rises much higher than -the nave. His problem then was how to get the appearance -without the reality of height in the triforium. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> -same problem had troubled the Norman builders at -Dunstable, Jedburgh, and Oxford; they had solved it by -constructing a lofty pier-arcade, and then building the -triforium <i>beneath</i> it. The Norman builders at Steyning, -and the architects of Southwell and Pershore choirs—which -were going up together—solved the difficulty in a different -and more effective manner: viz., by inserting the triforium -inside the clerestory. This saved the elevation. The pier-arcade -was tall, the clerestory was tall, and the whole -interior looked tall and not squat.</p> - -<p>To interfere with the services as little as possible, the eastern -half was built first, as at Rochester and Worcester. When -this was finished, the western half was built. If the foliage -of the beautiful capitals and corbels and bosses be examined -carefully, it will be found to be somewhat stiff and formal in -the eastern bays, and to be worked with much more crispness -and freedom towards the west (cf. Worcester). The next -thing was to pull down the Norman choir, the material of -which is found to be largely built up in the western, but not -in the eastern bays. In rebuilding the western bays, the first -consideration was not to bring down the Norman tower. So -the work was not continued from the east, but was started -afresh from the tower. The two portions met in the fourth -bay; when it was found that, owing to inaccurate setting-out, -the arch on the south side of the choir and the string-course -on the north side were at a different level to that of the older -work to the east. The awkward junction of the arches was -masked by a curious medallion. The whole of the work was -done late in the Lancet period; as is shown by the frequent -use of the triple roll in the bases, and by the fact that the -tooth-ornament is worked on a projecting fillet, as in the -north transept of Hereford, instead of being set in a hollow. -The vault of the aisles and transept is quinquepartite, as in -St. Hugh’s aisles and transept at Lincoln; the high vault is -quadripartite; and both vaults have the wobbling longitudinal -rib of the great transept of Lincoln. At the east end this rib<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> -drops down somewhat fortuitously into the middle of a group -of lancets. A special local note of this Southwell work is -fondness for fillets; they abound everywhere.</p> - -<p>V. A little later, the eastern apse of the north transept was -replaced by a double chapel (<i>c.</i> 1260). The shafts have the -“keel-moulding,” both here and in the chapter-house.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus140.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>VI. Next was built the cloister—<i>i.e.</i>, the southern part of -the Vestibule leading to the chapter-house. Notice the lovely -doorway in the north -choir-aisle. In this -and the arcade is -early naturalistic -foliage, which fixes -the date as <i>c.</i> 1280. -Before the upper story -was built, and when -the eastern arcade -was open, it must -have been singularly -beautiful. From the -little courtyard between -the cloister and -the eastern transept -the views are most -picturesque.</p> - -<p>VII. Then was -built the vestibule and the chapter-house. If in window -tracery and leafage it be compared with the chapter-house -of York, it will be plain that the Southwell example is -the earlier. Southwell chapter-house may be 1290, York -1300. York chapter-house is then but a copy of that -of Southwell—and an inferior copy; both dispense with -a central pier; but Southwell has a magnificent vault of -stone, whereas York is vaulted in wood. The chapter-house -of Southwell, not that of York, is “among chapter-houses, -as the rose among flowers.” “What Cologne cathedral<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> -is to Germany, Amiens to France,” says Mr. Street, “is -Southwell chapter-house to England.” Here English stone-carvers -produced their best work; nowhere will you find -such capitals or crockets or spandrels, nor such portraits—all, -no doubt, here and in the cloister, representing -people living at Southwell 1280-1300. Photographs of this -wonderful detail have been inserted in the Introduction, -pages v-xiii.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus141.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR SCREEN.</p> -</div> - -<p>VIII. But the wonders of Southwell do not end yet. In -the Curvilinear period (1315-1360) was erected quite the -loveliest choir screen in England; next comes that of Lincoln, -evidently by the same hand. Eastern and western sides are -entirely different in design: on the western side the artist -parts reluctantly with the beautiful geometrical design of the -thirteenth century; on the eastern side he accepts unreservedly -the reign of the ogee arch. Magnificent sedilia and stone -stalls of similar character were erected, which only survive in -part. Very beautiful, too, is the cusping of the reticulated -windows inserted in the north transept chapel.</p> - -<p>The upper parts of the chapter-house and the north -transept chapel also were remodelled in the Curvilinear period.</p> - -<p>For two hundred years or more, the highest and best -of mediæval art found cultivated and wealthy patrons in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> -the canons of Southwell. Norman, Lancet, Geometrical, -Curvilinear work are all seen here at their best. Few of our -cathedrals, from the point of view either of architectural -design or sculptured detail, can be mentioned in the same -breath with Southwell. Nowhere will the architectural student -find such a treasure of the best work of the best periods as in -the sister churches of the canons of Beverley and Southwell. -It is one of the greatest delights of Southwell that this lovely -minster is little known and almost unvisited: one feels as if -one were “the first that ever burst into this silent sea.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus142.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SEDILIA.</p> -</div> - -<p>IX. <span class="smcap">Perpendicular.</span>—Large windows were inserted in -the aisles (<i>c.</i> 1390) and the west end (fifteenth century) to light -the nave; and a doorway from the choir to the Archbishop’s -palace on the south.</p> - -<p>X. There is an alabaster monument of Archbishop Sandys -(<i>d.</i> 1588), of unusually good design. To the same century -belongs the fine Renaissance glass (French) in the east of -the choir.</p> - -<p>XI. There were originally sixteen canons or priests at -Southwell in charge of the services. But as they mostly -resided in their country parishes, they were allowed to appoint -sixteen vicars or deputies, to do their work for them. These -vicars, like the canons, formed a college or corporation.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> -The vicars also found the work hard, and were aided by -paid lay-clerks and choir-boys. Besides these there was a -college of thirteen chantry-priests. In later days there used -to be in residence at Southwell only one canon out of the -sixteen; he came into residence only once in four years, and -only stayed three months. The handsome block of brick -houses to the east of the minster was built in 1780: the -eastern house for the canon in residence; the two houses on -each side for four of the vicars (the number of whom had -dwindled to six).</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Wells">The Cathedral Church of St. Andrew, Wells.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus143.jpg" width="400" height="500" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">“The traveller who -comes down the -hill from Shepton -Mallet,” says Professor -Freeman, -“looks down on a -group of buildings -without a rival either -in our own island or -beyond the seas.” -“From a distance,” -says Mr. Peabody, -“the towers and lantern -of the cathedral -rise above rounded -masses of green foliage. -When we reach -its walls, we find them springing from the azure depths of -crystalline pools, from emerald lawns and arching trees, -the home of cawing rooks and soaring pigeons. Close to -the very walls of the ancient cathedral rises one of the noblest -springs in the world, to which city and cathedral owe their -name; an ever-abounding and magnificent outburst of waters -at the side of the Lady chapel, surging up in a boiling heap -in the midst of the unfathomed depths of a translucent pool; -then bounding over in an impetuous cascade, which carries -it into the Bishop’s moat, to encircle palace and rampart -and towers, till it rests in glassy clearness over many-coloured -forests of branching or feathery or star-like water-weeds.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span> -Never did a Frenchman form such harmonies of church and -scenery as one sees at Lichfield, at Salisbury, and at Wells, -in their setting of close and cloister and lake, of brilliant -garden and clipped green lawn and immemorial elms. Above -rise three gray, time worn towers; the music of the chimes -vibrates and dies away:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“‘Lord, through this hour</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Be Thou our guide,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">That by Thy power</div> - <div class="verse indent2">No foot may slide.’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">So from hour to hour chant the bells over the peaceful beauty -of the bishop’s gardens and terraces and the ancient ivy-clad -palace; while within the lonely nave, as the fading sunlight -shines through the western window, and casts its coloured -glories on sculptured tomb and carved boss and gray stone -wall, the organ notes pulsate through the stony fabric:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“‘Through long-drawn aisle and fretted vault</div> - <div class="verse indent2">The pealing anthem swells the note of praise.’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p class="noindent">The great solemn place is filled with the thrilling sweetness -of boyish voices, and we heartily join in their tuneful, long -‘Amen,’ as it rings and resounds down the empty nave, and -echoes again and again from distant chapel and far-receding -vaults.</p> - -<p class="noindent">“The Bishop’s palace is romance made tangible, even to -‘spell-bound princes oaring their way as swans among the -lilies of the moat.’ In this home of peace good Bishop Ken -led his simple, happy life, awaking with the sun and joining -with the birds in their morning hymn, and each eventide -singing to his lute—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“‘Glory to thee, my God, this night,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">For all the blessings of the light.’</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Beyond the gardens and the moat run avenues of stately -elms; hard by, to the north, are the cathedral’s triple towers,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> -and, for background, the mighty range of the Mendips; all -round is meadow-grass; to the west nestles the little town, -with the stately tower of St. Cuthbert’s church; and, five miles -away, conical tors rise on either side of the isle of Avalon, the -storied land of Glastonbury, where twice each year bloomed -the sacred thorn struck by Joseph of Arimathea from a thorn -in the Saviour’s crown; where, too, lies King Arthur, borne -thither after the fatal battle of Camelot, and buried in an -unknown grave with -the inscription, ‘Hic -jacet Arturus rex -quondam rexque -futurus.’ This land -of Somerset to the -Englishman should be -holy ground.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus144.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>The peculiar charm -of Wells lies, as Professor -Freeman remarks, -in the union -and harmonious -grouping of the cathedral -with its surroundings. -It does not -stand alone. On the -other hand, it is not -crowded by incongruous buildings, like the great cathedrals -of France, rising in precipices from narrow lanes or stone -paved <i>place</i>. Nor, again, is it isolated from those buildings -which are its natural and necessary complement—the palace -of the Bishop, the deanery, the residence of the Archdeacon, -the Cathedral school, the Vicar’s Close, the homes of precentor, -organist and architect. Nearly all the officials still -live in the houses which Bishop Beckington built four centuries -ago. And with the most perfect and picturesque of all -these, “a double row of little ancient houses,” the Vicar’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> -Close, the north transept of the cathedral is connected by a -delightful mediæval bridge.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus145.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SUGAR’S CHANTRY IN NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The diocese of Wells is an offshoot of that of Winchester. -When Wessex grew -populous, the bishopric -of Sherborne was -split off from that of -Winchester; and in -909 the shire of the -Sumorsaetas was split -off from Sherborne, -and the men of Somerset -got a bishop of -their own. The diocese -long had two -cathedrals: one at -Wells, served, as at -this day, by secular -canons; the other at -Bath, served by the -monks of the Benedictine -abbey. The latter was suppressed by Henry VIII., -and ever since the bishop has been but in name Bishop of -Bath.</p> - -<p>Of the earlier cathedrals not a trace remains. The oldest -part of the present cathedral consists of the nave, transepts, -and the piers and arches of the three western bays of the -choir. All this was designed, and much of it built in the -time of Fitz-Bohun, who became bishop in 1171. The design -is what is called Transitional. It is not early Transitional; -for there is none of the heaviness and massiveness of the early -Transitional work of Malmesbury, Kirkstall, or Fountains. -It is not middle Transitional; for the semicircular arch, which -still appears here and thereat Ripon, is conspicuously absent. -It is late, very late, Transitional work, done at the very end -of the Transitional period (1145-1190), and therefore contemporaneous -with the famous French choir of Canterbury<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span> -(1175-1184) and the beautiful presbytery of Chichester (built -after the fire of 1187). But it is more Gothic than either -Canterbury or Chichester. In fact, Wells is the most advanced -of all the cathedral designs of the Transitional period. -There is indeed little of the Romanesque or Norman about it; -still it is there. Among the survivals of Romanesque feeling -may be noticed the zigzag ornament in the doorways of the -north porch, the classical character of several foliage-capitals, -the retention of man-headed birds and other Romanesque -monsters in the capitals, and, above all, the universal square -abacus. All these, however, except the square abacus, find -parallels in advanced Gothic work of the thirteenth century -elsewhere. And as we find precisely the same stiff foliage-capitals -in Chichester presbytery subsequent to 1187, and in -St. Joseph’s chapel, Glastonbury (1180-1190), we may be -certain that the design belongs to Fitz-Bohun’s episcopate, -before whose death in 1191 the church was rising fast, and -its style an object of universal admiration.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus146.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">TRIFORIUM OF NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Now this is a very important matter, at any rate to Englishmen. -In the first -place, we are provided -with another example -of first-rate importance, -of what architects -were doing in -this country just before -the final plunge -into Gothic, <i>i.e.</i>, just -before St. Hugh commenced -his work at -Lincoln. Hitherto we -have had to rely on -what we see in Canterbury -choir; now we have Wells also. To these we may add -the little-known Abbey of Dore, in the Black Mountains. -In its lovely choir we go one step farther. Even the -square abacus, universal at Wells, alternates there with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span> -round form, and is more and more infrequent as one proceeds -to the retro-choir, where indeed the work, to all intents -and purposes, is pure Gothic. And thus we get what we -never had before, a bridge or series of stepping-stones to -Gothic architecture. Formerly one passed at a bound, an -impossible bound, from Canterbury choir to Lincoln Minster. -Now we can leave out the French work of Canterbury choir -altogether, and accomplish the passage from Norman to -Gothic through Malmesbury, Kirkstall, Ripon, Wells, Abbey -Dore. Before, it was inconceivable how Lincoln came into -existence; it was an architectural Melchisedek, without father -or mother; and those who did not believe in spontaneous -generation in architecture were driven, in spite of their wishes, -to seek out an ancestor for St. Hugh’s choir in France. Now -the whole difficulty is removed, the missing link has been -found, Lincoln is but the logical development of Wells and -Abbey Dore. The architectural chain is complete. Lincoln -is no Melchisedek we have found its parents; and, what is -profoundly satisfactory, they are true-born Englishmen, not -Frenchmen. Wells, therefore, deserves all the attention that -the architectural student can give to it, as evidence that -the Gothic architecture of England did not originate with the -French choir at Canterbury of William of Sens, but is native -and indigenous to the soil.</p> - -<p>The design of the nave of Wells, however, has more than -archæological interest; it has a decided artistic distinction of -its own. In the first place, the interior looks taller than it is—<i>i.e.</i> -it is the very reverse of Lichfield. It is but 67 feet high, -and is thus one of the lowest of our cathedrals; but so just -are its proportions, so well adjusted the tall clerestory to the -stages below, that to the eye the ratio of height to breadth -is entirely satisfactory. Equally remarkable is the way in -which the impression of great length is produced. This is -due to the obliteration of vertical divisions in the triforium and -ground-story, which are not separated off, as usual, into bays -by vaulting-shafts. The vaulting-shafts are stopped just<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> -below the sill of the clerestory, and the triforium runs in an -uninterrupted arcade, the whole distance from west to east. -Such a treatment of the triforium is unusual in England, but -is found also at Glastonbury and Llandaff: perhaps it hails -originally from Matilda’s church, the Abbaye aux Dames, at -Caen. And the free flow, east and west, of the broad horizontal -band of the triforium is aided still further by designing -it void of shafts, bases, and capitals alike. The central tower -seems to have collapsed in 1248, and many of the capitals -seem to be of this or of a still later date. The capitals, corbels -and the carving generally of this part of the cathedral are most -spirited and interesting; there is hardly any mediæval work in -the country to excel it in spirit, variety and execution; it should -be examined with the utmost care. When you have seen the -carving in Wells cathedral, you will not be so much surprised at -the excellence of that in the choirs of Lincoln and the west front -of St. Albans. The plan of the piers should also be noted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus147.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">WEST FRONT.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lancet Period.</span> <i>West Front.</i>—Looking westward, we -see to the south (on the left) the chapel of St. Edmund,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span> -and to the north the chapel of the Holy Cross, now the -Consistory Court. The west front, including these chapels, -is Bishop Jocelyn’s -work; it is in the purest -early English Gothic, -probably built after his -return from exile in -1213, and finished by -him before 1239. There -has been, however, -some rebuilding here, -and a parapet added, -in the fifteenth century. -Passing out, we can -now survey the famous -façade, and its immense -collection of -sculpture—by far the -best mediæval figure-sculpture -in England, and only surpassed by the yet finer -and earlier sculpture of Chartres and Rheims. The visitor will -do well to study it in detail in the admirable series of photographs, -taken when the scaffolding was up for the restoration -of the façade. Professor Cockerell suggests that the façade -is to be regarded as a Te Deum in stone.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus148.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHAPTER HOUSE</p> -</div> - -<p>As for the composition of the west front, it has been severely -criticised, but two things must be borne in mind. The first is, -that the towers were probably designed for spires. Add the -spires, and as Notre Dame, Paris, the squatness of the façade -disappears. Secondly, it was designed for the sculpture—a -sort of open-air reredos—and not the sculpture for the façade. -Nevertheless, it is not good, even as a reredos. The windows -are mere slits in the wall, the doorways mere “holes for frogs -and mice.” It lacks variety: the six big buttresses project, -but have all the same amount of projection. The arcading -below the west window is confused and muddled, and cut into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> -anyhow by the central doorway. Nevertheless, its great -breadth makes this façade of Wells more impressive than any -other in the country, except that of Peterborough. What -would it be with the spires added!</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus149.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Geometrical Period.</span> <i>Undercroft, Staircase, Chapter -house.</i>—When the west front had been peopled with statuary, -the undercroft of the chapter-house was built. A similar -chapter-house, two stories high, once existed in precisely the -same situation <i>i.e.</i>—east of the north transept—at Beverley -minster, the exquisite staircase to which still survives. Westminster -chapter-house and that of Old St. Paul’s also had -undercrofts. These undercrofts probably served as sacristies. -The staircase or vestibule to the chapter-house, with simple -tracery of cusped circles in its windows, is also of the early -Geometrical period: its date is 1286-1320. The work -here deserves the closest inspection; it is the best work in -Wells cathedral, and unsurpassed by anything in Great -Britain. The -naturalistic foliage -of the capitals and -corbels is superb: -especially notice -the first corbels, -representing a -monk and a nun -treading on serpents. -The staircase -leads by the -chain bridge to -the vicars’ close, -as well as to the -chapter-house. -The chapter-house is one of the noblest in England. The -long-lobed trefoils in the window tracery indicate that it -is a work of the latter half of the Geometrical period (1280-1320); -the profusion of ball-flower round and beneath the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> -windows, and the ogee dripstones outside the windows, -would seem to indicate that it was not completed till -the very end -of the period. -Canon Church -has ascertained -that it was not -finished before -1320.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus150.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-EAST.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus151.jpg" width="250" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Curvilinear -Period.</span> <i>Lady -Chapel</i>, <i>Choir</i>, -<i>Central Tower</i>.—But -a much -more important -work remained, -which had hitherto been postponed, owing perhaps to the great -expense involved in the completion of the west front and the -chapter-house. It was to extend the choir eastwards. Many -of the great cathedrals had finished their eastward extensions -long before. Canterbury choir had been prolonged at -the beginning of the twelfth century, and again about 1180. -Hereford also was lengthened about 1180. The Angel Choir -of Lincoln had been built about 1280. But at Wells, Lichfield -and Chester, the extension of the choir was not effected till -the Curvilinear period (1315-1360). As at Lichfield, the -Wells architect seems first to have built the Lady chapel -as a detached building, afterwards joining it up to the -Transitional bays of Fitz-Jocelyn’s choir. As every one knows, -it is the most beautiful east end we have in England. It -may be worth while to try to see how this design was arrived -at—a design as exceptional as it is effective. The simplest -form of east end in English Gothic is seen at York and -Lincoln: it consists merely of a low wall with a big window -above it. The next improvement is to build an aisle or -processional path behind the east end; at the same time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span> -piercing the east wall with one, two, or three arches. This -was done at Hereford about 1180; and on a magnificent scale -in the Chapels of Nine Altars at Durham and Fountains early -in the thirteenth century. But the French apsidal cathedrals—of -which we have an example in Westminster—have not -only an encircling processional aisle, but also a chevet of -chapels radiating out from it; thus providing ever-changing -vistas of entrancing beauty. The next step in England also -was to provide our rectangular choirs with a chevet as well as -with a processional aisle. An early example of this plan is to -be seen at Abbey Dore, in Herefordshire, about 1190. It -occurs early in the thirteenth century, on a still grander scale, -at Salisbury; where one finds not one, but two processional -aisles, as well as chapels to the east of them; and, in addition, -a Lady chapel projecting still farther to the east, thus producing -a design -of great complexity -and -beauty. Nevertheless, -at Salisbury, -since the -chief supporting -piers of the retro-choir -and the -chevet are in a -line with those of -the choir, there -is by no means -the same changeful -intricacy of -vista that affords -one ever fresh -delight in an -apsidal church. At Wells, however, the architect attained all -the success of the Continental builder, simply because he -built his Lady chapel not rectangular but octagonal. For,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> -to get this octagon, of which only five sides were supported -by walls, he had to plant in the retro-choir two -piers to support the remaining three sides; and these piers -are necessarily out of line with the piers of the choir. -He had got the Continental vista. He saw it; but he saw -also that it could be improved upon. And he did improve -it, by putting up an outer ring of four more piers round -the western part of the octagon of the Lady chapel. It -was an intuition of genius: it makes the vistas into the -retro-choir and Lady chapel a veritable glimpse into fairyland; -and provides, here alone in England, a rival to -the glorious eastern terminations of Amiens and Le Mans. -And that is not all. We saw in the chapter-house the grand -effect of the central stalk branching upward and outward in -all directions, like some palm tree transmuted into stone. -This beautiful effect he transfers to the retro-choir, but multiplied—four -palm trees in place of one; for each of the four -external piers of the octagon emulates the chapter-house’s -central stalk. “It is difficult to determine whether the effect -is more striking in the early morning, when the ancient -splendours of the stained glass, are reflected on the slender -shafts of Purbeck marble and the clustered vault; or at the -late winter services, when the darkened figures of saints and -prophets in the clerestory combine with the few lights burning -in the choristers’ stalls to add something of mystery and -solemn gloom to the maze of aisles and chapels, half hidden, -half revealed” (Murray). And where did the idea of having -an octagonal Lady chapel come from? Possibly it came from -Lichfield. If one follows the outline formed by the five walls -of Wells Lady chapel and the four <i>outer</i> piers, which complete -the octagon, it will be seen that the Wells octagon is of -precisely the same elongated form—two long sides and six -short ones—as the chapter-house of Lichfield. We may fairly -suppose, then, that the Wells architect got the design for his -east end by tacking on the elongated octagon of Lichfield -chapter-house to the rectangular retro-choir of Salisbury<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span>. -This Lady chapel is an early work of the Curvilinear period; -for it seems to have been complete in 1324. The windows -have beautiful reticulated tracery of early type. There is -lovely carving in the capitals, bosses, reredos, sedilia and -piscina. The Curvilinear foliated capitals here and in the -choir should be compared with the somewhat earlier capitals -of the chapter-house, with the early Geometrical capitals of -the staircase, the Lancet capitals of the west front, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span> -still earlier ones of porch, nave, and transepts. The ancient -glass here and in the Jesse window of the choir is superb -in colour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus152.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Choir.</span>—The works in the choir consist of three parts. (1) -The construction of three new eastern bays, to join up the -Lady chapel to the western bays, as at Lichfield and Chester. -(2) The transformation of the three western bays, except the -piers and arches, and of the aisles. (3) The vaulting. All -the lower work is of great beauty, especially the tabernacle -work which replaces the triforium. The foliage of the capitals -is naturalistic, and curiously diminutive. The vault, however, -is unusual and objectionable in character. It is really a -reproduction in stone of a kind of vault—the wagon or barrel -vault—which, executed in wood, is a special peculiarity of -Somerset. This type of stone tunnel, with ill-arranged liernes, -sham ribs carved on its surface, and holes cut into it to admit -the heads of the clerestory windows, is fortunately confined to -Wells. It is, moreover, a gross blunder in design. The -pattern of the ribs would be excellent in a flat ceiling; but -in perspective it comes out all wrong, because the architect -has omitted to take account of the curves of the vault. The -stalls, with their stone canopies, are modern, with ancient -misereres. The Transitional windows of the aisles were also -replaced by Curvilinear ones.</p> - -<p>Finally, the church assumed a more dignified appearance -externally, for the <i>Central Tower</i> was carried up to its -present height between 1318 and 1321; but as yet there were -no western towers. As was so often the case, the raising of the -central tower “caused the four great piers, on which it rested, -to sink into the ground. This, of course, tore away the masonry -of the four limbs of the church from the piers, and yawning -gaps began to appear between the tower arches and the main -walls of the church.” The piers had to be strengthened and -the gaps filled up. This was done about 1338. At Canterbury -and Salisbury the central piers were strengthened by -running across a horizontal stone girder; at Wells the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span> -exceedingly strong and exceedingly ugly form of an arch -carrying an inverted arch was adopted. This stone framework -thus assumes something of the shape of St. Andrew’s -Cross, by which name it is generally known. The eastern -arch is not strengthened in this fashion, but by a massive -screen, which is practically a solid wall, as at Canterbury, -York and Ripon. What makes the St. Andrew’s crosses -more objectionable still is the hugeness of their mouldings, -whose vast scale dwarfs everything in the cathedral into -insignificance: in this respect they compare very unfavourably -with the horizontal girders at Canterbury. Probably one of -the last works of the Curvilinear period was to crown the -whole exterior of the cathedral with a fine pierced parapet.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Perpendicular Period.</span>—The central tower being saved, -the next thing was to carry up western towers. Of these the -southern was built after the year 1386; the northern tower -is later than 1424. Moreover, Perpendicular tracery was -inserted in many of the Transitional windows—<i>e.g.</i>, by Bishop -Beckington in the clerestory and aisles of the nave (1443-1464). -The same prelate built the three gatehouses, all of -which display his rebus, a beacon in flames issuing from -a barrel: viz. the Chain Gate, the Penniless Porch (opening -to the Market Place), and Browne’s Gate (at the end of -Sadler Street). The Early English Cloister was also rebuilt -between 1407 and 1470. Of the earlier cloister the outer walls -and two lovely doorways survive. As Wells was not a -monastic cathedral, the cloister was a mere <i>objet de luxe</i>, -except so far as it provided an enclosure for the cemetery and -a covered way to the Bishop’s Palace. Accordingly, it is -incomplete; the northern walk is wanting; and the chapter-house -is on the other side of the cathedral.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Winchester">The Cathedral Church of the Holy and Indivisible Trinity at Winchester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus153.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The present legal designation of Winchester cathedral -dates only from the time of Henry VIII. It was originally -the church of the abbey of St. Swithun; and, next to St. -Swithun, its greatest patron was St. Birinus. Later on, an -alternative dedication was to St. Peter and St. Paul.</p> - -<p>It is the longest mediæval cathedral in Europe. Once it -was surpassed by old St. Paul’s, London; now its only rival is -St. Alban’s. But Winchester has an internal length of 526 -feet 6 inches; exceeding that of St. Alban’s by 5 feet 4 inches. -Vast as it is, no cathedral shows up so little. It has but -one tower, and that barely overtops the roof; in outline it is -depressed and monotonous; there are none of the double -transepts, and lofty side-porches, which so picturesquely break -up the lines of Salisbury, Lincoln, and Hereford. It has no<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span> -conspicuous façade to give it grandeur to the west; it lacks -the wide reach of open square and verdant close that delights -at Salisbury and Wells. So far from dominating the city, like -Lincoln or York, it hides out of sight. You walk all the -length of the High Street and never get a glimpse of it. -Never was such a retiring cathedral. Generally, it is approached -from the High Street through a hole in the wall; up -a narrow passage, and down an avenue of obscuring elms. -Slowly its huge mass uprears itself, sprawling over the ground -like some stranded prehistoric monster. And, externally, it -is as plain as it is huge: mainly an enormous bulk of blank -wall. Once it presented a better appearance; for though the -Lady chapel to the east was rather shorter, to the west the -nave was 40 feet longer, and was flanked, like Southwell, by -two Norman towers, forming a western transept, after the -manner of Ely and of Peterborough. The present west front -does anything but prepare us for an interior so vast; it seems -rather the approach to some parish church of the second rank. -All the more, perhaps, is one struck with the glorious interior.</p> - -<p>The arrangement of the cathedral should be compared -with that of St. Alban’s. It consists of (1) nave, (2) choir, -(3) presbytery or sanctuary, (4) feretory or saints’ chapel, -(5) retro-choir, (6) Lady chapel.</p> - -<p>In the <span class="smcap">North Transept</span> we are in presence of the earliest -work in the cathedral. Much of it is the work of Bishop -Walkelin (1070 to 1097); and, with the exception of some -traceried windows inserted early in the fourteenth century to -give more light to the eastern altars, it remains much as he left -it. As his work is in the transepts, so once was the whole -cathedral. As finished before the close of the eleventh century, -Winchester, in vastness of scale and stern power, must have -been one of the most impressive cathedrals of England: more -overwhelming than Ely or Peterborough; not inferior even -to Durham. I am not sure that every change and transformation -that took place at Winchester between the eleventh -and the sixteenth century was not a change for the worse.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span> -For of the earliest temples of our race, torn as it were out of -the solid rock, Walkelin’s cathedral was the most awful and the -most religious. As it is one of the earliest, so it was, artistically, -the grandest of our Romanesque cathedrals. The south -transept of Hereford and the north transept of Chester are, in -comparison, humble indeed. In colossal scale it finds one -rival only—the mighty church of St. Alban. Artistically, they -are miles apart: as far apart as two designs can be, one -conditioned by the use of stone, -the other of brick.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/illus154.jpg" width="200" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NORTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>But not all the work of the -Winchester transepts is by -Walkelin; it is Norman, but part -of it is a rebuilding rendered -necessary by the fall of the central -tower in 1107. The original work -is readily distinguished. Those -parts of the transept which are -the nearest to the central tower -have fine-jointed masonry; the -vaulting of the aisles has ribs; -the piers are larger. The further -and earlier part of the masonry is -much ruder, and the joints wider; -the vaulting is without ribs, and -the piers are smaller. In both parts the arches are square-edged, -greatly adding to the peculiar severity of the aspect of -this part of the church. The pier-arches are raised on stilts -in order to get their crowns on a level with the intersection -of the diagonal groins or ribs; for the earlier vault-builders -imagined that all the arches of a vault must rise to the same -level. The cushion or cubical capitals are of a simple type, -little subdivided. Both transepts have double aisles. Lanfranc, -in his metropolitan cathedral at Canterbury, was content -with an aisleless transept; but Winchester cathedral was -built on a scale befitting the capital of the Norman realms.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> -At either end, too, -of the transepts is -an aisle—<i>i.e.</i> to the -north and south; this -unusual feature enabled -processions to -pass uninterruptedly -round the triforium. -We hear that in 1111, -the bishop having -sorely taxed the -monastery to provide -funds for the rebuilding -of the central -tower, “the monks -reversed their crosses, -head down, feet up, -and made procession -barefoot against the sun, contrary to ecclesiastical use,” -round the broad triforium. Ely once had similar end-aisles, -and still has both eastern and western aisles to the transepts.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus155.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FONT.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Crypt.</span>—From the north transept one descends to the -crypt, which is well worth a visit, when not under water. The -level of the river seems to have risen since the eleventh century, -causing the crypt to be frequently flooded. It extends to the -extreme east end of the present cathedral, and is in three -parts. The first part, the western, consists of the substructure -of the original choir, showing that it consisted of four aisled -bays and an apse with ambulatory. Secondly comes a very -remarkable feature, of the same date—viz., a long aisleless -chapel of three bays, also apsidal, beneath the present retro-choir. -Whether the chapel above it was a Lady chapel is a -matter of uncertainty; for Lady chapels do not seem to have -come into fashion till the thirteenth century. Thirdly, to the -extreme east, comes the substructure of Courtenay’s Lady -chapel, built between 1486 and 1492. Most interesting of all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span> -is the sacred well, immediately beneath the high altar; far -older than Norman crypt or Norman cathedral; the holy -central spot of by-gone Saxon and even British minsters.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">South Transept.</span>—Crossing the choir, we pass down a -flight of steps to the south transept. At the top of these steps -are the bolt-holes of the iron gates, which are now placed in -the north-west corner of the nave, but which once stood here -as a barrier to the pilgrims, who were allowed access to the -north transept and choir aisles, but not to the choir itself, or -to the south transept. They entered the cathedral by a doorway -which may still be seen from the outside at the south-east -corner of the north transept. In the south transept the same -two periods of Norman work are recognisable which we saw -in the north transept; but the three aisles have been shut off -by walls and screens, forming chapels on the east side, and a -chapter-room and treasury on the west.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus156.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LADY-CHAPEL.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Central Tower</span> fell in 1107. Its fall was regarded -as a judgment; William Rufus having been buried under it -in 1100. The piers, as strengthened, are “most unwieldy -and intrusive from their excessive size and squareness of form; -the largest tower-piers -in England in proportion -to the span of the arches -that rest upon them.” -The tower-windows could -formerly be seen from -below, as well as a -grand specimen of late -Norman arcading: now -hidden from view by the -wooden fan-vault erected -in 1634. The eastern -and western arches of -the tower are left wide, -so as not to interfere -with the principal vista<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> -of the cathedral; -the northern and -southern arches -are contracted -to gain strength. -The northern and -southern sides of -the piers were -designed nearly -flat, so as not -to interfere with -the stall-work of -the monks. This is one of the cathedrals where the choir -occupies, in part, its original position, and has not been -moved eastward into the sanctuary. But originally the -monastic choir of Winchester extended still farther to the -west, occupying not one, but three bays of the nave; and -was separated from the western bays of the nave by a great -rood-screen. The old arrangement has been preserved -at Norwich and Gloucester, and has been restored at Peterborough. -Before leaving the south transept, the northern bay -of the western triforium should be noticed. It has been -only partially transformed into Perpendicular after the style -of the nave; for the semicircular upper arch of the triforium -can still be seen. This helps us to restore in imagination the -original triforium of the whole Norman nave.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus157.jpg" width="300" height="225" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">STALLS.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of the Transitional period of our architecture, 1145 to 1190, -only two traces seem to remain at Winchester. One is the -doorway below the triforium-bay mentioned above. Its zigzag -ornament is of Norman character, but the obtusely pointed -arch shows that it is subsequent, yet not much subsequent -to 1145. This doorway, with its queer fluted pilasters, may -have been built by Henry de Blois (1129-1171) when he -walled off this western aisle to serve as a treasury. If so, -it is the only trace in the structure of this, the greatest of all -Winchester’s bishops. The other is the font.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre.</span>—Now we return to -the north transept, which is cut off from the choir by a massive -stone wall, the object being to keep the pilgrims out of the -choir, and, perhaps, to support organs. At the end of the -twelfth century a curious chapel was built on to this wall: -it contains frescoes representing the Passion of our Lord.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Retro-Choir.</span>—Traversing the north choir-aisle, we reach -the largest retro-choir in England; it consists of three bays, -with an east end originally consisting of three chapels all of -the same length. The central chapel was elongated in the -fifteenth century. This retro-choir was built by Bishop Godfrey -de Lucy, between 1189 and 1204, and therefore, with the -Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre, is the earliest Gothic work in -the cathedral, and but few years later than St. Hugh’s work -at Lincoln. De Lucy’s work is not very ambitious, nor very -rich, nor artistically on a plane with the early English work -at Lincoln, Beverley, and Ely. The great defect is that, in -relation to its area, it is so miserably low. To get it high, the -architect would have had to sacrifice the east windows of the -clerestory of the choir; and this he was not allowed to do. -The retro-choir was serviceable in providing room for processions -round the high altar, and space for shrines, and in -giving additional chapels and altars. Probably, also, the -reversion to the favourite square east-end of English church -architecture was popular in itself. Almost every Norman -cathedral ended in an apse; and in the apse, high raised -behind the high altar, sat the Norman bishop, facing the -congregation; the hateful symbol of Norman domination. -The destruction of the Norman apse may well, then, have -been popular. The best part of the design is seen in the -southern wall of the Lady chapel, and in the charming -vaulted staircases which lead out of the side chapels to the -roofs of the retro-choir and choir, and to the clerestory of -the choir, from which a good view of the interior and of the -interesting vault and glass of the choir is obtained. At the -north-east corner of the retro-choir is an effigy in a vesica: it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> -commemorates Bishop Ethelmar or Aymer, whose heart was -buried at Winchester in 1261.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Stalls.</span>—These are in the Geometrical style (1245-1315), -and were executed about the middle of the period. -“The beauty and variety of the carvings are wonderful. There -is no repetition; and the grace and elegance, as well as the -fidelity, with which the foliage is represented, are nowhere -to be surpassed. The human heads are full of expression; -and the monkeys and other animals sporting among the -branches have all the same exquisite finish. Here are also -interesting -misereres” -(Murray).</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus158.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FERETORY.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Presbytery.</span>—The -space between -the central tower -and retro-choir -was occupied by -the Norman -choir, less its -apse, up to about -1320, when this -choir was pulled -down and the present pier-arcade was built, with the -clerestory; which latter, however, received new window-tracery -in the sixteenth century. To the same period, the -Curvilinear, but a little later, belongs the exquisite series -of nine tabernacles in the retro-choir, on the wall at the -back of the feretory; the naturalistic foliage of which is -perhaps the best work in the cathedral. Below is an -original entrance to the crypt, now called the “Holy -Hole.” Above it accordingly is the inscription:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Corpora sanctorum sunt hic in pace sepulta</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ex meritis quorum fulgent miracula multa.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span></p> -<p><span class="smcap">The Nave.</span>—We now pass into the south aisle of the nave. -The nave is of exceptional interest, for three reasons. In the -first place, for its vast length of 12 bays of 250 feet. Norwich -has 14 bays of 230 feet. Secondly, because, after the work at -Gloucester, it is the earliest work we possess in the Perpendicular -style. Thirdly, because its Perpendicular vesture -is little more than skin deep, the solid core of every pier -and every wall, from pavement to roof, being Norman. It is -just this combination of the massive solidity of Romanesque -with the grace and elegance of Gothic which makes it what it -is, the finest nave in the country. The walls are Norman; -built, in Norman fashion, of rather small and square blocks; -they are thick, nearly 10 feet thick at the top; outside the -south aisle may still be seen the flat Norman buttresses; -hidden behind the balustrade of the clerestory are the upper -arches of the Norman triforium, one of which we saw in the -south transept. The vault rests on the original Norman -vaulting-shafts, though they are stopped by Perpendicular -capitals. They are not really stopped, however; for when we -mount up to the back of the vault we find the vaulting-shaft, -piercing <i>through</i> the vault, rising to the very top of the wall, -to support, as they once supported, a wooden ceiling like that -of Peterborough. Near the eastern end of the south aisle the -lower part of a Norman shaft has been left; probably because -it was covered up by some later shrine or altar. Crossing the -nave, still clearer evidence of the character of the early work -is to be seen in the second and third piers from the east of the -north arcade. These were covered up by a great rood-screen, -now destroyed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus159.jpg" width="500" height="600" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Putting this evidence together, it is plain that we have here -a Norman nave transmogrified—Norman in core, but with a -Perpendicular casing. This casing, however, is not merely -skin-deep, as in Gloucester choir, where the Norman work can -be seen at the back of the Perpendicular screens and panelling. -The casing at Winchester goes at least one stone deep into -the piers. But it was not executed all in the same way.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span> -Bishop William of Wykeham’s work, in the seven western piers -of the southern arcade, has the new mouldings cut in the -original Norman stones. But in the rest of the piers it was -found simpler and cheaper to withdraw the Norman stones -one by one, and replace them with new stones with Perpendicular -mouldings cut on them. The small Norman windows, -of course, were destroyed altogether, and replaced by short -and broad windows by Bishop Edingdon, probably about 1360,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span> -perhaps under the superintendence of William of Wykeham, -who was his secretary, in the extreme west of the nave; and -by taller and more graceful windows in the later work of -William of Wykeham and his successors. The mouldings of -all this Perpendicular work are rather large and coarse; but -we must remember that the architect was restricted at first to -such mouldings as could be developed out of the Norman -detail, and in any case they had to be in harmony with the -big and heavy Norman vaulting-shafts which were retained -unaltered in the Perpendicular design. About the same time -forty feet of the western bays was pulled down. Edingdon’s -work in the nave may be distinguished by the broad windows, -two in the north and one in the south aisle; and by the cusps -in the panelling, which in Edingdon’s work are foliated, and -in the later work are left plain. In the new design the internal -elevation consists of two parts—a tall pier-arcade, and a -clerestory with a balustrade in front of the lower part of it.</p> - -<p>How low the original Norman pier-arcade was, is shown by -the Norman capitals which are left in the eastern piers of -the northern arcade. The Norman triforium was exceptionally -large. Its floor was on a level with the capitals of the new -arches, and it reached up to the sill of the present clerestory -windows. A glance round the corner into the transepts will -make this clear. Again, the Norman nave had a flat wooden -ceiling like that of Peterborough; this was replaced by a -magnificent lierne vault of stone, completed by Wykeham’s -successors, as is shown by the arms of Cardinal Beaufort and -Bishop William of Waynflete on the bosses of the vault and in -the string-course under the triforium. Magnificent as this -vault is, it was no improvement to break the free flow of the -diagonal and ridge-ribs by the insertion of these little liernes -or tie-ribs. The earlier vault of Exeter is massive enough and -quite sufficiently complicated without them. In the aisles -the liernes are grouped into simple hexagonal or “stellar” -patterns. The vault of the nave is often said to be unsupported -by flying buttresses. They are there, however, between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> -vault and the outer roof of the aisles, sheltered from the -weather, as are the Norman flying-buttresses of Durham and -Gloucester.</p> - -<p>Such are the chief features of this, the finest cathedral-nave -we possess, the work of Edingdon, Wykeham, Beaufort and -Waynflete. We shall hardly be wrong in attributing the -inception of this great -transformation to -Wykeham, whether as -Edingdon’s secretary -or as his successor to -the bishopric.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus160.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">REREDOS.</p> -</div> - -<p>We must not, however, -overrate, as is -often done, the novelty -of the proceeding. -For an even greater -transformation had -been wrought at -Exeter before this, -between 1280 and -1307, by Bishops -Quivil and Bitton, -who transformed the -Transitional Norman -choir of Bishop Marshall -into the style -of their day. From -Exeter Wykeham borrowed the idea of the transformation, -from Gloucester the style in which the transformation was -effected.</p> - -<p>From the west door there is a superb view eastwards. The -grandeur of the interior of the cathedral is much enhanced by -the raising of the choir. This raising of the choir is due, -however, to no æsthetic preferences on the part of the -architects, nor to any wish to emphasise the importance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span> -the clergy, but simply to the fact that there is a substructure -below the choir. Here, as at Canterbury and York, it is a -crypt. At Wimborne minster, Hythe church, and Hereford -cathedral, it seems to be no more than a processional path, or -else a charnel-house. Imposing, however, as this vista is, it -is not so long as it might be, and it appears shorter than it -really is. In the first place, out of the whole internal length -of 526 feet, only 338 feet come into the vista. This is because -De Lucy kept his retro-choir so low. Far nobler would have -been the interior of Winchester, if, as at Ely, York, and -Lincoln, retro-choir and eastern chapels had been kept as -high as presbytery and nave. Indeed, the Winchester vista -of 338 feet is surpassed even by that of the small cathedral -of Lichfield, 371 feet. Secondly, owing to the destruction of -screens, the apparent length has been greatly diminished. -Formerly there were two solid screens: a rood-screen in the -nave, three bays east of the tower; and a choir-screen. -Thirdly, as at St. Paul’s, the great wall of the reredos is far -too lofty, and is placed much too close to the east end of the -presbytery, shearing off another 20 feet of the apparent length -of the interior. This reredos, indeed, beautiful as its detail -must have been, is a vast mediæval blunder—<i>i.e.</i> from an -artistic point of view; which point of view, to tell the truth, the -mediæval architects cared little about in comparison with -the religious purposes which they wished their architecture to -subserve. Still here, as at St. Saviour’s, Southwark, one -cannot help wishing the reredos away; one would like to see -once more behind and above the high altar, on their lofty -platform, the shrines of St. Swithun and St. Birinus, and on -either side of them such delightful peeps as one has at Wells -into retro-choir and eastern chapels. Beaufort’s reredos has -much to answer for.</p> - -<p>In the south arcade of the nave are the two earliest of the -magnificent series of chantries which are the especial glory -of Winchester. They should be examined in chronological -order. They are those of the following bishops: Edingdon,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span> -died 1366; Wykeham, died 1404; Beaufort, died 1447; -Waynflete, died 1486; Fox, died 1528; Gardiner, died 1555. -Thus they form a continuous record of the growth and -development of Perpendicular and Tudor architecture from -1366 to 1555.</p> - -<p>IX. <span class="smcap">Later Perpendicular and Tudor Work.</span>—As we -have seen, the great transformation of the nave was not -completed till the episcopate of Waynflete (1447-1486), -having occupied not less than a century. After a short -breathing-space, Bishop Fox (1500-1528) set to work to -transform the presbytery; and I have little doubt that every -trace of early work would have been swept away from the -transepts as well, had not building operations at Winchester -been brought to a stop by the Reformation. As we saw above -the piers, arches and clerestory of the presbytery had been -rebuilt early in the fourteenth century. These Curvilinear -windows having probably got out of repair, he replaced -the tracery of the clerestory windows on each side of the -presbytery, and also the great clerestory window to the east, -by Perpendicular tracery. Five of these windows have -original glass. A second task was to rebuild the aisles of -the presbytery, which, till now, had remained Norman. A -third was to ceil the presbytery with a lierne vault. This is a -paltry makeshift in wood. The emblems of the Passion, -however, carved on the bosses, are of much interest, and -should be inspected from the gallery. Fourthly, Fox built -his own chantry. Indeed, most of the chantries were built -during the bishops’ lifetimes. Fifthly, he erected Tudor -screens of stone between the presbytery and his new aisles. -These Gothic screens were plainly wrought by English -workmen. Just as plainly, the pretty Renaissance frieze -which surmounts them was wrought by workmen imported -from Italy. Sixthly, he constructed the Renaissance chests -which stand on the screen. Bishop Henry de Blois (1129-1171) -had collected from the crypt, perhaps now damp, the -bones of saints and kings buried there, and had transferred<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> -them, cased in lead, to the presbytery. These sacred relics -Fox placed in the present six chests. To this period also -belongs the Renaissance woodwork now placed in the south -transept.</p> - -<p>One more structural change had taken place previously. -Bishop Courtenay (1486-1492) had lengthened the Lady -chapel and the crypt.</p> - -<p>To the early years of the sixteenth century belongs the rich -work in Bishop Langton’s chapel, and in the chapels of the -south transept, and the pulpit in the choir.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus161.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FOX’S CHANTRY.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Worcester">The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the Virgin of -Worcester.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus162.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">As is indicated by the form of dedication of 1218, “The -cathedral church of the Blessed Virgin and Saint Peter -and of the Holy Confessors Oswald and Wulfstan,” Worcester, -is one of the pre-Conquest cathedrals. With Hereford, -Leicester, and Lindsey, it was carved out of the immense -see of Lichfield, which was coextensive with the kingdom -of Mercia, by Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury towards -the end of the seventh century. Through the influence -of Dunstan, who was Bishop of Worcester from 957 to 961, -its secular canons were replaced by Benedictine monks by -his successor, St. Oswald; and the cathedral was served by -monks till the time of Henry VIII., when it was put upon the -new foundation and reverted to secular canons. In 1062 -St. Wulfstan became bishop. From his “great piety and -dovelike simplicity” of character, he had great influence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> -in the English Church, and was allowed by the Conqueror -to retain his bishopric. He repaid William by beating off -Robert Courthose, Duke of Normandy, when he attacked -Worcester, and retained the see till his death, at a great -age, in 1095. In the year 1201 miracles commenced at his -tomb, “from fifteen to sixteen per diem being cured from -every kind of sickness.” In 1203 he was canonised. The -shrines of St. Wulfstan and St. Oswald stood on either side -of the high altar, like those of St. Dunstan and St. Elfege at -Canterbury,—in front of it, not at the back, as at Winchester, -St. Albans, and elsewhere.</p> - -<p>St. Oswald, late in the tenth century, had rebuilt the -cathedral in the style of his day. Of this Anglo-Saxon -cathedral nothing is left, unless it be the balusters in the -arcade of the slype. This work of the holy Oswald Wulfstan -now pulled down, with many searchings of heart. Almost he -repented of his purpose. Long he stood silent in the churchyard, -deeply groaning. At last he burst into a flood of -tears. “We wretches,” said he, “pompously imagining -that we do better work, destroy what the saints have -wrought.” Many centuries have passed since Wulfstan’s -day, and there have been many “restorations” of Worcester -cathedral, but there is no record that any one but Wulfstan -commenced his work with tears and groans. Our modern -“restorers” enter on their work with light hearts. Rather -one would venture to suggest that when a restoration is -resolved on, dean and chapter and eminent architect should -betake themselves in sad procession to the cathedral, intoning -penitential psalms with humble and contrite hearts, observing -the day as a day of humiliation.</p> - -<p>Wulfstan commenced the new cathedral in the new Anglo-Norman -style in 1084, and the monks entered four years later. -This, of course, does not imply that the whole cathedral was -finished; but only so much of the eastern limb as was sufficient -for the daily services; and even this probably not carried higher -than the triforium, and provided merely with a temporary roof<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> -Many fragments of the lower part of the walls and piers of -Wulfstan’s church remain above ground, showing that it was -coextensive with the present nave and transepts.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus163.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, NORTH SIDE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Wulfstan’s crypt is almost wholly intact, and enables us to -restore the plan of the eastern limb. This consisted of an -apse surrounded by an ambulatory, and extended as far as -the centre of the present eastern transept. On either side of -the choir-aisles apsidal chapels projected eastward from the -Norman transept. -It is possible that -this may explain the -curious Norman building -on the north side -of the choir of Ripon. -To simplify the vaulting -problem, by making -the compartments -as small as possible, -the crypt was divided -into more than a -hundred compartments. -Owing to the -curve of the apse -many of the compartments -are not square; -yet the difficulty of -vaulting triangles and trapeziums was successfully overcome, -even at this early date. When nearly all the other -traditions of Roman methods of construction had been lost, -the architects of mediæval Christendom still retained in their -crypts the traditions of Roman vaulting. Even the Anglo-Saxon -crypt of the village church of Wing has stone vaulting. -In the ante-room of the library are preserved the north -doors of the cathedral (fourteenth century), under one of -the hinges of which are authentic fragments of the skin -of some poor wretch flayed alive for sacrilege. The slype, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span> -undercroft of the refectory, and the south-east entrance near -it, also belong to Wulfstan’s work.</p> - -<p>To the early part of the twelfth century belongs the circular -chapter-house. Most monastic chapter-houses were constructed -in a rectangular form, which best fitted on to the -side of a cloister. But the cathedrals of secular canons, when -they had chapter-houses, followed the Worcester precedent, -except that they were built polygonal instead of circular. -Such was the beauty, however, of the new form, that the -monastic houses also, in later times, themselves frequently -adopted the polygonal form, as at Westminster, Evesham, -Belvoir (Benedictine); Margam and Abbey Dore (Cistercian); -Alnwick, Cockersand, Thornton, Carlisle, Bridlington, Bolton -(Canons Regular). Usually the polygonal chapter-house had a -central pier; but it was dispensed with at York and Southwell. -The polygonal chapter-house never appears in France; it is -one of the most beautiful features in English Gothic.</p> - -<p>In the twelfth century, about 1160, some weakness seems -to have shown itself in or near the west front, and the two -western bays of the nave were rebuilt in the style of the day. -In the importance given to the triforium, in the semicircular -arches which occur in triforium and clerestory, and in the use -of the chevron ornament, the work is still Romanesque. But -pointed arches also occur both in triforium and clerestory; -while the ground-story, with the exception of the square -abacus, is purely Gothic. The clustered piers, the rich -vaulting-shafts, and well-moulded arches, together with the -square abacus, all remind one of the work at Wells (1171-1191); -the foliage of the capitals, however, is less advanced.</p> - -<p>At length the turning-point was reached in the fortunes of -Worcester. The body of St. Wulfstan, after lying dormant -for more than a century, began to work miracles. Pilgrims -came in crowds. It was the age of pilgrimages. Even King -John came with offerings; and his body was brought here -for burial. With the pilgrims came the need for more accommodation -in the eastern limb of the church, and from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span> -pilgrims came the money to provide it. Winchester choir was -not long enough to provide for the crowds who resorted to the -shrine of St. Swithun, the Healer; Rochester had turned a -Scotch baker into St. William of Perth, and had to provide -eastward extensions; Ely had to rebuild its presbytery to give -room to the votaries who came from all East Anglia to -venerate St. Ethelreda; Durham erected the Chapel of the -Nine Altars to accommodate those who flocked from all -northern England to the shrine of St. Cuthbert; Canterbury -crypt—spacious as it was—was too strait for the pilgrims who -came from all over -Christendom to worship -the relics of its -murdered archbishop; -both Lincoln and St. -Alban’s were crowded -out, and later in the -century were to build -eastward in honour of -St. Hugh and St. -Alban. St. Wulfstan, -being the newest saint, -was for a time exceedingly -popular.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus164.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, LOOKING WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Miracles had commenced at Worcester in 1201; about -1204 the reconstruction of the eastern limb had commenced; -and within the next forty years the old Norman choir had -disappeared, and the present eastern arm was finished. In -plan it is a sort of combination of the earlier eastern extensions -at Hereford and Winchester. As at Hereford, a small -eastern transept was provided, and a shallow Lady chapel; -but the space between the eastern transept and the Lady -chapel was three bays each way, as in De Lucy’s work at -Winchester. The apsidal chapels of the Norman transept -were also pulled down, that of the south transept being replaced -by an early Gothic chapel. The efficacy of the saint<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> -and the liberality of the pilgrims are shown not only in the -scale of the new work, but in the wealth of detail. Especially -beautiful was the arcading round the walls. Perhaps the -only work to compare with the choir of Worcester is the -presbytery of Ely; but in the proportions of its members -the Ely elevation has the best of it. The Worcester architect -followed the proportions of the two Transitional bays at the -far end of the nave; and thus, as compared with Ely, the pier-arcade -is too stumpy and the triforium too large. The crypt -of Wulfstan’s church, as we have seen, only extended as far -as the new eastern transept. To get the work east of the new -transept on the same level as the rest, the builders would -have had to extend the crypt eastward. Crypts, however, -had gone out of fashion with the ritualistic need of them; -therefore the builder very sensibly built the eastern part of -the choir on the level, not of the western bays of the choir, -but of the nave. But he has been credited with æsthetic -reasons for the course he adopted. A fine effigy of William -de Blois, who commenced this thirteenth-century choir, lies -on his tomb in front of the Lady chapel.</p> - -<p>What happened to the nave between 1245 and 1317 is not -known. There is no work in the cathedral of that date. But -between 1317 and 1327 Bishop Cobham commenced the reconstruction -of the north side of the nave. It is therefore -Curvilinear work. It is not, however, typical work of the -period. With that tenderness for older design which one sees -at Ely, St. Alban’s, Beverley and Westminster, the architect -has suppressed his individual preferences, and designed his -work so as to be a nice transition from the twelfth-century bays -near the west front to the thirteenth-century bays of the choir; -so his piers and his clerestory are a Curvilinear version of the -work immediately to the west of him, while his triforium is a -repeat of that of the choir. But before the new work on the -north side was joined up to the Transitional bays of the nave -money seems to have become scarce at Worcester. Pilgrims -had begun to desert St. Wulfstan for newer if not holier<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span> -saints. Hitherto St. Wulfstan had had a monopoly in the -West-country. There was not another saint of equal efficacy -till you reached Winchester. But in 1287 Bishop Cantilupe -began to bring the dead to life at Hereford; and in 1327 -Edward II. was buried at Gloucester, and miracles soon -followed there also. So Worcester now had rival miracle-workers -on either side. The result was that it was found -impossible to finish the Curvilinear work, although the pier-arcade -was complete all along the north side of the nave, and -there only remained to build two bays of the triforium and -clerestory.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus165.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>Building operations -seem to have halted -for some thirty years; -and when they were -resumed, <i>c.</i> 1360, the -completion of the -north side and the -rebuilding of the south -side of the nave were -carried out in a balder -and more economical -way. All this Perpendicular -work, including -the completion of the new tower, seems to have been -completed before the end of the fourteenth century. About -the same time the great transept was vaulted and panelled, -somewhat after the fashion of the Gloucester work. The -transept is a tangle of early Norman, late Norman, Transitional, -Curvilinear, and Perpendicular work. Evidently -there are breaks and lacunæ in the architectural record of -Worcester which we have no materials for filling up. In -the fifteenth century the monks seem to have rebuilt their -cloister.</p> - -<p>A late and interesting bit of design is to be seen in the -chantry of Prince Arthur, elder brother of Henry VIII., who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> -died in Ludlow castle in 1486. The flat roof, with its fan-vault, -skeleton ribs and pendant, is an anticipation of the -vaulting of his father’s chapel in Westminster Abbey.</p> - -<p>Externally the cathedral is wholly nineteenth-century work: -decay of the stone had rendered recasing unavoidable. -Within, much of what pretends to be thirteenth-century -detail is really work of the nineteenth century, commonplace -in design, coarse in execution; some of it by Perkins, some -by Scott; everything is shiny and new; nothing has ever -been done so bad as the “restoration” of Worcester choir -and presbytery.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="York">The Cathedral Church of St. Peter, York.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus166.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM NORTH.</p> -</div> - -<p>I.</p> - -<p class="dropcap">York Minster has had many predecessors—Romano-British, -Saxon, Norman and Transitional cathedrals. -From the two first periods nothing survives, unless it be two -walls in herring-bone masonry in the crypt. Little remains -of Norman work except in the western portion of the crypt. -In the centre of the crypt are fine fragments of the Transitional -choir of Archbishop Roger, whose work is seen at -Ripon. The present cathedral is mainly of three periods. -The great transept was designed in the Lancet period; -the nave, chapter-house and vestibule were built in the -latter part of the Geometrical period; the retro-choir, choir -and towers are Perpendicular. But though the work is of -three periods, it is practically of only two designs, the choir -and retro-choir being only a Perpendicular version of the -design of the nave.</p> - -<p>II. As at Lichfield and Wells, the canons of York in the end<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> -left not a fragment of the earlier work visible above ground. -They must have had vast resources at their disposal, in addition -to what they received -in offerings at -the shrine of the local -saint, St. William of -York. He died in 1154; -he was canonised in 1227. -It was about this latter -date that the rebuilding -of the cathedral commenced; -and it is not -unreasonable to believe -that the offerings from -his shrine had something -to do with the vastness -of scale on which the -new work was planned; -the new transept being -not only exceptional both in height and breadth, but also -in having aisles on the western as well as on the eastern -side—an extravagance unknown in our Gothic cathedrals, -except at Wells. It is amusing to find the double-aisled -transept in the sub-cathedral of Beverley Minster. There -seems to have been an internecine rivalry between the canons -of Beverley and York. Both churches have double aisles -to the central transepts; both continue in full height to the -east end; both have western towers; and though Beverley -has no central tower, it has by compensation an aisled -eastern transept, where York has but transeptal bays. Moreover, -the high vaults of Beverley are of stone. In beauty of -proportions and of detail—in everything but scale—Beverley -has much the best of it.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus167.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>The south transept was built 1230-1241, the north transept -1241-1260. The façade of the south transept is confused -and commonplace, overloaded with ornament, and cut up too<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span> -much with windows; that of the north transept—with the -Five Sisters—is of noble simplicity. In the south transept is -the beautiful monument of Archbishop Gray (1215-1255), the -builder also of Ripon west front and Southwell choir. “The -view which is presented to the visitor on entering this transept -is without doubt the finest in the cathedral. The magnificent -spaciousness of the transept, the majesty of the lofty lancets -which nearly fill the north gable, the solemn light struggling -through their ancient diapered glass, the great central tower -with its unrivalled lantern, combine to produce an impression -fully sustaining the great reputation of the minster.” In -proportions the design of the transept is not a success; the -elevation dwindles away upward, the triforium being made -far too large at the expense of the clerestory. In itself the -triforium is a very fine composition, only there is not room for -it, nor is it in harmony either with the pier-arcade below or -the clerestory above. It is -the largest and most complex -triforium in the country; -consisting of two pairs of -acute lancets below, set -under two acute lancet -arches, which again are set -under an outer arch almost -semicircular. This was the -last big triforium built in -England (save the exceptional -one in Ely choir). -There had always been a -feeling in favour of the -diminution of the triforium. -Even in the twelfth-century -naves of Tewkesbury and -Gloucester the triforium had been cut down to very small -proportions; in Beverley choir the triforium is greatly -attenuated; and very soon afterwards the triforium was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> -to be seen nearing extinction in Exeter choir and in the nave -of York itself.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> -<img src="images/illus168.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH TRANSEPT.</p> -</div> - -<p>III. At this period (<i>c.</i> 1260) we must think of York Minster -as possessing the present spacious transept, a Transitional -choir of the character of that of Ripon, and a Norman nave. -When the work of rebuilding was resumed, the Transitional -choir—which must have been spacious and convenient—was -spared once more, and the canons proceeded to take down -and rebuild the Norman nave, laying the foundation stone in -1291, and beginning at the south-east. The new nave is -so exceedingly broad and lofty that it is probable that it was -built round and over the top of the old Norman nave. The -money came from “indulgences, penances, briefs, bequests, -and offerings at the shrine of St. William.” The nave, like -the whole minster, is exceedingly impressive in the vastness -of its spaces: no building of such dimensions could fail to be -impressive. Its proportions, however, are not good. The -broadest cathedral nave in England (its span is 45 feet), and -the loftiest (it is nearly 100 feet high), it ought to be one of -the longest, which it is not: it is even shorter than the transept. -Matters are made worse, as in Lincoln nave, by the wide -spacing of the piers, the result of which is greatly to reduce -the apparent length of the nave. It contains only eight -bays. Had it been divided into ten or more bays, it would -have looked far longer. It was designed not so much on -architectural lines as a glass-house. The canons wanted the -greatest possible breadths of stained glass in aisles and -clerestory. The error was seen and corrected in the choir, -which, though no longer than the nave, has nine bays instead -of eight. It is possible that nothing but want of funds prevented -the canons from continuing the nave farther westward. -The exceptional height and breadth of the nave made it very -costly; and the funds plainly ran short, for, though begun -in 1291, it was not roofed till 1360. To make matters worse, -the canons were building a new chapter-house and vestibule -at the same time as the nave: so that funds may well have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span> -failed. Nevertheless, at Ely, equally large works were completed -before 1360, though they were not commenced till -1321, and were executed with much greater richness of detail -than in York.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus169.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHAPTER-HOUSE</p> -</div> - -<p>Another feature which shows that the York canons had -started their work without considering whether they would -be able to finish it is the omission of a stone vault, which was -plainly contemplated at the outset; the pinnacles built for the -purpose of weighting the buttresses against the thrusts of -a stone vault still existing on the south side. When the -north side was -built, the canons -had abandoned -hope of vaulting -the nave in stone, -and so did not -put up big pinnacles. -It is -well to remember, -however, that the -exterior of the -nave was designed -originally -to have flying-buttresses -and -big pinnacles on both sides. In the end, as in Selby choir, a -sham vault of wood was put up. One cannot help regretting -these shams. It would have been Gothic to recognise honestly -that the ceiling was wood, and to design it in wood and not -in lithic fashion. Then we might have seen an English Gothic -cathedral with such a hammer-beam roof as that of Westminster -Hall: very magnificent it would have been.</p> - -<p>Side by side with the nave went up the chapter-house. It -belongs to the middle of the Geometrical period, <i>c.</i> 1300; -later in character than its sister at Southwell, and but little -earlier than the chapter-house of Wells. Externally, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> -provided with buttresses and pinnacles and flying-buttresses -and flying bridges to resist the thrusts of a stone vault. Yet -no stone vault is there, but another sham vault of wood. -The detail of the chapter-house, inside and outside, is of -exquisite beauty.</p> - -<p>At first the chapter-house was a detached building, but a -vestibule was soon added. Parapet-mouldings of the chapter-house -may now be seen inside the vestibule.</p> - -<p>A very curious and bold specimen of mediæval engineering -may now be mentioned. If the western bays of the great -transept next to the central tower be examined, it will be seen -that in the clerestory and in the triforium these bays are -exceedingly narrow, but that in the ground-story the narrow -arch corresponding to the narrow bays of the triforium and -clerestory has been moved, and a wider arch substituted. The -fact is, when the transept was completed, the Norman nave, -which was still standing, had a very narrow aisle. Consequently -the builders of the transept built a pair of narrow arches, on -either side of the central tower, leading from the transept into -the Norman aisle. Later on, as we have seen, the Norman -nave and aisles were pulled down, and the present nave was -built. Its aisles are exceptionally broad. The result was that -the piers of the two narrow arches found themselves in the very -middle of the new broad aisles of the nave—a most awkward -obstruction to processions passing from aisle to transept, or -<i>vice-versa</i>. So the triforium and clerestory was underpinned, -the Lancet piers next to the tower were taken down and then -put up again clear of the aisles, and the two arches also on -either side of the tower were taken down and rebuilt with the -same stones, each in the place of the other. The result is -that, counting from the end-walls of the transepts, in the triforium -and clerestory there are three of the bays wide and one -narrow, while in the ground-story there are two wide, one -narrow, and one wide bay. Similar changes took place on -the eastern side of the transept when the choir was built.</p> - -<p>Later on, when the central tower was built, its great weight<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span> -sank the piers on which it rests eight inches into the ground, -and the adjoining masonry was dislocated. The result was -that it was found necessary to rebuild the third piers on both -sides of both transepts (counting from the end-walls) as well -as the first pier on the western side of the north transept, and -at the same time to block up all the four narrow arches with -solid masonry (cf. <span class="smcap">Carlisle</span>, and <span class="smcap">Exeter</span>).</p> - -<p>IV. The west front of the nave was not finished till the very -end of the Curvilinear period, to which period belong also -the treasury and sacristy, and also Archbishop Zouch’s -chapel, unless the latter was rebuilt <i>c.</i> 1396.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus170.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHAPTER-HOUSE ARCADE.</p> -</div> - -<p>V. Immediately that the nave was roofed in, the canons -commenced to rebuild -the eastern limb. Meanwhile -architectural -fashions had changed. -While the York people -were lingering over their -Geometrical nave, a whole -architectural period had -passed away, leaving behind -few traces at York -except in the west front. -When the new choir was commenced in 1361, the Curvilinear -style had disappeared before the new Perpendicular style, -invented at Gloucester and taken up by Bishop Edingdon -at Winchester. The style, however, was still new, and -though the Winchester work is purely Perpendicular, the -York design still retains in the window tracery reminiscences -of the flow of curve that Edingdon and Wykeham -had replaced by grilles of horizontal and vertical bars.</p> - -<p>Only the eastern part of Archbishop Roger’s Transitional -work was at first pulled down, the services going on without -interruption in the western bays. The four new eastern bays—designed -as a retro-choir, the altar standing originally one -bay more to the west than at present—may be distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span> -at once externally by the unusual feature of having an external -instead of an internal arcade to the clerestory; this gives a -fine play of light and shadow.</p> - -<p>Then the five western bays were built, two bays as sanctuary, -three as choir. Owing to the continuation of the high roofs -to the extreme east end of the cathedral, there is little of -the picturesqueness of the eastern terminations of Wells and -Salisbury, but there is spaciousness, dignity and majesty. -Here also the canons had not the money—perhaps not the -courage—to put up a high vault of stone. Nave, eastern -limb, and transept (the vault of which is of the fifteenth -century) were all vaulted in wood. The punishment was long -in coming, but it came at last. The wooden vault of the -choir, the stalls and the organ, were burnt down by a lunatic -in 1829; and that of the nave by a plumber in 1840. The -finest feature in the choir is the tall transeptal bays, suggested -by and built on the foundations of Archbishop Roger’s -flanking towers. The whole eastern limb was finished <i>c.</i> 1420. -Then came the central tower, 1410-1433; the south-west -tower, 1433-1447; the north-west tower, 1465-1474; the -organ screen, 1475-1505.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus171.jpg" width="500" height="450" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">FROM SOUTH-WEST.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1472 the completion of the great works commenced -<i>c.</i> 1230 was near at hand, and a solemn consecration of the -rebuilt cathedral was held. The Norman and Transitional -cathedral had disappeared; its successor occupied a century -and a half in building.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus172.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SOUTH CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>Externally, York Minster, from its vast dimensions and the -fine composition of the towers, is exceedingly impressive. One -realises its immensity best from the city walls, where it is seen -“reflecting every change in the sky, and rising like a mountain -above the parochial churches and houses of the city.” The -treatment of the north side of the nave and transept is -particularly grave and impressive—largely because of the -absence of pinnacles. The west front, in spite of overloaded -and confused ornament, is of its type the finest in the country; -and to my mind the great west window, in the free and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> -fanciful flow of its intersecting ogee arches, surpasses its only -rival, the east window of Carlisle. The central tower relies -for effect on mass more than height, and thus contrasts -strongly with the central towers of Canterbury and Lincoln. -Gloucester tower alone seems to be impressive equally from -height and bulk. Shorn of its pinnacles, however, York -central tower has not fair play. Very beautiful, too, is the -play of light and shade in the double plane of tracery in the -eastern clerestory. And very characteristic is the east façade; -it may be all wrong, with its strong emphasis of horizontal lines -and concealment of the gable, but it has distinction; one never -confuses the east end of York with that of any other cathedral—one -never forgets it. The weakest point in York is what -ought to be the source of the greatest beauty, the window-tracery.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span> -Much of it, especially in the choir, is ugly in itself; -even that of the great east window and of the windows in the -transeptal bays -is meagre and -thin. But what -is worse, this -poor tracery is -repeated with -most wearisome -iteration all over -the flanks of the -cathedral. Window -after window -of the nave, window -after window -of the choir, are -monotonously alike. The imagination of the York people -was singularly limited. What a contrast to the glorious -series of windows of Exeter, contemporary with those of -York nave!</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus173.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>But it is not from its architecture that York holds its -paramount place as an exponent of mediæval art, but because -its ancient glass is almost all intact. For a detailed account -of it the reader should refer to Mr. Benson’s handbook and to -that of Dean Purey-Cust. I will conclude by describing it in -Mrs. Van Rensselaer’s words, which are as true as they are -eloquent. “Most English cathedrals have been entirely -reduced to architectural bone and sinew; they lack decorative -warmth and glow, life and colour, and the charm that lies in -those myriad accessory things which the lingering faith of -Rome has preserved in other lands. All the varied tools and -trappings, altars, shrines, and symbolic trophies of the rich -Catholic ritual have been banished; much of the furniture is -gone, the walls are bare of paint, scores of monuments and -chantries have been shattered to bits, thousands of sculptured -ornaments and figures have been swept away in dust; a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span> -painful cleanliness has replaced the time-stains which give -tone to many Continental churches even when no actual -colouring exists, and a glare of white light or hideous discord -of modern hues fills the enormous windows. Columns and -walls and floors are as barren at York as elsewhere; and -although many tombs remain, without its glass it would seem -even colder and emptier than most of its sisters, for it was -built at a time when walls of glass had nearly replaced walls -of stone. But it has its glass, and this means much more -than that it has a richness of decorative effect which no other -English church displays. It means that here alone we can -really apprehend the effect of a late Gothic church, even from -the architectural point of view. At York we can follow the -development of the art of glass-painting through a period of -fully four centuries. More delicate, clear and exquisite fields -of simple colour can never have been wrought than those -which fill the Five Sisters with their sea-green purity. The -west window, glazed a century later (1338), is a gorgeous -mosaic of ruddy and purple hues, shining in the intricate stone -pattern which shows -black against the -light, like a million -amethysts and rubies -set in ebony lace. -The multicoloured -eastern window, and -its two mates in the -minor transept, seem -vast and fair enough -for the walls of the -New Jerusalem. And -wherever we look in -the lightly constructed -eastern limb, it seems, not as though walls had been pierced -for windows, but as though radiant translucent screens—fragile, -yet vital and well equal to their task—had been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> -used to build a church, and merely bound together with -a network of solid stone. For the moment we feel that -nothing is so beautiful as glass. After we have seen the -glass of York, we never think again that stained glass -was merely an adornment of Gothic architecture. The -early Gothic architect demanded for his enlarged windows -some filling which, as decoration, would take the place -of the wide frescoes of former times, and which, from -the constructional point of view, would justify to the eye -that partial suppression of walls which he knew to be -scientifically right. This filling the early glass-painter gave -him; and it was so satisfying from the architectural standpoint, -and so beautiful from the decorative, that he was ready -and eager to carry on his architectural evolution to the -farthest possible extreme. He felt that he could attenuate his -constructional framework as far as the laws of gravity would -permit, since the glazier stood ready to replace really solid -wall-spaces by those which looked solid enough, and were -more beautiful than any expanses of stone had ever been. No -architect could have built as late Gothic architects did, if -only white glass had been at his command. None would -have made walls which are literally windows, unless strength<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span> -of colour had come forward to simulate strength of substance. -A Perpendicular church was actually meant to look as the -choir of York does look—like a great translucent tabernacle -merely ribbed and braced with stone.” The very best glass, -however, is of later date than that of the cathedral, and the -visitor should round off his education in mediæval glass by -inspecting the late Perpendicular glass in which the parish -churches of York abound. There is a fine collection of -fifteenth-century glass in St. Martin’s church, in Coney Street, -near the interesting old Guildhall. Indeed, nowhere in England -can stained glass be studied to such advantage as at York.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus174.jpg" width="300" height="250" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">EAST END.</p> -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="Victorian_Cathedrals">Victorian Cathedrals.</h2> - -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The following new dioceses have been formed during the -present reign: Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, -Ripon, St. Alban’s, Southwell, Truro, Wakefield. Of these -Ripon Minster, St. Alban’s Abbey, and Southwell Minster -have been described already. In only one diocese, Truro, -has a new cathedral been commenced. The bishops of -Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, and Wakefield, are housed -in parish churches.</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Liverpool Cathedral.</h3> - -<p>The see was founded in 1880. A fine design for a domical -cathedral was prepared by Mr. Emerson in 1885, but the -church of St. Peter remains the “provisional cathedral.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span></p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Manchester Cathedral.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus175.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR, MANCHESTER CATHEDRAL.</p> -</div> - -<p>The see was founded in 1847. Externally and internally -the cathedral is but a magnified parish church. The single -western tower, the absence of a central tower, the extraordinary -breadth of the interior, the absence of a triforium, -the wooden roofs, all stamp it with parochialism. Indeed, -the nave and aisles are still the parish church of Manchester, -the cathedral proper being confined to the choir and its aisles. -Looked at as a parish church and a collegiate church—for -from 1426 it was both—it is a magnificent specimen of late -English Gothic, dating from 1426 to 1520, when the ambition -of architects was to make of their churches “stone-lanterns.” -In the same accidental way as Chichester cathedral it has -become possessed of picturesque double aisles, by the incorporation -on either side of sets of chantries. The south -aisle of Dorchester priory church had a similar origin. It -has been so thoroughly “renovated” that it is practically a -modern church. But it is very impressive. There is no -jarring of styles. And the colour effects, externally and -internally, are superb. Its woodwork, too—rood-screen, -choir-screens, tabernacled stalls, misereres, and roofs—is of -great richness and fine design. The whole church in its -fortuitous picturesqueness appeals to one much more than -the icy regularity of such churches as St. Mary Redcliffe, -Bristol, or Bath Abbey.</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Newcastle Cathedral.</h3> - -<p>The see was founded in 1882. The church is Curvilinear -work of the fourteenth century, to which a Perpendicular -tower and spire, east window and font were added about -1450. The spire, with its pinnacle supported on converging -flying buttresses, is a bold and effective composition. Spires -of similar construction occur in the Cross Steeple, Glasgow,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> -and King’s College, Aberdeen, and formerly existed at -Linlithgow and Haddington. London has a fine example by -Sir Christopher Wren in St. Dunstan’s-in-the-East. There -is a fine Jacobean monument, pulpit-shaped, to Henry -Maddison, and another to William Hall.</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Truro Cathedral.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus176.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CHOIR.</p> -</div> - -<p>Truro cathedral, consecrated in 1887, is the first entirely -new cathedral designed in England since St. Paul’s. The nave, -towers, spires, chapter-house, and cloister are still to build. -In dimensions it ranks with Norwich and Wells; in plan it -is as complex as any of the greater of our cathedrals. It is -intended to have three towers and spires, a south porch, -western porches, an aisled nave of nine bays, a central -transept with eastern and western aisles and baptistery, a -choir, sanctuary, and eastern processional aisle, a square east -end, and an unaisled eastern transept, projecting slightly -beyond the aisles. Below the choir is a crypt, appropriated -to vestries. The crypt is supposed to be in the massive -style of the latter years of the twelfth century. The choir is -supposed to have been commenced in the early years of the -thirteenth century; but since, as in the transepts of Salisbury, -the aisle windows are lancets, while those of the clerestory -have early plate-tracery, the upper part of the choir is -supposed not to have been finished before the middle of the -century. So again, in the half-century or so which is supposed -to elapse between the commencement and the completion of -the cathedral, the design is supposed to have been altered -here and there as it passed through different hands; hence -the rose-windows, which are unusually plentiful, are all -different; the transept ends are differently treated; the -arches of the choir are narrow, those of the nave are wide; -the latter has coupled bays, the choir has not; the quadripartite -vault of the choir becomes more complex in the nave, -just as it does at Lincoln. And just as the Lincoln architect<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span> -dropped down fortuitous chapels at the west end of the -nave, so Mr. Pearson purposely forgot to leave room for a -baptistery, and tacked it on, in a carefully casual manner, to -the south transept. The cloister, too, is to be three-sided -and lop-sided, as at Chichester. Internally, the cathedral is -picturesquely beautiful, and admirably adapted for the ritual -of the Church of England as it was in the thirteenth century. -The south side of the choir has the remarkable peculiarity -of having three aisles; so has that of Oxford cathedral. -But it got its three aisles in a different way from Oxford. -Mr. Pearson was instructed to leave standing a piece of -genuine mediæval work, late and good—viz., the south aisle -of the old church of St. Mary’s. The cathedral was placed to -the north of it, just so far off as to barely admit the buttresses -supporting the flying-buttresses of the choir vault. These -buttresses Mr. Pearson pierced with arches, and, roofing over -the space from buttress to buttress, got a narrow intermediate -aisle between the choir-aisle to the north and St. Mary’s aisle -to the south. Thus on the south side of the choir there are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span> -three ranges of piers and three ranges of arches, and the -changing vistas and perspectives and mysterious distances -are delightful. In this instance the architect was mediæval -in spirit as well as in the letter.</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Wakefield Cathedral.</h3> - -<p>The see was founded in 1888. Like Manchester cathedral, -the church is thoroughly parochial in appearance, inside and -outside. But, archæologically, it is of exceptional interest. -It is one of those numerous churches, every stone of the -exterior of which is of late Gothic date, but which internally -in their arcades reveal the existence of much earlier building -epochs. Like many others, though now a vast parallelogram, -it was once a cruciform church in plan; and though now it -has a western tower, its tower once stood above the crossing. -Once its nave was aisleless; then it had narrow aisles; later -on, these narrow aisles were replaced by broad ones. The -piers and arches of the first aisles were low; afterwards they -were heightened or rebuilt. Originally it had no clerestory; -this was not added till the fifteenth century. When the -central tower fell, the new tower was built ten feet west of the -nave, so as not to interfere with the services. When it was -finished, it was joined up to the nave by the addition of a new -westernmost bay. The Norman chancel and its successor -were short, and had neither aisles nor clerestory; the present -chancel, the third, is long, having absorbed the space originally -covered by the central tower; and it has a clerestory and -aisles, and these have absorbed the transepts. Finally, -the font, choir-screen, and sounding-board are Jacobean. -Wakefield cathedral is a typical embodiment of the history -of the Church of England, with a personal identity undestroyed -by its many transformations, like the boy’s knife -which had a new blade and a new handle, but was still the -same old knife.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak gothic" id="The_Welsh_Cathedrals">The Welsh Cathedrals.</h2> - -</div> - -<h3 class="gothic">Bangor.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus177.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">BANGOR, FROM SOUTH.</p> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The work at Bangor falls into four periods.</p> - -<p>I. Originally -the cathedral was a small Norman church, probably -without aisles, with nave, transept, choir of one bay, and apse. -Of this building nothing is visible except a buttress and -window on the south side of the choir. It seems to have -received great damage in 1247.</p> - -<p>II. Between 1267 and 1305 the cathedral was practically -rebuilt by Bishop Anian. The Norman apse was demolished, -and the choir was extended two bays farther to the east, and -ended square. The transepts also were lengthened half a bay -each. A chapel was added to the north of the choir; and -aisles, either now or not much later, to the nave.</p> - -<p>III. In 1402 the cathedral was burnt by Owen Glendower. -Between 1500 and 1532 Bishops Dene and Skevynton rebuilt -the eastern part of the presbytery, the nave arcade and the -clerestory above it, the two windows on the south side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> -choir—set high because the lower part of the wall was blocked -with the stall-work—the western tower, and the stump of a -central tower.</p> - -<p>IV. In the restoration of 1866 many fragments of Anian’s -cathedral were found in the walls, and were used up by Sir -G. G. Scott in rebuilding the transept after what he imagined -to be Anian’s design. The choir-chapel was also rebuilt as -organ-chamber, library and chapter-house. The aisles also, -and the central tower, were almost wholly rebuilt.</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">Llandaff.</h3> - -<p>Llandaff, though practically but a suburb of the busy town -of Cardiff, still remains picturesquely environed by woods and -meadows and hills and the Taff. Externally it adds one more -to the endless varieties of English cathedral architecture. No -central tower is here, and the position of transepts is inadequately -occupied by the chapter-house on the southern side. -One unbroken roof, as at Dorchester abbey church, extends -for the whole length of the cathedral, the Lady chapel -excepted. Its west front, indeed, is cathedral-like, now that -a south-west tower and spire, in French Gothic, has been -added. Internally, the absence of a triforium gives it a -parochial appearance. Indeed, both externally and internally, -it has the appearance rather of a magnified parish church -than the seat of one of the most ancient bishoprics in the -country. Nevertheless, as at Wakefield, and Dorchester, -it is quite possible that, though now it is a vast oblong, -200 feet by 70 feet, it was originally a Norman cruciform -church. But whether it had originally a central tower, or -towers flanking the choir, somewhat after the fashion of those -of the old cathedral of Como or those of Exeter, it is impossible -to ascertain. The architectural record of Llandaff -is incomplete, and the evolution of the ground-plan is a -puzzle not to be disentangled. Of Norman work there are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span> -two sets. One is to be found in the presbytery: it consists of -the east wall and its arch, and of fragments of an arch and -window in the south wall. This seems to be the work of -Bishop Urban, <i>c.</i> 1120. The nave was probably not completed -till late in the twelfth century; the only visible remains are -the north and south doorways (Transitional).</p> - -<p>It would seem that it was determined subsequently to rebuild -not the whole eight bays of the nave and choir, but only the -interior of them. The walls of the low Norman aisles, with -their doorways and windows, were left untouched. But a -new set of piers and arches carrying a clerestory were put up -in place of the Norman work. It is possible that the nave -was not given a triforium, because there still survived low -unvaulted Norman aisles on either side of it. All this is -excellent Lancet work, done between 1193 and 1229. To this -period also belongs the fine west front and the vaulted vestibule -to the chapter-house.</p> - -<p>Between 1244 and 1265 a little southern transept was built -to serve as a chapter-house. Below, it is square, but nevertheless -has a central stalk like the octagonal chapter-houses -at Salisbury and Westminster. The upper story is octagonal, -and has a steep octagonal roof.</p> - -<p>Then it was determined to have a large eastern Lady -chapel. Not to interfere with the services, this was probably -built completely detached from the cathedral, as at Lichfield -and elsewhere. When it was finished the Norman apse would -be pulled down, and the Lady chapel joined on to the presbytery. -Two chapels also were built, one on each side of the -westernmost bay of the new Lady chapel. This work was -probably done <i>c.</i> 1280.</p> - -<p>The next step was to continue the northern of these chapels -eastward, so as to provide the presbytery with a northern -aisle of two bays, and to pierce the north wall of the presbytery -with a couple of arches. No doubt they would have liked -a couple of arches in the southern wall; but unfortunately -the bay of the aisle on the other side of it had been vaulted,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> -and so only one arch was inserted, leaving as much wall as -possible to support the vault. Under this arch the sedilia -were placed.</p> - -<p>Soon afterwards the outer wall of the south aisle of the -presbytery was rebuilt. But the presbytery was very dark, -having no windows to the east, and being much blocked on -the south side by the sedilia and by the mass of Norman -walling which it had been necessary to retain. So it received -a clerestory and very large aisle-windows. Nor were the nave -and choir well lighted. In the clerestory and west front they -had only lancet windows; and, if the low Norman aisles still -remained, they could contain but very diminutive windows. -There was nothing for it but to rebuild the whole of the eight -bays of each aisle. This rebuilding probably went on between -1315 and 1360, for the windows have ogee dripstones and ogee -patterns in the tracery. When the aisles had been rebuilt the -whole cathedral had been reconstructed, with the exception -of two Norman doorways and two or three Norman arches -in the presbytery. To us it may seem a topsy-turvy mode of -procedure to first rebuild the inside—the pier-arcade and -clerestory—of a church, and the outside walls afterwards; -but it is the mode of procedure adopted in scores of parish -churches, even the humblest. One constantly finds the aisles, -as at Wakefield, of later date than the pier-arcade, and that -pier-arcade a rebuilding of something older.</p> - -<p>After this great reconstruction, first of the interior, then of -the exterior, there remained only to complete the west front. -The south-west tower seems to have become ruinous or to have -collapsed, and the materials of it helped to build a new north-west -tower erected at the cost of Jasper Tudor, uncle of -Henry VII. Then came the Reformation; and the south-west -tower was not rebuilt till the present century. Since -1843 nave, choir, and presbytery have been almost wholly -rebuilt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span></p> - -<h3 class="gothic">St. Asaph.</h3> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus178.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">NAVE, LOOKING EAST.</p> -</div> - -<p>This is the smallest of the Welsh cathedrals, and consists -of an aisled nave of five bays, an aisleless transept, a central -tower, and a chancel. The chancel was built by Sir G. G. -Scott in 1868; the rest between 1284 and 1352. The arcade -and clerestory of the nave are exceptional in character. The -piers have no capitals; so that the mouldings run uninterruptedly -round the arch; they consist simply of chamfers -with a wave moulding. These continuous mouldings are not -uncommon in late work—<i>e.g.</i>, in Antwerp cathedral; but are -seldom found in early Gothic, though a thirteenth-century -example occurs in the vestibule of Chester chapter house. -The clerestory windows are square, but cusped. The central -tower is massive and effective. The cathedral is finely situated, -on elevated ground, above the beautiful valley of the Clwyd; -and may be seen from the London and Holyhead railway. -There are good stalls (1471-1495), and an interesting effigy -of a bishop (<i>c.</i> 1300).</p> - -<h3 class="gothic">St. David’s.</h3> - -<p>Far away in the extreme west of Pembrokeshire, sixteen -miles from the nearest railway station, Haverfordwest, is one -of the most interesting cathedrals in the British Isles. -Dedicated to the great patron saint of Wales, it is as complex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> -in plan as Winchester or St. Alban’s, and abounds in lovely -detail of the Transitional and Curvilinear periods.</p> - -<p>The earliest work belongs to the episcopate of Peter de -Leia (1176-1198), and comprises parts of the presbytery, the -western walls of the transept, the western piers of the tower, -and the whole of the nave except the outer portion of the west -front (Sir G. G. Scott), and the south porch and the exterior -of the south aisle (1328-1347). Though built quite late in -the twelfth century, when Gothic architecture had got good -hold in Ripon, Canterbury, and Wells, St. David’s—partly -perhaps from its remote situation—is still sternly Romanesque. -The pier-arcade is low, the piers massive and squat; their -arches are semicircular, as also the windows of the clerestory; -there is a profusion of Norman zigzag ornament. On the -other hand, pointed arches appear in the triforium, the bases -have the water-holding hollow, and there are all sorts of beautiful -varieties of Transitional capitals—from the early cushion-capitals, -much subdivided, in the pier-arcade of the choir, to the -later foliated capitals, of great beauty and diversity of design, -which abound in the nave. The triforium and clerestory, -formed into a single member by a containing-arch of zigzag, -are a charming anticipation of the design of Southwell choir.</p> - -<p>Early in the thirteenth century, <i>c.</i> 1220, the central tower -collapsed, as at Winchester, Ely, Lincoln, etc. It fell towards -the east, and seems to have broken down the arches of the -presbytery. The Transitional piers were retained, more or -less altered; but new pointed arches were built, and lancet -windows were inserted in the new clerestory and east wall. -In the aisles may be seen the low shafts of a Norman vault, -and the corbels of a higher Lancet vault; it is uncertain -whether either was ever executed. To this period belongs the -very remarkable shrine of St. David: a very plain structure, -designed for use—for very strange uses. Down below in each -side are three openings, allowing three sick people at a time -to lie beneath. (Perhaps they lay there all night, waiting for -the Saint to come and touch them, as was the case in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span> -some shrines of Pagan Greece.) On the side next to the aisle -are two large and shallow upright openings, and three small -circular openings—the latter, perhaps, as in St. Alban’s -shrine, to allow the patient to insert a diseased arm. A -parallel to the lower openings may be found in the remains of -the shrine now inserted under the effigy of Lord Stourton at -Salisbury. When the restoration of the choir was completed -(<i>c.</i> 1248), the next task seems to have been to build a processional -aisle. The eastern walk of this was built fifteen feet -east of the eastern wall of the cathedral, thus leaving a little -open courtyard between the back of the east wall and the -east walk of the new processional aisle. In the east wall -there was a lower range of three tall lancets, which gave -much light to the high altar beneath them. The authorities -may then have left the little open courtyard to preserve the -light of these three windows. But at Winchester and elsewhere -the lower lights were sacrificed without demur; and -the space between the east wall of the presbytery and the -processional aisle, instead of being wasted, was utilised as -a saint’s chapel or feretory, where—in the most honoured -position in the church, close to the high altar—the shrine of -the patron saint of the church was placed: shrines of St. -Swithun and St. Birinus at Winchester, that of St. Werburgh -at Chester, of St. Ethelreda at Ely, of St. Wulfstan at -Worcester, of St. Cuthbert at Durham, of St. Chad at -Lichfield. Now the shrine of St. David is artistically rude -and uncouth, and occupies a by no means specially honourable -position. May one conjecture that the original intention -was to open arches in the east wall of the presbytery, and to -build a new shrine for St. David, placing it above and behind -the high altar, where it would be conspicuous to the very -farthest end of the nave,—and that Welsh conservatism -refused either to have a new shrine or to change the position -of the old one? Before commencing the south walk of the -processional aisle, the Lady chapel was erected (1290-1328). -Its buttresses are late Gothic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span></p> - -<p>Then came the great building-prelate of St. David’s, Bishop -Gower (1328-1347). (1) He completed the processional aisle, -building the whole of the south walk and completing the -north walk. (2) Like Abbot Thokey, at Gloucester, he transformed -the Norman south aisle of the nave into the style -of his day (Curvilinear), and built a south porch. (3) East -of the north transept he built a three-storied building, the -lower part as a chapel to St. Thomas of Canterbury, the -upper part as a chapter-house. (4) He raised the tower one -stage above the roofs. (5) He raised the walls of the aisles, -and inserted Curvilinear windows. (6) He separated the -presbytery from the choir, which as at Gloucester is beneath -the central tower, by a parclose screen—a very rare feature. -(7) He built the wood throne of the bishop; it seems, however, -to have been reconstructed in the fifteenth century. (8) He -built for himself the magnificent palace, and another at -Lamphey, besides Swansea castle and church. (9) His most -beautiful work is the magnificent choir-screen, one of the grandest -examples of mediæval art. It consists of three compartments -of stone, surmounted by a coved cornice of wood. The -southern compartment has two pointed arches, with compound -cusping and rich crockets; and within, the tomb and -effigy of the bishop. The central compartment is occupied -by the doorway and vaulted vestibule leading from the nave -to the choir; on either side of the vestibule are effigies of -priests. The northern compartment seems to consist of -thirteenth century arcading, which has been worked up to -serve as a reredos to an altar.</p> - -<p>To the Perpendicular period belong the stalls, which have -good misereres (1460-1480); the elaborate wooden roof of -the nave (1472-1509) and that of the presbytery, which is a -little earlier.</p> - -<p>Early in the Tudor period Bishop Vaughan (1509) added -another story to the tower, and built himself a chapel in the -empty space between the east wall of the presbytery and the -east walk of the processional aisle, vaulting it with fan-tracery.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span></p> - -<p>Externally, the cathedral is simple and plain, in harmony -with its bleak and wild surroundings. Internally, like Canterbury -and Winchester, it gains dignity from the greater -height of the choir. The whole floor of the nave slopes -upwards from west to east, and the choir is elevated eight -steps above the level of the nave.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GLOSSARY">GLOSSARY.</h2> - -</div> - -<table summary="Glossary"> - <tr> - <td><i>Abacus</i></td> - <td>The flat slab on the top of a capital.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Ambulatory</i></td> - <td>The processional aisle at the back of the high altar.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Apse</i></td> - <td>The eastern termination—semicircular or polygonal—of - a choir or its aisles, or of a transept.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Arcade</i></td> - <td>A series of arches.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pier-arcade</i></td> - <td>The piers and arches separating the side-aisles from - the central aisle or nave.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Battlement</i></td> - <td>A notched or indented parapet.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Bay</i></td> - <td>The space between two piers from the floor to the roof.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Bosses</i></td> - <td>The ornamented keystones of a vault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Buttress</i></td> - <td>A projecting support to a wall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Cathedral</i></td> - <td>Any church, large or small, which contains the seat - (<i>cathedra</i>) of a bishop.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Chantry-chapels</i></td> - <td>Private chapels; in which were chanted masses for the - repose of the soul of the founder of the chapel.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Chevet</i></td> - <td>The ring of chapels round the east end of a choir or - its aisles: <i>e.g.</i> Westminster.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Choir</i></td> - <td>(1) That part of the church where the clergy or monks - sat. (2) The whole eastern limb of the church.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Clerestory</i></td> - <td>The upper story of a church. Also the row of windows in - the upper story.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Corbel</i></td> - <td>A bracket of stone or wood.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Corbel-table</i></td> - <td>A row of corbels supporting a parapet or a projecting roof.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Crockets</i></td> - <td>Tufts of leaves arranged in bands. - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Crossing</i></td> - <td>The space where nave and transepts intersect. Above it is - often a central tower.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Crypt</i></td> - <td>The underground portion of a church.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Cusps</i></td> - <td>Spikes in the tracery of a window.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Dripstone</i></td> - <td>A projection running round the head of a window to throw - off the rain.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Eaves</i></td> - <td>That part of a roof which overhangs the wall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Elevation</i></td> - <td>(1) A geometrical drawing (<i>i.e.</i> not in perspective) - of a vertical portion of a building. (2) The portion so drawn.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Façade</i></td> - <td>The principal external elevation of a building.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Feretory</i></td> - <td>(1) A portable shrine. (2) That part of the church which - contained the pedestal of the shrine: <i>e.g.</i> Winchester; - also called Saint’s Chapel.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Fillet</i></td> - <td>A narrow projecting stone band, like a piece of tape; - square in section.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Flying buttresses</i></td> - <td>Tilted arches rising from the buttresses of the aisles - to the clerestory wall to resist the thrusts of the high vault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Gargoyle</i></td> - <td>A projecting water-spout.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Groined vault</i></td> - <td>A vault which, instead of ribs, has sharp edges or arrises.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Hood-moulding</i></td> - <td>An ornamental dripstone employed in interiors; especially - over pier-arches.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Jambs</i></td> - <td>The sides of a window or doorway.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Label</i></td> - <td>A dripstone over the exterior of a doorway.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lancets</i></td> - <td>Sharp, pointed windows; in the shape of a surgeon’s lancet.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Lierne-vault</i></td> - <td>Any vault which contains liernes: <i>i.e.</i>, tie-ribs - on the surface, which do not spring from an abacus, nor - rise to the central boss. - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Miserere</i></td> - <td>A carved bracket beneath the movable seat of a stall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Moulding</i></td> - <td>Any architectural member is said to be moulded when its - edge or surface presents continuous lines of alternate - projections and recesses.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Mullions</i></td> - <td>Vertical bars in a window.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Nave</i></td> - <td>The western limb of a church, (1) including or (2) - excluding its aisles.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Ogee arch</i></td> - <td>An arch, each side of which has a double curve; the upper - part concave, the lower part convex.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Order</i></td> - <td>A compound arch is one which is built up of two or more - Orders, or sub-arches, usually recessed.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Parapet</i></td> - <td>A low wall, not embattled, but with a horizontal upper - surface, at the foot of a roof.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Piers</i></td> - <td>The supports of arches; sometimes cylindrical, sometimes - polygonal; sometimes clusters of columns; sometimes masses - of masonry ornamented with shafts.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pilaster</i></td> - <td>A flattened column.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Pinnacles</i></td> - <td>Small spires employed to weight buttresses, etc.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Plinth</i></td> - <td>The pedestal of the base of a pier or shaft or wall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Piscina</i></td> - <td>A water-drain, appertaining to the high altar. (1) A niche. - (2) A shaft. (3) An opening in the pavement.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Presbytery</i></td> - <td>(1) The sanctuary only. (2) The whole of the space between - the ritual choir and the east end: <i>e.g.</i>, York and - Lincoln and Ely—<i>i.e.</i>, sanctuary plus retro-choir.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Quadripartite vault</i></td> - <td>One in which each compartment is divided into four cells - by diagonal ribs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Quatrefoil</i></td> - <td>An ornament with four lobes.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Refectory</i></td> - <td>The dining-hall or frater of a monastery. - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Reredos</i></td> - <td>The screen at the back of a high altar: <i>e.g.</i>, - Winchester.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Ribs</i></td> - <td>The arcs which intersect to support the filling-in of a vault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Romanesque</i></td> - <td>The style of Northern architecture intermediate between that - of the Early Christian Basilican churches and that of the - Gothic cathedrals. Anglo-Norman or Norman is one of its - geographical subdivisions.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Roll</i></td> - <td>A rounded projecting moulding.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Rood</i></td> - <td>The crucifix.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Rood-loft</i></td> - <td>A beam, carrying the rood, placed above the rood-screen. - The place of the rood-screen was at the west end of the - ritual choir.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Sanctuary</i></td> - <td>The space between the ritual choir and the high altar.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Sedilia</i></td> - <td>Seats for the priest and his assistants on the south side - of the sanctuary.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Sexpartite vault</i></td> - <td>One in which each compartment is divided into six cells by - four diagonal and two intermediate ribs.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Shaft</i></td> - <td>A slender column. <span class="smcap">Vaulting-shafts</span> - supported a vault or ceiling.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Spandrils</i></td> - <td>The triangular spaces on either side of an arch.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Splay</i></td> - <td>A window-jamb which slants outwardly or inwardly from the glass.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Springers</i></td> - <td>The lower stones of the ribs of a vault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Stilted arch</i></td> - <td>An arch elevated above the abacus by vertical masonry.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="nw"><i>String-course or String</i></td> - <td>A projecting moulding, usually horizontal, running along a wall.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Thrust</i></td> - <td>The pressure exerted laterally and downward by an arch or vault.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Tracery</i></td> - <td>The straight or curved bars of stone which separate the lights - in the arched part of a window.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Transept</i></td> - <td>A cross-arm of a church.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Transoms</i></td> - <td>Horizontal cross-bars of stone in a window.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Trefoil</i></td> - <td>An ornament with three lobes. - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Triforium</i></td> - <td>(1) The space between the vault and the lean-to roof of - an aisle. (2) The arcade in front of it. The triforium-space - often forms a <span class="smcap">Blind Story</span>.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Tympanum</i></td> - <td>(1) The space between the lintel and arch of a doorway. (2) - The space enclosed by the triangular outline of a gable.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Vault</i></td> - <td>An inner roof of stone.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><i>Voussoir</i></td> - <td>Each stone in an arch or rib is a voussoir. The principal - voussoir is the keystone, which may be enlarged so as to - form a boss, or still further enlarged so as to form a - pendant.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus179.jpg" width="300" height="350" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PEEL, ST. GERMAIN, INTERIOR.</p> -</div> - -<p class="titlepage">Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.</p> - -<hr /> - -<h2>PRESS NOTICES OF FIRST EDITION.</h2> - -<p>“A short introduction sets out the plan followed in describing -the churches. This plan is quite the most valuable feature of -the book, the several structures being examined as architectural -organisms which were slowly built up during centuries of -developing ritual and strenuous constructive effort. We are -first given the principal historic facts as to foundation and -early history, and are then taken to the vestiges of the earliest -church of which any part survives. The constructive evolution -is then briefly followed through the centuries—in some cases, -one thousand years and more—during which each great church -was developed into its state of greatest glory and passed -into the era of decline, mutilation, and—worst of all—modern -restoration.”—<span class="smcap">W. R. Lethaby</span> (<i>University Extension Journal</i>).</p> - -<p>“A practical, sensible, and well-informed book, beautifully -illustrated. Its method is clear, rational, and helpful.”—<i>Bookman.</i></p> - -<p>“It is an easily portable conspectus of the whole subject. -Furnished with this we may go over England and Wales and -gain a fair working knowledge of all the cathedral churches.”—<i>Spectator.</i></p> - -<p>“He writes with knowledge, clearness, and vivacity, and the -result is a fascinating book on a subject which has engrossed -many learned but tedious pens.”—<i>The Speaker.</i></p> - -<p>“Should be found helpful and illuminating both to the stay-at-home -reader and to those who carry the book with them on -pilgrimage to the famous English minsters.”—<i>Scotsman.</i></p> - -<p>“A clear, emphatic, and vigorous statement of the ordinary -facts illustrating the architectural history of every building that -is at the present day of cathedral rank in England and Wales. -It is copiously and usefully illustrated. The style is always -direct and forcible, and Mr. Bond steers so carefully clear of -fads that his general views can, as a rule, be trusted as well as -his particular details.”—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i></p> - -<p>“It is an extremely interesting book about a familiar though -still unexhausted subject. The illustrations are many and -good.”—<i>Record.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="max40 box"> - -<p class="center larger gothic">The Library of Useful Stories.</p> - -<p class="center">PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>THE STORY OF BIRD LIFE.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. P. Pycraft</span>. -With Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>THE STORY OF THE ALPHABET.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward -Clodd</span>. With nearly 100 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>THE STORY OF LIFE’S MECHANISM.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. W. -Conn</span>. 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The survey is wide and complete, and the -story evolved therefrom is throughout most interesting.”—<i>North -British Advertiser.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_27"></a>[27]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger">THE LIBRARY OF USEFUL STORIES.</p> - -<p class="center">PRICE ONE SHILLING EACH.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Life’s Mechanism.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. W. Conn</span>. With 50 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Wanderings of Atoms.</b> By <span class="smcap">M. M. Pattison -Muir</span>, M.A.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Ice in the Present and Past.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. A. Brend</span>. -With 37 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Eclipses.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S. With 19 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the British Race.</b> By <span class="smcap">John Munro</span>. With 4 Maps.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Mind.</b> By Prof. <span class="smcap">J. M. Baldwin</span>.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Geographical Discovery: How the World Became -Known.</b> By <span class="smcap">Joseph Jacobs</span>. With 24 Maps, &c.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Cotton Plant.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. Wilkinson</span>, F.G.S. -With 38 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Religions.</b> By the Rev. <span class="smcap">E. D. Price</span>, F.G.S.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Photography.</b> By <span class="smcap">A. T. Story</span>. With 38 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Life in the Seas.</b> By <span class="smcap">Sydney J. Hickson</span>, F.R.S. -With 42 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the British Coinage.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. B. Rawlings</span>. With -108 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Potter.</b> By <span class="smcap">C. F. Binns</span>. With 57 Illustrations -of Ancient and Modern Pottery.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Germ Life: Bacteria.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. W. Conn</span>. With 34 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Earth’s Atmosphere.</b> By <span class="smcap">Douglas Archibald</span>. -With 44 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Weather.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S. -With 50 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Forest and Stream.</b> By <span class="smcap">James Rodway</span>, F.L.S. -With 27 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Chemical Elements.</b> By <span class="smcap">M. M. Pattison -Muir</span>, M.A.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Extinct Civilizations of the East.</b> By <span class="smcap">R. E. -Anderson</span>, M.A. With Maps.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Electricity.</b> By <span class="smcap">J. Munro</span>. With 100 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of a Piece of Coal.</b> By <span class="smcap">E. A. Martin</span>, F.G.S. With -38 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Solar System.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S. -With 28 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Earth in Past Ages.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. G. Seeley</span>, F.R.S. -With 40 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Plants.</b> By <span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span>. With 49 Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of Primitive Man.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span>. With 88 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Story of the Stars.</b> By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S. With 24 -Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">⁂ <i>Other Volumes in the Press.</i></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_28"></a>[28]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger">THE SIXPENNY SERIES OF -COPYRIGHT BOOKS.</p> - -<p class="center">By RUDYARD KIPLING.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Departmental Ditties</b>, and other Verses.</p> - -<p class="center">BY H. RIDER HAGGARD.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>She.</b> A History of Adventure.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Jess.</b> A Story of the Transvaal.</p> - -<p class="center">By Mrs. HUMPHRY WARD.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Robert Elsmere.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The History of David Grieve.</p> - -<p class="center">By A. CONAN DOYLE.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Sign of Four.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard.</p> - -<p class="center">By BEATRICE HARRADEN.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Ships that Pass in the Night.</p> - -<p class="center">By MAXWELL GRAY.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Silence of Dean Maitland.</p> - -<p class="center">By GEORGE MEREDITH.</p> - -<p class="hanging">The Ordeal of Richard Feverel.</p> - -<p class="center">With an Introduction by CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>A Yankee Boy’s Success.</b> Being an Account of how an -American Lad worked his way through Europe. By <span class="smcap">H. S. -Morrison</span>. With Seven Illustrations.</p> - -<p class="center">By the Late W. E. GLADSTONE.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture.</b> A Series -of Old Testament Studies.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger">ADOPTED BY THE SCHOOL -BOARD FOR LONDON</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Tit-Bits Copy Books.</b> In Fifteen Books, containing 24 -pages. Price 2d. each.</p> - -<p class="smaller">A New Series of Copy Books designed to produce a clear, bold, and -rapid writing. There are no flourishes or fanciful peculiarities. The -style is simple, uniform, and entirely without exaggerations. The slope -is 15° from the vertical. There are at least two headlines on every -page, so that the risk of the scholar copying his own writings is reduced -to a minimum.</p> - -<p class="smaller">Great care has been taken in the preparation and arrangement of the -headlines. In the earlier books the elements and combinations of -letters have been carefully graded. In the higher books the headlines -are “Tit-Bits” from the Code Subjects: Interesting Facts; Memorable -Dates; Useful Information. The interest in what is being copied will -thus be kept alive, and the style of writing will consequently be -improved.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>The Golden Rule Readers: Manners and Morals.</b></p> - -<p class="smaller">Illustrating and enforcing by means of Proverbs, Maxims, Stories, -Examples and Poems, the necessity for habits of punctuality, of good -manners and language, the importance of cheerful obedience to duty, of -consideration and respect for others, and of honour and truthfulness in -word and act, the relation of conduct, thrift, temperance, &c., to success -in life.</p> - -<p class="smaller">In Two Books for Standards III. to VI. Book I., 1s. 3d. Book II., -1s. 6d.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Flashlights on Nature.</b> By <span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span>. With 150 -Illustrations by <span class="smcap">Frederick Enock</span>. Crown 8vo, cloth extra, 6s.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>England’s History, as Pictured by Famous Painters.</b> -Edited by <span class="smcap">A. G. Temple</span>, F.S.A. Oblong 4to, cloth extra, gilt -leaves, 10s. 6d.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Round the World, from London Bridge to Charing -Cross, via Yokohama and Chicago.</b> Oblong 4to, cloth extra, -gilt leaves, 10s. 6d.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Round the Coast.</b> Oblong 4to, cloth extra, gilt leaves, -10s. 6d.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>Round London.</b> Oblong 4to, cloth extra, gilt leaves, -10s. 6d.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>All About Animals.</b> 260 Illustrations from Photographs -by <span class="smcap">Gambier Bolton</span>, F.Z.S., and others, with explanatory -letterpress. Cloth extra, gilt leaves, 10s. 6d.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_30"></a>[30]</span></p> - -<p class="center larger"><span class="smaller">THE</span><br /> -STRAND MAGAZINE.</p> - -<p class="center">Announcements for 1900.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - -<p class="center">TWO<br /> -GREAT<br /> -HUMORISTS!</p> - -<p class="center">If you<br /> -want to<br /> -LAUGH<br /> -as well<br /> -as to be<br /> -interested<br /> -and<br /> -instructed<br /> -read the<br /> -STRAND<br /> -MAGAZINE<br /> -during<br /> -1900.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="hanging"><i>Several important arrangements have -been made for the coming year, -especially in the Department of -Fiction.</i></p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MR. W. W. JACOBS</b>, whose “Master of -Craft” has provided so much genuine -amusement, will follow up his serial with -a series of short stories written in his most -entertaining style. We are happy to be -able to state that we have acquired the -entire serial rights in all the fiction which -Mr. Jacobs may produce during the next -three years.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MR. F. ANSTEY</b>, the well-known author -of “Vice-Versâ,” &c., will commence in -the January Number a Serial entitled -“A Brass Bottle”—a story of the most -delightful and fantastic humour.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>MR. H. G. WELLS</b> has written one of -his most characteristic serial stories under -the title of “The First Men in the Moon.” -The wonderful machine which carried the -voyagers to the moon, together with -description of the planet and its inhabitants, -form one of the most absorbing -stories which its ingenious writer has -produced.</p> - -<p class="hanging"><b>DR. CONAN DOYLE</b> will also appear as -a humorist. He has written for the -January Number a “Last Adventure of -Brigadier Gerard,” in which the Brigadier -appears, in a vastly entertaining manner, -in the character of a fox-hunter.</p> - -<p class="hanging">Numerous Articles of the greatest interest -have been specially arranged for.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft"> - -<p class="center mt6">A Field to Itself.</p> - -<p class="center">No Fiction but<br /> -True Personal Narratives.</p> - -<p class="center">Photos of the Characters.</p> - -<p class="center">Unique Articles.</p> - -<p class="center">Strange Phases of Life</p> - -<p class="center">In all parts of the World.</p> - -<p class="center">Astounding Photographs.</p> - -<p class="center">Thrilling Adventures.</p> - -<p class="center">Has Friends in Every -Clime.</p> - -<p class="center">You must see a Copy.</p> - -<p class="center">Government Officials,</p> - -<p class="center">Missionaries and Traders,</p> - -<p class="center">Naval and Military Officers,</p> - -<p class="center">Travellers on Business and Pleasure,</p> - -<p class="center">All Contribute.</p> - -<p class="center">Narratives and Photos.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">Many Magazines But<br /> -Only One<br /> -<span class="larger">WIDE WORLD.</span></p> - -<p class="center">Published on the 22nd of each -month.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="bold">6d.</span> Price Sixpence. <span class="bold">6d.</span></p> - -<p class="smaller">The peculiar and absolutely distinctive -character of “<b>The Wide World Magazine</b>” -is well known to hundreds of thousands -on both sides of the Atlantic.</p> - -<p class="smaller">No monthly magazine ever bounded -into widespread popularity—and <i>such</i> -popularity!—in anything approaching -the time. This is the best test of excellence -in these discriminating and -fastidious days.</p> - -<p class="smaller">You are requested to examine a copy -and then compare “<b>The Wide World</b>” -with all other magazines published in -point of SHEER HUMAN INTEREST.</p> - -<p class="smaller">“<b>The Wide World</b>” shows you that -“Truth is Stranger than Fiction.”</p> - -<p class="smaller">You don’t read Magazines?</p> - -<p class="smaller">Then you are certain to like “<b>The -Wide World</b>.”</p> - -<p class="smaller">The Only Magazine of its kind in the -world. More fascinating than a novel.</p> - -<p class="smaller">More informing than a Text-book.</p> - -<p class="center bold">Remember the 22nd of the Month.</p> - -<p class="center" style="clear: both;"><span class="larger">6d.</span> THE WIDE WORLD MAGAZINE. <span class="larger">6d.</span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Ad_Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 85px;"> -<img src="images/ad.jpg" width="85" height="500" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center larger bold">“THE KING.”</p> - -<p>In news photographs, <b>THE KING</b> will be found -ahead of its contemporaries. Nothing of importance -will happen during the week which will not be fully and -strikingly illustrated in its pages—often many days in -advance of other sixpenny weeklies. In war, its photographers -and correspondents will always be found at the -front, and no expense will be spared by <b>THE KING</b> -to provide its readers with the earliest obtainable photographs -of the actual fighting—not fancy drawings, but -real photographs.</p> - -<p>Not a man or a woman will spring into note who will -not be pictured and written about in <b>THE KING</b>. -It will be live, interesting matter, full of anecdote, crisp -and newsy, specially prepared by gossipy and able -writers. The pages of personal gossip in <b>THE KING</b> -will, in short, be a complete guide to men and women of -note throughout the year, not only fascinating but -reliable, and the attractive way in which the matter is -being prepared will appeal to everybody on account of -its novelty.</p> - -<p>One of the great features of <b>THE KING</b> will be a -striking department called “The King’s Jester,” in -which will be found funny drawings on all sorts of funny -subjects by the funniest artists of the day. In it the best -work of English, American, and Continental draughtsmen -will be represented, at an expense never before -undergone by any illustrated paper. Yet “The King’s -Jester” is but one department of many in this enterprising -paper. It is a “Punch” or a “Pick-Me-Up” -thrown in gratis for the amusement of our readers.</p> - -<p>In fact, <b>THE KING</b> will be found a paper of to-day -for the people of to-day. Photographs of current events, -smartly published while people are talking of them—photos, -and gossip about people in the public eye—stories -and articles on new and interesting subjects—and -pictures that people want to look at crowded between its -two covers. 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